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Overview of Indonesia
ndonesias development as a nation has been strongly influenced by its geography and geology, with the interplay between climate, rainfall and volcanic activity shaping agricultural and population patterns in different ways throughout the islands. Java and Bali, for example, are endowed with some of the most fertile volcanic soils on Earth. For this reason they are population and cultural centers. Out of the total population of over 200 million, nearly 50% live on the relatively small island of Java, which represents only 7% of the total land area. Other regions, such as Kalimantan and Sumatra with their dense rain forests, or the Nusa Tenggara (Lesser Sunda) islands with their more arid climate, are less densely populated. In the nineteenth century the British botanist Sir Alfred Russell Wallace (who together with Darwin is credited with the theory of evolution) determined a precise line of demarcation that separates the flora and fauna found throughout Asia from those unique to Australasia. This divide is termed the Wallace line and passes between Bali and Lombok and then northward between Borneo and the Celebes (Sulawesi). It is no coincidence that the Wallace line is also a major geological divide. The islands to the west represent the tectonically disrupted southeastern promontory of the continental Asian plate (the Sunda shield or Sundaland), whereas those to the east are fragments of the ancient continental Australian plate (Australian craton). These two plates started to collide only about 8 million years ago (mybp) towards the end
of the Miocene epoch which, in geological terms, is relatively recent. Before this time, the flora and fauna of these two landmasses had developed in very different directions and remain distinct to this day. Controlled largely by the different geological regimes of Eastern and Western Indonesia, the pattern of hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation differs across the archipelago. Indonesia contains more than 60 sedimentary basins and inter-basin areas in which hydrocarbon accumulations are either proven or possible (Figure 1). This is a significant number considering that there are estimated to be only 600 sedimentary basins worldwide (Pattinama and Samuel, 1992). Indonesia is also probably the most diverse nation in the world in terms of petroleum systems. There are at least 50 proven and probably more than 100 speculative (lightly explored or unexplored) petroleum systems (Howes, 1999). These vary greatly with regard to their age and geological characteristics. Most of the proven and exploited hydrocarbon systems occur in Western Indonesia and are at a relatively mature stage of exploration. Eastern Indonesia remains, however, relatively underexplored and almost half of the basins have not been drilled. Indonesia is the fifteenth largest oil producer in the world and the only OPEC member in Southeast Asia, producing over 80% of all oil for this region. Indonesian oil is in high demand on the world market because of its low (<0.1%) sulfur content. Indonesia is also the sixth-largest gas producer in the world, and the largest liquefied natural gas exporter, mainly
Western Indonesia
NSB EN
Malaysia
WN
Eastern Indonesia
CE TA SM/NM MU UK K/MS GO L SEH B/S S/M BU BD F
Nusa Tenggara TImor
Singapore
CSB KE ME
e li n
Producing (14) Discovery (10) No discovery (14) Undrilled (22) Tertiary petroleum Pre-Tertiary petroleum
Wall ac
Western Indonesia
NSB CSB SSB NSF SSF S/A NWJ JF EJ BI PE BA PN AA/P UK K/MS MU TA CE KE ME WN EN North Sumatra Central Sumatra South Sumatra North Sumatra fore arc South Sumatra fore arc/Bengkulu Sunda/Asri Northwest Java Java fore arc East Java/Java Sea Billitong Pembuang Barito Pater Noster platform Asem-Asem/Pasir Upper Kutei Kutei/Makassar Straits Muara Tarakan Celebes Ketungau Melawai West Natuna East Natuna
m Su ra at
SSF
Su law i es
B SS
Irian Jaya
SE Moluccas W KT A C A MO AK AR CIJ
Java
JF
SBL
SA
TI
B NWS ZOC
400
800
1000km
Eastern Indonesia
SM/NM GO B/S S/M BU BD B F SS L SBL SA TI NWSZOC W SE NEH EH SEH SW BT MO TBA KT A AK AR CIJ W/W South/North Minahasa Gorontalo BanggaiSula SalabangkaManui Buton Banda Bone Flores Spermonde/Selayar Lariang South BaliLombok Savu Timor Northwest Shelf zone of cooperation Weber Seram Northeast Halmahera East Halmahera Southeast Halmahera Salawati Bintuni Misool-Onin Teluk BerauAjumaru Kai Tanimbar Aru Akmeugah Arafura Central Irian Jaya Waipoga/Waropen
38 (63.3%) 22 (36.7%) Eastern Indonesia Western Indonesia Western Indonesia (22 basins) Undrilled (13.6%) Drilled (No discoveries) (22.7%) Discoveries (Non-producing) (13.6%) Producing (50.0%) Undrilled (50.0%) Eastern Indonesia (38 basins) Producing (7.9%) Discoveries (Non-producing) (15.8%)
Figure 1: Simplified map of Indonesias basins and their exploration status (after Sujanto, 1997 and Sumantri and Sjahbuddin, 1994).
to Japan, but also to Taiwan and Korea. Howes (1999) estimates ultimate discovered reserves of 55 BBOE (billion barrels oil equivalent) split approximately equally between oil and gas. Sujanto (1997) estimates current remaining reserves at approximately 93 BBO (billion barrels oil) and 123 TcfG (trillion cubic feet of gas). Indonesia consumes almost 140 MBO (million barrels of oil) each year for power generation alone and, until recently, the power demand had been increasing by 7% every year. The focus must obviously be on supplementing and replacing the dependence on oil-generated power with cleaner and/or replenishable fuels, and also replacing declining oil reserves to postpone the day when Indonesia ultimately becomes a net oil importer. Over the past decade, oil exploration has not been successful in replacing oil reserves. In contrast, gas reserves have made up for this shortfall in terms of BBOE and, at present, gas would appear to be one of the main energy sources of the future in Indonesia. Geothermal energy also holds hope for the future, with over 100 prospects recognized in the highly volcanic areas, especially Sumatra and Java, where energy demand is also highest.
work of these two authors forms the basis for the discussion of Indonesian tectonics that follows. Since the advent of seismic and sequence stratigraphy (Vail et al., 1977), eustatic sealevel fluctuations (e.g., Haq et al., 1988) have been recognized as exerting a strong influence on the evolution of Indonesian sedimentary basin fills, including the types
and distributions of source, reservoir and seal lithologies. Longley (1997) argues that it is always possible to correlate apparent eustatic events between basins because of the large number of available correlation options and the often significant inaccuracy of geological dates. In general, however, the geology of Asia supports the premise that eustatic events have a major and observable
Period
Global eustatic curve Epoch 2nd order sequence boundaries +200m +100 m 0 Ma 0 Major events Overall Rotation of N and E regression arms of Sulawesi. Northward movement of Bird's Head relative to Australia Increased convergence with CCW rotation of Sumatra and development of Sumatra wrench fault. Sulawesi forms emplacement of continental crust along Sorong fault Transgression onto Sunda shelf. Eustatic and tectonic increased convergence along Sunda arc led to inversion and then thermal sag 3 Ma Timor and Banda arc collide 5Ma Luzon arc collides with Asian plate 10Ma Australian craton collides with Asian Plate inversion Middle Miocene maximum transgression
Hol Q Pliocene U
5.2 5 (5.5)
Upper
10.6 10 (10.5) 15
Miocene
Lower
Middle
21.5 (21.0)
20
c21Ma South China Sea spreading ends c25 Ma New Guinea passive margin collides with arc system to North. Sorong fault forms. Emplacement of Sulawesi ophiolites c32Ma South China Sea spreading
Oligocene
Tertiary
Lower
35 38.6 (39.5)
Upper
Slowed convergence leads to second stage of rifting along Sundaland margin c43 Ma Major plate reorganization. India and Australia plates combine. Subduction of India beneath Eurasia ends c50Ma India Eurasia collision commences
40
Middle
Eocene
45
51.0 50 (49.5) Lower 55 59.5 (58.5) 60 Slow southern ocean spreading. Subduction along west Sundaland margin
Paleocene
Lower
Upper
65
Figure 2: Chronostratigraphic summary of major geological events in the Cenozoic (events taken from Longley, 1997 and Hall, 1997. Eustatic curve modified from Haq et al., 1998).
effect on stratigraphy, and does not prove or disprove the detailed Haq et al. (1988) eustatic curve. The Indonesian archipelago is a jigsaw puzzle of tectonically derived pieces, including microplates, continental fragments, mini-ocean basins, accretionary prisms and island-arc systems, that have been jostled and squeezed together and, in
some cases newly formed, as a result of the complex interaction of three major tectonic plates (Figure 4). The continental Eurasian/Asian plate (the southeast promontory of which is termed the Sunda shield or Sundaland) demonstrates a relative southeast motion that is accommodated by the Great Sumatra/Mentawai duplex, and the
Sulawesi and Philippine transform-fault systems. The obliquely opposing, relative northward motion of the Indo-Australian plate is accommodated by right-lateral movement along the Great Sumatra/Mentawai fault systems, and by subduction of oceanic crust in the west and the Australian craton in the east, along the SumatraJavaTimorAru
South China
Taiwan
40 Ma Middle Eocene
PACIFIC PLATE PACIFIC PLATE
Malaysia
Sumatra
South Borneo
Zamboanga
Celebes Sea
Java
West Sulawesi
PHILIPPINE SEA PLATE East Philippines
INDIANAUSTRALIAN PLATE
30 Ma Mid Oligocene
Red River fault
EURASIAN PLATE
20 Ma Early Miocene
Opening of South China Sea north of Macclesfield Bank
PACIFIC PLATE
EURASIAN PLATE
Spreading in Shikoku PACIFIC PLATE basin Clockwise rotation of Philippine Sea plate Spreading in Parece Vela basin
INDIAN PLATE
Australia
Continental crust thrust CAROLINE PLATE beneath Sulawesi Molucca Sea forms part of Philippine Sea plate Sorong fault system initiated Australia
10 Ma Late Miocene
Figure 3: Plate tectonic reconstructions for Southeast Asia and Indonesia region from 50 Ma to 10 Ma (after Hall, 1995 and 1997).
Sulu Sea
Sulu arc activity CAROLINE PLATE ends Molucca Sea double subduction established Ayu trough spreading Sula N Banda
INDIAN PLATE
Australia
PACIFIC PLATE
SUNDALAND
Seram trough
un
da
nc h
320
480 m
640 km 5 cm/yr
s y s t em Java trench
7cm/yr
o Tim
r tr
ugh
ru
o tr
ug
AUSTRALIA CRATON
Australia
Australian crust Pre-Mesozoic continental crust Transitional, attenuated or sutured Oceanic or island arc
Figure 4: Simplified tectonic elements and crustal distribution for Indonesia (after Coffield et al., 1993 and Nugrahanto and Noble, 1997).
(Sunda) trench system. This extensive subduction system (combined with the Great Sumatra/Mentawai transform fault duplex) marks the southern geological limit of Indonesia from the western tip of Sumatra, to near the eastern boundary of Irian Jaya. The Pacific Ocean plate demonstrates a westerly motion that is accommodated by slippage along the leftlateral transform Sorong fault system, and the trench and transform fault system of the eastern Philippines, which together define the northeastern geological limit of Indonesia. There is no obvious geological limit to northwest Indonesia, and the political boundary separating Malaysia and Indonesia passes through central Borneo,
across the southern part of the South China Sea (the relatively stable Sunda shield) and to the northwest along the Malacca Strait that separates peninsular Malaysia from Sumatra. Although Indonesia is tectonically complex, convergence of the Asian plate (Sunda shield) with the continental part (Australian craton) of the Australian plate ultimately defined two major geological provinces. Western Indonesia represents the southeast margin of the Sunda shield and Eastern Indonesia represents the highly fragmented and tectonized northern margin of the Australian craton.
Ma ria na t
EURASIAN PLATE
Philippines
ren
ch
u ea fa lt
Re d ve Ri rf lt au
nd sa da lts go au Pa ao f ree Ch Th ang W
Gr t ea m Su a atr fau
lt i wa fau Me nta
Su m
lt s
ra at tre nc h
ys tem
S
Tectonic evolution
The Cenozoic geological history of Indonesia is divided into stages based on major tectonic collision events: 1. Encroachment and collision of the Indian and the Asian continental plates starting at approximately 50 mybp and reorganization of the Southern, Indian and Pacific plates at about 43 mybp when there was an end to subduction along the Indo-Eurasian collision belt. 2. Onset of South China Sea spreading at about 32 mybp, and collision of the northern leading edge of the Australian craton (New Guinea passive margin) with the PhilippineHalmaheraNew Guinea arc system at about 25 mybp (although arguably this was not a regional event according to Longley, pers. comm.). 3. Collision of the Australian craton with the Asian plate starting at about 8 mybp and continuing until major collision at about 3 mybp; and collision of the Luzon arc west of the Philippines with the Asia plate margin near Taiwan at about 5 mybp.
These major eustatic cycles, along with regionally developed sequence boundaries at 29.5 mybp, 21.5 mybp, 10.5 mybp and 5.5 mybp, have had a strong influence on the development of reservoir sands and carbonate buildups, and also source rocks and extensive sealing shales throughout Indonesia. Third- and even fourth-order eustatic events are often recognizable on a basin-wide scale. These are widely correlatable in both clastic sedimentary packages, where they may result in development of lowstand reservoirs, and in carbonates where dissolution porosity zones have, in some cases, developed. There are, however, also many examples where eustatic effects are not recognized because of over-printing by intense tectonism that has controlled the sedimentation in some Indonesian basins.
