A

Abraham, M., 149 absorption, 60, 291 collision-induced, 267268 Taylor model, 270271, 273 zero-absorption assumption, 270271 active sensing, 2, 3, 5, 247, 323327. See also specific methods, topics Adcock, F., 211213, 212f, 213f Airey, M., 90 Aitken, H., 10 Altar, W., 248, 252, 255 amateurs, radio ARRL and. See American Radio Relay League associations for, 114115, 137 inventions by, 127128 large-scale experiments, 128, 141142. See also AARL fading experiment NRL tests and, 157158 principal activities of, 115116 QST journal, 117118 rise of, 114, 115118 U.S. and, 115118 World War I and, 117 See also short-wave radio; specific persons, topics American Radio Relay League (ARRL), 13, 117, 129 fading experiment. See ARRL fading experiment Maxim and, 116117 American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T), 3, 145, 162, 166, 167 Ames, J. S., 218 Ampre-Maxwell law, 29 Anduaga, A., 11, 182, 183, 265 antenna design antenna current, 61, 8182 audibility and, 82 device law and, 66 directivity and. See direction finding frame aerial, 186 height of antenna, 61 isotropic, 39 looped, 186190 Marconi design, 39, 40, 40f, 92 night effects, 190 polarization measurements and, 261265, 262f tilting, 92 wavelength and, 112 See also specific types, topics Appleton, E. V., 13, 162, 166, 310 Appleton-Altar formula, 252260, 254n12, 284 Appleton-Barnett model, 184, 240 Appleton-Childs model, 312f, 313 Appleton-Hartree formula. See Appleton-Hartree formula fading and, 142, 203207 frequency-change experiment and, 207 ionosphere and, 180, 233237 Larmor and, 252 Nobel Prize and, 207 polarization and, 261265 sky waves and, 201 See also specific topics

Appleton-Hartree formula, 15 critical values, 255 Lorentz correction and, 277, 291, 292. See also Lorentz correction magneto-ionic theory and, 178, 256. See also magneto-ionic theory mathematical properties, 267, 269274 polarization and, 260265, 262f Ratcliffe and, 247, 249f, 261265, 292 resonance and, 256 Taylor and, 252n8, 269, 270 arc transmitter, 7376 Armstrong circuits, 134 Armstrong feedback amplifier, 127 ARRL. See American Radio Relay League ARRL-NBS fading experiment atmospheric factors, 141 background information, 123, 123n25 Coursey and, 131 data collection and, 122126, 125f, 141 duration of, 123 experimental method and, 121 failure, initial trial, 131 fourth trial, 139143 NRL and, 154 participating stations, 121, 123124, 131 proposed, 120126 QST and, 122126 second trial, 131137 shortcomings of, 141 standard procedure, 122126 third trial, 137139 two-way test, 139143 atmospheric reflection theory, 8489, 183 Austin-Cohen formula. See Austin-Cohen formula conductivity of air and, 88 diffraction and, 66108, 87f. See also surface diffraction theory diurnal variations, 67, 92 early interest in, 8586 Eccles and. See Eccles, W. H. engineering perspective and, 105 epistemic issues and, 105 exponential decay and, 97 geomagnetics and, 91. See also geomagnetism gradual acceptance of, 94 Heaviside hypothesis and, 87 initial problems of, 67 ionic refraction and, 67, 93, 171. See also ionic refraction Kennelly-Heaviside theory and. See Kennelly-Heaviside layer long-distance experiments and, 100101 Macdonald model and, 27 noise and. See static origins of, 67 seasonal variations, 67 skip zones and, 161. See also skip zones sky waves, 86. See also sky waves static and. See static Watson and. See Watson, G. N. audibility factor, 8182 Austin-Cohen formula, 12, 5465, 72f, 242

atmospheric reflection and, 99, 161 Austin plots, 76, 77f, 78f corroborative experiments, 66 as design rule, 107, 107n77 device law, 84 Eccles and, 164. See also Eccles, W. H. as evidence, 66 exponential decay and, 66, 79, 97 field intensity, 81, 82 German physics and, 64n22 Gibraltar test voyage, 76 inverse law and, 63f ionic refraction and, 93. See also ionic refraction ionized medium and, 92 Kennelly-Heaviside layer and, 166. See also Kennelly-Heaviside layer mathematical physicists and, 89 Nicholson and, 71 Rybczynski and. See Rybczynski, W. von short waves and, 13, 113, 127, 137, 144, 155156, 159, 170 shunted telephone, 84 surface diffraction and, 66, 6884. See also surface diffraction theory Taylor and, 151 transatlantic experiments and, 142 van der Pol and, 96 Watson and, 98, 100, 101 Australia, 265266

