About Time

A first look at the nature of time

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Contents
Articles
Overview
Time 1 1 22 22 28 48 64 64 68 71 75 75 76 77 77 86 89 89 102 111 122 127 128 128 150 152 157 157

Temporal measurement
Calendar History of timekeeping devices Clock

Definitions and standards

Time standard Orders of magnitude Chronology

Religion
Time Cycles Wheel of time

Philosophy
Philosophy of space and time Temporal finitism

Physical definition
Time in physics Spacetime Time dilation Arrow of time Chronon

Time travel
Time travel Time travel in fiction Grandfather paradox

Perception of time
Mental chronometry

Time perception

164 170 170 176

Use of time
Time management Time discipline

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 182 188

Article Licenses
License 190

Overview
Time
Time is a part of the measuring system used to sequence events, to compare the durations of events and the intervals between them, and to quantify rates of change such as the motions of objects.[1] The temporal position of events with respect to the transitory present is continually changing; events happen, then are located further and further in the past. Time has been a major subject of religion, philosophy, and science, but defining it in a non-controversial manner applicable to all fields of study has consistently eluded the greatest scholars. A simple definition states that "time is what clocks measure". Time is one of the seven fundamental physical quantities in the International System of Units. Time is used to define other quantities such as velocity so defining time in terms of such quantities would result in circularity of definition.[2] An operational definition of time, wherein one says that observing a certain number of repetitions of one or another standard cyclical event (such as the passage of a free-swinging pendulum) constitutes one standard unit such as the second, is highly useful in the conduct of both advanced experiments and everyday affairs of life. The operational definition leaves aside the question whether there is something called time, apart from the counting activity just mentioned, that flows and that can be measured. Investigations of a single continuum called spacetime bring questions about space into questions about time, questions that have their roots in the works of early students of natural philosophy.

The flow of sand in an hourglass can be used to keep track of elapsed time. It also concretely represents the present as being between the past and the future.

Two contrasting viewpoints on time divide many prominent philosophers. One view is that time is part of the fundamental structure of the universe, a dimension in which events occur in sequence. Sir Isaac Newton subscribed to this realist view, and hence it is sometimes referred to as Newtonian time.[3] [4] Time travel, in this view, becomes a possibility as other "times" persist like frames of a film strip, spread out across the time line. The opposing view is that time does not refer to any kind of "container" that events and objects "move through", nor to any entity that "flows", but that it is instead part of a fundamental intellectual structure (together with space and number) within which humans sequence and compare events. This second view, in the tradition of Gottfried Leibniz[5] and Immanuel Kant,[6] [7] holds that time is neither an event nor a thing, and thus is not itself measurable nor can it be travelled. Temporal measurement has occupied scientists and technologists, and was a prime motivation in navigation and astronomy. Periodic events and periodic motion have long served as standards for units of time. Examples include the apparent motion of the sun across the sky, the phases of the moon, the swing of a pendulum, and the beat of a heart. Currently, the international unit of time, the second, is defined in terms of radiation emitted by caesium atoms (see below). Time is also of significant social importance, having economic value ("time is money") as well as personal value, due to an awareness of the limited time in each day and in human life spans. Ray Cummings, an early writer of science fiction, wrote in 1922, "Time... is what keeps everything from happening at once",[8] a sentence repeated by scientists such as C. J. Overbeck,[9] and John Archibald Wheeler.[10] [11]

Time

Temporal measurement
Temporal measurement, or chronometry, takes two distinct period forms: the calendar, a mathematical abstraction for calculating extensive periods of time,[12] and the clock, a physical mechanism that counts the ongoing passage of time. In day-to-day life, the clock is consulted for periods less than a day, the calendar, for periods longer than a day. Increasingly, personal electronic devices display both calendars and clocks simultaneously. The number (as on a clock dial or calendar) that marks the occurrence of a specified event as to hour or date is obtained by counting from a fiducial epoch a central reference point.

History of the calendar

Artifacts from the Palaeolithic suggest that the moon was used to reckon time as early as 6,000 years ago.[13] Lunar calendars were among the first to appear, either 12 or 13 lunar months (either 354 or 384 days). Without intercalation to add days or months to some years, seasons quickly drift in a calendar based solely on twelve lunar months. Lunisolar calendars have a thirteenth month added to some years to make up for the difference between a full year (now known to be about 365.24 days) and a year of just twelve lunar months. The numbers twelve and thirteen came to feature prominently in many cultures, at least partly due to this relationship of months to years. The reforms of Julius Caesar in 45 BC put the Roman world on a solar calendar. This Julian calendar was faulty in that its intercalation still allowed the astronomical solstices and equinoxes to advance against it by about 11 minutes per year. Pope Gregory XIII introduced a correction in 1582; the Gregorian calendar was only slowly adopted by different nations over a period of centuries, but is today by far the one in most common use around the world.

History of time measurement devices

A large variety of devices have been invented to measure time. The study of these devices is called horology. An Egyptian device dating to c.1500 BC, similar in shape to a bent T-square, measured the passage of time from the shadow cast by its crossbar on a nonlinear rule. The T was oriented eastward in the mornings. At noon, the device was turned around so that it could cast its shadow in the evening direction.[14] A sundial uses a gnomon to cast a shadow on a set of markings which were calibrated to the hour. The position of the shadow marked the hour in local time.
Horizontal sundial in Taganrog.

The most precise timekeeping devices of the ancient world were the water clock or clepsydra, one of which was found in the tomb of Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep I (15251504 BC). They could be used to measure the hours even at night, but required manual upkeep to replenish the flow of water. The Greeks and Chaldeans regularly maintained timekeeping records as an essential part of their astronomical observations. Arab inventors and engineers in particular made improvements on the use of water clocks up to the Middle Ages.[15] In the 11th century, Chinese inventors and engineers invented the first mechanical clocks to be driven by an escapement mechanism.

Time

3 The hourglass uses the flow of sand to measure the flow of time. They were used in navigation. Ferdinand Magellan used 18 glasses on each ship for his circumnavigation of the globe (1522).[16] Incense sticks and candles were, and are, commonly used to measure time in temples and churches across the globe. Waterclocks, and later, mechanical clocks, were used to mark the events of the abbeys and monasteries of the Middle Ages. Richard of Wallingford (12921336), abbot of St. Alban's abbey, famously built a mechanical clock as an astronomical orrery about 1330.[17] [18] Great advances in accurate time-keeping were made by Galileo Galilei and especially Christiaan Huygens with the invention of pendulum driven clocks.

A contemporary quartz watch

The English word clock probably comes from the Middle Dutch word "klocke" which is in turn derived from the mediaeval Latin word "clocca", which is ultimately derived from Celtic, and is cognate with French, Latin, and German words that mean bell. The passage of the hours at sea were marked by bells, and denoted the time (see ship's bells). The hours were marked by bells in the abbeys as well as at sea. Clocks can range from watches, to more exotic varieties such as the Clock of the Long Now. They can be driven by a variety of means, including gravity, springs, and various forms of electrical power, and regulated by a variety of means such as a pendulum. A chronometer is a portable timekeeper that meets certain precision standards. Initially, the term was used to refer to the marine chronometer, a timepiece used to determine longitude by means of celestial navigation, a precision firstly achieved by John Harrison. More recently, the term has also been applied to the chronometer watch, a wristwatch that meets precision standards set by the Swiss agency COSC. The most accurate timekeeping devices are atomic clocks, which are unveiled in 2004, are expected to greatly improve [19] accurate to seconds in many millions of years,[20] and are used to GPS location. calibrate other clocks and timekeeping instruments. Atomic clocks use the spin property of atoms as their basis, and since 1967, the International System of Measurements bases its unit of time, the second, on the properties of caesium atoms. SI defines the second as 9,192,631,770 cycles of that radiation which corresponds to the transition between two electron spin energy levels of the ground state of the 133Cs atom. Today, the Global Positioning System in coordination with the Network Time Protocol can be used to synchronize timekeeping systems across the globe. In medieval philosophical writings, the atom was a unit of time referred to as the smallest possible division of time. The earliest known occurrence in English is in Byrhtferth's Enchiridion (a science text) of 10101012,[21] where it was defined as 1/564 of a momentum (1 minutes),[22] and thus equal to 15/94 of a second. It was used in the computus, the process of calculating the date of Easter. As of 2006, the smallest unit of time that has been directly measured is on the attosecond (1018 s) time scale, or around 1026 Planck times.[23] [24] [25]
Chip-scale atomic clocks, such as this one

Time

Definitions and standards

Units of time Unit yoctosecond zeptosecond attosecond femtosecond picosecond nanosecond microsecond millisecond second minute hour day week fortnight lunar month month quarter year common year leap year tropical year Gregorian year Olympiad lustrum decade Indiction generation jubilee (Biblical) century millennium exasecond 1024 s 1021 s 1018 s 1015 s 1012 s 109 s 106 s 0.001 s 1s 60 seconds 60 minutes 24 hours 7 days 14 days 27.229.5 days 2831 days 3 months 12 months 365 days 366 days 365.24219 days 365.2425 days 4 year cycle 5 years 10 years 15 year cycle 1735 years 50 years 100 years 1,000 years 1018 s roughly 32 billion years, more than twice the age of the universe on current estimates approximate Also called pentad 52 weeks + 1 day 52 weeks + 2 days
[26] average

Size

Notes

shortest time now measurable pulse time on fastest lasers

time for molecules to fluoresce

SI base unit

Also called sennight 2 weeks Various definitions of lunar month exist.

[27]

average

Time

5
cosmological decade varies 10 times the length of the previous cosmological decade, with C 1 beginning either 10 seconds or 10 years after the Big Bang, depending on the definition.

The SI base unit for time is the SI second. From the second, larger units such as the minute, hour and day are defined, though they are "non-SI" units because they do not use the decimal system, and also because of the occasional need for a leap second. They are, however, officially accepted for use with the International System. There are no fixed ratios between seconds and months or years as months and years have significant variations in length.[28] The official SI definition of the second is as follows:[28] [29] The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom. At its 1997 meeting, the CIPM affirmed that this definition refers to a caesium atom in its ground state at a temperature of 0 K.[28] Previous to 1967, the second was defined as: the fraction 1/31,556,925.9747 of the tropical year for 1900 January 0 at 12 hours ephemeris time. The current definition of the second, coupled with the current definition of the metre, is based on the special theory of relativity, which affirms our space-time to be a Minkowski space.

World time
Time keeping is so critical to the functioning of modern societies that it is coordinated at an international level. The basis for scientific time is a continuous count of seconds based on atomic clocks around the world, known as the International Atomic Time (TAI). Other scientific time standards include Terrestrial Time and Barycentric Dynamical Time. Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is the basis for modern civil time. Since January 1, 1972, it has been defined to follow TAI with an exact offset of an integer number of seconds, changing only when a leap second is added to keep clock time synchronized with the rotation of the Earth. In TAI and UTC systems, the duration of a second is constant, as it is defined by the unchanging transition period of the caesium atom. Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is an older standard, adopted starting with British railroads in 1847. Using telescopes instead of atomic clocks, GMT was calibrated to the mean solar time at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich in the UK. Universal Time (UT) is the modern term for the international telescope-based system, adopted to replace "Greenwich Mean Time" in 1928 by the International Astronomical Union. Observations at the Greenwich Observatory itself ceased in 1954, though the location is still used as the basis for the coordinate system. Because the rotational period of Earth is not perfectly constant, the duration of a second would vary if calibrated to a telescope-based standard like GMT or UTin which a second was defined as a fraction of a day or year. The terms "GMT" and "Greenwich Mean Time" are sometimes used informally to refer to UT or UTC. The Global Positioning System also broadcasts a very precise time signal worldwide, along with instructions for converting GPS time to UTC. Earth is split up into a number of time zones. Most time zones are exactly one hour apart, and by convention compute their local time as an offset from UTC or GMT. In many locations these offsets vary twice yearly due to daylight saving time transitions.

Time

Time conversions
The following time conversions are accurate at the millisecond level. Some are exact while others have differences at the microsecond level.
System Description UT1 UTC TT TAI GPS

UT1

Mean Solar Time

UT1

UTC = UT1 DUT1 UTC

TT = UT1 + 32.184 s + LS - DUT1 TT = UTC + 32.184 s + LS TT

TAI = UT1 DUT1 + LS TAI = UTC + LS

GPS = UT1 - DUT1 + LS - 19 s GPS = UTC + LS 19 s GPS = TT - 51.184 s

UTC

Civil Time

UT1 = UTC + DUT1

TT

Terrestrial (Ephemeris) Time Atomic Time

UT1 = TT - 32.184 s LS + DUT1 UT1 = TAI + DUT1 LS UT1 = GPS + DUT1 LS + 19 s

UTC = TT 32.184 s - LS UTC = TAI - LS

TAI = TT 32.184 s TAI

TAI

TT = TAI + 32.184 s

GPS = TAI - 19 s

GPS

GPS Time

UTC = GPS - LS + 19 s

TT = GPS + 51.184 s

TAI = GPS + 19 s

GPS

Definitions: 1. LS = TAI - UTC = Leap Seconds from http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/tai-utc.dat 2. DUT1 = UT1 - UTC from http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat or http://maia.usno.navy.mil/search/ search.html

Sidereal time
Sidereal time is the measurement of time relative to a distant star (instead of solar time that is relative to the sun). It is used in astronomy to predict when a star will be overhead. Due to the orbit of the earth around the sun a sidereal day is 4 minutes (1/366th) less than a solar day.

Chronology
Another form of time measurement consists of studying the past. Events in the past can be ordered in a sequence (creating a chronology), and can be put into chronological groups (periodization). One of the most important systems of periodization is geologic time, which is a system of periodizing the events that shaped the Earth and its life. Chronology, periodization, and interpretation of the past are together known as the study of history.

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Religion
Further information: Time and fate deities

Linear and cyclical time

Ancient cultures such as Incan, Mayan, Hopi, and other Native American Tribes, plus the Babylonians, Ancient Greeks, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and others have a concept of a wheel of time, that regards time as cyclical and quantic consisting of repeating ages that happen to every being of the Universe between birth and extinction. In general, the Judaeo-Christian concept, based on the Bible, is that time is linear, beginning with the act of creation by God. The general Christian view is that time will end with the end of the world. Others suggest that time is like a ray, having a beginning but going on forever into the future. In the Old Testament book Ecclesiastes, traditionally ascribed to Solomon (970928 BC), time (as the Hebrew word , `iddan(time) zman(season) is often translated) was traditionally regarded as a medium for the passage of predestined events. (Another word, " " zman, was current as meaning time fit for an event, and is used as the modern Arabic and Hebrew equivalent to the English word "time".) There is an appointed time (zman) for everything. And there is a time (th) for every event under heaven A time (th) to give birth, and a time to die; A time to plant, and a time to uproot what is planted. A time to kill, and a time to heal; A time to tear down, and a time to build up. A time to weep, and a time to laugh; A time to mourn, and a time to dance. Hindu units of time shown logarithmically A time to throw stones, and a time to gather stones; A time to embrace, and a time to shun embracing. A time to search, and a time to give up as lost; A time to keep, and a time to throw away. A time to tear apart, and a time to sew together; A time to be silent, and a time to speak. A time to love, and a time to hate; A time for war, and a time for peace. Ecclesiastes3:18

Numeric and Divine time

The Greek language denotes two distinct principles, Chronos and Kairos. The former refers to numeric, or chronological, time. The latter, literally "the right or opportune moment," relates specifically to metaphysical or Divine time. In theology, Kairos is qualitative, as opposed to quantitative.

Philosophy
Two distinct viewpoints on time divide many prominent philosophers. One view is that time is part of the fundamental structure of the universe, a dimension in which events occur in sequence. Sir Isaac Newton subscribed to this realist view, and hence it is sometimes referred to as Newtonian time.[4] An opposing view is that time does not refer to any kind of actually existing dimension that events and objects "move through", nor to any entity that "flows", but that it is instead an intellectual concept (together with space and number) that enables humans to sequence and compare events.[30] This second view, in the tradition of Gottfried Leibniz[5] and Immanuel Kant,[6] [7] holds that space and time "do not exist in and of themselves, but ... are the product of the way we represent things", because we can know objects only as they appear to us.

Time The Vedas, the earliest texts on Indian philosophy and Hindu philosophy dating back to the late 2nd millennium BC, describe ancient Hindu cosmology, in which the universe goes through repeated cycles of creation, destruction and rebirth, with each cycle lasting 4320 million years.[31] Ancient Greek philosophers, including Parmenides and Heraclitus, wrote essays on the nature of time.[32] Plato, in the Timaeus, identified time with the period of motion of the heavenly bodies. Aristotle, in Book IV of his Physica defined time as the number of change with respect to before and after. In Book 11 of his Confessions, St. Augustine of Hippo ruminates on the nature of time, asking, "What then is time? If no one asks me, I know: if I wish to explain it to one that asketh, I know not." He begins to define time by what it is not rather than what it is,[33] an approach similar to that taken in other negative definitions. However, Augustine ends up calling time a distention of the mind (Confessions 11.26) by which we simultaneously grasp the past in memory, the present by attention, and the future by expectation. In contrast to ancient Greek philosophers who believed that the universe had an infinite past with no beginning, medieval philosophers and theologians developed the concept of the universe having a finite past with a beginning. This view is shared by Abrahamic faiths as they believe time started by creation, therefore the only thing being infinite is God and everything else, including time, is finite. Isaac Newton believed in absolute space and absolute time; Leibniz believed that time and space are relational.[34] The differences between Leibniz's and Newton's interpretations came to a head in the famous Leibniz-Clarke Correspondence.
Time is not an empirical concept. For neither co-existence nor succession would be perceived by us, if the representation of time did not exist as a foundation a priori. Without this presupposition we could not represent to ourselves that things exist together at one and the same time, or at different times, that is, contemporaneously, or in succession. Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason (1781), trans. Vasilis Politis (London: Dent., 1991), p.54.

Immanuel Kant, in the Critique of Pure Reason, described time as an a priori intuition that allows us (together with the other a priori intuition, space) to comprehend sense experience.[35] With Kant, neither space nor time are conceived as substances, but rather both are elements of a systematic mental framework that necessarily structures the experiences of any rational agent, or observing subject. Kant thought of time as a fundamental part of an abstract conceptual framework, together with space and number, within which we sequence events, quantify their duration, and compare the motions of objects. In this view, time does not refer to any kind of entity that "flows," that objects "move through," or that is a "container" for events. Spatial measurements are used to quantify the extent of and distances between objects, and temporal measurements are used to quantify the durations of and between events. (See Ontology). Henri Bergson believed that time was neither a real homogeneous medium nor a mental construct, but possesses what he referred to as Duration. Duration, in Bergson's view, was creativity and memory as an essential component of reality.[36] According to Martin Heidegger we do not exist inside time, "we are time". Hence, the relationship to the past is a present awareness of "having been", which allows the past to exist in the present. The relationship to the future is the state of anticipating a potential possibility, task, or engagement. It is related to the human propensity for caring and being concerned, which causes "being ahead of oneself" when thinking of a pending occurrence. Therefore, this concern for a potential occurrence also allows the future to exist in the present. The present becomes an experience, which is qualitative instead of quantitative. Heidegger seems to think this is the way that a linear relationship with time, or temporal existence, is broken or transcended.[37] We are not stuck in sequential time. We are able to remember the past and project into the future - we have a kind of random access to our representation of temporal existence --- we can, in our thoughts, step out of (ecstasis) sequential time.[38]

Time

Time as "unreal"
In 5th century BC Greece, Antiphon the Sophist, in a fragment preserved from his chief work On Truth held that: "Time is not a reality (hypostasis), but a concept (noma) or a measure (metron)." Parmenides went further, maintaining that time, motion, and change were illusions, leading to the paradoxes of his follower Zeno.[39] Time as an illusion is also a common theme in Buddhist thought.[40] [41] J. M. E. McTaggart's 1908 The Unreality of Time argues that, since every event has the characteristic of being both present and not present (i.e. future or past), that time is a self-contradictory idea (see also The flow of time). These arguments often center around what it means for something to be "unreal". Modern physicists generally consider time to be as "real" as space, though others such as Julian Barbour in his book The End of Time, argue that quantum equations of the universe take their true form when expressed in the timeless configuration spacerealm containing every possible "Now" or momentary configuration of the universe, which he terms 'platonia'.[42] (See also: Eternalism (philosophy of time).)

Physical definition
From the age of Newton to Einstein's profound reinterpretation of the physical concepts associated with time and space, time was considered to be "absolute" and to flow "equably" (to use the words of Newton) for all observers.[43] Non-relativistic classical mechanics is based on this Newtonian idea of time. Einstein, in his special theory of relativity,[44] postulated the constancy and finiteness of the speed of light for all observers. He showed that this postulate, together with a reasonable definition for what it means for two events to be simultaneous, requires that distances appear compressed and time intervals appear lengthened for events associated with objects in motion relative to an inertial observer. Einstein showed that if time and space is measured using electromagnetic phenomena (like light bouncing between mirrors) then due to the constancy of the speed of light, time and space become mathematically entangled together in a certain way (called Minkowski space) which in turn results in Lorentz transformation and in entanglement of all other important derivative physical quantities (like energy, momentum, mass, force, etc.) in a certain 4-vectorial way (see special relativity for more details).

Classical mechanics
In non-relativistic classical mechanics, Newton's concept of "relative, apparent, and common time" can be used in the formulation of a prescription for the synchronization of clocks. Events seen by two different observers in motion relative to each other produce a mathematical concept of time that works sufficiently well for describing the everyday phenomena of most people's experience. In the late nineteenth century, physicists encountered problems with the classical understanding of time, in connection with the behaviour of electricity and magnetism. Einstein resolved these problems by invoking a method of synchronizing clocks using the constant, finite speed of light as the maximum signal velocity. This led directly to the result that observers in motion relative to one another will measure different elapsed times for the same event.

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10

Spacetime
Time has historically been closely related with space, the two together comprising spacetime in Einstein's special relativity and general relativity. According to these theories, the concept of time depends on the spatial reference frame of the observer, and the human perception as well as the measurement by instruments such as clocks are different for observers in relative motion. The past is the set of events that can send light signals to the observer; the future is the set of events to which the observer can send light signals.

Two-dimensional space depicted in three-dimensional spacetime. The past and future light cones are absolute, the "present" is a relative concept different for observers in relative motion.

Time dilation
Einstein showed in his thought experiments that people travelling at different speeds, while agreeing on cause and effect, will measure different time separations between events and can even observe different chronological orderings between non-causally related events. Though these effects are typically minute in the human experience, the effect becomes much more pronounced for objects moving at speeds approaching the speed of light. Many subatomic particles exist for only a fixed fraction of a second in a lab relatively at rest, but some that travel close to the speed of light can be measured to travel further and survive much longer than expected (a muon is one example). According to the special theory of relativity, in the high-speed particle's frame of reference, it exists, on the average, for a standard Relativity of simultaneity: Event B is amount of time known as its mean lifetime, and the distance it travels simultaneous with A in the green reference frame, but it occurred before in the blue frame, and will in that time is zero, because its velocity is zero. Relative to a frame of occur later in the red frame. reference at rest, time seems to "slow down" for the particle. Relative to the high-speed particle, distances seem to shorten. Even in Newtonian terms time may be considered the fourth dimension of motion ; but Einstein showed how both temporal and spatial dimensions can be altered (or "warped") by high-speed motion. Einstein (The Meaning of Relativity): "Two events taking place at the points A and B of a system K are simultaneous if they appear at the same instant when observed from the middle point, M, of the interval AB. Time is then defined as the ensemble of the indications of similar clocks, at rest relatively to K, which register the same simultaneously." Einstein wrote in his book, Relativity, that simultaneity is also relative, i.e., two events that appear simultaneous to an observer in a particular inertial reference frame need not be judged as simultaneous by a second observer in a

Time different inertial frame of reference.

11

Relativistic time versus Newtonian time

The animations visualise the different treatments of time in the Newtonian and the relativistic descriptions. At the heart of these differences are the Galilean and Lorentz transformations applicable in the Newtonian and relativistic theories, respectively. In the figures, the vertical direction indicates time. The horizontal direction indicates distance (only one spatial dimension is taken into account), and the thick dashed curve is the spacetime trajectory ("world line") of the observer. The small dots indicate specific (past and future) events in spacetime. The slope of the world line (deviation from being vertical) gives the relative velocity to the observer. Note how in both pictures the view of spacetime changes when the observer accelerates. In the Newtonian description these changes are such that time is absolute: the movements of the observer do not influence whether an event occurs in the 'now' (i.e. whether an event passes the horizontal line through the observer).

Views of spacetime along the world line of a rapidly accelerating observer in a relativistic universe. The events ("dots") that pass the two diagonal lines in the bottom half of the image (the past light cone of the observer in the origin) are the events visible to the observer.

However, in the relativistic description the observability of events is absolute: the movements of the observer do not influence whether an event passes the "light cone" of the observer. Notice that with the change from a Newtonian to a relativistic description, the concept of absolute time is no longer applicable: events move up-and-down in the figure depending on the acceleration of the observer.

Arrow of time
Time appears to have a direction the past lies behind, fixed and immutable, while the future lies ahead and is not necessarily fixed. Yet for the most part the laws of physics do not specify an arrow of time, and allow any process to proceed both forward and in reverse. This is generally a consequence of time being modeled by a parameter in the system being analyzed, where there is no "proper time": the direction of the arrow of time is arbitrary. The exceptions include the Second law of thermodynamics, which states that entropy must increase over time (see Entropy); the cosmological arrow of time, which points away from the Big Bang, and the radiative arrow of time, caused by light only traveling forwards in time (see light cone). In particle physics, the violation of CP symmetry implies that there should be a small counterbalancing time asymmetry to preserve CPT symmetry. The standard description of measurement in quantum mechanics is also time asymmetric (see Measurement in quantum mechanics).

Quantised time
Time quantization is a hypothetical concept. In the modern established physical theories (the Standard Model of Particles and Interactions and General Relativity) time is not quantized. Planck time (~ 5.4 1044 seconds) is the unit of time in the system of natural units known as Planck units. Current established physical theories are believed to fail at this time scale, and many physicists expect that the Planck time might be the smallest unit of time that could ever be measured, even in principle. Tentative physical theories that describe this time scale exist; see for instance loop quantum gravity.

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12

Time and the Big Bang

Stephen Hawking in particular has addressed a connection between time and the Big Bang. In A Brief History of Time and elsewhere, Hawking says that even if time did not begin with the Big Bang and there were another time frame before the Big Bang, no information from events then would be accessible to us, and nothing that happened then would have any effect upon the present time-frame.[45] Upon occasion, Hawking has stated that time actually began with the Big Bang, and that questions about what happened before the Big Bang are meaningless.[45] [46] [47] This less-nuanced, but commonly repeated formulation has received criticisms from philosophers such as Aristotelian philosopher Mortimer J. Adler.[48] [49] Scientists have come to some agreement on descriptions of events that happened 1035 seconds after the Big Bang, but generally agree that descriptions about what happened before one Planck time (5 1044 seconds) after the Big Bang are likely to remain pure speculation.

Speculative physics beyond the Big Bang

While the Big Bang model is well established in cosmology, it is likely to be refined in the future. Little is known about the earliest moments of the universe's history. The Penrose-Hawking singularity theorems require the existence of a singularity at the beginning of cosmic time. However, these theorems assume that general relativity is correct, but general relativity must break down before the universe reaches the Planck temperature, and a correct treatment of quantum gravity may avoid the singularity.[50]

There may also be parts of the universe well beyond what can be observed in principle. If inflation occurred this is likely, for exponential expansion would push large regions of space beyond our observable horizon. Some proposals, each of which entails untested hypotheses, are: models including the HartleHawking boundary condition in which the whole of space-time is finite; the Big Bang does represent the limit of time, but without the need for a singularity.[51] brane cosmology models[52] in which inflation is due to the movement of branes in string theory; the pre-big bang model; the ekpyrotic model, in which the Big Bang is the result of a collision between branes; and the cyclic model, a variant of the ekpyrotic model in which collisions occur periodically.[53] [54] [55] chaotic inflation, in which inflation events start here and there in a random quantum-gravity foam, each leading to a bubble universe expanding from its own big bang.[56] Proposals in the last two categories see the Big Bang as an event in a much larger and older universe, or multiverse, and not the literal beginning.

A graphical representation of the expansion of the universe with the inflationary epoch represented as the dramatic expansion of the metric seen on the left.

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Time travel
Time travel is the concept of moving backwards and/or forwards to different points in time, in a manner analogous to moving through space, and different from the normal "flow" of time to an earthbound observer. In this view, all points in time (including future times) "persist" in some way. Time travel has been a plot device in fiction since the 19th century. Traveling backwards in time has never been verified, presents many theoretic problems, and may be an impossibility.[57] Any technological device, whether fictional or hypothetical, that is used to achieve time travel is known as a time machine. A central problem with time travel to the past is the violation of causality; should an effect precede its cause, it would give rise to the possibility of a temporal paradox. Some interpretations of time travel resolve this by accepting the possibility of travel between branch points, parallel realities, or universes. Theory would point toward there having to be a physical dimension in which one could travel to, where the present (i.e. the point which one is leaving) would exist at a fixed point relative in either the past or future. Seeing as this theory would be dependent upon the theory of a multiverse, it is uncertain how or if it would be possible to just prove the possibility of time travel. Another solution to the problem of causality-based temporal paradoxes is that such paradoxes cannot arise simply because they have not arisen. As illustrated in numerous works of fiction, free will either ceases to exist in the past or the outcomes of such decisions are predetermined. As such, it would not be possible to enact the grandfather paradox because it is a historical fact that your grandfather was not killed before his child (your parent) was conceived. This view simply holds that history is an unchangeable constant. More elaboration on this view can be found in the Novikov self-consistency principle.

Judgement of time
The specious present refers to the time duration wherein one's perceptions are considered to be in the present. The experienced present is said to be specious in that, unlike the objective present, it is an interval and not a durationless instant. The term specious present was first introduced by the psychologist E.R. Clay, and later developed by William James.[58]

Biopsychology
The brain's judgement of time is known to be a highly distributed system, including at least the cerebral cortex, cerebellum and basal ganglia as its components. One particular component, the suprachiasmatic nuclei, is responsible for the circadian (or daily) rhythm, while other cell clusters appear to be capable of shorter-range (ultradian) timekeeping. Psychoactive drugs can impair the judgement of time. Stimulants can lead both humans and rats to overestimate time intervals,[59] [60] while depressants can have the opposite effect.[61] The level of activity in the brain of neurotransmitters such as dopamine and norepinephrine may be the reason for this.[62] Mental chronometry is the use of response time in perceptual-motor tasks to infer the content, duration, and temporal sequencing of cognitive operations.

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Alterations
In addition to psychoactive drugs, judgements of time can be altered by temporal illusions (like the kappa effect[63] ), age,[64] and hypnosis.[65] The sense of time is impaired in some people with neurological diseases such as Parkinson's disease and attention deficit disorder. Psychologists assert that time seems to go faster with age, but the literature on this age-related perception of time remains controversial.[66] As an example, one day to an eleven-year-old person would be approximately 1/4,000 of their life, while one day to a 55-year-old would be approximately 1/20,000 of their life. According to such an interpretation, a day would appear much longer to a young child than to an adult, even though the measure of time is the same.

Use of time
In sociology and anthropology, time discipline is the general name given to social and economic rules, conventions, customs, and expectations governing the measurement of time, the social currency and awareness of time measurements, and people's expectations concerning the observance of these customs by others. Arlie Russell Hochschild and Norbert Elias have written on the use of time from a sociological perspective. The use of time is an important issue in understanding human behaviour, education, and travel behaviour. Time use research is a developing field of study. The question concerns how time is allocated across a number of activities (such as time spent at home, at work, shopping, etc.). Time use changes with technology, as the television or the Internet created new opportunities to use time in different ways. However, some aspects of time use are relatively stable over long periods of time, such as the amount of time spent traveling to work, which despite major changes in transport, has been observed to be about 2030 minutes one-way for a large number of cities over a long period of time. Time management is the organization of tasks or events by first estimating how much time a task will take to be completed, when it must be completed, and then adjusting events that would interfere with its completion so that completion is reached in the appropriate amount of time. Calendars and day planners are common examples of time management tools. A sequence of events, or series of events, is a sequence of items, facts, events, actions, changes, or procedural steps, arranged in time order (chronological order), often with causality relationships among the items.[67] [68] [69] Because of causality, cause precedes effect, or cause and effect may appear together in a single item, but effect never precedes cause. A sequence of events can be presented in text, tables, charts, or timelines. The description of the items or events may include a timestamp. A sequence of events that includes the time along with place or location information to describe a sequential path may be referred to as a world line. Uses of a sequence of events include stories,[70] historical events (chronology), directions and steps in procedures,[71] and timetables for scheduling activities. A sequence of events may also be used to help describe processes in science, technology, and medicine. A sequence of events may be focused on past events (e.g., stories, history, chronology), on future events that need to be in a predetermined order (e.g., plans, schedules, procedures, timetables), or focused on the observation of past events with the expectation that the events will occur in the future (e.g., processes). The use of a sequence of events occurs in fields as diverse as machines (cam timer), documentaries (Seconds From Disaster), law (choice of law), computer simulation (discrete event simulation), and electric power transmission[72] (sequence of events recorder). A specific example of a sequence of events is the timeline of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.

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References
"Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy" (http:/ / www. iep. utm. edu/ time/ ). 2010. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. "Time is what clocks measure. We use time to place events in sequence one after the other, and we use time to compare how long events last.... Among philosophers of physics, the most popular short answer to the question "What is physical time?" is that it is not a substance or object but rather a special system of relations among instantaneous events. This working definition is offered by Adolf Grnbaum who applies the contemporary mathematical theory of continuity to physical processes, and he says time is a linear continuum of instants and is a distinguished one-dimensional sub-space of four-dimensional spacetime." "Collins English Dictionary" (http:/ / www. thefreedictionary. com/ time). HarperCollins. 2003. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. "2. (Physics) a quantity measuring duration, usually with reference to a periodic process such as the rotation of the earth or the vibration of electromagnetic radiation emitted from certain atoms.... In classical mechanics, time is absolute in the sense that the time of an event is independent of the observer. According to the theory of relativity it depends on the observer's frame of reference. Time is considered as a fourth coordinate required, along with three spatial coordinates, to specify an event. See space-time continuum." "Webster's New World College Dictionary" (http:/ / www. yourdictionary. com/ time). 2010. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. "1.indefinite, unlimited duration in which things are considered as happening in the past, present, or future; every moment there has ever been or ever will be... a system of measuring duration 2.the period between two events or during which something exists, happens, or acts; measured or measurable interval"

"Dictionary.com Unabridged, based on Random House Dictionary" (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ time?r=66). 2010. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. "1. the system of those sequential relations that any event has to any other, as past, present, or future; indefinite and continuous duration regarded as that in which events succeed one another.... 3. (sometimes initial capital letter) a system or method of measuring or reckoning the passage of time: mean time; apparent time; Greenwich Time. 4. a limited period or interval, as between two successive events: a long time.... 14. a particular or definite point in time, as indicated by a clock: What time is it? ... 18. an indefinite, frequently prolonged period or duration in the future: Time will tell if what we have done here today was right." . 2002. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. "A duration or relation of events expressed in terms of past, present, and future, and measured in units such as minutes, hours, days, months, or years." "Collins Language.com" (http:/ / www. collinslanguage. com/ results. aspx?context=3& reversed=False& action=define& homonym=-1& text=time). HarperCollins. 2010. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. "1. the past, present, and future regarded as a continuous whole,... 2. (Physics) a quantity measuring duration, measured with reference to the rotation of the earth or from the vibrations of certain atoms" . 2002. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. "1. A continuous, measurable quantity in which events occur in a sequence proceeding from the past through the present to the future. 2a. An interval separating two points of this quantity; a duration. 2b. A system or reference frame in which such intervals are measured or such quantities are calculated." "Eric Weisstein's World of Science" (http:/ / scienceworld. wolfram. com/ physics/ Time. html). 2007. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. "A quantity used to specify the order in which events occurred and measure the amount by which one event preceded or followed another. In special relativity, ct (where c is the speed of light and t is time), plays the role of a fourth dimension." [2] Duff, Okun, Veneziano, ibid. p. 3. "There is no well established terminology for the fundamental constants of Nature. ... The absence of accurately defined terms or the uses (i.e. actually misuses) of ill-defined terms lead to confusion and proliferation of wrong statements." [3] Rynasiewicz, Robert : Johns Hopkins University (2004-08-12). "Newton's Views on Space, Time, and Motion" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ newton-stm/ ). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. "Newton did not regard space and time as genuine substances (as are, paradigmatically, bodies and minds), but rather as real entities with their own manner of existence as necessitated by God's existence... To paraphrase: Absolute, true, and mathematical time, from its own nature, passes equably without relation the [sic~to] anything external, and thus without reference to any change or way of measuring of time (e.g., the hour, day, month, or year)." [4] Markosian, Ned. "Time" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ time/ #3). In Edward N. Zalta. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2002 Edition). . Retrieved 2011-09-23. "The opposing view, normally referred to either as Platonism with Respect to Time or as Absolutism with Respect to Time, has been defended by Plato, Newton, and others. On this view, time is like an empty container into which events may be placed; but it is a container that exists independently of whether or not anything is placed in it." [5] Burnham, Douglas : Staffordshire University (2006). "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (16461716) Metaphysics 7. Space, Time, and Indiscernibles" (http:/ / www. iep. utm. edu/ leib-met/ #H7). The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. "First of all, Leibniz finds the idea that space and time might be substances or substance-like absurd (see, for example, "Correspondence with Clarke," Leibniz's Fourth Paper, 8ff). In short, an empty space would be a substance with no properties; it will be a substance that even God cannot modify or destroy.... That is, space and time are internal or intrinsic features of the complete concepts of things, not extrinsic.... Leibniz's view has two major implications. First, there is no absolute location in either space or time; location is always the situation of an object or event relative to other objects and events. Second, space and time are not in themselves real (that is, not substances). Space and time are, rather, ideal. Space and time are just metaphysically illegitimate ways of perceiving certain virtual relations between substances. They are phenomena or, strictly speaking, illusions (although they are illusions that are well-founded upon the internal properties of substances).... It is sometimes convenient to think of space and time as something "out there," over and above the entities and their relations to each other, but this convenience must not be confused with reality. Space is nothing but the order of co-existent objects; time nothing but the order of successive events. This is usually called a relational theory of space and time." [6] Mattey, G. J. : UC Davis (1997-01-22). "Critique of Pure Reason, Lecture notes: Philosophy 175 UC Davis" (http:/ / www-philosophy. ucdavis. edu/ mattey/ kant/ TIMELEC. HTM). . Retrieved 2011-04-09. "What is correct in the Leibnizian view was its anti-metaphysical

Time
stance. Space and time do not exist in and of themselves, but in some sense are the product of the way we represent things. The[y] are ideal, though not in the sense in which Leibniz thought they are ideal (figments of the imagination). The ideality of space is its mind-dependence: it is only a condition of sensibility.... Kant concluded "absolute space is not an object of outer sensation; it is rather a fundamental concept which first of all makes possible all such outer sensation."...Much of the argumentation pertaining to space is applicable, mutatis mutandis, to time, so I will not rehearse the arguments. As space is the form of outer intuition, so time is the form of inner intuition.... Kant claimed that time is real, it is "the real form of inner intuition."" [7] McCormick, Matt : California State University, Sacramento (2006). "Immanuel Kant (17241804) Metaphysics: 4. Kant's Transcendental Idealism" (http:/ / www. iep. utm. edu/ kantmeta/ #H4). The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. "Time, Kant argues, is also necessary as a form or condition of our intuitions of objects. The idea of time itself cannot be gathered from experience because succession and simultaneity of objects, the phenomena that would indicate the passage of time, would be impossible to represent if we did not already possess the capacity to represent objects in time.... Another way to put the point is to say that the fact that the mind of the knower makes the a priori contribution does not mean that space and time or the categories are mere figments of the imagination. Kant is an empirical realist about the world we experience; we can know objects as they appear to us. He gives a robust defense of science and the study of the natural world from his argument about the mind's role in making nature. All discursive, rational beings must conceive of the physical world as spatially and temporally unified, he argues." [8] Cummings, Raymond King (1922). The Girl in the Golden Atom (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=tA647bGiWwsC& pg=PA46& lpg=PA46& dq="keeps+ everything"#v=onepage& q="keeps everything"). U of Nebraska Press. p.46. ISBN9780803264571. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. Chapter 5. Cummings repeated this sentence in several of his novellas. Numerous sources, such as this one (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=39KQY1FnSfkC& pg=PA98& lpg=PA98& dq=cummings+ "time+ professor"+ "keeps+ everything"#v=onepage& q=cummings "time professor" "keeps everything"& f=false), attribute it to his even earlier work, The Time Professor, in 1921. Its appearance in that book has not yet been verified. Before taking book form, several of Cummings's stories appeared serialized in magazines. The first eight chapters of his The Girl in the Golden Atom appeared (http:/ / www. isfdb. org/ cgi-bin/ title. cgi?46112) in All-Story Magazine on March 15, 1919. [9] International, Rotary (Aug 1973). The Rotarian (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=vjUEAAAAMBAJ& lpg=PP1). Published by Rotary International. p. 47. ISSN0035-838X. . Retrieved 2011-04-09., What does a man possess? page 47 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vjUEAAAAMBAJ& lpg=PP1& pg=PA47) [10] Daintith, John (2008). Biographical Encyclopedia of Scientists (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=vqTNfnKJVPAC) (third ed.). CRC Press. p.796. ISBN1-420-07271-4. . Retrieved 2011-04-09., Page 796, quoting Wheeler from the American Journal of Physics, 1978 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vqTNfnKJVPAC& pg=PA796) [11] Davies, Davies (1995). About time: Einstein's unfinished revolution (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=SZPuAAAAMAAJ). Simon & Schuster. p.236. ISBN0-671-79964-9. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. [12] Richards, E. G. (1998). Mapping Time: The Calendar and its History. Oxford University Press. pp.35. [13] Rudgley, Richard (1999). The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp.86105. [14] Barnett, Jo Ellen Time's Pendulum: The Quest to Capture Timefrom Sundials to Atomic Clocks Plenum, 1998 ISBN 0-306-45787-3 p.28 [15] Barnett, ibid, p.37 [16] Laurence Bergreen, Over the Edge of the World: Magellan's Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe, HarperCollins Publishers, 2003, hardcover 480 pages, ISBN 0-06-621173-5 [17] North, J. (2004) God's Clockmaker: Richard of Wallingford and the Invention of Time. Oxbow Books. ISBN 1-85285-451-0 [18] Watson, E (1979) "The St Albans Clock of Richard of Wallingford". Antiquarian Horology 372384. [19] "NIST Unveils Chip-Scale Atomic Clock" (http:/ / www. nist. gov/ public_affairs/ releases/ miniclock. cfm). 2004-08-27. . Retrieved 2011-06-09. [20] "New atomic clock can keep time for 200 million years: Super-precise instruments vital to deep space navigation" (http:/ / www. canada. com/ vancouversun/ news/ story. html?id=e24ccfa7-44eb-40b7-8b67-daf8263569ff). Vancouver Sun. 2008-02-16. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. [21] "Byrhtferth of Ramsey". (2008). In Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved 2008-09-15, from Encyclopdia Britannica Online: http:/ / search. eb. com/ eb/ article-9438957 [22] "atom", Oxford English Dictionary, Draft Revision Sept. 2008 (contains relevant citations from Byrhtferth's Enchiridion) [23] "Shortest time interval measured" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 3486160. stm). BBC News. 2004-02-25. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. [24] "Fastest view of molecular motion" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 4766842. stm). BBC News. 2006-03-04. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. [25] "New Scientist article" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn7700). . Retrieved 2011-04-09. [26] McCarthy, Dennis D.; Seidelmann, P. Kenneth (2009). Time: from Earth rotation to atomic physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=7NdrK4e77CIC). Wiley-VCH. p.18. ISBN3-527-40780-4. ., Extract of page 18 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=7NdrK4e77CIC& pg=PA18) [27] Jones, Floyd Nolen (2005). The Chronology Of The Old Testament (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ZkBasQYRy4sC) (15th ed.). New Leaf Publishing Group. p.287. ISBN0-890-51416-X. ., Extract of page 287 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ZkBasQYRy4sC& pg=PA287) [28] Organisation Intergouvernementale de la Convention du Mtre (1998) (PDF). The International System of Units (SI), 7th Edition (http:/ / www1. bipm. org/ utils/ en/ pdf/ si-brochure. pdf). . Retrieved 2011-04-09.

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[29] "Base unit definitions: Second" (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cuu/ Units/ second. html). NIST. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. [30] Navratil, Gerhard (2009). Research Trends in Geographic Information Science (http:/ / books. google. be/ books?id=q8w728aa1CkC). Springer Japan. p.217. ISBN3-540-88243-X. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. [31] Layton, Robert (1994). Who needs the past?: indigenous values and archaeology (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=7TPIDL9RdsoC) (2nd ed.). Routledge. p.7. ISBN0-415-09558-1. . Retrieved 2011-04-09., Introduction, p. 7 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=7TPIDL9RdsoC& pg=PA7) [32] Dagobert Runes, Dictionary of Philosophy, p. 318 [33] Augustine of Hippo. Confessions (http:/ / en. wikisource. org/ wiki/ Nicene_and_Post-Nicene_Fathers:_Series_I/ Volume_I/ Confessions/ Book_XI/ Chapter_14). . Retrieved 2011-04-09. Book 11, Chapter 14. [34] Gottfried Martin, Kant's Metaphysics and Theory of Science [35] Kant, Immanuel (1787). The Critique of Pure Reason, 2nd edition (http:/ / ebooks. adelaide. edu. au/ k/ kant/ immanuel/ k16p/ ). . Retrieved 2011-04-09. translated by J. M. D. Meiklejohn, eBooks@Adelaide, 2004 [36] Bergson, Henri (1907) Creative Evolution. trans. by Arthur Mitchell. Mineola: Dover, 1998. [37] Balslev, Anindita N.; and Jitendranath Mohanty (November 1992). Religion and Time (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=y94cKeEVa3sC& printsec=frontcover& dq=Religion+ and+ time#v=onepage& q=Heidegger& f=false). Studies in the History of Religions, 54.. The Netherlands: Brill Academic Publishers. pp.53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, and 59. ISBN9789004095830. . [38] Martin Heidegger (1962). "V" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=S57m5gW0L-MC& pg=PA425& lpg=PA425& dq=heidegger+ sequence#v=onepage& q=heidegger sequence& f=false). Being and Time. p.425. ISBN9780631197706. . [39] Harry Foundalis. "You are about to disappear" (http:/ / www. foundalis. com/ phi/ WhyTimeFlows. htm). . Retrieved 2011-04-09. [40] Huston, Tom. "Buddhism and the illusion of time" (http:/ / www. buddhasvillage. com/ teachings/ time. htm). . Retrieved 2011-04-09. [41] Garfield, Jay L. (1995). The fundamental wisdom of the middle way: Ngrjuna's Mlamadhyamakakrik (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=kfsyfoO1IlYC& pg=RA1-PR19& dq=The+ fundamental+ wisdom+ of+ the+ middle+ way+ time#v=onepage& q& f=false). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-509336-0. . [42] "Time is an illusion?" (http:/ / physicsandphysicists. blogspot. com/ 2007/ 03/ time-is-illusion. html). . Retrieved 2011-04-09. [43] Herman M. Schwartz, Introduction to Special Relativity, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1968, hardcover 442 pages, see ISBN 0-88275-478-5 (1977 edition), pp. 1013 [44] A. Einstein, H. A. Lorentz, H. Weyl, H. Minkowski, The Principle of Relativity, Dover Publications, Inc, 2000, softcover 216 pages, ISBN 0-486-60081-5, See pp. 3765 for an English translation of Einstein's original 1905 paper. [45] Hawking, Stephen (1996). "The Beginning of Time" (http:/ / www. hawking. org. uk/ index. php/ lectures/ publiclectures/ 62). University of Cambridge. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. "Since events before the Big Bang have no observational consequences, one may as well cut them out of the theory, and say that time began at the Big Bang. Events before the Big Bang, are simply not defined, because there's no way one could measure what happened at them. This kind of beginning to the universe, and of time itself, is very different to the beginnings that had been considered earlier." [46] Hawking, Stephen (2006-02-27). "Professor Stephen Hawking lectures on the origin of the universe" (http:/ / www. ox. ac. uk/ media/ news_stories/ 2006/ 060227. html). University of Oxford. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. "Suppose the beginning of the universe was like the South Pole of the earth, with degrees of latitude playing the role of time. The universe would start as a point at the South Pole. As one moves north, the circles of constant latitude, representing the size of the universe, would expand. To ask what happened before the beginning of the universe would become a meaningless question because there is nothing south of the South Pole.'" [47] Ghandchi, Sam : Editor/Publisher (2004-01-16). "Space and New Thinking" (http:/ / www. ghandchi. com/ 312-SpaceEng. htm). . Retrieved 2011-04-09. "and as Stephen Hawking puts it, asking what was before Big Bang is like asking what is North of North Pole, a meaningless question." [48] Adler, Mortimer J., Ph.D.. "Natural Theology, Chance, and God" (http:/ / radicalacademy. com/ adlertheology1. htm). . Retrieved 2011-04-09. "Hawking could have avoided the error of supposing that time had a beginning with the Big Bang if he had distinguished time as it is measured by physicists from time that is not measurable by physicists.... an error shared by many other great physicists in the twentieth century, the error of saying that what cannot be measured by physicists does not exist in reality."

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"The Great Ideas Today". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 1992.

[49] Adler, Mortimer J., Ph.D.. "Natural Theology, Chance, and God" (http:/ / radicalacademy. com/ adlertheology2. htm). . Retrieved 2011-04-09. "Where Einstein had said that what is not measurable by physicists is of no interest to them, Hawking flatly asserts that what is not measurable by physicists does not exist has no reality whatsoever. With respect to time, that amounts to the denial of psychological time which is not measurable by physicists, and also to everlasting time time before the Big Bang which physics cannot measure. Hawking does not know that both Aquinas and Kant had shown that we cannot rationally establish that time is either finite or infinite."

"The Great Ideas Today". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 1992.

[50] Hawking, Stephen; and Ellis, G. F. R. (1973). The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-09906-4. [51] J. Hartle and S. W. Hawking (1983). "Wave function of the universe". Phys. Rev. D 28 (12): 2960. Bibcode1983PhRvD..28.2960H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.28.2960.