Eustatic effects
Longley (1997) and previous authors have observed a remarkable degree of correlation between regional collision events and the second-order sequence boundaries of Haq et al. (1988). It is, however, generally accepted that a major and progressive late Oligocene to early Miocene (3013 mybp) transgression occurred throughout the Indonesian basins, with maximum transgression at 15 mybp being marked by regionally developed marine shales. Similarly, middle Miocene to Pliocene regression is also easily recognized.
little or no infrastructure and exploration in deep (>200 m) water. The majority of explorationists, therefore, have concentrated their efforts on the highly productive but more mature basins of Western Indonesia. These include the North Sumatra, Central Sumatra (the most prolific basin by an order of magnitude), South Sumatra, Sunda-Asri, Northwest Java, East Java, Barito, Kutei, Tarakan and East and West Natuna basins. All of the most prolific petroleum systems discovered to date are located in Western Indonesia, with 85% of all Indonesian recoverable oil reserves being in the hot back-arc basins of Sumatra and Java. Gas is more evenly distributed in foreland and deltaic basins and, with the recent Tangguh gas project in western Irian Jaya, in Eastern Indonesia. In the east only the Salawati basin of the Birds Head peninsula of Irian Jaya is considered to be mature. As our knowledge of Eastern Indonesian geology improves, and technological and intellectual advancements reduce the costs of exploration in remote areas and deep water, the exploration emphasis will move away from the Western to the Eastern Indonesia basins. This is already being realized. In the 1990s there were successful Mesozoic discoveries in mountainous Seram (the Oseil oil field); in the Bintuni basin of Irian Jaya (the Tangguh gas project); and in deep water of the Timor Gap zone of cooperation (ZOC the Elang oil field and a number of other oil, condensate and gas discoveries). Although in a smaller league than, for example, the Middle East, on the global scale Indonesia is still a significant hydrocarbon province. The Gulf area contains a blanket of marine source facies that is extremely prolific and mature over wide areas, with widely developed reservoir facies, large-scale anticlinal structures and, most importantly, a highly effective regional salt seal. Indonesia is extremely complicated geologically, and source rocks, kitchens and reservoirs are restricted in their distribution, occurring as pods of limited areal extent
within numerous, structurally complex and isolated basins. The more prolific petroleum systems of Western Indonesia are products of extrusion tectonics and widespread Paleogene extension on the Sunda shield, modified by later inversion. In Eastern Indonesia the majority of petroleum systems are pre-Tertiary. They are related to the north Australian passive margin, which has been affected by microplate accretion, large-scale strike-slip faulting and collision tectonics. The Western and Eastern Indonesian petroleum systems together demonstrate the extreme variability of petroleum systems in Indonesia. Source-rock age varies from possible Paleozoic (Eastern Indonesia) to Pliocene (biogenic gas in Western Indonesia). Depositional settings include shallow- and deep-marine clastics and carbonates, deltaic deposits including coals, and lacustrine shales, which are the most prolific source in Western Indonesia and, in fact, throughout Southeast Asia. Hydrocarbon types are also diverse, including waxy lacustrine-sourced crudes, light marine oils, thermogenic and biogenic gas, asphalt deposits (e.g., Buton Island) and even deep-marine gas. Reservoirs are dominated by deltaic sands and large shallow-marine Tertiary carbonate buildups that are the main gas reservoir types. Less common are alluvial-fan, fluvial, shallow- and deep-marine fan sands, and more exotic types such as fractured granite and metamorphic basements, fractured volcanics and, in the East Java basin, highly porous, foraminiferal-sand contourites and diagenetically enhanced volcaniclastic sands. Oil and gas accumulations occur in strike-slip, extensional, compressional forearc, back-arc, passive and convergent margin settings, in both structural and stratigraphic traps, and may demonstrate elements of pressure seals and hydrodynamic effects (Howes, 1999). Geothermal gradients range from low in cool fore-arc basins to high in the back-arc areas, and have varied considerably through time, influencing the timing of expulsion and migration.
Late Miocene through Pliocene compressional structuring events and increased heat flow associated with the collision of the Australian craton with the Asian plate, 83 mybp, and collision of the Luzon arc with the Asian plate at about 5 mybp. Although there are gross geological similarities between the Western Indonesia basins, there are also significant geological differences. These are primarily controlled by basin position on the Sundaland promontory in relation to present-day and Cenozoic subduction of the Indo-Pacific plate northwards beneath Sundaland. Forearc basins occur between the modern volcanic arc (the northern limit of the forearc basins) and the subduction-generated accretionary prism (outer island-arc of Sumatra and the southern limit of the forearc basins). Traditionally, these have been considered of low prospectivity because they lack source rocks, and have low-quality volcaniclastic reservoirs and low heat flow. The back-arc basins are situated behind the volcanic arc and include all the remaining basins of Western Indonesia. Only the basins of Sumatra, Java, the Java Sea (which
extends east to the north of Lombok) and possibly the Pembuang basin (although there is no information for this basin) of South Kalimantan are considered to be back-arc basins in the strictest sense. They are situated within tens to hundreds of kilometers of the present-day volcanic arc and their histories are dominated by their proximity to the nearby subduction zone. More distal back-arc basins (>1000 km from the subduction) are those of East Kalimantan (Barito, Asem-Asem, Mahakam and Tarakan), West Kalimantan (Melawai and Ketunggau although there is little information for these basins) and the Natuna Sea (East and West Natuna basins). These basins still demonstrate subduction control and strong similarities to the more proximal back-arc basins, but have been affected by their relative proximity to more localized, smaller-scale plate tectonic events such as seafloor spreading in the Makassar Straits and rifting and spreading in the South China Sea.
Age
mybp Quaternary Pliocene 5 Late
2nd order sequence boundaries +200m +100m 0 NW Alluvium Julurayeu 5.2 (5.5) Seurula Keutapang 10 Petani North SE SW Toba Tuffs Alluvium
Sumatra
Central NE NW Minas (Korinci) Alluvium South SE Sunda Asri Sub-basin Northwest
Java
Northeast ONSH. Lidah Kawengan OFFS Karren
v
v v v
Cisubuh Parigi Cisubuh
v v
v v
Kasai
10.6 (10.5)
Middle
M B Sand Upper Baong Shale Lower Baong Shale Lower Baong Sand Peutu (Arun)
(Binio)
Mid main
Miocene
15
Telisa Gumai Duri Sihapas Gumai Batu Raja Pendopo Upper Talang Akar Lower Talang Akar Batu Raja Batu Raja (M. Cibulakan) TAF (Gita) Upper Talang Akar (Lower Cibulakan) Talang Akar (Upper Zelda) Talang Akar (Lower Zelda) Lemat Lower Talang Akar
Early
20 21.5 (21.0) 25
Belumai Bangko
Bekasap
Rancak
Menggala
KUI/UK
KUII/MK
Late
Oligocene
KUIII/LoK
Banuwati
Jati Barang
N g i m b a n g
Early
CD
Eocene
Middle
Late
45
Pre-Tertiary basement
+ + + +
After Kelsch et al., 1998, Wain & Jackson, 1995.
+ +
+ ++
v + + +
+ + +
After Sukamto et al., 1995, Napitupulu et al., 1997.
+ + +
After Ardhana et al., 1993, PT Rocktech Sejahtera, 1994.
After Alexanders & Nellia, 1993, Fainstein, 1996, Riadhy et al., 1998.
been studied on the Mentawai Islands of Nias and Simeuleu (e.g., Moore and Karig, 1980; Situmorang et al., 1987; Situmorang and Yulihanto, 1992). It consists of Eocene and younger shallow marine sands and shales, reefal carbonates, younger turbidites interpreted as accreted trench fill, and ophiolitic gabbros and ultramafic rocks (harzburgites). Oil seeps are known from the accretionary prism on Nias Island but do not necessarily indicate the presence of oil in the fore-arc basin to the east. The accretionary wedge and fore-arc basins, although closely related and situated next to each other, are known to be very different from seismic studies. A highly thrusted, accreted wedge becomes a steep monocline entering the fore arc, which is more typically defined by strike-slip faults rather than thrusts. Fore-arc basins have traditionally been considered poorly prospective for hydrocarbons for three main reasons: It was thought that source-rock facies were unlikely to develop in these essentially shallow, oxygenated, openmarine basins, and limited onshore space between coast and mountains was not
conducive to a sufficient supply of nonmarine terrestrial plant material. Reservoir quality was assumed to be a problem because nearby volcanic arcs should, in theory, have supplied a predominance of poor reservoir-quality, volcaniclastic sediments dominated by labile volcanic lithic fragments and swelling smectitic clays. Geothermal gradients in fore-arc basins are relatively low. Exploration wells have been drilled in five segments of the Western Indonesian forearc system. These are south of Central Java, the Southwest Java basin, the Bengkulu basin (southwest Sumatra fore-arc), the Mentawai basin (central Sumatra fore-arc) and the Sibolga basin (west of Nias in the northwest Sumatra fore-arc). There is little available information regarding Central Java fore-arc exploration, but limited material has been published on Sumatra and Southwest Java. This information in some ways fuels optimism for the existence of economic petroleum reserves in the Western Indonesian fore-arc.
Kalimantan
Barito West Alluvial Dahor East West Mahakam Kampung Baru Tarakan Kutai East West Bunyu Tarakan East South East
Natuna
West North
Coal Shales and claystones Volcanics/volcaniclastics Reefal and platform carbonates (and dolomites) Sandstones Conglomerates Argillaceous
Upper Arang
Middle Warukin
Lamaku
Terumbu
Taballar Arang SS
v v
v v
L. Warukin Bebulu
Lower Arang Upper Berai Pamalusan Middle Berai BatuMarah Hidup Lst. A n t a n Mesaloi Gabus U j o h B i l a n g ( Gabus SS S e m b u l u ( Seilok Tempilan Barat Shale Udang Barat
Belut
Lower Berai
Kedango
North Sumatra
East Natuna Tarakan West Natuna Central Sumatra Kutai Barito North West Java North East Java
Sujau
Mang Kabua C r a t o n i c After Fainstein & Meyer, 1998. After Fainstein & Meyer, 1998, Michael & Adrian, 1996, Phillips et al., 1997.
Upper Tanjung
L. T a n j u n g
Kiham Haloq
Beriun Sembakung
Mangkupa
+ + +
v v v
+ ++ +
v v v
After Satyana, 1995, Satyana & Silitonga, 1994, Heriyanto et al., 1996.
500km
rocks that occur in the Central and South Sumatra basins and also possible fluviolacustrine reservoirs. Such source and reservoir facies have not been penetrated in the Bengkulu basin wells. The lower 60 m of sediments penetrated in the Arwana 1 well are late Eocene and comprise shallow marine volcaniclastics and shales (Hall et al., 1993).
Mentawai basin, and the Pini and Singkel grabens in the Sibolga basin to the north (Figure 6). Although it is thought that movement on the Great Sumatra fault did not start until middle Miocene times, it is likely that the Sumatra fore-arc has experienced transtensional stresses as a result of continuous oblique subduction since the initial development of the Sunda arc in the pre-Tertiary. Fieldwork in the outer-arc ridge (Mentawai Islands) and regional seismic demonstrate that the marine Oligocene graben fill in the Mentawai basin has source potential. Basin modeling suggests that these sediments may have entered the oil window as early as the middle Miocene (Yulihanto and Wiyanto, 1999). These
Malaysia
Simeulue
1
Singkel graben
2 3 4
Sibolga basin
5 6
Singapore
Central Sumatra basin
Nias
Pini graben
lt fau tra ma Su
af atr S um
zo n
Wells 1. Palembak 1 Union Oil 2. Singkel 1 Union Oil 3. Telaga 1 Union Oil 4. Lakota 1 Union Oil 5. Suma 1 Union Oil 6. IbuSuma 1 Caltex
Figure 6: Simplified map of structural elements and hydrocarbon occurrence in the Sumatra fore arc (modified from Yulihanto et al., 1995).
Su
5 cm/year
nd
or e
Siberut
at
ch ren
Oil seeps Volcanics
rc
ba
s in
Pagar Jati graben South Sumatra Mentawai A#1 basin (Jenny) Bengkulu X#2 Mentawai C#1 (Jenny) (Jenny) Bengkulu X#1 (Jenny) Pagar Jati
en
taw
ul
graben
fa ai
tz
on
Volcanoes
Bengkulu basin
authors also recognize an early to middle Miocene potential marine source. Shallow marine conditions continued through the early Miocene in the Bengkulu basin. In Arwana 1, lower Miocene Batu Raja formation-equivalent dolomites (see Figure 5 South Sumatra, Sunda-Asri and Northwest Java basin stratigraphies) are overlain by lower Miocene clays and sands of volcaniclastic origin. The entire OligoceneMiocene section contains oil shows. Mulhadiono and Asikin (1989) describe the upper Oligocenelower Miocene graben fill as sandstones, conglomerates and a few limestones, and
Yulihanto et al. (1995) note a close stratigraphic similarity to the South Sumatra basin. Early Miocene buildups are considered a potential reservoir target in the Mentawai basin (Yulihanto and Wiyanto, 1999), although earlier drilled carbonate buildups in the Bengkulu and Sibolga basins are of middle Miocene age.
buildups equivalent to the Parigi formation (see Figure 5). Such large-scale carbonate buildups have been targeted as potential biogenic gas reservoirs in both the Bengkulu and the Sibolga basins. The Bengkulu basin wells were all dry but Union Oils Suma 1 and Singkel 1 wells and, the more recent Caltex Ibu Suma 1 well (Figure 7), encountered subeconomic quantities of biogenic gas (e.g. Dobson et al., 1998). As may be expected with such large carbonate buildups, top seal shales were probably not deposited until after much of the gas had been generated and escaped. Biogenic gas was not encountered in the Bengkulu wells possibly because of the higher
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 3200 3400
Figure 7: Seismic section and interpretation of the middle Miocene Ibu Suma buildup, Sibolga basin, north Sumatra fore-arc (Dobson et al., 1998).
(>4.5C/100 m) geothermal gradient. In the Mentawai basin Yulihanto and Wiyanto (1999) consider middle Miocene lowstand fans to be potential reservoirs. Yulihanto et al. (1995) recognized the rejuvenation of pre-existing tensional faults in the Bengkulu basin during this period, with accompanying deposition of shallow marine and lagoonal sands and clays, and coaly intercalations of potential source rock (Lemau formation) occurring in outcrop. During the late Miocene to Pliocene, basin subsidence continued with deposition of littoral sands of the Simpangaur formation. In the Mentawai basin southerly prograding deltaics may provide reservoir opportunities (Yulihanto and Wiyanto, 1999).
Sumatra
Sunda basin
fo at pl rm
Se
rib
Figure 8: Simplified map of structural elements in the Southwest Java basin (after Keetley et al., 1997).
Krakatau
a nd u S Pull-apart half-graben
Ujung Kulon low Ujung Kulon high
Ujung Kulon 1a
it ra st
Tangerang high
West Java
West Honje Malimping high low
DDH-1 Fig.9a
d ir an m Ci
u lt i fa
Ciletuh high
Fig.9b
outcrops of middle to late Eocene Bayah formation thick-deltaic sands (Figure 9a) and a coaly potential source facies occur in the Bayah area in the eastern part of the basin. Schiller et al. (1991) describe the thick section of middle to late Eocene Ciletuh formation, which crops-out on the eastern extremity of the basin, as a sanddominated turbidite-fan system (Figure 9b). They speculate that in Eocene times the left-lateral Cimandiri fault represented the extreme limit of the Sunda shield and, that the Bayah formation deltaic system supplied sediment to the deeper-marine setting on
the downthrown side of the fault. The Bayah formation and the Ciletuh formation arenites (with some leached feldspar) demonstrate excellent reservoir quality but, the upper section of the Ciletuh sands displays a change in current direction and a new volcanic provenance with a reduction in reservoir quality. Keetley et al. (1997) suggest that early Miocene post-rift sag resulted in subsidence of the offshore area and vitrinite reflectance results of Eocene sediments adjacent to the Honje high indicates heating to 180C and then uplift in the early Miocene from about
(a)
(b)
Figure 9: Potential reservoir facies in the Southwest Java basin. Eocene Bayah formation cross-bedded, fluvio-deltaic channel sands exposed on the Bayah high (a). Eocene Ciletuh formation deep marine fan sands exposed on the Ciletuh high (b).