B
Baker, W. G., 264 Barfield, R. H., 14, 183, 198201 Barnett, M., 14, 203, 206, 234 barretter, 57, 60n14, 74 Barton, E., 294 Bauer, L., 217 BBC. See British Broadcasting Company Bellini-Tosi system, 188, 189f Bennett, E. L., 153 Bergmann, L., 309 Berkner, L., 291 Bessel functions, 29, 33 approximation of, 31, 35 Hankel functions and, 29 integral expansion method, 47 Poincar and, 3335 spherical harmonics and, 2829 use of, 26 Watson and, 97 Beverage antenna, 127 Blatterman, A., 150 Blondel, A. E., 86 Blondlot, R., 295 Bohr, N., 34 Boltzmann, L., 46 Born, M., 46 Braun, K. F., 38, 40, 64n22, 186 Breit, G., 14, 214, 216219, 267 double-hump experiment, 228 DTM and, 218219

F layer and, 240 pulse-echo studies, 219227 Tuve and, 219227, 240 Bremmer, H., 104, 247 British Broadcasting Company (BBC), 128, 203, 233 Bromberger, S., 8, 146 Buchwald, J., 9 Builder, G., 267 Bullard, W. H. G., 150

C
Caletti, R. C., 107n77 Cambridge University, Tripos exams, 2530. See also specific persons, topics Campbell-Swinton, A. A., 129 Carnegie Institution of Washington (CIW), 14, 216219, 232, 243, 321 Cartwright, N., 6, 184, 250 Cassini mission, 12, 326327 Cauchy residue theorem, 33, 48, 80, 98 causality, in physical theory, 2324 Cavendish Laboratory, 15 Central Radio Propagation Laboratory, 323 Chapman, F. W., 313 Child, C. D., 311 Childs, E. C., 311 CIW. See Carnegie Institution of Washington Clark, G. H., 54, 74 classical/modern physics, 8, 9n8, 23 Clment, J. Guttons and, 296, 309, 310, 316. See also Gutton-Clment experiments quasi-elastic force and. See quasi-elastic force Cohen, L., 12, 60 Corret, P., 138 Coursey, P., 131, 134, 138 Cunningham, E., 255, 256, 259

D
Dahl, O., 232 damping, 7172 Darrigol, O., 9 Darwin, C. G., 26, 282, 287289 Davis, C., 53 de Forest, L., 112, 118, 137, 186 decay, rate of Austin and, 60, 61, 79 Austin-Cohen formula and, 66, 98 Hertzian dipole and, 33 Kennelly and, 88 Macdonald and, 80 March and, 70, 71 Nicholson and, 37 Poincar and, 34 Rybczynski and, 71 surface diffraction and, 66, 68, 71 Watson and, 68, 97, 98, 100 Zenneck and, 43 Dellinger, J. H., 120 Deloy, L., 139 Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR), 196197, 233, 266

dielectric constants, 279, 309313 Eckersley and, 195 effective, 163164, 169 free-space, 28, 163 Gutton-Clment experiments and. See Gutton-Clment experiments Hartree and, 283 infinite, 169 of ionized air, 293295. See also Gutton-Clment experiments Larmor and, 165 Lorentz and, 254n14, 276, 280, 281, 283 Macdonald and, 28 neutral-sheath theory and, 314 quasi-elastic force and. See quasi-elastic force resonance and, 169 Rybner and, 314 tabletop values, 293295 tensor-like, 169 Zenneck and, 43, 44f diffraction theory. See surface diffraction theory direction finding, 195201 Adcock system and, 211, 213f antenna design and, 3845, 92, 186190 Eckersley and, 193f military technology and, 188189 navigation and, 187188 night effects, 190, 191 polarization and, 192 sky waves and, 193195, 211214 Smith-Rose and, 197 dispersion, geomagnetics and, 162 diurnal variations, 236, 260 Eccles and, 9094 reflection and, 67, 83, 85 short waves and, 147151, 156157. See also short-wave radio static and. See static Douglas, S., 10 Drude, P., 168 DSIR. See Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Duddell-Taylor-Tissot formula, 60, 62 Duddell, W., 56, 129, 189 Duhem, P., 7, 23 Dring, W., 309

E
earthquakes, 80 Eccles, W. H., 12, 13, 67, 129, 145 Austin-Cohen formula and, 164. See also Austin-Cohen formula career of, 9092 dielectric constant and, 313 Eccles scale, 123 Gutton-Clment model and, 299 Heaviside-Kennelly theory and, 9093 ionic refraction and, 87, 8995, 162164, 293 Larmor and, 164, 166, 178, 299300 microphysical model, 91 quasi-elastic force and, 300 Salpeter theory and, 164n39 skip zones and, 161162

static and, 90 See also specific topics Eckersley, P. P., 142 Eckersley, T. L., 13, 103, 193f, 194195, 198 Edgerton, D., 185 Edison, T., 152 Eiffel Tower transmitter, 111 Einstein, A., 45 electric fields, 9, 22, 27, 276, 279281. See also specific topics; wave propagation theory Electric Waves (Macdonald), 27 Elwell, C. F., 74 Englund, C. R., 167 epistemology causality and, 2324 classical/modern theory and, 69, 9n8 experiment and, 69, 65, 134, 250. See also experimental method explanation and, 23 formalization and, 2324 ionosphere and, 183 scientific realism and, 184 experimental method amateurs and, 120126 communications experiments and, 134 controls in, 121 credibility and, 134 data collection and, 121126 as distributed practice, 114 epistemic issues and, 134, 250. See also epistemology evidence and, 46, 68 fading and, 120126, 141 field observation, 5. See also specific persons, topics general laws of, 250 historical understanding, 45 Humboldtian tradition and, 5, 128, 134, 217 instruments and, 250 large-scale experiments, 121. See specific experiments, topics physical intuition and, 65 quasi-elastic force and, 277278 Sommerfeld school and, 46 surface diffraction and, 50 tabletop experiments, 54, 278, 293, 295296 U.S. Naval Wireless Telegraphic Laboratory and, 51 See also specific experiments, topics