Time
[52] Langlois, David (2002). "Brane cosmology: an introduction". Progress of Theoretical Physics Supplement 148: 181. arXiv:hep-th/0209261. Bibcode2002PThPS.148..181L. doi:10.1143/PTPS.148.181. [53] Linde, Andre (2002). "Inflationary Theory versus Ekpyrotic/Cyclic Scenario". In: the future of theoretical physics and cosmology. Edited by G. W. Gibbons: 801. arXiv:hep-th/0205259. Bibcode2003ftpc.book..801L. [54] "Recycled Universe: Theory Could Solve Cosmic Mystery" (http:/ / www. space. com/ 2372-recycled-universe-theory-solve-cosmic-mystery. html). Space.com. 2006-05-08. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. [55] "What Happened Before the Big Bang?" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070704150957/ http:/ / www. science. psu. edu/ alert/ Bojowald6-2007. htm). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. science. psu. edu/ alert/ Bojowald6-2007. htm) on 2007-07-04. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. [56] A. Linde (1986). "Eternal chaotic inflation". Mod. Phys. Lett. A1 (2): 81. Bibcode1986MPLA....1...81L. doi:10.1142/S0217732386000129. A. Linde (1986). "Eternally existing self-reproducing chaotic inflationary universe". Phys. Lett. B175 (4): 395400. Bibcode1986PhLB..175..395L. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(86)90611-8. [57] G. Quznetsov, Prespacetime Journal, March 2010, Vol.1, Issue 2, Page 274-275 (http:/ / prespacetime. com/ index. php/ pst/ article/ view/ 10) [58] Andersen, Holly; Rick Grush (pending) (PDF). A brief history of time-consciousness: historical precursors to James and Husserl (http:/ / mind. ucsd. edu/ papers/ bhtc/ Andersen& Grush. pdf). Journal of the History of Philosophy. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. [59] Wittmann, M.; Leland DS, Churan J, Paulus MP. (8 October 2007). "Impaired time perception and motor timing in stimulant-dependent subjects" (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 17434690) (online abstract). Drug Alcohol Depend. 90 (23): 18392. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.03.005. PMC1997301. PMID17434690. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. [60] Cheng, Ruey-Kuang; Macdonald, Christopher J.; Meck, Warren H. (2006). "Differential effects of cocaine and ketamine on time estimation: Implications for neurobiological models of interval timing" (http:/ / cat. inist. fr/ ?aModele=afficheN& cpsidt=18303059) (online abstract). Pharmacology, biochemistry and behavior 85 (1): 114122. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2006.07.019. PMID16920182. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. [61] Tinklenberg, Jared R.; Walton T. Roth1; Bert S. Kopell (January 1976). "Marijuana and ethanol: Differential effects on time perception, heart rate, and subjective response" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ q1227453r481x439/ ). Psychopharmacology 49 (3): 275279. doi:10.1007/BF00426830. PMID826945. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. [62] Arzy, Shahar; Istvan Molnar-Szakacs; Olaf Blanke (2008-06-18). "Self in Time: Imagined Self-Location Influences Neural Activity Related to Mental Time Travel" (http:/ / www. jneurosci. org/ content/ 28/ 25/ 6502. abstract) (Abstract). The Journal of Neuroscience 28 (25): 65026507. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5712-07.2008. PMID18562621. . Retrieved 2011-04-09. [63] Wada Y, Masuda T, Noguchi K, 2005, "Temporal illusion called 'kappa effect' in event perception" Perception 34 ECVP Abstract Supplement [64] Robert, Adler. "Look how time flies.." (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ mg16422180. 900-look-how-time-flies). . Retrieved 2011-04-09. [65] Bowers, Kenneth; Brenneman, HA (January 1979). "Hypnosis and the perception of time" (http:/ / www. informaworld. com/ smpp/ content~content=a790232921~db=all). International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis (International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis) 27 (1): 2941. doi:10.1080/00207147908407540. PMID541126. [66] Gruber, Ronald P.; Wagner, Lawrence F.; Block, Richard A. (2000). "Subjective Time Versus Proper (Clock) Time" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LMsDqsvcxckC). In Buccheri, R.; Di Ges, V.; Saniga, Metod. Studies on the structure of time: from physics to psycho(patho)logy. Springer. p.54. ISBN0-306-46439-X. . Retrieved 2011-04-09., Extract of page 54 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LMsDqsvcxckC& pg=PA54) [67] "Sequence - Order of Important Events" (http:/ / www. austinschools. org/ curriculum/ la/ resources/ documents/ instResources/ LA_res_Seq_ORS_Module. pdf). Austin Independent School District. 2009. . [68] "Sequence of Events Worksheets" (http:/ / www. reference. com/ motif/ Science/ sequence-of-events-worksheets). Reference.com. . [69] Compiled by David Luckham and Roy Schulte. "Event Processing Glossary Version 2.0" (http:/ / www. complexevents. com/ 2011/ 08/ 23/ event-processing-glossary-version-2-0/ ). Complex Event Processing. . [70] Richard Nordquist. "narrative" (http:/ / grammar. about. com/ od/ mo/ g/ narrative2term. htm). About.com. . [71] David J. Piasecki. "Inventory Accuracy Glossary" (http:/ / www. accuracybook. com/ glossary. htm). AccuracyBook.com (OPS Publishing). . [72] "Utility Communications Architecture (UCA) glossary" (http:/ / www. nettedautomation. com/ glossary_menue/ glossary_uca. html). NettedAutomation. .

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Time

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Further reading
Barbour, Julian (1999). The End of Time: The Next Revolution in Our Understanding of the Universe. Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-514592-5. Landes, David (2000). Revolution in Time. Harvard University Press. ISBN0-674-00282-2. Das, Tushar Kanti (1990). The Time Dimension: An Interdisciplinary Guide. New York: Praeger. ISBN0275926818.- Research bibliography Davies, Paul (1996). About Time: Einstein's Unfinished Revolution. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. ISBN0-684-81822-1. Feynman, Richard (1994) [1965]. The Character of Physical Law (http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/ default.asp?ttype=2&tid=5277). Cambridge (Mass): The MIT Press. pp.108126. ISBN0-262-56003-8. Galison, Peter (1992). Einstein's Clocks and Poincar's Maps: Empires of Time. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN0-393-02001-0. Highfield, Roger (1992). Arrow of Time: A Voyage through Science to Solve Time's Greatest Mystery. Random House. ISBN0-449-90723-6. Mermin, N. David (2005). It's About Time: Understanding Einstein's Relativity (http://press.princeton.edu/ titles/8112.html). Princeton University Press. ISBN0-691-12201-6. Penrose, Roger (1999) [1989]. The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds, and the Laws of Physics (http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/9780192861986.do). New York: Oxford University Press. pp.391417. ISBN0-19-286198-0. Retrieved 2011-04-09. Price, Huw (1996). Time's Arrow and Archimedes' Point (http://sydney.edu.au/time/price/TAAP.html). Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-511798-0. Retrieved 2011-04-09. Reichenbach, Hans (1999) [1956]. The Direction of Time (http://store.doverpublications.com/0486409260. html). New York: Dover. ISBN0-486-40926-0. Stiegler, Bernard, Technics and Time, 1: The Fault of Epimetheus Quznetsov, Gunn A. (2006). Logical Foundation of Theoretical Physics. Nova Sci. Publ.. ISBN1-59454-948-6. Whitrow, Gerald J. (1973). The Nature of Time. Holt, Rinehart and Wilson (New York). Whitrow, Gerald J. (1980). The Natural Philosophy of Time. Clarendon Press (Oxford). Whitrow, Gerald J. (1988). Time in History. The evolution of our general awareness of time and temporal perspective. Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-285211-6. Rovelli, Carlo (2006). What is time? What is space? (http://www.direnzo.it/main.phtml?Language=en& Doc=0001&ISBN=8883231465). Rome: Di Renzo Editore. ISBN8883231465. Charlie Gere, (2005) Art, Time and Technology: Histories of the Disappearing Body, Berg

External links
Time (http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p005465z) on In Our Time at the BBC. ( listen now (http://www. bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/p005465z/In_Our_Time_Time)) Time at Open Directory (http://www.dmoz.org/Reference/Time/) Royal Observatory & history of astronomy: John Harrison and the Longitude problem (http://www.nmm.ac. uk/harrison)

Time

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Perception of time
Time Perception Research at the University of Manchester (http://manchestertiming.co.uk/) Benjamin Gal-Or, Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy, Springer Verlag, 1981, 1983, 1987, ISBN 0-387-90581-2, ISBN 0-387-96526-2.

Philosophy
Eastern Philosophy The Conceptual Scheme of Chinese Philosophical Thinking - Time (http://www.literati-tradition.com/time. html) Western Philosophy Crouch, Will (20062008). "Is there a defensible argument for the non-existence of time?" (http://classic-web. archive.org/web/20071204210348/http://www.onphilosophy.co.uk/time_-_a_dialogue.html). On Philosophy. Retrieved 2008-01-24. Dowden, Bradley (California State University, Sacramento) (2007). "Time" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/time/). In James Fieser, Ph.D., Bradley Dowden, Ph.D.. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2011-04-09. Le Poidevin, Robin (Winter 2004). "The Experience and Perception of Time" (http://plato.stanford.edu/ archives/win2004/entries/time-experience). In Edward N. Zalta. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2011-04-09. Mcdonough, Jeff (Harvard University) (Winter 2007). "Leibniz's Philosophy of Physics" (http://plato.stanford. edu/archives/win2007/entries/leibniz-physics/). In Edward N. Zalta. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. Retrieved 2011-04-09. Ross, Kelley L., Ph.D. (Los Angeles Valley College). "The Clarke-Leibniz Debate (17151716)" (http://www. friesian.com/space.htm#clarke). The Proceedings of the Friesian School, Fourth Series (1996, 1999, 2001). Retrieved 2011-04-09. Ross, Kelley L., Ph.D. (Los Angeles Valley College). "Three Points in Kant's Theory of Space and Time" (http:// www.friesian.com/space.htm#kant). The Proceedings of the Friesian School, Fourth Series (1996, 1999, 2001). Retrieved 2011-04-09. Savitt, Steven, Ph.D. (University of British Columbia) (Fall 2007). "Being and Becoming in Modern Physics" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spacetime-bebecome/). In Edward N. Zalta. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2011-04-09. Wilson, Catherine (City University of New York) (Summer 2004). "Kant and Leibniz" (http://plato.stanford. edu/archives/sum2004/entries/kant-leibniz/). In Edward N. Zalta. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. ISSN1095-5054. Retrieved 2011-04-09.

Timekeeping
Different systems of measuring time (http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/systime.html) UTC/TAI Timeserver (http://www1.bipm.org/en/scientific/tai/time_server.html) BBC article on shortest time ever measured (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3486160.stm) Federation of the Swiss Watch Industry FH (http://www.fhs.ch/en/) American Watchmakers-Clockmakers Institute (http://www.awci.com/) National Association of Watch & Clock Collectors (http://www.nawcc.org/)

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Miscellaneous
Exploring Time (http://exploringtime.org/?page=segments) from Planck Time to the lifespan of the universe International Society for the Study of Time (http://www.studyoftime.org/) The Museum of the Time fr:Muse du Temps de Besanon nso:Nako

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Temporal measurement
Calendar
A calendar is a system of organizing days for social, religious, commercial, or administrative purposes. This is done by giving names to periods of time, typically days, weeks, months, and years. The name given to each day is known as a date. Periods in a calendar (such as years and months) are usually, though not necessarily, synchronized with the cycle of the sun or the moon. Many civilizations and societies have devised a calendar, usually derived from other calendars on which they model their systems, suited to their particular needs. A calendar is also a physical device (often paper). This is the most common usage of the word. Other similar types of calendars can include computerized systems, which can be set to remind the user of upcoming events and appointments. A calendar can also mean a list of planned events, such as a court calendar. The English word calendar is derived from the Latin word kalendae, which was the Latin name of the first day of every month.[1]

Calendar systems
A full calendar system has a different calendar date for every day. Thus the week cycle is by itself not a full calendar system; neither is a system to name the days within a year without a system for identifying the years. The simplest calendar system just counts time periods from a reference date. This applies for the Julian day. Virtually the only possible variation is using a different reference date, in particular one less distant in the past to make the numbers smaller. Computations in these systems are just a matter of addition and subtraction. Other calendars have one (or multiple) larger units of time. Calendars that contain one level of cycles: week and weekday this system (without year, the week number keeps on increasing) is not very common year and ordinal date within the year, e.g. the ISO 8601 ordinal date system Calendars with two levels of cycles: year, month, and day most systems, including the Gregorian calendar (and its very similar predecessor, the Julian calendar), the Islamic calendar, and the Hebrew calendar year, week, and weekday e.g. the ISO week date Cycles can be synchronized with periodic phenomena: A lunar calendar is synchronized to the motion of the Moon (lunar phases); an example is the Islamic calendar. A solar calendar is based on perceived seasonal changes synchronized to the apparent motion of the Sun; an example is the Persian calendar.

A page from the Hindu calendar 18711872.

Calendar A "luni-solar calendar" is based on a combination of both solar and lunar reckonings; examples are the traditional calendar of China, the Hindu Calendar in India or the Hebrew calendar. There are some calendars that appear to be synchronized to the motion of Venus, such as some of the ancient Egyptian calendars; synchronization to Venus appears to occur primarily in civilizations near the Equator. The week cycle is an example of one that is not synchronized to any external phenomenon (although it may have been derived from lunar phases, beginning anew every month). Very commonly a calendar includes more than one type of cycle, or has both cyclic and acyclic elements. Many calendars incorporate simpler calendars as elements. For example, the rules of the Hebrew calendar depend on the seven-day week cycle (a very simple calendar), so the week is one of the cycles of the Hebrew calendar. It is also common to operate two calendars simultaneously, usually providing unrelated cycles, and the result may also be considered a more complex calendar. For example, the Gregorian calendar has no inherent dependence on the seven-day week, but in Western society the two are used together, and calendar tools indicate both the Gregorian date and the day of week.[2] The week cycle is shared by various calendar systems (although the significance of special days such as Friday, Saturday, and Sunday varies). Systems of leap days usually do not affect the week cycle. The week cycle was not even interrupted when 10, 11, 12, or 13 dates were skipped when the Julian calendar was replaced by the Gregorian calendar by various countries.

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Solar calendars
Days used by solar calendars Solar calendars assign a date to each solar day. A day may consist of the period between sunrise and sunset, with a following period of night, or it may be a period between successive events such as two sunsets. The length of the interval between two such successive events may be allowed to vary slightly during the year, or it may be averaged into a mean solar day. Other types of calendar may also use a solar day. Calendar reform There have been a number of proposals for reform of the calendar, such as the World Calendar, International Fixed Calendar and Holocene calendar. The United Nations considered adopting such a reformed calendar for a while in the 1950s, but these proposals have lost most of their popularity.

Lunar calendars
Not all calendars use the solar year as a unit. A lunar calendar is one in which days are numbered within each lunar phase cycle. Because the length of the lunar month is not an even fraction of the length of the tropical year, a purely lunar calendar quickly drifts against the seasons, which don't vary much near the equator. It does, however, stay constant with respect to other phenomena, notably tides. An example is the Islamic calendar. Alexander Marshack, in a controversial reading,[3] believed that marks on a bone baton (c. 25,000 BC) represented a lunar calendar. Other marked bones may also represent lunar calendars. Similarly, Michael Rappenglueck believes that marks on a 15,000-year old cave painting represent a lunar calendar.[4]

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Lunisolar calendars
A lunisolar calendar is a lunar calendar that compensates by adding an extra month as needed to realign the months with the seasons. An example is the Hebrew calendar which uses a 19-year cycle.

Calendar subdivisions
Nearly all calendar systems group consecutive days into "months" and also into "years". In a solar calendar a year approximates Earth's tropical year (that is, the time it takes for a complete cycle of seasons), traditionally used to facilitate the planning of agricultural activities. In a lunar calendar, the month approximates the cycle of the moon phase. Consecutive days may be grouped into other periods such as the week. Because the number of days in the tropical year is not a whole number, a solar calendar must have a different number of days in different years. This may be handled, for example, by adding an extra day in leap years. The same applies to months in a lunar calendar and also the number of months in a year in a lunisolar calendar. This is generally known as intercalation. Even if a calendar is solar, but not lunar, the year cannot be divided entirely into months that never vary in length. Cultures may define other units of time, such as the week, for the purpose of scheduling regular activities that do not easily coincide with months or years. Many cultures use different baselines for their calendars' starting years. For example, the year in Japan is based on the reign of the current emperor: 2006 was Year 18 of the Emperor Akihito. See Decade, Century, Millennium

Other calendar types

Arithmetic and astronomical calendars
An astronomical calendar is based on ongoing observation; examples are the religious Islamic calendar and the old religious Jewish calendar in the time of the Second Temple. Such a calendar is also referred to as an observation-based calendar. The advantage of such a calendar is that it is perfectly and perpetually accurate. The disadvantage is that working out when a particular date would occur is difficult. An arithmetic calendar is one that is based on a strict set of rules; an example is the current Jewish calendar. Such a calendar is also referred to as a rule-based calendar. The advantage of such a calendar is the ease of calculating when a particular date occurs. The disadvantage is imperfect accuracy. Furthermore, even if the calendar is very accurate, its accuracy diminishes slowly over time, owing to changes in Earth's rotation. This limits the lifetime of an accurate arithmetic calendar to a few thousand years. After then, the rules would need to be modified from observations made since the invention of the calendar.

Complete and incomplete calendars

Calendars may be either complete or incomplete. Complete calendars provide a way of naming each consecutive day, while incomplete calendars do not. The early Roman calendar, which had no way of designating the days of the winter months other than to lump them together as "winter", is an example of an incomplete calendar, while the Gregorian calendar is an example of a complete calendar.

Uses
The primary practical use of a calendar is to identify days: to be informed about and/or to agree on a future event and to record an event that has happened. Days may be significant for civil, religious or social reasons. For example, a calendar provides a way to determine which days are religious or civil holidays, which days mark the beginning and end of business accounting periods, and which days have legal significance, such as the day taxes are due or a

Calendar contract expires. Also a calendar may, by identifying a day, provide other useful information about the day such as its season. Calendars are also used to help people manage their personal schedules, time and activities, particularly when individuals have numerous work, school, and family commitments. People frequently use multiple systems, and may keep both a business and family calendar to help prevent them from overcommitting their time. Calendars are also used as part of a complete timekeeping system: date and time of day together specify a moment in time. In the modern world, written calendars are no longer an essential part of such systems, as the advent of accurate clocks has made it possible to record time independently of astronomical events.

25

Currently used calendars

Calendars in widespread use today include the Gregorian calendar, which is the de facto international standard, and is used almost everywhere in the world for civil purposes, including in the People's Republic of China and India (along with the Indian national calendar). Due to the Gregorian calendar's obvious connotations of Western Christianity, non-Christians and even some Christians sometimes replace the traditional era notations "AD" and "BC" ("Anno Domini" and "Before Christ") with "CE" and "BCE" ("Common Era" and "Before Common Era"). The Islamic calendar or Muslim calendar or Hijri calendar is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 lunar months in a year of 354 or 355 days. It is used to date events in most of the Muslim countries (concurrently with the Gregorian calendar), and used by Muslims everywhere to determine the proper day on which to celebrate Islamic holy days and festivals. The first year was the year during which the emigration of the Prophet Muhammad from Mecca to Medina, known as the Hijra, occurred. Each numbered year is designated either H for Hijra or AH for the Latin anno Hegirae (in the year of the Hijra). Being a purely lunar calendar, it is not synchronized with the seasons. With an annual drift of 11 or 12 days, the seasonal relation is repeated approximately each 33 Islamic years. The Hindu calendars are some of the most ancient calendars of the world. Eastern Christians of eastern Europe and western Asia used for a long time the Julian Calendar, that of the old Orthodox church, in countries like Russia. For over 1500 years, Westerners used the Julian Calendar as well. While the Gregorian calendar is widely used in Israel's business and day-to-day affairs, the Hebrew calendar, used by Jews worldwide for religious and cultural affairs, also influences civil matters in Israel (such as national holidays) and can be used there for business dealings (such as for the dating of checks). The Chinese, Hebrew, Hindu, and Julian calendars are widely used for religious and/or social purposes. The Iranian (Persian) calendar is used in Iran and some parts of Afghanistan. The Ethiopian calendar or Ethiopic calendar is the principal calendar used in Ethiopia and Eritrea. In Thailand, where the Thai solar calendar is used, the months and days have adopted the western standard, although the years are still based on the traditional Buddhist calendar. Bah's worldwide use the Bah' calendar. Even where there is a commonly used calendar such as the Gregorian calendar, alternate calendars may also be used, such as a fiscal calendar or the astronomical year numbering system.[5]

Fiscal calendars
A fiscal calendar (such as a 4/4/5 calendar) fixes each month at a specific number of weeks to facilitate comparisons from month to month and year to year. January always has exactly 4 weeks (Sunday through Saturday), February has 4 weeks, March has 5 weeks, etc. Note that this calendar will normally need to add a 53rd week to every 5th or 6th year, which might be added to December or might not be, depending on how the organization uses those dates. There exists an international standard way to do this (the ISO week). The ISO week starts on a Monday, and ends on a Sunday. Week 1 is always the week that contains 4 January in the Gregorian calendar. Fiscal calendars are also used by businesses. This is where the fiscal year is just any set of 12 months. This set of 12 months can start and end at any point on the Gregorian calendar. This is the most common usage of fiscal calendars.

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Gregorian calendar with Easter Sunday

Calculating the calendar of a previous year (for the Gregorian calendar taking account of the week) is a relatively easy matter when Easter Sunday is not included on the calendar. However, calculating for Easter Sunday is difficult because the calculation depends on the full moon cycle. Easter Sunday represents the first Sunday after the first full moon after the Vernal Equinox according to the computus. But it is defined as the Sunday following a theoretical Full Moon date falling on or after March 21, and different (though equivalent) calculations are specified by the Papal Bull of 1582 and the British Calendar Act of 1751. So, this makes an additional calculation necessary on top of the normal calculation for January 1 and the calculation of whether or not the year is a leap year. There are only 14 different calendars when Easter Sunday is not involved. Each calendar is determined by the day of the week January 1 falls on and whether or not the year is a leap year. However, when Easter Sunday is included, there are 70 different calendars (two for each date of Easter).

Physical calendars
A calendar is also a physical device (often paper) (for example, a desktop calendar or a wall calendar). In a paper calendar one or two sheets can show a single day, a week, a month, or a year. If a sheet is for a single day, it easily shows the date and the weekday. If a sheet is for multiple days it shows a conversion table to convert from weekday to date and back. With a special pointing device, or by crossing out past days, it may indicate the current date and weekday. This is the most common usage of the word. The sale of physical calendars has been restricted in some countries, and given as a monopoly to universities and national academies. Examples include the Prussian Academy of Sciences and the University of Helsinki, which had a monopoly on the sale of calendars in Finland until the 1990s.

Legal
For lawyers and judges, the calendar is the docket used by the court to schedule the order of hearings or trials. A paralegal or court officer may keep track of the cases by using docketing software.

Calendars in computing
Category:Calendaring standards Electronic calendar

Sources
Birashk, Ahmad (1993), A comparative Calendar of the Iranian, Muslim Lunar, and Christian Eras for Three Thousand Years, Mazda Publishers, ISBN0939214954 Dershowitz, Nachum; Reingold, Edward M (1997), Calendrical Calculations [6], Cambridge University Press, ISBN0521564743 with Online Calculator [7] Zerubavel, Eviatar (1985), The Seven Day Circle: The History and Meaning of the Week, University of Chicago Press, ISBN0226981657 Doggett, LE (1992), "Calendars" [8], in Seidelmann, P. Kenneth, Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, University Science Books, ISBN0935702687 rni Bjrnsson (1995) [1977], High Days and Holidays in Iceland, Reykjavk: Ml og menning, ISBN9979308028, OCLC186511596 Richards, EG (1998), Mapping Time, the calendar and its history, Oxford University Press, ISBN0198504136 Rose, Lynn E (1999), Sun, Moon, and Sothis, Kronos Press, ISBN0917994159 Spier, Arthur (1986), The Comprehensive Hebrew Calendar, Feldheim Publishers, ISBN0873063988

Calendar Dieter Schuh (1973) (in German), Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Tibetischen Kalenderrechnung, Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, OCLC1150484

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Further reading
Fraser, Julius Thomas (1987), Time, the Familiar Stranger (illustrated ed.), Amherst: Univ of Massachusetts Press, ISBN0870235761, OCLC15790499 Whitrow, Gerald James (2003), What is Time?, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN0198607814, OCLC265440481

References
[1] New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary [2] Zerubavel, The Seven Day Circle (University of Chicago Press, 1985). [3] James Elkins, Our beautiful, dry, and distant texts (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=5Ku6YdWurMgC& pg=PA63& lpg=PA63) (1998) 63ff. [4] Oldest lunar calendar identified (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 975360. stm) [5] NASA Year Dating Conventions (http:/ / sunearth. gsfc. nasa. gov/ eclipse/ SEhelp/ dates. html) [6] http:/ / emr. cs. iit. edu/ home/ reingold/ calendar-book/ second-edition/ [7] http:/ / emr. cs. iit. edu/ home/ reingold/ calendar-book/ Calendrica. html [8] http:/ / astro. nmsu. edu/ ~lhuber/ leaphist. html

External links
Calendar FAQ (http://www.tondering.dk/claus/calendar.html) Invention of calendar in ancient times (http://www.phy6.org/stargaze/Scalend.htm) an educational web site "Calendar". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920. nso:Thupamabaka

History of timekeeping devices

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History of timekeeping devices

For thousands of years, devices have been used to measure and keep track of time. The current sexagesimal system of time measurement dates to approximately 2000BC, in Sumer. The Ancient Egyptians divided the day into two 12-hour periods, and used large obelisks to track the movement of the Sun. They also developed water clocks, which were probably first used in the Precinct of Amun-Re, and later outside Egypt as well; they were employed frequently by the Ancient Greeks, who called them clepsydrae. The Shang Dynasty is believed to have used the outflow water clock around the same time, devices which were introduced from Mesopotamia as early as 2000BC. Other ancient timekeeping devices include the candle clock, used in China, Japan, England and Iraq; the timestick, widely used in India and Tibet, as well as some parts of Europe; and the hourglass, which functioned similarly to a water clock. The earliest clocks relied on shadows cast by the sun, and hence were not useful in cloudy weather or at night and required recalibration as the seasons changed (if the gnomon was not aligned with the Earth's axis). The earliest known clock with a water-powered escapement mechanism, which transferred rotational energy into intermittent motions,[1] dates back to 3rd century BC ancient Greece;[2] Chinese engineers later invented clocks incorporating mercury-powered escapement mechanisms in the 10th century,[3] followed by Arabic engineers inventing water clocks driven by gears and weights in the 11th century.[4]

An hourglass keeping track of elapsed time. The hourglass was one of the earlier timekeeping devices

Mechanical clocks employing the verge escapement mechanism were invented in Europe at the turn of the 14th century, and became the standard timekeeping device until the spring-powered clock and pocket watch in the 16th century, followed by the pendulum clock in the 17th century. During the 20th century, quartz oscillators were invented, followed by atomic clocks. Although first used in laboratories, quartz oscillators were both easy to produce and accurate, leading to their use in wristwatches. Atomic clocks are far more accurate than any previous timekeeping device, and are used to calibrate other clocks and to calculate the proper time on Earth; a standardized civil system, Coordinated Universal Time, is based on atomic time.

Early timekeeping devices

Many ancient civilizations observed astronomical bodies, often the Sun and Moon, to determine times, dates, and seasons.[5] [6] Methods of sexagesimal timekeeping, now common in Western society, first originated nearly 4,000years ago in Mesopotamia and Egypt;[5] [7] [8] a similar system was developed later in Mesoamerica.[9] The first calendars may have been created during the last glacial period, by hunter-gatherers who employed tools such as sticks and bones to track the phases of the moon or the seasons.[6] Stone circles, such as England's Stonehenge, were built in various parts of the world, especially in Prehistoric Europe, and are thought to have been used to time and predict seasonal and annual events such as equinoxes or

The sun rising over Stonehenge on the June solstice

History of timekeeping devices solstices.[6] [10] As those megalithic civilizations left no recorded history, little is known of their calendars or timekeeping methods.[11]

29

3500 BC 500 BC
Sundials have their origin in shadow clocks, which were the first devices used for measuring the parts of a day.[12] The oldest known shadow clock is from Egypt, and was made from green schist. Ancient Egyptian obelisks, constructed about 3500BC, are also among the earliest shadow clocks.[6] [13] [14] Egyptian shadow clocks divided daytime into 10 parts, with an additional four "twilight hours"two in the morning, and two in the evening. One type of shadow clock consisted of a long stem with five variable marks and an elevated crossbar which cast a shadow over those marks. It was positioned eastward in the morning, and was turned west at noon. Obelisks functioned in much the same manner: the shadow cast on the markers around it allowed the Egyptians to calculate the time. The obelisk also indicated whether it was morning or afternoon, as well as the summer and winter solstices.[6] [15] A third shadow clock, developed c. 1500BC, was similar in shape to a bent T-square. It measured the passage of time by the shadow cast by its crossbar on a non-linear rule. The T was oriented eastward in the mornings, and turned around at noon, so that it could cast its shadow in the opposite direction.[16] Although accurate, shadow clocks relied on the sun, and so were useless at night and in cloudy weather.[15] [17] The Egyptians therefore developed a number of alternative timekeeping instruments, including water clocks, hourglasses, and a system for tracking star movements. The oldest description of a water clock is from the tomb inscription of the 16th-centuryBC Egyptian court official Amenemhet, identifying him as its inventor.[18] There were several types of water clocks, some more elaborate than others. One type consisted of a bowl with small holes in its bottom, which was floated on water and allowed to fill at a near-constant rate; markings on the side of the bowl indicated elapsed time, as the surface of the water reached them. The oldest-known waterclock was found in the The Luxor Obelisk in Place de la tomb of pharaoh Amenhotep I (15251504BC), suggesting that they were first Concorde, Paris, France used in ancient Egypt.[15] [19] [20] The ancient Egyptians are also believed to be the inventors of the hourglass, which consisted of two vertically aligned glass chambers connected by a small opening. When the hourglass was turned over, grains of sand fell at a constant rate from one chamber to the other.[17] Another Egyptian method of determining the time during the night was using plumb-lines called merkhets. In use since at least 600BC, two of these instruments were aligned with Polaris, the north pole star, to create a northsouth meridian. The time was accurately measured by observing certain stars as they crossed the line created with the merkhets.[15] [21]

History of timekeeping devices

30

500 BC 1 BC
Water clocks, or clepsydrae, were commonly used in Ancient Greece following their introduction by Plato, who also invented a water-based alarm clock.[23] [24] One account of Plato's alarm clock describes it as depending on the nightly overflow of a vessel containing lead balls, which floated in a columnar vat. The vat held a steadily increasing amount of water, supplied by a cistern. By morning, the vessel would have floated high enough to tip over, causing the lead balls to cascade onto a copper platter. The resultant clangor would then awaken Plato's students at the Academy.[25] Another possibility is that it comprised two jars, connected by a siphon. Water emptied until it reached the siphon, which transported the water to the other jar. There, the rising water would force air through a whistle, sounding an alarm.[24] The Greeks and Chaldeans regularly maintained timekeeping records as an essential part of their astronomical observations. Greek astronomer, Andronicus of Cyrrhus, supervised the construction of the Tower of the Winds in Athens in the 1st century B.C.
Ctesibius's clepsydra from the 3rd century BC. Clepsydra, literally water thief, is the Greek word for [22] water clock.

In Greek tradition, clepsydrae were used in court; later, the Romans adopted this practice, as well. There are several mentions of this in historical records and literature of the era; for example, in Theaetetus, Plato says that "Those men, on the other hand, always speak in haste, for the flowing water urges them on".[26] Another mention occurs in Lucius Apuleius' The Golden Ass: "The Clerk of the Court began bawling again, this time summoning the chief witness for the prosecution to appear. Up stepped an old man, whom I did not know. He was invited to speak for as long as there was water in the clock; this was a hollow globe into which water was poured through a funnel in the neck, and from which it gradually escaped through fine perforations at the base".[27] The clock in Apuleius' account was one of several types of water clock used. Another consisted of a bowl with a hole in its centre, which was floated on water. Time was kept by observing how long the bowl took to fill with water.[28] Although clepsydrae were more useful than sundialsthey could be used indoors, during the night, and also when the sky was cloudythey were not as accurate; the Greeks, therefore, sought a way to improve their water clocks.[29] Although still not as accurate as sundials, Greek water clocks became more accurate around 325BC, and they were adapted to have a face with an hour hand, making the reading of the clock more precise and convenient. One of the more common problems in most types of clepsydrae was caused by water pressure: when the container holding the water was full, the increased pressure caused the water to flow more rapidly. This problem was addressed by Greek and Roman horologists beginning in 100BC, and improvements continued to be made in the following centuries. To counteract the increased water flow, the clock's water containersusually bowls or jugswere given a conical shape; positioned with the wide end up, a greater amount of water had to flow out in order to drop the same distance as when the water was lower in the cone. Along with this improvement, clocks were constructed more elegantly in this period, with hours marked by gongs, doors opening to miniature figurines, bells, or moving mechanisms.[15] There were some remaining problems, however, which were never solved, such as the effect of temperature. Water flows more slowly when cold, or may even freeze.[30] Although the Greeks and Romans did much to advance water clock technology, they still continued to use shadow clocks. The mathematician and astronomer Theodosius of Bithynia, for example, is said to have invented a universal sundial that was accurate anywhere on Earth, though little is known about it.[31] Others wrote of the sundial in the mathematics and literature of the period. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, the Roman author of De Architectura, wrote on the mathematics of gnomons, or sundial blades.[32] During the reign of Emperor Augustus, the Romans constructed the largest sundial ever built, the Solarium Augusti. Its gnomon was an obelisk from Heliopolis.[33] Similarly, the

History of timekeeping devices obelisk from Campus Martius was used as the gnomon for Augustus' zodiacal sundial.[34] Pliny the Elder records that the first sundial in Rome arrived in 264BC, looted from Catania, Sicily; according to him, it gave the incorrect time until the markings and angle appropriate for Rome's latitude were useda century later.[35]

31

AD 1 AD 1500
Water clocks Joseph Needham speculated that the introduction of the outflow clepsydra to China, perhaps from Mesopotamia, occurred as far back as the 2nd millennium BC, during the Shang Dynasty, and at the latest by the 1st millennium BC. By the beginning of the Han Dynasty, in 202BC, the outflow clepsydra was gradually replaced by the inflow clepsydra, which featured an indicator rod on a float. To compensate for the falling pressure head in the reservoir, which slowed timekeeping as the vessel filled, Zhang Heng added an extra tank between the reservoir and the inflow vessel. Around 550 AD, Yin Gui was the first in China to write of the overflow or constant-level tank added to the series, which was later described in detail by the inventor Shen Kuo. Around 610, this design was trumped by two Sui Dynasty inventors, Geng Xun and Yuwen Kai, who were the first to create the balance clepsydra, with standard positions for the steelyard balance.[36] Joseph Needham states that: ...[the balance clepsydra] permitted the seasonal adjustment of the pressure head in the compensating tank by having standard The water-powered elephant clock by Al-Jazari, positions for the counterweight graduated on the beam, and 1206. hence it could control the rate of flow for different lengths of day and night. With this arrangement no overflow tank was required, and the two attendants were warned when the clepsydra needed refilling.[36] Between 270 BC and 500 AD, Hellenistic (Ctesibius, Hero of Alexandria, Archimedes) and Roman horologists and astronomers were developing more elaborate mechanized water clocks. The added complexity was aimed at regulating the flow and at providing fancier displays of the passage of time. For example, some water clocks rang bells and gongs, while others opened doors and windows to show figurines of people, or moved pointers, and dials. Some even displayed astrological models of the universe. Some of the most elaborate water clocks were designed by Muslim engineers. In particular, the water clocks by Al-Jazari in 1206 are credited for going "well beyond anything" that had preceded them. In his treatise, he describes one of his water clocks, the elephant clock. The clock recorded the passage of temporal hours, which meant that the rate of flow had to be changed daily to match the uneven length of days throughout the year. To accomplish this, the clock had two tanks: the top tank was connected to the time indicating mechanisms and the bottom was connected to the flow control regulator. At daybreak the tap was opened and water flowed from the top tank to the bottom tank via a float regulator that maintained a constant pressure in the receiving tank.[37]

History of timekeeping devices Candle clocks It is not known specifically where and when candle clocks were first used; however, their earliest mention comes from a Chinese poem, written in 520 by You Jianfu. According to the poem, the graduated candle was a means of determining time at night. Similar candles were used in Japan until the early 10th century.[38] The candle clock most commonly mentioned and written of is attributed to King Alfred the Great. It consisted of six candles made from 72pennyweights of wax, each 12 inches (30cm) high, and of uniform thickness, marked every inch (2.5cm). As these candles burned for about four hours, each mark represented 20minutes. Once lit, the candles were placed in wooden framed glass boxes, to prevent the flame from extinguishing.[39] The most sophisticated candle clocks of their time were those of Al-Jazari in 1206. One of his candle clocks included a dial to display the time and, for the first time, employed a bayonet fitting, a fastening mechanism still used in modern times.[40] Donald Routledge Hill described Al-Jazari's candle clocks as follows:

32

A candle clock

The candle, whose rate of burning was known, bore against the underside of the cap, and its wick passed through the hole. Wax collected in the indentation and could be removed periodically so that it did not interfere with steady burning. The bottom of the candle rested in a shallow dish that had a ring on its side connected through pulleys to a counterweight. As the candle burned away, the weight pushed it upward at a constant speed. The automata were operated from the dish at the bottom of the candle. No other candle clocks of this sophistication are known.[41] A variation on this theme were oil-lamp clocks. These early timekeeping devices consisted of a graduated glass reservoir to hold oil usually whale oil, which burned cleanly and evenly supplying the fuel for a built-in lamp. As the level in the reservoir dropped, it provided a rough measure of the passage of time. Incense clocks In addition to water, mechanical, and candle clocks, incense clocks were used in the Far East, and were fashioned in several different forms.[42] Incense clocks were first used in China around the 6th century; in Japan, one still exists in the Shsin,[43] although its characters are not Chinese, but Devanagari.[44] Due to their frequent use of Devanagari characters, suggestive of their use in Buddhist ceremonies, Edward H. Schafer speculated that incense clocks were invented in India.[44] Although similar to the candle clock, incense clocks burned evenly and without a flame; therefore, they were more accurate and safer for indoor use.[45] Several types of incense clock have been found, the most common forms include the incense stick and incense seal.[46] [47] An incense stick clock was an incense stick with calibrations;[47] most were elaborate, sometimes having threads, with weights attached, at even intervals. The weights would drop onto a platter or gong below, signifying that a certain amount of time had elapsed. Some incense

An oil-lamp clock

History of timekeeping devices clocks were held in elegant trays; open-bottomed trays were also used, to allow the weights to be used together with the decorative tray.[48] [49] Sticks of incense with different scents were also used, so that the hours were marked by a change in fragrance.[50] The incense sticks could be straight or spiraled; the spiraled ones were longer, and were therefore intended for long periods of use, and often hung from the roofs of homes and temples.[51] In Japan, a geisha was paid for the number of senkodokei (incense sticks) that had been consumed while she was present, a practice which continued until 1924.[52] Incense seal clocks were used for similar occasions and events as the stick clock; while religious purposes were of primary importance,[46] these clocks were also popular at social gatherings, and were used by Chinese scholars and intellectuals.[53] The seal was a wooden or stone disk with one or more grooves etched in it[46] into which incense was placed.[54] These clocks were common in China,[53] but were produced in fewer numbers in Japan.[55] To signal the passage of a specific amount of time, small pieces of fragrant woods, resins, or different scented incenses could be placed on the incense powder trails. Different powdered incense clocks used different formulations of incense, depending on how the clock was laid out.[56] The length of the trail of incense, directly related to the size of the seal, was the primary factor in determining how long the clock would last; all burned for long periods of time, ranging between 12 hours and a month.[57] [58] [59] While early incense seals were made of wood or stone, the Chinese gradually introduced disks made of metal, most likely beginning during the Song dynasty. This allowed craftsmen to more easily create both large and small seals, as well as design and decorate them more aesthetically. Another advantage was the ability to vary the paths of the grooves, to allow for the changing length of the days in the year. As smaller seals became more readily available, the clocks grew in popularity among the Chinese, and were often given as gifts.[60] Incense seal clocks are often sought by modern-day clock collectors; however, few remain that have not already been purchased or been placed on display at museums or temples.[55] Clocks with gears and escapements The earliest instance of a liquid-driven escapement was described by the Greek engineer Philo of Byzantium (fl. 3rd century BC) in his technical treatise Pneumatics (chapter 31) where he likens the escapement mechanism of a washstand automaton with those as employed in (water) clocks.[61] Another early clock to use escapements was built during the 7th century AD in Chang'an, by Tantric monk and mathematician, Yi Xing, and government official Liang Lingzan.[62] [63] An astronomical instrument that served as a clock, it was discussed in a contemporary text as follows:[64] [It] was made in the image of the round heavens and on it were shown the lunar mansions in their order, the equator and the degrees of the heavenly circumference. Water, flowing into scoops, turned a Greek washstand automaton working wheel automatically, rotating it one complete revolution in one day with the earliest escapement. The and night. Besides this, there were two rings fitted around the mechanism was also used in Greek [61] celestial sphere outside, having the sun and moon threaded on them, water clocks. and these were made to move in circling orbit... And they made a wooden casing the surface of which represented the horizon, since the instrument was half sunk in it. It permitted the exact determinations of the time of dawns and dusks, full and new moons, tarrying and hurrying. Moreover, there were two wooden jacks standing on the horizon surface, having one a bell and the other a drum in front of it, the bell being struck automatically to indicate the hours, and the drum being beaten automatically to indicate the quarters. All these motions were brought about by machinery within the casing, each depending on wheels and shafts, hooks, pins and interlocking rods, stopping devices and locks checking mutually.[64]

33

History of timekeeping devices

34 Since Yi Xing's clock was a water clock, it was affected by temperature variations. That problem was solved in 976 by Zhang Sixun by replacing the water with mercury, which remains liquid down to 39C (38F). Zhang implemented the changes into his clock tower, which was about 10 metres (33ft) tall, with escapements to keep the clock turning and bells to signal every quarter-hour. Another noteworthy clock, the elaborate Cosmic Engine, was built by Su Song, in 1088. It was about the size of Zhang's tower, but had an automatically rotating armillary spherealso called a celestial globefrom which the positions of the stars could be observed. It also featured five panels with mannequins ringing gongs or bells, and tablets showing the time of day, or other special times.[15] Furthermore, it featured the first known endless power-transmitting chain drive in horology.[3] Originally built in the capital of Kaifeng, it was dismantled by the Jin army and sent to the capital of Yanjing (now Beijing), where they were unable to put it back together. As a result, Su Song's son Su Xie was ordered to build a replica.[65]

The original diagram of Su Song's book showing the inner workings of his clock tower

The clock towers built by Zhang Sixun and Su Song, in the 10th and 11th centuries, respectively, also incorporated a striking clock mechanism, the use of clock jacks to sound the hours.[66] A striking clock outside of China was the Jayrun Water Clock, at the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Syria, which struck once every hour. It was constructed by Muhammad al-Sa'ati in the 12th century, and later described by his son Ridwan ibn al-Sa'ati, in his On the Construction of Clocks and their Use (1203), when repairing the clock.[67] In 1235, an early monumental water-powered alarm clock that "announced the appointed hours of prayer and the time both by day and by night" was completed in the entrance hall of the Mustansiriya Madrasah in Baghdad.[68]

Drawing of the Jayrun Water Clock in Damascus from the treatise On the Construction of Clocks and their Use (1203)

The first geared clock was invented in the 11th century by the Arab engineer Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi in Islamic Iberia; it was a water clock that employed a complex gear train mechanism, including both segmental and epicyclic gearing,[4] [69] capable of transmitting high torque.[70] The clock was unrivalled in its use of sophisticated complex gearing, until the mechanical clocks of the mid-14th century.[69] [70] Al-Muradi's clock also employed the use of mercury in its hydraulic linkages,[71] [72] which could function mechanical automata.[72] Al-Muradi's work was known to scholars working under Alfonso X of Castile,[73] hence the mechanism may have played a role in the development of the European mechanical clocks.[69] Other monumental water clocks constructed by medieval Muslim engineers also employed complex gear trains and arrays of automata.[69] Like the earlier Greeks and Chinese, Arab engineers at the time also developed a liquid-driven escapement mechanism which they employed in some of their water clocks. Heavy floats were used as weights and a constant-head system was used as an escapement mechanism,[4] which was present in the hydraulic controls they used to make heavy floats descend at a slow and steady rate.[69] A mercury clock, described in the Libros del saber de Astronomia, a Spanish work from 1277 consisting of translations and paraphrases of Arabic works, is sometimes quoted as evidence for Muslim knowledge of a mechanical clock. However, the device was actually a compartmented cylindrical water clock,[74] which the Jewish author of the relevant section, Rabbi Isaac, constructed using principles described by a philosopher named "Iran", identified with Heron of Alexandria (fl. 1st century AD), on how heavy objects may be lifted.[75]

History of timekeeping devices Astronomical clocks During the 11th century in the Song Dynasty, the Chinese astronomer, horologist and mechanical engineer Su Song created a water-driven astronomical clock for his clock tower of Kaifeng City. It incorporated an escapement mechanism as well as the earliest known endless power-transmitting chain drive, which drove the armillary sphere. Contemporary Muslim astronomers also constructed a variety of highly accurate astronomical clocks for use in their mosques and observatories,[76] such as the water-powered astronomical clock by Al-Jazari in 1206,[77] [78] and the astrolabic clock by Ibn al-Shatir in the early 14th century.[79] The most sophisticated timekeeping astrolabes were the geared astrolabe mechanisms designed by Ab Rayhn Brn in the 11th century and by Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr in the 13th century. These devices functioned as timekeeping devices and also as calenders.[4] A sophisticated water-powered astronomical clock was built by Al-Jazari in 1206. This castle clock was a complex device that was about 11 feet (3.4m) high, and had multiple functions alongside timekeeping. It included a display of the zodiac and the solar and lunar paths, and a pointer in the shape of the crescent moon which travelled across the top of a gateway, moved by a hidden cart and causing doors to open, each revealing a mannequin, every hour.[41] [80] It was possible to reset the length of day and night in order to account for the changing lengths of day and night throughout the year. This clock also featured a number of automata including falcons and musicians who automatically played music when moved by levers operated by a hidden camshaft attached to a water wheel.[81]
Castle clock by Al-Jazari in 1206

35

Astrolabes were used as astronomical clocks by Muslim astronomers at mosques and observatories.

