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TYBMS Prof.

Hemant Kombrabail

RESEARCH DESIGNS

The next step after stating the management problem, research purpose, and research
hypotheses and questions, is to formulate a research design. The starting point for the
research design is, in fact, the research questions and hypotheses that have been so
carefully developed. In essence, the research design answers the question: How are we
going to get answers to these research questions and test these hypotheses? The research
design is a plan of action indicating the specific steps that are necessary to provide
answers to those questions, test the hypotheses, and thereby achieve the research purpose
that helps choose among the decision alternatives to solve the management problem or
capitalize on the market opportunity

DEFINITIONS OF RESEARCH DESIGN:


(1) According to David J. Luck and Ronald S. Rubin, "A research design is the
determination and statement of the general research approach or strategy adopted/or
the particular project. It is the heart of planning. If the design adheres to the research
objective, it will ensure that the client's needs will be served."
(2) According to Kerlinger "Research design in the plan, structure and strategy of
investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control
variance."
(3) According to Green and Tull "A research design is the specification of methods and
procedures for acquiring the information needed. It is the over-all operational pattern
or framework of the project that stipulates what information is to be collected from
which source by what procedures."

The second definition includes three important terms - plan, structure and strategy. The
plan is the outline of the research scheme on which the researcher is to work. The
structure of the research work is a more specific scheme and the strategy suggests how
the research will be carried out i.e. methods to be used for the collection and analysis of
data. In brief, research design is the blueprint of research. It is the specification of
methods and procedures for acquiring the information needed for solving the problem.
Questionnaires, forms and samples for investigation are decided while framing research
design. Finally, the research design enables the researcher to arrive at certain meaningful
conclusions at the end of proposed study.

STEPS IN PLANNING THE RESEARCH DESIGN:


There are four broad steps involved in planning the research design as explained below:
(1) Determining work involved in the project:
The first step in planning research design is determining the work involved in the project-
and designing a workable plan to carry out the research work within specific time limit.
The work involved includes the following:
(a) To formulate the marketing problem
(b) To determine information requirement
(c) To identify information sources
(d) To prepare detailed plan for the execution of research project.

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TYBMS Prof. Hemant Kombrabail

This preliminary step indicates the nature and volume of work involved in the research
work. Various forms require for research work will be decided and finalised. The sample
to be selected for the survey work will also be decided. Staff requirement will also be
estimated. Details will be worked out about their training and supervision on field
investigators, etc.

In addition, the questionnaire will be prepared and tested. This is how the researcher will
prepare a blue-print of the research project. According to this blueprint the whole
research project will be implemented. The researcher gets clear idea of the work involved
in the project through such initial planning of the project. Such planning avoids
confusion, misdirection and wastage of time, money and efforts at later stages of research
work. The whole research project moves smoothly due to initial planning of the research
project.

(2) Estimating costs involved:


The second step in planning research design is estimating the costs involved in the
research project. MR projects are costly as the questionnaire is to be prepared in large
number of copies, interviewers are to be appointed for data collection and staff will be
required for tabulation and analysis of data collected. Finally, experts will be required for
drawing conclusions and for writing the research report. The researcher has to estimate
the expenditure required for the execution of the project. The sponsoring organisation
will approve the research project and make suitable budget provision accordingly.

The cost calculation is a complicated job as expenditure on different heads will have to be
estimated accurately. The cost of the project also needs to be viewed from the viewpoint
of its utility in solving the marketing problem. A comprehensive research study for
solving comparatively minor marketing problem will be uneconomical.

(3) Preparing time schedule:


Time factor is important in the execution of the research project. Planning of time
schedule is essential at the initial stage. Time calculation relates to the preparation of
questionnaire and its pre-testing, training of interviewers, actual survey work, tabulation
and analysis of data and finally reports writing. Time requirement of each stage needs to
be worked out systematically. Such study will indicate the time requirement of the whole
project. Too long period for the completion of research work is undesirable as the
conclusions and recommendations may become outdated when actually available.
Similarly, time-consuming research projects are not useful for solving urgent marketing
problems faced by a company.

Preparing time schedule is not adequate in research design. In addition, all operations
involved in the research work should be carried out strictly as per time schedule already
prepared. If necessary remedial measures should be adopted in order to avoid any
deviation in the time schedule. This brings certainty as regards the completion of the
whole research project in time.

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TYBMS Prof. Hemant Kombrabail

(4) Verifying results:


MR findings need to be dependable to the sponsoring organisation. Researcher may
create new problems before the sponsoring organisation if the research work is conducted
in a faulty manner. Such unreliable study is dangerous as it may create new problems. It
is therefore, necessary to keep effective check on the whole research work during the
implementing stage. For this suitable provisions need to be made in the research design.