4 km depth. The younger middle Miocene sediments on the Honje high consequently indicate negligible heating. A middle to late Miocene second rifting phase is also proposed by Keetley et al. (1997). Apatite fission track analyses of Eocene and Miocene sands in the eastern part of the Southwest Java basin (Soenandar, 1997), indicate a maximum burial temperature of only 70 to 95C. Significant cooling occurred in the late Miocene to early Pliocene, with an indication of over 3 km of inversion in the Ciletuh area east of the Cimandiri fault, caused by deformation of an accretionary complex when subduction was blocked by an old magmatic arc. Soenandar (1997) recognizes a rapid increase in geothermal gradient in the PliocenePleistocene, which he also recognizes in the Sunda, Asri and Northwest Java basins. Fore-arc basins of Western Indonesia are poorly understood but their hydrocarbon potential is considered to be moderate to high. It would appear that the Bengkulu and Southwest Java basins experienced a history similar to that of the back-arc basins of Western Indonesia. Rifting was initiated in the Paleogene, structural modification occurred in the Miocene, and inversion and raised heat flow (the main maturation and structuring event in the back-arc basins) in PliocenePleistocene times. The Bengkulu basin demonstrates mature source potential for oil in Arwana 1, sufficient heat flow for oil generation, and convincing oil shows in two wells. There is also potential for the development of early rift-fill Eocene lacustrine source rocks and associated reservoirs if the similarities between the Bengkulu basin and the South Sumatra basin are considered.
Although not of lacustrine affinity, the Bayah formations deltaic deposits in the Southwest Java basin provide evidence for the development of reservoir and source facies in the syn-rift stage of fore-arc development. Turbidite fan sands in the Southwest Java basin also demonstrate excellent reservoir potential. There is less known about the Sibolga basin, but the presence of biogenic gas and a low geothermal gradient still support the tested biogenic gas play. Thick Miocene carbonates are, however, considered too problematical with regard to sealing. Interbedded sand and shale units provide a more prospective biogenic gas play alternative, although small footprint and focusing may limit their potential.
Lacustrine shales and coals are abundant in the Eocene and Oligocene syn-rift sequences of Southeast Asia and are demonstrably important source rocks (e.g. Sladen 1997). Syn-rift lacustrine shales are often assumed to be the major source of oil in Western Indonesia back-arc basins. In terms of billions of barrels of oil generated, this is true because of the extremely prolific nature of these source rocks. The Central Sumatra basin contains the vast majority of Indonesias oil reserves sourced almost exclusively from this facies, the Minas and Duri oil fields alone accounting for 15 BBOIP. Robinson (1987) developed the first comprehensive source rock and oiltype classification and distribution for Indonesias petroleum basins and this has since been refined by Ten Haven and Schiefelbein (1995). These works indicate a range of important organic source facies for the Western Indonesia basins (Figure 10) including marine, terrigenous (fluvio-deltaic of Robinson, 1987) and lacustrine. The major reservoirs in the Indonesian back-arc basins are Miocene transgressive and regressive fluvio-deltaic and shallowmarine sands with trapping by structural closure and in pinch-outs, and carbonate buildups. Deeper marine sand-dominated depositional systems are, however, becoming a focus for the industry. The main phase of inversion and structural development took place in the Pliocene. Back-arc basins are also known to be areas of high heat flow and the Central Sumatra basin demonstrates the highest heat flow of any basin in Southeast Asia (Thamrin, 1987). The main phase of hydrocarbon expulsion and migration occurred during the PliocenePleistocene inversion event.
Figure 10: Oil source characteristics for Indonesias petroleum systems (Ten Haven and Schiefelbein, 1995).
Th ai Ind land on es ia
E1 rid ge
NW sub-basin
Central ridge
Ridge EAO
Arun
Arun
hor s t
P e us a ng a
nh
ast Jawa e
high
M TA
IA
NG
A s ah
deep
Pakol low
Kuala Langsa
Pak ol
Pusung high
Glagah low
au nf tra ma Su
igh
an a
rch
EP DE
lt s
ys
te
m
Glagah-1 Kambuna
Su m at
M isan Bar
Rantau
M TA
ra
a si a ay esi al n M do In
Kuala Simpang
Gebang
PU
Figure 11: Generalized physiography and productive hydrocarbon discoveries of the North Sumatra basin (modified from Andreason et al., 1977, Fuse et al., 1996 and Kjellgren and Sugiharto, 1989).
oun
tai n
RP
TF LA
NSO
M OR
t hr
Darat
t fr us
on
Wampu Batumandi
SW
SLS A-3
NE
2.0
2.4 0 1 2 km
Figure 12: 3D seismic profile across a South Lho Sukon Peutu limestone patch-reef, onshore North Sumatra basin. The middle horizon on the reef crest is the base of a collapsed cave zone (Sunaryo et al., 1998).
particularly as a pressure gradient from the highly overpressured Baong into the normally pressured Peutu is an ideal source-reservoir arrangement commonly associated with giant fields.
Belumai shales are age equivalent to large early Miocene Peutu formation carbonate buildups that grew on the northsouth trending-basement horsts (e.g., Arun, Pase, South Lho Sukon, Alursiwah, and Kuala Langsa gas fields Caughey and Wahyudi, 1993; Sunaryo et al., 1998; Barliana et al., 1999) and, to the east on the edge of the Malacca platform, are equivalent to Belumai formation carbonates (e.g., NSB gas field). Peutu and Belumai formation carbonates represent the main play type in the North Sumatra basin and the Peutu is volumetrically the most important reservoir facies in the basin. Porosity was enhanced during latest
early Miocene uplift and extensive karst systems have been identified by 3D seismic surveys (Figure 12). Belumai buildups are abundant and clearly visible on seismic shot over the Malacca platform. The buildups are, however, generally small (significantly less than the 300500 m of relief developed on subsiding blocks at Arun, Alur Siwah and Kuala Langsa) and the overlying Baong is much sandier on the shelf and thief zones limit fill-up of the buildups (Caughey, pers. comm.). Younger Baong shales most probably source gas on the Malacca platform to the east, and oil in the string of fields that parallel the Barisan thrust front on the Tampur platform (see Figure 11).
Quartz
Deviation Bound water 0 Deg Gamma ray 50 Clay 1 Volume Hole shape 0 (V/V) 1 Ener 0 (us) 20440 Fracture energy DNS T -15 0 (dB/m) DSI waveform SWF1 .FIL . Int 0 Deg 90 Fracture orientation Conductive fracture True dip FMI image Conductive fracture (sinusoid) Orientation north
8450
Peutu limestone
8500
Figure 13: Log of fractured Peutu limestone reservoir in the Pase A Field, well Pase A6, onshore North Sumatra basin. Fractures are defined using the DSI* Dipole Shear Sonic Imager and FMI* Fullbore Formation MicroImager tools (Musgrove and Sunaryo, 1998).
8550
8600
Belumai formation
8650
Bruksah formation
8700
Meta formation
illustrated by the potential giant Kuala Langsa gas field (Caughey and Wahyudi, 1993). Smaller-scale, Peutu ageequivalent, Belumai buildups represent a potentially less rewarding play on the Malacca shelf. Stratigraphic plays for the Baong and Keutapang reservoirs have not been made but the risk is high. New or underdeveloped play concepts could include lowstand turbidite-fan systems associated with middle Miocene lowstand (Tsukada et al., 1996; Nuraini et al., 1999), and latest Oligocene Bampo fan systems recognized elsewhere in the basin. Syn-rift Parapat formation alluvial and fluvial sands could represent an attractive reservoir target in graben deeps where they are proximal to a generating Bampo source. Lack of seal, however, may be an issue. The Eocene Tampur formation carbonates have also been recognized as having reservoir potential and have already tested gas beneath early Miocene Peutu reservoirs in Alur Siwah, Peulala and on the Malacca platform (Ryacudu and Sjahbuddin, 1994). The relatively underexplored northern deepwater (>1000 m) sector of the basin merits further investigation as deepwater drilling technology improves.
Ma
lam Ba
Paleogene depocenters Oil field Gas field
lay
sia
Sumatra
Jakarta
Figure 14: Paleogene depocenters, generalized structure and oilfield distribution for the Central Sumatra basin (Praptono et al., 1991).
h ug tro
Bangko Kulin
Ma
lac
ca
Str
ait
Petani
Duri
Beruk high
Bengkalis trough
Java
400
800km
older basement fractures. The strike-slip faults often sole-out into the thrusts and, with right and left doglegs, have produced pull-apart and pop-up basins (Figure 15), respectively. These can be the sites of large oil accumulations. Large northwestsoutheast trending anticlines (e.g., the Kempas-Beruk uplift and the Sembilan uplift Figure 15) reflect ancient basement arches. At the surface, locally occurring northeastsouthwestoriented fracture swarms represent Riedel shears that are associated with the northwestsoutheast-oriented, right-lateral Great Sumatra fault system. Oil is concentrated in two principal areas. In the west the MinasDuriBangko trend parallels the central deep and Balam trough in the center of the basin. In the east the Bengkalis trough hosts the coastal plains and shallow offshore oil fields. These are grouped on the Beruk high, and along the southernmost Lirik trend. In the far north of the basin there is reduced seal capacity and there are no oil fields. This is due to coarsening of clastics near the paleo-sediment source.
Figure 15: Field distribution along regional, northsouth trending dextral transcurrent faults in the coastal plains block of Central Sumatra (Heidrick and Aulia, 1993).
Bengkalis Island
Hudbay Caltex
Padang Island
D U
Melibur
lift up
Sia kK ec il s yn clin e
K
k eru sB pa em
ak Ot
up
lift
Beruk NE Beruk Bungsu Idris
Nilam Zamrud
t d faul fol
Bengkalis depression
etasKutup fault
Oil field
Uplift
FWA A A A
Figure 16: Kerogen assemblage dominated by fluorescent amorphinite (A) and degraded, freshwater Botryococcus algae (FWA) in the Brown Shale formation, Central Sumatra basin (photo courtesy of S. Noon).
crudes of the Central Sumatra basin and Cenozoic-sourced, waxy, lacustrine crudes that are so common elsewhere in South Asia. The Brown Shale formation also acts as an internal seal for the limited Pematang group reservoirs. Although it is accepted that the Brown Shale unit is essentially the only source rock in the Central Sumatra basin, Schiefelbein and Cameron (1997) note a minor contribution from type III, fluvio-deltaic organic matter.
I M F M M I M I O I M F O M
K K
O I O
Figure 17: Photomicrograph of the lower Sihapas (Menggala) reservoir sandstone, Kurau field, Central Sumatra basin showing partly leached feldspars (F), quartz overgrowth cement (O), authigenic kaolinite (K) and excellent primary intergranular (I) and secondary moldic (M) porosity. (Photomicrographs from Murphy, 1993.)
production sharing contract operator in the basin, have concentrated on tertiary recovery projects. These include large-scale waterflood of the Minas and other oil fields and steamflood of the Duri oil field, the largest operation of its kind in the world (e.g. Sulistyo et al., 1998). Recent technological advancements in sequence stratigraphy and 3D-seismic studies are being applied in the hope of identifying bypassed oil. Exploration has not ceased, however, and smaller-scale Pematang and fault-controlled traps are still being targeted to help offset the declining production from the basin. Pematang group gas accumulations are being sought to fuel the Duri steamflood, since nearly one-third of produced Duri oil is used for steam generation. Presently the nearest gas is in the South Sumatra basin, supplied by Gulf Oil in a gas-for-oil exchange deal. It would appear that there are few new play types in the Central Sumatra basin. Exploration of the Pematang groups coarse clastics is considered to hold promise although oil potential is limited by poor reservoir quality. There is minor production from fractured basement in the Beruk Northeast field but this is not considered to hold sufficient reserves to be of interest as a primary target.
Ba
k ng
oh
igh
at
tal
in
ig gh
ee xte
Figure 18: Generalized structural pattern of the Southern Sumatra region (after Yulihanto and Sosrowidjoyo, 1996).
fS
sin matra ba h Su out
xi m pro Ap
to
Su
t ma
Ce
lt fau ra
zo n
e
Kikim high Pagar Jati graben
ng f a u lt Lematang/ South Palembang graben (sub-basin)
ata
Lampung high
Kedurang graben
Muaradua graben
Lampung graben
50
100km
The South Sumatra basin contains diverse petroleum systems, with both oil and gas being sourced from lacustrine and fluviodeltaic terrestrial facies (Figure 19). Marine facies of the Gumai formation have been suspected of contributing to reserves, especially gas, and there is even speculation of a local carbonate or calcareous shale source (Davis, pers. comm.). Reservoirs include fractured basement granites (Figure 20) and metamorphics, granite-wash, OligoceneMiocene fluviodeltaics (Lemat, Talang Akar, Muara Enim and Air Benakat formations) and lower Miocene leached and fractured carbonate buildups (Batu Raja formation). In the Tempino oil field one of the reservoirs is a fractured sill (Caughey, pers. comm.), although this is not of economic significance. Although not strictly part of the South Sumatra basin small intra-montane basins in the Barisan range (e.g., the Pasemah Block operated by Stanvac Kamal, 1999), demonstrate a similar history and origin to the nearby South Sumatra basin with good Talang Akar and Batu Raja formation reservoirs at outcrop and oil and gas seeps with a lacustrine source indicated.
C C
Figure 19: Kerogens extracted from source facies in the South Sumatra basin. Top photograph shows terrestrial oil-prone source facies dominated by cutinite (C) and other land plant material. Bottom photograph shows lacustrine oil-prone source facies dominated by Botryococcus algae (A). (Photos courtesy of S. Noon.)
A A A
X6.0
W E
X0.5
Figure 20: Formation MicroScanner* images from a fractured granite basement reservoir, South Sumatra basin.
X6.5
X1.0
X7.0
X1.5
X7.5
X2.0
Figure 21: Leached skeletal packstone from the early Miocene Batu Raja formation, Air Sedang field, South Sumatra. Porosity includes molds (Mo), vugs (Vu) and channelized pores (Ch). (Longman et al., 1993.)