Modern devices
Modern devices of ancient origin
Sundials were further developed by Muslim astronomers. As the ancient dials were nodus-based with straight hour-lines, they indicated unequal hoursalso called temporary hoursthat varied with the seasons. Every day was divided into 12equal segments regardless of the time of year; thus, hours were shorter in winter and longer in summer. The idea of using hours of equal length throughout the year was the innovation of Abu'l-Hasan Ibn al-Shatir in 1371, based on earlier developments in trigonometry by Muhammad ibn Jbir al-Harrn al-Battn (Albategni). Ibn al-Shatir was aware that "using a gnomon that is parallel to the Earth's axis will produce sundials whose hour lines indicate equal hours on any day of the year". His sundial is the oldest polar-axis sundial still in existence. The concept appeared in Western sundials starting in 1446.[82] [83]

A 20th-century sundial in Seville, Andalusia, Spain

Following the acceptance of heliocentrism and equal hours, as well as advances in trigonometry, sundials appeared in their present form during the Renaissance, when they were built in large numbers.[84] In 1524, the French astronomer Oronce Fin constructed an ivory sundial, which still exists;[85] later, in 1570, the Italian astronomer

History of timekeeping devices Giovanni Padovani published a treatise including instructions for the manufacture and laying out of mural (vertical) and horizontal sundials. Similarly, Giuseppe Biancani's Constructio instrumenti ad horologia solaria (c.1620) discusses how to construct sundials.[86] The Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan used 18 hourglasses on each ship during his circumnavigation of the globe in 1522.[87] Since the hourglass was one of the few reliable methods of measuring time at sea, it is speculated that it had been used on board ships as far back as the 11th century, when it would have complemented the magnetic compass as an aid to navigation. However, the earliest evidence of their use appears in the painting Allegory of Good Government, by Ambrogio Lorenzetti, from 1338.[88] From the 15th century onwards, hourglasses were used in a wide range of applications at sea, in churches, in industry, and in cooking; they were the first dependable, reusable, reasonably accurate, and easily constructed time-measurement devices. The hourglass also took on symbolic meanings, such as that of death, temperance, opportunity, and Father Time, usually represented as a bearded, old man.[89] Though also used in China, the hourglass's history there is unknown.[90]

36

Clocks
Clocks encompass a wide spectrum of devices, ranging from wristwatches to the Clock of the Long Now. The English word clock is said to derive from the Middle English clokke, Old North French cloque, or Middle Dutch clocke, all of which mean bell, and are derived from the Medieval Latin clocca, also meaning bell.[91] [92] [93] Indeed, bells were used to mark the passage of time; they marked the passage of the hours at sea and in abbeys. Throughout history, clocks have had a variety of power sources, including gravity, springs, and electricity.[94] [95] The invention of mechanical clockwork itself is usually credited to the Chinese official Liang Lingzan and monk Yi Xing.[62] [63] [96] However, mechanical clocks were not widely used in the West until the 14th century. Clocks were used in medieval monasteries to keep the regulated schedule of prayers. The clock continued to be improved, with the first pendulum clock being designed and built in the 17th century by Christiaan Huygens, a Dutch scientist. Early Western mechanical clocks The earliest medieval European clockmakers were Christian monks.[97] Medieval religious institutions required clocks because daily prayer and work schedules were strictly regulated. This was done by various types of time-telling and recording devices, such as water clocks, sundials and marked candles, probably used in combination.[95] [98] When mechanical clocks were used, they were often wound at least twice a day to ensure accuracy.[99] Important times and durations were broadcast by bells, rung either by hand or by a mechanical device, such as a falling weight or rotating beater. As early as 850, Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona, constructed a water clock (horologium nocturnum).[100] The religious necessities and technical skill of the medieval monks were crucial factors in the development of clocks, as the historian Thomas Woods writes: The monks also counted skillful clock-makers among them. The first recorded clock was built by the future Pope Sylvester II for the German town of Magdeburg, around the year 996. Much more sophisticated clocks were built by later monks. Peter Lightfoot, a 14th-century monk of Glastonbury, built one of the oldest clocks still in existence, which now sits in excellent condition in London's Science Museum.[101]

The astronomical clock of St Albans Abbey, built by its abbot, Richard of Wallingford

History of timekeeping devices

37 The appearance of clocks in writings of the 11th century implies that they were well-known in Europe in that period.[103] In the early 14th century, the Florentine poet Dante Alighieri referred to a clock in his Paradiso;[104] considered to be the first literary reference to a clock that struck the hours.[103] The earliest detailed description of clockwork was presented by Giovanni da Dondi, Professor of Astronomy at Padua, in his 1364 treatise Il Tractatus Astrarii.[96] This has inspired several modern replicas, including some in London's Science Museum and the Smithsonian Institution.[96] Other notable examples from this period were built in Milan (1335), Strasbourg (1354), Lund (1380), Rouen (1389), and Prague (1462).[96]

Salisbury cathedral clock, dating from about 1386, is the oldest working clock in the world, still with most of its original parts.[105] It [102] has no dial, as its purpose was to strike a bell at precise times.[105] The Da Dondi's 1364 Padua clock wheels and gears are mounted in an open, box-like iron frame, measuring about 1.2 metres (3.9ft) square. The framework is held together with metal dowels and pegs, and the escapement is the verge and foliot type, standard for clocks of this age. The power is supplied by two large stones, hanging from pulleys. As the weights fall, ropes unwind from the wooden barrels. One barrel drives the main wheel, which is regulated by the escapement, and the other drives the striking mechanism and the air brake.[105] Peter Lightfoot's Wells Cathedral clock, constructed c.1390, is also of note.[106] [107] The dial represents a geocentric view of the universe, with the Sun and Moon revolving around a centrally fixed Earth. It is unique in having its original medieval face, showing a philosophical model of the pre-Copernican universe.[108] Above the clock is a set of figures, which hit the bells, and a set of jousting knights who revolve around a track every 15minutes.[108] [109] The clock was converted to pendulum and anchor escapement in the 17th century, and was installed in London's Science Museum in 1884, where it continues to operate.[109] Similar astronomical clocks, or horologes, can be seen at Exeter, Ottery St Mary, and Wimborne Minster. One clock that has not survived to the present-day is that of the Abbey of St Albans, built by the 14th-century abbot Richard of Wallingford.[110] It may have been destroyed during Henry VIII's Dissolution of the Monasteries, but the abbot's notes on its design have allowed a full-scale reconstruction. As well as keeping time, the astronomical clock could accurately predict lunar eclipses, and may have shown the Sun, Moon (age, phase, and node), stars and planets, as well as a wheel of fortune, and an indicator of the state of the tide at London Bridge.[111] According to Thomas Woods, "a clock that equaled it in technological sophistication did not appear for at least two centuries".[101] [112] Giovanni de Dondi was another early mechanical clockmaker, whose clock did not survive, but has been replicated based The face of the Prague Astronomical Clock (1462) on the designs. De Dondi's clock was a seven-faced construction with 107moving parts, showing the positions of the Sun, Moon, and five planets, as well as religious feast days.[111] Around this period, mechanical clocks were introduced into abbeys and monasteries to mark important events and times, gradually replacing water clocks which had served the same purpose.[113] [114] During the Middle Ages, clocks were primarily used for religious purposes; the first employed for secular timekeeping emerged around the 15th century. In Dublin, the official measurement of time became a local custom,

History of timekeeping devices and by 1466 a public clock stood on top of the Tholsel (the city court and council chamber).[115] It was probably the first of its kind in Ireland, and would only have had an hour hand.[115] The increasing lavishness of castles led to the introduction of turret clocks.[116] A 1435 example survives from Leeds castle; its face is decorated with the images of the Crucifixion of Jesus, Mary and St George.[116] Clock towers in Western Europe in the Middle Ages were also sometimes striking clocks. The most famous original still standing is possibly St Mark's Clock on the top of St Mark's Clocktower in St Mark's Square, Venice, assembled in 1493, by the clockmaker Gian Carlo Rainieri from Reggio Emilia. In 1497, Simone Campanato moulded the great bell that every definite time-lapse is beaten by two mechanical bronze statues (h. 2,60 m.) called Due Mori (Two Moors), handling a hammer. Possibly earlier (1490 by clockmaster Jan Re also called Hanu) is the Prague Astronomical Clock, that according to another source was assembled as early as 1410 by clockmaker Mikul of Kada and mathematician Jan indel. The allegorical parade of animated sculptures rings on the hour every day. Early clock dials did not use minutes and seconds. A clock with a minutes dial is mentioned in a 1475 manuscript,[117] and clocks indicating minutes and seconds existed in Germany in the 15th century.[118] Timepieces which indicated minutes and seconds were occasionally made from this time on, but this was not common until the increase in accuracy made possible by the pendulum clock and, in watches, the spiral balance spring. The 16th-century astronomer Tycho Brahe used clocks with minutes and seconds to observe stellar positions.[117] Ottoman mechanical clocks The Ottoman engineer Taqi al-Din described a weight-driven clock with a verge-and-foliot escapement, a striking train of gears, an alarm, and a representation of the moon's phases in his book The Brightest Stars for the Construction of Mechanical Clocks (Al-Kawkib al-durriyya f wadh' al-bankmat al-dawriyya), written around 1556.[119] Similarly to earlier 15th-century European mechanical alarm clocks,[120] [121] the alarm was set by placing a peg on the dial wheel at the appropriate time. The clock had three dials reading in hours, degrees and minutes. Taqi al-Din later constructed a clock for the Istanbul Observatory, where he used it to make observations of right ascensions, stating: We constructed a mechanical clock with three dials which show the hours, the minutes, and the seconds. We divided each minute into five seconds. This was an important innovation in 16th-century practical astronomy, as at the start of the century clocks were not accurate enough to be used for astronomical purposes.[122] An example of a watch which measured time in minutes was created by an Ottoman watchmaker, Meshur Sheyh Dede, in 1702.[123] Pendulum clocks Innovations to the mechanical clock continued, with miniaturization leading to domestic clocks in the 15th century, and personal watches in the 16th.[96] In the 1580s, the Italian polymath Galileo Galilei investigated the regular swing of the pendulum, and discovered that it could be used to regulate a clock.[95] [124] Although Galileo studied the pendulum as early as 1582, he never actually constructed a clock based on that design.[95] The first pendulum clock was designed and built by Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens, in 1656.[95] Early versions erred by less than one minute per day, and later ones only by 10seconds, very accurate for their time.[95] The Jesuits were another major contributor to the development of pendulum clocks in the 17th and 18th centuries, having had an "unusually keen appreciation of the importance of precision".[125] [126] In measuring an accurate one-second pendulum, for example, the Italian astronomer Father Giovanni Battista Riccioli persuaded nine fellow Jesuits "to count nearly 87,000 oscillations in a single day".[126] They served a crucial role in spreading and testing the scientific ideas of the period, and collaborated with contemporary scientists, such as Huygens.[125] The modern longcase clock, also known as the grandfather clock, has its origins in the invention of the anchor escapement mechanism in about 1670.[127] Before then, pendulum clocks had used the older verge escapement mechanism, which required very wide pendulum swings of about 100. To avoid the need for a very large case, most clocks using the verge escapement had a short pendulum. The anchor mechanism, however, reduced the pendulum's

38

History of timekeeping devices necessary swing to between 4 to 6, allowing clockmakers to use longer pendulums with consequently slower beats. These required less power to move, caused less friction and wear, and were more accurate than their shorter predecessors. Most longcase clocks use a pendulum about a metre (39inches) long to the center of the bob, with each swing taking one second. This requirement for height, along with the need for a long drop space for the weights that power the clock, gave rise to the tall, narrow case.[128] In 1675, 18years after inventing the pendulum clock, Huygens devised the spiral balance spring for the balance wheel of pocket watches, an improvement on the straight spring invented by English natural philosopher Robert Hooke.[124] This resulted in a great advance in accuracy of pocket watches, from perhaps several hours per day to 10minutes per day, similar to the effect of the pendulum upon mechanical clocks.[15] [129] Clockmakers The first professional clockmakers came from the guilds of locksmiths and jewellers. Clockmaking developed from a specialized craft into a mass production industry over many years.[130] Paris and Blois were the early centers of clockmaking in France. French clockmakers such as Julien Le Roy, clockmaker of Versailles, were leaders in case design and ornamental clocks.[130] Le Roy belonged to the fifth generation of a family of clockmakers, and was described by his contemporaries as "the most skillful clockmaker in France, possibly in Europe". He invented a special repeating mechanism which improved the precision of clocks and watches, a face that could be opened to view the inside clockwork, and made or supervised over 3,500watches. The competition and scientific rivalry resulting from his discoveries further encouraged researchers to seek new methods of measuring time more accurately.[131]

39

A pocket watch

Between 1794 and 1795, in the aftermath of the French Revolution, the French government briefly mandated decimal clocks, with a day divided into 10hours of 100minutes each.[132] The astronomer and mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace, An antique pocket watch movement, from an 1891 encyclopedia. among other individuals, modified the dial of his pocket watch to decimal time.[132] A clock in the Palais des Tuileries kept decimal time as late as 1801, but the cost of replacing all the nation's clocks prevented decimal clocks from becoming widespread.[133] Because decimalized clocks only helped astronomers rather than ordinary citizens, it was one of the most unpopular changes associated with the metric system, and it was abandoned.[133] In Germany, Nuremberg and Augsburg were the early clockmaking centers, and the Black Forest came to specialize in wooden cuckoo clocks.[134] The English became the predominant clockmakers of the 17th and 18th centuries. In 1802, British Philosopher, William Paley, applied the analogy of a watch's design to the idea that creation is designed, and therefore must have a designer. Switzerland established itself as a clockmaking center following the influx of Huguenot craftsmen, and in the 19th century, the Swiss industry "gained worldwide supremacy in high-quality machine-made watches". The leading firm of the day was Patek Philippe, founded by Antoni Patek of Warsaw and Adrien Philippe of Berne.[130]

History of timekeeping devices Wristwatches In 1904, Alberto Santos-Dumont, an early aviator, asked his friend, a French watchmaker called Louis Cartier, to design a watch that could be useful during his flights.[135] The wristwatch had already been invented by Patek Philippe, in 1868, but only as a "ladys bracelet watch", intended as jewelry. As pocket watches were unsuitable, Louis Cartier created the Santos wristwatch, the first man's wristwatch and the first designed for practical use.[136] Wristwatches gained in popularity during World War I, when officers found them to be more convenient than pocket watches in battle. Also, because the pocket watch was mainly a middle class item, the enlisted men usually owned wristwatches, which they brought with them. Artillery and infantry officers depended on their watches as battles became more complicated and coordinated attacks became necessary. Wristwatches were found to be needed in the air as much as on the ground: military pilots found them more convenient than pocket watches for the same reasons as Santos-Dumont had. Eventually, army contractors manufactured watches en masse, for both infantry and pilots. In World War II, the A-11 was a popular watch among American airmen, with its simple black face and clear white numbers for easy readability.[137] Marine chronometers Marine chronometers are clocks used at sea as time standards, to determine longitude by celestial navigation.[138] They were first developed by Yorkshire carpenter John Harrison, who won the British government's Longitude Prize in 1759. Marine chronometers keep the time of a fixed locationusually Greenwich Mean Timeallowing seafarers to determine longitude by comparing the local high noon to the clock.[138] [139] [140]

40

A twin-barrel box chronometer.

Chronometers
A chronometer is a portable timekeeper that meets certain precision standards. Initially, the term was used to refer to the marine chronometer, a timepiece used to determine longitude by means of celestial navigation.[138] More recently, the term has also been applied to the chronometer watch, a wristwatch that meets certain precision standards set by the Swiss agency COSC.[141] Over 1,000,000 "Officially Certified Chronometer" certificates, mostly for mechanical wrist-chronometerswristwatcheswith sprung balance oscillators, are delivered each year, after passing the COSC's most severe tests, A modern quartz watch and chronograph and being singly identified by an officially recorded individual serial number. According to COSC, a chronometer is a high-precision watch, capable of displaying the seconds and housing a movement that has been tested over several days, in different positions, and at different temperatures, by an official, neutral body. To meet this requirement, each movement is individually tested for several consecutive days, in five positions, and at three temperatures. Any watch with the designation chronometer has a certified movement.[142]

History of timekeeping devices

41

Quartz oscillators
The piezoelectric properties of crystalline quartz were discovered by Jacques and Pierre Curie in 1880.[95] [143] The first quartz crystal oscillator was built by Walter G. Cady in 1921, and in 1927 the first quartz clock was built by Warren Marrison and J. W. Horton at Bell Telephone Laboratories in Canada.[144] [145] The following decades saw the development of quartz clocks as precision time measurement devices in laboratory settingsthe bulky and delicate counting electronics, built with vacuum tubes, limited their practical use elsewhere. In 1932, a quartz clock able to measure small weekly variations in the rotation rate of the Earth was developed.[145] The National Bureau of Standards (now NIST) based the time standard of the United States on quartz clocks from late 1929 until the 1960s, when it changed to atomic clocks.[146] In 1969, Seiko produced the world's first quartz wristwatch, the Astron.[147] Their inherent accuracy and low cost of production has resulted in the subsequent proliferation of quartz clocks and watches.[95]

Internal construction of a modern high performance HC-49 package quartz crystal.

Atomic clocks
Atomic clocks are the most accurate timekeeping devices known to date. Accurate to within a few seconds over many thousands of years, they are used to calibrate other clocks and timekeeping instruments.[148] The first atomic clock, invented in 1949, is on display at the Smithsonian Institution.[146] It was based on the absorption line in the ammonia molecule,[149] [150] but most are now based on the spin property of the cesium atom. The International System of Units standardized its unit of time, the second, on the properties of cesium in 1967.[150] SI defines the second as 9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation which corresponds to the transition between two electron spin energy levels of the ground state of the 133Cs atom.[151] The cesium atomic clock, maintained by the National Institute of Standards and Technology, is accurate to 30billionths of a second per year.[150] Atomic clocks have employed other elements, such as hydrogen and rubidium vapor, offering greater stabilityin the case of hydrogen clocksand smaller size, lower power consumption, and thus lower cost (in the case of rubidium clocks).[150]

Footnotes
[1] David Landes: Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World, rev. and enlarged edition, Harvard University Press, Cambridge 2000, ISBN 0-674-00282-2, p.18f. [2] Lewis 2000, pp.356f. [3] Needham, Joseph (1986). "Science and Civilization in China". Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2: Mechanical Engineering (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd) 4: 411. [4] Hassan, Ahmad Y, Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering (http:/ / www. history-science-technology. com/ Articles/ articles 71. htm), History of Science and Technology in Islam [5] Chobotov, p. 1 [6] Bruton, Eric (1979). The History of Clocks and Watches. New York: Crescent Books. ISBN0-517-37744-6. [7] Barnett, p. 102 [8] Knight & Butler, p. 77 [9] Aveni, p. 136 [10] "Ancient Calendars" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080409142829/ http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ GenInt/ Time/ ancient. html). National Institute of Standards and Technology. Archived from the original (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ GenInt/ Time/ ancient. html) on April 9, 2008. . Retrieved 2008-04-30. [11] Richards, p. 55 [12] Major, p. 9 [13] "Sundial" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 573826/ sundial). Encyclopedia Britannica. . Retrieved 2008-04-04. [14] Bruton, Eric (1979). The History of Clocks and Watches (1982 ed.). New York: Crescent Books. ISBN0-517-37744-6. [15] "Earliest Clocks" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080315060613/ http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ GenInt/ Time/ early. html). A Walk Through Time. NIST Physics Laboratory. Archived from the original (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ GenInt/ Time/ early. html) on March 15, 2008. .

History of timekeeping devices

Retrieved 2008-04-02. [16] Barnett, p. 18 [17] "How does an hourglass measure time?" (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ rr/ scitech/ mysteries/ hourglass. html). Library of Congress. . Retrieved 2008-03-31. [18] Berlev, p. 118 [19] Philbin, p. 128 [20] Cotterell, pp. 5961 [21] Whitrow, p. 28 [22] Levy, Joel (2002). Really Useful: The Origin of Everyday Things (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=fyBb_Xh5hqIC& printsec=frontcover#PPT63,M1). Firefly Books. p.63. ISBN1-55297-622-X. . Retrieved 2008-06-20. [23] O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. "Plato biography" (http:/ / www-groups. dcs. st-and. ac. uk/ ~history/ Biographies/ Plato. html). School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews. . Retrieved 2007-11-29. [24] Hellemans, Alexander; Bunch, Bryan H. (2004). The History of Science and Technology: A Browser's Guide to the Great Discoveries, Inventions, and the People Who Made Them, From the Dawn of Time to Today. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p.65. ISBN0-618-22123-9. [25] Barnett, p. 28 [26] Humphrey, John William (1998). Greek and Roman Technology: A Sourcebook (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=H8YOAAAAQAAJ& printsec=frontcover). Routledge. pp.518519. ISBN0-415-06136-9. . Retrieved 2008-04-11. [27] Apuleius, Lucius (1951). The Transformations of Lucius, Otherwise Known as The Golden Ass. Translated by Robert Graves. New York, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. p.54. ISBN0-374-50532-2. [28] Rees, Abraham (1970). Rees's clocks, watches, and chronometers (1819-20); a selection from the Cyclopaedia, or Universal dictionary of arts, sciences, and literature. Rutland, Vt: C. E. Tuttle Co. ISBN0-8048-0901-1. [29] Aveni, Anthony F. (2000). Empires of Time: Calendars, Clocks, and Cultures (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=-QcE2pBCLE8C& printsec=frontcover). Tauris Parke Paperbacks. p.92. ISBN1-86064-602-6. . Retrieved 2008-06-22. [30] Collier, James Lincoln (2003). Clocks. Tarrytown, NY: Benchmark Books. p.25. ISBN0-7614-1538-6. [31] O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. "Theodosius biography" (http:/ / www-groups. dcs. st-and. ac. uk/ ~history/ Biographies/ Theodosius. html). School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews. . Retrieved 2008-04-01. [32] "Marcus Vitruvius Pollio:de Architectura, Book IX" (http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Vitruvius/ 9*. html#refK). The Latin text is that of the Teubner edition of 1899 by Valentin Rose, transcribed by Bill Thayer. 2007-07-07. . Retrieved 2007-09-07. [33] Buchner, Edmund (1976). "Solarium Augusti und Ara Pacis" (in German). Rmische Mitteilungen (Berlin) 83 (2): 319375. [34] National Maritime Museum; Lippincott, Kristen; Eco, Umberto; Gombrich, E. H. (1999). The Story of Time. London: Merrell Holberton in association with National Maritime Museum. ISBN1-85894-072-9. [35] Barnett, p. 21 [36] Needham, Joseph (1986). "Science and Civilization in China". Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2: Mechanical Engineering (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd) 4: 479480. [37] al-Hassan, Ahmad Y.; Hill, Donald R. (1986). Islamic Technology: An Illustrated History. Cambridge University Press. pp.5759. ISBN0-521-26333-6. [38] Flamer, Keith (2006). "History of Time" (http:/ / www. iwmagazine. com/ education_history. cfm). International Watch Magazine. . Retrieved 2008-04-08. [39] "Clockworks: Candle clock" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ clockworks/ t_candle. html). Encyclopdia Britannica. . Retrieved 2008-03-16. [40] [[Ancient Discoveries (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=PwGfw1YW9Js)], Episode 12: Machines of the East]. History Channel. . Retrieved 2008-09-07. [41] Routledge Hill, Donald, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American, May 1991, pp. 649 (cf. Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering (http:/ / home. swipnet. se/ islam/ articles/ HistoryofSciences. htm)) [42] Richards, p. 52 [43] Pagani, Catherine (2001). Eastern Magnificence and European Ingenuity: Clocks of Late Imperial China (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=8bXxHSZkWssC& printsec=frontcover#PPA209,M1). University of Michigan Press. p.209. ISBN0-472-11208-2. . Retrieved 2008-06-21. [44] Schafer, Edward (1963). The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of T'ang Exotics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=QerLX9x8pIkC& printsec=frontcover#PPA160,M1). University of California Press. pp.160161. ISBN0-520-05462-8. . [45] Chang, Edward; Lu, Yung-Hsiang (December 1996). "Visualizing Video Streams using Sand Glass Metaphor" (http:/ / infolab. stanford. edu/ ~echang/ Class/ public/ report. html). Stanford University. . Retrieved 2008-06-20. [46] Fraser, Julius (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the Strategy of Existence (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=XDwZ9WZ3oBIC& printsec=frontcover#PPA55,M1). Princeton University Press. pp.5556. ISBN0-691-02437-5. . Retrieved 2008-06-21. [47] "Time Activity:Incense Clock" (http:/ / www. msichicago. org/ scrapbook/ scrapbook_exhibits/ time/ educ_pages/ act_incenseclock. html). Chicago: Museum of Science and Industry. . Retrieved 2008-04-29. [48] Levy, p. 18 [49] "Asian Gallery Incense Clock" (http:/ / www. nawcc. org/ museum/ nwcm/ galleries/ asian/ incense. htm). National Watch and Clock Museum. . Retrieved 2008-04-28.

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[50] Richards, p. 130 [51] Rossotti, Hazel (2002). Fire: Servant, Scourge, and Enigma (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=6Lg7o6NnJzgC& printsec=frontcover#PPA157,M1). Dover Publications. p.157. ISBN0-486-42261-5. . Retrieved 2008-06-21. [52] Bedini, Silvio (1994). The Trail of Time: Shih-chien Ti Tsu-chi : Time Measurement with Incense in East Asia (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=xdVkzs6iI1YC& printsec=frontcover#PPA183,M1). Cambridge University Press. p.183. ISBN0-521-37482-0. . Retrieved 2008-06-21. [53] Bedini, pp. 103104 [54] Fraser, p. 52 [55] Bedini, p. 187 [56] Bedini, Silvio A. (1963). "The Scent of Time. A Study of the Use of Fire and Incense for Time Measurement in Oriental Countries". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: American Philosophical Society) 53 (5): 151. doi:10.2307/1005923. JSTOR1005923. [57] Bedini, p. 105 [58] Fraser, J. A. (1987). Time, The Familiar Stranger (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=n026gjD4B9QC& printsec=frontcover#PPA52,M1). Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. p.52. ISBN0-87023-576-1. . [59] Fraser, p. 56 [60] Bedini, pp. 104106 [61] Lewis, Michael (2000). "Theoretical Hydraulics, Automata, and Water Clocks". In Wikander, rjan. Handbook of Ancient Water Technology. Technology and Change in History. 2. Leiden: Brill. pp.343369 (356f.). ISBN90-04-11123-9. [62] American Society of Mechanical Engineers (2002). Proceedings of the 2002 ASME Design Engineering Technical Conferences. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. ISBN0-7918-3624-X. [63] Schafer, Edward H. (1967). Great Ages of Man: Ancient China. New York: Time-Life Books. p.128. ISBN0-900658-10-X. [64] "The mechanical clock history of Chinese science" (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m1310/ is_/ ai_6955890). UNESCO Courier. 1988. . Retrieved 2008-04-16. [65] Tomczak, Matthias. "The Water Clock of 1088" (http:/ / www. es. flinders. edu. au/ ~mattom/ science+ society/ lectures/ illustrations/ lecture15/ clock. html). Flinders University (es.flinders.edu.au). . Retrieved 2008-04-29. [66] Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, p. 165 [67] Donald Routledge Hill (1991). "Arabic Mechanical Engineering: Survey of the Historical Sources". Arabic Sciences and Philosophy: A Historical Journal (Cambridge University Press) 1 (2): 167186 [174]. doi:10.1017/S0957423900001478 [68] Donald Routledge Hill (1991). "Arabic Mechanical Engineering: Survey of the Historical Sources". Arabic Sciences and Philosophy: A Historical Journal (Cambridge University Press) 1 (2): 167186 [180]. doi:10.1017/S0957423900001478 [69] Donald Routledge Hill (1996). A history of engineering in classical and medieval times. Routledge. pp.203, 223, 242. ISBN0-415-15291-7 [70] N. K. Singh & M. Zaki Kirmani (2005). Encyclopaedia of Islamic science and scientists. Global Vision Publishing. pp.567. 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North American Sundial Society 12 (4). [84] Mayall, Margaret W.; Mayall, R. Newton (2002). Sundials: Their Construction and Use. New York: Dover Publications. p.17. ISBN0-486-41146-X. [85] O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. "Fine biography" (http:/ / www-groups. dcs. st-and. ac. uk/ ~history/ Biographies/ Fine. html). School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews. . Retrieved 2008-03-31. [86] (Latin) Aked, Charles K.; Severino, Nicola (1997). "Bibliografia della Gnomonica" (http:/ / www. nicolaseverino. it/ Articoli/ international bibliography. pdf) (PDF). British Sundial Society. p. 119. . Retrieved 2008-06-21. [87] Bergreen, Laurence (2003). Over the Edge of the World: Magellan's Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=uK9d2EFrMJIC& printsec=frontcover#PPA53,M1). New York: Morrow. p.53. ISBN0-06-621173-5. . Retrieved 2008-06-22.

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[88] Frugoni p. 83 [89] Macey, Samuel L. (1994). Encyclopedia of Time (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=F7wNQk219KMC& printsec=frontcover#PPA209,M1). New York: Garland Pub. p.209. ISBN0-8153-0615-6. . Retrieved 2008-06-22. [90] Blaut, James Morris (2000). Eight Eurocentric Historians (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=ktn7LmLgc6oC& printsec=frontcover#PPA186,M1). Guildford Press. p.186. ISBN1-57230-591-6. . Retrieved 2008-06-22. [91] "Clock Etymology" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=clock). Online Etymology Dictionary. . Retrieved 2008-04-27. [92] "Merriam-Webster Online: Clock" (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ Clock). Webster's Dictionary. . Retrieved 2008-06-20. [93] executive editor, Joseph P. Pickett (1992). [[The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 61/ 31/ C0413100. html)]] (Fourth ed.). Houghton Mifflin. ISBN0-395-82517-2. . Retrieved 2007-12-04. [94] "Mechanical Timekeeping" (http:/ / www. stedmundsbury. gov. uk/ sebc/ visit/ mechanicaltimekeeping. cfm). St. Edmundsbury Borough Council. . Retrieved 2007-12-10. [95] "A Revolution in Timekeeping" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080409174853/ http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ GenInt/ Time/ revol. html). NIST. Archived from the original (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ GenInt/ Time/ revol. html) on April 9, 2008. . Retrieved 2008-04-30. [96] Davies, Norman; p. 434 [97] Kleinschmidt, Harald (2000). Understanding the Middle Ages (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=JlwDcFHzds0C& printsec=frontcover#PPA26,M1). Boydell & Brewer. p.26. ISBN0-85115-770-X. . Retrieved 2008-06-22. [98] Payson Usher, Abbot (1988). A History of Mechanical Inventions. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN0-486-25593-X. [99] Usher, p. 194 [100] "A history of mechanical inventions, Abbott Payson Usher(1929), p.192 (http:/ / books. google. es/ books?id=xuDDqqa8FlwC& pg=PA192& lpg=PA192& dq=Pacificus,+ archdeacon+ of+ Verona& source=bl& ots=dAv7DHwguD& sig=FtHg5VHnxTl86icxYHtKDxVKOjY& hl=es& ei=aU_MS8alBIL78Abs-93GBA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=5& ved=0CCUQ6AEwBA#v=onepage& q=pacificus& f=false)" [101] Woods, p. 36 [102] Modern tracing of an illustration in a 1461 manuscript at Oxford University (MS Laud. Misc. 620 Folio 10). Whitrow, G. J. (1989). Time in History: Views of Time from Prehistory to the Present Day. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.106. ISBN0-19-285211-6. [103] Reid, p. 4 [104] "Then, as a horologe that calleth us / What time the Bride of God is rising up". "Paradiso Canto X Divine Comedy Dante Alighieri La Divina Commedia" (http:/ / italian. about. com/ library/ anthology/ dante/ blparadiso010. htm). About.com. . Retrieved 2008-04-11. [105] "Oldest Working Clock, Frequently Asked Questions, Salisbury Cathedral" (http:/ / www. salisburycathedral. org. uk/ visitor. faqs. php?id=23). . Retrieved 2008-04-04. [106] "Wells Cathedral Clock BBC" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ dna/ h2g2/ pda/ A659892?s_id=1). British Broadcasting Corporation. . Retrieved 2008-06-22. [107] "[[Catholic Encyclopedia (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 06579a. htm)]: Glastonbury Abbey"]. Kevin Knight. . Retrieved 2007-12-10. [108] "Wells Cathedral History" (http:/ / www. wellscathedral. org. uk/ history/ presentbuilding/ theclock. shtml). WellsCathedral.org.uk. . Retrieved 2008-06-21. [109] "Wells Cathedral clock, c.1392" (http:/ / www. sciencemuseum. org. uk/ objects/ time_measurement/ 1884-77. aspx). Science Museum (London). . Retrieved 2008-02-11. [110] Gransden, Antonia (1996). Historic Writing in England (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Cx0f2oVZI64C& printsec=frontcover#PPA122,M1). Routledge. p.122. ISBN0-415-15125-2. . Retrieved 2008-06-22. [111] Burnett-Stuart, George. "De Dondi's Astrarium" (http:/ / www. almagest. co. uk/ middle/ astrar. htm). Almagest. Computastat Group Ltd.. . Retrieved 2008-04-21. [112] Macey, p. 130 [113] North, John David (2005). God's Clockmaker: Richard of Wallingford and the Invention of Time (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=rAuj1_x34XoC& printsec=frontcover#PPR15,M1). Hambledon & London. p.xv. ISBN1-85285-451-0. . Retrieved 2008-06-22. [114] Watson, E. (1979). "The St. Albans Clock of Richard of Wallingford". Antiquarian Horology (Antiquarian Horological Society) 11 (6): 372384. [115] Clarke, p. 60 [116] Bottomley, p. 34 [117] p. 529, "Time and timekeeping instruments", History of astronomy: an encyclopedia, John Lankford, Taylor & Francis, 1997, ISBN 0-8153-0322-X. [118] p. 209, A history of mechanical inventions, Abbott Payson Usher, Courier Dover Publications, 1988, ISBN 0-486-25593-X. [119] Ahmad Y al-Hassan & Donald R. Hill (1986), Islamic Technology, Cambridge, ISBN 0-521-42239-6, p. 59 [120] p. 249, The Grove encyclopedia of decorative arts, Gordon Campbell, vol. 1, Oxford University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-19-518948-5. [121] "Monastic Alarm Clocks, Italian" (http:/ / national-clockshop-directory. com/ Clock-Dictionary/ m-main. htm), entry, Clock Dictionary. [122] Tekeli, Sevim (2008). "Taqi al-Din" (http:/ / www. springer. com/ philosophy/ philosophy+ of+ sciences/ book/ 978-1-4020-4425-0). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Springer. ISBN978-1-4020-4559-2 (print), ISBN 978-1-4020-4425-0 (online). .

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History of timekeeping devices

[123] Horton, Paul (1977). "Topkapi's Turkish Timepieces" (http:/ / www. saudiaramcoworld. com/ issue/ 197704/ topkapi. s. turkish. timepieces. htm). Saudi Aramco World, JulyAugust 1977: 1013. . Retrieved 2008-07-12. [124] Davies, Eryl (1995). Pockets: Inventions. London: Dorling Kindersley. ISBN0-7513-5184-9. [125] Woods, pp. 100101 [126] Woods, p. 103 [127] Derry, T. K. (1993). A Short History of Technology: From the Earliest Times to A.D. 1900 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=PoAJbWm3nEUC& printsec=frontcover#PPA293,M1). Courier Dover Publications. p.293. ISBN0-486-27472-1. . Retrieved 2008-06-22. [128] Brain, Marshall. "How Pendulum Clocks Work" (http:/ / electronics. howstuffworks. com/ clock. htm). HowStuffWorks. . Retrieved 2007-12-10. [129] Milham, Willis I. (1945). Time and Timekeepers. New York: MacMillan. p.226. ISBN0-7808-0008-7. [130] Davies, Norman; p. 435 [131] "Julien Le Roy" (http:/ / www. getty. edu/ art/ gettyguide/ artMakerDetails?maker=556). Getty Center. . Retrieved 2008-04-05. [132] Alder, pp. 149150 [133] Alder, pp. 150162 [134] Shull, Thelma (1963). Victorian Antiques. C. E. Tuttle Co.. p.65. [135] Silva de Mattos, Bento. "Alberto Santos-Dumont" (http:/ / www. aiaa. org/ content. cfm?pageid=428). American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. . Retrieved 2008-06-21. [136] Prochnow, Dave (2006). Lego Mindstorms NXT Hacker's Guide. McGraw-Hill. ISBN0-07-148147-8. [137] Hoffman, Paul (2004). Wings of Madness: Alberto Santos-Dumont and the Invention of Flight. Hyperion Press. ISBN0-7868-8571-8. [138] "Marine Chronometers Gallery" (http:/ / www. nawcc. org/ museum/ nwcm/ galleries/ marine/ marine. htm). National Association of Watch and Clock Collectors. . Retrieved 2008-05-20. [139] Marchildon, Jr me. "Science News The Marine Chronometer" (http:/ / www. manitobamuseum. ca/ sg_marine. html). Manitoba Museum. . Retrieved 2008-05-20. [140] "Chronometers, precision watches, and timekeepers" (http:/ / www. nmm. ac. uk/ collections/ explore/ index. cfm/ category/ chronometers). Greenwich: National Maritime Museum. . Retrieved 2008-05-20. [141] "Reflecting on Time | COSC certified chronometer" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080606000352/ http:/ / www. mido. ch/ en/ technology/ COSC/ default. htm). Mido. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. mido. ch/ en/ technology/ COSC/ default. htm) on June 6, 2008. . Retrieved 29 June 2008. [142] "Contr le Officiel Suisse des Chronomtres" (http:/ / www. cosc. ch/ chronometre. php?lang=en). COSC. . Retrieved 2008-05-10. [143] "Pierre Curie" (http:/ / www. aip. org/ history/ curie/ pierre. htm). American Institute of Physics. . Retrieved 2008-04-08. [144] Marrison, W. A.; Horton, J. W. (February 1928). "Precision determination of frequency". I.R.E. Proc. 16 (2): 137154. doi:10.1109/JRPROC.1928.221372. [145] Marrison, vol. 27 pp. 510588 [146] Sullivan, D.B. (2001). "Time and frequency measurement at NIST: The first 100years" (http:/ / tf. nist. gov/ timefreq/ general/ pdf/ 1485. pdf) (PDF). Time and Frequency Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology (http:/ / tf. nist. gov/ ). p. 5. . [147] "Electronic Quartz Wristwatch, 1969" (http:/ / www. ieee. org/ web/ aboutus/ history_center/ seiko. html). IEEE History Center. . Retrieved 2007-08-31. [148] Dick, Stephen (2002). Sky and Ocean Joined: The U.S. Naval Observatory, 18302000 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=DNwfG5hQ7-YC& printsec=frontcover#PRA1-PA484,M1). Cambridge University Press. p.484. ISBN0-521-81599-1. . Retrieved 2008-06-20. [149] "Time and Frequency Division" (http:/ / tf. nist. gov/ general/ museum/ 847history. htm). National Institute of Standards and Technology. . Retrieved 2008-04-01. [150] "The "Atomic Age" of Time Standards" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080412040352/ http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ GenInt/ Time/ atomic. html). National Institute of Standards and Technology. Archived from the original (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ GenInt/ Time/ atomic. html) on April 12, 2008. . Retrieved 2008-05-02. [151] "What is a Cesium Atomic Clock?" (http:/ / inms-ienm. nrc-cnrc. gc. ca/ faq_time_e. html#10). National Research Council Canada. . Retrieved 2008-03-26.

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46

References
Alder, Ken (2002). The Measure of All Things: The Seven-Year Odyssey and Hidden Error that Transformed the World. London: Little, Brown. ISBN0-7432-1676-8. OCLC53324804. Aveni, Anthony (2001). Skywatchers: A Revised and Updated Version of Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico (http:// books.google.com/?id=JDBu_x6vlZ4C&printsec=frontcover#PPA136,M1). Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN0-292-70502-6. OCLC45195586. Retrieved 2008-06-20. Barnett, Jo Ellen (1998). Time's Pendulum: From Sundials to Atomic Clocks, the Fascinating History of Timekeeping and How Our Discoveries Changed the World (http://books.google.com/?id=2PCEPLT4aZgC& printsec=frontcover#PPA102,M1) (1st ed.). San Diego, CA: Harcourt Trade Publishers. ISBN0-15-600649-9. OCLC40255897. Retrieved 2008-06-20. Berlev, Oleg (1997). "Bureaucrats". In Donadoni, Sergio. The Egyptians. Trans. Bianchi, Robert et al.. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN0-226-15555-2. OCLC35808323. Bottomley, Frank (1983). The Castle Explorer's Guide. New York, NY: Crown Publishers. ISBN0-517-42172-0. OCLC9762252. Clarke, Howard B.; Dent, Sarah; Johnson, Ruth (2002). Dublinia: The Story of Medieval Dublin. Dublin, Ireland: O'Brien. ISBN0-86278-785-8. OCLC50528116. Chobotov, Vladimir (2002). Orbital Mechanics (http://books.google.com/?id=SuPQmbqyrFAC& printsec=frontcover#PPA1,M1) (3rd ed.). Reston, VA: AIAA. ISBN1-56347-537-5. OCLC49923275. Retrieved 2008-06-20. Cotterell, Brian; Kamminga, Johan (1990). Mechanics of Pre-Industrial Technology: An Introduction to the Mechanics of Ancient and Traditional Material Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-42871-8. OCLC18520966. Davies, Norman (1996). Europe: A History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-820171-0. OCLC35593922. Frugoni, Chiara (1988). Pietro et Ambrogio Lorenzetti. New York, NY: Scala Books. ISBN0-935748-80-6. OCLC18827370. Knight, Christopher; Butler, Alan (2004). Civilization One: The World is Not as You Thought It Was (http:// books.google.com/?id=WH2EAO_FfUwC&printsec=frontcover#PPA77,M1). London: Watkins Publishers. ISBN1-84293-095-8. OCLC57313245. Major, Fouad G. (1998). The Quantum Beat: The Physical Principles of Atomic Clocks (http://books.google. com/?id=DpW_hGoo-NUC&printsec=frontcover). New York, NY: Springer. ISBN0-387-98301-5. OCLC37315254. Retrieved 2008-06-22. Marrison, Warren A. (1948). "The Evolution of the Quartz Crystal Clock" (http://www.ieee-uffc.org/ freqcontrol/marrison/Marrison.html). Bell System Technical Journal (New York, NY: AT&T) 27: 51088. OCLC10999639. Philbin, Tom (2005). The 100 Greatest Inventions of All Time: A Ranking Past to Present (http://books.google. com/?id=SPFiZ31mTnUC&printsec=frontcover#PPA128,M1). New York, NY: Citadel Press. ISBN0-8065-2404-9. OCLC57166331. Retrieved 2008-06-20. Reid, Thomas (1832). Treatise on Clock and Watch Making: Theoretical and Practical (http://books.google. com/?id=dpAEAAAAYAAJ). Carey and Lea. OCLC17454059. Richards, E. G. (1998). Mapping Time: The Calendar and its History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-850413-6. OCLC185547970. Whitrow, Gerald J. (1989). Time in History: Views of Time from Prehistory to the Present Day (http://books. google.com/?id=o8Nb5KLBxVQC&printsec=frontcover) (1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-285211-6. OCLC21182984. Woods, Thomas (2005). How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization. Washington D.C., United States: Regnery Publ.. ISBN0-89526-038-7. OCLC58720707.

History of timekeeping devices Lewis, Michael (2000). "Theoretical Hydraulics, Automata, and Water Clocks". In Wikander, rjan. Handbook of Ancient Water Technology. Technology and Change in History. 2. Leiden: Brill. pp.343369 (356f.). ISBN90-04-11123-9.

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Further reading
Andrews, William J. H. (1996). The Quest for Longitude. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN978-0-9644329-0-1. OCLC59617314. Audoin, Claude; Guinot, Bernard (2001). The Measurement of Time: Time, Frequency, and the Atomic Clock. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-00397-0. Bartky, Ian R. (January 1989). "The Adoption of Standard Time". Technology and Culture (Technology and Culture, Vol. 30, No. 1) 30 (1): 2556. doi:10.2307/3105430. JSTOR3105430. Breasted, James H., "The Beginnings of Time Measurement and the Origins of Our Calendar", in Time and its Mysteries, a series of lectures presented by the James Arthur Foundation, New York University, New York: New York University Press, 1936, pp.5996. Cowan, Harrison J. (1958). Time and Its Measurements. Cleveland: World Publishing Company. Dohrn-Van Rossum, Gerhard (1996). History of the Hour: Clocks and Modern Temporal Orders. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN0-226-15510-2. Garver, Thomas H. (Fall 1992). "Keeping Time". American Heritage of Invention & Technology 8 (2): 817. Goudsmit, Samuel A.; Claiborne, Robert; Millikan, Robert A. (1996). Time. New York: Time Inc. Hawkins, Gerald S. (1965). Stonehenge Decoded. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday. ISBN978-0-385-04127-0. Hellwig, Helmut; Evenson, Kenneth M.; Wineland, David J. (December 1978). "Time, Frequency and Physical Measurement". Physics Today 23 (12): 2330. doi:10.1063/1.2994867. Hood, Peter (1955). How Time Is Measured. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-836615-9. Howse, Derek (1980). Greenwich Time and the Discovery of the Longitude. Philip Wilson Publishers, Ltd. ISBN978-0-19-215948-9. Humphrey, Henry; O'Meara-Humphrey, Deirdre (1980). When is Now?: Experiments with Time and Timekeeping Devices (http://books.google.com/?id=dTuMAAAACAAJ&dq=Timekeeping). Doubleday Publishing. ISBN0-385-13215-8. Itano, Wayne M.; Ramsey, Norman F. (July 1993). "Accurate Measurement of Time". Scientific American 269 (1): 5665. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0793-56. Jespersen, James; Hanson, D. Wayne (July 1991). "Special Issue on Time and Frequency". Proceedings of the IEEE 74 (7). Jespersen, James; Fitz-Randolph, Jane (2000). From Sundials to Atomic Clocks: Understanding Time and Frequency 2nd (revised) edition. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications. ISBN0-486-40913-9. Jones, Tony (2000). Splitting the Second: The Story of Atomic Timekeeping. Bristol, UK: Institute of Physics Publishing. ISBN978-0-7503-0640-9. Landes, Davis S (2000). A Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN978-0-674-76800-0. Lombardi, Michael A., NIST Time and Frequency Services, NIST Special Publication 432*, revised 2002. Mayr, Otto (October 1970). "The Origins of Feedback Control". Scientific American 223 (10): 110118. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1070-110. Merriam, John C., "Time and Change in History", Time and Its Mysteries, (see Breasted above), pp.2338. Millikan, Robert A., "Time", Time and Its Mysteries, (see Breasted above) pp.322.

Morris, Richard (1985). Time's Arrows: Scientific Attitudes Toward Time. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN978-0-671-61766-0. Needham, Joseph; Ling, Wang; deSolla Price, Derek J. (1986). Heavenly Clockwork: The Great Astronomical Clocks of Medieval China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-32276-8.

History of timekeeping devices Parker, Richard Anthony (1950). The Calendars of Ancient Egypt. University of Chicago. OCLC2077978. Priestley, John Boynton (1964). Man and Time. Garden City, New York: Doubleday. Seidelmann, P. Kenneth, ed., Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, Sausalito, Calif.: University Science Books, 1992. Shallies, Michael (1983). On Time: An Investigation into Scientific Knowledge and Human Experience. New York: Schocken Books. ISBN978-0-8052-3853-2. Snyder, Wilbert F. and Charles A. Bragaw, "In the Domains of Time and Frequency" (Chapter 8), Achievement in Radio, NIST Special Publication 555*, 1986. Sobel, Dava (2005). Longitude. London, England: HarperPerennial. ISBN978-0-00-721422-8. OCLC60795122. Thompson, David, The History of Watches (http://www.abbeville.com/bookpage.asp?isbn=9780789209184), New York: Abbeville Press, 2008. Waugh, Alexander (1998). Time: Its Origin, Its Enigma, Its History. Carroll & Graf Publishing. ISBN0-7867-0767-4.

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External links
www.germanclocks.org (http://blog.germanclocks.org/2010/09/timeline-for-horology.html) - for a comprehensive timeline of horology A pilot's view on civilian, military, and vintage aviator time-pieces. (http://pilotwatchhq.com/) A walk through time (http://physics.nist.gov/GenInt/Time/ancient.html) Measuring time in ancient Egypt (http://www.eternalegypt.org/EternalEgyptWebsiteWeb/ HomeServlet?ee_website_action_key=action.display.module&module_id=5&language_id=1&story_id=19) A basic Overview (http://www.beaglesoft.com/maintimehistory.htm)

Clock
A clock is an instrument used to indicate, keep, and co-ordinate time. The word clock is derived ultimately (via Dutch, Northern French, and Medieval Latin) from the Celtic words clagan and clocca meaning "bell". A silent instrument missing such a mechanism has traditionally been known as a timepiece.[1] In general usage today a "clock" refers to any device for measuring and displaying the time. Watches and other timepieces that can be carried on one's person are often distinguished from clocks.[2] The clock is one of the oldest human inventions, meeting the Platform clock at King's Cross railway station, London. need to consistently measure intervals of time shorter than the natural units: the day; the lunar month; and the year. Devices operating on several different physical processes have been used over the millennia, culminating in the clocks of today.

Clock

49

Sundials and other devices

The sundial, which measures the time of day by using the sun casting a shadow onto a cylindrical stone, was widely used in ancient times. A well-constructed sundial can measure local solar time with reasonable accuracy, and sundials continued to be used to monitor the performance of clocks until the modern era. However, its practical limitationsit requires the sun to shine and does not work at all during the nightencouraged the use of other techniques for measuring time. Candle clocks and sticks of incense that burn down at approximately predictable speeds have also been used to estimate the passing of time. In an hourglass, fine sand pours through a tiny hole at a constant rate and indicates a predetermined passage of an arbitrary period of time.

The Shepherd gate clock at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich

Replica of an ancient Chinese incense clock

Clock

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Water clocks
Water clocks, also known as clepsydrae (sg: clepsydra), along with the sundials, are possibly the oldest time-measuring instruments, with the only exceptions being the vertical gnomon and the day-counting tally stick.[3] Given their great antiquity, where and when they first existed is not known and perhaps unknowable. The bowl-shaped outflow is the simplest form of a water clock and is known to have existed in Babylon and in Egypt around the 16th century BC. Other regions of the world, including India and China, also have early evidence of water clocks, but the earliest dates are less certain. Some authors, however, write about water clocks appearing as early as 4000 BC in these regions of the world.[4] Greek astronomer, Andronicus of Cyrrhus, supervised the construction of the Tower of the Winds in Athens in the 1st century B.C.[5] The Greek and Roman civilizations are credited for initially advancing water clock design to include complex gearing,[6] which was connected to fanciful automata and also resulted in improved accuracy. These advances were passed on through Byzantium and Islamic times, eventually making their way back to Europe. Independently, the Chinese developed their own advanced water clocksin 725 A.D., passing their ideas on to Korea and Japan.

A scale model of Su Song's Astronomical Clock Tower, built in 11th century Kaifeng, China. It was driven by a large waterwheel, chain drive, and escapement mechanism.

Some water clock designs were developed independently and some knowledge was transferred through the spread of trade. Pre-modern societies do not have the same precise timekeeping requirements that exist in modern industrial societies, where every hour of work or rest is monitored, and work may start or finish at any time regardless of external conditions. Instead, water clocks in ancient societies were used mainly for astrological reasons. These early water clocks were calibrated with a sundial. While never reaching the level of accuracy of a modern timepiece, the water clock was the most accurate and commonly used timekeeping device for millennia, until it was replaced by the more accurate pendulum clock in 17th century Europe. Islamic civilization is credited with further advancing the accuracy of clocks with elaborate engineering. In 797 (or possibly 801), the Abbasid caliph of Baghdad, Harun al-Rashid, presented Charlemagne with an Asian Elephant named Abul-Abbas together with a "particularly elaborate example" of a water[7] clock.

Automatic clock of al-Jazari, 14th century.

Clock

51

In the 13th century, Al-Jazari, an engineer who worked for Artuqid king of Diyar-Bakr, Nasir al-Din, made numerous clocks of all shapes and sizes. The book described 50 mechanical devices in 6 categories, including water clocks. The most reputed clocks included the Elephant, Scribe and Castle clocks, all of which have been successfully reconstructed. As well as telling the time, these grand clocks were symbols of status, grandeur and wealth of the Urtuq State.

Early mechanical clocks

None of the first clocks survived from 13th century Europe, but various mentions in church records reveal some of the early history of the clock. The word horologia (from the Greek , hour, and , to tell) was used to describe all these devices,[9] but the use of this word (still used in several Romance languages) for all timekeepers conceals from us the true nature of the mechanisms. For example, there is a record that in 1176 Sens Cathedral installed a horologe but the mechanism used is unknown. According to Jocelin of Brakelond, in 1198 during a fire at the abbey of St Edmundsbury (now Bury St Edmunds), the monks 'ran to the clock' to fetch water, indicating that their water clock had a reservoir large enough to help extinguish the occasional fire.[10]

An elephant clock in a manuscript by Al-Jazari (1206 AD) from The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious [8] Mechanical Devices.

A new mechanism
The word clock (from the Latin word clocca, "bell"), which gradually supersedes "horologe", suggests that it was the sound of bells which also characterized the prototype mechanical clocks that appeared during the 13th century in Europe. Outside of Europe, the escapement mechanism had been known and used in medieval China, as the Song Dynasty horologist and engineer Su Song (10201101) incorporated it into his astronomical clock-tower of Kaifeng in 1088.[11] However, his astronomical clock and rotating armillary sphere still relied on the use of flowing water (i.e. hydraulics), while European clockworks of the following centuries shed this old method for a more efficient driving power of weights, in addition to the escapement mechanism. A mercury clock, described in the Libros del saber, a Spanish work from AD 1277 consisting of translations and paraphrases of Arabic works, is sometimes quoted as evidence for Muslim knowledge of a mechanical clock. The first mercury powered automata clock was invented by Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi[12] [13] Between 1280 and 1320, there is an increase in the number of references to clocks and horologes in church records, and this probably indicates that a new type of clock mechanism had been devised. Existing clock mechanisms that used water power were being adapted to take their driving power from falling weights. This power was controlled by some form of oscillating mechanism, probably derived from existing bell-ringing or alarm devices. This controlled release of power - the escapement - marks the beginning of the true mechanical clock. These mechanical clocks were intended for two main purposes: for signalling and notification (e.g. the timing of services and public events), and for modeling the solar system. The former purpose is administrative, the latter arises naturally given the scholarly interest in astronomy, science, astrology, and how these subjects integrated with the

Clock religious philosophy of the time. The astrolabe was used both by astronomers and astrologers, and it was natural to apply a clockwork drive to the rotating plate to produce a working model of the solar system. Simple clocks intended mainly for notification were installed in towers, and did not always require faces or hands. They would have announced the canonical hours or intervals between set times of prayer. Canonical hours varied in length as the times of sunrise and sunset shifted. The more sophisticated astronomical clocks would have had moving dials or hands, and would have shown the time in various time systems, including Italian hours, canonical hours, and time as measured by astronomers at the time. Both styles of clock started acquiring extravagant features such as automata. In 1283, a large clock was installed at Dunstable Priory; its location above the rood screen suggests that it was not a water clock . In 1292, Canterbury Cathedral installed a 'great horloge'. Over the next 30 years there are brief mentions of clocks at a number of ecclesiastical institutions in England, Italy, and France. In 1322, a new clock was installed in Norwich, an expensive replacement for an earlier clock installed in 1273. This had a large (2 metre) astronomical dial with automata and bells. The costs of the installation included the full-time employment of two clockkeepers for two years .

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Early astronomical clocks

Besides the Chinese astronomical clock of Su Song in 1088 mentioned above, in Europe there were the clocks constructed by Richard of Wallingford in St Albans by 1336, and by Giovanni de Dondi in Padua from 1348 to 1364. They no longer exist, but detailed descriptions of their design and construction survive, [14] [15] and modern reproductions have been made[15] . They illustrate how quickly the theory of the mechanical clock had been translated into practical constructions, and also that one of the many impulses to their development had been the desire of astronomers to investigate celestial phenomena. Wallingford's clock had a large astrolabe-type dial, showing the sun, the moon's age, phase, and node, a star map, and possibly the planets. In addition, it had a wheel of fortune and an indicator of the state of the tide at London Bridge. Bells rang every hour, the number of strokes indicating the time.[14]

Richard of Wallingford pointing to a clock, his gift to St Albans Abbey

Dondi's clock was a seven-sided construction, 1 metre high, with dials showing the time of day, including minutes, the motions of all the known planets, an automatic calendar of fixed and movable feasts, and an eclipse prediction hand rotating once every 18 years.[15] It is not known how accurate or reliable these clocks would have been. They were probably adjusted manually every day to compensate for errors caused by wear and imprecise manufacture. Water clocks are sometimes still used today, and can be examined in places such as ancient castles and museums. The Salisbury Cathedral clock, built in 1386, is considered to be the world's oldest surviving mechanical clock that strikes the hours.[16]

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Later developments
Clockmakers developed their art in various ways. Building smaller clocks was a technical challenge, as was improving accuracy and reliability. Clocks could be impressive showpieces to demonstrate skilled craftsmanship, or less expensive, mass-produced items for domestic use. The escapement in particular was an important factor affecting the clock's accuracy, so many different mechanisms were tried. Spring-driven clocks appeared during the 15th century,[17] [18] [19] although they are often erroneously credited to Nuremberg watchmaker Peter Henlein (or Henle, or Hele) around 1511.[20] [21] [22] The earliest existing spring driven clock is the chamber clock given to Peter the Good, Duke of Burgundy, around 1430, now in the Germanisches Nationalmuseum.[18] Spring power presented clockmakers with a new problem: how to keep the clock movement running at a constant rate as the spring ran down. This resulted in the invention of the stackfreed and the fusee in the 15th century, and many other innovations, down to the invention of the modern going barrel in 1760.