F
fading Appleton and, 142, 203207, 261 ARRL experiment. See ARRL-NBS fading experiment artificial, 206207 atmospheric conditions and, 126 Barnett and, 206 causes of, 120n14 defined, 118 diurnal variations, 203204, 260 experimental method and, 119 ground waves and, 120n14, 236 initial observations, 118 polarization and, 236, 237

pulse-echo methods and, 224, 237 Ratcliffe and, 261 short-wave radio and, 118126 sky waves and, 120n14, 236, 261 Faraday, M., 279 Faraday rotation, 170 Federal Telegraph Company, 74, 75n15 Ferri, G., 130, 138, 296 Fessenden discharger, 5557, 62, 7376 First National Radio Conference, 128 Fleming, J. A., 21, 94, 107n77, 112, 130, 165, 218, 294 Fourier equation, 32 free-space theory, 42 frequency-change method, 201209, 228, 235f, 237, 241 Fritts, H. T., 167 Fuller, L., 118

G
Galison, P., 250 Gander, R. D., 241 Gauss, C. F., 91 Gaussian units, 15 Gebhardt, L. A., 232 geodynamics, 8081 geomagnetism, 91, 145 Appleton and, 252 dispersion and, 162 DTM and, 217218 effects of, 166171 ionosphere and, 180, 230 Lorentz correction and, 292 magneto-ionic theory and, 257 polarization and, 162, 169, 170 resonance and, 169 selective effect and, 167168, 169 upper atmosphere and, 218 geoscience, history of, 1011 Germany British-French theories and, 49 physical theory in, 38, 46 surface diffraction and, 6973 See also specific persons, topics Gillmor, C. S., 11, 182, 252 Godley, P. F., 132, 135, 137, 138 Goldstein, S., 248, 259260 Goodier, J., 313, 314 Goubau, G., 291 Green, A. L., 241, 265267 ground conductivity, 195, 207 attenuation and, 43 finite, 38, 43, 200 ground waves and. See ground waves polarization and, 43, 44f, 201, 209 sky waves and, 200, 209210 ground waves, 236 conductivity and. See ground conductivity direction finding and, 191, 194 fading and, 204, 219, 224

polarization and, 191, 207, 267 pulse-echo method and, 221 sky waves and, 86, 120n14, 194, 204, 205, 209, 227, 235, 261, 267 Guillaume, C. E., 86 Gutton, C., 15, 293, 295, 298, 305307, 306f, 316 quasi-elastic force and. See quasi-elastic force Gutton-Clment experiments, 296300, 297f, 298f Maxwell equations and, 299300 Pedersen on, 301304, 302f quasi-elastic force and. See quasi-elastic force Gutton, H., 296308, 297f, 302f, 308f, 314, 316 Gutton-Clment experiments. See Gutton-Clment experiments quasi-elastic force and. See quasi-elastic force

H
Hacking, I., 6, 184 Hankel functions, 29, 30, 33, 35, 48, 69, 70, 80 Hartree, D., 15, 248 Appleton and, 290 Darwin method and, 282283 dipole moments, 285 Lorentz correction and, 15, 281284, 290 Norton on, 285 Tonks on, 285 heat conduction, 32 Heaviside-Lorentz units, 15 Heaviside, O., 12, 67, 86 Darwin theory and, 290 Eccles and, 93 Kennelly and. See Kennelly-Heaviside layer Lorentz correction and, 290 Maxwell theory and, 86 operational calculus, 86 on telegraphy, 87 Heisenberg, W., 45 Heising, R. A., 167 Helmholtz, H. von, 24 Helmholtz-type equations, 28 Hempel, C., 7 Hertz, H. dipole. See Hertzian dipole inverse law, 2122, 63f loop antenna and, 186187 spark-gap experiment, 2021 Hertzian dipole, 27, 30 diffraction theory and, 30 Macdonald model and, 28f Poincar and, 33 heterodyne detector, 74, 74n14, 75n14 Hevly, B., 11, 216 Hilbert, D., 149 historiography, methods of, 9, 10, 11 Hogan, J., 82 Holton, G., 9 Home, R., 265 Hong, S., 10 Hooper, S., 150 Hoover, H., 128

Houston, E., 88 Howe, G. S. O., 84 Howeth, L., 10 Hoyt-Taylor, A., 162 Huancayo Magnetic Observatory, 321 Hulburt, E. O., 13, 162, 171, 172178 Hulthn, E., 180 Humboldtian tradition, 5, 128, 134, 217 Hunt, B., 9