After deciding the details of the steps noted above, the background for research design
will be ready. Thereafter, the researcher has to prepare the research design of the whole
project. He has to present the project design to the sponsoring agency or higher
authorities for detailed consideration and approval. The researcher can start the research
project (as per design) after securing the necessary approval to the research design
prepared.

TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS


A research design is like a roadmap—you can see where you currently are, where you
want to be at the completion of your journey, and can determine the best (most efficient
and effective) route to take to get to your destination. We may have to take unforeseen
detours along the way, but by keeping our ultimate objective constantly in mind and
using our map we can arrive at our destination. Our research purpose and objectives
suggest which route (design) might be best to get us where we want to go. but there is
more than one way to "get there from here." Choice of research design is not like solving
a problem in algebra where there is only one correct answer and an infinite number of
wrong ones. Choice of research design is more like selecting a cheesecake recipe—some
are better than others but there is no one which is universally accepted as "best."
Successfully completing a research project consists of making those choices that will
fulfill the research purpose and obtain answers to the research questions in an efficient
and effective manner.

Choice of design type is not determined by the nature of the strategic decision faced by
the manager such that we would use research design A whenever we need to evaluate the
extent of a new product opportunity, or design B when deciding on which of two
advertising programs to run. Rather, choice of research design is influenced by a number
of variables such as the decision maker's attitude toward risk, the types of decisions being
faced, the size of the research budget, the decision-making time frame, the nature of the
research objectives, and other subtle and not-so-subtle factors. Much of the choice,
however, will depend upon the fundamental objective implied by the research question:
• To conduct a general exploration of the issue, gain some broad insights into the
phenomenon, and achieve a better "feel" for the subject under investigation (e.g.. What
do customers mean by "good value"?).
• To describe a population, event, or phenomenon in a precise manner where we can
attach numbers to represent the extent to which something occurs or determine the degree
two or more variables covary (e.g., determine the relationship between age and
consumption rate).

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TYBMS Prof. Hemant Kombrabail

• To attribute cause and effect relationships among two or more variables so that we can
better understand and predict the outcome of one variable (e.g., sales) when varying
another (e.g., advertising).

RESEARCH DESIGN

CONCLUSIVE EXPLORATORY
RESEARCH DESIGN RESEARCH DESIGN

CAUSAL RESEARCH DESCRIPTIVE


RESEARCH

CROSS-SECTIONAL LONGITUDINAL
DESIGN DESIGN

SINGLE CROSS-SECTIONAL MULTIPLE CROSS-SECTIONAL


DESIGN DESIGN

This classification is frequently used and is quite popular. Before we discuss each of
these design types, a cautionary note is in order. Some might think that the research
design decision suggests a choice among the design types. Although there are research
situations in which all the research questions might be answered by doing only one of
these types (e.g., a causal research experiment to determine which of three prices results
in the greatest profits), it is more often the case that the research design might involve
more than one of these types performed in some sequence. The overall research design is
intended to indicate exactly how the different design types will be utilized to get answers
to the research questions or test the hypothesis.

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TYBMS Prof. Hemant Kombrabail

A further cautionary note is needed to warn the reader that while it may appear that if
sequencing is done the sequence would be exploratory, descriptive, then causal, that is
not always the case. For example, some companies may do an annual survey of
consumers to determine the frequency with which certain behaviors are performed (e.g.,
washing dishes by hand) followed by exploratory research that probes to gain an in-depth
understanding of the circumstances surrounding that behavior (i.e., descriptive then
exploratory rather than exploratory then descriptive). It is not hard to imagine a research
design that might sequence as exploratory, then descriptive, then exploratory again; or
causal, then descriptive. It is important to remember that because a research design is a
plan of action to obtain answers to the research questions, it is those questions that
suggest which design types are necessary and the sequence of conducting those design
types, if a sequence is needed. An example later in this chapter will be used to illustrate
this point. With these cautions in mind we will now discuss the design types in greater
detail.

1. Exploratory Research:
A marketing research study may be either exploratory or full scale. Exploratory research
is conducted when the researcher does not know how and why certain phenomenon
occurs. Here, the hypothetical solutions or actions are explored and evaluated by the
decision-maker, e.g. evaluation of quality of service of a bank/hotel/airline. Here, the
quality cannot be assessed directly as tangible features are not available.

The purpose of exploratory research is to know the unknown. Exploratory research


determines fruitful alternatives that the executive would not have perceived. This also
narrows down the scope of the investigation. Exploratory research is undertaken to get
the answer to the following question. "What alternative courses of action might solve the
problem and thereby reach the final objective?" This research is unstructured in character.
Exploratory studies are important. They may provide adequate information on a decision
situation or may greatly facilitate the design of formal research studies.