One of the first pocket watches, called "Nuremberg Egg", made around 1510 and attributed to Peter Henlein, (Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nuremberg)

Early clock dials did not use minutes and seconds. A clock with a dial indicating minutes was illustrated in a 1475 manuscript by Paulus Almanus,[23] and some 15th-century clocks in Germany indicated minutes and seconds.[24] An early record of a second hand on a clock dates back to about 1560 on a clock now in the Fremersdorf collection. However, this clock could not have been accurate, and the second hand was probably for indicating that the clock was working. During the 15th and 16th centuries, clockmaking flourished, particularly in the metalworking towns of Nuremberg and Augsburg, and in Blois, France. Some of the more basic table clocks have only one time-keeping hand, with the dial between the hour markers being divided into four equal parts making the clocks readable to the nearer 15 minutes. Other clocks were exhibitions of craftsmanship and skill, incorporating astronomical indicators and musical movements. The cross-beat escapement was invented in 1584 by Jost Brgi, who also developed the remontoire. Brgi's clocks were a great improvement in accuracy as they were correct to within a minute a day.[25] [26] These clocks helped the 16th-century astronomer Tycho Brahe to observe astronomical events with much greater precision than before. A mechanical weight-driven astronomical clock with a verge-and-foliot escapement, a striking train of gears, an alarm, and a representation of the moon's phases was described by the Ottoman engineer Taqi al-Din in his book, The Brightest Stars for the Construction of Mechanical Clocks (Al-Kawkib al-durriyya f wadh' al-bankmat al-dawriyya), published in 1556-1559.[27] Similarly to earlier 15th-century European alarm clocks,[28] [29] it was capable of sounding at a specified time, achieved by placing a peg on the dial wheel. At the requested time, the peg activated a ringing device. The clock had three dials which indicated hours, degrees and minutes. He later made an observational clock for the Istanbul observatory of Taqi al-Din (15771580), describing it as "a mechanical clock with three dials which show the hours, the minutes, and the seconds." This was an important innovation in 16th-century practical astronomy, as at the start of the century clocks were not accurate enough to be used for astronomical purposes.[30]

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The next development in accuracy occurred after 1656 with the invention of the pendulum clock. Galileo had the idea to use a swinging bob to regulate the motion of a time-telling device earlier in the 17th century. Christiaan Huygens, however, is usually credited as the inventor. He determined the mathematical formula that related pendulum length to time (99.38cm or 39.13inches for the one second movement) and had the first pendulum-driven clock made. In 1670, the English clockmaker William Clement created the anchor escapement, an improvement over Huygens' crown escapement . Within just one generation, minute hands and then second hands were added.

French rococo bracket clocks, (Museum of Time, Besanon)

A major stimulus to improving the accuracy and reliability of clocks was the importance of precise time-keeping for navigation. The position of a ship at sea could be determined with reasonable accuracy if a navigator could refer to a clock that lost or gained less than about 10 seconds per day. This clock could not contain a pendulum, which would be virtually useless on a rocking ship. Many European governments offered a large prize for anyone who could determine longitude accurately; for example, Great Britain offered 20,000 pounds, equivalent to millions of dollars today. The reward was eventually claimed in 1761 by John Harrison, who dedicated his life to improving the accuracy of his clocks. His H5 clock was in error by less than 5 seconds over 10 weeks.[31] The excitement over the pendulum clock had attracted the attention of designers, resulting in a proliferation of clock forms. Notably, the longcase clock (also known as the grandfather clock) was created to house the pendulum and works. The English clockmaker William Clement is also credited with developing this form in 1670 or 1671. It was also at this time that clock cases began to be made of wood and clock faces to utilize enamel as well as hand-painted ceramics. On November 17, 1797, Eli Terry received his first patent for a clock. Terry is known as the founder of the American clock-making industry. Starting in the U.S. in early decades of the 19th century, clocks were one of the first items to be mass produced and also to use interchangeable parts.[32] [33] Alexander Bain, Scottish clockmaker, patented the electric clock in 1840. The electric clock's mainspring is wound either with an electric motor or with an electro-magnet and armature. In 1841, he first patented the electromagnetic pendulum. The development of electronics in the 20th century led to clocks with no clockwork parts at all. Time in these cases is measured in several ways, such as by the vibration of a tuning fork, the behaviour of quartz crystals, or the quantum vibrations of atoms. Even mechanical clocks have since come to be largely powered by batteries, removing the need for winding.

French decimal clock from the time of the French Revolution

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How clocks work

The invention of the mechanical clock in the 13th century initiated a change in timekeeping methods from continuous processes, such as the motion of the gnomon's shadow on a sundial or the flow of liquid in a water clock, to repetitive oscillatory processes, like the swing of a pendulum or the vibration of a quartz crystal, which were more accurate.[34] All modern clocks use oscillation. Although the methods they use vary, all oscillating clocks, mechanical and digital and atomic, work similarly and can be divided into analogous parts.[35] [36] [37] They consist of an object that repeats the same motion over and over again, an oscillator, with a precisely constant time interval between each repetition, or 'beat'. Attached to the oscillator is a controller device, which sustains the oscillator's motion by replacing the energy it loses to friction, and converts its oscillations into a series of pulses. The pulses are then added up in a chain of some type of counters to express the time in convenient units, usually seconds, minutes, hours, etc. Then finally some kind of indicator displays the result in a human-readable form.

Power source
This provides power to keep the clock going. In mechanical clocks, this is either a weight suspended from a cord wrapped around a pulley, or a spiral spring called a mainspring. In electric clocks, it is either a battery or the AC power line. Since clocks must run continuously, there is often a small secondary power source to keep the clock going temporarily during interruptions in the main power. In old mechanical clocks, a maintaining power spring kept the clock turning while the mainspring was being wound. In quartz clocks that use AC power, a small backup battery is often included to keep the clock running if it is unplugged temporarily from the wall.

Oscillator
The timekeeping element in every modern clock is a harmonic oscillator, a physical object (resonator) that vibrates or oscillates repetitively at a precisely constant frequency.[38] In mechanical clocks, this is either a pendulum or a balance wheel. In some early electronic clocks and watches such as the Accutron, it is a tuning fork. In quartz clocks and watches, it is a quartz crystal. In atomic clocks, it is the vibration of electrons in atoms as they emit microwaves. In early mechanical clocks before 1657, it was a crude balance wheel or foliot which was not a harmonic oscillator because it lacked a balance spring. As a result they were very inaccurate, with errors of perhaps an hour a day.[39]

The advantage of a harmonic oscillator over other forms of oscillator is that it employs resonance to vibrate at a precise natural resonant frequency or 'beat' dependent only on its physical characteristics, and resists vibrating at other rates. The possible precision achievable by a harmonic oscillator is measured by a parameter called its Q,[40] [41] or quality factor, which increases (other things being equal) with its resonant frequency.[42] This is why there has been a long term trend toward higher frequency oscillators in clocks. Balance wheels and pendulums always include a means of adjusting the rate of the timepiece. Quartz timepieces sometimes include a rate screw that adjusts a capacitor for that purpose. Atomic clocks are primary standards, and their rate cannot be adjusted.

Clock Synchronized or slave clocks Some clocks rely for their accuracy on an external oscillator; that is, they are automatically synchronized to a more accurate clock: Slave clocks, used in large institutions and schools from the 1860s to the 1970s, kept time with a pendulum, but were wired to a master clock in the building, and periodically received a signal to synchronize them with the master, often on the hour.[43] Later versions without pendulums were triggered by a pulse from the master clock and certain sequences used to force rapid synchronization following a power failure. Synchronous electric clocks don't have an internal oscillator, but rely on the 50 or 60 Hz oscillation of the AC power line, which is synchronized by the utility to a precision oscillator. This drives a synchronous motor in the clock which rotates once for every cycle of the line voltage, and drives the gear train. Computer real time clocks keep time with a quartz crystal, but are periodically (usually weekly) synchronized over the internet to atomic clocks (UTC), using a system called Network Time Protocol. Radio clocks keep time with a quartz crystal, but are periodically (often daily) synchronized to atomic clocks (UTC) with time signals from government radio stations like WWV, WWVB, CHU, DCF77 and the GPS system.

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Controller
This has the dual function of keeping the oscillator running by giving it 'pushes' to replace the energy lost to friction, and converting its vibrations into a series of pulses that serve to measure the time. In mechanical clocks, this is the escapement, which gives precise pushes to the swinging pendulum or balance wheel, and releases one gear tooth of the escape wheel at each swing, allowing all the clock's wheels to move forward a fixed amount with each swing. In electronic clocks this is an electronic oscillator circuit that gives the vibrating quartz crystal or tuning fork tiny 'pushes', and generates a series of electrical pulses, one for each vibration of the crystal, which is called the clock signal. In atomic clocks the controller is an evacuated microwave cavity attached to a microwave oscillator controlled by a microprocessor. A thin gas of cesium atoms is released into the cavity where they are exposed to microwaves. A laser measures how many atoms have absorbed the microwaves, and an electronic feedback control system called a phase locked loop tunes the microwave oscillator until it is at the exact frequency that causes the atoms to vibrate and absorb the microwaves. Then the microwave signal is divided by digital counters to become the clock signal.[44] In mechanical clocks, the low Q of the balance wheel or pendulum oscillator made them very sensitive to the disturbing effect of the impulses of the escapement, so the escapement had a great effect on the accuracy of the clock, and many escapement designs were tried. The higher Q of resonators in electronic clocks makes them relatively insensitive to the disturbing effects of the drive power, so the driving oscillator circuit is a much less critical component.[38]

Counter chain
This counts the pulses and adds them up to get traditional time units of seconds, minutes, hours, etc. It usually has a provision for setting the clock by manually entering the correct time into the counter. In mechanical clocks this is done mechanically by a gear train, known as the wheel train. The gear train also has a second function; to transmit mechanical power from the power source to run the oscillator. There is a friction coupling called the 'cannon pinion' between the gears driving the hands and the rest of the clock, allowing the hands to be turned by a knob on the back to set the time.[45] In digital clocks a series of integrated circuit counters or dividers add the pulses up digitally, using binary logic. Often pushbuttons on the case allow the hour and minute counters to be incremented and decremented to set the time.

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Indicator
This displays the count of seconds, minutes, hours, etc. in a human readable form. The earliest mechanical clocks in the 13th century didn't have a visual indicator and signalled the time audibly by striking bells. Many clocks to this day are striking clocks which strike the hour. Analog clocks, including almost all mechanical and some electronic clocks, have a traditional dial or clock face, that displays the time in analog form with a moving hour and minute hand. In quartz clocks with analog faces, a 1 Hz signal from the counters actuates a stepper motor which moves the second hand forward at each pulse, and the minute and hour hands are moved by gears from the shaft of the second hand. Digital clocks display the time in periodically changing digits on a digital display. Talking clocks and the speaking clock services provided by telephone companies speak the time audibly, using either recorded or digitally synthesized voices.

Types
Clocks can be classified by the type of time display, as well as by the method of timekeeping.

Time display methods

Analog clocks Analog clocks usually indicate time using angles. The most common clock face uses a fixed numbered dial or dials and moving hand or hands. It usually has a circular scale of 12 hours, which can also serve as a scale of 60 minutes, and 60 seconds if the clock has a second hand. Many other styles and designs have been used throughout the years, including dials divided into 6, 8, 10, and 24 hours. The only other widely used clock face today is the 24 hour analog dial, because of the use of 24 hour time in military organizations and timetables. The A linear clock at London's Piccadilly Circus tube station. The 24 hour band moves 10-hour clock was briefly popular during the across the static map, keeping pace with the apparent movement of the sun above French Revolution, when the metric system ground, and a pointer fixed on London points to the current time was applied to time measurement, and an Italian 6 hour clock was developed in the 18th century, presumably to save power (a clock or watch striking 24 times uses more power). Another type of analog clock is the sundial, which tracks the sun continuously, registering the time by the shadow position of its gnomon. Sundials use some or part of the 24 hour analog dial. There also exist clocks which use a digital display despite having an analog mechanismthese are commonly referred to as flip clocks. Alternative systems have been proposed. For example, the Twelv [46] clock indicates the current hour using one of twelve colors, and indicates the minute by showing a proportion of a circular disk, similar to a moon phase.

Clock Digital clocks Digital clocks display a numeric representation of time. Two numeric display formats are commonly used on digital clocks: the 24-hour notation with hours ranging 0023; the 12-hour notation with AM/PM indicator, with hours indicated as 12AM, followed by 1AM11AM, followed by 12PM, followed by 1PM11PM (a notation mostly used in the United States and Canada). Most digital clocks use an LCD, LED, or VFD display; many other display technologies are used as well (cathode ray tubes, nixie tubes, etc.). After a reset, battery change or power failure, digital clocks without a backup battery or capacitor either start counting from 12:00, or stay at 12:00, often with blinking digits indicating that the time needs to be set. Some newer clocks will actually reset themselves based on radio or Internet time servers that are tuned to national atomic clocks. Since the advent of digital clocks in the 1960s, the use of analog clocks has declined significantly. Auditory clocks For convenience, distance, telephony or blindness, auditory clocks present the time as sounds. The sound is either spoken natural language, (e.g. "The time is twelve thirty-five"), or as auditory codes (e.g. number of sequential bell rings on the hour represents the number of the hour like the bell Big Ben). Most telecommunication companies also provide a speaking clock service as well.
Basic digital clock radio Digital clock outside Kanazawa Station displaying the time by controlling valves on a fountain

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Purposes
Clocks are in homes, offices and many other places; smaller ones (watches) are carried on the wrist; larger ones are in public places, e.g. a train station or church. A small clock is often shown in a corner of computer displays, mobile phones and many MP3 players. The purpose of a clock is not always to display the time. It may also be used to control a device according to time, e.g. an alarm clock, a VCR, or a time bomb (see: counter). However, in this context, it is more appropriate to refer to it as a timer or trigger mechanism rather than strictly as a clock. Computers depend on an accurate internal clock signal to allow synchronized processing. (A few research projects are developing CPUs based on asynchronous circuits.) Some computers also maintain time and date for all manner of operations whether these be for alarms, event initiation, or just to display the time of day. The internal computer clock is generally kept running by

Cell phone display including a clock

small

battery.

Many

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computers will still function even if the internal clock battery is dead, but the computer clock will need to be reset each time the computer is restarted, since once power is lost, time is also lost.

Ideal clocks
An ideal clock is a scientific principle that measures the ratio of the duration of natural processes, and thus will give the time measure for use in physical theories. Therefore, to define an ideal clock in terms of any physical theory would be circular. An ideal clock is more appropriately defined in relationship to the set of all physical processes. This leads to the following definitions: A clock is a recurrent process and a counter. A good clock is one which, when used to measure other recurrent processes, finds many of them to be periodic. An ideal clock is a clock (i.e., recurrent process) that makes the most other recurrent processes periodic. The recurrent, periodic process (e.g. a metronome) is an oscillator and typically generates a clock signal. Sometimes that signal alone is (confusingly) called "the clock", but sometimes "the clock" includes the counter, its indicator, and everything else supporting it.
John Harrison's Chronometer H5

A typical Deutsche Bahn Train station clock

This definition can be further improved by the consideration of successive levels of smaller and smaller error tolerances. While not all physical processes can be surveyed, the definition should be based on the set of physical processes which includes all individual physical processes which are proposed for consideration. Since atoms are so numerous and since, within current measurement tolerances they all beat in a manner such that if one is chosen as periodic then the others are all deemed to be periodic also, it follows that atomic clocks represent ideal clocks to within present measurement tolerances and in relation to all presently known physical processes. However, they are not so designated by fiat. Rather, they are designated as the current ideal clock because they are currently the best instantiation of the definition.

Navigation
Navigation by ships and planes depends on the ability to measure latitude and longitude. Latitude is fairly easy to determine through celestial navigation, but the measurement of longitude requires accurate measurement of time. This need was a major motivation for the development of accurate mechanical clocks. John Harrison created the first highly accurate marine chronometer in the mid-18th century. The Noon gun in Cape Town still fires an accurate signal to allow ships to check their chronometers. Use of an atomic clock in radio signal producing satellites is fundamental to the operation of GPS (Global Positioning System) navigation devices.

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Seismology
In determining the location of an earthquake, the arrival time of several types of seismic wave at a minimum of four dispersed observers is dependent upon each observer recording wave arrival times according to a common clock.

Specific types of clocks

By mechanism: Astronomical clock Atomic clock Candle clock Congreve clock Digital clock Electric clock Flip clock Hourglass Incense clock Mechanical watch Oil-lamp clock Pendulum clock Pipe organ clock Projection clock Quantum clock Quartz clock Radio clock Rolling ball clock Spring drive watch Steam clock Sundial Torsion pendulum clock Water clock By function: 10-hour clock Alarm clock Binary clock Chiming clock Chronometer watch Cuckoo clock Game clock Japanese clock Master clock Musical clock Slave clock Speaking clock Stopwatch Striking clock Talking clock Tide clock Time ball Time clock World clock By style: American clock Automaton clock Balloon clock Banjo clock Bracket clock Carriage clock Cartel clock Cat clock Clock tower Cuckoo clock Doll's head clock Floral clock French Empire mantel clock Granddaughter clock Grandfather clock Grandmother clock Lantern clock Lighthouse clock Longcase clock (or tall-case clock) Mantel clock Skeleton clock Tower clock Turret clock Watch

Railroad chronometer

Notes
[1] see Baillie et al., p. 307; Palmer, p. 19; Zea & Cheney, p. 172 [2] "Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary" (http:/ / dictionary. cambridge. org/ define. asp?key=14263& dict=CALD). . Retrieved 2009-09-16. "a device for measuring and showing time, which is usually found in or on a building and is not worn by a person" [3] Turner 1984, p.1 [4] Cowan 1958, p.58 [5] Tower of the Winds - Athens (http:/ / www. sailingissues. com/ yachting-guide/ tower-of-winds-1. html) [6] The History of Clocks (http:/ / www. arcytech. org/ java/ clock/ clock_history. html) [7] James, Peter (1995). Ancient Inventions. New York, NY: Ballantine Books. p.126. ISBN0-345-40102-6. [8] Ibn al-Razzaz Al-Jazari (ed. 1974), The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices. Translated and annotated by Donald Routledge Hill, Dordrecht/D. Reidel. [9] Smith, William (1875). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ secondary/ SMIGRA*/ Horologium. html). London: John Murray. pp.615617. . [10] The Chronicle of Jocelin of Brakelond, Monk of St. Edmundsbury: A Picture of Monastic and Social Life on the XIIth Century. London: Chatto and Windus. Translated and edited by L. C. Jane. 1910. [11] History of Song , Vol. 340 [12] Mario Taddei. "The Book of Secrets is coming to the world after a thousand years: Automata existed already in the eleventh century!" (http:/ / www. leonardo3. net/ leonardo/ qma/ img/ Press_release_Secrets_UK. pdf). Leonardo3. . Retrieved 2010-03-31.

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[13] Donald Routledge Hill (1991). "Arabic Mechanical Engineering: Survey of the Historical sources". Arabic Sciences and Philosophy: A Historical Journal (Cambridge University Press) 1: 167186 [173]. doi:10.1017/S0957423900001478 [14] North, John. God's Clockmaker: Richard of Wallingford and the Invention of Time. London: Hambledon and London (2005). [15] King, Henry "Geared to the Stars: the evolution of planetariums, orreries, and astronomical clocks", University of Toronto Press, 1978 [16] Singer, Charles, et al. Oxford History of Technology: volume II, from the Renaissance to the Industrial Revolution (OUP 1957)pg 650-1 [17] Usher, Abbot Payson (1988). A History of Mechanical Inventions (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=xuDDqqa8FlwC& pg=PA305). Courier Dover. p.305. ISBN048625593X. . [18] White, Lynn Jr. (1966). Medieval Technology and Social Change. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. pp.126127. ISBN0195002660. [19] Dohrn-van Rossum, Gerhar (1997). History of the Hour: Clocks and Modern Temporal Orders (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=53K32RiEigMC& pg=PA121). Univ. of Chicago Press. p.121. ISBN0-226-15510-2. . [20] Milham, Willis I. (1945). Time and Timekeepers. New York: MacMillan. p.121. ISBN0780800087. [21] "Clock" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?as_brr=0& id=Eb0qAAAAMAAJ& dq=Peter+ Henlein+ mainspring& q=peter+ Henlein& pgis=1#search). The New Encyclopaedia Britannica. 4. Univ. of Chicago. 1974. p.747. ISBN0852292902. . [22] Anzovin, Steve; Podell, Janet (2000). Famous First Facts: A record of first happenings, discoveries, and inventions in world history. H.W. Wilson. p.440. ISBN0824209583. [23] p. 529, "Time and timekeeping instruments", History of astronomy: an encyclopedia, John Lankford, Taylor & Francis, 1997, ISBN 081530322X. [24] Usher, Abbott Payson (1988). A history of mechanical inventions (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=xuDDqqa8FlwC& printsec=frontcover& dq=A+ history+ of+ mechanical+ inventions,+ Abbott+ Payson+ Usher#v=onepage& q& f=false). Courier Dover Publications. p.209. ISBN048625593X. . [25] Lance Day and Ian McNeil, ed (1996). Biographical dictionary of the history of technology (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=nqAOAAAAQAAJ& lpg=PP1& pg=PA116#v=onepage). Routledge (Routledge Reference). p.116. ISBN0-415-06042-7. . [26] Table clock c. 1650 attributed to Hans Buschmann that uses technical inventions by Jost Brgi (http:/ / www. britishmuseum. org/ explore/ highlights/ highlight_objects/ pe_mla/ t/ table_clock_attributed_to_hans. aspx). The British Museum. . Retrieved 11 April 2010. [27] Ahmad Y al-Hassan & Donald R. Hill: Islamic Technology, Cambridge 1986, ISBN 0-521-422396, p. 59 [28] p. 249, The Grove encyclopedia of decorative arts, Gordon Campbell, vol. 1, Oxford University Press, 2006, ISBN 0195189485. [29] "Monastic Alarm Clocks, Italian" (http:/ / national-clockshop-directory. com/ Clock-Dictionary/ m-main. htm), entry, Clock Dictionary. [30] Tekeli, Sevim (1997). "Taqi al-Din" (http:/ / www. springer. com/ philosophy/ philosophy+ of+ sciences/ book/ 978-1-4020-4425-0). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN0792340663. . [31] Gould, Rupert T. (1923). The Marine Chronometer. Its History and Development. London: J. D. Potter. pp.66. ISBN0-907462-05-7. [32] Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916), English and American Tool Builders (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=X-EJAAAAIAAJ& printsec=titlepage), New Haven, Connecticut, USA: Yale University Press, LCCN16-011753, . Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 (LCCN27-024075); and by Lindsay Publications, Inc., Bradley, IL, USA (ISBN 978-0-917914-73-7). [33] Thomson, Ross (2009). Structures of Change in the Mechanical Age: Technological Invention in the United Sates 1790-1865. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. p.34. ISBN13:978-0-8018-9141-0. [34] Cipolla, Carlo M. (2004). Clocks and Culture, 1300 to 1700 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=YSf9MVxa2JEC& pg=PA31& dq=verge+ escapement+ technology). W.W. Norton & Co.. p.31. ISBN0393324435. . [35] Jespersen, James; Fitz-Randolph, Jane; Robb, John (1999). From Sundials to Atomic Clocks: Understanding Time and Frequency (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Z7chuo4ebUAC& pg=PA42& dq=clock+ resonance+ pendulum). New York: Courier Dover. p.39. ISBN0486409139. . [36] "How clocks work" (http:/ / www. indepthinfo. com/ clocks/ index. shtml). InDepthInfo. W. J. Rayment. 2007. . Retrieved 2008-06-04. [37] Milham, Willis I. (1945). Time and Timekeepers. New York: MacMillan. p.74. ISBN0780800087. [38] Marrison, Warren (1948). "The Evolution of the Quartz Crystal Clock" (http:/ / www. ieee-uffc. org/ fcmain. asp?page=marrison). Bell System Technical Journal (American Telephone and Telegraph Co.) 27: 510588. . Retrieved 2008-06-04. [39] Milham, 1945, p.85 [40] "Quality factor, Q" (http:/ / tf. nist. gov/ general/ enc-q. htm). Glossary. Time and Frequency Division, NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology). 2008. . Retrieved 2008-06-04. [41] Jespersen 1999, p.47-50 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Z7chuo4ebUAC& pg=PA44& sig=iBunChocEtJoeKS5p5IgJ1oyl4U) [42] Riehle, Fritz (2004). Frequency Standards: Basics and Applications (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=WZ34pQV-DXMC& pg=PA9& dq=Q+ linewidth+ "split+ the+ line"). Germany: Wiley VCH Verlag & Co.. p.9. ISBN3527402306. . [43] Milham, 1945, p.325-328 [44] Jespersen 1999, p.52-62 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Z7chuo4ebUAC& pg=PA61& sig=r7PLMbI4rhAgfGkfBS-MCJEBkVs) [45] Milham, 1945, p.113 [46] http:/ / www. twelv. com/

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References
Baillie, G.H., O. Clutton, & C.A. Ilbert. Brittens Old Clocks and Watches and Their Makers (7th ed.). Bonanza Books (1956). Bolter, David J. Turing's Man: Western Culture in the Computer Age. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, N.C. (1984). ISBN 0-8078-4108-0 pbk. Very good, readable summary of the role of "the clock" in its setting the direction of philosophic movement for the "Western World". Cf. picture on p.25 showing the verge and foliot. Bolton derived the picture from Macey, p.20. Bruton, Eric. The History of Clocks and Watches. London: Black Cat (1993). Dohrn-van Rossum, Gerhard (1996). History of the Hour: Clocks and Modern Temporal Orders. Trans. Thomas Dunlap. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN0226155102. Edey, Winthrop. French Clocks. New York: Walker & Co. (1967). Kak, Subhash, Ph.D. Babylonian and Indian Astronomy: Early Connections. February 17, 2003. Kumar, Narendra "Science in Ancient India" (2004). ISBN 8126120568. Landes, David S. Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World. Cambridge: Harvard University Press (1983). Landes, David S. Clocks & the Wealth of Nations, Daedalus journal, Spring 2003. Lloyd, Alan H. Mechanical Timekeepers, A History of Technology, Vol. III. Edited by Charles Joseph Singer et al. Oxford: Clarendon Press (1957), pp.648675. Macey, Samuel L., Clocks and the Cosmos: Time in Western Life and Thought, Archon Books, Hamden, Conn. (1980). Needham, Joseph (2000) [1965]. Science & Civilisation in China, Vol. 4, Part 2: Mechanical Engineering. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0521058031. North, John. God's Clockmaker: Richard of Wallingford and the Invention of Time. London: Hambledon and London (2005). Palmer, Brooks. The Book of American Clocks, The Macmillan Co. (1979). Robinson, Tom. The Longcase Clock. Suffolk, England: Antique Collectors Club (1981). Smith, Alan. The International Dictionary of Clocks. London: Chancellor Press (1996). Tardy. French Clocks the World Over. Part I and II. Translated with the assistance of Alexander Ballantyne. Paris: Tardy (1981). Yoder, Joella Gerstmeyer. Unrolling Time: Christiaan Huygens and the Mathematization of Nature. New York: Cambridge University Press (1988). Zea, Philip, & Robert Cheney. Clock Making in New England 1725-1825. Old Sturbridge Village (1992).

External links
American Watchmakers-Clockmakers Institute (http://www.awci.com/) History of the Antique longcase clock (http://www.british-antiqueclocks.com/longcase-origins/) National Association of Watch & Clock Collectors Museum (http://www.nawcc.org) Article, by a key figure in the development of quartz crystal clocks, on the history of timekeeping up to the late 1940s from The Bell System Technical Journal, Vol. XXVII, pp. 510-588, 1948 (http://www.ieee-uffc.org/ main/history.asp?file=marrison) Information on Dutch clocks (http://www.Timeforclocks.nl) Information on Black Forest Horology (http://www.blackforestclocks.org) Science Museum - Time Measurement (http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/visitmuseum/galleries/ time_measurement.aspx) World's largest Grid Clock (http://armchairtravelogue.blogspot.com/2009/12/worlds-largest-grid-clock.html)

Clock Understanding a mechanical clock - with animations (http://resonanceswaves.swishspace.com/gearsClock. html) Civic-Time-Assorted public clocks and timepieces (http://www.civic-time.com/)

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64

Definitions and standards

Time standard
A time standard is a specification for measuring time: either the rate at which time passes; or points in time; or both. In modern times, several time specifications have been officially recognized as standards, where formerly they were matters of custom and practice. An example of a kind of time standard can be a time scale, specifying a method for measuring divisions of time. A standard for civil time can specify both time intervals and time-of-day. Standardized time measurements are made using a clock to count periods of some cyclic change, which may be either the changes of a natural phenomenon or of an artificial machine. Historically, time standards were often based on the Earth's rotational period. From the late 17th century to the 19th century it was assumed that the Earth's daily rotational rate was constant.[1] Astronomical observations of several kinds, including eclipse records, studied in the 19th century, raised suspicions that the rate at which Earth rotates is gradually slowing and also shows small-scale irregularities, and this was confirmed in the early twentieth century.[2] Time standards based on Earth rotation were replaced (or initially supplemented) for astronomical use from 1952 onwards by an ephemeris time standard based on the Earth's orbital period and in practice on the motion of the Moon. The invention in 1955 of the caesium atomic clock has led to the replacement of older and purely astronomical time standards, for most practical purposes, by newer time standards based wholly or partly on atomic time. Various types of second and day are used as the basic time interval for most time scales. Other intervals of time (minutes, hours, and years) are usually defined in terms of these two.

Time standards based on Earth rotation

Apparent solar time ('apparent' is often used in English-language sources, but 'true' in French astronomical literature[3] ) is based on the solar day, which is the period between one solar noon (passage of the real Sun across the meridian) and the next. A solar day is approximately 24 hours of mean time. Because the Earth's orbit around the sun is elliptical, and because of the obliquity of the Earth's axis relative to the plane of the orbit (the ecliptic), the apparent solar day varies a few dozen seconds above or below the mean value of 24 hours. As the variation accumulates over a few weeks, there are differences as large as 16 minutes between apparent solar time and mean solar time (see Equation of time). However, these variations cancel out over a year. There are also other perturbations such as Earth's wobble, but these are less than a second per year. Sidereal time is time by the stars. A sidereal rotation is the time it takes the Earth to make one revolution with respect to the stars, approximately 23 hours 56 minutes 4 seconds. For accurate astronomical work on land, it was usual to observe sidereal time rather than solar time to measure mean solar time, because the observations of 'fixed' stars could be measured and reduced more accurately than observations of the Sun (in spite of the need to make various small compensations, for refraction, aberration, precession, nutation and proper motion). It is well known that observations of the Sun pose substantial obstacles to the achievement of accuracy in measurement.[4] In former times, before the distribution of accurate time signals, it was part of the routine work at any observatory to observe the sidereal times of meridian transit of selected 'clock stars' (of well-known position and movement), and to use these to correct observatory clocks running local mean sidereal time; but nowadays local sidereal time is usually generated by computer, based on time signals.[5] Mean solar time was originally apparent solar time corrected by the equation of time. Mean solar time was sometimes derived, especially at sea for navigational purposes, by observing apparent solar time and then adding to

Time standard it a calculated correction, the equation of time, which compensated for two known irregularities, caused by the ellipticity of the Earth's orbit and the obliquity of the Earth's equator and polar axis to the ecliptic (which is the plane of the Earth's orbit around the sun). Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) was originally mean time deduced from meridian observations made at the Royal Greenwich Observatory (RGO). The principal meridian of that observatory was chosen in 1884 by the International Meridian Conference to be the Prime Meridian. GMT either by that name or as 'mean time at Greenwich' used to be an international time standard, but is no longer so; it was initially renamed in 1928 as Universal Time (UT) (partly as a result of ambiguities arising from the changed practice of starting the astronomical day at midnight instead of at noon, adopted as from 1 January 1925). The more current refined version of UT, UT1, is still in reality mean time at Greenwich. Greenwich Mean Time is still the legal time in the UK (in winter, and as adjusted by one hour for summer time). But Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) (an atomic-based time scale which is always kept within 0.9 second of UT1) is in common actual use in the UK, and the name GMT is often inaccurately used to refer to it. (See articles Greenwich Mean Time, Universal Time, Coordinated Universal Time and the sources they cite.) Universal Time (UT) is a time scale based on the mean solar day, defined to be as uniform as possible despite variations in Earth's rotation. UT0 is the rotational time of a particular place of observation. It is observed as the diurnal motion of stars or extraterrestrial radio sources. UT1 is computed by correcting UT0 for the effect of polar motion on the longitude of the observing site. It varies from uniformity because of the irregularities in Earth's rotation.

65

Time standards for planetary motion calculations

Ephemeris time and its successor time scales described below have all been intended for astronomical use, e.g. in planetary motion calculations, with aims including uniformity, in particular, freedom from irregularities of Earth rotation. Some of these standards are examples of dynamical time scales and/or of coordinate time scales. Ephemeris Time (ET) was from 1952 to 1976 an official time scale standard of the International Astronomical Union; it was a dynamical time scale based on the orbital motion of the Earth around the Sun, from which the ephemeris second was derived as a defined fraction of the tropical year. This ephemeris second was the standard for the SI second from 1956 to 1967, and it was also the source for calibration of the caesium atomic clock; its length has been closely duplicated, to within 1 part in 1010, in the size of the current SI second referred to atomic time.[6] This Ephemeris Time standard was non-relativistic and did not fulfil growing needs for relativistic coordinate time scales. It was in use for the official almanacs and planetary ephemerides from 1960 to 1983, and was replaced in official almanacs for 1984 and after, by numerically integrated Jet Propulsion Laboratory Development Ephemeris DE200 (based on the JPL relativistic coordinate time scale Teph). For applications at the Earth's surface, ET's official replacement was TDT, since redefined as TT. For the calculation of ephemerides, TDB was officially recommended to replace ET, but deficiencies were found in the definition of TDB (though not affecting Teph), and these led to the IAU defining and recommending further time scales, TCB for use in the solar system as a whole, and TCG for use in the vicinity of the Earth. As defined, TCB (as observed from the Earth's surface) is of divergent rate relative to all of ET, Teph and TDT/TT;[7] and the same is true, to a lesser extent, of TCG. The ephemerides of sun, moon and planets in current widespread and official use continue to be those calculated at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (updated as from 2003 to DE405) using as argument Teph. Terrestrial Dynamic Time (TDT) replaced Ephemeris Time and maintained continuity with it. TDT is a uniform atomic time scale, whose unit is the SI second. TDT is tied in its rate to the SI second, as is International Atomic Time (TAI), but because TAI was somewhat arbitrarily defined at its inception in 1958 to be initially equal to a refined version of UT, TT is offset from TAI, by a constant 32.184 seconds. The offset provided a continuity from Ephemeris Time to TDT. TDT has since been redefined as Terrestrial Time (TT).

Time standard Barycentric Dynamical Time (TDB) is similar to TDT but includes relativistic corrections that move the origin to the barycenter. TDB differs from TT only in periodic terms. The difference is at most 2 milliseconds. In 1991, in order to clarify the relationships between space-time coordinates, new time scales were introduced, each with a different frame of reference. Terrestrial Time is time at Earth's surface. Geocentric Coordinate Time is a coordinate time scale at Earth's center. Barycentric Coordinate Time is a coordinate time scale at the center of mass of the solar system, which is called the barycenter. Barycentric Dynamical Time is a dynamical time at the barycenter.[8] Terrestrial Time (TT) is the time scale which had formerly been called Terrestrial Dynamical Time. It is now defined as a coordinate time scale at Earth's surface. Geocentric Coordinate Time (TCG) is a coordinate time having its spatial origin at the center of Earth's mass. TCG is linearly related to TT as: TCG - TT = LG * (JD -2443144.5) * 86400 seconds, with the scale difference LG defined as 6.969290134e-10 exactly. Barycentric Coordinate Time (TCB) is a coordinate time having its spatial origin at the solar system barycenter. TCB differs from TT in rate and other mostly periodic terms. Neglecting the periodic terms, in the sense of an average over a long period of time the two are related by: TCB - TT = LB * (JD -2443144.5) * 86400 seconds. According to IAU the best estimate of the scale difference LB is 1.55051976772e-08.

66

Constructed time standards

International Atomic Time ( TAI [9]) is the primary international time standard from which other time standards, including UTC, are calculated. TAI is kept by the BIPM (International Bureau of Weights and Measures), and is based on the combined input of many atomic clocks around the world [10], each corrected for environmental and relativistic effects. It is the primary realisation of Terrestrial Time. Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is an atomic time scale designed to approximate Universal Time. UTC differs from TAI by an integral number of seconds. UTC is kept within 0.9 second of UT1 by the introduction of one-second steps to UTC, the "leap second". To date these steps have always been positive. Standard time or civil time in a region deviates a fixed, round amount, usually a whole number of hours, from some form of Universal Time, now usually UTC. The offset is chosen such that a new day starts approximately while the sun is at the nadir. See Time zone. Alternatively the difference is not really fixed, but it changes twice a year a round amount, usually one hour, see Daylight saving time.

Other time scales

Julian day number is a count of days elapsed since Greenwich mean noon on 1 January 4713 B.C., Julian proleptic calendar. The Julian Date is the Julian day number followed by the fraction of the day elapsed since the preceding noon. Conveniently for astronomers, this avoids the date skip during an observation night. Modified Julian day (MJD) is defined as MJD = JD - 2400000.5. An MJD day thus begins at midnight, civil date. Julian dates can be expressed in UT, TAI, TDT, etc. and so for precise applications the timescale should be specified, e.g. MJD 49135.3824 TAI.

Time standard

67

Further reading
[1] Before the time of John Flamsteed it was widely believed that the Earth's rotation had seasonal variations comparable in size with what is now called the equation of time. See articles on Vincent Wing and Thomas Streete for examples of astronomers before Flamsteed who believed this. The equation of time, correctly based on the two major components of the Sun's irregularity of apparent motion, i.e. the effect of the obliquity of the ecliptic and the effect of the Earth's orbital eccentricity, was not generally adopted until after John Flamsteed's tables of 1672/3, published with the posthumous edition of the works of Jeremiah Horrocks. See S Vince, "A Complete System of Astronomy", 2nd edition, volume 1, 1814, at p.49 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Y5QAAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA49); see also Equation of time - history. [2] See Ephemeris time - history, and sources shown there. [3] See for example a recent description of "temps vrai" (http:/ / www. bdl. fr/ fr/ ephemerides/ astronomie/ Promenade/ pages3/ 325. html#tempsvrai) by the Bureau des Longitudes; and for an older example S Vince, 'A complete system of astronomy' (1814), esp. at page 46 (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=Y5QAAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA46). [4] See H A Harvey, "The Simpler Aspects of Celestial Mechanics" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ full/ 1936PA. . . . . 44. . 533H), in Popular Astronomy 44 (1936), 533-541. [5] A E Roy, D Clarke, 'Astronomy: Principles and Practice' (4th edition, 2003) at p.89 (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=v2S6XV8dsIAC& pg=PA89). [6] W Markowitz, R G Hall, L Essen, J V L Parry (1958), 'Frequency of caesium in terms of ephemeris time', Phys Rev Letters v1 (1958), 105-107; and Wm Markowitz (1988) 'Comparisons of ET(Solar), ET(Lunar), UT and TDT', in (eds.) A K Babcock & G A Wilkins, 'The Earth's Rotation and Reference Frames for Geodesy and Geophysics', IAU Symposia #128 (1988), at pp 413-418. [7] P K Seidelmann & T Fukushima (1992), "Why new time scales?" (http:/ / articles. adsabs. harvard. edu/ full/ 1992A& A. . . 265. . 833S), Astronomy & Astrophysics vol.265 (1992), pages 833-838, including Fig. 1 at p.835, a graph giving an overview of the rate differences and offsets between various standard time scales (http:/ / www. ucolick. org/ ~sla/ leapsecs/ deltat. png), present and past, defined by the IAU. [8] V Brumberg, S Kopeikin (1990), 'Relativistic time scales in the solar system', Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy (1990), Vol. 48, 23-44 [9] http:/ / www. bipm. org/ en/ scientific/ tai/ tai. html [10] http:/ / www. bipm. org/ en/ scientific/ tai/ clock_comparisons. html

Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, P. K. Seidelmann, ed., University Science Books, 1992, ISBN 0-935702-68-7

External links
Systems of Time (http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/systime.html) by Dr. Demetrios Matsakis, Director, Time Service Dept., United States Naval Observatory USNO article on the definition of seconds and leap seconds (http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/leapsec.html) A history of astronomical time scales (http://www.ucolick.org/~sla/leapsecs/timescales.html) by Steve Allen Astronomical times (http://www.cv.nrao.edu/~rfisher/Ephemerides/times.html) Why is a minute divided into 60 seconds, an hour into 60 minutes, yet there are only 24 hours in a day? (http:// www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=experts-time-division-days-hours-minutes) Ask the Experts - March 5, 2007. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN

Orders of magnitude

68

Orders of magnitude
Seconds
Orders of magnitude (Time)
Factor (s) Multiple Symbol Definition Comparative examples & common units Orders of magnitude

1044

1020 ys, 1019 5.410-20 ys = 5.410-44 s: One Planck time tP = ys (1044 s, [1] 5.410-44 s, the time required for light to travel one Planck 1043 s) length, is the briefest physically meaningful span of time. It is the unit of time in the natural units system known as Planck units. 1 yoctosecond ys [2] Yoctosecond, (yocto- + second), is one septillionth (short scale) of a second. [3] [4] 0.3 ys: mean life of the W and Z bosons. [a] 0.5 ys: time for top quark decay, according to the Standard Model. 1 ys: time taken for a quark to emit a gluon. 23 ys: half-life of 7H. 7 zs: half-life of helium-9's outer neutron in the second nuclear halo. 17 zs: approximate period of electromagnetic radiation at the boundary between gamma rays and X-rays. 300 zs: approximate typical cycle time of X-rays, on the boundary between hard and soft X-rays. 500 zs: current resolution of tools used to measure speed of [5] chemical bonding 12 attoseconds: shortest measured period of time. [6] 1 ys and less, 10 ys, 100 ys

1024

1021

1 zeptosecond

zs

Zeptosecond, (zepto- + second), is one sextillionth (short scale)of one second.

1 zs, 10 zs, 100 zs

1018 1015 1012

1 attosecond

as

One quintillionth of one second One quadrillionth of one second One trillionth of one second

1 as, 10 as, 100 as

1 femtosecond 1 picosecond

fs

cycle time for 390 nanometre light, transition from visible light to 1 fs, 10 fs, 100 ultraviolet fs 1 ps: half-life of a bottom quark 4 ps: Time to execute one machine cycle by an IBM Silicon-Germanium transistor 1 ns: Time to execute one machine cycle by a 1GHz microprocessor 1 ns: Light travels 12inches (30cm) sometimes also abbreviated sec 1 s: Time to execute one machine cycle by an Intel 80186 microprocessor 416 s: Time to execute one machine cycle by a 1960s minicomputer 48 ms: typical seek time for a computer hard disk [7] 100400 ms: Blink of an eye 150300 ms: Human reflex response to visual stimuli 1 s: 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of [8] the cesium-133 atom. 60 s: 1 minute 1 ps, 10 ps, 100 ps

ps

109

1 nanosecond

ns

One billionth of one second

1 ns, 10 ns, 100 ns

106

1 microsecond

One millionth of one second

1 s, 10 s, 100 s

103

1 millisecond

ms

One thousandth of one second

1 ms, 10 ms, 100 ms

100

1 second

1 s, 10 s, 100 s

Orders of magnitude

69
ks 3.6 ks: 3600 s or 1 hour 86.4 ks: 86 400 s or 1 day 604.8 ks: 1 week 2.6 Ms: approximately 1 month 31.6 Ms: approximately 1 year 107.50 s 2.1 Gs: average human life expectancy at birth (2011 [9] estimate) 3.16 Gs: approximately 1 century 31.6 Gs: approximately 1 millennium 6 Ts: time since the appearance of Homo Sapiens (approximately) [10] 7.17.9 Ps: 1 galactic year (225-250 million years) [11] [12] [13] 143 Ps: the age of the Earth [14] 144 Ps: the approximate age of the Solar system and the [15] Sun. 430 Ps: the approximate age of the Universe 312 Es: Estimated lifespan of a 0.1 solar mass red dwarf star.

103

1 kilosecond (16.7 minutes) 1 megasecond (11.6 days) 1 gigasecond (32 years)

103 s, 104 s, 105 s 106 s, 107 s, 108 s 109 s, 1010 s, 1011 s

106

Ms

109

Gs

1012

1 terasecond (32 000 years) 1 petasecond (32 million years)

Ts

1012 s, 1013 s, 1014 s 1015 s, 1016 s, 1017 s

1015

Ps

1018

1 exasecond (32 billion years) 1 zettasecond (32 trillion years) 1 yottasecond (32 quadrillion years)

Es

1018 s, 1019 s, 1020 s 1021 s, 1022 s, 1023 s 1024 s, 1025 s, 1026 s and more

1021

Zs

3 Zs: Estimated duration of Stelliferous Era. 9.8 Zs:the lifetime of Brahma in Hindu mythology

1024

Ys

6.6161050 Ys: Time required for a 1 solar mass black hole to evaporate completely due to Hawking radiation, if nothing more falls in.

Years
Orders of magnitude (time)
Factor (a) 1050 1024 1021 1018 1015 1012 109 106 Multiple common units Planck time, the shortest physically meaningful interval of time 1.711050a 1 yoctoannum -1 zeptoannum -1 attoannum -orders of magnitude 1050 a 1 ya and less, 10 ya, 100 ya 1 za, 10 za, 100 za 1 aa, 10 aa, 100 aa 1 fa, 10 fa, 100 fa 1 pa, 10 pa, 100 pa 1 na, 10 na, 100 na 1 ua, 10 ua, 100 ua

1 femtoannum -1 picoannum 1 nanoannum -1 second = 3.17 108 a 10-7.50 a

1 microannum 1 minute = 1.90 106 a 1 hour = 1.40 104 a 1 milliannum 1 day = 2.73 103 a 1 week = 1.91 102 a

103

1 ma, 10 ma, 100 ma

Orders of magnitude

70
1 average year = 1 annum (= 365.24219 SI days) decade = 10 anna century = 100 anna millennium = 1000 anna 1 a, 10 a, 100 a

100

1 annum

103 106 109

1 kiloannum

103 a, 104 a, 105 a 106 a, 107 a, 108 a

1 megaannum epoch = 1,000,000 anna 1 gigaannum

aeon = 1,000,000,000 anna 109 a, 1010 a, 1011 a 10 13.7 Ga = 1.3710 a 13.7 billion years, the approximate age of the Universe -------1012 a, 1013 a, 1014 a 1015 a, 1016 a, 1017 a 1018 a, 1019 a, 1020 a 1021 a, 1022 a, 1023 a 1024 a, 1025 a, 1026 and more

1012 1015 1018 1021 1024

1 teraannum 1 petaannum 1 exaannum 1 zettaannum 1 yottaannum

The pages linked in the right-hand column contain lists of times that are of the same order of magnitude (power of ten). Rows in the table represent increasing powers of a thousand (3 orders of magnitude). Conversion from year to second is year 31 557 600 using the Julian year. Conversion from is approximately . Example . conversion; to

Footnotes
[1] "CODATA Value: Planck time" (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cgi-bin/ cuu/ Value?plkt). The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. . Retrieved 2011-10-01. [2] The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000. Available at: http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 61/ 21/ Y0022100. html. Accessed December 19, 2007. note: abbr. ys or ysec [3] C. Amsler et al. (2009): Particle listings W boson (http:/ / pdg. lbl. gov/ 2009/ listings/ rpp2009-list-w-boson. pdf) [4] C. Amsler et al. (2009): Particle listings Z boson (http:/ / pdg. lbl. gov/ 2009/ listings/ rpp2009-list-z-boson. pdf) [5] esciencenews (2010) (http:/ / esciencenews. com/ articles/ 2010/ 07/ 28/ nrc. uottawa. scientists. first. watch. a. chemical. bond. break. using. molecules. electrons) [6] "12 attoseconds is the world record for shortest controllable time" (http:/ / www. physorg. com/ news192909576. html). . [7] Eric H. Chudler. "Brain Facts and Figures: Sensory Apparatus: Vision" (http:/ / faculty. washington. edu/ chudler/ facts. html). . Retrieved 2011-10-10. [8] http:/ / tycho. usno. navy. mil/ leapsec. html [9] CIA - The World Factbook -- Rank Order - Life expectancy at birth (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ rankorder/ 2102rank. html) [10] Leong, Stacy (2002). "Period of the Sun's Orbit around the Galaxy (Cosmic Year)" (http:/ / hypertextbook. com/ facts/ 2002/ StacyLeong. shtml). The Physics Factbook. . [11] "Age of the Earth" (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/ gip/ geotime/ age. html). U.S. Geological Survey. 1997. . Retrieved 2006-01-10. [12] Dalrymple, G. Brent (2001). "The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved". Special Publications, Geological Society of London 190 (1): 205221. doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.2001.190.01.14. [13] Manhesa, Grard; Allgrea, Claude J.; Dupra, Bernard; and Hamelin, Bruno (1980). "Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics". Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Elsevier B.V. 47 (3): 370382. Bibcode1980E&PSL..47..370M. doi:10.1016/0012-821X(80)90024-2. [14] Bouvier, Audrey and Meenakshi Wadhwa, The age of the solar system redefined by the oldest Pb-Pb age of a meteoritic inclusion (http:/ / www. nature. com/ ngeo/ journal/ vaop/ ncurrent/ full/ ngeo941. html). Nature Geoscience, Nature Publishing Group, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited. Published online 2010-08-22, retrieved 2010-08-26, doi: 10.1038/NGEO941. [15] Bonanno, A.; Schlattl, H.; Patern, L. (2008). "The age of the Sun and the relativistic corrections in the EOS". Astronomy and Astrophysics 390 (3): 11151118. arXiv:astro-ph/0204331. Bibcode2002A&A...390.1115B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20020749. [a] PDG reports the resonance width (-). Here the conversion =- is given instead.

Orders of magnitude

71

External links
Exploring Time (http://exploringtime.org/?page=segments) from Planck time to the lifespan of the universe

Chronology
Chronology (from Latin chronologia, from Ancient Greek , chronos, "time"; and -, -logia) is the science of arranging events in their order of occurrence in time, such as the use of a timeline or sequence of events. It is also "the determination of the actual temporal sequence of past events".[2] Chronology is part of periodization. It is also part of the discipline of history, including earth history, the earth sciences, and study of the geologic time scale (see Prehistoric chronologies below).

Related fields
Chronology is the science of locating historical events in time, basically a time line and is distinct from, but relies upon chronometry or timekeeping, and historiography, which examines the writing of history and the use of historical Joseph Scaliger's De emendatione temporum (1583) began [1] methods. Radiocarbon dating estimates the age of formerly the modern science of chronology living things by measuring the proportion of carbon-14 isotope in their carbon content. Dendrochronology estimates the age of trees by correlation of the various growth rings in their wood to known year-by-year reference sequences in the region to reflect year-to-year climatic variation. Dendrochronology is used in turn as a calibration reference for radiocarbon dating curves.

Calendar and era

The familiar terms calendar and era (within the meaning of a coherent system of numbered calendar years) concern two complementary fundamental concepts of chronology. For example during eight centuries the calendar belonging to the Christian era, which era was taken in use in the eighth century by Bede, was the Julian calendar, but after the year 1582 it was the Gregorian calendar. Dionysius Exiguus (about the year 500) was the founder of that era, which is nowadays the most widespread dating system on earth.

Ab Urbe condita era

Ab Urbe condita is Latin for "from the founding of the City (Rome)",[3] traditionally set in 753 BC. It was used to identify the Roman year by a few Roman historians. Modern historians use it much more frequently than the Romans themselves did; the dominant method of identifying Roman years was to name the two consuls who held office that year. Before the advent of the modern critical edition of historical Roman works, AUC was indiscriminately added to them by earlier editors, making it appear more widely used than it actually was. It was used systematically for the first time only about the year 400, by the Iberian historian Orosius. Pope Boniface IV, in about the year 600, seems to have been the first who made a connection between these this era and Anno Domini. (AD 1 = AUC 754.)

Chronology

72

Astronomical era
Dionysius Exiguus Anno Domini era (which contains only calendar years AD) was extended by Bede to the complete Christian era (which contains, in addition all calendar years BC, but no year zero). Ten centuries after Bede, the French astronomers Philippe de la Hire (in the year 1702) and Jacques Cassini (in the year 1740), purely to simplify certain calculations, put the Julian Dating System (proposed in the year 1583 by Joseph Scaliger) and with it an astronomical era into use, which contains a leap year zero, which precedes the year 1 (AD) but does not exactly coincide with the year 1 BC. Astronomers never preposed seriously to replace our era with their astronomical era (which for that matter coincides exactly with the Christian era where it concerns the calendar years after the year 4).