I
information theory, 61 inscription machines, 322 Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE), 150 instrumentalism, 74, 247, 325. See also specific topics intermolecular interactions, 15 International Union of Radio Science (URSI), 256 ion sheaths, 312f, 313314, 315f ionic refraction, 230 Austin-Cohen formula and. See Austin-Cohen formula dielectric constant and, 310 diurnal effects. See diurnal variations Eccles and, 8995, 162166, 171. See also Eccles, W. H. ion sheaths and, 313314 Larmor and, 164166, 165 layer effects and, 240241 Lorentz correction and, 276, 281284, 291 magneto-ionic theory and. See magneto-ionic theory mathematical theory for, 93. See also specific topics Maxwell equations and, 163 molecular ions and, 171 quasi-elastic force and, 310 refractive index, 272f, 277, 291 resonance and, 171, 314 short waves and, 162. See also short-wave radio skip zones and, 146, 162, 177, 177f Snell's law and, 176 solar radiation and, 162 tabletop experiments, 294 van der Pol and, 294 wave bending and, 165 wave propagation and, 114, 144, 229 ionized gases dielectric constant, 283, 293295, 309, 310, 313, 314 dipole moments in, 283, 285, 289 electrolytic solution and, 300 geomagnetics and, 169170 Gutton-Clment experiment, 296298, 297f, 298f. See also Gutton-Clment experiment quasi-elastic force and. See quasi-elastic force resonance and, 299, 305, 308, 316, 317 scattering coefficients, 285, 288 sheaths and, 313 tabletop experiments and, 278, 293, 294, 317 thin, 290 wave propagation in, 164n39, 165, 253 IRE. See Institute of Radio Engineers

Jackson, H., 20, 85, 130 Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 1, 326 Jones-Imhotep, E., 11

K
Kaiser, D., 8, 250 Kaufman, W., 309 Kemp, G., 21 Kennelly, A. E., 67, 86, 88, 93 Kennelly-Heaviside layer, 8689, 146, 161, 242 acceptance of, 103, 181 Appleton on, 181, 206, 239 atmospheric reflection and, 12, 67, 94 Austin-Cohen formula and, 12, 166 Breit and, 219, 228, 229 de Forest and, 118, 119 diurnal variations and, 257 Eccles and, 67, 93, 145, 161, 164. See also Eccles, W. H. Eckersley and, 10, 194 evidence for, 179, 180185, 194, 214 F layer and, 216 fading and, 95, 126. See also fading height of, 103 Lassen and, 257 magneto-ionic theory and, 275. See also magneto-ionic theory Reinartz and, 171 short-wave radio and, 113 skip zones and, 171172. See also skip zones sky waves and, 191, 194 solar radiation and, 91, 106 Sommerfeld on, 95 Stewart-Schuser model and, 218 Tuve and, 219229 Watson and, 101, 154, 161 See also ionosphere; specific persons, topics Kenrick, G. W., 103 Klein, F., 45 Klein, R., 129 Klein, U., 8 Kruse, S., 119, 124 Kuhn, T., 7

L
Laboratoire National de Radiolectricit (LNR), 296, 296n34 Langmuir, I., 307, 310, 311 Laplace equations, 28, 32 Laporte, O., 101 Larmor, J. Altar and, 252 Appleton and, 252 Breit-Tuve model and, 176 Eccles and, 145, 162, 163, 164, 165n44, 166, 240, 299 Fleming and, 165 geomagnetic effect and, 259 ionic refraction theory and, 164166, 230, 252, 276, 293 Lorentz theory and, 168, 281 Love and, 81 Nichols-Schelleng theory and, 170

refractive-index formula, 230, 276 Taylor-Hulburt model and, 176 Watson and, 101 zero-absorption assumption, 170, 271 Lassen, H., 248, 257258 Lawrence, E. O., 219 Legendre polynomials, 29, 33, 98 LNR. See Laboratoire National de Radiolectricit Lodge, O., 20, 130 loop antenna method, 186191 Lorentz correction, 15, 279 Appleton-Hartree formula and, 277, 281, 291 Darwin and, 287, 289 debate over, 277278 derivation of, 279 dielectric constant and, 281, 283 dipole moments and, 285 electric field theory and, 277 geomagnetism and, 292 Hartree and, 15, 281284, 290 ionic refraction and, 281284 microphysics and, 281 Norton on, 285 positive ions and, 286 quasi-elastic force and, 277278, 317 radio sounding and, 292 refractive index and, 291 scattering moment, 287288 theory/experiment and, 277 Tonks and, 285 Lorentz theory, 276 Appleton and, 252, 254n14 correction term. See Lorentz correction corroboration of, 291 dielectric constant and, 169 electric force in, 281f Larmor model and, 168 magneto-optics and, 253 microphysics and, 168, 254n14, 276281, 281f Nichols-Schelleng and, 169, 249 Sellmeyer and, 291, 292 Love, A. E. H., 66, 8084