Vu
Mo Vu Mo
Ch
was discovered by Gulf in 1993 in syn-rift Lemat fluvial sands of the Puyuh field (Maulana et al., 1999) and is also produced from the young, low-resistivity Air Benakat and Muara Enim sands that are reservoirs for oil and gas in the Jambi area. Fractured basement reservoirs hold proven reserves of over 4 TcfG, and are still being drilled. More recently, deep basinal areas have been drilled successfully targeting gas in deeply buried, fractured Batu Raja formation limestones (e.g., Singa 1 and 2 drilled in 1999). In addition, limited potential still remains for the traditional Talang Akar and Batu Raja formation plays. Tertiary recovery projects hold further potential, and some of the older fields are undergoing successful waterfloods (e.g., Kenali-Asem and Bajubang fields).
Ch
Seribu platform
Jakarta
Ciputat Kepuh Cipunegara E 15 Graben Pasir Bunger Jatibarang
Cirebon
Java
Tanjung TWT scale, sec < 0.5 0.51.0 1.01.5 1.52.0 2.02.5 2.53.0 > 3.0
50 mile
Figure 22: Basement time structure map of Northwest Java sub-basins (above) and location of hydrocarbon fields (below) (after Noble et al., 1997).
Intan
YPF Maxus
Widuri Janti Yani Karmila Yvonne Kartini AV Nurbani AVS AA Farida Krisna Wanda Gita Bima 'ZU' Cint A Rama Kitty Duma Nora Selatan Utari Sundari
Sumatra
The alluvial, fluvial (Figure 23), deltaic and marginal-marine sandstones of the upper part of the Talang Akar formation are the main reservoirs in both basins, and represent basin margin fill with marine shales that were deposited in the basin centers. In the Widuri oil field, the fluvial Gita member sandstones attain permeabilities in the range of tens of Darcies and porosities of over 25% (Wight et al., 1997). Unfortunately, other oil fields are marginalized by a high diagenetic kaolinite content that has destroyed permeabilities even though oil saturations may be high. Talang Akar reservoirs are sealed intraformationally, and by semiregional formation top shales. In the more southerly Sunda basin, early Miocene Batu Raja formation carbonates (Figure 24) developed on basement highs around the edge of the basin, with thick pay zones associated with lowstand dissolution events (Wicaksono et al., 1995). Batu Raja reservoir quality may be poor where lowpermeability, micritic, wackestone facies dominate. Deeper-marine Gumai shales provide an effective seal for the Batu Raja carbonate reservoirs. The Banuwati shale may have entered the oil window in the early Miocene. Lateral migration occurred many kilometers along the weathered sediment/basement interface, channel sands and, in carbonates, via karst pipes, with vertical migration via faults (Wight et al., 1997). The latter part of the Miocene was a period of continued quiescence with deposition of Parigi formation carbonates and Cisubuh formation fine marine clastics.
Sumatra
Arco
APN
E UR ES
HZE FI FW FN F FS
Jakarta
OW OU OO XM OO Kandang Haur OM PMK Cemara XK XW OB Pagaden GG Jatibarang SDS Gantar KPT Tugubarat Randegan
PERTAMINA
Cirebon
Java
Figure 23: Amplitude map of 33 series sand of the lower Miocene Upper Gita member of the Talang Akar formation. Meandering channel systems are clearly visible (modified from Armon et al.,1995).
10km
2359ft
2379ft
Figure 24: Evidence for exposure including thin coals (left top), shale-filled karst pipes (middle) and karst breccia (right) in the early Miocene Batu Raja formation. Core from well Jelita 1, Sunda basin (Wicaksono et al., 1995).
SW
Offshore Sea level
Fore-arc basin
Back-arc basin
NE
Offshore Cisubuh
Melange
Turbidites
Batu Raja
Jakarta
Oil reservoir
Java
The middle Miocene upper Cibulakan includes both carbonate and clastic reservoir facies. The mid-Main member carbonate buildups are, according to Isworo et al. (1999), the main reservoir in the Seribu shelf area. Gentle, middle Miocene uplift of the Sunda shield to the north resulted in a supply of upper Cibulakan clastics, another reservoir facies, to the marine area in the south. From 3D seismic across the Northwest Java shelf, Posamentier (1999) identified transgressive tidal sand ridges in the upper section of the Main member. These features are potentially excellent stratigraphic traps, being enclosed entirely in overlying, deepermarine shales. Stabilization again led to deposition of carbonates in the late Miocene, when preParigi and Parigi formations developed as relatively low-energy, fine-grained, shalylime muds, and packstones and wackestones. Pore types are dominated by matrix microporosity, demonstrating solution enhancement as a result of lowstand exposure (Bukhari et al., 1993). These carbonates are a major reservoir for both thermogenic and biogenic gas, the latter being sourced from deeper-waterequivalent marine shales. Locally, these carbonates also form oil reservoirs in the onshore area.
of the most diverse. The basin extends eastwest from onshore east Central Java, for over 1000 km to the Flores back-arc basin, and includes a number of distinct eastwest oriented structural zones. Branching off from this main basin trend to the north, is a series of northeastsouthwesttrending half-grabens downthrown to the east. These include, from west to east, the Muriah trough, the Tuban-Camar trough, the central-deep depression (Masalembo basin), and the Sakala sub-basin, which are separated by areally extensive structural highs (Figure 26). The basin is predominantly offshore with water depths reaching over 1500 m in the Lombok subbasin, and covers a total area in the region of 200,000 km2. Onshore, the structural picture is extremely complicated, with multiple phases resulting in all modes of faulting. Tertiary development includes a major inversion event, and at least two major episodes of volcanism. The picture is further complicated by a plethora of lithostratigraphic schemes (see Ardhana et al., 1993) compiled by the large number of companies that have explored different parts of the basin. These schemes show significant differences and have yet to be satisfactorily reconciled across the basin. Historically, the East Java basin has been significant in the quest for oil. Numerous
rid
Mu
ne ng zo
Ce
Ca n
nt
ra
r ma
l-d
ee
tro
ug
de
Ba
an we
pr
es
arc
sio
tr riah
JS
as
ale
oug
-1
mb
Sibaru platform
Figure 26: Generalized basin configuration for East and Northeast Java basins (after Manur and Barraclough, 1994).
ob
ge
as in
Madura
Kangea
n high
Lombok ridge
Lombok sub-basin
K endeng zone
Quaternary volcanic arc
East Java
Java Ge anticline
Bali
Thrust structure located at inversion zone Normal fault, NE-trending separates basinal lows from highs Strike-slip movement/wrenching, located at flank area/basinal margin Platformal area, arch and ridge Basinal area RMK wrench zone (high) Southern basin
Lombok
100km
onshore oil fields were discovered by the Dutch before World War II, with production from the middle Miocene Ngrayong formation sandstones (e.g., the Kawengan oil field being the largest and still producing today) or Pliocene deepwater carbonates (e.g., the Lidah and Metatu oil fields). All these fields were discovered on the basis of the very obvious surface expression of northwestsoutheast-trending (Cepu area in the west) and eastwest-trending (near Surabaya in the east) anticlines. Production peaked with the war effort in the 1940s.
Late Eocene transgression deposited the Ngimbang carbonates which are shallowmarine, low-energy, shaly, micritic limestones and calcareous shales occurring in the east of the basin. These highly indurated and fractured sediments form the main reservoir in the West Kangean gas field (Siemers et al., 1993b). Elsewhere offshore, upper Eocene to lower Oligocene, Lepidocyclina-rich, larger benthic, foraminiferal limestones, the CD carbonates, are reservoirs for subcommercial oil and gas. The CD carbonates are overlain by deep-marine shales, representing maximum transgression, which form a seal for the Pagerungan and West Kangean reservoirs. Historically, it has been assumed that all the oil and thermogenic gas of the East Java basin has been sourced from syn-rift lacustrine shales. This would appear to be the case for the gas in the Pagerungan and West Kangean fields in the eastern part of the basin (Schiefelbein and Cameron, 1997) but elsewhere, hydrocarbons demonstrate a deltaic or paralic marine source with carbonate affinities (Davis, pers. comm.). It is possible that the pre-Ngimbang clastics in the east of the basin have been buried deep enough to generate oil since the late Eocene. It has since been displaced by gas, which is being generated to this day.
5 87.30 6 7
89.80
Figure 27: Shallow cores from locations near Nanggulan, Central Java. These Eocene fluvio-deltaic shallow marine (trays 1 and 2), shoreface (trays 3 and 4) and distributary channel (trays 5 to 8) sands are potential reservoir sands (photos courtesy of Coparex BV).
55.05
(a)
(d)
Figure 28a: Pleistocene volcaniclastic sands. This volcaniclastic sandstone reservoir in the Wunut gas field, onshore Java, is characterized by excellent intergranular and dissolution porosity after feldspar (photo courtesy of Lapindo).
Figure 28d: Early Miocene Kujung limestone. The examples shown are: an algal (possibly rhodolith) framestone (left) and larger benthic ( Lepidocyclina and Miogypsina) grainstone (right) with poor vugular and microvugular dissolution porosity (V).
(b)
(e)
Figure 28b: Early Pliocene Paciran limestone. This globigerine foraminiferal limestone reservoirs biogenic gas in the East Java basin. Porosity in uncemented examples can be as high as 70% (photo courtesy of Mobil Oil).
Figure 28e: Middle-late Eocene Ngimbang clastics. These medium to coarsegrained reservoir sands are from the Pagerungan gas field. Intergranular porosity is excellent and is enhanced by oversized dissolution pores (photo from Ebanks and Cook, 1993).
(c)
Figure 28c: Middle Miocene Ngrayong sandstone. These fine to medium grained deepwater sands are interpreted as deep sea fan and/or contourite. Primary intergranular porosity is good and reservoir potential is considered excellent. Shallower water Ngrayong facies reservoir oil onshore East Java basin (photo from Ardhana et al., 1993).
window during the middle Miocene. During the middle to late Miocene, subsidence led to deposition of the deep-marine, Wonocolo, fine-grained clastics, interrupted by end late Miocene compression and inversion, with deposition of shallow marine Karren carbonates. Continued compression into the Pliocene resulted in further structural changes, with shale diapirism and the development of two major anticlinal trends; the eastwestoriented Java trend and the northeastsouthwest Kalimantan trend. These anticlines host the vast majority of shallow, onshore oil fields and are strongly expressed by surface geology in East Java. In the early Pliocene, globigerine-limestones were deposited. They are interpreted as possible contourites by Schiller et al. (1995) and are reservoirs for biogenic gas in the east Madura Straits (Figure 28, Basden et
al., 1999) and for oil in some of the older, onshore fields (e.g., Sekarkorong, Lidah and Metatu). These globigerine limestones were reworked into the late Pliocene Selorejo formation, which is also a potential minor reservoir. Pleistocene volcaniclastics are minor reservoirs for gas in the onshore region of East Java (e.g., Wunut gas field Figure 28; Kusumastuti et al., 1999). Although the East Java basin is widely explored, potential still remains for significant oil and gas discoveries in the Eocene syn-rift clastic, the deepwater-facies Ngrayong sand and the Kujung and Rancak limestone plays. Smaller, more esoteric plays, such as the Pleistocene Wunut gas field and biogenic gas plays, may demonstrate potential purely because of the well-developed infrastructure and nearby industrial market in East Java.
Barito basin
The Barito basin is named after the Barito River that flows from north to south in Southeast Kalimantan, west of the Meratus Mountains. It is bordered to the west by the stable Barito shelf (Sunda shield) against which the Neogene basin-fill onlaps (Figures 29 and 30). The uplifted Adang fault zone separates the Barito basin from the upper Kutei basin to the North, and the basin extends and shallows to the coast in the south. The Barito basin is subdivided into a structurally complex northern section, dominated by reverse-faulted anticlines, and a southern area characterized by undisturbed sediments dipping gently into the axis of an asymmetric trough, with thrusting and wrench-faulting at the eastern margin against the Meratus Mountains (Bonn et al., 1996; Figures 30 and 31). The northern part of the basin contains all the fields discovered to date, including the large Tanjung Raya oil field (725 MBOIP) with oil hosted mainly in syn-rift alluvial facies that highlights the potential of this play in the Western Indonesian basins. Subordinate Tanjung Raya reservoirs include post-rift, fluvio-deltaic sands and minor, fractured basement. Other reservoirs in the basin include OligoceneMiocene Berai formation limestones that tested gas in the offshore Makassar 1 well, and the early to middle Miocene sandstones of the Warukin formation. Basement comprises amalgamated terranes, with continental basement to the west and accreted zones of Mesozoic and early Paleogene rocks in the east.
y la
Figure 29: Physiographic and location map of Kalimantan with distribution of hydrocarbon fields (modified from Mamuaya et al., 1995).
Sulu Sea
Semporna fault
a si
t)
(M
lt
Ketungau basi
Mel a
w i b a sin
Kerenden 1 Ara ng fau lt ( hig Barito basin
Sunda shield
assa
r tro
ugh
h)
Paternoster shelf
100 200km
Ase
Java Sea
160200 km
W
Stable Barito shelf Barito basin
Dahor
Sulawesi
Mak
Barito foredeep
E
Meratus Mountains
WaruDahor kin
Berai carbonates Tanjung sandstones
Figure 30: Schematic geological cross-section across the Northeast area of the Barito basin (Campbell et al., 1988).
Basemen t high
M er
at us
Figure 31: Structural map of the Northeast Barito basin showing Paleogene grabens and distribution of hydrocarbons. (After Mason et al., 1993; Rotinsulu et al 1993 and Satyana 1995).
Paleogene grabens Basement massif Oil field Oil shows Thrust fault, late MioceneRecent Wrench fault, late MioceneRecent
Key
Ka s rid ale ge
Si
ng hu
s no
Bangkau-1 Semuda-1
M er a
tu
sM
ou
nt a
SE Kalimantan
Rifting in the Barito basin started relatively early, in the Paleocene, with the development of a series of northwestsoutheast-trending grabens (Figure 31) as a result of collision between the Indian subcontinent and the Asian plate. Syn-rift sediments include deep lacustrine source rocks, and alluvial and fluvial sands of the upper Paleocene to middle Eocene lower Tanjung formation, which comprise the reservoir in the major Tanjung Raya oil field (Figure 32).
Miyawa 1
25
50km
Q V Corrensite
V F Q F
V Q
Figure 32: Texturally and compositionally immature Eocene alluvial pebbly sandstone reservoir from the lower Tanjung formation, Tanjung Raya field, Barito basin. Grains shown on the left include quartz (Q), feldspar (F) and volcanic fragments (V). Grains shown on the right are rimmed by corrensite (mixed-layer smectite-chlorite). (Photos courtesy of JOB Pertamina Talisman.)