Prehistoric chronologies
While of critical importance to the historian, methods of determining chronology are used in most disciplines of science, especially astronomy, geology, paleontology and archaeology. In the absence of written history, with its chronicles and king lists, late 19th century archaeologists found that they could develop relative chronologies based on pottery techniques and styles. In the field of Egyptology, William Flinders Petrie pioneered sequence dating to penetrate pre-dynastic Neolithic times, using groups of contemporary artefacts deposited together at a single time in graves and working backwards methodically from the earliest historical phases of Egypt. This method of dating is known as seriation. Known wares discovered at strata in sometimes quite distant sites, the product of trade, helped extend the network of chronologies. Some cultures have retained the name applied to them in reference to characteristic forms, for lack of an idea of what they called themselves: "The Beaker People" in northern Europe during the 3rd millennium BCE, for example. The study of the means of placing pottery and other cultural artifacts into some kind of order proceeds in two phases, classification and typology: Classification creates categories for the purposes of description, and typology seeks to identify and analyse changes that allow artifacts to be placed into sequences.[4] Laboratory techniques developed particularly after mid-20th century helped constantly revise and refine the chronologies developed for specific cultural areas. Unrelated dating methods help reinforce a chronology, an axiom of corroborative evidence. Ideally, archaeological materials used for dating a site should complement each other and provide a means of cross-checking. Conclusions drawn from just one unsupported technique are usually regarded as unreliable.

Chronological analysis
Several legendary sources tend to assign unrealistically long lifespans to pre-historical heroes and monarchs (e.g., Egyptian, Chinese, Hebrews, Japanese), if the number of years there reported are understood as years of more than 340 days. Though chronologies formulated before the 1960s are subject to serious skepticism today, more recent results are more robust than readily appears to journalists and enthusiastic amateurs. Bayesian inference can be applied in the analysis of chronological information, including radiocarbon-derived dates.

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Notes
[1] Richards, E. G. (1998). Mapping Time: The Calendar and History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.1213. ISBN0-19-286205-7. [2] Memidex/WordNet, "chronology," memidex.com (http:/ / www. memidex. com/ chronology+ humanistic-discipline) (accessed September 25, 2010). [3] Literally translated as "From the city having been founded". [4] Greene, Kevin (November 2007). Archaeology : An Introduction (http:/ / www. staff. ncl. ac. uk/ kevin. greene/ wintro/ chap4. htm). University of Newcastle Upon Tyne. Chapter 4. . Retrieved 2008-01-04.

References
Hegewisch, D. H., & Marsh, J. (1837). Introduction to historical chronology (http://books.google.com/ books?id=TiDhQNrqdZgC). Burlington [Vt.]: C. Goodrich. B. E. Tumanian, Measurement of Time in Ancient and Medieval Armenia, Journal for the History of Astronomy 5, 1974, pp.9198. Kazarian, K. A., History of Chronology by B. E. Tumanian, Journal for the History of Astronomy, 4, 1973, p.137 Porter, T. M., "The Dynamics of Progress: Time, Method, and Measure". The American Historical Review, 1991.

Further reading
Whitrow, G. J. (1990). Time in history views of time from prehistory to the present day. Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford Univ. Press. Aitken, M. (1990). Science-Based Dating in Archaeology. London: Thames and Hudson. Bickerman, E. J. (1980). The Chronology of the Ancient World. London: Thames and Hudson. Neugebauer, O. (1975). A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy Springer-Verlag. Richards, E. G. (1998). Mapping Time: The Calendar and History. Oxford University Press. Williams, N., & Storey, R. L. (1966). Chronology of the modern world: 1763 to the present time. London: Barrie & Rockliffe. Steinberg, S. H. (1967). Historical tables: 58 B.C.-A.D. 1965. London: Macmillan. Keller, H. R. (1934). The dictionary of dates. New York: The Macmillan company. Freeman-Grenville, G. S. P. (1975). Chronology of world history: a calendar of principal events from 3000 BC to AD 1973. London: Collings. Langer, W. L., & Gatzke, H. W. (1963). An encyclopedia of world history, ancient, medieval and modern, chronologically arranged. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Poole, R. L., & Poole, A. L. (1934). Studies in chronology and history. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Weeks, J. E. (1701). The gentleman's hour glass; or, An introduction to chronology; being a plain and compendious analysis of time. Dublin: James Hoey. Smith, T. (1818). An introduction to chronology. New York: Samuel Wood. Hodgson, J., Hinton, J., & Wallis, J. (1747). An introduction to chronology:: containing an account of time; also of the most remarkable cycles, epoch's, era's, periods, and moveable feasts. To which is added, a brief account of the several methods proposed for the alteration of the style, the reforming the calendar, and fixing the true time of the celebration of Easter. London: Printed for J. Hinton, at the King's Arms in St Paul's Church-yard.

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External links
Chronology (http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology) 1911 Encyclopdia Britannica Regnal Chronologies (http://my.raex.com/~obsidian/regindex.html) Dating Methods (http://web.archive.org/web/20041101170127/www.pastperfect.info/archaeology/dating. html) from pastperfect.info at the Internet Archive. Accessed 2008-01-04. Dating the Past (http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/kevin.greene/wintro/chap4.htm) Pragmatic Bayesians: a decade of integrating radiocarbon dates in chronological models (http://web.archive. org/web/20050405175859/http://www.shef.ac.uk/st1ceb/ChronoBuild02/abstracts.html) from the University of Sheffield at the Internet Archive. Accessed 2008-01-04. "General Chronology". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.

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Religion
Time Cycles
Time cycles signify a 360 degree circular or elliptical rotation, orbit or journey in time typically of an object such as a planet or moon. In the case of the precession of the equinoxes, the cycle is determined by the 360 degree shifting of the equinoctal axis. Time cycles can also refer to larger rotations or orbits such as the time it takes for the Earth to make one complete revolution about the Galactic Center of the Milky Way.

The Earth's day

The Earth's 360 degree rotation upon its axis in 24 hours is the measure of one day.

The Earth's year

The Earth's 360 degree rotation around the Sun in 365 days is the measure of one year.

The precession of the equinoxes

The 360 degree rotation of the equinoctal axis against the backdrop of the constellations and other stars in 25,920 years is the measure of the precession of the equinoxes.

Ancient methods of measuring cycles of time

Aztec sun stone Maya calendar Chinese calendar Yugas of Hindu philosophy Zodiac Astrological ages Wheel of time

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Wheel of time
The Wheel of time or wheel of history (Kalachakra) is a concept found in several religious traditions and philosophies, notably religions of Indian origin such as Hinduism and Buddhism, which regard time as cyclical and consisting of repeating ages. Many other cultures contain belief in a similar concept: notably, the Q'ero Indians in Peru, as well as the Hopi Indians of Arizona.

Buddhism
See Kalachakra for details. The Wheel of Time or Kalachakra is a Tantric deity that is associated with Tibetan Tantric Buddhism, which encompasses all four main schools of Sakya, Nyingma, Kagyu and Gelug, and is especially important within the lesser-known Jonang tradition. The Kalachakra tantra prophesies a world within which (religious) conflict is prevalent. A worldwide war will be waged which will see the expansion of the mystical Kingdom of Shambhala led by a messianic king.

Modern Usage
Literature
In an interview included with the audio book editions of his novels, author Robert Jordan has stated that his bestselling fantasy series The Wheel of Time borrows the titular concept from Hindu mythology.

Television
Several episodes of the American TV series Lost feature a wheel which can be physically turned in order to manipulate space and time. In a series of episodes during the fifth season, the island on which the show takes place begins to skip violently back and forth through time after the wheel is pulled off its axis.

Physics
Peter Lynds has put forward a cosmology model in which time is cyclic and the universe repeats exactly an infinite number of times. Because it is exactly the same cycle that repeats, however, it can also be interpreted as happening just once in relation to time. Lynds argues that this resolves a number of thorny issues in cosmology.

References

Camille Flammarion's L'atmosphere (1888)

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Philosophy
Philosophy of space and time
Philosophy of space and time is the branch of philosophy concerned with the issues surrounding the ontology, epistemology, and character of space and time. While such ideas have been central to philosophy from its inception, the philosophy of space and time was both an inspiration for and a central aspect of early analytic philosophy. The subject focuses on a number of basic issues, includingbut not limited towhether or not time and space exist independently of the mind, whether they exist independently of one another, what accounts for time's apparently unidirectional flow, whether times other than the present moment exist, and questions about the nature of identity (particularly the nature of identity over time).

Ancient and medieval views

The earliest recorded Western philosophy of time was expounded by the ancient Egyptian thinker Ptahhotep (c. 26502600 BCE), who said: "Do not lessen the time of following desire, for the wasting of time is an abomination to the spirit." The Vedas, the earliest texts on Indian philosophy and Hindu philosophy dating back to the late 2nd millennium BCE, describe ancient Hindu cosmology, in which the universe goes through repeated cycles of creation, destruction and rebirth, with each cycle lasting 4,320,000 years. Ancient Greek philosophers, including Parmenides and Heraclitus, wrote essays on the nature of time.[1] Incas regarded space and time as a single concept, named pacha (Quechua: pacha, Aymara: pacha).[2] [3] [4] Plato, in the Timaeus, identified time with the period of motion of the heavenly bodies, and space as that in which things come to be. Aristotle, in Book IV of his Physica defined time as the number of change with respect to before and after, and the space of an object as the innermost motionless boundary of that which surrounds it. In Book 11 of St. Augustine's Confessions, he ruminates on the nature of time, asking, "What then is time? If no one asks me, I know: if I wish to explain it to one that asketh, I know not." He settles on time being defined more by what it is not than what it is.[5] In contrast to ancient Greek philosophers who believed that the universe had an infinite past with no beginning, medieval philosophers and theologians developed the concept of the universe having a finite past with a beginning. This view was inspired by the creation belief shared by the three Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The Christian philosopher, John Philoponus, presented the first such argument against the ancient Greek notion of an infinite past. His were adopted by many including, most notably, early Muslim philosopher, Al-Kindi (Alkindus); the Jewish philosopher, Saadia Gaon (Saadia ben Joseph); and the Muslim theologian, Al-Ghazali (Algazel). They used his two logical arguments against an infinite past, the first being the "argument from the impossibility of the existence of an actual infinite", which states:[6] "An actual infinite cannot exist." "An infinite temporal regress of events is an actual infinite." " An infinite temporal regress of events cannot exist." The second argument, the "argument from the impossibility of completing an actual infinite by successive addition", states:[6] "An actual infinite cannot be completed by successive addition." "The temporal series of past events has been completed by successive addition."

Philosophy of space and time " The temporal series of past events cannot be an actual infinite." Both arguments were adopted by later Christian philosophers and theologians, and the second argument in particular became more famous after it was adopted by Immanuel Kant in his thesis of the first antinomy concerning time.[6] In the early 11th century, the Muslim physicist, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen or Alhazen), discussed space perception and its epistemological implications in his Book of Optics (1021). His experimental proof of the intromission model of vision led to changes in the way the visual perception of space was understood, contrary to the previous emission theory of vision supported by Euclid and Ptolemy. In "tying the visual perception of space to prior bodily experience, Alhacen unequivocally rejected the intuitiveness of spatial perception and, therefore, the autonomy of vision. Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things."[7]

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Realism and anti-realism

A traditional realist position in ontology is that time and space have existence apart from the human mind. Idealists deny or doubt the existence of objects independent of the mind. Some anti-realists whose ontological position is that objects outside the mind do exist, nevertheless doubt the independent existence of time and space. Kant, in the Critique of Pure Reason, described time as an a priori notion that, together with other a priori notions such as space, allows us to comprehend sense experience. Kant denies that either space or time are substance, entities in themselves, or learned by experience; he holds rather that both are elements of a systematic framework we use to structure our experience. Spatial measurements are used to quantify how far apart objects are, and temporal measurements are used to quantitatively compare the interval between (or duration of) events. Although space and time are held to be transcendentally ideal in this sense, they are also empirically real, i.e. not mere illusions. Idealist writers such as J. M. E. McTaggart in The Unreality of Time have argued that time is an illusion (see also The flow of time below). The writers discussed here are for the most part realists in this regard; for instance, Gottfried Leibniz held that his monads existed, at least independently of the mind of the observer.

Absolutism and relationalism

Leibniz and Newton
The great debate between defining notions of space and time as real objects themselves (absolute), or whether they are merely orderings upon actual objects (relational), began between physicists Isaac Newton (via his spokesman, Samuel Clarke) and Gottfried Leibniz in the papers of the Leibniz-Clarke correspondence. Arguing against the absolutist position, Leibniz offers a number of thought experiments with the purpose of showing that there is contradiction in assuming the existence of facts such as absolute location and velocity. These arguments trade heavily on two principles central to his philosophy: the principle of sufficient reason and the identity of indiscernibles. The principle of sufficient reason holds that for every fact there is a reason that is sufficient to explain what and why it is the way it is and not otherwise. The identity of indiscernibles states that if there is no way of telling two entities apart then they are one and the same thing. The example Leibniz uses involves two proposed universes situated in absolute space. The only discernible difference between them is that the latter is positioned five feet to the left of the first. The possibility of the example is only available if such a thing as absolute space exists. Such a situation, however, is not possible according to Leibniz, for if it were, where a universe was positioned in absolute space would have no sufficient reason, as it might very well have been anywhere else. Therefore, it is contradicting the principle of sufficient reason, and there could exist two distinct universes that were in all ways indiscernible, thus contradicting the identity of indiscernibles. Standing out in Clarkes (and Newtons) response to Leibniz arguments is the bucket argument: Water in a bucket, hung from a rope and set to spin, will start with a flat surface. As the water begins to spin in the bucket, the surface

Philosophy of space and time of the water will become concave. If the bucket is stopped, the water will continue to spin, and while the spin continues the surface will remain concave. The concave surface is apparently not the result of the interaction of the bucket and the water, since the water is flat when the bucket first starts to spin, becomes concave as the water starts to spin, and remains concave as the bucket stops. In this response, Clarke argues for the necessity of the existence of absolute space to account for phenomena like rotation and acceleration that cannot be accounted for on a purely relationalist account. Clarke argues that since the curvature of the water occurs in the rotating bucket as well as in the stationary bucket containing spinning water, it can only be explained by stating that the water is rotating in relation to the presence of some third thingabsolute space. Leibniz describes a space that exists only as a relation between objects, and which has no existence apart from the existence of those objects. Motion exists only as a relation between those objects. Newtonian space provided the absolute frame of reference within which objects can have motion. In Newtons system the frame of reference exists independently of the objects which are contained in it. These objects can be described as moving in relation to space itself. For many centuries, the evidence of a concave water surface held authority.

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Mach
Another important figure in this debate is 19th century physicist, Ernst Mach. While he did not deny the existence of phenomena like that seen in the bucket argument, he still denied the absolutist conclusion by offering a different answer as to what the bucket was rotating in relation to: the fixed stars. Mach suggested that thought experiments like the bucket argument are problematic. If we were to imagine a universe that only contains a bucket, on Newtons account, this bucket could be set to spin relative to absolute space, and the water it contained would form the characteristic concave surface. But, in the absence of anything else in the universe it would be difficult to confirm that the bucket was indeed spinning. It seems equally possible that the surface of the water in the bucket would remain flat. Mach argued that, in effect, the water experiment in an otherwise empty universe would remain flat. But if another object was introduced into this universe, perhaps a distant star, there is now something relative to which the bucket could be seen as rotating. The water inside the bucket could possibly have a slight curve. To account for the curve that we observe, an increase in the number of objects in the universe also increases the curvature in the water. Mach argued that the momentum of an object, whether angular or linear, exists as a result of the sum of the effects of other objects in the universe (Mach's Principle).

Einstein
Albert Einstein proposed that relativistics are based on the principle of relativity. This theory holds that the rules of physics must be the same for all observers, regardless of the frame of reference that is used, and that light propagates at the same speed in all reference frames. This theory was motivated by Maxwells equations. These equations show that electromagnetic waves propagate in a vacuum at the speed of light. However, Maxwell's equations give no indication of what this speed is relative to. Prior to Einstein, it was thought that this speed was relative to a fixed medium, called the luminiferous ether. In contrast, the theory of special relativity postulates that light propagates at the speed of light in all inertial frames, and examines the implications of this postulate. All attempts to measure any speed relative to this ether failed, which can be seen as a confirmation of Einstein's postulate that light propagates at the same speed in all reference frames. Special relativity is a formalization of the principle of relativity which does not contain a privileged inertial frame of reference such as the luminiferous ether or absolute space, from which Einstein inferred that no such frame exists. Einstein generalized relativity to frames of reference that were non-inertial. He achieved this by positing the Equivalence Principle, which states that the force felt by an observer in a given gravitational field and that felt by an observer in an accelerating frame of reference are indistinguishable. This led to the conclusion that the mass of an

Philosophy of space and time object warps the geometry of the space-time surrounding it, as described in Einsteins field equations. In classical physics, an inertial reference frame is one in which an object that experiences no forces does not accelerate. In general relativity, an inertial frame of reference is one that is following a geodesic of space-time. An object that moves against a geodesic experiences a force. An object in free fall does not experience a force, because it is following a geodesic. An object standing on the earth, however, will experience a force, as it is being held against the geodesic by the surface of the planet. In light of this, the bucket of water rotating in empty space will experience a force because it rotates with respect to the geodesic. The water will become concave, not because it is rotating with respect to the distant stars, but because it is rotating with respect to the geodesic. Einstein partially advocates Machs principle in that distant stars explain inertia because they provide the gravitational field against which acceleration and inertia occur. But contrary to Leibniz account, this warped space-time is as integral a part of an object as are its other defining characteristics such as volume and mass. If one holds, contrary to idealist beliefs, that objects exist independently of the mind, it seems that Relativistics commits them to also hold that space and temporality have exactly the same type of independent existence.

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Conventionalism
The position of conventionalism states that there is no fact of the matter as to the geometry of space and time, but that it is decided by convention. The first proponent of such a view, Henri Poincar, reacting to the creation of the new non-euclidean geometry, argued that which geometry applied to a space was decided by convention, since different geometries will describe a set of objects equally well, based on considerations from his sphere-world. This view was developed and updated to include considerations from relativistic physics by Hans Reichenbach. Reichenbach's conventionalism, applying to space and time, focuses around the idea of coordinative definition. Coordinative definition has two major features. The first has to do with coordinating units of length with certain physical objects. This is motivated by the fact that we can never directly apprehend length. Instead we must choose some physical object, say the Standard Metre at the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (International Bureau of Weights and Measures), or the wavelength of cadmium to stand in as our unit of length. The second feature deals with separated objects. Although we can, presumably, directly test the equality of length of two measuring rods when they are next to one another, we can not find out as much for two rods distant from one another. Even supposing that two rods, whenever brought near to one another are seen to be equal in length, we are not justified in stating that they are always equal in length. This impossibility undermines our ability to decide the equality of length of two distant objects. Sameness of length, to the contrary, must be set by definition. Such a use of coordinative definition is in effect, on Reichenbach's conventionalism, in the General Theory of Relativity where light is assumed, i.e. not discovered, to mark out equal distances in equal times. After this setting of coordinative definition, however, the geometry of spacetime is set. As in the absolutism/relationalism debate, contemporary philosophy is still in disagreement as to the correctness of the conventionalist doctrine. While conventionalism still holds many proponents, cutting criticisms concerning the coherence of Reichenbach's doctrine of coordinative definition have led many to see the conventionalist view as untenable.

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The structure of spacetime

Building from a mix of insights from the historical debates of absolutism and conventionalism as well as reflecting on the import of the technical apparatus of the General Theory of Relativity, details as to the structure of spacetime have made up a large proportion of discussion within the philosophy of space and time, as well as the philosophy of physics. The following is a short list of topics.

The relativity of simultaneity

According to special relativity each point in the universe can have a different set of events that compose its present instant. This has been used in the Rietdijk-Putnam argument to demonstrate that relativity predicts a block universe in which events are fixed in four dimensions.

Invariance vs. covariance

Bringing to bear the lessons of the absolutism/relationalism debate with the powerful mathematical tools invented in the 19th and 20th century, Michael Friedman draws a distinction between invariance upon mathematical transformation and covariance upon transformation. Invariance, or symmetry, applies to objects, i.e. the symmetry group of a space-time theory designates what features of objects are invariant, or absolute, and which are dynamical, or variable. Covariance applies to formulations of theories, i.e. the covariance group designates in which range of coordinate systems the laws of physics hold. This distinction can be illustrated by revisiting Leibniz's thought experiment, in which the universe is shifted over five feet. In this example the position of an object is seen not to be a property of that object, i.e. location is not invariant. Similarly, the covariance group for classical mechanics will be any coordinate systems that are obtained from one another by shifts in position as well as other translations allowed by a Galilean transformation. In the classical case, the invariance, or symmetry, group and the covariance group coincide, but, interestingly enough, they part ways in relativistic physics. The symmetry group of the general theory of relativity includes all differentiable transformations, i.e., all properties of an object are dynamical, in other words there are no absolute objects. The formulations of the general theory of relativity, unlike those of classical mechanics, do not share a standard, i.e., there is no single formulation paired with transformations. As such the covariance group of the general theory of relativity is just the covariance group of every theory.

Historical frameworks
A further application of the modern mathematical methods, in league with the idea of invariance and covariance groups, is to try to interpret historical views of space and time in modern, mathematical language. In these translations, a theory of space and time is seen as a manifold paired with vector spaces, the more vector spaces the more facts there are about objects in that theory. The historical development of spacetime theories is generally seen to start from a position where many facts about objects are incorporated in that theory, and as history progresses, more and more structure is removed. For example, Aristotle's theory of space and time holds that not only is there such a thing as absolute position, but that there are special places in space, such as a center to the universe, a sphere of fire, etc. Newtonian spacetime has absolute position, but not special positions. Galilean spacetime has absolute acceleration, but not absolute position or velocity. And so on.

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Holes
With the general theory of relativity, the traditional debate between absolutism and relationalism has been shifted to whether or not spacetime is a substance, since the general theory of relativity largely rules out the existence of, e.g., absolute positions. One powerful argument against spacetime substantivalism, offered by John Earman is known as the "hole argument". This is a technical mathematical argument but can be paraphrased as follows: Define a function d as the identity function over all elements over the manifold M, excepting a small neighbourhood H belonging to M. Over H d comes to differ from identity by a smooth function. With use of this function d we can construct two mathematical models, where the second is generated by applying d to proper elements of the first, such that the two models are identical prior to the time t=0, where t is a time function created by a foliation of spacetime, but differ after t=0. These considerations show that, since substantivalism allows the construction of holes, that the universe must, on that view, be indeterministic. Which, Earman argues, is a case against substantivalism, as the case between determinism or indeterminism should be a question of physics, not of our commitment to substantivalism.

The direction of time

The problem of the direction of time arises directly from two contradictory facts. Firstly, the fundamental physical laws are time-reversal invariant; if a cinematographic film were taken of any process describable by means of the aforementioned laws and then played backwards, it would still portray a physically possible process. Secondly, our experience of time, at the macroscopic level, is not time-reversal invariant.[8] Glasses can fall and break, however shards of glass cannot reassemble and fly up onto tables. We have memories of the past, and none of the future. We feel we can't change the past but can influence the future.

The causation solution

One solution to this problem takes a metaphysical view, in which the direction of time follows from an asymmetry of causation. We know more about the past because the elements of the past are causes for the effect that is our perception. We feel we can't affect the past and can affect the future because we can't affect the past and can affect the future. There are two main objections to this view. First is the problem of distinguishing the cause from the effect in a non-arbitrary way. The use of causation in constructing a temporal ordering could easily become circular. The second problem with this view is its explanatory power. While the causation account, if successful, may account for some time-asymmetric phenomena like perception and action, it does not account for many others. However, asymmetry of causation can be observed in a non-arbitrary way which is not metaphysical in the case of a human hand dropping a cup of water which smashes into fragments on a hard floor, spilling the liquid. In this order, the causes of the resultant pattern of cup fragments and water spill is easily attributable in terms of the trajectory of the cup, irregularities in its structure, angle of its impact on the floor, etc. However, applying the same event in reverse, it is difficult to explain why the various pieces of the cup should fly up into the human hand and reassemble precisely into the shape of a cup, or why the water should position itself entirely within the cup. The causes of the resultant structure and shape of the cup and the encapsulation of the water by the hand within the cup are not easily attributable, as neither hand nor floor can achieve such formations of the cup or water. This asymmetry is perceivable on account of two features:- i) the relationship between the agent capacities of the human hand (i.e., what it is and is not capable of & what it is for) and non-animal agency (i.e., what floors are and are not capable of and what they are for) and ii) that the pieces of cup came to possess exactly the nature and number of those of a cup before assembling. In short, such asymmetry is attributable to the relationship between temporal direction on the one hand and the implications of form and functional capacity on the other.

Philosophy of space and time The application of these ideas of form and functional capacity only dictates temporal direction in relation to complex scenarios involving specific, non-metaphysical agency which is not merely dependent on human perception of time. However, this last observation in itself is not sufficient to invalidate the implications of the example for the progressive nature of time in general.

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The thermodynamics solution

The second major family of solutions to this problem, and by far the one that has generated the most literature, finds the existence of the direction of time as relating to the nature of thermodynamics. The answer from classical thermodynamics states that while our basic physical theory is, in fact, time-reversal symmetric, thermodynamics is not. In particular, the second law of thermodynamics states that the net entropy of a closed system never decreases, and this explains why we often see glass breaking, but not coming back together. But in statistical mechanics things get more complicated. On one hand, statistical mechanics is far superior to classical thermodynamics, in that thermodynamic behavior, such as glass breaking, can be explained by the fundamental laws of physics paired with a statistical postulate. But statistical mechanics, unlike classical thermodynamics, is time-reversal symmetric. The second law of thermodynamics, as it arises in statistical mechanics, merely states that it is overwhelmingly likely that net entropy will increase, but it is not an absolute law. Current thermodynamic solutions to the problem of the direction of time aim to find some further fact, or feature of the laws of nature to account for this discrepancy.

The laws solution

A third type of solution to the problem of the direction of time, although much less represented, argues that the laws are not time-reversal symmetric. For example, certain processes in quantum mechanics, relating to the weak nuclear force, are not time-reversible, keeping in mind that when dealing with quantum mechanics time-reversibility comprises a more complex definition. But this type of solution is insufficient because 1) the time-asymmetric phenomena in quantum mechanics are too few to account for the uniformity of macroscopic time-asymmetry and 2) it relies on the assumption that quantum mechanics is the final or correct description of physical processes. One recent proponent of the laws solution is Tim Maudlin who argues that, the fundamental laws of physics are laws of temporal evolution (see Maudlin [2007]). However, elsewhere Maudlin argues: "[the] passage of time is an intrinsic asymmetry in the temporal structure of the world... It is the asymmetry that grounds the distinction between sequences that runs from past to future and sequences which run from future to past" [ibid, 2010 edition, p.108]. Thus it is arguably difficult to assess whether Maudlin is suggesting that the direction of time is a consequence of the laws or is itself primitive.

The flow of time

The problem of the flow of time, as it has been treated in analytic philosophy, owes its beginning to a paper written by J. M. E. McTaggart. In this paper McTaggart proposes two "temporal series". The first series, which means to account for our intuitions about temporal becoming, or the moving Now, is called the A-series. The A-series orders events according to their being in the past, present or future, simpliciter and in comparison to each other. The B-series eliminates all reference to the present, and the associated temporal modalities of past and future, and orders all events by the temporal relations earlier than and later than. McTaggart, in his paper The Unreality of Time, argues that time is unreal since a) the A-series is inconsistent and b) the B-series alone cannot account for the nature of time as the A-series describes an essential feature of it. Building from this framework, two camps of solution have been offered. The first, the A-theorist solution, takes becoming as the central feature of time, and tries to construct the B-series from the A-series by offering an account

Philosophy of space and time of how B-facts come to be out of A-facts. The second camp, the B-theorist solution, takes as decisive McTaggart's arguments against the A-series and tries to construct the A-series out of the B-series, for example, by temporal indexicals.

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Dualities
Quantum field theory models have shown that it is possible for theories in two different spacetime backgrounds, like AdS/CFT or T-duality, to be equivalent.

Presentism and Eternalism

According to Presentism, time is an ordering of various realities. At a certain time some things exist and others do not. This is the only reality we can deal with and we cannot for example say that Homer exists because at the present time he does not. An Eternalist, on the other hand, holds that time is a dimension of reality on a par with the three spatial dimensions, and hence that all thingspast present and futurecan be said to be just as real as things in the present are. According to this theory, then, Homer really does exist, though we must still use special language when talking about somebody who exists at a distant timejust as we would use special language when talking about something a long way away (the very words near, far, above, below, over there, and such are directly comparable to phrases such as in the past, a minute ago, and so on).

Endurantism and perdurantism

The positions on the persistence of objects are somewhat similar. An endurantist holds that for an object to persist through time is for it to exist completely at different times (each instance of existence we can regard as somehow separate from previous and future instances, though still numerically identical with them). A perdurantist on the other hand holds that for a thing to exist through time is for it to exist as a continuous reality, and that when we consider the thing as a whole we must consider an aggregate of all its "temporal parts" or instances of existing. Endurantism is seen as the conventional view and flows out of our pre-philosophical ideas (when I talk to somebody I think I am talking to that person as a complete object, and not just a part of a cross-temporal being), but perduranists have attacked this position. (An example of a perdurantist is David Lewis.) One argument perdurantists use to state the superiority of their view is that perdurantism is able to take account of change in objects. The relations between these two questions mean that on the whole Presentists are also endurantists and Eternalists are also perdurantists (and vice versa), but this is not a necessary connection and it is possible to claim, for instance, that time's passage indicates a series of ordered realities, but that objects within these realities somehow exist outside of the reality as a whole, even though the realities as wholes are not related. However, such positions are rarely adopted.

Notes
[1] Dagobert Runes, Dictionary of Philosophy, p. 318 [2] Atuq Eusebio Manga Qespi, Instituto de lingstica y Cultura Amerindia de la Universidad de Valencia. Pacha: un concepto andino de espacio y tiempo (http:/ / revistas. ucm. es/ ghi/ 05566533/ articulos/ REAA9494110155A. PDF). Revsta espaola de Antropologa Americana, 24, p. 155-189. Edit. Complutense, Madrid. 1994 [3] Stephen Hart, Peruvian Cultural Studies:Work in Progress (http:/ / www. ucl. ac. uk/ spanish-latinamerican/ Resources/ Peru_cult) [4] Paul Richard Steele, Catherine J. Allen, Handbook of Inca mythology, p. 86, (ISBN 1-57607-354-8) [5] St. Augustine, Confessions, Book 11. http:/ / ccat. sas. upenn. edu/ jod/ augustine/ Pusey/ book11 (Accessed 5/26/07). [6] Craig, William Lane (June 1979), "Whitrow and Popper on the Impossibility of an Infinite Past", The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 30 (2): 165170 [1656], doi:10.1093/bjps/30.2.165 [7] Smith, A. Mark (2005), "The Alhacenian Account Of Spatial Perception And Its Epistemological Implications", Arabic Sciences and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press) 15 (02): 21940, doi:10.1017/S0957423905000184 [8] Borchert, D.M. (2006) Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2nd Ed. Vol. 9. MI: Cengage Learning. P. 468.

Philosophy of space and time

85

References
Zade, Allan (2011) Z-Theory and Its Applications. AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1452018935 Albert, David (2000) Time and Chance. Harvard Univ. Press. Earman, John (1989) World Enough and Space-Time. MIT Press. Friedman, Michael (1983) Foundations of Space-Time Theories. Princeton Univ. Press. Grunbaum, Adolf (1974) Philosophical Problems of Space and Time, 2nd ed. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science. Vol XII. D. Reidel Publishing Horwich, Paul (1987) Asymmetries in Time. MIT Press. Lucas, John Randolph, 1973. A Treatise on Time and Space. London: Methuen. Mellor, D.H. (1998) Real Time II. Routledge. Hans Reichenbach (1958) The Philosophy of Space and Time. Dover Hans Reichenbach (1991) The Direction of Time. University of California Press. Lawrence Sklar (1976) Space, Time, and Spacetime. University of California Press. Turetzky, Philip (1998) Time. Routledge. Bas Van Fraassen, 1970. An Introduction to the Philosophy of Space and Time. Random House. Gal-Or, Benjamin "Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy". Springer-Verlag, New York, 1981, 1983, 1987 ISBN 0-387-90581-2

External links
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: " Time (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/time/)" by Ned Markosian; " Being and Becoming in Modern Physics (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spacetime-bebecome/)" by Steven Savitt; " Absolute and Relational Theories of Space and Motion (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ spacetime-theories/)" by Nick Huggett and Carl Hoefer. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: " Time (http://www.iep.utm.edu/t/time.htm)" by Bradley Dowden. Brown, C.L., 2006, " What is Space?" (http://www.unrestrictedphilosophy.com) A largely Wittgensteinian, approach towards a dissolution of the question: "What is space?" Rea, M. C., " Four Dimensionalism (http://www.nd.edu/~mrea/papers/Four Dimensionalism.pdf)" in The Oxford Handbook for Metaphysics. Oxford Univ. Press. Describes presentism and four-dimensionalism. CEITT - Time and Temporality Research Center. " Time and Temporality (http://ceitt.com/index-en.html)". http://www.exactspent.com/philosophy_of_space_and_time.htm and related subjects " Gods and the Universe in Buddhist Perspective (http://www.bps.lk/olib/wh/wh180-p.html), Essays on Buddhist Cosmology" by Francis Story.

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Temporal finitism
Temporal finitism is the idea that time is finite. The context of the idea is the pre-modern era, before mathematicians had understood the concept of infinity and before physical cosmology. The philosophy of Aristotle, expressed in such works as his physics, held that although space was finite, with only void existing beyond the outermost sphere of the heavens, time was infinite. This caused problems for mediaeval Islamic, Jewish and Christian philosophers, who were unable to reconcile the Aristotelian conception of the eternal with the Abrahamic view of Creation.[1]

Medieval philosophy
In contrast to ancient Greek philosophers who believed that the universe had an infinite past with no beginning, medieval philosophers and theologians developed the concept of the universe having a finite past with a beginning. This view was inspired by the creation doctrine shared by the three Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam.[2] Prior to Maimonides, it was held that it was possible to prove, philosophically, creation theory. The Kalam cosmological argument held that creation was provable, for example. Maimonides himself held that neither creation nor Aristotle's infinite time were provable, or at least that no proof was available. (According to scholars of his work, he didn't make a formal distinction between unprovability and the simple absence of proof.) Thomas Aquinas was influenced by this belief, and held in his Summa Theologica that neither hypothesis was demonstrable. Some of Maimonides' Jewish successors, including Gersonides and Crescas, conversely held that the question was decidable, philosophically.[1] John Philoponus was probably the first to use the argument that infinite time is impossible, establishing temporal finitism. He was followed by many others including Al-Kindi, Saadia Gaon, Al-Ghazali, St. Bonaventure and Immanuel Kant (in his First Antinomy). The argument was revisited once again by William Lane Craig in light of the idea of transfinite numbers in modern mathematics.[3] Philoponus' arguments for temporal finitism were severalfold. Contra Aristotlem has been lost, and is chiefly known through the citations used by Simplicius of Cilicia in his commentaries on Aristotle's Physics and De Caelo. Philoponus' refutation of Aristotle extended to six books, the first five addressing De Caelo and the sixth addressing Physics, and from comments on Philoponus made by Simplicius can be deduced to have been quite lengthy.[4] A full exposition of Philoponus' several arguments, as reported by Simplicius, can be found in Sorabji, listed in Further reading. One such argument was based upon Aristotle's own theorem that there were not multiple infinities, and ran as follows: If time were infinite, then as the universe continued in existence for another hour, the infinity of its age since creation at the end of that hour must be one hour greater than the infinity of its age since creation at the start of that hour. But since Aristotle holds that such treatments of infinity are impossible and ridiculous, the world cannot have existed for infinite time.[5] Philoponus' works were adopted by many, most notably; early Muslim philosopher, Al-Kindi (Alkindus); the Jewish philosopher, Saadia Gaon (Saadia ben Joseph); and the Muslim theologian, Al-Ghazali (Algazel). They used his two logical arguments against an infinite past, the first being the "argument from the impossibility of the existence of an actual infinite", which states:[2] "An actual infinite cannot exist." "An infinite temporal regress of events is an actual infinite." " An infinite temporal regress of events cannot exist." The second argument, the "argument from the impossibility of completing an actual infinite by successive addition", states:[2]

Temporal finitism "An actual infinite cannot be completed by successive addition." "The temporal series of past events has been completed by successive addition." " The temporal series of past events cannot be an actual infinite." Both arguments were adopted by later Christian philosophers and theologians, and the second argument in particular became more famous after it was adopted by Immanuel Kant in his thesis of the first antinomy concerning time.[2]

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Modern philosophy
Immanuel Kant's argument for temporal finitism, at least in one direction, from his First Antinomy, runs as follows:[3] [6] If we assume that the world has no beginning in time, then up to every given moment an eternity has elapsed, and there has passed away in that world an infinite series of successive states of things. Now the infinity of a series consists in the fact that it can never be completed through successive synthesis. It thus follows that it is impossible for an infinite world-series to have passed away, and that a beginning of the world is therefore a necessary condition of the world's existence. Immanuel Kant,First Antinomy, of Space and Time Modern mathematics has no great problems working with infinity, but the concept still troubles some philosophers, such as Viney who argues that it is a mistake to conclude, because philosophers have been unable to answer the problems posed by the idea of an actual infinite, expounded by Kant and others, that one should not believe in an infinite past, asserting out that both metaphysical world views, that time is finite and infinite, incur paradoxes. He invokes Charles Hartshorne's principle of least paradox (As long as the problems in one's own position are fewer than those in the positions of others, there is no justification for capitulating to the arguments of opponents.) and points out several problems with the idea of temporal finitism.[3] One such problem is given by Hartshorne's argument against the existence of a first moment in time:[3] Even a beginning is a change, and all change requires something changing that does not come to exist through that same change. The beginning of the world would have to happen to something other than the world, something which as the subject of happening would be in a time that did not begin with the world. Charles Harshorne,Man's Vision of God, p. 233 Another, subtler, problem is that a first moment would never appear to be a first moment. Pointing to the similar arguments given by the defenders of Creation Science, and similar arguments made by Bertrand Russell, he argues that there is a paradox that infects the view that a first moment of time existed: Because every event appears to have been caused by some previous event, any first event cannot look like a first event, and so the universe must always appear to be older than it actually is. In Hartshorne's words:[3] A first moment of time would be an ontological lie through and through, a joke of existence upon itself. Charles Harshorne,Man's Vision of God, p. 234 A third problem is that the notion of a first moment implies that it is impossible to conceive the idea of the universe being older than it is. Viney's argument, which he notes was also recognized as a problem by St Bonaventure, runs as follows: To claim that the universe could have begun, say, 2 seconds earlier is to imply that there is some measure of time that is outside and independent of the universe. However, since the first moment of time, by definition, marks the beginning of time, there can be no such independent and external measure of time.[3] Viney thus declares the debate between the finitist position and the infinitist position on time to be a stalemate, since the former is no less paradoxical than the latter.[3]

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References
[1] Seymour Feldman (1967). "Gersonides' Proofs for the Creation of the Universe". Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research (Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research, Vol. 35) 35: 113137. doi:10.2307/3622478. JSTOR3622478. [2] Craig, William Lane (June 1979). "Whitrow and Popper on the Impossibility of an Infinite Past". The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 30 (2): 165170 [1656]. doi:10.1093/bjps/30.2.165 [3] Donald Wayne Viney (1985). "The Cosmological Argument". Charles Hartshorne and the Existence of God. SUNY Press. pp.6568. ISBN0873959078. [4] Herbert A. Davidson (AprilJune 1969). "John Philoponus as a Source of Medieval Islamic and Jewish Proofs of Creation". Journal of the American Oriental Society (Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 89, No. 2) 89 (2): 357391. doi:10.2307/596519. JSTOR596519. [5] Mark Daniels (2007). "What's New in Ancient Philosophy" (http:/ / philosophynow. org. / archive/ articles/ 20daniels. htm). Philosopny Now. . [6] Immanual Kant; Norman Kemp Smith (tr.). "Kant's First Antinomy, of Space and Time" (http:/ / meta-religion. com. / Philosophy/ Biography/ Immanuel_Kant/ First_antinomy. htm). Critique of Pure Reason. pp. A 426429. .

Further reading
Richard Sorabji (2005). "Did the Universe have a Beginning?". The Philosophy of the Commentators, 200600 AD. Cornell University Press. pp.175188. ISBN0801489881. Robert Bunn (June 1988). "Review of Time, Creation, and the Continuum: Theories in Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages by Richard Sorabji". Philosophy of Science 55 (2): 304306. doi:10.1086/289436. Maimonides (1956). The Guide To The Perplexed. II. translated by M. Friedlander. London: Dover. pp.1516,25. A. W. Moore (2001). "Mediaval and Renaissance Thought". The Infinite. Routledge. pp.4649. ISBN0415252857. Jaakko Hintikka (April 1966). "Aristotelian Infinity". The Philosophical Review (The Philosophical Review, Vol. 75, No. 2) 75 (2): 197218. doi:10.2307/2183083. JSTOR2183083. Michael J. White (1992). "Aristotle on Time and Locomotion". The Continuous and the Discrete: Ancient Physical Theories from a Contemporary Perspective. Oxford University Press. ISBN0198239521.

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Physical definition
Time in physics
Time in physics is defined by its measurement: time is what a clock reads.[1] It is a scalar quantity and, like length, mass, and charge, is usually described as a fundamental quantity. Time can be combined mathematically with other physical quantities to derive other concepts such as motion, kinetic energy and time-dependent fields. Timekeeping is a complex of technological and scientific issues, and part of the foundation of recordkeeping.

Foucault's pendulum in the Panthon of Paris can measure time as well as demonstrate the rotation of Earth.

Prerequisites scientific notation natural units algebra geometry vector notation optics operators differential equations partial differential equations electrical engineering signal processing

Markers of time
Before there were clocks, time was measured by those physical processes[2] which were understandable to each epoch of civilization:[3] the first appearance (see: heliacal rising) of Sirius to mark the flooding of the Nile each year[3] the periodic succession of night and day, one after the other, in seemingly eternal succession[4] the position on the horizon of the first appearance of the sun at dawn[5] the position of the sun in the sky[6] the marking of the moment of noontime during the day[7]

the length of the shadow cast by a gnomon[8]

Time in physics Eventually,[9] [10] it became possible to characterize the passage of time with instrumentation, using operational definitions. Simultaneously, our conception of time has evolved, as shown below.[11]

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The unit of measurement of time: the second

In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of time is the second (symbol: ). It is a SI base unit, and it is currently defined as "the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom." [12]

The state of the art in timekeeping

Prerequisites Measurement Scientific notation Natural units

The UTC timestamp in use worldwide is an atomic time standard. The relative accuracy of such a time standard is currently on the order of 1015[13] (corresponding to 1 second in approximately 30 million years). The smallest time step considered observable is called the Planck time, which is approximately 5.3911044 seconds - many orders of magnitude below the resolution of current time standards.

Conceptions of time
Both Galileo and Newton and most people up until the 20th century thought that time was the same for everyone everywhere. This is the basis for timelines, where time is a parameter. Our modern conception of time is based on Einstein's theory of relativity, in Andromeda galaxy (M31) is two million light-years away. Thus we are viewing which rates of time run differently [14] M31's light from two million years ago, a time before humans existed on depending on relative motion, and space and Earth. time are merged into spacetime, where we live on a world line rather than a timeline. Thus time is part of a coordinate, in this view. Physicists believe the entire Universe and therefore time itself[15] began about 13.7 billion years ago in the big bang. (See Time in Cosmology below) Whether it will ever come to an end is an open question. (See philosophy of physics.)

Regularities in nature
In order to measure time, one can record the number of occurrences (events) of some periodic phenomenon. The regular recurrences of the seasons, the motions of the sun, moon and stars were noted and tabulated for millennia, before the laws of physics were formulated. The sun was the arbiter of the flow of time, but time was known only to the hour for millennia, hence, the use of the gnomon was known across most of the world, especially Eurasia, and at least as far southward as the jungles of Southeast Asia.[16] I farm the land from which I take my food. I watch the sun rise and sun set. Kings can ask no more.

Time in physics --Ancient Chinese Proverb, 3500 years ago.[17] In particular, the astronomical observatories maintained for religious purposes became accurate enough to ascertain the regular motions of the stars, and even some of the planets. At first, timekeeping was done by hand by priests, and then for commerce, with watchmen to note time as part of their duties. The tabulation of the equinoxes, the sandglass, and the water clock became more and more accurate, and finally reliable. For ships at sea, boys were used to turn the sandglasses and to call the hours. Mechanical clocks Richard of Wallingford (12921336), abbot of St. Alban's abbey, famously built a mechanical clock as an astronomical orrery about 1330.[18] [19] By the time of Richard of Wallingford, the use of ratchets and gears allowed the towns of Europe to create mechanisms to display the time on their respective town clocks; by the time of the scientific revolution, the clocks became miniaturized enough for families to share a personal clock, or perhaps a pocket watch. At first, only kings could afford them. Pendulum clocks were widely used in the 18th and 19th century. They have largely been replaced in general use by quartz and digital clocks. Atomic clocks can theoretically keep accurate time for millions of years. They are appropriate for standards and scientific use.

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Galileo: the flow of time

In 1583, Galileo Galilei (15641642) discovered that a pendulum's harmonic motion has a constant period, which he learned by timing the motion of a swaying lamp in harmonic motion at mass at the cathedral of Pisa, with his pulse.[20] In his Two New Sciences (1638), Galileo used a water clock to measure the time taken for a bronze ball to roll a known distance down an inclined plane; this clock was "a large vessel of water placed in an elevated position; to the bottom of this vessel was soldered a pipe of small diameter giving a thin jet of water, which we collected in a small glass during the time of each descent, whether for the whole length of the channel or for a part of its length; the water thus collected was weighed, after each descent, on a very accurate balance; the differences and ratios of these weights gave us the differences and ratios of the times, and this with such accuracy that although the operation was repeated many, many times, there was no appreciable discrepancy in the results."[21] Galileo's experimental setup to measure the literal flow of time, in order to describe the motion of a ball, preceded Isaac Newton's statement in his Principia: I do not define time, space, place and motion, as being well known to all.[22] The Galilean transformations assume that time is the same for all reference frames.

Newton's physics: linear time

In or around 1665, when Isaac Newton (16431727) derived the motion of objects falling under gravity, the first clear formulation for mathematical physics of a treatment of time began: linear time, conceived as a universal clock. Absolute, true, and mathematical time, of itself, and from its own nature flows equably without regard to anything external, and by another name is called duration: relative, apparent, and common time, is some sensible and external (whether accurate or unequable) measure of duration by the means of motion, which is commonly used instead of true time; such as an hour, a day, a month, a year.[23] The water clock mechanism described by Galileo was engineered to provide laminar flow of the water during the experiments, thus providing a constant flow of water for the durations of the experiments, and embodying what Newton called duration.

Time in physics In this section, the relationships listed below treat time as a parameter which serves as an index to the behavior of the physical system under consideration. Because Newton's fluents treat a linear flow of time (what he called mathematical time), time could be considered to be a linearly varying parameter, an abstraction of the march of the hours on the face of a clock. Calendars and ship's logs could then be mapped to the march of the hours, days, months, years and centuries.
Prerequisites differential equations partial differential equations

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Lagrange (17361813) would aid in the formulation of a simpler version[24] of Newton's equations. He started with an energy term, L, named the Lagrangian in his honor, and formulated Lagrange's equations:

The dotted quantities,

denote a function which corresponds to a Newtonian fluxion, whereas

denote a function and the

which corresponds to a Newtonian fluent. But linear time is the parameter for the relationship between the

of the physical system under consideration. Some decades later, it was found that the second order equation of Lagrange or Newton can be more easily solved or visualized by suitable transformation to sets of first order differential equations. Lagrange's equations can be transformed, under a Legendre transformation, to Hamilton's equations; the Hamiltonian formulation for the equations of motion of some conjugate variables p,q (for example, momentum p and position q) is:
Prerequisites Operators Poisson brackets

in the Poisson bracket notation and clearly shows the dependence of the time variation of conjugate variables p,q on an energy expression. This relationship, it was to be found, also has corresponding forms in quantum mechanics as well as in the classical mechanics shown above. These relationships bespeak a conception of time which is reversible.

Thermodynamics and the paradox of irreversibility

By 1798, Benjamin Thompson (17531814) had discovered that work could be transformed to heat without limit - a precursor of the conservation of energy or 1st law of thermodynamics In 1824 Sadi Carnot (17961832) scientifically analyzed the steam engines with his Carnot cycle, an abstract engine. Rudolf Clausius (18221888) noted a measure of disorder, or entropy, which affects the continually decreasing amount of free energy which is available to a Carnot engine in the: 2nd law of thermodynamics Thus the continual march of a thermodynamic system, from lesser to greater entropy, at any given temperature, defines an arrow of time. In particular, Stephen Hawking identifies three arrows of time:[25]

Time in physics Psychological arrow of time - our perception of an inexorable flow. Thermodynamic arrow of time - distinguished by the growth of entropy. Cosmological arrow of time - distinguished by the expansion of the universe. Entropy is maximum in an isolated thermodynamic system, and increases. In contrast, Erwin Schrdinger (18871961) pointed out that life depends on a "negative entropy flow".[26] Ilya Prigogine (19172003) stated that other thermodynamic systems which, like life, are also far from equilibrium, can also exhibit stable spatio-temporal structures. Soon afterward, the Belousov-Zhabotinsky reactions[27] were reported, which demonstrate oscillating colors in a chemical solution.[28] These nonequilibrium thermodynamic branches reach a bifurcation point, which is unstable, and another thermodynamic branch becomes stable in its stead.[29]

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Electromagnetism and the speed of light

In 1864, James Clerk Maxwell (18311879) presented a combined theory of electricity and magnetism. He combined all the laws then known relating to those two phenomenon into four equations. These vector calculus equations which use the del operator ( ) are known as Maxwell's equations for electromagnetism. In free space (that is, space not containing electric charges), the equations take the form (using SI units):[30]
Prerequisites vector notation partial differential equations

where 0 and 0 are the electric permittivity and the magnetic permeability of free space; c= is the speed of light in free space, 299 792 458 m/s; E is the electric field; B is the magnetic field. These equations allow for solutions in the form of electromagnetic waves. The wave is formed by an electric field and a magnetic field oscillating together, perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation. These waves always propagate at the speed of light c, regardless of the velocity of the electric charge that generated them. The fact that light is predicted to always travel at speed c would be incompatible with Galilean relativity if Maxwell's equations were assumed to hold in any inertial frame (reference frame with constant velocity), because the Galilean transformations predict the speed to decrease (or increase) in the reference frame of an observer traveling parallel (or antiparallel) to the light. It was expected that there was one absolute reference frame, that of the luminiferous aether, in which Maxwell's equations held unmodified in the known form. The Michelson-Morley experiment failed to detect any difference in the relative speed of light due to the motion of the Earth relative to the luminiferous aether, suggesting that Maxwell's equations did, in fact, hold in all frames. In 1875, Hendrik Lorentz (18531928) discovered Lorentz transformations, which left Maxwell's equations unchanged, allowing Michelson and Morley's negative result to be explained. Henri Poincar (18541912) noted the importance of Lorentz' transformation and popularized it. In particular, the railroad car description can be found in Science and

Time in physics Hypothesis,[31] which was published before Einstein's articles of 1905. The Lorentz transformation predicted space contraction and time dilation; until 1905, the former was interpreted as a physical contraction of objects moving with respect to the aether, due to the modification of the intermolecular forces (of electric nature), while the latter was thought to be just a mathematical stipulation.