M
Macdonald, H. M., 1112, 26 diffraction integral and, 79 exponential decay and, 80, 81, 83f Hankel functions and, 80 Hertzian dipole and, 27, 28f, 30, 47 Love and, 82 March method and, 70 mathematical methods, 27, 2931, 8081, 82 Maxwell equations and, 28, 28f, 29 Nicholson and, 80 Poincar and, 31, 33, 34 prediction and, 29 Rayleigh and, 3032, 79 Rybczynski and, 80

spherical boundary condition, 28f Tripos style and, 27, 30, 31 Watson and, 101 wave propagation and, 29 Madsen, J., 266 magneto-ionic theory, 7, 15, 144179, 183, 284, 322 Appleton-Altar studies, 257 Appleton-Hartree formula and, 256. See also Appleton-Hartree formula atmospheric reflection and, 275 epistemic status of, 292 establishment of, 4 general theory, 15, 247274. See also specific persons, topics geomagnetic effect and, 257 Goldstein and, 259260 instrumentalism and, 251 interelectron interaction and, 277 Kennelly-Heaviside theory and, 275. See also Kennelly-Heaviside theory Lassen and, 257, 258 microscopic basis of, 8 origins of, 260 polarization and, 258, 264, 268 refractive index and, 258 short waves and, 162179 sky waves and, 203 surface diffraction and, 275 verification for, 267 wave propagation model and, 274 Magneto-Ionic Theory, The (Ratcliffe), 247250 magneto-optics, microphysics and, 168 Mahan, A. T., 52 March, H. W., 50, 6970 Marconi, G., 3 Channel experiment, 22 directional antennae and, 43 first experiments, 2021 military and, 53 transatlantic tests, 1, 1921, 24, 3233, 66 Tremellen and, 102 Martyn, D., 291 mathematical physics, 84 atmospheric-reflection theory and, 94. See also atmospheric reflection theory Austin-Cohen formula and, 89 Bessel functions and. See Bessel functions boundary conditions and, 23 Cambridge and, 2530 complex-variable techniques, 106 differential equations and, 7 Maxwell and. See Maxwell theory methods of, 2526, 27 physical intuition and, 88 pragmatic view and, 86 scientific theories and, 7 Sommerfeld integral, 106 surface diffraction and, 105. See also surface diffraction theory Watson transformation, 106 See also specific theories, topics Mauchly, S. J., 120 Maxim, H. P., 116117, 120

Maxwell theory energy in, 26 Hertz model and, 2122 ionic refraction theory and, 163 Lorentz correction and, 281 Macdonald model and, 26, 28, 28f, 29 microphysics and, 165 plane wave solution, 44 Poincar and, 32 quasi-elastic force and, 299 radio waves and, 2122 units and, 16 Zenneck theory and, 43 Meiner, A., 256 Merriam, J., 217 metric units, 15 Michelson-Morley interferometer, 324 microphysics, 275317 Darwin and, 282 Hartree and, 282 Lorentz and, 168, 254n14, 276281, 281f magneto-optics and, 168 Maxwell theory and, 165 quasi-elastic force. See quasi-elastic force wave propagation and, 94, 277 military research amateurs and, 117, 120, 145146 Austin-Cohen formula and, 12, 5165 direction finders and, 187189 Ferri and, 130, 139, 296 ionospheric forecasting, 323 Radio Act of 1912 and, 112 short-wave radio and, 148 short waves and, 113, 145 U.S. Navy and, 5265. See also Naval Research Laboratory warfare state and, 185 Mimno, H. R., 104 Minchin, G., 20 Mott-Smith, H., 310, 311 Munro, G. H., 291

N
N ray, 295 National Bureau of Standards (NBS), 53, 322 National Electric Signaling Company (NESCO), 5557, 107 National Physical Laboratory (NPL), 195201, 207, 233 natural philosophy, 23 natural units, 16 Naval Radio-Telegraphic Laboratory, 54, 56, 145 arc transmitter, 73, 75 Gibraltar test voyage, 7384 Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), 13 ARRL-NBS and, 154 commissioned, 152 propagation experiments, 154, 158 structure of, 153 submarines and, 153 Taylor and, 148161, 160f

Naval Wireless Telegraphic Laboratory, 51, 5255 Austin and, 5455 Naval Radio-Telegraphic Laboratory and, 73 NESCO and, 57 NBS. See National Bureau of Standards NESCO. See National Electric Signaling Company Nichols, H. W., 13, 145, 162, 166169, 255 Nicholson, J. W., 12, 3438, 72f Austin-Cohen and, 71 on diffraction theory, 37 field intensity, 81, 83f Macdonald and, 80 Poincar and, 35 Watson and, 98, 102 Norton, K. A., 285286 NPL. See National Physical Laboratory NRL. See Naval Research Laboratory

O
Oberlin, E., 153 operational realism, 184, 185 Oreskes, N., 10

P
Pedersen, P. O., 247, 301, 313, 314 Prot, A., 130 Pestre, D., 11 Pierce, G. W., 118 Planck constant, 16 Planck, M., 45 Poincar, H., 12, 25, 35 Bessel functions and, 33 Cauchy residue theorem and, 33 exponential damping, 71 field intensity model, 33 Hertzian dipole and, 33 on long-distance transmission, 72 Macdonald model and, 31, 33 March and, 70 methods of, 33 Nicholson and, 35 partial differential equations, 32 propagation theory, 72 shadow area, 34 works of, 32 polarization, 92, 190195 antenna setup, 262f Appleton-Altar approach and, 254 Appleton and, 261265, 262, 262f Appleton-Barnett studies, 206209 Appleton-Hartree formula and, 260 Australia and, 265269 direction finders and, 192 directly measuring, 261265 diurnal variations and, 208 fading and, 236, 237 frequency-change studies and, 207, 262 geomagnetism and, 162, 169, 170