To explore means to find out or discover. Exploratory research is conducted in order to


find out causes/reasons behind a specific marketing problem. It is the starting point in all
types of research projects. The purpose of exploratory research is to define the marketing
problem precisely, collect required information/data relating to the problem and identify
alternative courses of action in order to deal with the marketing problem. For example,
advertising campaign of a company may not give positive results in terms of sales. The
failure of campaign may be due to many possible causes relating to advertising copy,
media selected, faulty pre-testing, faulty illustration give, wrong timing of ad. campaign
or finally inadequate follow-up measures to the ad. campaign. In the exploratory
research, the possible causes will be identified, the most appropriate causes will be
selected, hypothesis will be developed and research activity will be conducted
accordingly. Survey of consumers, retailers, sales executives and sales-force will be
useful for exploratory research. On some occasions, small scale sales survey may provide
useful data for exploratory research.

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TYBMS Prof. Hemant Kombrabail

In exploratory research, the stress/focus is on the discovery of ideas/causes. For example,


sales may be declining for the last six months. Quick study may be conducted to find out
the causes/factors responsible. Such causes will be listed. Here, an exploratory
study/research may be conducted in order to find out the most likely cause so as to
introduce suitable remedial measures.

The objective of exploratory research is to generate/discover new ideas. The


secondary/published data can be used for exploratory research as such data are easily
available. If the services of respondents are used (for survey purpose), they should be
given full freedom to express themselves. The same rule should be made applicable to
focus groups. Exploratory research is useful for the study of marketing problems about
which sufficient information/details are not available. Exploratory study needs to be
flexible in its approach.
Exploratory Research is used:
 To define the problem more precisely
 To identify relevant courses of action i.e. find the most likely alternatives, which are
then turned into hypotheses.
 Isolate key variables and relationships for further examinations.
 Gain insights for developing an approach to a problem.
 Establish priorities for further research.

Once a hypothesis is formulated, research is used to determine if the hypothesis was


correct. Hypothesis is tentative answers to questions that serve as guides for most
research projects
Exploratory research may also be involved when the perceived problem is much less
general; it is used to develop the most promising hypotheses. The findings of exploratory
research should be regarded as tentative or as an input to further research. Typically, such
research is followed by further exploratory or conclusive research. The analysis of
primary data is qualitative.
In general, exploratory research is meaningful in any situation in which the researcher
does not have enough understanding to proceed with the research project.

2. Conclusive Research Design


Conclusive Research Design is typically more formal and structured than exploratory
research. It is based on large representative samples, and the data obtained are subjected
to quantitative analysis. Conclusive Research is designed to assist (he decision maker in
determining, evaluating and selecting the best course of action to take in a given
situation. As shown in the figure conclusive research designs may be either descriptive or
causal and descriptive designs may be either cross-sectional or longitudinal.

(A) Descriptive Research:


Descriptive research is undertaken when the researcher desires to know the
characteristics of certain groups such as age, sex, occupation, income or education. The

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TYBMS Prof. Hemant Kombrabail

objective of descriptive research is to answer the "who, what, when, where and how" of
the subject under study/investigation.

Descriptive studies are normally factual and simple. However, such studies can be
complex, demanding scientific skill on the part of researcher.

Descriptive studies are well structured. It tends to be rigid and its approach cannot be
changed often and again. In descriptive studies, the researcher has to give adequate
thought to framing research questions and deciding the data to be collected and the
procedure to be used for this purpose. Data collected may prove to be inadequate if the
researcher is not careful in the initial stages of data collection.

Descriptive research designs are used for some definite purpose. Descriptive research
cannot identify cause and effect relationship.

Descriptive research is designed to describe the present situation or the features of a


group or users of a product. In marketing, such research is undertaken to know the
characteristics of certain groups or users of a product such as age, sex education, income
etc. Such research studies are based on secondary data or survey research.
The major objective of descriptive research is to describe something - usually market
characteristics or functions
A major difference between exploratory and descriptive research is that descriptive
research is characterized by the prior formulation of the hypotheses. Thus, the
information needed is clearly defined. As a result, descriptive research is preplanned and
structured. It is typically based on large representative samples A formal research design
specifies the methods for selecting these sources of information and for collecting data
from those sources.

Uses of Descriptive Research:


Descriptive research is conducted for the following reasons
1. To describe the characteristics of relevant groups, such as consumers, salespeople, or
organizations, or market areas. For e.g. we could develop a profile of the "heavy
users" (frequent shoppers) of prestigious department stores such as Shoppers Stop.
2. To estimate the percentage of units in a specified population exhibiting a certain
behavior e.g. the percentage of heavy users of prestigious department stores who also
patronize discount department stores.
3. To determine the " perceptions of product characteristics. For e.g. how do households
perceive the various department stores in terms of salient factors of the choice criteria?
4. To determine the degree to which marketing variables are associated. For e.g.: to what
extent is shopping at department stores related to eating out?
5. To make specific predictions. For e.g. what will be retail sales of Shoppers stop
(specific store) for fashion clothing (specific product category) in the Mumbai area
(specific region)?