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Einstein's physics: spacetime

Main articles: special relativity (1905), general relativity (1915). Albert Einstein's 1905 special relativity challenged the notion of absolute time, and could only formulate a definition of synchronization for clocks that mark a linear flow of time: If at the point A of space there is a clock, an observer at A can determine the time values of events in the immediate proximity of A by finding the positions of the hands which are simultaneous with these events. If there is at the point B of space another clock in all respects resembling the one at A, it is possible for an observer at B to determine the time values of events in the immediate neighbourhood of B. But it is not possible without further assumption to compare, in respect of time, an event at A with an event at B. We have so far defined only an "A time" and a "B time." We have not defined a common "time" for A and B, for the latter cannot be defined at all unless we establish by definition that the "time" required by light to travel from A to B equals the "time" it requires to travel from B to A. Let a ray of light start at the "A time" tA from A towards B, let it at the "B time" tB be reflected at B in the direction of A, and arrive again at A at the A time tA. In accordance with definition the two clocks synchronize if

We assume that this definition of synchronism is free from contradictions, and possible for any number of points; and that the following relations are universally valid: 1. If the clock at B synchronizes with the clock at A, the clock at A synchronizes with the clock at B. 2. If the clock at A synchronizes with the clock at B and also with the clock at C, the clocks at B and C also synchronize with each other. Albert Einstein,"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" [32] Einstein showed that if the speed of light is not changing between reference frames, space and time must be so that the moving observer will measure the same speed of light as the stationary one because velocity is defined by space and time: where r is position and t is time. Indeed, the Lorentz transformation (for two reference frames in relative motion, whose x axis is directed in the direction of the relative velocity)

Time in physics

95

Prerequisites algebra trigonometry

can be said to "mix" space and time in a way similar to the way a Euclidean rotation around the z axis mixes x and y coordinates. Consequences of this include relativity of simultaneity.

Event B is simultaneous with A in the green reference frame, but it occurred before in the blue frame, and will occur later in the red frame.

More

specifically,

the

Lorentz

transformation

is

hyperbolic

rotation

which is a change of coordinates in the four-dimensional Minkowski space, a dimension of which is ct. (In Euclidean space an ordinary rotation is the corresponding change of coordinates.) The speed of light c can be seen as just a conversion factor needed because we measure the dimensions of spacetime in different units; since the metre is currently defined in terms of the second, it has the exact value of 299 792 458 m/s. We would need a similar factor in Euclidean space if, for example, we measured width in nautical miles and depth in feet. In physics, sometimes units of measurement in which c = 1 are used to simplify equations. Time in a "moving" reference frame is shown to run more slowly than in a "stationary" one by the following relation (which can be derived by the Lorentz transformation by putting x = 0, = t):

where: is the time between two events as measured in the moving reference frame in which they occur at the same place (e.g. two ticks on a moving clock); it is called the proper time between the two events; t is the time between these same two events, but as measured in the stationary reference frame; v is the speed of the moving reference frame relative to the stationary one; c is the speed of light.

Time in physics Moving objects therefore are said to show a slower passage of time. This is known as time dilation. These transformations are only valid for two frames at constant relative velocity. Naively applying them to other situations gives rise to such paradoxes as the twin paradox. That paradox can be resolved using for instance Einstein's General theory of relativity, which uses Riemannian geometry, geometry in accelerated, noninertial reference frames. Employing the metric tensor which describes Minkowski space:

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Einstein developed a geometric solution to Lorentz's transformation that preserves Maxwell's equations. His field equations give an exact relationship between the measurements of space and time in a given region of spacetime and the energy density of that region. Einstein's equations predict that time should be altered by the presence of gravitational fields (see the Schwarzschild metric):

Where: is the gravitational time dilation of an object at a distance of .

is the change in coordinate time, or the interval of coordinate time. is the gravitational constant is the mass generating the field is the change in proper time , or the interval of proper time. Or one could use the following simpler approximation:

Time runs slower the stronger the gravitational field, and hence acceleration, is. The predictions of time dilation are confirmed by particle acceleration experiments and cosmic ray evidence, where moving particles decay more slowly than their less energetic counterparts. Gravitational time dilation gives rise to the phenomenon of gravitational redshift and delays in signal travel time near massive objects such as the sun. The Global Positioning System must also adjust signals to account for this effect. According to Einstein's general theory of relativity, a freely moving particle traces a history in spacetime that maximises its proper time. This phenomenon is also referred to as the principle of maximal aging, and was described by Taylor and Wheeler as[33] : "Principle of Extremal Aging: The path a free object takes between two events in spacetime is the path for which the time lapse between these events, recorded on the object's wristwatch, is an extremum." Einstein's theory was motivated by the assumption that every point in the universe can be treated as a 'center', and that correspondingly, physics must act the same in all reference frames. His simple and elegant theory shows that time is relative to an inertial frame. In an inertial frame, Newton's first law holds; it has its own local geometry, and therefore its own measurements of space and time; there is no 'universal clock'. An act of synchronization must be performed between two systems, at the least.

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Time in quantum mechanics

There is a time parameter in the equations of quantum mechanics. The Schrdinger equation[34] is
Prerequisites physics quantum mechanics

One solution can be . where is called the time evolution operator, and H is the Hamiltonian. But the Schrdinger picture shown above is equivalent to the Heisenberg picture, which enjoys a similarity to the Poisson brackets of classical mechanics. The Poisson brackets are superseded by a nonzero commutator, say [H,A] for observable A, and Hamiltonian H:

This equation denotes an uncertainty relation in quantum physics. For example, with time (the observable A), the energy E (from the Hamiltonian H) gives:

where is the uncertainty in energy is the uncertainty in time is Planck's constant The more precisely one measures the duration of a sequence of events the less precisely one can measure the energy associated with that sequence and vice versa. This equation is different from the standard uncertainty principle because time is not an operator in quantum mechanics. Corresponding commutator relations also hold for momentum p and position q, which are conjugate variables of each other, along with a corresponding uncertainty principle in momentum and position, similar to the energy and time relation above. Quantum mechanics explains the properties of the periodic table of the elements. Starting with Otto Stern's and Walter Gerlach's experiment with molecular beams in a magnetic field, Isidor Rabi (18981988), was able to modulate the magnetic resonance of the beam. In 1945 Rabi then suggested that this technique be the basis of a clock[35] using the resonant frequency of an atomic beam. John Cramer is preparing an experiment [36] to determine whether quantum entanglement is also nonlocal in time as it is in space. This can also be stated as 'sending a signal back in time'. Cramer has recently published an update [37] indicating that the final experiment will take more time to prepare.

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Dynamical systems
See dynamical systems and chaos theory, dissipative structures One could say that time is a parameterization of a dynamical system that allows the geometry of the system to be manifested and operated on. It has been asserted that time is an implicit consequence of chaos (i.e. nonlinearity/irreversibility): the characteristic time, or rate of information entropy production, of a system. Mandelbrot introduces intrinsic time in his book Multifractals and 1/f noise.

Signalling
Prerequisites electrical engineering signal processing

Signalling is one application of the electromagnetic waves described above. In general, a signal is part of communication between parties and places. One example might be a yellow ribbon tied to a tree, or the ringing of a church bell. A signal can be part of a conversation, which involves a protocol. Another signal might be the position of the hour hand on a town clock or a railway station. An interested party might wish to view that clock, to learn the time. See: Time ball, an early form of Time signal. We as observers can still signal different parties and places as long as we live within their past light cone. But we cannot receive signals from those parties and places outside our past light cone. Along with the formulation of the equations for the electromagnetic wave, the field of telecommunication could be founded. In 19th century telegraphy, electrical circuits, some spanning continents and oceans, could transmit codes - simple dots, dashes and spaces. From this, a series of technical issues have emerged; see Category:Synchronization. But it is safe to say that our signalling systems can be only approximately synchronized, a plesiochronous condition, from which jitter need be eliminated.
Evolution of a world line of an accelerated massive particle. This worldline is restricted to the timelike top and bottom sections of this spacetime figure and can not cross the top (future) nor the bottom (past) light cone. The left and right sections, outside the light cones are spacelike.

That said, systems can be synchronized (at an engineering approximation), using technologies like GPS. The GPS satellites must account for the effects of gravitation and other relativistic factors in their circuitry. See: Self-clocking signal.

Technology for timekeeping standards

The primary time standard in the U.S. is currently NIST-F1, a laser-cooled Cs fountain,[38] the latest in a series of time and frequency standards, from the ammonia-based atomic clock (1949) to the caesium-based NBS-1 (1952) to NIST-7 (1993). The respective clock uncertainty declined from 10,000 nanoseconds per day to 0.5 nanoseconds per day in 5 decades.[39] In 2001 the clock uncertainty for NIST-F1 was 0.1 nanoseconds/day. Development of increasingly accurate frequency standards is underway. In this time and frequency standard, a population of caesium atoms is laser-cooled to temperatures of one microkelvin. The atoms collect in a ball shaped by six lasers, two for each spatial dimension, vertical (up/down), horizontal (left/right), and back/forth. The vertical lasers push the caesium ball through a microwave cavity. As the ball is cooled, the caesium population cools to its ground state and emits light at its natural frequency, stated in the

Time in physics definition of second above. Eleven physical effects are accounted for in the emissions from the caesium population, which are then controlled for in the NIST-F1 clock. These results are reported to BIPM. Additionally, a reference hydrogen maser is also reported to BIPM as a frequency standard for TAI (international atomic time). The measurement of time is overseen by BIPM (Bureau International des Poids et Mesures), located in Svres, France, which ensures uniformity of measurements and their traceability to the International System of Units (SI) worldwide. BIPM operates under authority of the Metre Convention, a diplomatic treaty between fifty-one nations, the Member States of the Convention, through a series of Consultative Committees, whose members are the respective national metrology laboratories.

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Time in cosmology
The equations of general relativity predict a non-static universe. However, Einstein accepted only a static universe, and modified the Einstein field equation to reflect this by adding the cosmological constant, which he later described as the biggest mistake of his life. But in 1927, Georges LeMatre (18941966) argued, on the basis of general relativity, that the universe originated in a primordial explosion. At the fifth Solvay conference, that year, Einstein brushed him off with "Vos calculs sont corrects, mais votre physique est abominable."[40] (Your math is correct, but your physics is abominable). In 1929, Edwin Hubble (18891953) announced his discovery of the expanding universe. The current generally accepted cosmological model, the Lambda-CDM model, has a positive cosmological constant and thus not only an expanding universe but an accelerating expanding universe. If the universe were expanding, then it must have been much smaller and therefore hotter and denser in the past. George Gamow (19041968) hypothesized that the abundance of the elements in the Periodic Table of the Elements, might be accounted for by nuclear reactions in a hot dense universe. He was disputed by Fred Hoyle (19152001), who invented the term 'Big Bang' to disparage it. Fermi and others noted that this process would have stopped after only the light elements were created, and thus did not account for the abundance of heavier elements. Gamow's prediction was a 510 kelvin black body radiation temperature for the universe, after it cooled during the expansion. This was corroborated by Penzias and Wilson in 1965. Subsequent experiments arrived at a 2.7 kelvin temperature, corresponding to an age of the universe of 13.7 billion years after the Big Bang. This dramatic result has raised issues: what happened between the singularity of the Big Bang and the Planck time, which, after all, is the WMAP fluctuations of the cosmic microwave [41] smallest observable time. When might have time separated out from background radiation. [42] the spacetime foam; there are only hints based on broken symmetries (see Spontaneous symmetry breaking, Timeline of the Big Bang, and the articles in Category:Physical cosmology). General relativity gave us our modern notion of the expanding universe that started in the Big Bang. Using relativity and quantum theory we have been able to roughly reconstruct the history of the universe. In our epoch, during which electromagnetic waves can propagate without being disturbed by conductors or charges, we can see the stars, at great distances from us, in the night sky. (Before this epoch, there was a time, 300,000 years after the big bang, during which starlight would not have been visible.)

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Reprise
Ilya Prigogine's reprise is "Time precedes existence". He contrasts the views of Newton, Einstein and quantum physics which offer a symmetric view of time (as discussed above) with his own views, which point out that statistical and thermodynamic physics can explain irreversible phenomena[43] as well as the arrow of time and the Big Bang.

References
[1] Considine, Douglas M.; Considine, Glenn D. (1985). Process instruments and controls handbook (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=kt1UAAAAMAAJ) (3 ed.). McGraw-Hill. pp.1861. ISBN0-070-12436-1. . [2] For example, Galileo measured the period of a simple harmonic oscillator with his pulse. [3] Otto Neugebauer The Exact Sciences in Antiquity. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1952; 2nd edition, Brown University Press, 1957; reprint, New York: Dover publications, 1969. Page 82. [4] See, for example William Shakespeare Hamlet: " ... to thine own self be true, And it must follow, as the night the day, Thou canst not then be false to any man." [5] http:/ / solar-center. stanford. edu/ AO/ dawn-rising. html [6] http:/ / eo. nso. edu/ MrSunspot/ answerbook/ sundial. html Farmers have used the sun to mark time for thousands of years, as the most ancient method of telling time. [7] Eratosthenes used this criterion in his measurement of the circumference of Earth [8] Fred Hoyle (1962), Astronomy: A history of man's investigation of the universe, Crescent Books, Inc., London LC 62-14108, p.31 [9] The Mesopotamian (modern-day Iraq) astronomers recorded astronomical observations with the naked eye, more than 3500 years ago. P. W. Bridgman defined his operational definition in the twentieth c. [10] Naked eye astronomy became obsolete in 1609 with Galileo's observations with a telescope. Galileo Galilei Linceo, Sidereus Nuncius (http:/ / www. rarebookroom. org/ Control/ galsid/ index. html) (Starry Messenger) 1610. [11] http:/ / tycho. usno. navy. mil/ gpstt. html http:/ / www. phys. lsu. edu/ mog/ mog9/ node9. html Today, automated astronomical observations from satellites and spacecraft require relativistic corrections of the reported positions. [12] "Unit of time (second)" (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ en/ si/ si_brochure/ chapter2/ 2-1/ second. html). SI brochure. International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM). pp. Section 2.1.1.3. . Retrieved 2008-06-08. [13] S. R. Jefferts et al., "Accuracy evaluation of NIST-F1". (http:/ / tf. nist. gov/ general/ pdf/ 1823. pdf) [14] Fred Adams and Greg Laughlin (1999), Five Ages of the Universe ISBN 0-684-86576-9 p.35. [15] See Planck epoch for the smallest physical timestep. Also see Time#Time and the Big Bang. Hawking, Stephen (2006-02-27). "Professor Stephen Hawking lectures on the origin of the universe" (http:/ / www. admin. ox. ac. uk/ po/ news/ 2005-06/ feb/ 27. shtml). University of Oxford. . Retrieved 2008-01-10. "Suppose the beginning of the universe was like the South Pole of the earth, with degrees of latitude playing the role of time. The universe would start as a point at the South Pole. As one moves north, the circles of constant latitude, representing the size of the universe, would expand. To ask what happened before the beginning of the universe would become a meaningless question because there is nothing south of the South Pole.'" [16] Charles Hose and William McDougall (1912) The Pagan Tribes of Borneo, Plate 60. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=phTSAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA108-IA1& dq=Pagan+ Tribes+ of+ Borneo+ 1912+ aso+ do+ plate+ 60& hl=en& ei=zd2ATOu5K8P68AaF4dlS& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q& f=false) Kenyahs measuring the Length of the Shadow at Noon to determine the Time for sowing PADI p. 108. This photograph is reproduced as plate B in Fred Hoyle (1962), Astronomy: A history of man's investigation of the universe, Crescent Books, Inc., London LC 62-14108, p.31. The measurement process is explained by: Gene Ammarell (1997), "Astronomy in the Indo-Malay Archipelago", p.119, Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology, and medicine in non-western cultures, Helaine Selin, ed., which describes Kenyah Tribesmen of Borneo measuring the shadow cast by a gnomon, or tukar do with a measuring scale, or aso do. [17] Compiled by Michael P. Garofalo, "Work, Labor, Effort, Sweat, Practice: Quotes for Those that Love Gardens, Gardening, and the Green Way" (http:/ / www. gardendigest. com/ work. htm) [18] North, J. (2004) God's Clockmaker: Richard of Wallingford and the Invention of Time. Oxbow Books. ISBN 1-85285-451-0 [19] Watson, E (1979) "The St Albans Clock of Richard of Wallingford". Antiquarian Horology 372-384. [20] Jo Ellen Barnett, Time's Pendulum ISBN 0-306-45787-3 p.99. [21] Galileo 1638 Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche, intorno due nuoue scienze 213, Leida, Appresso gli Elsevirii (Louis Elsevier), or Mathematical discourses and demonstrations, relating to Two New Sciences, English translation by Henry Crew and Alfonso de Salvio 1914. Section 213 is reprinted on pages 534-535 of On the Shoulders of Giants:The Great Works of Physics and Astronomy (works by Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Newton, and Einstein). Stephen Hawking, ed. 2002 ISBN 0-7624-1348-4 [22] Newton 1687 Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, Londini, Jussu Societatis Regiae ac Typis J. Streater, or The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, London, English translation by Andrew Motte 1700s. From part of the Scholium, reprinted on page 737 of On the Shoulders of Giants:The Great Works of Physics and Astronomy (works by Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Newton, and Einstein). Stephen Hawking, ed. 2002 ISBN 0-7624-1348-4

Time in physics
[23] Newton 1687 page 738. [24] "Dynamics is a four-dimensional geometry." --Lagrange (1796), Thorie des fonctions analytiques, as quoted by Ilya Prigogine (1996), The End of Certainty ISBN 0-684-83705-6 p.58 [25] pp. 182-195. Stephen Hawking 1996. The Illustrated Brief History of Time: updated and expanded edition ISBN 0-553-10374-1 [26] Erwin Schrdinger (1945) What is Life? [27] G. Nicolis and I. Prigogine (1989), Exploring Complexity [28] R. Kapral and K. Showalter, eds. (1995), Chemical Waves and Patterns [29] Ilya Prigogine (1996) The End of Certainty pp. 63-71 [30] Clemmow, P. C. (1973). An introduction to electromagnetic theory (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ahQ7AAAAIAAJ). CUP Archive. pp.5657. ISBN0-521-09815-7. ., Extract of pages 56, 57 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ahQ7AAAAIAAJ& pg=PA56) [31] Henri Poincar, (1902). Science and Hypothesis Eprint (http:/ / spartan. ac. brocku. ca/ ~lward/ Poincare/ Poincare_1905_toc. html) [32] Einstein 1905, Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Krper [On the electrodynamics of moving bodies] reprinted 1922 in Das Relativittsprinzip, B.G. Teubner, Leipzig. The Principles of Relativity: A Collection of Original Papers on the Special Theory of Relativity, by H.A. Lorentz, A. Einstein, H. Minkowski, and W. H. Weyl, is part of Fortschritte der mathematischen Wissenschaften in Monographien, Heft 2. The English translation is by W. Perrett and G.B. Jeffrey, reprinted on page 1169 of On the Shoulders of Giants:The Great Works of Physics and Astronomy (works by Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Newton, and Einstein). Stephen Hawking, ed. 2002 ISBN 0-7624-1348-4 [33] Taylor (2000). "Exploring Black Holes: Introduction to General Relativity" (http:/ / www. eftaylor. com/ pub/ chapter1. pdf). Addison Wesley Longman.. . [34] E. Schrdinger, Phys. Rev. 28 1049 (1926) [35] A Brief History of Atomic Clocks at NIST (http:/ / tf. nist. gov/ timefreq/ cesium/ atomichistory. htm) [36] http:/ / www. seattlepi. com/ local/ 292378_timeguy15. html [37] http:/ / faculty. washington. edu/ jcramer/ Nonlocal_2007. pdf [38] D. M. Meekhof, S. R. Jefferts, M. Stepanovc, and T. E. Parker (2001) "Accuracy Evaluation of a Cesium Fountain Primary Frequency Standard at NIST", IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement. 50, no. 2, (April 2001) pp. 507-509 [39] James Jespersen and Jane Fitz-Randolph (1999). From sundials to atomic clocks : understanding time and frequency. Washington, D.C. : U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Technology Administration, National Institute of Standards and Technology. 308 p. : ill. ; 28 cm. ISBN 0-16-050010-9 [40] John C. Mather and John Boslough (1996), The Very First Light ISBN 0-465-01575-1 p.41. [41] George Smoot and Keay Davidson (1993) Wrinkles in Time ISBN 0-688-12330-9 A memoir of the experiment program for detecting the predicted fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background radiation [42] Martin Rees (1997), Before the Beginning ISBN 0-201-15142-1 p.210 [43] Prigogine, Ilya (1996), The End of Certainty: Time, Chaos and the New Laws of Nature. ISBN 0-684-83705-6 On pages 163 and 182.

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Further reading
Boorstein, Daniel J., The Discoverers. Vintage. February 12, 1985. ISBN 0-394-72625-1 Dieter Zeh, H., The physical basis of the direction of time. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-42081-1 Kuhn, Thomas S., The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. ISBN 0-226-45808-3 Mandelbrot, Benot, Multifractals and 1/f noise. Springer Verlag. February 1999. ISBN 0-387-98539-5 Prigogine, Ilya (1984), Order out of Chaos. ISBN 0-394-54204-5 Serres, Michel, et al., "Conversations on Science, Culture, and Time (Studies in Literature and Science)". March, 1995. ISBN 0-472-06548-3 Stengers, Isabelle, and Ilya Prigogine, Theory Out of Bounds. University of Minnesota Press. November 1997. ISBN 0-8166-2517-4

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Spacetime
In physics, spacetime (or space-time, space time, space-time continuum) is any mathematical model that combines space and time into a single continuum. Spacetime is usually interpreted with space as being three-dimensional and time playing the role of a fourth dimension that is of a different sort from the spatial dimensions. According to certain Euclidean space perceptions, the Two-dimensional analogy of spacetime distortion. Matter changes the geometry of universe has three dimensions of space and spacetime, this (curved) geometry being interpreted as gravity. White lines do not one dimension of time. By combining space represent the curvature of space but instead represent the coordinate system imposed on the curved spacetime, which would be rectilinear in a flat spacetime. and time into a single manifold, physicists have significantly simplified a large number of physical theories, as well as described in a more uniform way the workings of the universe at both the supergalactic and subatomic levels. In non-relativistic classical mechanics, the use of Euclidean space instead of spacetime is appropriate, as time is treated as universal and constant, being independent of the state of motion of an observer. In relativistic contexts, time cannot be separated from the three dimensions of space, because the observed rate at which time passes for an object depends on the object's velocity relative to the observer and also on the strength of gravitational fields, which can slow the passage of time. In cosmology, the concept of spacetime combines space and time to a single abstract universe. Mathematically it is a manifold consisting of "events" which are described by some type of coordinate system. Typically three spatial dimensions (length, width, height), and one temporal dimension (time) are required. Dimensions are independent components of a coordinate grid needed to locate a point in a certain defined "space". For example, on the globe the latitude and longitude are two independent coordinates which together uniquely determine a location. In spacetime, a coordinate grid that spans the 3+1 dimensions locates events (rather than just points in space), i.e. time is added as another dimension to the coordinate grid. This way the coordinates specify where and when events occur. However, the unified nature of spacetime and the freedom of coordinate choice it allows imply that to express the temporal coordinate in one coordinate system requires both temporal and spatial coordinates in another coordinate system. Unlike in normal spatial coordinates, there are still restrictions for how measurements can be made spatially and temporally (see Spacetime intervals). These restrictions correspond roughly to a particular mathematical model which differs from Euclidean space in its manifest symmetry. Until the beginning of the 20th century, time was believed to be independent of motion, progressing at a fixed rate in all reference frames; however, later experiments revealed that time slowed down at higher speeds of the reference frame relative to another reference frame (with such slowing called "time dilation" explained in the theory of "special relativity"). Many experiments have confirmed time dilation, such as atomic clocks onboard a Space Shuttle running slower than synchronized Earth-bound inertial clocks and the relativistic decay of muons from cosmic ray showers. The duration of time can therefore vary for various events and various reference frames. When dimensions are understood as mere components of the grid system, rather than physical attributes of space, it is easier to understand the alternate dimensional views as being simply the result of coordinate transformations. The term spacetime has taken on a generalized meaning beyond treating spacetime events with the normal 3+1 dimensions. It is really the combination of space and time. Other proposed spacetime theories include additional dimensionsnormally spatial but there exist some speculative theories that include additional temporal dimensions

Spacetime and even some that include dimensions that are neither temporal nor spatial. How many dimensions are needed to describe the universe is still an open question. Speculative theories such as string theory predict 10 or 26 dimensions (with M-theory predicting 11 dimensions: 10 spatial and 1 temporal), but the existence of more than four dimensions would only appear to make a difference at the subatomic level.

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Spacetime in literature
Incas regarded space and time as a single concept, named pacha (Quechua: pacha, Aymara: pacha).[1] peoples of the Andes have kept this understanding until now.[4]
[2] [3]

The

Arthur Schopenhauer wrote in 18 of On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason (1813): "...the representation of coexistence is impossible in Time alone; it depends, for its completion, upon the representation of Space; because, in mere Time, all things follow one another, and in mere Space all things are side by side; it is accordingly only by the combination of Time and Space that the representation of coexistence arises." The idea of a unified spacetime is stated by Edgar Allan Poe in his essay on cosmology titled Eureka (1848) that "Space and duration are one." In 1895, in his novel The Time Machine, H.G. Wells wrote, "There is no difference between time and any of the three dimensions of space except that our consciousness moves along it", and that "any real body must have extension in four directions: it must have Length, Breadth, Thickness, and Duration."

Mathematical concept
The first reference to spacetime as a mathematical concept was in 1754 by Jean le Rond d'Alembert in the article Dimension in Encyclopedie. Another early venture was by Joseph Louis Lagrange in his Theory of Analytic Functions (1797, 1813). He said, "One may view mechanics as a geometry of four dimensions, and mechanical analysis as an extension of geometric analysis".[5] After discovering quaternions,[6] William Rowan Hamilton commented, "Time is said to have only one dimension, and space to have three dimensions. ... The mathematical quaternion partakes of both these elements; in technical language it may be said to be 'time plus space', or 'space plus time': and in this sense it has, or at least involves a reference to, four dimensions. And how the One of Time, of Space the Three, Might in the Chain of Symbols girdled be." Hamilton's biquaternions, which have algebraic properties sufficient to model spacetime and its symmetry, were in play for more than a half-century before formal relativity. For instance, William Kingdon Clifford noted their relevance. Another important antecedent to spacetime was the work of James Clerk Maxwell as he used partial differential equations to develop electrodynamics with the four parameters. Lorentz discovered some invariances of Maxwell's equations late in the 19th century which were to become the basis of Einstein's theory of special relativity. Fiction authors were also in on the game, as mentioned above. It has always been the case that time and space are measured using real numbers, and the suggestion that the dimensions of space and time are comparable could have been raised by the first people to have formalized physics, but ultimately, the contradictions between Maxwell's laws and Galilean relativity had to come to a head with the realization of the import of finitude of the speed of light. While spacetime can be viewed as a consequence of Albert Einstein's 1905 theory of special relativity, it was first explicitly proposed mathematically by one of his teachers, the mathematician Hermann Minkowski, in a 1908 essay[7] building on and extending Einstein's work. His concept of Minkowski space is the earliest treatment of space and time as two aspects of a unified whole, the essence of special relativity. The idea of Minkowski space also led to special relativity being viewed in a more geometrical way, this geometric viewpoint of spacetime being important in general relativity too. (For an English translation of Minkowski's article, see Lorentz et al. 1952.) The 1926 thirteenth edition of the Encyclopdia Britannica included an article by Einstein titled "Space-Time".[8]

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Basic concepts
Spacetimes are the arenas in which all physical events take placean event is a point in spacetime specified by its time and place. For example, the motion of planets around the sun may be described in a particular type of spacetime, or the motion of light around a rotating star may be described in another type of spacetime. The basic elements of spacetime are events. In any given spacetime, an event is a unique position at a unique time. Because events are spacetime points, an example of an event in classical relativistic physics is , the location of an elementary (point-like) particle at a particular time. A spacetime itself can be viewed as the union of all events in the same way that a line is the union of all of its points, formally organized into a manifold, a space which can be described at small scales using coordinates systems. A spacetime is independent of any observer.[9] However, in describing physical phenomena (which occur at certain moments of time in a given region of space), each observer chooses a convenient metrical coordinate system. Events are specified by four real numbers in any such coordinate system. The trajectories of elementary (point-like) particles through space and time are thus a continuum of events called the world line of the particle. Extended or composite objects (consisting of many elementary particles) are thus a union of many worldlines twisted together by virtue of their interactions through spacetime into a "world-braid" (permitting a fascinating connection with the myth of the Moirae to be made). However, in physics, it is common to treat an extended object as a "particle" or "field" with its own unique (e.g. center of mass) position at any given time, so that the world line of a particle or light beam is the path that this particle or beam takes in the spacetime and represents the history of the particle or beam. The world line of the orbit of the Earth (in such a description) is depicted in two spatial dimensions x and y (the plane of the Earth's orbit) and a time dimension orthogonal to x and y. The orbit of the Earth is an ellipse in space alone, but its worldline is a helix in spacetime. The unification of space and time is exemplified by the common practice of selecting a metric (the measure that specifies the interval between two events in spacetime) such that all four dimensions are measured in terms of units of distance: representing an event as (in the Lorentz metric) or (in the original Minkowski metric)[10] where convention, as do the conventional formulations of the Lorentz transformation. is the speed of light. The metrical descriptions of Minkowski Space and spacelike, lightlike, and timelike intervals given below follow this

Spacetime intervals
In a Euclidean space, the separation between two points is measured by the distance between the two points. A distance is purely spatial, and is always positive. In spacetime, the separation between two events is measured by the interval between the two events, which takes into account not only the spatial separation between the events, but also their temporal separation. The interval between two events is defined as: (spacetimeinterval), where c is the speed of light, and r and t denote differences of the space and time coordinates, respectively, between the events. (Note that the choice of signs for sign of .) ) ) of the two events is greater. above follows the space-like convention (-+++). Other treatments reverse the

Spacetime intervals may be classified into three distinct types based on whether the temporal separation ( or the spatial separation (

Certain types of worldlines (called geodesics of the spacetime) are the shortest paths between any two events, with distance being defined in terms of spacetime intervals. The concept of geodesics becomes critical in general relativity, since geodesic motion may be thought of as "pure motion" (inertial motion) in spacetime, that is, free from any external influences.

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For two events separated by a time-like interval, enough time passes between them for there to be a cause-effect relationship between the two events. For a particle traveling through space at less than the speed of light, any two events which occur to or by the particle must be separated by a time-like interval. Event pairs with time-like separation define a negative squared spacetime interval ( ) and may be said to occur in each other's future or past. There exists a reference frame such that the two events are observed to occur in the same spatial location, but there is no reference frame in which the two events can occur at the same time. The measure of a time-like spacetime interval is described by the proper time: (propertime). The proper time interval would be measured by an observer with a clock traveling between the two events in an inertial reference frame, when the observer's path intersects each event as that event occurs. (The proper time defines a real number, since the interior of the square root is positive.) Light-like interval

In a light-like interval, the spatial distance between two events is exactly balanced by the time between the two events. The events define a squared spacetime interval of zero ( ). Light-like intervals are also known as "null" intervals. Events which occur to or are initiated by a photon along its path (i.e., while traveling at , the speed of light) all have light-like separation. Given one event, all those events which follow at light-like intervals define the propagation of a light cone, and all the events which preceded from a light-like interval define a second (graphically inverted, which is to say "pastward") light cone. Space-like interval

When a space-like interval separates two events, not enough time passes between their occurrences for there to exist a causal relationship crossing the spatial distance between the two events at the speed of light or slower. Generally, the events are considered not to occur in each other's future or past. There exists a reference frame such that the two events are observed to occur at the same time, but there is no reference frame in which the two events can occur in the same spatial location. For these space-like event pairs with a positive squared spacetime interval ( space-like separation is the proper distance: (properdistance). Like the proper time of time-like intervals, the proper distance ( number value. ) of space-like spacetime intervals is a real ), the measurement of

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Mathematics of spacetimes
For physical reasons, a spacetime continuum is mathematically defined as a four-dimensional, smooth, connected Lorentzian manifold . This means the smooth Lorentz metric has signature . The metric determines the geometry of spacetime, as well as determining the geodesics of particles and light beams. About each point (event) on this manifold, coordinate charts are used to represent observers in reference frames. Usually, Cartesian coordinates are used. Moreover, for simplicity's sake, the speed of light is usually assumed to be unity. A reference frame (observer) can be identified with one of these coordinate charts; any such observer can describe any event . Another reference frame may be identified by a second coordinate chart about . Two observers (one in each reference frame) may describe the same event but obtain different descriptions. Usually, many overlapping coordinate charts are needed to cover a manifold. Given two coordinate charts, one containing (representing an observer) and another containing (representing another observer), the intersection of the charts represents the region of spacetime in which both observers can measure physical quantities and hence compare results. The relation between the two sets of measurements is given by a non-singular coordinate transformation on this intersection. The idea of coordinate charts as local observers who can perform measurements in their vicinity also makes good physical sense, as this is how one actually collects physical datalocally. For example, two observers, one of whom is on Earth, but the other one who is on a fast rocket to Jupiter, may observe a comet crashing into Jupiter (this is the event ). In general, they will disagree about the exact location and timing of this impact, i.e., they will have different 4-tuples (as they are using different coordinate systems). Although their kinematic descriptions will differ, dynamical (physical) laws, such as momentum conservation and the first law of thermodynamics, will still hold. In fact, relativity theory requires more than this in the sense that it stipulates these (and all other physical) laws must take the same form in all coordinate systems. This introduces tensors into relativity, by which all physical quantities are represented. Geodesics are said to be time-like, null, or space-like if the tangent vector to one point of the geodesic is of this nature. The paths of particles and light beams in spacetime are represented by time-like and null (light-like) geodesics (respectively).

Topology
The assumptions contained in the definition of a spacetime are usually justified by the following considerations. The connectedness assumption serves two main purposes. First, different observers making measurements (represented by coordinate charts) should be able to compare their observations on the non-empty intersection of the charts. If the connectedness assumption were dropped, this would not be possible. Second, for a manifold, the properties of connectedness and path-connectedness are equivalent and, one requires the existence of paths (in particular, geodesics) in the spacetime to represent the motion of particles and radiation. Every spacetime is paracompact. This property, allied with the smoothness of the spacetime, gives rise to a smooth linear connection, an important structure in general relativity. Some important theorems on constructing spacetimes from compact and non-compact manifolds include the following: A compact manifold can be turned into a spacetime if, and only if, its Euler characteristic is 0. (Proof idea: the existence of a Lorentzian metric is shown to be equivalent to the existence of a nonvanishing vector field.) Any non-compact 4-manifold can be turned into a spacetime.

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Spacetime symmetries
Often in relativity, spacetimes that have some form of symmetry are studied. As well as helping to classify spacetimes, these symmetries usually serve as a simplifying assumption in specialized work. Some of the most popular ones include: Axisymmetric spacetimes Spherically symmetric spacetimes Static spacetimes Stationary spacetimes.

Causal structure
The causal structure of a spacetime describes causal relationships between pairs of points in the spacetime based on the existence of certain types of curves joining the points.

Spacetime in special relativity

The geometry of spacetime in special relativity is described by the Minkowski metric on R4. This spacetime is called Minkowski space. The Minkowski metric is usually denoted by and can be written as a four-by-four matrix:

where the LandauLifshitz space-like convention is being used. A basic assumption of relativity is that coordinate transformations must leave spacetime intervals invariant. Intervals are invariant under Lorentz transformations. This invariance property leads to the use of four-vectors (and other tensors) in describing physics. Strictly speaking, one can also consider events in Newtonian physics as a single spacetime. This is Galilean-Newtonian relativity, and the coordinate systems are related by Galilean transformations. However, since these preserve spatial and temporal distances independently, such a spacetime can be decomposed into spatial coordinates plus temporal coordinates, which is not possible in the general case.

Spacetime in general relativity

In general relativity, it is assumed that spacetime is curved by the presence of matter (energy), this curvature being represented by the Riemann tensor. In special relativity, the Riemann tensor is identically zero, and so this concept of "non-curvedness" is sometimes expressed by the statement Minkowski spacetime is flat. The earlier discussed notions of time-like, light-like and space-like intervals in special relativity can similarly be used to classify one-dimensional curves through curved spacetime. A time-like curve can be understood as one where the interval between any two infinitesimally close events on the curve is time-like, and likewise for light-like and space-like curves. Technically the three types of curves are usually defined in terms of whether the tangent vector at each point on the curve is time-like, light-like or space-like. The world line of a slower-than-light object will always be a time-like curve, the world line of a massless particle such as a photon will be a light-like curve, and a space-like curve could be the world line of a hypothetical tachyon. In the local neighborhood of any event, time-like curves that pass through the event will remain inside that event's past and future light cones, light-like curves that pass through the event will be on the surface of the light cones, and space-like curves that pass through the event will be outside the light cones. One can also define the notion of a 3-dimensional "spacelike hypersurface", a continuous 3-dimensional "slice" through the 4-dimensional property with the property that every curve that is contained entirely within this hypersurface is a space-like curve.[11] Many spacetime continua have physical interpretations which most physicists would consider bizarre or unsettling. For example, a compact spacetime has closed timelike curves, which violate our usual ideas of causality (that is, future events could affect past ones). For this reason, mathematical physicists usually consider only restricted subsets

Spacetime of all the possible spacetimes. One way to do this is to study "realistic" solutions of the equations of general relativity. Another way is to add some additional "physically reasonable" but still fairly general geometric restrictions and try to prove interesting things about the resulting spacetimes. The latter approach has led to some important results, most notably the PenroseHawking singularity theorems.

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Quantized spacetime
In general relativity, spacetime is assumed to be smooth and continuousand not just in the mathematical sense. In the theory of quantum mechanics, there is an inherent discreteness present in physics. In attempting to reconcile these two theories, it is sometimes postulated that spacetime should be quantized at the very smallest scales. Current theory is focused on the nature of spacetime at the Planck scale. Causal sets, loop quantum gravity, string theory, and black hole thermodynamics all predict a quantized spacetime with agreement on the order of magnitude. Loop quantum gravity makes precise predictions about the geometry of spacetime at the Planck scale.

Privileged character of 3+1 spacetime

There are two kinds of dimensions, spatial (bidirectional) and temporal (unidirectional). Let the number of spatial dimensions be N and the number of temporal dimensions be T. That N = 3 and T = 1, setting aside the compactified dimensions invoked by string theory and undetectable to date, can be explained by appealing to the physical consequences of letting N differ from 3 and T differ from 1. The argument is often of an anthropic character. Immanuel Kant argued that 3-dimensional space was a consequence of the inverse square law of universal gravitation. While Kant's argument is historically important, John D. Barrow says that it "...gets the punch-line back to front: it is the three-dimensionality of space that explains why we see inverse-square force laws in Nature, not vice-versa." (Barrow 2002: 204). This is because the law of gravitation (or any other inverse-square law) follows from the concept of flux and the proportional relationship of flux density and the strength of field. If N = 3, then 3-dimensional solid objects have surface areas proportional to the square of their size in any selected spatial dimension. In particular, a sphere of radius r has area of 4r. More generally, in a space of N dimensions, the strength of the gravitational attraction between two bodies separated by a distance of r would be inversely proportional to rN1. In 1920, Paul Ehrenfest showed that if we fix T = 1 and let N > 3, the orbit of a planet about its sun cannot remain stable. The same is true of a star's orbit around the center of its galaxy.[12] Ehrenfest also showed that if N is even, then the different parts of a wave impulse will travel at different speeds. If N > 3 and odd, then wave impulses become distorted. Only when N = 3 or 1 are both problems avoided. In 1922, Hermann Weyl showed that Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism works only when N = 3 and T = 1, writing that this fact "...not only leads to a deeper understanding of Maxwell's theory, but also of the fact that the world is four dimensional, which has hitherto always been accepted as merely 'accidental,' become intelligible through it."[13] Finally, Tangherlini[14] showed in 1963 that when N > 3, electron orbitals around nuclei cannot be stable; electrons would either fall into the nucleus or disperse.

Spacetime Max Tegmark[15] expands on the preceding argument in the following anthropic manner. If T differs from 1, the behavior of physical systems could not be predicted reliably from knowledge of the relevant partial differential equations. In such a universe, intelligent life capable of manipulating technology could not emerge. Moreover, if T > 1, Tegmark maintains that protons and electrons would be unstable and could decay into particles having greater mass than themselves. (This is not a problem if the particles have a sufficiently low temperature.) If N > 3, Ehrenfest's argument above holds; atoms as we know them (and probably more complex structures as well) could not exist. If N < 3, gravitation of any kind becomes problematic, and the universe is probably too simple to contain observers. For example, when N < 3, nerves cannot cross without intersecting.

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Properties of n+m-dimensional spacetimes

In general, it is not clear how physical law could function if T differed from 1. If T > 1, subatomic particles which decay after a fixed period would not behave predictably, because time-like geodesics would not be necessarily maximal.[16] N = 1 and T = 3 has the peculiar property that the speed of light in a vacuum is a lower bound on the velocity of matter; all matter consists of tachyons.[15] Hence anthropic and other arguments rule out all cases except N = 3 and T = 1which happens to describe the world about us. Curiously, the cases N = 3 or 4 have the richest and most difficult geometry and topology. There are, for example, geometric statements whose truth or falsity is known for all N except one or both of 3 and 4. N = 3 was the last case of the Poincar conjecture to be proved. For an elementary treatment of the privileged status of N = 3 and T = 1, see chpt. 10 (esp. Fig. 10.12) of Barrow;[17] for deeper treatments, see 4.8 of Barrow and Tipler (1986) and Tegmark.[15] Barrow has repeatedly cited the work of Whitrow.[18] String theory hypothesizes that matter and energy are composed of tiny vibrating strings of various types, most of which are embedded in dimensions that exist only on a scale no larger than the Planck length. Hence N = 3 and T = 1 do not characterize string theory, which embeds vibrating strings in coordinate grids having 10, or even 26, dimensions. The Causal dynamical triangulation (CDT) theory is a background independent theory which derives the observed 3+1 spacetime from a minimal set of assumptions, and needs no adjusting factors. It does not assume any pre-existing arena (dimensional space), but rather attempts to show how the spacetime fabric itself evolves. It shows spacetime to be 2-d near the Planck scale, and reveals a fractal structure on slices of constant time, but spacetime becomes 3+1-d in scales significantly larger than Planck. So, CDT may become the first theory which doesn't postulate but really explains observed number of spacetime dimensions.[19]

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Notes
[1] Atuq Eusebio Manga Qespi, Instituto de lingstica y Cultura Amerindia de la Universidad de Valencia. Pacha: un concepto andino de espacio y tiempo (http:/ / revistas. ucm. es/ ghi/ 05566533/ articulos/ REAA9494110155A. PDF). Revsta espaola de Antropologa Americana, 24, p. 155-189. Edit. Complutense, Madrid. 1994 [2] Stephen Hart, Peruvian Cultural Studies:Work in Progress (http:/ / www. ucl. ac. uk/ spanish-latinamerican/ Resources/ Peru_cult) [3] Paul Richard Steele, Catherine J. Allen, Handbook of Inca mythology, p. 86, (ISBN 1-57607-354-8) [4] Shirley Ardener, University of Oxford, Women and space: ground rules and social maps, p. 36 (ISBN 0-85496-728-1) [5] R.C. Archibald (1914) Time as a fourth dimension (http:/ / projecteuclid. org/ DPubS?verb=Display& version=1. 0& service=UI& handle=euclid. bams/ 1183422749& page=record) Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 20:409. [6] Gallier, Jean H. (2001). Geometric methods and applications: for computer science and engineering (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=B4JtblR1lkMC). Springer. p.249. ISBN0-387-95044-3. ., Chapter 8, page 249 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=B4JtblR1lkMC& pg=PA249) [7] Hermann Minkowski, "Raum und Zeit" (http:/ / de. wikisource. org/ wiki/ Raum_und_Zeit_(Minkowski)), 80. Versammlung Deutscher Naturforscher (Kln, 1908). Published in Physikalische Zeitschrift 10 104111 (1909) and Jahresbericht der Deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinigung 18 75-88 (1909). For an English translation, see Lorentz et al. (1952). [8] Einstein, Albert, 1926, " Space-Time, (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9117889)" Encyclopdia Britannica, 13th ed. [9] Matolcsi, Tams (1994). Spacetime Without Reference Frames. Budapest: Akadmiai Kiad. [10] Petkov, Vesselin (2010). Minkowski Spacetime: A Hundred Years Later (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=trlsrl4mF3YC). Springer. p.70. ISBN9-048-13474-9. ., Section 3.4, p. 70 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=trlsrl4mF3YC& pg=PA70) [11] See "Quantum Spacetime and the Problem of Time in Quantum Gravity" by Leszek M. Sokolowski, where on this page (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=cQGGk2MlUyYC& lpg=PP1& pg=PA32#v=onepage& q& f=false) he writes "Each of these hypersurfaces is spacelike, in the sense that every curve, which entirely lies on one of such hypersurfaces, is a spacelike curve." More commonly a space-like hypersurface is defined technically as a surface such that the normal vector at every point is time-like, but the definition above may be somewhat more intuitive. [12] Ehrenfest, Paul (1920). "How do the fundamental laws of physics make manifest that Space has 3 dimensions?". Annalen der Physik 61 (5): 440. Bibcode1920AnP...366..440E. doi:10.1002/andp.19203660503.. Also see Ehrenfest, P. (1917) "In what way does it become manifest in the fundamental laws of physics that space has three dimensions?" Proceedings of the Amsterdam Academy 20: 200. [13] Weyl, H. (1922) Space, time, and matter. Dover reprint: 284. [14] Tangherlini, F. R. (1963). "Atoms in Higher Dimensions". Nuovo Cimento 14 (27): 636. [15] Tegmark, Max (April 1997). "On the dimensionality of spacetime" (http:/ / space. mit. edu/ home/ tegmark/ dimensions. pdf). Classical and Quantum Gravity 14 (4): L69L75. arXiv:gr-qc/9702052. Bibcode1997CQGra..14L..69T. doi:10.1088/0264-9381/14/4/002. . Retrieved 2006-12-16. [16] Dorling, J. (1970). "The Dimensionality of Time" (http:/ / link. aip. org/ link/ ?AJP/ 38/ 539/ 1). American Journal of Physics 38 (4): 53940. Bibcode1970AmJPh..38..539D. doi:10.1119/1.1976386. . [17] Barrow, J. D. (2002). The Constants of Nature. Pantheon Books. ISBN0-375-42221-8. [18] Whitrow, G. J. (1955) " ," British Journal of the Philosophy of Science 6: 13. Also see his (1959) The Structure and Evolution of the Universe. London: Hutchinson. [19] Jan Ambjrn, Jerzy Jurkiewicz, and Renate Loll - "The Self-Organizing Quantum Universe" (http:/ / www. sciam. com/ article. cfm?id=the-self-organizing-quantum-universe), Scientific American, July 2008

References

[ Editthisreference

(http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:BarrowTipler1986&action=edit)]

Barrow, John D.; Tipler, Frank J. (19 May 1988). The Anthropic Cosmological Principle (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uSykSbXklWEC& printsec=frontcover). foreword by John A. Wheeler. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN9780192821478. LC 87-28148 (http://lccn.loc.gov/87028148). Retrieved 31 December 2009. Ehrenfest, Paul (1920) "How do the fundamental laws of physics make manifest that Space has 3 dimensions?" Annalen der Physik 61: 440. George F. Ellis and Ruth M. Williams (1992) Flat and curved space-times. Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 0-19-851164-7 Isenberg, J. A. (1981). "Wheeler-Einstein-Mach spacetimes". Phys. Rev. D 24 (2): 251256. Bibcode1981PhRvD..24..251I. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.24.251. Kant, Immanuel (1929) "Thoughts on the true estimation of living forces" in J. Handyside, trans., Kant's Inaugural Dissertation and Early Writings on Space. Univ. of Chicago Press.

Spacetime Lorentz, H. A., Einstein, Albert, Minkowski, Hermann, and Weyl, Hermann (1952) The Principle of Relativity: A Collection of Original Memoirs. Dover. Lucas, John Randolph (1973) A Treatise on Time and Space. London: Methuen. Penrose, Roger (2004). The Road to Reality. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN0679454438. Chpts. 1718. Poe, Edgar A. (1848). Eureka; An Essay on the Material and Spiritual Universe. Hesperus Press Limited. ISBN1-84391-009-8. Robb, A. A. (1936). Geometry of Time and Space. University Press. Erwin Schrdinger (1950) Space-time structure. Cambridge Univ. Press. Schutz, J. W. (1997). Independent axioms for Minkowski Space-time. Addison-Wesley Longman. ISBN0582317606. Tangherlini, F. R. (1963). "Atoms in Higher Dimensions". Nuovo Cimento 14 (27): 636. Taylor, E. F.; Wheeler, John A. (1963). Spacetime Physics. W. H. Freeman. ISBN0716723271. Wells, H.G. (2004). The Time Machine. New York: Pocket Books. ISBN0671575546. (pp.56)

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External links
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: " Space and Time: Inertial Frames (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ spacetime-iframes/)" by Robert DiSalle.

Time dilation
In the theory of relativity, time dilation is an observed difference of elapsed time between two events as measured by observers either moving relative to each other or differently situated from gravitational masses. An accurate clock at rest with respect to one observer may be measured to tick at a different rate when compared to a second observer's own equally accurate clocks. This effect arises not from technical aspects of the clocks nor from the fact that signals need time to propagate, but from the nature of space-time itself.

Overview
Time dilation can arise from: 1. the relative velocity of motion between two observers, or 2. the difference in their distance from a gravitational mass.

Relative velocity time dilation

When two observers are in relative uniform motion and uninfluenced by any gravitational mass, the point of view of each will be that the other's (moving) clock is ticking at a slower rate than the local clock. The faster the relative velocity, the greater the magnitude of time dilation. This case is sometimes called special relativistic time dilation. It is often interpreted as time "slowing down" for the other (moving) clock. But that is only true from the physical point of view of the local observer, and of others at relative rest (i.e. in the local observer's frame of reference). The point of view of the other observer will be that again the local clock (this time the other clock) is correct and it is the distant moving one that is slow. From a local perspective, time registered by clocks that are at rest with respect to the local frame of reference (and far from any gravitational mass) always appears to pass at the same rate.[1]

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Gravitational time dilation

There is another case of time dilation, where both observers are differently situated in their distance from a significant gravitational mass, such as (for terrestrial observers) the Earth or the Sun. One may suppose for simplicity that the observers are at relative rest (which is not the case of two observers both rotating with the Earthan extra factor described below). In the simplified case, the general theory of relativity describes how, for both observers, the clock that is closer to the gravitational mass, i.e. deeper in its "gravity well", appears to go slower than the clock that is more distant from the mass (or higher in altitude away from the center of the gravitational mass). That does not mean that the two observers fully agree: each still makes the local clock to be correct; the observer more distant from the mass (higher in altitude) measures the other clock (closer to the mass, lower in altitude) to be slower than the local correct rate, and the observer situated closer to the mass (lower in altitude) measures the other clock (farther from the mass, higher in altitude) to be faster than the local correct rate. They agree at least that the clock nearer the mass is slower in rate and on the ratio of the difference.

Time dilation: special vs. general theories of relativity

In Albert Einstein's theories of relativity, time dilation in these two circumstances can be summarized: In special relativity (or, hypothetically far from all gravitational mass), clocks that are moving with respect to an inertial system of observation are measured to be running slower. This effect is described precisely by the Lorentz transformation. In general relativity, clocks at lower potentials in a gravitational fieldsuch as in closer proximity to a planetare found to be running slower. The articles on gravitational time dilation and gravitational red shift give a more detailed discussion. Special and general relativistic effects can combine, for example in some time-scale applications mentioned below. In special relativity, the time dilation effect is reciprocal: as observed from the point of view of either of two clocks which are in motion with respect to each other, it will be the other clock that is time dilated. (This presumes that the relative motion of both parties is uniform; that is, they do not accelerate with respect to one another during the course of the observations.) In contrast, gravitational time dilation (as treated in general relativity) is not reciprocal: an observer at the top of a tower will observe that clocks at ground level tick slower, and observers on the ground will agree about the direction and the ratio of the difference. There is not full agreement, as all the observers make their own local clocks out to be correct, but the direction and ratio of gravitational time dilation is agreed by all observers, independent of their altitude.