Green and, 265267 magneto-ionic theory and, 258, 268 measurement of, 260269 pulse-echo device and, 267 Ratcliffe and, 261265, 262f sense of, 262263, 266 sky waves and, 192, 209, 214, 261 Smith-Rose-Barfield experiments, 209 Zenneck model and, 44f Pollack, E. T., 62n21, 75 Poulsen, V., 74, 301 pulse-echo studies Breit and, 219227 double-hump experiment, 228 DTMs and, 228 fading and, 237 Frayne-Swann experiments, 220221 frequency-change method and, 228 multivibrator and, 232 polarization and, 267, 268f Tuve and, 219227 United States and, 216232 waveforms of pulses, 222f, 223f

Q
QST (journal), 117, 122126 quantum theory, 45, 282, 292 quasi-elastic force, 293, 316 debate on, 301304 dielectric constant and, 300, 301n41, 302304, 310, 314 Eccles-Larmor theory and, 300 Gutton-Clment experiments. See Gutton-Clment experiments ionic refraction theory and, 310 ionized gases and, 317 Lorentz correction and, 301, 317 mathematical properties, 299304, 301n41 natural resonance and, 299, 305307, 317 tabletop experiments and, 278

R
radar, 324 Radio Act of 1912, 112, 117 Radio Corporation of America (RCA), 221 Radio Research Board (RRB) (U.K.) Appleton and. See Appleton, E. Australian RRB, 265266 direction finding and, 211 establishment of, 185, 196197 evidence for ionosphere and, 243 fading research, 203. See also fading height of ionosphere and, 14, 237 Lorentz term and, 292 neutral-sheath theory and, 314 Taylor and, 252, 269. See also Taylor, A. H. radio sets, manufacturers of, 128 Radio Society of Great Britain, 129, 138139 radio sounding, 3, 6, 8, 214 automatic sounders and, 322

detectors and, 5759, 74 device law, 66, 82, 84 echo sounding. See pulse-echo methods ionosphere and, 301 Lorentz correction and, 292 methods of, 184 See also specific persons, topics Ratcliffe, J., 203, 234, 261265, 262f Appleton-Hartree formula and, 247 graphical representation and, 249f Rayleigh, Baron, 25, 29, 3032 RCA. See Radio Corporation of America Reinartz, J., 127, 157, 171172, 172f resonance effects, 305, 309, 314 Hutton-Clment experiment and. See Hutton-Clment experiment ionic refraction and, 171 ionic refraction theory and, 314 ionized gases and, 299, 305, 308, 316, 317 neutral-sheath theory, 314 quasi-elastic force and. See quasi-elastic force short waves and, 166 Zeeman effect and, 308 Richardson, O., 163 rotary spark, 75 Round, H., 102, 187, 189 Rozwadowski, H., 10 RRB. See Radio Research Board Rutherford, E., 202 Rybczynski, W. von, 50, 66 Austin and, 66, 71, 76, 77f, 78 damping and, 72, 8081, 83f diffraction theory and, 71 field intensity and, 81, 83f Macdonald and, 80 March integral and, 50, 7073, 82 Sommerfeld and, 70, 72 Rybner, J., 304, 313, 314

S
Salpeter, J., 164n39 Schaffer, S., 5 Schelleng, J. C., 145, 162, 166169, 255 Schnell, F., 132 Schuster, A., 91 Schweber, S., 9 seismological sensing, 323 selective effect, 167168, 169 Sellmeyer, W., 287290, 291, 292 Seth, S., 8, 46 Shapin, S., 5 Shaw, W. F. B., 241 short-wave radio amateurs and, 111143. See also amateurs, radio ambience-sensitive systems and, 322 anomalies and, 147, 162. See also specific topics ARRL and. See American Radio Relay League AT&T and, 167 Austin-Cohen formula and, 113, 127, 137, 142, 144, 242243. See also Austin-Cohen formula