Figure 33: Summary geological map of the lower Kutei basin, with field locations and thickest (>2000 ft) kitchen areas (from Bates, 1996 and Paterson et al., 1997).
Upper Miocene Middle Miocene Lower Miocene Oligocene Source kitchen > 2000 isopach Sangatta
Tambora
Tunu
20km
Wailawi
Yakin Sepinggan
Figure 34: Kerogen dominated by vitrinite and cutinite extracted from Miocene oil- and gas-prone shales in the Kutei basin. (Photo courtesy of S. Noon.)
The Barito basin remains prospective. The southern part of the basin is relatively unexplored but does not hold much structural promise. The syn-rift sediments are a proven large-scale reservoir in the Tanjung Raya field, which is presently undergoing waterflood tertiary recovery. Berai formation limestones are a potential economic reservoir in the far north of the basin.
Way-up
Be dd in g
8446.5
cm in 0 0 1 2 3 1
8443
cm in 0 0 1
(a)
2 3
(b)
Figure 35a: Thick (10s m) coralline limestones are developed in the Miocene Mahakam section and demonstrate reservoir potential. These core segments are from the Serang field and demonstrate good, visible moldic porosity (Photo from Siemers et al., 1993a.)
Figure 35b: A thick (approximately 3 m) massive and extensive turbidite sheet sand enclosed in shale. Turbidite fans have recently become the focus of exploration in deep water offshore from the Mahakam Delta following Unocals Merah Besar and West Seno oil discoveries. (Photo courtesy of J. Decker.) Figure 35c: Four stacked, delta-front, coarsening upwards parasequences. Shales pass up into thinly laminated and/or bioturbated sandstone representing mouth bars. (Photo courtesy of P. Montaggioni.)
PS
PS
PS
PS
(c)
Upper channel
Shale plug
Coaly shale
Lower channel
Epsi
lon x
s -bed
(e)
a ev Cr e ss Sp lay
Coal
Figure 35e: Stacked distributary channels with overbank shales and a 1-m thick coal seam. Largescale epsilon cross-beds represent lateral accretion, and both channels display erosional bases. (Photo courtesy of P. Montaggioni.)
Figure 35d: A thin but laterally extensive crevasse splay sand enveloped in coaly shales. Larger crevasse splay sands may be areally extensive, but are only minor reservoir facies in the Mahakam Delta. (Photo courtesy P. Montaggioni.)
Distributary channels
Mouth bars
Sea
Distributary channel
Tidal channel
Distributary channels
Tidal channels
Mouth bar
These reservoir facies have analogs on the modern Mahakam Delta (Figure 36). All the major oil and gas fields in the productive Samarinda area are located on northnortheastsouthsouthwest-trending, faulted anticlines of the Samarinda anticlinorium (Figure 37). The deltaic source facies are both oiland gas-prone; more liptinitic or drifted coals and carbonaceous shales in estuarine or shallow-marine settings are more oilprone; and upper coastal plain and prodelta marine shales are more likely to be gas-prone, according to Thompson et al. (1985). Other authors consider Miocene Mahakam (and Tarakan) coals to be strictly oil-prone (e.g., Schoell et al., l985; Oudin and Picard, 1982). Ferguson and McClay (1997) consider the gas in the Badak field to be the product of oil cracking during late-stage, deep burial of the reservoir into the gas kitchen. Work by Peters et al. (1999) classified Mahakam source facies in sequence stratigraphic terms and resolved the problem of source for the deepwater West Seno, Merah Besar and Panca 1 oil discoveries with the identification of a deep-marine lowstand oil group. According to Peters et al. (1999) these lowstand fan-reservoired oils originated from similarly deposited, deep-marine, lowstand, coaly shales which range in age from early to late Miocene.
Figure 36: Modem Mahakam Delta distributary channel and mouth-bar reservoir analogs. (SLR image from Allen and Chambers, 1998, photos courtesy of P. Montaggioni.)
Belayan trough
Katudu anticline
Murung Pembulan Tenggarong Sebulu Separi Semberah anticline anticline anticline anticline anticline anticline
Badak trend
Figure 37: Geological cross-sections through East Kalimantan. Top: regional cross-section across the Kutei basin. Bottom: geological cross-section of the Samarinda anticlinorium. (Allen and Chambers, 1998.)
W
Pembulan anticline Tenggarong anticline Sebulu anticline Separi Prangat anticline thrust outcrops Semberah anticline Badak/Nilam anticline
E
Present-day Mahakam delta Pliocene Upper Miocene Middle Miocene Lower Miocene
10 km
Tidung sub-basin
Neogene extrusive
Sebatik arch
Semporna Peninsula
200 m 100 0m
Ahus arch Sembakung field Bunyu Tapa Bunyu Bangkudulis arch field field Bunyu field Juata field Tarakan Pamusian arch field Tarakan sub-basin
t em
Se m
Ma y
n e Fault
po rn af au lt
Sy s
Figure 38: Generalized geological map of the Tarakan basin (from Lentini and Darman, 1996, with modifications from Netherwood and Wight, 1993).
Intrusive
South China Sea
ar
Mangkalihat Peninsula
Kalimantan
200m
1000 m
atu
af au
lt
Pre-Tertiary sediments with some igneous rocks Igneous rock Gas field 0 50 100km
by compressional deformation, uplift and erosion in response to basin inversion. Each inversion episode led to deltaic progradation. By the beginning of the middle Miocene, there was initial rapid progradation of the delta, sediment being supplied by incision of the Mahakam River. There was also progressive development from west to east of syn-depositional folds, the initial structural expression of the present-day anticlines (Allen and Chambers, 1998). Section balancing by Ferguson and McClay (1997) indicates a change from extension to contraction that started at about 14 mybp, within the middle Miocene. At the start of the late Miocene, major outward building of the delta took place as a result of an inversion pulse causing increased sediment supply. The middlelate Miocene also represents the period when delta-plain to delta-front coals and carbonaceous shale source rocks (with total organic carbon of 20%70%) for the Mahakam hydrocarbons were deposited (Paterson et al., 1997). Paterson et al.
(1997) defined the top of the effective kitchen as the start of significant hydrocarbon expulsion rather than generation, and the base as the top of the main overpressure zone. The source kitchen is up to 1000 m thick and covers a significant portion of the middlelate Miocene paleo-depocenter. It is located immediately below the stacked-channel and shallow-marine reservoirs in the eastern part of the Samarinda anticlinorium. Further to the west in the Samarinda anticlinorium there are no oil or gas discoveries, reflecting a greater distance from the miocene source; more significantly, the northnortheastsouthsouthwest striking anticlines have prevented westerly migration of hydrocarbons. Compressional folding continued throughout the Pliocene and Pleistocene and formed the long, sinuous, subparallel anticlines that have trapped hydrocarbons in the predominantly deltaic Miocene to Pleistocene Balikpapan, Kampung Baru and Mahakam formations.
The SamarindaMahakam area of the Kutei basin is considered to be mature, and all large anticlinal structures have been drilled. There is still the possibility of smaller stratigraphic and fault traps, but these are notoriously difficult to find in the Mahakam area where individual reservoir sands may be of limited extent, and are multiple-stacked and commonly not interconnected. The latest successes have been in the pro-delta Makassar Strait area where Miocene, lowstand, turbidite fans host significant oil discoveries (e.g., West Seno, Merah Besar fields). These fan systems are easily identified on seismic (Baillie et al., 1999) and are even more prospective with the recognition of associated deep-marine source facies and adjacent mature kitchen areas (Peters et al., 1999). Large, pro-delta carbonate buildups are known to exist and smaller, shelfal, delta-front carbonates have been considered as potential reservoirs in the past (e.g., Siemers et al., 1993a). There are also further possibilities in the syn-rift clastics (as illustrated by Guritno and Chambers, 1999) and in Oligocene carbonates (e.g., Kerenden gas field) particularly toward the basin margins.
Figure 39: Vuggy porosity (left and middle) developed near the top of a carbonate buildup. Shaly platy coral facies (right) of the reef front. Pliocene, Vanda 1 well, Tarakan basin (Netherwood and Wight, 1993).
Tarakan basin
The Tarakan basin (see Figure 38) is located in the far northeast of the island of Borneo and represents a passive deltaic margin where the Sesayap and other rivers transport fine-grained sediments into the northern Makassar Strait. There are 14 oil and gas fields in the basin and most of the largest were discovered prior to World War II. The basin is dominated by a series of northwestsoutheast trending, sinistral transform faults and similarly trending anticlines that help divide the onshore and shallow-water parts of the basin into four sub-basins. To the northeast, magnetic lineations indicate the opening of the Sulu Sea (Lee and McCabe, 1986) and to the southeast, subduction of the Celebes Sea occurs beneath the north arm of Sulawesi. To the northwest folding becomes more intense, with right-lateral, strike-slip faulting. Further to the northwest near Sabah, there is complex overthrusting from the north associated with obduction of basic igneous rocks at the western end of the Sulu island arc (Netherwood and Wight, 1993).
The four sub-basins, from north to south, are: The Tidung sub-basin, bounded to the north by the major sinistral transcurrent Semporna fault zone and to the south by a carbonate platform. It contains a number of northwestsoutheast-trending anticlines that become more severely folded to the northwest. There are no drilled hydrocarbon occurrences in the sub-basin. The Tarakan sub-basin, occupying the central area of the Tarakan basin, and representing a series of stacked and amalgamated PliocenePleistocene depocenters with a thick clastic fill. The Pliocene wedges-out against Miocene sediments to the south and west. This sub-basin contains the producing fields of the Tarakan basin, which are all located on the crests of northwestsoutheasttrending anticlines. The Berau sub-basin is dominated by a series of compressional anticlines, trending northnorthwestsouthsoutheast, and related to the sinistral wrench faults that have accommodated spreading in the Makassar Strait. The most southerly Muara sub-basin trends northwestsoutheast and is bounded by the Maratua (wrench) fault system at its northern margin, and the Mangkalihat fault to the south. The northern Maratua fault has produced a basement high on which the Maratua reef islands are developed. Seismic studies and drilling indicate more than 5000 m of Oligocene to Recent carbonates, syn-rift and passive margin sediments resting on older volcanic rocks.
In the offshore region major northsouth growth faults, including the main Mayne fault system, are the dominant structural control on sedimentation (Netherwood and Wight, 1993). The distal, offshore stratigraphy is dominated by abundant deltaic clastics, and laterally equivalent, shallow- to deep-marine basinal shales and local carbonates that have been targets for a number of unsuccessful wells (e.g., Vanda 1, Figure 39). In the eastern deep there are over 2100 m of Pleistocene sediments and 1200 m of Pliocene. The Pliocene is over 2500 m thick in the inverted arches of Tarakan, Bunyu and Ahus. Landward paralic intervals contain coals and carbonaceous shales with abundant type I and type II kerogens. These may represent a similar hydrocarbon source to those of the Miocene Mahakam Delta. The Miocene has rarely been penetrated. However, outcrops and the few wells drilled in the Tidung and Berau sub-basins indicate thousands of meters of Miocene, as well as Oligocene and Eocene sediments. The older sediments are encountered far to the south in the Muara sub-basin.
Khorat platform
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Areas where depth to basement > 4000m Areas where sediment is < 3000m thick Terumbu carbonates Miocene Oil field/discovery Gas field/discovery
Figure 40: Morphological division, tectonic lineaments and hydrocarbon occurrences in the Natuna Sea area (after Fainstein and Meyer, 1998 and Phillips et al., 1997).
NW
0 West Natuna basin Line GPNS-125
SE
0
Figure 41: Play concepts for West Natuna basin (after Fainstein and Meyer, 1998).
Arang formation Barat formation 2000 Gabus formation Pre-Gabus Depth, m 3000 4000 Inverted half-grabens containing lacustrine and marginal marine source rocks
proximal deltaic sands to date, however, is poor reservoir quality, with thin, finegrained sands and a poor net-to-gross ratio. Some of the best opportunities are considered to be basinward of large growth faults, on rollover anticlines where multiple-stacked carbonate buildups occur with hydrocarbon shows (Netherwood and Wight, 1993). Opportunities may also be possible in the lowstand fans that spill off the fronts of growth faults, such as those proven to contain oil in the Makassar Straits. Other opportunities include possible sourcing from deeper syn-rift sediments and possible large carbonate reservoirs in the south of the basin.
also, however, been made in the syn-rift pre-Gabus sequence (Figure 41). The KRA field, brought on stream in 1995, represents the first production in the area from Paleogene syn-rift sediments. To date approximately 500 MMBO and 2.5 TcfG have been discovered in the basin.
Figure 42: Chlorococcalean type algae, Pediastrum, typical of lacustrine source rocks in Western Indonesia, Oligocene, West Natuna basin (photo courtesy of S. Noon).
The last main pulse of inversion occurred in the middle to late Miocene. Orthogonal compression together with northwestsoutheast-oriented, strike-slip tectonics were accommodated by deformation along both the major graben bounding faults as well as a series of northwestsoutheast striking wrench faults that transect the area. This resulted in the formation of structural highs where depositional lows had previously existed, and significant erosion of the syn-inversion and post-rift sequences. The erosion of the former grabenal areas created a suite of often large, anticlinal structures across the West Natuna basin. These structures are referred to as Sunda folds and have been an important exploration objective. In the Anambas graben area, the major anticlinorium termed the boundary high is a product of pulsed Miocene inversions. Oil and gas accumulations are proven in the Sunda fold family of inversion structures (e.g., the KF and Anoa fields). Significant hydrocarbon accumulations are also located in structures associated with the right lateral wrenching (e.g., KG and KRA in the KF half-graben, and the Udang, Forel and Belanak fields).
NW
0
SE
0
East Natuna basin Line GPNS-199 Muda formation 1000 Arang formation 2000 Gabus formation Pre-Gabus 3000 Supergiant 'L' structure 45Tcf Arang formation Gabus formation Pre-Gabus Arang formation Gabus formation 2000 Depth, m 1000
Figure 43: Play concepts for East Natuna basin (Fainstein and Meyer, 1998).
Top-oil windo
Top-gas
window
Gabus formation
3000
4000
Source of hydrocarbons probably lower Arang and Gabus shales Kitchen for 'L' structure gas
4000 Pre-Gabus
5000
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present, heat flow remains high and the top of the oil- and gas-windows are on average about 2500 and 4800 m, respectively (Fainstein and Meyer, 1998). The West Natuna basin is still considered to be prospective with many areas relatively underexplored. There is good potential within the deeper syn-rift sediment package where thick reservoirs are adjacent to generating source rocks and may be sealed by lacustrine and peri-lacustrine shales. The potential of this play type is proven in the KRA oil field. The post-rift and syninversion succession contains abundant high quality reservoir sands with associated source rocks throughout and, with a relatively high geothermal gradient of 3.72C/100 m, the potential for expulsion and short-range migration into inversion related structures is high. Shallow gas in the Muda formation is also a new play concept that holds promise.