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Simple inference of time dilation due to relative velocity

Time dilation can be inferred from the observed fact of the constancy of the speed of light in all reference frames.[2]
[3] [4] [5]

This constancy of the speed of light means, counter to intuition, that speeds of material objects and light are not additive. It is not possible to make the speed of light appear faster by approaching at speed towards the material source that is emitting light. It is not possible to make the speed of light appear slower by receding from the source at speed. From one point of view, it is the implications of this unexpected constancy that take away from constancies expected elsewhere. Consider a simple clock consisting of two mirrors A and B, between which a light pulse is bouncing. The separation of the mirrors is L and the clock ticks once each time it hits a given mirror. In the frame where the clock is at rest (diagram at right), the light pulse traces out a path of length 2L and the period of the clock is 2L divided by the speed of light:

Observer at rest sees time 2L/c.

Observer moving parallel relative to setup, sees longer path, time > 2L/c, same speed c.

From the frame of reference of a moving observer traveling at the speed v (diagram at lower right), the light pulse traces out a longer, angled path. The second postulate of special relativity states that the speed of light is constant in all frames, which implies a lengthening of the period of this clock from the moving observer's perspective. That is to say, in a frame moving relative to the clock, the clock appears to be running more slowly. Straightforward application of the Pythagorean theorem leads to the well-known prediction of special relativity: The total time for the light pulse to trace its path is given by

The length of the half path can be calculated as a function of known quantities as

Substituting D from this equation into the previous and solving for

gives:

Time dilation and thus, with the definition of :

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which expresses the fact that for the moving observer the period of the clock is longer than in the frame of the clock itself.

Time dilation due to relative velocity symmetric between observers

Common sense would dictate that if time passage has slowed for a moving object, the moving object would observe the external world to be correspondingly "sped up". Counterintuitively, special relativity predicts the opposite. A similar oddity occurs in everyday life. If Sam sees Abigail at a distance she appears small to him and at the same time Sam appears small to Abigail. Being very familiar with the effects of perspective, we see no mystery or a hint of a paradox in this situation.[6] One is accustomed to the notion of relativity with respect to distance: the distance from Los Angeles to New York is by convention the same as the distance from New York to Los Angeles. On the other hand, when speeds are considered, one thinks of an object as "actually" moving, overlooking that its motion is always relative to something else to the stars, the ground or to oneself. If one object is moving with respect to another, the latter is moving with respect to the former and with equal relative speed. In the special theory of relativity, a moving clock is found to be ticking slowly with respect to the observer's clock. If Sam and Abigail are on different trains in near-lightspeed relative motion, Sam measures (by all methods of measurement) clocks on Abigail's train to be running slowly and similarly, Abigail measures clocks on Sam's train to be running slowly. Note that in all such attempts to establish "synchronization" within the reference system, the question of whether something happening at one location is in fact happening simultaneously with something happening elsewhere, is of key importance. Calculations are ultimately based on determining which events are simultaneous. Furthermore, establishing simultaneity of events separated in space necessarily requires transmission of information between locations, which by itself is an indication that the speed of light will enter the determination of simultaneity. It is a natural and legitimate question to ask how, in detail, special relativity can be self-consistent if clock A is time-dilated with respect to clock B and clock B is also time-dilated with respect to clock A. It is by challenging the assumptions built into the common notion of simultaneity that logical consistency can be restored. Simultaneity is a relationship between an observer in a particular frame of reference and a set of events. By analogy, left and right are accepted to vary with the position of the observer, because they apply to a relationship. In a similar vein, Plato explained that up and down describe a relationship to the earth and one would not fall off at the antipodes. Within the framework of the theory and its terminology there is a relativity of simultaneity that affects how the specified events are aligned with respect to each other by observers in relative motion. Because the pairs of putatively simultaneous moments are identified differently by different observers (as illustrated in the twin paradox article), each can treat the other clock as being the slow one without relativity being self-contradictory. This can be explained in many ways, some of which follow.

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Temporal coordinate systems and clock synchronization

In Relativity, temporal coordinate systems are set up using a procedure for synchronizing clocks, discussed by Poincar (1900) in relation to Lorentz's local time (see relativity of simultaneity). It is now usually called the Einstein synchronization procedure, since it appeared in his 1905 paper. An observer with a clock sends a light signal out at time t1 according to his clock. At a distant event, that light signal is reflected back, and arrives back at the observer at time t2 according to his clock. Since the light travels the same path at the same rate going both out and back for the observer in this scenario, the coordinate time of the event of the light signal being reflected for the observer tE is tE = (t1 + t2) / 2. In this way, a single observer's clock can be used to define temporal coordinates which are good anywhere in the universe. Symmetric time dilation occurs with respect to temporal coordinate systems set up in this manner. It is an effect where another clock is being viewed as running slowly by an observer. Observers do not consider their own clock time to be time-dilated, but may find that it is observed to be time-dilated in another coordinate system.

Overview of formulae
Time dilation due to relative velocity
The formula for determining time dilation in special relativity is:

Lorentz factor as a function of speed (in natural units where c=1). Notice that for small speeds (less than 0.1), is approximately 1

where t is the time interval between two co-local events (i.e. happening at the same place) for an observer in some inertial frame (e.g. ticks on his clock) this is known as the proper time, t ' is the time interval between those same events, as measured by another observer, inertially moving with velocity v with respect to the former observer, v is the relative velocity between the observer and the moving clock, c is the speed of light, and

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is the Lorentz factor. Thus the duration of the clock cycle of a moving clock is found to be increased: it is measured to be "running slow". The range of such variances in ordinary life, where v c, even considering space travel, are not great enough to produce easily detectable time dilation effects and such vanishingly small effects can be safely ignored. It is only when an object approaches speeds on the order of 30,000 km/s (1/10 the speed of light) that time dilation becomes important. Time dilation by the Lorentz factor was predicted by Joseph Larmor (1897), at least for electrons orbiting a nucleus. Thus "... individual electrons describe corresponding parts of their orbits in times shorter for the [rest] system in the ratio : " (Larmor 1897). Time dilation of magnitude corresponding to this (Lorentz) factor has been experimentally confirmed, as described below.

Time dilation due to gravitation and motion together

High accuracy time keeping, low earth orbit satellite tracking, and pulsar timing are applications that require the consideration of the combined effects of mass and motion in producing time dilation. Practical examples include the International Atomic Time standard and its relationship with the Barycentric Coordinate Time standard used for interplanetary objects. Relativistic time dilation effects for the solar system and the Earth can be modeled very precisely by the Schwarzschild solution to the Einstein field equations. In the Schwarzschild metric, the interval dtE is given by:[7] [8]
(1)

where: dtE is a small increment of proper time tE (an interval that could be recorded on an atomic clock); dtc is a small increment in the coordinate tc (coordinate time); dx, dy and dz are small increments in the three coordinates x, y, z of the clock's position; and GMi/ri represents the sum of the Newtonian gravitational potentials due to the masses in the neighborhood, based on their distances ri from the clock. This sum GMi/ri includes any tidal potentials, and is represented as U (using the positive astronomical sign convention for gravitational potentials). The coordinate velocity of the clock is
(2)

The coordinate time

is the time that would be read on a hypothetical "coordinate clock" situated infinitely far

from all gravitational masses (U=0), and stationary in the system of coordinates (v=0). The exact relation between the rate of proper time and the rate of coordinate time for a clock with a radial component of velocity is:
(3)

where: is the radial velocity, and U = GMi/ri is the Newtonian potential, equivalent to half of the escape velocity squared. The above equation is exact under the assumptions of the Schwarzschild solution.

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Experimental confirmation
Time dilation has been tested a number of times. The routine work carried on in particle accelerators since the 1950s, such as those at CERN, is a continuously running test of the time dilation of special relativity. The specific experiments include:

Velocity time dilation tests

Ives and Stilwell (1938, 1941). The stated purpose of these experiments was to verify the time dilation effect, predicted by Lamor-Lorentz ether theory, due to motion through the ether using Einstein's suggestion that Doppler effect in canal rays would provide a suitable experiment. These experiments measured the Doppler shift of the radiation emitted from cathode rays, when viewed from directly in front and from directly behind. The high and low frequencies detected were not the classical values predicted. and i.e. for sources with invariant frequencies from the moving sources were measured as and as deduced by Einstein (1905) from the Lorentz transformation, when the source is running slow by the Lorentz factor. Rossi and Hall (1941) compared the population of cosmic-ray-produced muons at the top of a mountain to that observed at sea level. Although the travel time for the muons from the top of the mountain to the base is several muon half-lives, the muon sample at the base was only moderately reduced. This is explained by the time dilation attributed to their high speed relative to the experimenters. That is to say, the muons were decaying about 10 times slower than if they were at rest with respect to the experimenters. Hasselkamp, Mondry, and Scharmann[9] (1979) measured the Doppler shift from a source moving at right angles to the line of sight (the transverse Doppler shift). The most general relationship between frequencies of the radiation from the moving sources is given by: and The high and low frequencies of the radiation

as deduced by Einstein (1905)[10]. For

) this reduces to

. Thus

there is no transverse Doppler shift, and the lower frequency of the moving source can be attributed to the time dilation effect alone. In 2010 time dilation was observed at speeds of less than 10 meters per second using optical atomic clocks connected by 75 meters of optical fiber.[11]

Gravitational time dilation tests

In 1959 Robert Pound and Glen A. Rebka measured the very slight gravitational red shift in the frequency of light emitted at a lower height, where Earth's gravitational field is relatively more intense. The results were within 10% of the predictions of general relativity. Later Pound and Snider (in 1964) derived an even closer result of 1%. This effect is as predicted by gravitational time dilation. (See PoundRebka experiment) In 2010 gravitational time dilation was measured at the Earth's surface with a height difference of only one meter, using optical atomic clocks.[11]

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Velocity and gravitational time dilation combined-effect tests

Hafele and Keating, in 1971, flew caesium atomic clocks east and west around the Earth in commercial airliners, to compare the elapsed time against that of a clock that remained at the US Naval Observatory. Two opposite effects came into play. The clocks were expected to age more quickly (show a larger elapsed time) than the reference clock, since they were in a higher (weaker) gravitational potential for most of the trip (c.f. Pound, Rebka). But also, contrastingly, the moving clocks were expected to age more slowly because of the speed of their travel. From the actual flight paths of each trip, the theory predicted that the flying clocks, compared with reference clocks at the U.S. Naval Observatory, should have lost 40+/-23 nanoseconds during the eastward trip and should have gained 275+/-21 nanoseconds during the westward trip. Relative to the atomic time scale of the U.S. Naval Observatory, the flying clocks lost 59+/-10 nanoseconds during the eastward trip and gained 273+/-7 nanoseconds during the westward trip (where the error bars represent standard deviation). [12] In 2005, the National Physical Laboratory in the United Kingdom reported their limited replication of this experiment.[13] The NPL experiment differed from the original in that the caesium clocks were sent on a shorter trip (LondonWashington D.C. return), but the clocks were more accurate. The reported results are within 4% of the predictions of relativity. The Global Positioning System can be considered a continuously operating experiment in both special and general relativity. The in-orbit clocks are corrected for both special and general relativistic time dilation effects as described above, so that (as observed from the Earth's surface) they run at the same rate as clocks on the surface of the Earth.

Muon lifetime
A comparison of muon lifetimes at different speeds is possible. In the laboratory, slow muons are produced, and in the atmosphere very fast moving muons are introduced by cosmic rays. Taking the muon lifetime at rest as the laboratory value of 2.22 s, the lifetime of a cosmic ray produced muon traveling at 98% of the speed of light is about five times longer, in agreement with observations.[14] In this experiment the "clock" is the time taken by processes leading to muon decay, and these processes take place in the moving muon at its own "clock rate", which is much slower than the laboratory clock.

Time dilation and space flight

Time dilation would make it possible for passengers in a fast-moving vehicle to travel further into the future while aging very little, in that their great speed slows down the rate of passage of on-board time. That is, the ship's clock (and according to relativity, any human travelling with it) shows less elapsed time than the clocks of observers on Earth. For sufficiently high speeds the effect is dramatic. For example, one year of travel might correspond to ten years at home. Indeed, a constant 1g acceleration would permit humans to travel through the entire known Universe in one human lifetime.[15] The space travellers could return to Earth billions of years in the future. A scenario based on this idea was presented in the novel Planet of the Apes by Pierre Boulle. A more likely use of this effect would be to enable humans to travel to nearby stars without spending their entire lives aboard the ship. However, any such application of time dilation during interstellar travel would require the use of some new, advanced method of propulsion. The Orion Project has been the only major attempt toward this idea. Current space flight technology has fundamental theoretical limits based on the practical problem that an increasing amount of energy is required for propulsion as a craft approaches the speed of light. The likelihood of collision with small space debris and other particulate material is another practical limitation. At the velocities presently attained, however, time dilation is not a factor in space travel. Travel to regions of space-time where gravitational time dilation is taking place, such as within the gravitational field of a black hole but outside the event horizon (perhaps on a hyperbolic trajectory exiting the field), could also yield results consistent with present theory.

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Time dilation at constant acceleration

In special relativity, time dilation is most simply described in circumstances where relative velocity is unchanging. Nevertheless, the Lorentz equations allow one to calculate proper time and movement in space for the simple case of a spaceship whose acceleration, relative to some referent object in uniform (i.e. constant velocity) motion, equals g throughout the period of measurement. Let t be the time in an inertial frame subsequently called the rest frame. Let x be a spatial coordinate, and let the direction of the constant acceleration as well as the spaceship's velocity (relative to the rest frame) be parallel to the x-axis. Assuming the spaceship's position at time t = 0 being x = 0 and the velocity being v0 and defining the following abbreviation

the following formulas hold:[16] Position:

Velocity:

Proper time:

In the case where v(0) = v0 = 0 and (0) = 0 = 0 the integral can be expressed as a logarithmic function or, equivalently, as an inverse hyperbolic function:

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Spacetime geometry of velocity time dilation

The green dots and red dots in the animation represent spaceships. The ships of the green fleet have no velocity relative to each other, so for the clocks onboard the individual ships the same amount of time elapses relative to each other, and they can set up a procedure to maintain a synchronized standard fleet time. The ships of the "red fleet" are moving with a velocity of 0.866 of the speed of light with respect to the green fleet. The blue dots represent pulses of light. One cycle of light-pulses between two green ships takes two seconds of "green time", one second for each leg. As seen from the perspective of the reds, the transit time of the light pulses they exchange among each other is one second of "red time" for each leg. As seen from the perspective of the greens, the red ships' cycle of exchanging light pulses travels a diagonal path that is two light-seconds long. (As seen from the green perspective the reds travel 1.73 ( ) light-seconds of distance for every two seconds of green time.) One of the red ships emits a light pulse towards the greens every second of red time. These pulses are received by ships of the green fleet with two-second intervals as measured in green time. Not shown in the animation is that all aspects of physics are proportionally involved. The light pulses that are emitted by the reds at a particular frequency as measured in red time are received at a lower frequency as measured by the detectors of the green fleet that measure against green time, and vice versa. The animation cycles between the green perspective and the red perspective, to emphasize the symmetry. As there is no such thing as absolute motion in relativity (as is also the case for Newtonian mechanics), both the green and the red fleet are entitled to consider themselves motionless in their own frame of reference. Again, it is vital to understand that the results of these interactions and calculations reflect the real state of the ships as it emerges from their situation of relative motion. It is not a mere quirk of the method of measurement or communication.

Time dilation in transverse motion

References
[1] For sources on special relativistic time dilation, see Albert Einstein's own popular exposition, published in English translation (1920) as "Relativity: The Special and General Theory" (http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 173/ ), especially at "8: On the Idea of Time in Physics" (http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 173/ 8. html), and in following sections 912. See also the articles Special relativity, Lorentz transformation and Relativity of simultaneity. [2] Cassidy, David C.; Holton, Gerald James; Rutherford, Floyd James (2002), Understanding Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=rpQo7f9F1xUC& pg=PA422), Springer-Verlag New York, Inc, ISBN0-387-98756-8, , Chapter 9 9.6, p. 422 (http:/ / books. google. be/ books?id=rpQo7f9F1xUC& pg=PA422) [3] Cutner, Mark Leslie (2003), Astronomy, A Physical Perspective (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=2QVmiMW0O0MC& pg=PA128), Cambridge University Press, ISBN0-521-82196-7, , Chapter 7 7.2, p. 128 (http:/ / books. google. be/ books?id=2QVmiMW0O0MC& pg=PA128) [4] Lerner, Lawrence S. (1996), Physics for Scientists and Engineers, Volume 2 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=B8K_ym9rS6UC& pg=PA1051), Jones and Bertlett Publishers, Inc, ISBN0-7637-0460-1, , Chapter 38 38.4, p. 1051,1052 (http:/ / books. google. be/ books?id=B8K_ym9rS6UC& pg=PA1051) [5] Ellis, George F. R.; Williams, Ruth M. (2000), Flat and Curved Space-times, Second Edition (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Hos31wty5WIC& pg=PA28), Oxford University Press Inc, New York, ISBN0-19-850657-0, , Chapter 3 1.3, p. 28-29 (http:/ / books. google. be/ books?id=Hos31wty5WIC& pg=PA28) [6] Adams, Steve (1997), Relativity: an introduction to space-time physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=1RV0AysEN4oC), CRC Press, p.54, ISBN0-748-40621-2, , Section 2.5, page 54 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=1RV0AysEN4oC& pg=PA54)

Time dilation
[7] See T D Moyer (1981a), "Transformation from proper time on Earth to coordinate time in solar system barycentric space-time frame of reference", Celestial Mechanics 23 (1981) pages 33-56, equations 2 & 3 at pages 35-6 combined here and divided throughout by c2. [8] A version of the same relationship can also be seen in Neil Ashby (2002), "Relativity and the Global Positioning System" (http:/ / www. ipgp. fr/ ~tarantola/ Files/ Professional/ GPS/ Neil_Ashby_Relativity_GPS. pdf), Physics Today (May 2002), at equation (2). [9] Hasselkamp, D.; Mondry, E.; Scharmann, A. (1979). "Direct observation of the transversal Doppler-shift". Zeitschrift fur Physik a Atoms and Nuclei 289 (2): 151155. Bibcode1979ZPhyA.289..151H. doi:10.1007/BF01435932. [10] http:/ / www. fourmilab. ch/ etexts/ einstein/ specrel/ www/ [11] Chou, C. W.; Hume, D. B.; Rosenband, T.; Wineland, D. J. (2010). "Optical Clocks and Relativity". Science 329 (5999): 16301633. Bibcode2010Sci...329.1630C. doi:10.1126/science.1192720. PMID20929843. [12] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ relativ/ airtim. html [13] http:/ / www. npl. co. uk/ upload/ pdf/ metromnia_issue18. pdf [14] JV Stewart (2001), Intermediate electromagnetic theory (http:/ / www. google. com/ search?ie=UTF-8& hl=nl& rlz=1T4GZAZ_nlBE306BE306& q=relativity "meson lifetime" 2. 22& tbo=u& tbs=bks:1& source=og& sa=N& tab=gp), Singapore: World Scientific, p.705, ISBN9810244703, [15] Calder, Nigel (2006). Magic universe: a grand tour of modern science (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=kbPmQX-OoBgC). Oxford University Press. p.378. ISBN0-192-80669-6. ., Extract of page 378 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=kbPmQX-OoBgC& pg=PA378) [16] See equations (3), (4), (6), (9) of Iorio, Lorenzo (27-Jun-2004). "An analytical treatment of the Clock Paradox in the framework of the Special and General Theories of Relativity". arXiv:physics/0405038.

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Callender, Craig & Edney, Ralph (2001), Introducing Time, Icon, ISBN1-84046-592-1 Einstein, A. (1905) "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Krper", Annalen der Physik, 17, 891. English translation: On the electrodynamics of moving bodies (http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/einstein/specrel/www/) Einstein, A. (1907) "ber eine Mglichkeit einer Prfung des Relativittsprinzips", Annalen der Physik. Hasselkamp, D., Mondry, E. and Scharmann, A. (1979) "Direct Observation of the Transversal Doppler-Shift", Z. Physik A 289, 151155 Ives, H. E. and Stilwell, G. R. (1938), "An experimental study of the rate of a moving clock", J. Opt. Soc. Am, 28, 215226 Ives, H. E. and Stilwell, G. R. (1941), "An experimental study of the rate of a moving clock. II", J. Opt. Soc. Am, 31, 369374 Joos, G. (1959) Lehrbuch der Theoretischen Physik, 11. Auflage, Leipzig; Zweites Buch, Sechstes Kapitel, 4: Bewegte Bezugssysteme in der Akustik. Der Doppler-Effekt. Larmor, J. (1897) "On a dynamical theory of the electric and luminiferous medium", Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 190, 205300 (third and last in a series of papers with the same name). Poincar, H. (1900) "La theorie de Lorentz et la Principe de Reaction", Archives Neerlandaies, V, 25378. Reinhardt et al. (http://www.mpq.mpg.de/~haensch/comb/people/thomas/NaturePhysics07.pdf) Test of relativistic time dilation with fast optical atomic clocks at different velocities (Nature 2007) Rossi, B and Hall, D. B. Phys. Rev., 59, 223 (1941). NIST Two way time transfer for satellites (http://tf.nist.gov/timefreq/time/twoway.htm) Voigt, W. "Ueber das Doppler'sche princip" Nachrichten von der Kniglicher Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gttingen, 2, 4151.

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Arrow of time
This article is an overview of the subject. For a more technical discussion and for information related to current research, see Entropy (arrow of time). The arrow of time, or times arrow, is a term coined in 1927 by the British astronomer Arthur Eddington to describe the "one-way direction" or "asymmetry" of time. This direction, which can be determined, according to Eddington, by studying the organization of atoms, molecules and bodies, might be drawn upon a four-dimensional relativistic map of the world ("a solid block of paper").[1] Physical processes at the microscopic level are believed to be either entirely or mostly time-symmetric: if the direction of time were to reverse, the theoretical statements that describe them would remain true. Yet at the macroscopic level it often appears that this is not the case: there is an obvious direction (or flow) of time.
Arthur Stanley Eddington

Eddington
In the 1928 book The Nature of the Physical World, which helped to popularize the term, Eddington stated: Let us draw an arrow arbitrarily. If as we follow the arrow we find more and more of the random element in the state of the world, then the arrow is pointing towards the future; if the random element decreases the arrow points towards the past. That is the only distinction known to physics. This follows at once if our fundamental contention is admitted that the introduction of randomness is the only thing which cannot be undone. I shall use the phrase times arrow to express this one-way property of time which has no analogue in space. Eddington then gives three points to note about this arrow: 1. It is vividly recognized by consciousness. 2. It is equally insisted on by our reasoning faculty, which tells us that a reversal of the arrow would render the external world nonsensical. 3. It makes no appearance in physical science except in the study of organization of a number of individuals. According to Eddington the arrow indicates the direction of progressive increase of the random element. Following a lengthy argument upon the nature of thermodynamics he concludes that, so far as physics is concerned, time's arrow is a property of entropy alone.

Overview
The symmetry of time (T-symmetry) can be understood by a simple analogy: if time were perfectly symmetrical a video of real events would seem realistic whether played forwards or backwards.[2] An obvious objection to this notion is gravity: things fall down, not up. Yet a ball that is tossed up, slows to a stop and falls into the hand is a case where recordings would look equally realistic forwards and backwards. The system is T-symmetrical but while going "forward" kinetic energy is dissipated and entropy is increased. Entropy may be one of the few processes that is not time-reversible. According to the statistical notion of increasing entropy the "arrow" of time is identified with a decrease of free energy.[3]

Arrow of time If we record somebody dropping a ball that falls for a meter and stops, in reverse we will notice an unrealistic discrepancy: a ball falling upward! But when the ball lands its kinetic energy is dispersed into sound, shock-waves and heat. In reverse those sound waves, ground vibrations and heat will rush back into the ball, imparting enough energy to propel it upward one meter into the person's hand. The only unrealism lies in the statistical unlikelihood that such forces could coincide to propel a ball upward into a waiting hand.

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Arrows
The thermodynamic arrow of time
The thermodynamic arrow of time is provided by the Second Law of Thermodynamics, which says that in an isolated system, entropy tends to increase with time. Entropy can be thought of as a measure of microscopic disorder; thus the Second Law implies that time is asymmetrical with respect to the amount of order in an isolated system: as a system advances through time, it will statistically become more disordered. This asymmetry can be used empirically to distinguish between future and past though measuring entropy does not accurately measure time. Also in an open system entropy can locally decrease with time: living systems decrease their entropy by expenditure of energy at the expense of environmental entropy increase. British physicist Sir Alfred Brian Pippard wrote, "There is thus no justification for the view, often glibly repeated, that the Second Law of Thermodynamics is only statistically true, in the sense that microscopic violations repeatedly occur, but never violations of any serious magnitude. On the contrary, no evidence has ever been presented that the Second Law breaks down under any circumstances."[4] The Second Law is universal and seems to accurately describe the overall trend in real systems toward higher entropy. This arrow of time seems to be related to all other arrows of time and arguably underlies some of them, with the exception of the weak arrow of time.

The cosmological arrow of time

The cosmological arrow of time points in the direction of the universe's expansion. It may be linked to the thermodynamic arrow, with the universe heading towards a heat death (Big Chill) as the amount of usable energy becomes negligible. Alternatively, it may be an artifact of our place in the universe's evolution (see the Anthropic bias), with this arrow reversing as gravity pulls everything back into a Big Crunch. If this arrow of time is related to the other arrows of time, then the future is by definition the direction towards which the universe becomes bigger. Thus, the universe expands - rather than shrinks - by definition. The thermodynamic arrow of time and the Second law of thermodynamics are thought to be a consequence of the initial conditions in the early universe. Therefore they ultimately result from the cosmological set-up.

The radiative arrow of time

Waves, from radio waves to sound waves to those on a pond from throwing a stone, expand outward from their source, even though the wave equations allow for solutions of convergent waves as well as radiative ones. This arrow has been reversed in carefully worked experiments which have created convergent waves,[5] so this arrow probably follows from the thermodynamic arrow in that meeting the conditions to produce a convergent wave requires more order than the conditions for a radiative wave. Put differently, the probability for initial conditions that produce a convergent wave is much lower than the probability for initial conditions that produce a radiative wave. In fact, normally a radiative wave increases entropy, while a convergent wave decreases it, making the latter contradictory to the Second Law of Thermodynamics in usual circumstances.

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The causal arrow of time

A cause precedes its effect: the causal event occurs before the event it affects. Birth, for example, follows a successful conception and not vice versa. Thus causality is intimately bound up with time's arrow. An epistemological problem with using causality as an arrow of time is that, as David Hume maintained, the causal relation per se cannot be perceived; one only perceives sequences of events. Furthermore it is surprisingly difficult to provide a clear explanation of what the terms "cause" and "effect" really mean, or to define the events to which they refer. However, it does seem evident that dropping a cup of water is a cause while the cup subsequently shattering and spilling the water is the effect. Physically speaking, the perception of cause and effect in the dropped cup example is partly a phenomenon of the thermodynamic arrow of time, a consequence of the Second law of thermodynamics.[6] Controlling the future, or causing something to happen, creates correlations between the doer and the effect,[7] and these can only be created as we move forwards in time, not backwards. However, it is also partly a phenomenon of the relation of physical form and functionality to the attributes and functional capacities of physical agents. For example, the causes of the resultant pattern of cup fragments and water spill are easily attributable in terms of the loss of manual grip, gravity, trajectory of the cup and contents, irregularities in its structure, angle of its impact on the floor, etc. However, applying the same event in reverse, it is difficult to explain how the various pieces of the cup come to possess exactly the nature and number of a cup before assembling, how they could assemble (as neither floors nor hands can create china cups unaided), why they should assemble precisely into the shape of a cup and fly up into the human hand (as immobile floors cannot throw and, without contact, the human hand lacks the capacity to move objects unaided) and why the water should position itself entirely within the cup.

The particle physics (weak) arrow of time

Certain subatomic interactions involving the weak nuclear force violate the conservation of both parity and charge conjugation, but only very rarely. An example is the kaon decay [8]. According to the CPT Theorem, this means they should also be time irreversible, and so establish an arrow of time. Such processes should be responsible for matter creation in the early universe. This arrow is not linked to any other arrow by any proposed mechanism, and if it would have pointed to the opposite time direction, the only difference would have been that our universe would be made of anti-matter rather than from matter. More accurately, the definitions of matter and anti-matter would just be reversed. That the combination of parity and charge conjugation is broken so rarely means that this arrow only "barely" points in one direction, setting it apart from the other arrows whose direction is much more obvious.

The quantum arrow of time

According to the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics, quantum evolution is governed by the Schrdinger equation, which is time-symmetric, and by wave function collapse, which is time irreversible. As the mechanism of wave function collapse is philosophically obscure, it is not completely clear how this arrow links to the others. Despite the post-measurement state being entirely stochastic in formulations of quantum mechanics, a link to the thermodynamic arrow has been proposed, noting that the second law of thermodynamics amounts to an observation that nature shows a bias for collapsing wave functions into higher entropy states versus lower ones, and the claim that this is merely due to more possible states being high entropy runs afoul of Loschmidt's paradox. According to the modern physical view of wave function collapse, the theory of quantum decoherence, the quantum arrow of time is a consequence of the thermodynamic arrow of time.

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The psychological/perceptual arrow of time

Psychological time is, in part, the cataloguing of ever increasing items of memory from continuous changes in perception. In other words, things we remember make up the past, while the future consists of those events that cannot be remembered. The ancient method of comparing unique events to generalized repeating events such as the apparent movement of the sun, moon, and stars provided a convenient grid work to accomplish this. The consistent increase in memory volume creates a mental arrow of time. Storing a memory, from an information theoretic perspective, requires an increase in entropy, thus the perceptual arrow ultimately follows from the thermodynamic arrow. A related mental arrow arises because one has the sense that one's perception is a continuous movement from the known (Past) to the unknown (Future). Anticipating the unknown forms the psychological future which always seems to be something one is moving towards, but, like a projection in a mirror, it makes what is actually already a part of memory, such as desires, dreams, and hopes, seem ahead of the observer. The association of "behind = past" and "ahead = future" is itself culturally determined. For example, the Chinese and the Aymara people both associate "ahead = past" and "behind = future".[9] In Chinese, for instance, the term "the day after tomorrow" literally means "behind day" while "the day before yesterday" is referred to as "front day" and in Hindi (an Indian language), the term used for "tomorrow" and "yesterday" is the same. The other side of the psychological passage of time is in the realm of volition and action. We plan and often execute actions intended to affect the course of events in the future. Hardly anyone tries to change past events. Indeed, in the Rubaiyat it is written (sic): The Moving Finger writes; and, having writ, Moves on: nor all thy Piety nor Wit Shall lure it back to cancel half a Line, Nor all thy Tears wash out a Word of it. - Omar Khayym (translation by Edward Fitzgerald).

References
[1] Weinert, Friedel (2005). The scientist as philosopher: philosophical consequences of great scientific discoveries (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=-R4ANHu-csMC). Springer. p.143. ISBN3540213740. ., Chapter 4, p. 143 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=-R4ANHu-csMC& pg=PA143) [2] David Albert on Time and Chance (http:/ / www. isepp. org/ Pages/ 01-02 Pages/ Albert. html) [3] Tuisku, P., Pernu, T.K., Annila, A. (2009). "In the light of time". Proc. R. Soc. A 465: 11731198. doi:10.1098/rspa.2008.0494. [4] A.B. Pippard, Elements of Chemical Thermodynamics for Advanced Students of Physics (1966), p.100. [5] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ */ http:/ / www4. ncsu. edu/ ~fouque/ fink. pdf [6] Physical Origins of Time Asymmetry, chapter 6 [7] Physical Origins of Time Asymmetry, pp. 109-111. [8] http:/ / physicsweb. org/ articles/ world/ 11/ 12/ 3 [9] For Andes tribe, it's back to the future (http:/ / www. albionmonitor. com/ 0606a/ aymara. html) accessed 2006-09-26

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Further reading
Boltzmann, Ludwig (1964). Lectures On Gas Theory. University Of California Press. Translated from the original German by Stephen G. Brush. Originally published 1896/1898. Carroll, Sean (2010). From Eternity to Here: The Quest for the Ultimate Theory of Time. Dutton. Website (http:// eternitytohere.com) Coveney, Peter; Highfield, Roger (1990), The Arrow of Time: A voyage through science to solve time's greatest mystery, London: W.H. Allen, ISBN978-1852271978 Feynman, Richard (1965). The Character of Physical Law. BBC Publications. Chapter 5. Halliwell, J.J. et al. (1994). Physical Origins of Time Asymmetry. Cambridge. ISBN0-521-56837-4. (technical). Peierls, R (1979). Surprises in Theoretical Physics. Princeton. Section 3.8. Penrose, Roger (1989). The Emperor's New Mind. Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-851973-7. Chapter 7. Penrose, Roger (2004). The Road to Reality. Jonathan Cape. ISBN0-224-04447-8. Chapter 27. Price, Huw (1996). Time's Arrow and Archimedes' Point. ISBN0-19-510095-6. Website (http://www.usyd.edu. au/time/price/TAAP.html) Zeh, H. D (2001). The Physical Basis of The Direction of Time. ISBN3-540-42081-9. Official website for the book (http://www.time-direction.de/)

External links
Arrow of Time FAQ (http://preposterousuniverse.com/eternitytohere/faq.html), Sean M. Carroll The Ritz-Einstein Agreement to Disagree (http://www.datasync.com/~rsf1/rtzein.htm), a review of historical perspectives of the subject, prior to the evolvement of quantum field theory. The Thermodynamic Arrow: Puzzles and Pseudo-Puzzles (http://www.usyd.edu.au/time/price/preprints/ Price2.pdf) Huw Price on Time's Arrow Arrow of time in a discrete toy model (http://www.scientificblogging.com/hammock_physicist/ fibonacci_chaos_and_times_arrow) The Arrow of Time (http://www.ipod.org.uk/reality/reality_arrow_of_time.asp)

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Chronon
A chronon is a proposed quantum of time, that is, a discrete and indivisible "unit" of time as part of a theory that proposes that time is not continuous. While time is a continuous quantity in both standard quantum mechanics and general relativity, many physicists have suggested that a discrete model of time might work, especially when considering the combination of quantum mechanics with general relativity to produce a theory of quantum gravity. The term was introduced in this sense by Robert Lvi.[1] Henry Margenau[2] suggested that the chronon might be the time for light to travel the classical radius of an electron. A quantum theory in which time is a quantum variable with a discrete spectrum, and which is nevertheless consistent with special relativity, was proposed by C. N. Yang.[3] One such model was introduced by Piero Caldirola in 1980. In Caldirola's model, one chronon corresponds to about 6.971024 seconds for an electron.[4] This is much longer than the Planck time, another proposed unit for the quantization of time, which is only about 5.3910-44 seconds. The Planck time is a universal quantization of time itself, whereas the chronon is a quantization of the evolution in a system along its world line and consequently the value of the chronon, like other quantized observables in quantum mechanics, is a function of the system under consideration, particularly its boundary conditions.[5] The value for the chronon, 0, is calculated from:
[6]

From this formula, it can be seen that the nature of the moving particle being considered must be specified since the value of the chronon depends on the particle's charge and mass. Caldirola claims the chronon has important implications for quantum mechanics, in particular that it allows for a clear answer to the question of whether a free falling charged particle does or does not emit radiation. This model supposedly avoids the difficulties met by Abraham-Lorentz's and Dirac's approaches to the problem, and provides a natural explication of quantum decoherence.

Notes
[1] Lvi 1927 [2] Margenau 1950 [3] Yang 1947 [4] Farias & Recami, p.11. [5] Farias & Recami, p.18. [6] Farias & Recami, p.11. Caldirola's original paper has a different formula due to not working in standard units.

References
Lvi, Robert (1927). "Thorie de l'action universelle et discontinue". Journal de Physique et le Radium 8 (4): 182198. doi:10.1051/jphysrad:0192700804018200. Margenau, Henry (1950). The Nature of Physical Reality. McGraw-Hill. Yang, C N (1947). "On quantized space-time". Physical Review 72 (9): 874. Bibcode1947PhRv...72..874Y. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.72.874. Caldirola, P. (1980). "The introduction of the chronon in the electron theory and a charged lepton mass formula". Lett. Nuovo Cim. 27 (8): 225228. doi:10.1007/BF02750348. Farias, Ruy A. H.; Recami, Erasmo (1997-06-27). "Introduction of a Quantum of Time ("chronon"), and its Consequences for Quantum Mechanics". arXiv:quant-ph/9706059[quant-ph]. Albanese, Claudio; and Lawi, Stephan (2004). "Time Quantization and q-deformations" (http://eprints.imperial. ac.uk/bitstream/10044/1/48/1/Time Quantization and q.pdf). Journal of Physics A. 37 (8): 29832987. arXiv:hep-th/0308190. Bibcode2004JPhA...37.2983A. doi:10.1088/0305-4470/37/8/009. Retrieved 2006-07-31.

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Time travel
Time travel
Time travel is the concept of moving between different points in time in a manner analogous to moving between different points in space. Time travel could hypothetically involve moving backward in time to a moment earlier than the starting point, or forward to the future of that point without the need for the traveler to experience the intervening period (at least not at the normal rate). Any technological device whether fictional or hypothetical that would be used to achieve time travel is commonly known as a time machine. Although time travel has been a common plot device in science fiction since the late 19th century, and the theories of special and general relativity suggest methods for forms of one-way travel into the future via time dilation, it is currently unknown whether the laws of physics would allow time travel into the past. Such backward time travel would have the potential to introduce paradoxes related to causality, and a variety of hypotheses have been proposed to resolve them.

Origins of the concept

Literature timeline
700s BCE to 300s CE Mahabharata 200s to 400s CE Talmud 720 CE "Urashima Tar" 1733 Samuel Madden's Memoirs of the Twentieth Century 1771 Louis-Sbastien Mercier's L'An 2440, rve s'il en ft jamais 1781 Johan Herman Wessel's Anno 7603 1819 Washington Irving's "Rip Van Winkle" 1824 Faddey Bulgarin's "Pravdopodobnie Nebylitsi" 1827 Goethe Faust fragment 1828 Hans Christian Andersen's Journey on Foot from Holmen's Canal to the East Point of Amager 1832 Goethe's Faust: The Second Part of the Tragedy 1836 Alexander Veltman's Predki Kalimerosa 1838 Hans Christian Andersen's The Goloshes of Fortune 1838 Missing One's Coach: An Anachronism 1843 Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol 1861 Pierre Boitard's Paris avant les hommes 1881 Edward Page Mitchell's The Clock That Went Backward 1887 Enrique Gaspar y Rimbau's El anacronpete 1888 H. G. Wells' The Chronic Argonauts 1889 Mark Twain's A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court 1895 H. G. Wells' The Time Machine

Time travel

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Forwards time travel

There is no widespread agreement as to which written work should be recognized as the earliest example of a time travel story, since a number of early works feature elements ambiguously suggestive of time travel. Ancient folk tales and myths sometimes involved something akin to travelling forward in time; for example, in Hindu mythology, the Mahabharata mentions the story of the King Revaita, who travels to heaven to meet the creator Brahma and is shocked to learn that many ages have passed when he returns to Earth.[1] [2] Another one of the earliest known stories to involve traveling forwards in time to a distant future was the Japanese tale of "Urashima Tar",[3] first described in the Nihongi (720).[4] It was about a young fisherman named Urashima Taro who visits an undersea palace and stays there for three days. After returning home to his village, he finds himself 300 years in the future, when he is long forgotten, his house in ruins, and his family long dead. Another very old example of this type of story can be found in the Talmud with the story of Honi HaM'agel who went to sleep for 70 years and woke up to a world where his grandchildren were grandparents and where all his friends and family were dead.[5] More recently, Washington Irving's famous 1819 story "Rip Van Winkle" tells of a man named Rip Van Winkle who takes a nap on a mountain and wakes up 20 years in the future, when he has been forgotten, his wife dead, and his daughter grown up.[3] Sleep was also used for time travel in Faddey Bulgarin's story "Pravdopodobnie Nebylitsi" in which the protagonist wakes up in the 29th century. Another more recent story involving travel to the future is Louis-Sbastien Mercier's L'An 2440, rve s'il en ft jamais ("The Year 2440: A Dream If Ever There Were One"), a utopian novel in which the main character is transported to the year 2440. An extremely popular work (it went through 25 editions after its first appearance in 1771), it describes the adventures of an unnamed man who, after engaging in a heated discussion with a philosopher friend about the injustices of Paris, falls asleep and finds himself in a Paris of the future. Robert Darnton writes that "despite its self-proclaimed character of fantasy...L'An 2440 demanded to be read as a serious guidebook to the future."[6]

Backwards time travel

Backwards time travel seems to be a more modern idea, but its origin is also somewhat ambiguous. One early story with hints of backwards time travel is Memoirs of the Twentieth Century (1733) by Samuel Madden, which is mainly a series of letters from English ambassadors in various countries to the British Lord High Treasurer, along with a few replies from the British Foreign Office, all purportedly written in 1997 and 1998 and describing the conditions of that era.[7] However, the framing story is that these letters were actual documents given to the narrator by his guardian angel one night in 1728; for this reason, Paul Alkon suggests in his book Origins of Futuristic Fiction that "the first time-traveler in English literature is a guardian angel who returns with state documents from 1998 to the year 1728",[8] although the book does not explicitly show how the angel obtained these documents. Alkon later qualifies this by writing, "It would be stretching our generosity to praise Madden for being the first to show a traveler arriving from the future", but also says that Madden "deserves recognition as the first to toy with the rich idea of time-travel in the form of an artifact sent backwards from the future to be discovered in the present."[7] In 1836 Alexander Veltman published Predki Kalimerosa: Aleksandr Filippovich Makedonskii (The forebears of Kalimeros: Alexander, son of Philip of Macedon), which has been called the first original Russian science fiction novel and the first novel to use time travel.[9] In it the narrator rides to ancient Greece on a hippogriff, meets Aristotle, and goes on a voyage with Alexander the Great before returning to the 19th century. In the science fiction anthology Far Boundaries (1951), the editor August Derleth identifies the short story "Missing One's Coach: An Anachronism", written for the Dublin Literary Magazine[10] by an anonymous author in 1838, as a very early time travel story.[11] In this story, the narrator is waiting under a tree to be picked up by a coach which will take him out of Newcastle, when he suddenly finds himself transported back over a thousand years. He encounters the Venerable Bede in a monastery, and gives him somewhat ironic explanations of the developments of the coming centuries. It is never entirely clear whether these events actually occurred or were merely a dreamthe

Time travel narrator says that when he initially found a comfortable-looking spot in the roots of the tree, he sat down, "and as my sceptical reader will tell me, nodded and slept", but then says that he is "resolved not to admit" this explanation. A number of dreamlike elements of the story may suggest otherwise to the reader, such as the fact that none of the members of the monastery seem to be able to see him at first, and the abrupt ending in which Bede has been delayed talking to the narrator and so the other monks burst in thinking that some harm has come to him, and suddenly the narrator finds himself back under the tree in the present (August 1837), with his coach having just passed his spot on the road, leaving him stranded in Newcastle for another night.[12] Charles Dickens' 1843 book A Christmas Carol is considered by some[13] to be one of the first depictions of time travel, as the main character, Ebenezer Scrooge, is transported to Christmases past, present and yet to come. These might be considered mere visions rather than actual time travel, though, since Scrooge only viewed each time period passively, unable to interact with them. A clearer example of time travel is found in the popular 1861 book Paris avant les hommes (Paris before Men) by the French botanist and geologist Pierre Boitard, published posthumously. In this story the main character is transported into the prehistoric past by the magic of a "lame demon" (a French pun on Boitard's name), where he encounters such extinct animals as a Plesiosaur, as well as Boitard's imagined version of an apelike human ancestor, and is able to actively interact with some of them.[14] Another clear early example of time travel in fiction is the short story The Clock That Went Backward by Edward Page Mitchell,[15] which appeared in the New York Sun in 1881. Mark Twain's A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (1889), in which the protagonist finds himself in the time of King Arthur after a fight in which he is hit with a sledge hammer, was another early time travel story which helped bring the concept to a wide audience, and was also one of the first stories to show history being changed by the time traveler's actions. The first time travel story to feature time travel by means of a time machine was Enrique Gaspar y Rimbau's 1887 book El Anacronpete.[16] This idea gained popularity with the H. G. Wells story The Time Machine, published in 1895 (preceded by a less influential story of time travel Wells wrote in 1888, titled The Chronic Argonauts), which also featured a time machine and which is often seen as an inspiration for all later science fiction stories featuring time travel using a vehicle that allows an operator to travel purposefully and selectively. The term "time machine", coined by Wells, is now universally used to refer to such a vehicle. Since that time, both science and fiction (see Time travel in fiction) have expanded on the concept of time travel.

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Theory
Some theories, most notably special and general relativity, suggest that suitable geometries of spacetime, or specific types of motion in space, might allow time travel into the past and future if these geometries or motions are possible.[17] In technical papers, physicists generally avoid the commonplace language of "moving" or "traveling" through time ("movement" normally refers only to a change in spatial position as the time coordinate is varied), and instead discuss the possibility of closed timelike curves, which are worldlines that form closed loops in spacetime, allowing objects to return to their own past. There are known to be solutions to the equations of general relativity that describe spacetimes which contain closed timelike curves (such as Gdel spacetime), but the physical plausibility of these solutions is uncertain. Relativity predicts that if one were to move away from the Earth at relativistic velocities and return, more time would have passed on Earth than for the traveler, so in this sense it is accepted that relativity allows "travel into the future" (according to relativity there is no single objective answer to how much time has really passed between the departure and the return, but there is an objective answer to how much proper time has been experienced by both the Earth and the traveler, i.e., how much each has aged; see twin paradox). On the other hand, many in the scientific community believe that backwards time travel is highly unlikely. Any theory that would allow time travel would

Time travel require that problems of causality be resolved. The classic example of a problem involving causality is the "grandfather paradox": what if one were to go back in time and kill one's own grandfather before one's father was conceived? But some scientists believe that paradoxes can be avoided, by appealing either to the Novikov self-consistency principle or to the notion of branching parallel universes (see the 'Paradoxes' section below).

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Tourism in time
Stephen Hawking once suggested that the absence of tourists from the future is an argument against the existence of time travel a variant of the Fermi paradox. Of course this would not prove that time travel is physically impossible, since it might be that time travel is physically possible but that it is never developed (or is cautiously never used); and even if it is developed, Hawking notes elsewhere that time travel might only be possible in a region of spacetime that is warped in the correct way, and that if we cannot create such a region until the future, then time travelers would not be able to travel back before that date, so "This picture would explain why we haven't been over run by tourists from the future."[18] Carl Sagan also once suggested the possibility that time travelers could be here, but are disguising their existence or are not recognized as time travelers.[19]

General relativity
However, the theory of general relativity does suggest a scientific basis for the possibility of backwards time travel in certain unusual scenarios, although arguments from semiclassical gravity suggest that when quantum effects are incorporated into general relativity, these loopholes may be closed.[20] These semiclassical arguments led Hawking to formulate the chronology protection conjecture, suggesting that the fundamental laws of nature prevent time travel,[21] but physicists cannot come to a definite judgment on the issue without a theory of quantum gravity to join quantum mechanics and general relativity into a completely unified theory.[22]

In physics
Time travel to the past is theoretically allowed using the following methods:[23] Travelling faster than the speed of light The use of cosmic strings and black holes Wormholes and Alcubierre drive

Via faster-than-light (FTL) travel

If one were able to move information or matter from one point to another faster than light, then according to special relativity, there would be some inertial frame of reference in which the signal or object was moving backward in time. This is a consequence of the relativity of simultaneity in special relativity, which says that in some cases different reference frames will disagree on whether two events at different locations happened "at the same time" or not, and they can also disagree on the order of the two events (technically, these disagreements occur when the spacetime interval between the events is 'space-like', meaning that neither event lies in the future light cone of the other).[24] If one of the two events represents the sending of a signal from one location and the second event represents the reception of the same signal at another location, then as long as the signal is moving at the speed of light or slower, the mathematics of simultaneity ensures that all reference frames agree that the transmission-event happened before the reception-event.[24] However, in the case of a hypothetical signal moving faster than light, there would always be some frames in which the signal was received before it was sent, so that the signal could be said to have moved backwards in time. And since one of the two fundamental postulates of special relativity says that the laws of physics should work the same way in every inertial frame, then if it is possible for signals to move backwards in time in any one frame, it must be possible in all frames. This means that if observer A sends a signal to observer B which moves FTL (faster than light) in A's frame but backwards in time in B's frame, and then B sends a reply which moves FTL in B's frame but

Time travel backwards in time in A's frame, it could work out that A receives the reply before sending the original signal, a clear violation of causality in every frame. An illustration of such a scenario using spacetime diagrams can be found here.[25] The scenario is sometimes referred to as a tachyonic antitelephone. According to special relativity, it would take an infinite amount of energy to accelerate a slower-than-light object to the speed of light. Although relativity does not forbid the theoretical possibility of tachyons which move faster than light at all times, when analyzed using quantum field theory, it seems that it would not actually be possible to use them to transmit information faster than light.[26] There is also no widely agreed-upon evidence for the existence of tachyons; the OPERA neutrino anomaly could possibly indicate that neutrinos are tachyons, but the results of the experiment have not been independently confirmed and another group of experimenters argue that the lack of Cherenkov radiation indicates the neutrinos cannot have really been traveling faster than light, and the OPERA group must have just made a mistake in timekeeping.[27]

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Special spacetime geometries

The general theory of relativity extends the special theory to cover gravity, illustrating it in terms of curvature in spacetime caused by mass-energy and the flow of momentum. General relativity describes the universe under a system of field equations, and there exist solutions to these equations that permit what are called "closed time-like curves," and hence time travel into the past.[17] The first of these was proposed by Kurt Gdel, a solution known as the Gdel metric, but his (and many others') example requires the universe to have physical characteristics that it does not appear to have.[17] Whether general relativity forbids closed time-like curves for all realistic conditions is unknown.