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TYBMS Prof. Hemant Kombrabail

6. To collect demographic information of consumers/users of a product under study.


7. For finding out views and attitudes of customers, e.g. how many customers prefer
branded goods or ISI marked goods.
8. Make predictions about future marketing trends, consumer needs or expectations or
possible sales after ‘n’ years.
9. To discover the relationship between certain variables, e.g. sale of toothpaste among
rural population and urban population or rate of savings among low, middle and higher
income groups.

Descriptive research can be divided into the following two categories:


(a) Cross-sectional studies
Cross-sectional study is a study involving a sample of elements from the population of
interest at a single point of time. It is a study concerned with a sample of elements from a
given population. Such sample may deal with households, dealers, retail stores and other
entities. Information/data on a number of characteristics are collected from the sample
elements. Such data are analyzed for drawing conclusions. Cross sectional studies include
field studies and surveys.

Field studies are conducted is the life situations such as schools, factories, institutions,
etc. Here, the inter-relations among variables are studied under real setting. The cross-
sectional analysis involves counting the simultaneous occurrence of the variables of
interest. Field studies have certain merits and limitations. The important merit is that such
studies are close to real life and cannot be criticised on the ground that they are away
from real settings or are artificial. Field studies are also socially significant. However
such studies are scientifically inferior to laboratory and field experiments. There is also
lack of precision in the measurement of variables.

Cross-sectional study is possible through survey. Survey research is wide in scope.


Detailed information can be collected from a sample of large population. This method is
also economical as more information can be collected per unit of cost. The time required
for sample survey is also less than a census-inquiry. However, in survey research, more
importance is given to information collection and not to in-depth analysis. Secondly,
survey research needs more time and money when conducted on a large scale.

(b) Longitudinal studies


Longitudinal studies are based on panel methods and panel data. A panel is a sample of
respondents who are interviewed not only once but thereafter from time to time. Here
data to be collected relate to same variables but the measurements are taken repeatedly.
For example, purchase of grocery products by families/ households at regular intervals.
Such data will reflect/indicate change in the buying behaviour of families/households.
There are many advantages and limitations of panel data. Panel data are suitable when the
researcher undertake detailed analysis. Similarly, panel data are more comprehensive as
compared to data collected from individual families. Finally, panel data collected is more
accurate as compared to data collected through survey. These advantages of panel data
improve the quality of research findings and conclusions.

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TYBMS Prof. Hemant Kombrabail

There are certain limitations of panel data. For example, panels used for data collection
may not be representative samples. Panel members may not be co-operative or may leave
the panel membership. As a result, the representative character of the original sample
may be adversely affected. Secondly, panel members may report wrong data. Their
interest may reduce gradually and they may supply information in a casual manner. Their
sense of participation/responsibility may reduce. This will affect the quality of data and
also of findings.

(B) Casual Research:


Casual research design is the third type of research design. As the name indicates, casual
design investigates the cause and effect relationship between two or more variables. This
design measures the extent of relationship between the variables. Casual research designs
attempt to specify the nature of functional relationship between two or more variables.

Casual research is useful to show the impact of one variable on the other. For example,
price and market demand relationship or relationship between market competition and
sales performance. Even the positive/negative effect of advertising on sales can be
studied through casual research. The relationship between the casual factors can be
studied through casual research. In addition, the variables which create effect on other
variables can be studied in depth through casual research.

Data for casual research can be collected through field survey with the help of a
questionnaire or by conducting laboratory experiments / controlled experiments.
Laboratory experiments are possible in the case of testing of new products or package
design.

The casual research design is based on reasoning. The designs for casual research can be
divided into three categories:
(a) Historical
(b) Survey
(c) Experimental.

IMPORTANCE / UTILITY OF RESEARCH DESIGN


Research design is important as it prepares proper framework within which the research
work/activity will be actually carried out Research design acts as a blue print for the
conduct of the whole research project. It introduces efficiency in investigation and
generates confidence in the final outcome of the study. Research design gives proper
direction and time-table to research activity. It keeps adequate check on the research work
and ensures its completion within certain time limit. It keeps the whole research project
on the right track.

Research design avoids possible errors as regards research problem, information


requirement and so on. It gives practical orientation to the whole research work and
makes it relevant to the marketing problems faced by the sponsoring organisation.
Finally, it makes the whole research process compact and result-oriented. A researcher

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TYBMS Prof. Hemant Kombrabail

should not go ahead with his research project unless the research design is planned
properly.

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