Sulawesi
Southwest
Quat. Holo. Pleist. Pliocene Late
Seram
Fufa Wahat Sele
Timor region
West Timor (limited information) Viqueque Batu Putih Bonaparte basin (ZOC) Barracouta (Woodbine group) Woodbine group Arafura Sea (limited information)
Late
Early
Celebes molasse Enrekang volcanics Buakayu Upper platform and reefal limestones Clastic coal unit
Salas complex
Neogene
Seka
Oliver
Miocene
Middle
n ogu Klam
15 20 Tonasa 30 40 Malawa Makale (Tonasa) Toradja Upper Nief Lower platform limestone
Kais Sago Sirga Sirga Ofu formation Onin Faumi (Baham) Prion & Hibernia Cartier
Cenozoic
Paleogene
Eocene
Middle
Oligocene
Early
50
Early
Basal clastics
? Lower Nief
Imskin/Waripi Imskin Grebe/Puffin Johnson Waingalu Ashmore Darwin Flamingo Flamingo group
Paleocene
60 65 70 80 100
Latimojong
Late Cretaceous
+ + +
Not present in Tomori wells Kembelangan Kembelangan Kola shale Manusela Saman-Saman Granite?
Monu
Waingalu
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Naktunu
Mesozoic
Late Jurassic
150
Oe Baat
Middle
Plover Wai Luti Tipuma Babulu Tipuma Ainim Ainim Aifat Aimau Kemum meta-sedimentary Goulburn group Wessel group Goulburn group Wessel group Niof Cibas Atehoe Maubisso Aifulu Malita Cape Londonderry
Early
200
Triassic
+
250
Kanikeh
Mount Goodwin Hyland Bay Fossilhead group Kulshill group Weaber group Arafura group Kulshill group Weaber group Arafura group
Permian
+ + +
Age uncertain Unnamed basement Kobipoto Tehoru
Aifat Aimau
300 400
+ +
+ +
Salawati granite
+ meta-sedimentary
Kemum
500
Cambrian Precambrian
Davies, 1989.
After Sawyer et al., 1993, Fainstein, 1998a, 1998b, Young et al., 1995, Sani et al., 1995.
shelf in the north has developed between 2500 and 4000 m of Neogene cover that includes up to 1500 m of Miocene to Pliocene Terumbu formation carbonates. The outer basin (Bunguran trough) dips east towards Sarawak and contains over 10,000 m of sediments. The East Natuna basin is well known as being the host for the largest gas field in Southeast Asia, the Natuna Alpha gas field, with 210 TcfG in an isolated buildup in the upper part of the thick, middle Miocene to late Pliocene Terumbu carbonates. Progressive, relative sea-level rise over a period of nearly 2,000,000 years allowed the build up of over 1500 m of carbonates. Episodic exposure has created and preserved an average porosity of 15% for the five wells drilled to date. Unfortunately 71% of the gas is carbon dioxide (Dunn et al., 1996) and, as such, estimated recoverable reserves are 45 TcfG.
Geological differences to the basins of Western Indonesia include a Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary history older than the Jurassic breakup of the Gondwana supercontinent. Mesozoic sedimentation resumed after continental breakup, and there was a noticeable change in sedimentary style starting in the Neogene (Figure 44). These pre-Tertiary and early Tertiary stratigraphies are near-copies of the Northwest shelf of Australia. They prove that the multitude of highly rotated and deformed fragments making up many of the islands of Eastern Indonesia, from eastern Sulawesi to Irian Jaya, were part of the Australian craton. Recently, pre-Tertiary sequences have started to reveal their true value with the discovery of commercial hydrocarbon accumulations and also prolific, entirely Mesozoic petroleum systems. The only explored area of Eastern Indonesia that does not demonstrate this affinity is the western side of Sulawesi, representing a fragment of the Sunda shield (Asian plate) that has rifted away from the edge of Sundaland. Western Sulawesi is separated from Borneo by attenuated continental crust in the Makassar Strait to
the south and by oceanic crust in the Celebes Sea to the north (figures 45, 46 and 47). In addition to an Australian plate origin, the eastern part of Indonesia was close to the action during the complicated collision events that took place throughout the Miocene. These include the collision of the New Guinea passive margin with the PhilippineHalmaheraNew Guinea arc starting at the very end of the Oligocene (approximately 25 mybp) and collision of the Australian plate with the Sunda trough (Timor trough) and Sunda shield starting in the late Miocene (about 8 mybp). In consequence, Eastern Indonesia is tectonically and structurally extremely complex, comprising slivers of continental blocks, arc fragments and trapped ocean basins (figures 45 and 46). Although many potential petroleum basins are recognized, they tend to be small, geologically poorly understood and, usually, in deep water. Some 86% of Eastern Indonesias basinal areas are in water depths greater than 200 m (Pattinama and Samuel, 1992) and the onshore areas are in remote jungle. Of the 38 Paleozoic to Tertiary-age sedimentary basins identified in Eastern Indonesia, 20 remain undrilled and many that have been drilled are underexplored. Although the basins of Eastern Indonesia may never prove to be as prolific as the back-arc basins of Western Indonesia, the fact that only 5 MMBOE have been discovered to date compared with Western Indonesias 50 MMBOE is viewed as a reflection of the explorationists reticence, rather than the regions true potential. Interest has only recently been rekindled by more favorable frontier exploration terms and a number of commercial and, in one case giant, hydrocarbon discoveries in the Mesozoic section of Eastern Indonesia. These recent discoveries include the Oseil oil field undergoing development by Kufpec in the Jurassic of Seram; the giant (over 20 TcfG) Tangguh gas project of Arco and British Gas in the Paleogene and Jurassic section of the Bintuni basin, western Irian Jaya; and a string of oil and gas-condensate discoveries including Elang, Kakatua, and Undan-Bayu in
A 0 20 40 60 80 100
Legend Fault Subduction zone Trend of volcanic inner arc Continental crust
EURASIAN PLATE
ucca
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Mol
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arc h
Banda Sea
Flores Sumba
So u t h
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r mo
tr Timor
ough
Ar
ut
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AUSTRALIAN PLATE 7cm/year
Figure 45: Tectonic setting of East Indonesia (modified from Guritno et al., 1996 and Sani et al., 1995).
Celebes Sea (oceanic crust)
Manado
North arm (Magmatic arc)
(at ten uat Ma ed kas As ian ar str con ait tin ent al c rus t)
Samarinda
East arm
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Kendari
100 200km
W
Makassar Strait South Sulawesi
x
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Bone Bay Southeast Sulawesi
x x
Banda Sea
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Figure 46: Tectonic setting of Sulawesi with origins of Sulawesi fragments indicated (from Guritno et al., 1996).
Kalimantan
km
Mas upu
Figure 47: Regional crosssection across southern Sulawesi continent continent collision (Guritno et al., 1996).
the Timor Gap zone of cooperation (ZOC) and, Corallina and Laminaria just outside the Timor Gap ZOC in the northern part of the Northwest shelf of Australia. Four of the main areas in Eastern Indonesia that have already been targets of hydrocarbon exploration are Sulawesi, Seram, Western Irian Jaya and the Timor Gap ZOC. These areas are discussed below and although they do not provide a complete view of the petroleum geology of Eastern Indonesia, they go a long way towards defining the stratigraphic and structural complexities and habitats of hydrocarbons discovered to date and what may be expected in the future.
South Sulawesi
In parts of South Sulawesi (Kalosi, Lariang and Karama basins) low-grade, Cretaceous, metamorphic basement is exposed. This underwent the same widespread middle Eocene extension experienced by the rest of Sundaland. Rift-fill includes marine marls in the Lariang and Karama basins (Bone Hau formation of Calvert, 1999), volcanics and a series of basal continental siliciclastics including lacustrine sediments, transgressed by deltaics including coal, and marine siliciclastics, known as the Malawa formation and the Kalumpan formation (Calvert, 1999) respectively in Southwest and west Central Sulawesi. The syn-rift fill provides potential Eocene reservoirs, and type II and type III kerogen-rich, oil- and gas-prone source rocks. The Paleocene volcanics are associated with subduction, and with mafic to ultramafic ophiolites obducted in the east. The syn-rift thickness varies greatly, from less than 100 m to over 1000 m (Guritno et al., 1996) as a result of basement fault block control (Garrard et al., 1989). The rift-fill was transgressed by shallow marine carbonate potential reservoirs in the latest Eocene, known as the Rantepau formation (Calvert, 1999) in west Central Sulawesi and the Tonasa formation in Southwest Sulawesi. These algal and larger benthic-foraminiferal limestones continue up into the middle Miocene when they were drowned by deepmarine marls (Berlian formation of Calvert, 1999) in some areas. The middle Miocene through to the Pleistocene saw uplift with granite intrusion and deposition of mainly volcaniclastics associated with the late Miocene, continent-to-continent collision between western (Sundaland) and eastern (Australia craton) Sulawesi. This has resulted in extensive overthrusting to the west, and sinistral transform faulting in the South Sulawesi area. The Bone basin, located between the two southern arms of Sulawesi, is geologically quite different to the basins of west Central and west South Sulawesi with their Sundaland affinities (termed Sundawesi by Fraser and Ichram, 1999). The Bone basin originated as a fore-arc basin from the Paleogene to the early Miocene during convergence of Sundaland with Australia. At this time coarse clastics spilled into the basin and rotational forces led to rifting in the southern part of the basin. The colliding plates finally locked in the Pliocene and the
Sulawesi
Sulawesi is a tectonically complex island with a varied history, and comprises fragments of four separate tectonic provinces (see Figure 46). The northern arm of Sulawesi is a Recent, active magmatic arc with poor petroleum potential. The east and southeast arms are microcontinental fragments derived from the northern margin of the Australian craton, which collided with western and South Sulawesi the alienated southeast edge of Sundaland starting in the early Miocene (e.g., Calvert, 1999; Sudarmono, 1999). The petroleum potential of Sulawesi has been suspected for a long time, with oil and gas seeps recognized onshore in West Sulawesi. The first successful gas well was drilled in the Sengkang basin in southwest Sulawesi by BPM in 1939. Further biogenic gas was discovered in the Sengkang basin by Gulf and BP in the 1970s with relatively small (total 750 BcfG; Wilson et al., 1997) accumulations trapped in Miocene carbonate buildups and now being developed for local power generation. In addition, significant asphalt deposits are known from Buton Island, a microcontinental fragment of Australoid affinity. This area was also drilled by Gulf and Conoco from the 1970s to 1990s. Miocene deltaics and turbidites of the Tondo formation were targeted, hydrocarbon shows being sourced from Triassic, oil-prone sediments containing type II kerogen (Sumantri and Syahbuddin, 1994). On the eastern arm of Sulawesi in the Banggai-Sula basin, Union Texas discovered oil and gas in subeconomic quantities in fractured Miocene carbonates (Davies, 1990) during the 1980s and 1990s.
Bone basin took on its submerged intramontane configuration (Sudarmono, 1999). All gas discoveries to date in South Sulawesi have been small (<1 Tcf in the Sengkang basin) and of biogenic origin, but the potential for larger thermogenic discoveries cannot be ignored. Eocene coals and carbonaceous shales provide a good potential source for both gas and oil. Eocene clastics and later Tertiary carbonates show good reservoir possibilities, with known gas in Tacipi formation reef knolls. Migration may have taken place through Eocene channel sands and vertically along fault planes, with anticlinal trap development throughout Neogene times. It is generally thought that burial was not deep enough to mature the Eocene source, but Miocene magmatism and orogenesis may have raised heat flow resulting in the expulsion of hydrocarbons, and there are known oil seeps in the South Sulawesi area.
East Sulawesi
Davies (1990) published findings of Union Texas Oil from almost a decade of exploration in the Tomori PSC of East Sulawesi, an area referred to geologically as the Banggai-Sula basin (Sumantri and Sjahbuddin, 1994). The eastern arm of Sulawesi comprises two tectonostratigraphic units the BanggaiSula microcontinental block, a rotated and extruded part of the Australian plate, and the east Sulawesi ophiolite belt, thrust over the former in the early Pliocene. The pre-collision, Sulawesi, Eocene to Miocene succession in the area comprises a thin, basal clastic unit, only 12 m thick where penetrated, and two thick carbonate units. The post-collision succession comprises clastics including claystones, conglomerates, sandstones and also some limestones. All hydrocarbon accumulations discovered to date are in tightly cemented and stylolitized but fractured carbonates. They include the small Tiaka oil field in the EoceneOligocene Lower Carbonate unit, and the small Minahaki and Matindok gas fields in the Miocene, Upper Carbonate unit. Although burial is relatively shallow, oils are light, gas is of thermogenic origin and the presence of an oleanane fraction from gas chromatogram mass spectrometry analysis indicates a Tertiary age source, considered to be Miocene coals that generated hydrocarbons in the PliocenePleistocene during collision with the Sulawesi ophiolite belt and associated thrusting. Davies (1990)
also considers that, to the north beneath the thrust belt, Miocene sediments could be buried as deep as 5000 m. Oil and gas are known to exist in this compressional tectonic regime. Although information is scarce, there are proven fractured carbonate reservoirs. It is possible that in the thrust belt to the north, more extensive fractured reservoirs in a similar setting to those found on Seram (see below) may exist.
Seram
Seram is located on the northern rim of the Banda arc and is a microcontinental fragment of the Australian plate. It is situated in a strongly compressional and overthrusted tectonic setting, with the Banda Sea oceanic crust and a volcanic island arc to the south, and the Seram subduction trough to the north where the western Irian Jaya segment of the Australian plate is being consumed beneath Seram Island (Figures 48 and 49). Oil has been produced in Seram since 1896, when the Dutch developed the Bula oil field on the basis of oil and gas seeps in the northeastern part of the island. Production
is from Pleistocene clastics and carbonates of the Fufa formation. More recently commercial quantities of oil have been discovered by Kufpec in the Jurassic carbonate reservoirs of the Oseil oil field (Kemp and Mogg, 1992; Kemp, 1993; Kemp, 1995). Seram is composed of two stratigraphic series. The Mesozoic to late Miocene succession is closely related to that of the Australian plate. The younger succession, for which deposition was of much shorter duration, is late Miocene to Recent and records the sedimentary history of plate collision and thrust belt generation that took place over this period.