commercial broadcasting and, 128 defined, 112, 113 development of, 144, 154155. See also specific persons, topics diurnal effects, 147151, 157. See diurnal effects fading and, 118, 126, 203. See fading Godley and, 136137, 138 Hankel functions and, 30 ionic refraction and, 144, 162, 182, 241. See also ionic refraction long-distance transmission, 13, 108, 114, 127143 long-wave radio and, 12, 112, 113, 126 low-power, 142 Macdonald and, 30 magneto-ionic theory and, 275. See also magneto-ionic theory mass media and, 128, 144 medium-wave radio and, 135 military and, 148, 152154. See military research optimum frequencies for, 244, 323 propagating range of, 112 QST journal, 117, 122126 Radio Act of 1912 and, 112 Reinartz and, 172, 176, 177. See Reinartz, J. rise of, 8, 113, 115118, 144, 154, 218, 243, 323 skip zone effects, 13, 144, 147, 148, 323. See also skip zones Taylor and, 155, 158, 161, 173. See also Taylor, A. H. technical barrier to, 112 transatlantic experiments, 127143, 147. See also ARRL-NBS fading experiment U.K. and. See United Kingdom ultra-short waves, 220 U.S. and, 115118. See United States wave propagation and. See wave propagation theory Western Electric and, 167 World War I and, 113, 117 Zenneck and, 42. See also Zenneck, J. See also specific countries, organizations, persons, topics shunted telephone, 60n14, 62, 62n21, 74, 75n14, 81, 84 Siegel, D., 9 skip zones, 13, 144179, 177f, 301, 323 defined, 147 discovery of, 144, 154 Eccles and, 161162 ionic refraction and, 145, 146, 162, 173178 Kennelly-Heaviside theory and, 171172 Larmor and, 164, 166, 178, 299300 reflection theory and, 174f, 175, 176 Reinartz model and, 157, 172f Taylor-Hulburt model and, 146, 171178, 177f Young and, 157158 See also specific persons, topics sky waves, 183, 191, 237 Appleton and, 201 direction finding and, 193195, 211214 diurnal variations and, 203 Eckersley model and, 194195, 198 epistemic issues and, 182183 fading and, 236, 261. See also fading geometric model, 205f ground waves and, 203, 208, 209210, 236 incident angle, 210

interference measurements and, 14 Kennelly-Heaviside layer and, 194. See also Kennelly-Heaviside theory magneto-ionic theory and, 203 polarization and, 192, 209, 214, 261. See also polarization Smith-Rose model and, 198 sociocultural theory and, 183 See also specific persons, topics Sleeper, M. B., 130 Smith, C., 9 Smith, G., 8 Smith-Rose, R. L., 14, 197198 Adcock system and, 211213, 212f, 213f Appleton-Barnett experiments and, 208 Barfield and, 198, 201, 207 direction finding and, 182183, 185, 190n20, 197, 211214 Eckersley and, 198 experimental problems, 200 height of ionosphere and, 200 polarization and, 198201, 199f, 207, 209211, 261 sky waves and, 182183 Zenneck and, 200, 209 Snell law, 92, 176 Socit des Amis de la T.S.F, 130 soil conductivities, 200 solar radiation, 9293, 162, 179, 232, 309. See also ionic refraction theory; specific persons, topics Sommerfeld. A., 8, 12, 25, 38, 47n48, 71 Cauchy residue theorem and, 48 diffraction theory and, 46, 50, 66, 69 integral expansion method, 46, 47, 50 quantum theory and, 45, 46 on radiating source, 47 revision of theory, 48n51 Rybczynski and, 72 surface waves and, 4550, 66 Weyl correction and, 48n51 Zenneck model and, 4748, 48n51 sonar systems, 323 sound-wave equation, 32 space-charge equation, 311 spark machine, 7576 spherical harmonics, 33 approximation and, 80 expansion in, 69 Laplace equation and, 2829 Love and, 82 poles in, 33, 35 surface diffraction and, 50 Watson and, 97 static, 67, 85, 9093 statistical physics, 292 Stewart, B., 91, 180 Stokes, G. G., 26 Stratton, S. W., 53 sunspots, 232 surface diffraction theory, 7, 25, 50 atmospheric reflection and, 78, 66108, 87f, 105. See also atmospheric reflection theory Austin-Cohen formula, 12, 66, 6884, 99. See also Austin-Cohen formula boundary condition of, 67

Britain and, 2437 complex-variable theory and, 101 decay rate and, 35, 71 decline of, 84, 94, 100, 102 defenses of, 37 diffraction integral and, 104 Eccles model and, 89 epistemic issues and, 6, 105 field calculations and, 35 France and, 2437 Germany and, 3750, 6973 ground waves and, 209 long-distance propagation, 105 Love and, 8182 magneto-ionic theory and, 7, 275. See also magneto-ionic theory mathematical theory and, 23, 84, 98, 101102, 105. See also specific persons, topics microphysics and, 89 Nicholson and, 36, 36f, 37 number of publications, 94 numerical evaluations and, 3437 Rayleigh critique of, 31 Rybczynski and, 71 scattering theory and, 25 Sommerfeld and, 46, 50, 66, 69. See also Sommerfeld. A. spherical harmonics and, 50. See also spherical harmonics theoretical assumptions in, 42 transatlantic tests and, 1950 Watson and, 68, 9799, 101 wavelength dependence and, 12 Zenneck and, 47, 192. See also Zenneck, J. Swann, W., 219 sweep-frequency sounder, 322