Oceanic crust
Seram trough
V V V + + + + + + +
Triass ic
to u p p
e r M io c e n e
Pre-Triassic
Australian plate
Figure 48: Schematic geological cross-section through the Seram thrust and Seram trough (Kemp, 1993).
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Kais Jurassic
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Figure 49: Detail of seismic line across the Seram trough (Fainstein, 1998a).
2286
Basement is the Kobipoto or Tehoru metamorphic complex of Permian to lower Triassic age. Middle to late Triassic intracratonic rifting of Gondwana was marked by deposition of the pre-rift clastic Kanikeh formation, which contains potential reservoir sands and coals that could be a source of hydrocarbons. From the end of the Triassic through the early and middle Jurassic, reduced sediment supply and transgression was marked by deposition of the Saman-Saman formation, deep-marine limestones that grade into the Manusela, shallow-water, oolitic, limestone shoals. The Saman-Saman calcareous shales and argillaceous limestones are considered to be the main source for oil and gas in the fractured, Manusela limestone reservoirs (Figure 50) of the Oseil oil field, and are rich in sulfurous-type II marine algal kerogens. Continental breakup of Gondwana eventually occurred in the late Jurassic, followed by deposition of the upper Jurassic marine Kola shale. The newly formed, passive margin sagged with deposition of the marine limestones and claystones of the Nief beds in a passive margin setting. This continued from the early Cretaceous through to the late Miocene when collision between the PacificPhilippine plate and the Australian plate placed Seram in a highly compressional, plate-boundary position. Large-scale thrusting of the preTertiary over the Nief formation formed large anticlinal traps in mobile sheets (see figures 48 and 49). Erosion produced coarse clastics of the Salas olistostrome and the PliocenePleistocene Wahat and Fufa formations. The latter is a reservoir in the Bula oil field, situated in the thrust front foreland basin. In western Irian Jaya at this time, buckling resulted in subsidence and deposition of marine shales. Multiphase expulsion is considered to be quite recent because Pliocene-Pleistocene reservoir rocks are filled, unless earlier traps have been breached. The production of hydrocarbons since the late nineteenth century, and the recent success of innovative plays in the overthrust, fractured Jurassic Manusela formation limestones (Figure 51) attest to the fact that Seram remains prospective. Proven reservoirs also include the Pleistocene Fufa formation of the Bula oil field. Other formations, including the Nief and even basement, may provide potential reservoir where fractured.
new speculative seismic surveys (e.g., Fainstein, 1998a) demonstrate the existence of further, commonly large Miocene carbonate buildups offshore in the Salawati basin.
Figure 50: Manusela formation carbonates in the East Nief 1 well, Seram. Ooid grainstone (left) with intergranular porosity. Dolostone (right) with modified vugular pores and black residual oil (Kemp, 1993).
Waigeo
Weda basin Tosem block Sorong fault zone
Klalin Kasim
100km
Salawati basin
Walio
Ayamaru plateau
Mogoi Wasian Wiriagar Wiriagar deep
Yapen fault
iki ns Ra
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Mis Berau basin oo Kepal l a Bur ung Onin fore dee anticline Wahai basin pb Onin asi Bula basin n
ak Sek
lt fau
Vorwata
ne lt zo n fau Wandame
Roabiba 1 Ubadari 1
Arg un i thrust
ridge
Seram Island
Bula Oseil-1
Bintuni basin
Se ram
tre
ch
Kumawa
Aiduna fault
Figure 51: Main structural elements and petroleum basins of Irian Jaya and Seram (after Livingstone et al., 1993, Sutriyono et al., 1997, and Fainstein, 1998a).
Cendrawash field
Textularia II
Figure 52: Stages in the development of the early Miocene Kais formation carbonate buildups, Salawati basin, Irian Jaya (Livingstone et al., 1993).
Textularia II Shelf/shoal
Reef stages
the basin. Since the initial oil discoveries a large number of similar fields in the Salawati basin (e.g., Walio oil field Livingstone et al., 1993) and the Bintuni basin (e.g., Wiriagar oil field Hendardjo and Netherwood, 1986) have been discovered. In 1991 Occidental drilled the Roabiba 1 well in the Bintuni basin and discovered gas in Jurassic sandstones. This opened up a new play that led to the discovery of the giant Wiriagar deep-Ubadari-Vorwata gas accumulations (collectively known as the Tangguh gas project) in Paleocene turbidites and Jurassic to Cretaceous Kembelangan formation fluvio-deltaic sands. British Gas also drilled through the existing Mogoi oil field and discovered further gas reserves in Permian sandstones in the Mogoi deep 1 well. The Pre-Mesozoic section in both the Salawati and Bintuni basins comprises a series of highly folded and metamorphosed Silurian and Devonian Kemum formation turbidites separated by a major unconformity from the Carboniferous to Permian aged Aifam group. The Aifam group consists of a thick transgressive sequence of conglomerates, sands and shales of the Aimau formation which pass up into calcareous shales with some limestones and sands of the Aifat formation. These were then regressed by shales, sands and coals of the Ainim formation. Chevallier and Bordenave (1986) believe that the Mogoi and Wasian oil fields are sourced
from the Permian Aifat formation shales, although they note that the overlying Ainim formation coals demonstrate better source potential. Davis (pers. comm.) believes that a Paleocenelower Eocene Waripi/Imskin source cannot be ruled out. The Bintuni basin Jurassic gas reserves are also probably sourced from the Permian Ainim formation. There may be, however, input from the Triassic to lower Jurassic Tipuma formation which, in the Bintuni basin comprises red beds but in the Salawati basin is more marine, and/or contribution from the Jurassic to Cretaceous lower Kembelangan group (Davis pers. comm.). The fluviodeltaic Kembelangan group represents the main reservoir for gas in the Bintuni basin but major erosion also occurred in the Jurassic to Cretaceous as a result of rifting
during Gondwanaland breakup, and in the Salawati basin the Kembelangan group is only locally preserved. During the Tertiary the Paleocene Waripi/Imskin formation was deposited. It is a mixture of carbonates and marine shales but includes thick turbidite sands in the Bintuni basin and also a major reservoir facies for the Wiriagar deep gas field. In the Salawati area, these sediments are not present throughout the basin because of a hiatus that extended from the Triassic to the early Tertiary. Carbonates of the New Guinea limestone group dominate the section from the late Paleocene to late Miocene. These predominantly Miocene carbonates are areally extensive, occurring throughout the Birds Head peninsula and making up the
Figure 53: Early Miocene carbonates, Bintuni basin. Dolomitized Kais formation (left) with excellent intercrystalline porosity. Mogoi formation planktonic foraminiferal packstone (right) with fracture porosity.
high peaks of Central Irian Jaya. They include a thick pile of shallow limestones and transgressive shales that pass-up into the main Salawati basin stratigraphic reservoir, the late Miocene Kais formation reefal buildups, that demonstrate a number of stages of buildup growth as a result of fluctuating relative sea level (Figure 52). The Kais reservoir in the Salawati basin and in the Wiriagar oil field in the Bintuni basin shows good secondary vugular and mouldic porosity as a result of leaching during sealevel fall and exposure of the buildup tops. The Kais locally demonstrates excellent intercrystalline porosity associated with dolomitization (Hendardjo and Netherwood, 1986; Figure 53). In the Mogoi and Wasian oil fields in the Bintuni basin, matrix porosity is low due to the shaly nature of the limestones. In these carbonates, a fracture porosity system (Figure 53) developed when the anticlinal traps were formed during the Oligocene. Dolomitization
has also enhanced porosity beneath the oil leg in these fields. In the late Oligocene to early Miocene compression produced northwest southeast-oriented folding, high-angle faulting and reactivation of an earlier Mesozoic fracture system. This compression was caused by the collision of the New Guinea passive margin with the arc system to the north. Uplift in the north at that time (OSullivan et al., 1995) led to an influx of clastics represented by the Sirga formation. Anticlinal traps developed in the Mogoi, Wasian and Wiriagar oil fields, although the Wiriagar field is also a stratigraphic buildup (not to be confused with the underlying Wiriagar deep Paleogene and Jurassic reservoirs that demonstrate four-way dip closure). The Oligocene folds intensify to the east in the Lengguru fold belt where they become thrusts and decollement features. High oleanane biomarkers in the Salawati oils indicate a Tertiary and
probable Klamogun, deepwater Kaisequivalent source for these oils (Davis, pers. comm.), unlike the probable PaleozoicMesozoic or Paleogene Bintuni basin hydrocarbons. Late Miocene Klasafet and late Miocene to Pliocene Klasaman (Salawati basin) and Steenkool (Bintuni basin) shales act as a seal to the Kais reservoirs. They reflect the onset of collision with the Banda arc, which continued into the Pliocene (Henage, 1993), and the deepening in the basins that occurred at this time. During the Pliocene continued compression resulted in uplift in the north along the Sorong fault and the Ayamaru high in Salawati and led to further erosion and deposition of the Sele formation coarse clastics. Compression at this time continued the development of anticlines oriented northwestsoutheast and formed the left-lateral bounding faults defining present-day depocenters.
Tanimbar Island
Dili
ern rth e o N ang r sin Kupang a lb n a ntr ther e C ou S Bena basin
gh r trou Timo
Sunrise 1 Troubadour 1
ul Sah rm o f plat
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Tern gas field IndonesiaAustralia zone of cooperation Oil fields 1. Puffin 2. Skua 3. Oliver 1 4. Jabiru 5. Challis 6. Corallina 7. Laminaria 8. Kakatua 9. Elang 10. Undan/Bayu
Petrel sub-basin
Australia
Late Jurassic early Cretaceous (Flamingo group) Triassic-mid-Jurassic Mount Goodwin and Plover formations
Figure 54: Structural map and hydrocarbon occurrences in the Northwest shelf area, including the Timor Gap zone of cooperation, Timor Island and West Arafura Sea (after Fainstein et al., 1996b and Sawyer et al., 1993).
Irian Jaya shows excellent hydrocarbon potential. Miocene carbonate plays previously thought to be exhausted in the Salawati and Bintuni basins may have a new lease of life, as regional seismic lines indicate the presence of large and undrilled Kais formation buildups in the offshore area south of the Birds Head peninsula. The recent Mesozoic gas discoveries in the Bintuni basin open up a whole new Mesozoic play for this basin and other areas in Irian Jaya. The successes in Seram also hold hope for tectonically complicated areas that have been subjected to intense compression. These include the Irian Jaya fold belt that continues east into the Papuan fold belt of Papua New Guinea where a string of structurally complex oil and gas accumulations was discovered in the 1990s (Buchanan, 1996) and, the Lengguru fold belt where deep burial may have resulted in the maturation of even relatively young Tertiary sources. The Wiapogan-Waropen basin in the north also remains relatively unexplored but shows potential with oil and gas seeps to surface and petroleum shows in the few wells drilled to date (McAdou and Haebig, 1999).
west that trends northwestsoutheast connecting with the Petrel sub-basin to the south and with the Malita graben (see Figure 54) that runs northeastsouthwest. In the 1990s, only a few years after the joint administration was put in place, Petroz discovered the Elang oil field. This was rapidly followed by a string of oil and gas condensate discoveries including Kakatua, Bayu-Undan, and Corallina and Laminaria near the ZOC. The discovery of the Elang oil field and the geology of the ZOC have been described by Young et al. (1995) and Arditto (1996). The pre-Tertiary predominantly clastic succession extends from the Cambrian, and overlies crystalline basement. During the late Devonian to early Carboniferous northwestsoutheast-oriented rifting produced the larger scale features observed today the Sahul Syncline and the Petrel sub-basin. This earlier phase of rifting was followed by a second stage starting in the Triassic and culminating in the late Jurassic, when the breakup of Gondwana and the development of an associated regional unconformity took place. Of particular interest as a reservoir is the non-marine to marine early Jurassic section that encompasses the main reservoir, as well as seal and source rocks. It includes the Plover formation and Elang formation (Arditto, 1996 previously known as the Montara beds). The Plover formation was deposited prior to breakup, through the early to middle Jurassic. It comprises a northerly prograding fluvio-deltaic complex including sandstones, shales and coals. The Elang formation, which overlies the Plover formation, is a retrogradational deltaic, nearshore to proximal shelfal sequence that was deposited just before the breakup unconformity that separates the middle from the upper Jurassic. This formation represents the main reservoir for the majority of the discoveries in the Timor Gap ZOC, although the Plover formation is also a minor reservoir (Arditto, 1996). Intra-formational seals are possible within these formations. The late Jurassic to early Cretaceous Flamingo group marine sands and shales were deposited over the Elang formation (see Figure 57). The lower Flamingo is thick and conformable on the Elang formation depocenters, but absent on highs, and is synchronous with the final phase of rifting and continental breakup. There are a number of sand types including highstand progrades, lowstand fans, incised-valley fills and proximal fans. Along with the Elang
formation, these sands represent the main reservoir formation in the Petrel sub-basin to the south (Killick and Robinson, 1994). The Flamingo group marine shales form a basin-wide seal. During the early to late Cretaceous the mainly marine argillaceous Bathurst group was deposited and, together with shales of the Elang formation and Flamingo group, are thought to represent the algal-marine source recognized from the oils in the area. The Tertiary succession is thick and unconformable and carbonates predominate. The final structuring phase commenced in the late Miocene as a result of the collision of
the Australian plate with the Timor trough, and in PliocenePleistocene times collision of the Australian and Eurasian plates formed the Kelp high and the observed northeast southwest-oriented faults. Compression continues with pervasive fault reactivation The AruArafura Sea area is thought to be similar to the Timor Gap ZOC, with hydrocarbon potential in the Triassic Tipuma formation (see the Bintuni basin stratigraphy, see Figure 44) where good porosity was recognized in the Kambelangan 1 well (Sumantri and Sjahbuddin, 1994). There are also good reservoir sands in the late Jurassic through
Cretaceous Kambelangan (Flamingo) group, and Permian clastics have also been targeted in the past (e.g., ASM 1X). Gasprone source rocks may include PermianCarboniferous shales. On the island of Timor, oil and gas seeps are numerous, and early production resulting from exploration between 1914 and 1928 was from the late Jurassic Babulu formation sands. Potential reservoirs are carbonates of the lower Jurassic Maubisse formation and possibly the Tertiary succession. Potential source rocks include the Jurassic Wailuli shale and lower Cretaceous sediments.
Alor Island
S
Figure 55: Schematic northsouth crosssection across the Timor Volcanic arc and the Timor subduction zone (Sawyer et al., 1993).