T
Taylor, A. H., 13, 120, 148, 149 Austin and, 151 Blatterman and, 150 NRL and, 148154 propagation experiments, 154156 range charts, 159, 160, 160f, 161 short-wave radio and, 155 skip zones and, 171178 Young and, 151 Taylor-Hulburt model, 178 Taylor, J. E., 56 Taylor, M., 250, 252n8, 269274, 272f Telefunken transmitter, 111 telegraphic equation, 32 Tesla, N., 22 Theory of Sound, The (Rayleigh), 25, 29, 30 thermionic tubes, 112, 188 Thompson, S., 130 Thompson, W., 280 Thomson, J. J., 26, 88, 202, 309 Titan mission, 2 Tizard, H., 196197 Tonks, L., 285, 286, 307, 316 transatlantic tests, 1950, 127143, 136f. See also ARRL experiment; specific persons, topics

Tremellen, K. W., 102 Tuve, M., 14, 214, 216, 217, 267 pulse-echo studies, 219227 research notebooks, 225f, 226f, 227f

U
United Kingdom, 180214 BBC and. See British Broadcasting System DSIR and. See Department of Scientific and Industrial Research NPL and. See National Physical Laboratory RRB and. See Radio Research Board See also specific persons, organizations, topics United States, 148, 149 Navy. See U.S. Navy NBS. See National Bureau of Standards pulse-echo experiments and, 216232 Washington network, 216 See also specific persons, organizations, topics units, of measurement, 15 URSI. See International Union of Radio Science U.S. Navy, 12, 5165 global system, 111 long-distance radio station, 107 military research and, 145 NESCO and, 55, 56 NRL. See Naval Research Laboratory Radio -Telegraphic Laboratory. See Naval Radio-Telegraphic Laboratory Wireless Telegraphic Laboratory. See Naval Wireless Telegraphic Library wireless transmitter, 111

V
vacuum tubes, 188 van der Pol, B., 96, 97, 203, 294 Voigt, H., 149, 168

W
Warner, K. B., 120, 121 Warwick, A., 8, 25, 250 Watson, G. N., 12, 68, 96108, 183 approximation and, 97 Austin-Cohen and, 98, 100, 101 diffraction theory and, 9899 Eckersley-Round data and, 103 empirical corroboration, 102, 103 exponential decay and, 98 finite conductivities and, 100 Macdonald and, 101 Marconi expedition and, 102103 mathematical methods of, 100 Nicholson and, 98, 100, 102 recognition of, 104 short-wave radio and, 103, 104, 113 spherical harmonics and, 97 surface diffraction and, 101 van der Pol and, 96 Watson transformation and, 98, 99, 100, 101, 104 Watt, R. W., 180, 197

wave propagation theory, 75, 247274 active sensing and, 323, 325, 327 Adams Prize and, 26 antenna and. See antenna design atmospheric reflection. See atmospheric reflection thoery Austin-Cohen formula, 12, 68. See Austin-Cohen formula Brant Rock experiments, 57 cylindrical waves, 87, 88 decay and. See decay, rate of dielectrics and. See dielectric constants diurnal effects. See diurnal variations early ranges of, 20 earth's curvature and, 22, 9193 energy divergence and, 88 environmental conditions, 85 epistemic issues in. See epistemology experiment and, 50. See experimental model fading. See fading free-space theory and, 42 geodynamics and, 8081 geomagnetism and. See geomagnetism ground waves and. See ground waves interdisciplinary research, 325327 ionosphere and, 14, 183, 321327. See ionic refraction limits on, 72 line-of-sight propagation, 22 long-distance propagation, 3, 22, 25, 26, 9397, 114. See also transatlantic tests long-wave radio, 112 magneto-ionic theory. See magneto-ionic theory microphysics and, 91, 94, 277, 287 military research and, 5759, 58f, 59f, 145. See also specific countries, persons, topics modern approaches, 326 perfect cavity resonator, 100 polarization and. See polarization quasi-elastic force and. See quasi-elastic force rectilinear propagation, 22 research communities, 106. See also specific persons, topics secondary field and, 276 shadow area, 34 short-wave radio and. See short-wave radio spherical harmonics and. See spherical harmonics surface diffraction. See surface diffraction theory tabletop experiments and, 295301 theoretical physics and, 2324, 145. See also specific models, persons, topics wavelengths and, 12, 42, 66, 71, 112, 147. See also short-wave radio; specific topics wire current and, 4546 See also specific theories, topics, persons, models West, A. G. D., 205, 295, 310 Western Electric, 167 Weyl, H., 48n51 whistlers, 190, 293 Whittemore, L. E., 119 Wien, W., 71 Wilson, C. T. R., 203 Wireless World and Radio Review (journal), 129, 138 Wise, N., 9 World War I, 117, 152, 189, 195, 323 World War II, 189190, 323

X
X-rays, 324

Y
Young, L., 151, 156158

Z
Zeeman effect, 308 Zenneck, J., 12, 25, 44f, 47n48, 186, 200 boundary connection, 42f British/French theory and, 44 career of, 3842 curvature of earth and, 44 ground conductivity and, 42, 43, 44 Maxwell equations and, 43, 44 optical model and, 42 plane wave solution, 44 polarization and, 44, 44f rectilinear propagation and, 42 Sommerfeld and, 47, 48, 48n51 surface waves, 3845, 192. See also surface-wave theory undefined source in, 44 wave propagation and, 39 Weyl and, 48n51