Australian crust
Line-tie SP 0.000
-2.67
3817.33
Line-tie SP 0.000
1.000
Plate motion
1.000
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Figure 56: Southwestnorthwest seismic line across the northern part of the Bonaparte basin, shelf and slope, the Timor trough and the Timor accretionary wedge (Fainstein, 1996b).
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Geothermal energy
Indonesia is the only Southeast Asia OPEC member but over the past decade, oil exploration has not been successful in replacing depleting oil reserves. Even though gas discoveries have made up for this shortfall in terms of BBOE the prediction is that without significant additions to oil reserves Indonesia will become a net importer of oil sometime early in the twenty first century. Alternative sustainable sources of energy are, therefore, required to help compensate for declining oil reserves and to satisfy an ever-increasing demand for energy. Although geothermal energy will never be the main energy source in Indonesia, it could contribute significantly to the energy demand and is a sustainable green energy resource. A chain of volcanoes the Ring of Fire encircles the Pacific Ocean as a result of the subduction of oceanic crustal plates at the ocean trench subduction zones (Figure 58). As the oceanic plate is consumed downwards into the mantle it melts and large intrusive bodies of magma rise towards the surface. In some cases, these intrusive bodies are shallow enough for volcanoes to develop where magma breaks through to the surface via zones of weakness and spills out at the surface as lava.
Indonesia is situated in an ideal setting for the development of geothermal energy, at the western limit of the Ring of Fire, and is the most volcanic country in the world with 121 active volcanoes. A major subduction zone where the northwardsmoving Indo-Australian plate is being subducted beneath the Sunda shelf, extends almost the full length of the country from west to east. Volcanoes are developed along almost the entire length of this Sunda trench system, from the northwest tip of Sumatra to the far east of Indonesia just south of Irian Jaya. The major concentrations of volcanoes associated with this subduction trench are on Sumatra (approximately 1.5 volcanoes for every 100 km) and Java (approximately 3.5 volcanoes per 100 km). Volcanic islands also occur to the east of Java, including Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, and others extending northeastwards into the Banda Sea. In addition, with Indonesia being a complex system of interacting microplates, there are other volcanoes associated with minor subduction zones throughout the Moluccas and northern Sulawesi. All these volcanic areas demonstrate the potential for development of hydrothermal systems and over 100 geothermal prospects have been identified (Figure 59) by PERTAMINA.
SW
Londonerry high
Avocet-1A Garganey-1
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Sahul syncline
Iris-1
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Flamingo-1 Elang-1
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un Bre co aku nfo p rm ity
Base Tertiary
o nf dis c tian y p A B ase rmit Bre nfo a k u p u nco
o r m it
y
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fm P l o ve r fm Malita
Depth, km
Plo ve r
4
(un
fm
fm
M
dif
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Ma li
(undif
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ta r
a beds
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rm
ian
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Figure 57: Schematic geologic cross-section of the western zone of cooperation (ZOC) (Young et al., 1995).
OF
RI NG
Pacific Ocean
Figure 58: The Ring of Fire, a volcanic belt that encircles the Pacific Ocean is the result of consumption of the Pacific and Indian ocean plates at the oceanic trench systems (subduction zones).
E FIR
Indonesia
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Equator
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The primary requirement for the formation of a geothermal system is a heat source, usually related to magmatic activity. Economically viable geothermal systems develop where a magmatic heat source is emplaced high enough in the Earths crust to induce convective circulation of groundwater (Figure 60). It must be at a depth shallow enough for this heated water, or steam, to be exploited at the surface for generation of electrical energy using steam turbines. The depth of emplacement of these magmatic bodies is usually between about 2 and 5 km. The host rock depends on the geological province, but for hydrothermal systems in volcanic areas such as Indonesia, the host rock is usually either volcanic (basalts and andesites) or volcaniclastic (tuffs or volcanic sands and conglomerates/breccias that were spilled from the sides of volcanoes). The presence of carbonates in the host rocks changes the composition of the hydrothermal fluids and is detrimental to the commercial
development of the system due to problems with scaling and corrosion etc. The best hydrothermal systems usually have high permeabilities due to fracturing in the host rock. Fracture zones, and also porosity and lithology, can be determined using wireline logs, particularly with the Formation MicroScanner* (Figure 61). These are run in-hole with circulating cold water to cool the borehole environment. The fluid circulating in the hydrothermal system is usually meteoric water and high rainfall in Indonesia further enhances the prospects for the development of geothermal systems. The composition of the geothermal waters is usually a mild brine with a near neutral pH, although the chemistry of the fluids may vary depending on the proximity to the sea or depth within the system where hydrochloric acid and sulfur dioxide levels may be high due to magmatic influence. Temperatures may be as high as 1000C approaching the melting temperature of the rock, but in Indonesia this is never the case and reservoir temperatures tend to vary
from 60C to 400C at usual reservoir depths of between 200 and 1000 m. A convective cell is normally developed, with hot-water up-flow in the center and cold-water recharge from the edges of the system, although laterally extensive out-flow zones with hot springs may develop a number of kilometers away from the active hydrothermal system. Of the hydrothermal prospects identified by Pertamina (more than 100 as shown in Figure 59) only 12 have been drilled to date. There are only three geothermal plants on-stream Gunung Salak, Kamojang and Darajat all situated in West Java, with a total combined rating of 305 MW. Obviously, there is significant scope for the future development of hydrothermal power in Indonesia.
Eroded stratovolcano Vadose zone Limited boiling Acid sulfate aquifer Zone of fluid mixing and mineral deposition
Lateral outflow and water rock interaction Rainfall Weak fumeroles and gas heated features Acid sulfate springs Sulfatebicarbonate springs Piezometric surface of deep, single-phase reservoir
Local boiling
Cooling intrusion
Figure 60: Schematic hydrothermal system associated with an andesitic stratovolcano (Giggenback, 1992).
The future
Indonesia will have to diversify its energy resources over the next few years to keep pace with a growing population and an escalating demand for energy. Hydrocarbons remain an attractive energy source and exploration will continue, but a shift in focus regarding play types and the arenas of exploration, and also a change from oil consumption to gas consumption are both expected and required. This shift is necessary for environmental reasons, to slow the depletion of oil resources and the time when Indonesia becomes a net importer of oil.
Western Indonesia
Western Indonesian basins are considered for the most part to be relatively mature with regard to hydrocarbon exploration. There are, however, a few back-arc basins that can be considered to be underexplored including the Pembuang basin in South Kalimantan that has not yet been drilled. The back-arc basins of Sumatra and Java, and the deltaic basins of East Kalimantan, which have been the object of such intensive exploration over the last century, may also reveal missed opportunities.
Post-rift sequences
The conventional or traditional Western Indonesian play types early Miocene carbonate buildups and post-rift Miocene (mainly) transgressive sands are largely exhausted. In the East Java basin, however, there are a number of Miocene Kujung and Rancak buildups that have not yet been drilled. Production from the Kujung and Rancak buildups is established (e.g., the Mudi, KE, and Camar oil fields). There have been some very recent discoveries in the Kujung buildups (e.g., the Ujung Pangkah oil and gas field offshore from Surabaya). This play demonstrates the remaining potential in East Java. Similar buildups are also recognized in the deltafront areas of the Mahakam and Tarakan deltas of East Kalimantan. Relatively small-scale buildups of equivalent age also remain to be drilled on the Malacca platform of the North Sumatra basin and in the Batu Raja of South Sumatra. Further large Peutu limestone buildups (such as the Arun gas field) also cannot be ruled out in the North Sumatra basin, and there may remain further oil and gas potential in the extensive Terumbu carbonates of the East Natuna basin. Fluviodeltaic and shallow-marine Miocene sands demonstrate very limited remaining potential for structural traps in the onshore area, with smaller and more subtle faultand stratigraphically controlled accumulations remaining to be discovered. In the Natuna Sea, however, both the East and the West Natuna basins demonstrate excellent potential with thick post-rift sands being developed. Manur and Barraclough (1994) also recognized a middle Miocene Ngrayong deltaic biogenic gas play in the Muriah trough extension of the East Java basin. A relatively untested play, which is only just beginning to show its potential, comprises deepwater Miocene lowstand fans. Turbidite plays have been drilled in the past, but they have only recently become a major focus with the discovery of the Merah Besar and West Seno oil fields offshore from the Mahakam Delta. Large turbidite systems have been revealed on seismic in the North Sumatra basin (Tsukada et al., 1996) and similar Ngrayong formation turbidite and contourite sands have been drilled with some success by Santa Fe in the East Java basin (Ardhana, 1993; Ardhana et al., 1993).
Figure 61: Formation MicroScanner image of a fractured hydrothermal reservoir showing fracture orientations.
Syn-rift sequence
The syn-rift sequence has largely been neglected throughout the back-arc basins of Western Indonesia. Thick alluvial fan systems, fan deltas, fluvial sands and lacustrine deltas of Eocene to Oligocene age may be reservoirs for substantial volumes of hydrocarbons throughout the Western Indonesian basins. They are coupled directly with the most prolific source facies including deep-lacustrine and marginal shallowlacustrine earlier syn-rift, and later syn-rift transgressive, coals and shales. This sourcereservoir combination has been recognized for the Northwest Java basin (Butterworth and Atkinson, 1993), and realized elsewhere. Arco produces gas from syn-rift Eocene clastics and carbonates in the Pagerungan and West Kangean gas fields in the offshore East Java basin. Caltex has minor production from Pematang formation syn-rift sands in the Central Sumatra basin but they are starting to explore the Pematang more vigorously, in particular for gas to power the giant Duri oil field steamflood project and others. The Tanjung Raya oil field of the Barito basin in Southeast Kalimantan has produced nearly 125 MMBO since 1938, mainly from Eocene syn-rift alluvial fan deposits. More recently developed, the KRA field in the West Natuna basin produces oil from Oligocene Belut lacustrine-deltaic sands. The potential of the back-arc basin syn-rift sequence has, therefore, been demonstrated but exhaustive exploration has not yet started, as the post-rift prospects remain easier to identify on seismic and are better understood.
Eastern Indonesia
Eastern Indonesia is considered to be underexplored, with half of the basins (20) not yet drilled. This is because of deep water, poor infrastructure, remote onshore location, and a poor understanding of the geology. Eastern Indonesia, with the exception of the Tertiary in Seram, Salawati and Bintuni basins, has been designated a frontier area with improved PSC terms. For this reason, coupled with recent commercial hydrocarbon discoveries, the basins of Eastern Indonesia are much more attractive to the explorationist than in the past. One of the greatest barriers to exploration in Eastern Indonesia, is the complex and widely different structural regimes that may make and destroy plays. Thrust and fold belts abound (e.g., the eastern arm of Sulawesi, Davies 1990; Seram, Kemp 1993, 1995; and the Lengguru and Central Irian Jaya fold belts), as do subduction troughs. In addition, many of the potential hydrocarbon provinces and/or basins are small, and have been rotated or extruded. Until recently, the Pre-Tertiary was poorly understood and, apart from in the Salawati and Bintuni basins and southern Sulawesi, the Tertiary has largely been considered unprospective.
In Seram the Mesozoic potential has been proven with the fractured Jurassic Manusela formation reservoir in the Oseil oil field. Elsewhere in Seram, Triassic potential source and reservoir rocks are recognized (Kemp, 1995). The Triassic and older plays need to be considered. British Gas also tested gas from Permian sands in the Mogoi deep well in the Bintuni basin.
Tertiary plays
Western Sulawesi is unique in that it is a part of the Sunda shield and not, as in most potential Eastern Indonesia hydrocarbon provinces, a fragment of the Australian craton. Western Sulawesi, therefore, demonstrates a syn-rift sequence similar to Western Indonesia basins with known potential lacustrine and deltaic source rocks and reservoirs. It also has proven Miocene carbonate reservoirs with small, but commercial gas reserves to be used for local power generation. Elsewhere in Eastern Indonesia, the Tertiary is largely considered to be either played out (e.g., Kais formation carbonates in the Salawati and Bintuni basins), or nonprospective because of extreme tectonism or poor seals over a predominantly carbonate section with high potential for breaching and poorly understood petroleum systems. Untested Kais formation buildups have, however, been recognized offshore in the Salawati basin (Fainstein 1998a). The Banggai-Sula basin contains a thick Paleocene to late Miocene carbonate succession highly tectonized and thrust over both younger and older rocks. This intense tectonism, however, has been responsible for the maturation of middle Miocene sources that may normally not be buried deeply enough to generate hydrocarbons. It has also been responsible for the formation of fracture porosity for the subcommercial, but geologically significant, Tiaka, Minahaka and Matindok oil and gas discoveries (Davies, 1990). Although of a different age, this is geologically a very similar situation to the commercial Mesozoic Oseil oil field carbonate play in Seram.
Neogene carbonates may also demonstrate potential in the Lengguru and central Irian Jaya fold belts, which are tectonically complex but similar in many respects to the Banggai-Sula basin, the Seram, and the Papua fold belt of Papua New Guinea to the east. Interestingly, these areas may also promote maturation of Neogene source rocks through burial in the cores of deep synclines or under thick thrust piles. There is oil in the PliocenePleistocene clastics and carbonates of the Fufa formation in the small Bula oilfield in northeast Seram. Similar shallow plays may exist in other basins where there has been late Neogene shedding of tectonic molasse.
Pre-Tertiary plays
With the initiation of the recent giant Tangguh gas project in the Bintuni basin, the discovery of commercial oil in fractured Jurassic carbonates in Seram and the discovery of oil and gas in the Timor Gap ZOC, the Mesozoic has come to the foreground as the preferred exploration play in Eastern Indonesia. Prior to the breakup of Gondwana, early Jurassic and older, and also the post-breakup late Jurassic to Cretaceous sedimentary sections, demonstrate excellent oil and gas source potential. Deltaic coaly and shallow-marine source facies are developed at various stratigraphic levels. Thick fluviodeltaic and shallow-marine reservoir sands of the post-breakup succession provide the main reservoirs in the Timor Gap ZOC and the Bintuni basin. The Arafura Sea to the east of the Timor Gap and the Indonesian Northwest shelf margin to the west are stratigraphically and structurally similar to the ZOC. These areas are essentially virgin territory, with very few wells and great promise.
Acknowledgements
Thanks need to go in particular to those people who took it on themselves to critically proof the various sections of the text. These include Bob Davis, consultant geochemist for proofing a large part of the text and commenting on geochemistry, and Chuck Caughey of Gulf for wading through the entire document, Deidre Brooks of Woodside in Perth for covering the Timor gap section, and Tony Dixon for the West Natuna section. I would also like to thank Herman Darman of Shell, Rob Barraclough of Kufpec, Ian Longley of Woodside in Perth, and John Decker of Unocal for their comments and suggestions on various parts of the text.