Using wormholes
Wormholes are a hypothetical warped spacetime which are also permitted by the Einstein field equations of general relativity,[28] although it would be impossible to travel through a wormhole unless it were what is known as a traversable wormhole. A proposed time-travel machine using a traversable wormhole would (hypothetically) work in the following way: One end of the wormhole is accelerated to some significant fraction of the speed of light, perhaps with some advanced propulsion system, and then brought back to the point of origin. Alternatively, another way is to take one entrance of the wormhole and move it to within the gravitational field of an object that has higher gravity than the other entrance, and then return it to a position near the other entrance. For both of these methods, time dilation causes the end of the wormhole that has been moved to have aged less than the stationary end, as seen by an external observer; however, time connects differently through the wormhole than outside it, so that synchronized clocks at either end of the wormhole will always remain synchronized as seen by an observer passing through the wormhole, no matter how the two ends move around.[29] This means that an observer entering the accelerated end would exit the stationary end when the stationary end was the same age that the accelerated end had been at the moment before entry; for example, if prior to entering the wormhole the observer noted that a clock at the accelerated end read a date of 2007 while a clock at the stationary end read 2012, then the observer would exit the stationary end when its clock also read 2007, a trip backwards in time as seen by other observers outside. One significant limitation of such a time machine is that it is only possible to go as far back in time as the initial creation of the machine;[30] in essence, it is more of a path through time than it is a device that itself moves through time, and it would not allow the technology itself to be moved backwards in time. This could provide an alternative explanation for Hawking's observation: a time machine will be built someday, but has not yet been built, so the tourists from the future cannot reach this far back in time. According to current theories on the nature of wormholes, construction of a traversable wormhole would require the existence of a substance with negative energy (often referred to as "exotic matter"). More technically, the wormhole spacetime requires a distribution of energy that violates various energy conditions, such as the null energy condition

Time travel along with the weak, strong, and dominant energy conditions.[31] However, it is known that quantum effects can lead to small measurable violations of the null energy condition,[31] and many physicists believe that the required negative energy may actually be possible due to the Casimir effect in quantum physics.[32] Although early calculations suggested a very large amount of negative energy would be required, later calculations showed that the amount of negative energy can be made arbitrarily small.[33] In 1993, Matt Visser argued that the two mouths of a wormhole with such an induced clock difference could not be brought together without inducing quantum field and gravitational effects that would either make the wormhole collapse or the two mouths repel each other.[34] Because of this, the two mouths could not be brought close enough for causality violation to take place. However, in a 1997 paper, Visser hypothesized that a complex "Roman ring" (named after Tom Roman) configuration of an N number of wormholes arranged in a symmetric polygon could still act as a time machine, although he concludes that this is more likely a flaw in classical quantum gravity theory rather than proof that causality violation is possible.[35]

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Other approaches based on general relativity

Another approach involves a dense spinning cylinder usually referred to as a Tipler cylinder, a GR solution discovered by Willem Jacob van Stockum[36] in 1936 and Kornel Lanczos[37] in 1924, but not recognized as allowing closed timelike curves[38] until an analysis by Frank Tipler[39] in 1974. If a cylinder is infinitely long and spins fast enough about its long axis, then a spaceship flying around the cylinder on a spiral path could travel back in time (or forward, depending on the direction of its spiral). However, the density and speed required is so great that ordinary matter is not strong enough to construct it. A similar device might be built from a cosmic string, but none are known to exist, and it does not seem to be possible to create a new cosmic string. Physicist Robert Forward noted that a nave application of general relativity to quantum mechanics suggests another way to build a time machine. A heavy atomic nucleus in a strong magnetic field would elongate into a cylinder, whose density and "spin" are enough to build a time machine. Gamma rays projected at it might allow information (not matter) to be sent back in time; however, he pointed out that until we have a single theory combining relativity and quantum mechanics, we will have no idea whether such speculations are nonsense. A more fundamental objection to time travel schemes based on rotating cylinders or cosmic strings has been put forward by Stephen Hawking, who proved a theorem showing that according to general relativity it is impossible to build a time machine of a special type (a "time machine with the compactly generated Cauchy horizon") in a region where the weak energy condition is satisfied, meaning that the region contains no matter with negative energy density (exotic matter). Solutions such as Tipler's assume cylinders of infinite length, which are easier to analyze mathematically, and although Tipler suggested that a finite cylinder might produce closed timelike curves if the rotation rate were fast enough,[40] he did not prove this. But Hawking points out that because of his theorem, "it can't be done with positive energy density everywhere! I can prove that to build a finite time machine, you need negative energy."[41] This result comes from Hawking's 1992 paper on the chronology protection conjecture, where he examines "the case that the causality violations appear in a finite region of spacetime without curvature singularities" and proves that "[t]here will be a Cauchy horizon that is compactly generated and that in general contains one or more closed null geodesics which will be incomplete. One can define geometrical quantities that measure the Lorentz boost and area increase on going round these closed null geodesics. If the causality violation developed from a noncompact initial surface, the averaged weak energy condition must be violated on the Cauchy horizon."[42] However, this theorem does not rule out the possibility of time travel 1) by means of time machines with the non-compactly generated Cauchy horizons (such as the Deutsch-Politzer time machine) and 2) in regions which contain exotic matter (which would be necessary for traversable wormholes or the Alcubierre drive). Because the theorem is based on general relativity, it is also conceivable a future theory of quantum gravity which replaced general relativity would allow time travel even without exotic matter (though it is also possible such a theory would place even more restrictions on time travel, or rule it out completely as postulated by Hawking's chronology

Time travel protection conjecture).

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Experiments carried out

Certain experiments carried out give the impression of reversed causality but are interpreted in a different way by the scientific community. For example, in the delayed choice quantum eraser experiment performed by Marlan Scully, pairs of entangled photons are divided into "signal photons" and "idler photons", with the signal photons emerging from one of two locations and their position later measured as in the double slit experiment, and depending on how the idler photon is measured, the experimenter can either learn which of the two locations the signal photon emerged from or "erase" that information. Even though the signal photons can be measured before the choice has been made about the idler photons, the choice seems to retroactively determine whether or not an interference pattern is observed when one correlates measurements of idler photons to the corresponding signal photons. However, since interference can only be observed after the idler photons are measured and they are correlated with the signal photons, there is no way for experimenters to tell what choice will be made in advance just by looking at the signal photons, and under most interpretations of quantum mechanics the results can be explained in a way that does not violate causality. The experiment of Lijun Wang might also show causality violation since it made it possible to send packages of waves through a bulb of caesium gas in such a way that the package appeared to exit the bulb 62 nanoseconds before its entry. But a wave package is not a single well-defined object but rather a sum of multiple waves of different frequencies (see Fourier analysis), and the package can appear to move faster than light or even backwards in time even if none of the pure waves in the sum do so. This effect cannot be used to send any matter, energy, or information faster than light,[43] so this experiment is understood not to violate causality either. The physicists Gnter Nimtz and Alfons Stahlhofen, of the University of Koblenz, claim to have violated Einstein's theory of relativity by transmitting photons faster than the speed of light. They say they have conducted an experiment in which microwave photons energetic packets of light traveled "instantaneously" between a pair of prisms that had been moved up to 3ft (0.91m) apart, using a phenomenon known as quantum tunneling. Nimtz told New Scientist magazine: "For the time being, this is the only violation of special relativity that I know of." However, other physicists say that this phenomenon does not allow information to be transmitted faster than light. Aephraim Steinberg, a quantum optics expert at the University of Toronto, Canada, uses the analogy of a train traveling from Chicago to New York, but dropping off train cars at each station along the way, so that the center of the train moves forward at each stop; in this way, the center of the train exceeds the speed of any of the individual cars.[44] Some physicists have performed experiments which attempted to show causality violations, but so far without success. The "Space-time Twisting by Light" (STL) experiment run by physicist Ronald Mallett attempts to observe a violation of causality when a neutron is passed through a circle made up of a laser whose path has been twisted by passing it through a photonic crystal. Mallett has some physical arguments that suggest that closed timelike curves would become possible through the center of a laser which has been twisted into a loop. However, other physicists dispute his arguments (see objections). Shengwang Du claims in a peer reviewed journal to have observed single photons' precursors, saying that they travel no faster than c in a vacuum. His experiment involved slow light as well as passing light through a vacuum. He generated two single photons, passing one through rubidium atoms that had been cooled with a laser (thus slowing the light) and passing one through a vacuum. Both times, apparently, the precursors preceded the photons' main bodies, and the precursor traveled at c in a vacuum. According to Du, this implies that there is no possibility of light traveling faster than c (and, thus, violating causality).[45] (Some members of the media took this as an indication of proof that time travel was impossible.[46] [47] )

Time travel Non-physics-based experiments Several experiments have been carried out to try to entice future humans, who might invent time travel technology, to come back and demonstrate it to people of the present time. Events such as Perth's Destination Day (2005) or MIT's Time Traveler Convention heavily publicized permanent "advertisements" of a meeting time and place for future time travelers to meet. Back in 1982, a group in Baltimore, MD., identifying itself as the Krononauts, hosted an event of this type welcoming visitors from the future.[48] [49] These experiments only stood the possibility of generating a positive result demonstrating the existence of time travel, but have failed so farno time travelers are known to have attended either event. It is hypothetically possible that future humans have traveled back in time, but have traveled back to the meeting time and place in a parallel universe.[50] Another factor is that for all the time travel devices considered under current physics (such as those that operate using wormholes), it is impossible to travel back to before the time machine was actually made.[51] [52]

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Time travel to the future in physics

There are various ways in which a person could "travel into the future" in a limited sense: the person could set things up so that in a small amount of his own subjective time, a large amount of subjective time has passed for other people on Earth. For example, an observer might take a trip away from the Earth and back at relativistic velocities, with the trip only lasting a few years according to the observer's own clocks, and return to find that thousands of years had passed on Earth. It should be noted, though, that according to relativity there is no objective answer to the question of how much time "really" passed during the trip; it would be equally valid to say that the trip had lasted only a few years or that the trip had lasted thousands of years, depending on your choice of reference frame.

Twin paradox diagram

This form of "travel into the future" is theoretically allowed (and has been demonstrated at very small time scales) using the following methods:[23] Using velocity-based time dilation under the theory of special relativity, for instance: Traveling at almost the speed of light to a distant star, then slowing down, turning around, and traveling at almost the speed of light back to Earth[53] (see the Twin paradox) Using gravitational time dilation under the theory of general relativity, for instance: Residing inside of a hollow, high-mass object; Residing just outside of the event horizon of a black hole, or sufficiently near an object whose mass or density causes the gravitational time dilation near it to be larger than the time dilation factor on Earth. Additionally, it might be possible to see the distant future of the Earth using methods which do not involve relativity at all, although it is even more debatable whether these should be deemed a form of "time travel": Hibernation Suspended animation

Time travel

136

Time dilation
Time dilation is permitted by Albert Einstein's special and general theories of relativity. These theories state that, relative to a given observer, time passes more slowly for bodies moving quickly relative to that observer, or bodies that are deeper within a gravity well.[54] For example, a clock which is moving relative to the observer will be measured to run slow in that observer's rest frame; as a clock approaches the speed of light it will almost slow to a stop, although it can never quite reach light speed so it will never completely stop. For two clocks moving inertially (not accelerating) relative to one another, this effect is reciprocal, with each clock measuring the other to be ticking slower. However, the symmetry is broken if one clock accelerates, as in the twin paradox where one twin stays on Earth while the other travels into space, turns around (which involves acceleration), and returnsin this case both agree the traveling twin has aged less. General relativity states that time dilation effects also occur if one Transversal Time dilation clock is deeper in a gravity well than the other, with the clock deeper in the well ticking more slowly; this effect must be taken into account when calibrating the clocks on the satellites of the Global Positioning System, and it could lead to significant differences in rates of aging for observers at different distances from a black hole. It has been calculated that, under general relativity, a person could travel forward in time at a rate four times that of distant observers by residing inside a spherical shell with a diameter of 5 meters and the mass of Jupiter.[23] For such a person, every one second of their "personal" time would correspond to four seconds for distant observers. Of course, squeezing the mass of a large planet into such a structure is not expected to be within our technological capabilities in the near future. There is a great deal of experimental evidence supporting the validity of equations for velocity-based time dilation in special relativity[55] and gravitational time dilation in general relativity.[56] [57] [58] However, with current technologies it is only possible to cause a human traveller to age less than companions on Earth by a very small fraction of a second, the current record being about 20 milliseconds for the cosmonaut Sergei Avdeyev.

Time perception
Time perception can be apparently sped up for living organisms through hibernation, where the body temperature and metabolic rate of the creature is reduced. A more extreme version of this is suspended animation, where the rates of chemical processes in the subject would be severely reduced. Time dilation and suspended animation only allow "travel" to the future, never the past, so they do not violate causality, and it's debatable whether they should be called time travel. However time dilation can be viewed as a better fit for our understanding of the term "time travel" than suspended animation, since with time dilation less time actually does pass for the traveler than for those who remain behind, so the traveler can be said to have reached the future faster than others, whereas with suspended animation this is not the case.

Time travel

137

Other ideas from mainstream physics

Paradoxes
The Novikov self-consistency principle and calculations by Kip S. Thorne indicate that simple masses passing through time travel wormholes could never engender paradoxesthere are no initial conditions that lead to paradox once time travel is introduced. If his results can be generalized, they would suggest, curiously, that none of the supposed paradoxes formulated in time travel stories can actually be formulated at a precise physical level: that is, that any situation you can set up in a time travel story turns out to permit many consistent solutions. The circumstances might, however, turn out to be almost unbelievably strange. Parallel universes might provide a way out of paradoxes. Everett's many-worlds interpretation (MWI) of quantum mechanics suggests that all possible quantum events can occur in mutually exclusive histories.[59] These alternate, or parallel, histories would form a branching tree symbolizing all possible outcomes of any interaction. If all possibilities exist, any paradoxes could be explained by having the paradoxical events happening in a different universe. This concept is most often used in science-fiction, but some physicists such as David Deutsch have suggested that if time travel is possible and the MWI is correct, then a time traveler should indeed end up in a different history than the one he started from.[60] [61] On the other hand, Stephen Hawking has argued that even if the MWI is correct, we should expect each time traveler to experience a single self-consistent history, so that time travelers remain within their own world rather than traveling to a different one.[18] And the physicist Allen Everett argued that Deutsch's approach "involves modifying fundamental principles of quantum mechanics; it certainly goes beyond simply adopting the MWI." Everett also argues that even if Deutsch's approach is correct, it would imply that any macroscopic object composed of multiple particles would be split apart when traveling back in time through a wormhole, with different particles emerging in different worlds.[62] Daniel Greenberger and Karl Svozil proposed that quantum theory gives a model for time travel without paradoxes.[63] [64] In quantum theory observation causes possible states to 'collapse' into one measured state; hence, the past observed from the present is deterministic (it has only one possible state), but the present observed from the past has many possible states until our actions cause it to collapse into one state. Our actions will then be seen to have been inevitable.

Using quantum entanglement

Quantum-mechanical phenomena such as quantum teleportation, the EPR paradox, or quantum entanglement might appear to create a mechanism that allows for faster-than-light (FTL) communication or time travel, and in fact some interpretations of quantum mechanics such as the Bohm interpretation presume that some information is being exchanged between particles instantaneously in order to maintain correlations between particles.[65] This effect was referred to as "spooky action at a distance" by Einstein. Nevertheless, the fact that causality is preserved in quantum mechanics is a rigorous result in modern quantum field theories, and therefore modern theories do not allow for time travel or FTL communication. In any specific instance where FTL has been claimed, more detailed analysis has proven that to get a signal, some form of classical communication must also be used.[66] The no-communication theorem also gives a general proof that quantum entanglement cannot be used to transmit information faster than classical signals. The fact that these quantum phenomena apparently do not allow FTL time travel is often overlooked in popular press coverage of quantum teleportation experiments. How the rules of quantum mechanics work to preserve causality is an active area of research.

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Philosophical understandings of time travel

Theories of time travel are riddled with questions about causality and paradoxes. Compared to other fundamental concepts in modern physics, time is still not understood very well. Philosophers have been theorizing about the nature of time since the era of the ancient Greek philosophers and earlier. Some philosophers and physicists who study the nature of time also study the possibility of time travel and its logical implications. The probability of paradoxes and their possible solutions are often considered. For more information on the philosophical considerations of time travel, consult the work of David Lewis or Ted Sider [67]. For more information on physics-related theories of time travel, consider the work of Kurt Gdel (especially his theorized universe) and Lawrence Sklar.

Presentism vs. eternalism

The relativity of simultaneity in modern physics favors the philosophical view known as eternalism or four-dimensionalism (Sider, 2001), in which physical objects are either temporally extended spacetime worms, or spacetime worm stages, and this view would be favored further by the possibility of time travel (Sider, 2001). Eternalism, also sometimes known as "block universe theory", builds on a standard method of modeling time as a dimension in physics, to give time a similar ontology to that of space (Sider, 2001). This would mean that time is just another dimension, that future events are "already there", and that there is no objective flow of time. This view is disputed by Tim Maudlin in his The Metaphysics Within Physics. Presentism is a school of philosophy that holds that neither the future nor the past exist, and there are no non-present objects. In this view, time travel is impossible because there is no future or past to travel to. However, some 21st century presentists have argued that although past and future objects do not exist, there can still be definite truths about past and future events, and thus it is possible that a future truth about a time traveler deciding to travel back to the present date could explain the time traveler's actual appearance in the present.[68] [69]

The grandfather paradox

One subject often brought up in philosophical discussion of time is the idea that, if one were to go back in time, paradoxes could ensue if the time traveler were to change things. The best examples of this are the grandfather paradox and the idea of autoinfanticide. The grandfather paradox is a hypothetical situation in which a time traveler goes back in time and attempts to kill his grandfather at a time before his grandfather met his grandmother. If he did so, then his mother or father never would have been born, and neither would the time traveler himself, in which case the time traveler never would have gone back in time to kill his grandfather. Autoinfanticide works the same way, where a traveler goes back and attempts to kill himself as an infant. If he were to do so, he never would have grown up to go back in time to kill himself as an infant. This discussion is important to the philosophy of time travel because philosophers question whether these paradoxes make time travel impossible. Some philosophers answer the paradoxes by arguing that it might be the case that backwards time travel could be possible but that it would be impossible to actually change the past in any way,[70] an idea similar to the proposed Novikov self-consistency principle in physics.

Theory of compossibility
David Lewis's analysis of compossibility and the implications of changing the past is meant to account for the possibilities of time travel in a one-dimensional conception of time without creating logical paradoxes. Consider Lewis example of Tim. Tim hates his grandfather and would like nothing more than to kill him. The only problem for Tim is that his grandfather died years ago. Tim wants so badly to kill his grandfather himself that he constructs a time machine to travel back to 1955 when his grandfather was young and kill him then. Assuming that Tim can travel to a time when his grandfather is still alive, the question must then be raised; Can Tim kill his grandfather?

Time travel For Lewis, the answer lies within the context of the usage of the word "can". Lewis explains that the word "can" must be viewed against the context of pertinent facts relating to the situation. Suppose that Tim has a rifle, years of rifle training, a straight shot on a clear day and no outside force to restrain Tims trigger finger. Can Tim shoot his grandfather? Considering these facts, it would appear that Tim can in fact kill his grandfather. In other words, all of the contextual facts are compossible with Tim killing his grandfather. However, when reflecting on the compossibility of a given situation, we must gather the most inclusive set of facts that we are able to. Consider now the fact that Tims grandfather died in 1993 and not in 1955. This new fact about Tims situation reveals that him killing his grandfather is not compossible with the current set of facts. Tim cannot kill his grandfather because his grandfather died in 1993 and not when he was young. Thus, Lewis concludes, the statements "Tim doesnt but can, because he has what it takes," and, "Tim doesnt, and cant, because it is logically impossible to change the past," are not contradictions; they are both true given the relevant set of facts. The usage of the word "can" is equivocal: he "can" and "can not" under different relevant facts. So what must happen to Tim as he takes aim? Lewis believes that his gun will jam, a bird will fly in the way, or Tim simply slips on a banana peel. Either way, there will be some logical force of the universe that will prevent Tim every time from killing his grandfather.[71]

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Ideas from fiction

Further information: Time travel in fiction

Rules of time travel

Time travel themes in science fiction and the media can generally be grouped into two general categories (based on effectmethods are extremely varied and numerous), each of which can be further subdivided.[72] [73] [74] [75] However, there are no formal names for these two categories, so concepts rather than formal names will be used with notes regarding what categories they are placed under (Note: These classifications do not address the method of time travel itself, i.e. how to travel through time, but instead call to attention differing rules of what happens to history.). As used in this section, timeline refers to all physical events in history, so that in time travel stories where events can be changed, the time traveler can create a new or altered timeline. This usage of "timeline" is fairly common in time travel fiction, and is distinct from the usage of "timeline" to refer to a type of chart created by humans to illustrate a particular series of events (see timeline). This concept is also distinct from the concept of a world line, a term from Einstein's theory of relativity which refers to the entire history of a single object (usually idealized as a point particle) that forms a distinct path through 4-dimensional spacetime. 1. There is a single fixed history, which is self-consistent and unchangeable. In this version, everything happens on a single timeline which does not contradict itself and cannot interact with anything potentially existing outside of it.

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140 1.1 This can be simply achieved by applying the Novikov self-consistency principle, named after Dr. Igor Dmitrievich Novikov, Professor of Astrophysics at Copenhagen University. The principle states that the timeline is totally fixed, and any actions taken by a time traveler were part of history all along, so it is impossible for the time traveler to "change" history in any way. The A man travelling a few seconds into the past in a time traveler's actions may be the cause of events in their single self-consistent timeline. This scenario own past though, which leads to the potential for circular raises questions about free will, since once the causation and the predestination paradox; for examples of traveller has decided to enter the time machine, then as soon as his own double appears, there is circular causation, see Robert A. Heinlein's story "By His absolutely no way for him to change his mind. Bootstraps". The Novikov self-consistency principle proposes that the local laws of physics in a region of spacetime containing time travelers cannot be any different from the local laws of physics in any other region of spacetime.[76] 1.2 Alternatively, new physical laws take effect regarding time travel that thwarts attempts to change the past (contradicting the assumption mentioned in 1.1 above that the laws that apply to time travelers are the same ones that apply to everyone else). These new physical laws can be as unsubtle as to reject time travelers who travel to the past to change it by pulling them back to the point from when they came as Michael Moorcock's The Dancers at the End of Time or where the traveler is rendered a noncorporeal phantom unable to physically interact with the past such as in some Pre-Crisis Superman stories and Michael Garrett's "Brief Encounter" in Twilight Zone Magazine May 1981.

2. History is flexible and is subject to change (Plastic Time) 2.1 Changes to history are easy and can impact the traveler, the world, or both Examples include Doctor Who and the Back to the Future trilogy. In some cases, any resulting paradoxes can be devastating, threatening the very existence of the universe. In other cases the traveler simply cannot return home. The extreme version of this (Chaotic Time) is that history is very sensitive to changes with even small changes having large impacts such as in Ray Bradbury's "A Sound of Thunder". 2.2 History is change resistant in direct relationship to the importance of the event ie. small trivial events can be readily changed but large ones take great effort. In the Twilight Zone episode "Back There" a traveler tries to prevent the assassination of President Lincoln and fails, but his actions have made subtle changes to the status quo in his own time (e.g. a man who had been the butler of his gentleman's club is now a rich tycoon). In the 2002 remake of The Time Machine, it is explained via a vision why Hartdegen could not save his sweetheart Emmadoing so would have resulted in his never developing the time machine he used to try and save her. In The Saga of Darren Shan, major events in the past cannot be changed, but their details can alter while providing the same outcome. Under this model, if a time traveler were to go back in time and kill Hitler, another Nazi would simply take his place and commit his same actions, leaving the broader course of history unchanged. In the Doctor Who episode The Waters of Mars, Captain Adelaide Brooke's death on Mars is the most singular catalyst of human travel outside the solar system. At first, the Doctor realizes her death is a "fixed point in time" and does not intervene, but later defies this rule and transports her and her crew to Earth. Rather than allow human history to change, Captain Brooke commits

Time travel suicide on Earth, leaving history mostly unchanged. 3. Alternate timelines. In this version of time travel, there are multiple coexisting alternate histories, so that when the traveler goes back in time, he/she ends up in a new timeline where historical events can differ from the timeline he/she came from, but her original timeline does not cease to exist (this means the grandfather paradox can be avoided since even if the time traveler's grandfather is killed at a young age in the new timeline, he still survived to have children in the original timeline, so there is still a causal explanation for the traveler's existence). Time travel may actually create a new timeline that diverges from the original timeline at the moment the time traveler appears in the past, or the traveler may arrive in an already existing parallel universe (though unless the parallel universe's history was identical to the time traveler's history up until the point where the time traveler appeared, it is questionable whether the latter version qualifies as 'time travel').

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Time travel under the parallel universe hypothesis. This scenario has the potential to preserve free will, but breaks symmetry between universes.

James P. Hogan's The Proteus Operation fully explains parallel universe time travel in chapter 20 where it has Einstein explaining that all the outcomes already exist and all time travel does is change which already existing branch you will experience. Though Star Trek has a long tradition of using the 2.1 mechanic, as seen in "The City on the Edge of Forever", "Tomorrow is Yesterday", "Time and Again", "Future's End", "Before and After", "Endgame" and as late as Enterprise's Temporal Cold War, "Parallels" had an example of what Data called "quantum realities." His exact words on the matter were "But there is a theory in quantum physics that all possibilities that can happen do happen in alternate quantum realities," suggesting the writers were thinking of the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics. Michael Crichton's novel Timeline takes the approach that all time travel really is travel to an already existing parallel universe where time passes at a slower rate than our own but actions in any of these parallel universes may have already occurred in our past. It is unclear from the novel if any sizable change in events of these parallel universe can be made. In the Homeline setting of GURPS Infinite Worlds there are echosparallel universes at an early part of Homeline's history but changes to their history do not affect Homeline's history. However tampering with their history can cause them to shift quanta making access harder if not impossible. A type of story which could be placed in this category is one where the alternative version of the past lies not in some other dimension, but simply at a distant location in space or a future period of time that replicates conditions in the traveler's past. For example, in a Futurama episode called The Late Philip J. Fry, the professor designed a forward-only time travel device. Trapped in the future, he and two colleagues travel forward all the way to the end of the universe, at which point they witness a new Big Bang which gives rise to a new universe whose history mirrors their own history. Then they continue to go forward until they reach the exact time of their initial departure. Although this journey is not exactly a backward time travel, the final result is the same. In the Japanese manga, Dragon Ball Z, the character Trunks travels back in time to warn the characters of their deaths soon to come. This does not change his time line, only creates a new one in which they do not die. Soon two of the characters destroy the lab where the monster Cell is being created, stopping him from absorbing the androids, creating a third time line. Later it is revealed that Trunks is killed by

Time travel Cell in the future, then travels to three years before any of the events occurs, which creates a fourth time line. No matter what any character does in the past, their own original time line is unchanged. Immutable timelines Time travel in a type 1 universe does not allow paradoxes such as the grandfather paradox to occur, where one deduces both a conclusion and its opposite (in the case of the grandfather paradox, one can start with the premise of the time traveler killing his grandfather, and reach the conclusion that the time traveler will not be able to kill his grandfather since he was never born) though it can allow other paradoxes to occur. In 1.1, the Novikov self-consistency principle asserts that the existence of a method of time travel constrains events to remain self-consistent. This will cause any attempt to violate such consistency to fail, even if seemingly extremely improbable events are required. Example: You have a device that can send a single bit of information back to itself at a precise moment in time. You receive a bit at 10:00:00 p.m., then no bits for thirty seconds after that. If you send a bit back to 10:00:00 p.m., everything works fine. However, if you try to send a bit to 10:00:15 p.m. (a time at which no bit was received), your transmitter will mysteriously fail. Or your dog will distract you for fifteen seconds. Or your transmitter will appear to work, but as it turns out your receiver failed at exactly 10:00:15 p.m., etc. Examples of this kind of universe are found in Robert Forward's novel Timemaster, the Twilight Zone episode "No Time Like the Past", and the 1980 Jeannot Szwarc film Somewhere In Time (based on Richard Matheson's novel Bid Time Return). In 1.2, time travel is constrained to prevent paradox. How this occurs is dependent on whether interaction with the past is possible. If interaction with the past is possible and one attempts to make a paradox, one undergoes involuntary or uncontrolled time travel. In the time-travel stories of Connie Willis, time travelers encounter "slippage" which prevents them from either reaching the intended time or translates them a sufficient distance from their destination at the intended time, as to prevent any paradox from occurring. Example: A man who travels into the past with intentions to kill Hitler finds himself on a Montana farm in late April 1945. In the The Dancers at the End of Time series, Michael Moorcock invented a plot device called the Morphail Effect. This causes a time traveler to be ejected from the time in which he or she is about to cause a paradox. Example 1: a man from the End of Time period travels to the past and is executed. Instead of dying (which would cause a paradox), he experiences a return to the End of Time Example 2: time travelers sometimes visit the End of Time from their own epochs in the past. Those that attempt to return to their own period are likely to reappear inadvertently at the End of Time. The general consequences are that time travel to the traveler's past is difficult, and many time travelers find themselves adventuring deeper and deeper into their future. If interaction with the past is not possible then the traveler simply becomes an invisible insubstantial phantom unable to interact with the past as in the case of James Harrigan in Michael Garrett's "Brief Encounter". While a Type 1 universe will prevent a grandfather paradox it doesn't prevent paradoxes in other aspects of physics such as the predestination paradox and the ontological paradox (GURPS Infinite Worlds calls this "Free Lunch Paradox"). The predestination paradox is where the traveler's actions create some type of causal loop, in which some event A in the future helps cause event B in the past via time travel, and the event B in turn is one of the causes of A. For instance, a time traveler might go back to investigate a specific historical event like the Great Fire of London, and their actions in the past could then inadvertently end up being the original cause of that very event.

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Time travel Examples of this kind of causal loop are found in Robert Forward's novel Timemaster, the Twilight Zone episode "No Time Like the Past", EC Comics stories like "Man who was Killed in Time" (Weird Science #5), "Why Papa Left Home" (Weird Science #11), "Only Time will Tell" (Weird Fantasy #1), "The Connection" (Weird Fantasy #9), "Skeleton Key" (Weird Fantasy #16), and "Counter Clockwise" (Weird Fantasy #18), the 1980 Jeannot Szwarc film Somewhere In Time (based on Richard Matheson's novel Bid Time Return), the Michael Moorcock novel Behold the Man, and Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. It is also featured in 1972's Doctor Who, in the three part The Day of the Daleks, where three freedom fighters from the future attempt to kill a British diplomat they believe responsible for World War Three, and the subsequent easy conquest of Earth by the Daleks. In the future they were taught an explosion at the diplomat's (Sir Reginald Styles) mansion with foreign delegates inside caused the nations of the world to attack each other. The Doctor (Jon Pertwee), figures out that they caused the explosion all along by way of a temporal paradox. In the 2006 crime thriller Dj Vu there appears to be causal loops, as Agent Doug Carlin decides to send a message back in time to save his partner's life, but this will eventually cause his death. Later in the movie, tough, Carlin is able to change events and create an alternate reality. This apparent paradox can be explained by multiple previous unseen time travels in a type 3 universe. In the videogame Escape from Monkey Island there's a section in which the player, controlling Guybrush Threepwood, gets some items from his future self in the Swamp of Time. Soon after that, he will become the future Guybrush and will have to give the items to his past self in the same order. This is an example of causal loop because those items were created purely from the time travel. Anyway if the player doesn't repeat every action properly, will cause a paradox that sends Guybrush back to the entrance of the swamp, implying a type 1.2 universe. The Novikov self-consistency principle can also result in an ontological paradox (also known as the knowledge or information paradox)[77] where the very existence of some object or information is a time loop. GURPS Infinite Worlds gives the example (from The Eyre Affair) of a time traveler going to Shakespeare's time with a book of all his works. Shakespeare pressed for time simply copies the information in the book from the future. The paradox is that nobody actually writes the plays.

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The philosopher Kelley L. Ross argues in "Time Travel Paradoxes"[78] that in an ontological paradox scenario involving a physical object, there can be a violation of the second law of thermodynamics. Ross uses Somewhere in Time as an example where Jane Seymour's character gives Christopher Reeve's character a watch she has owned for many years, and when he travels back in time he gives the same watch to Jane Seymour's character 60 years in the past. As Ross states "The watch is an impossible object. It violates the Second Law of Thermodynamics, the Law of Entropy. If time travel makes that watch possible, then time travel itself is impossible. The watch, indeed, must be absolutely identical to itself in the 19th and 20th centuries, since Reeve carries it with him from the future instantaneously into the past and bestows it on Seymour. The watch, however, cannot be identical to itself, since all the years in which it is in the possession of Seymour and then Reeve it will wear in the normal manner. It's [sic] entropy will increase. The watch carried back by Reeve will be more worn that [sic] the watch that would have been acquired by Seymour." On the other hand, the second law of thermodynamics is understood by modern physicists to be a statistical law rather than an absolute one, so spontaneous reversals of entropy or failure to increase in entropy are not impossible, just improbable (see for example the fluctuation theorem). In addition, the second law of thermodynamics only states that entropy should increase in systems which are isolated from interactions with the external world, so Igor Novikov (creator of the Novikov self-consistency principle) has argued that in the case of macroscopic objects like the watch

A version of the ontological paradox. The appearance of the traveler is the result of his disappearance a few seconds later. In this scenario, the traveler is traveling along a closed timelike curve.

Time travel whose worldlines form closed loops, the outside world can expend energy to repair wear/entropy that the object acquires over the course of its history, so that it will be back in its original condition when it closes the loop.[79] Mutable timelines Time travel in a Type 2 universe is much more complex. The biggest problem is how to explain changes in the past. One method of explanation is that once the past changes, so do the memories of all observers. This would mean that no observer would ever observe the changing of the past (because they will not remember changing the past). This would make it hard to tell whether you are in a Type 1 universe or a Type 2 universe. You could, however, infer such information by knowing if a) communication with the past were possible or b) it appeared that the time line had never been changed as a result of an action someone remembers taking, although evidence exists that other people are changing their time lines fairly often. An example of this kind of universe is presented in Thrice Upon a Time, a novel by James P. Hogan. The Back to the Future trilogy films also seem to feature a single mutable timeline (see the "Back to the Future FAQ [80]" for details on how the writers imagined time travel worked in the movies' world). By contrast, the short story "Brooklyn Project" by William Tenn provides a sketch of life in a Type 2 world where no one even notices as the timeline changes repeatedly. In type 2.1, attempts are being made at changing the timeline, however, all that is accomplished in the first tries is that the method in which decisive events occur is changed; final conclusions in the bigger scheme cannot be brought to a different outcome. As an example, the movie Dj Vu depicts a paper note sent to the past with vital information to prevent a terrorist attack. However, the vital information results in the killing of an ATF agent, but does not prevent the terrorist attack; the very same agent died in the previous version of the timeline as well, albeit under different circumstances. Finally, the timeline is changed by sending a human into the past, arguably a "stronger" measure than simply sending back a paper note, which results in preventing both a murder and the terrorist attack. As in the Back to the Future movie trilogy, there seems to be a ripple effect too as changes from the past "propagate" into the present, and people in the present have altered memory of events that occurred after the changes made to the timeline. The science fiction writer Larry Niven suggests in his essay "The Theory and Practice of Time Travel" that in a type 2.1 universe, the most efficient way for the universe to "correct" a change is for time travel to never be discovered, and that in a type 2.2 universe, the very large (or infinite) number of time travelers from the endless future will cause the timeline to change wildly until it reaches a history in which time travel is never discovered. However, many other "stable" situations might also exist in which time travel occurs but no paradoxes are created; if the changeable-timeline universe finds itself in such a state no further changes will occur, and to the inhabitants of the universe it will appear identical to the type 1.1 scenario. This is sometimes referred to as the "Time Dilution Effect". Few if any physicists or philosophers have taken seriously the possibility of "changing" the past except in the case of multiple universes, and in fact many have argued that this idea is logically incoherent,[70] so the mutable timeline idea is rarely considered outside of science fiction. Also, deciding whether a given universe is of Type 2.1 or 2.2 can not be done objectively, as the categorization of timeline-invasive measures as "strong" or "weak" is arbitrary, and up to interpretation: An observer can disagree about a measure being "weak", and might, in the lack of context, argue instead that simply a mishap occurred which then led to no effective change. An example would be the paper note sent back to the past in the film Dj Vu, as described above. Was it a "too weak" change, or was it just a local-time alteration which had no extended effect on the larger timeline? As the universe in Dj Vu seems not entirely immune to paradoxes (some arguably minute paradoxes do occur), both versions seem to be equally possible.

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Time travel Alternate histories In Type 3, any event that appears to have caused a paradox has instead created a new time line. The old time line remains unchanged, with the time traveler or information sent simply having vanished, never to return. A difficulty with this explanation, however, is that conservation of mass-energy would be violated for the origin timeline and the destination timeline. A possible solution to this is to have the mechanics of time travel require that mass-energy be exchanged in precise balance between past and future at the moment of travel, or to simply expand the scope of the conservation law to encompass all timelines. Some examples of this kind of time travel can be found in David Gerrold's book The Man Who Folded Himself and The Time Ships by Stephen Baxter, plus several episodes of the TV show Star Trek: The Next Generation and the android saga in the Japanese TV series Dragon Ball Z.

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Gradual and instantaneous

In literature, there are two methods of time travel: 1. The most commonly used method of time travel in science fiction is the instantaneous movement from one point in time to another, like using the controls on a CD player to skip to a previous or next song, though in most cases, there is a machine of some sort, and some energy expended in order to make this happen (like the time-traveling De Lorean in Back to the Future or the TARDIS (Time and Relative Dimension in Space) that traveled through time in Doctor Who). In some cases, there is not even the beginning of a scientific explanation for this kind of time travel; it's popular probably because it is more spectacular and makes time travel easier. The "Universal Remote" used by Adam Sandler in the movie Click works in the same manner, although only in one direction, the future. While his character Michael Newman can travel back to a previous point it is merely a playback with which he cannot interact.

A gradual time travel, as in the movie Primer. When the time machine is red, everything inside is going through time at normal rate, but backwards. During entry/exit it seems there would have to be fusion/separation between the forward and reversed versions of the traveler.

2. In The Time Machine, H.G. Wells explains that we are moving through time with a constant speed. Time travel then is, in Wells' words, "stopping or accelerating one's drift along the time-dimension, or even turning about and traveling the other way." George Pal, director of the 1960 adaptation based on Wells's classic, accordingly chose to depict time travel by employing time-lapse photography. To expand on the audio playback analogy used above, this would be like rewinding or fast forwarding an analogue audio cassette and playing the tape at a chosen point. Perhaps the oldest example of this method of time travel is in Lewis Carroll's Through the Looking-Glass (1871): the White Queen is living backwards, hence her memory is working both ways. Her kind of time travel is uncontrolled: she moves through time with a constant speed of 1 and she cannot change it. T.H. White, in the first part of his Arthurian novel The Once and Future King, The Sword in the Stone (1938) used the same idea: the wizard Merlyn lives backward in time, because he was born "at the wrong end of time" and has to live backwards from the front. "Some people call it having second sight", he says. This method of gradual time travel is not as popular in modern science fiction, though a form of it does occur in the film Primer.

Time travel or spacetime travel

An objection that is sometimes raised against the concept of time machines in science fiction is that they ignore the motion of the Earth between the date the time machine departs and the date it returns. The idea that a traveler can go into a machine that sends him or her to 1865 and step out into the exact same spot on Earth might be said to ignore the issue that Earth is moving through space around the Sun, which is moving in the galaxy, and so on, so that advocates of this argument imagine that "realistically" the time machine should actually reappear in space far away from the Earth's position at that date. However, the theory of relativity rejects the idea of absolute time and space; in

Time travel relativity there can be no universal truth about the spatial distance between events which occur at different times[81] (such as an event on Earth today and an event on Earth in 1865), and thus no objective truth about which point in space at one time is at the "same position" that the Earth was at another time. In the theory of special relativity, which deals with situations where gravity is negligible, the laws of physics work the same way in every inertial frame of reference and therefore no frame's perspective is physically better than any other frame's, and different frames disagree about whether two events at different times happened at the "same position" or "different positions". In the theory of general relativity, which incorporates the effects of gravity, all coordinate systems are on equal footing because of a feature known as "diffeomorphism invariance".[82] Nevertheless, the idea that the Earth moves away from the time traveler when he takes a trip through time has been used in a few science fiction stories, such as the 2000 AD comic Strontium Dog, in which Johnny Alpha uses "Time Bombs" to propel an enemy several seconds into the future, during which time the movement of the Earth causes the unfortunate victim to re-appear in space. Much earlier, Clark Ashton Smith used this form of time travel in several stories such as "The Letter from Mohaun Los" (1932) where the protagonist ends up on a planet millions of years in the future which "happened to occupy the same space through which Earth had passed". Other science fiction stories try to anticipate this objection and offer a rationale for the fact that the traveler remains on Earth, such as the 1957 Robert Heinlein novel The Door into Summer where Heinlein essentially handwaved the issue with a single sentence: "You stay on the world line you were on." In his 1980 novel The Number of the Beast a "continua device" allows the protagonists to dial in the coordinates of space and time and it instantly moves them therewithout explaining how such a device might work. The television series Seven Days also dealt with this problem; when the chrononaut would be 'rewinding', he would also be propelling himself backwards around the Earth's orbit, with the intention of landing at some chosen spatial location, though seldom hitting the mark precisely. In Piers Anthony's Bearing an Hourglass, the potent Hourglass of the Incarnation of Time naturally moves the Incarnation in space according to the numerous movements of the globe through the solar system, the solar system through the galaxy, etc.; but by carefully negating some of the movements he can also travel in space within the limits of the planet. The television series Doctor Who avoided this issue by establishing early on in the series that the Doctor's TARDIS is able to move about in space in addition to traveling in time.

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Notes
[1] Revati (http:/ / www. mythfolklore. net/ india/ encyclopedia/ revati. htm), Encyclopedia for Epics of Ancient India [2] Lord Balarama (http:/ / mayapur. com/ node/ 1160/ ), Sri Mayapur [3] Yorke, Christopher (February 2006). "Malchronia: Cryonics and Bionics as Primitive Weapons in the War on Time" (http:/ / jetpress. org/ volume15/ yorke-rowe. html). Journal of Evolution and Technology 15 (1): 7385. . Retrieved 2009-08-29. [4] Rosenberg, Donna (1997). Folklore, myths, and legends: a world perspective. McGraw-Hill. p.421. ISBN084425780X. [5] "Choni HaMe'agel" (http:/ / www. jewishsearch. com/ article_395. html). Jewish search. . Retrieved November 6, 2009. [6] Robert Darnton, The Forbidden Best-Sellers of Pre-Revolutionary France (New York: W.W. Norton, 1996), 120. [7] Alkon, Paul K. (1987). Origins of Futuristic Fiction. The University of Georgia Press. pp.9596. ISBN0-8203-0932-X. [8] Alkon, Paul K. (1987). Origins of Futuristic Fiction. The University of Georgia Press. p.85. ISBN0-8203-0932-X. [9] Yury Akutin, "" (http:/ / az. lib. ru/ w/ welxtman_a_f/ text_0090. shtml) (A.V. and his novel Strannik), 1978 (in Russian). [10] "Missing One's Coach: An Anachronism" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=jfPAwAnj9JUC& pg=RA1-PA701#v=onepage& q& f=false). Dublin University magazine: a literary and political journal, Volume 11. books.google.com. . Retrieved 4 December 2011. [11] Derleth, August (1951). Far Boundaries. Pellegrini & Cudahy. p.3. [12] Derleth, August (1951). Far Boundaries. Pellegrini & Cudahy. pp.1138. [13] Flynn, John L.. "Time Travel Literature" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060929071327/ http:/ / www. towson. edu/ ~flynn/ timetv. html). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. towson. edu/ ~flynn/ timetv. html) on 2006-09-29. . Retrieved 2006-10-28. [14] Rudwick, Martin J. S. (1992). Scenes From Deep Time. The University of Chicago Press. pp.166169. ISBN0-226-73105-7. [15] Page Mitchell, Edward. "The Clock That Went Backward" (http:/ / www. horrormasters. com/ Text/ a2221. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 4 December 2011. [16] Uribe, Augusto (June 1999). "The First Time Machine: Enrique Gaspar's Anacronpete". The New York Review of Science Fiction 11, no. 10 (130): 12.

Time travel
[17] Thorne, Kip S. (1994). Black Holes and Time Warps. W. W. Norton. p.499. ISBN0-393-31276-3. [18] Hawking, Stephen. "Space and Time Warps" (http:/ / www. hawking. org. uk/ index. php/ lectures/ publiclectures/ 63). . Retrieved 2010-09-06. [19] "NOVA Online Sagan on Time Travel" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ time/ sagan. html). Pbs.org. . Retrieved 2010-05-25. [20] Matt Visser (2002). "The quantum physics of chronology protection". arXiv:gr-qc/0204022[gr-qc]. [21] Hawking, Stephen (1992). "Chronology protection conjecture". Physical Review D 46 (2): 603. Bibcode1992PhRvD..46..603H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.46.603. [22] Hawking, Stephen; Kip Thorne, Igor Novikov, Timothy Ferris, Alan Lightman (2002). The Future of Spacetime. W. W. Norton. p.150. ISBN0-393-02022-3. [23] Gott, J. Richard (2002). Time Travel in Einstein's Universe. p.33-130 [24] Jarrell, Mark. "The Special Theory of Relativity" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060913173236/ http:/ / www. physics. uc. edu/ ~jarrell/ COURSES/ ELECTRODYNAMICS/ Chap11/ chap11. pdf) (PDF). pp. 711. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. physics. uc. edu/ ~jarrell/ COURSES/ ELECTRODYNAMICS/ Chap11/ chap11. pdf) on 2006-09-13. . Retrieved 2006-10-27. [25] "Sharp Blue: Relativity, FTL and causality Richard Baker" (http:/ / www. theculture. org/ rich/ sharpblue/ archives/ 000089. html). Theculture.org. . Retrieved 2010-05-25. [26] Chase, Scott I.. "Tachyons entry from Usenet Physics FAQ" (http:/ / math. ucr. edu/ home/ baez/ physics/ ParticleAndNuclear/ tachyons. html). . Retrieved 2006-10-27. [27] "New Analysis Deals Critical Blow to Faster-than-Light Results" by Natalie Wolchover (http:/ / www. livescience. com/ 17154-analysis-deals-critical-blow-faster-light-results. html) [28] Visser, Matt (1996). Lorentzian Wormholes. Springer-Verlag. p.100. ISBN1-56396-653-0. [29] Thorne, Kip S. (1994). Black Holes and Time Warps. W. W. Norton. p.502. ISBN0-393-31276-3. [30] Thorne, Kip S. (1994). Black Holes and Time Warps. W. W. Norton. p.504. ISBN0-393-31276-3. [31] Visser, Matt (1996). Lorentzian Wormholes. Springer-Verlag. p.101. ISBN1-56396-653-0. [32] Cramer, John G.. "NASA Goes FTL Part 1: Wormhole Physics" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060627211046/ http:/ / www. npl. washington. edu/ av/ altvw69. html). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. npl. washington. edu/ av/ altvw69. html) on 2006-06-27. . Retrieved 2006-12-02. [33] Visser, Matt; Sayan Kar, Naresh Dadhich (2003). "Traversable wormholes with arbitrarily small energy condition violations". Physical Review Letters 90 (20): 201102.1201102.4. arXiv:gr-qc/0301003. Bibcode2003PhRvL..90t1102V. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.90.201102. [34] Visser, Matt (1993). "From wormhole to time machine: Comments on Hawking's Chronology Protection Conjecture". Physical Review D 47 (2): 554565. arXiv:hep-th/9202090. Bibcode1993PhRvD..47..554V. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.47.554. [35] Visser, Matt (1997). "Traversable wormholes: the Roman ring". Physical Review D 55 (8): 52125214. arXiv:gr-qc/9702043. Bibcode1997PhRvD..55.5212V. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.55.5212. [36] van Stockum, Willem Jacob (1936). "The Gravitational Field of a Distribution of Particles Rotating about an Axis of Symmetry" (http:/ / www-lorentz. leidenuniv. nl/ history/ stockum/ Proc_R_Soc_Edinb_57_135_1937. jpg). Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. . [37] Lanczos, Kornel (1924, republished in 1997). "On a Stationary Cosmology in the Sense of Einsteins Theory of Gravitation". General Relativity and Gravitation (Springland Netherlands) 29 (3): 363399. doi:10.1023/A:1010277120072. [38] Earman, John (1995). Bangs, Crunches, Whimpers, and Shrieks: Singularities and Acausalities in Relativistic Spacetimes. Oxford University Press. p.21. ISBN0-19-509591-X. [39] Tipler, Frank J (1974). "Rotating Cylinders and the Possibility of Global Causality Violation". Physical Review D 9 (8): 2203. Bibcode1974PhRvD...9.2203T. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.9.2203. [40] Earman, John (1995). Bangs, Crunches, Whimpers, and Shrieks: Singularities and Acausalities in Relativistic Spacetimes. Oxford University Press. p.169. ISBN0-19-509591-X. [41] Hawking, Stephen; Kip Thorne, Igor Novikov, Timothy Ferris, Alan Lightman (2002). The Future of Spacetime. W. W. Norton. p.96. ISBN0-393-02022-3. [42] Hawking, Stephen (1992). "Chronology protection conjecture". Physical Review D 46 (2): 603611. Bibcode1992PhRvD..46..603H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.46.603. [43] Wright, Laura (November 6, 2003). "Score Another Win for Albert Einstein" (http:/ / discovermagazine. com/ 2003/ nov/ score-another-win-for-einstein1106). Discover. . [44] Anderson, Mark (August 1824, 2007). "Light seems to defy its own speed limit" (http:/ / www. eurekalert. org/ pub_releases/ 2007-08/ ns-lst081607. php). New Scientist 195 (2617): p.10. . [45] The Hong Kong University of Science & Technology (http:/ / www. ust. hk/ eng/ news/ press_20110719-893. html). Ust.hk. Retrieved on 2011-09-05. [46] It's official: Time machines won't work latimes.com (http:/ / latimesblogs. latimes. com/ technology/ 2011/ 07/ time-travel-impossible. html). Latimesblogs.latimes.com (2011-07-25). Retrieved on 2011-09-05. [47] Time travel is sci-fi fantasy: Scientists prove nothing can travel faster than the speed of light | Mail Online (http:/ / www. dailymail. co. uk/ sciencetech/ article-2018498/ Time-travel-sci-fi-fantasy-Scientists-prove-travel-faster-speed-light. html). Dailymail.co.uk. Retrieved on 2011-09-05. [48] Franklin, Ben A. (March 11, 1982), "The night the planets were aligned with Baltimore lunacy" (http:/ / select. nytimes. com/ gst/ abstract. html?res=F70E13FD395F0C728DDDAA0894DA484D81), New York Times.

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[49] "Museum of the Future" (http:/ / www. lehman. cuny. edu/ vpadvance/ artgallery/ gallery/ talkback/ issue3/ gallery/ muse9. html). Lehman.cuny.edu. . Retrieved 2010-05-25. [50] Jaume Garriga; Alexander Vilenkin (2001). "[gr-qc/0102010] Many worlds in one". Phys.Rev. D (Arxiv.org) 64 (4): 043511. arXiv:gr-qc/0102010. Bibcode2001PhRvD..64d3511G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.64.043511. [51] "Taking the Cosmic Shortcut ABC Science Online" (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ science/ slab/ wormholes/ default. htm). Abc.net.au. 2002-02-21. . Retrieved 2010-05-25. [52] "Transcript of interview with Dr. Marc Rayman at "Space Place"" (http:/ / spaceplace. nasa. gov/ en/ educators/ podcast/ transcripts/ 071129_time_travel. shtml). Spaceplace.nasa.gov. 2005-09-08. . Retrieved 2010-05-25. [53] http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ time/ thinktime. html. [54] Physics for Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics, Fifth Edition, p.1258. [55] Roberts, Tom (October). "What is the experimental basis of Special Relativity?" (http:/ / math. ucr. edu/ home/ baez/ physics/ Relativity/ SR/ experiments. html#Tests_of_time_dilation). . Retrieved 4 December 2009. [56] "Scout Rocket Experiment" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ relativ/ gratim. html#c3). . Retrieved 4 December 2009. [57] "Hafele-Keating Experiment" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ relativ/ airtim. html#c3). . Retrieved 4 December 2009. [58] Pogge, Richard W. (27 April 2009). "GPS and Relativity" (http:/ / www. astronomy. ohio-state. edu/ ~pogge/ Ast162/ Unit5/ gps. html). . Retrieved 4 December 2009. [59] Vaidman, Lev. "Many-Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ qm-manyworlds/ ). . Retrieved 2006-10-28. [60] Deutsch, David (1991). "Quantum mechanics near closed timelike curves". Physical Review D 44 (10): 31973217. Bibcode1991PhRvD..44.3197D. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.44.3197. [61] See also the discussion in "Quantum Mechanics to the Rescue?" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ time-travel-phys/ #9) from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy article "Time travel and Modern Physics" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ time-travel-phys/ ). [62] Everett, Allen (2004). "Time travel paradoxes, path integrals, and the many worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics". Physical Review D 69 (124023). arXiv:gr-qc/0410035. Bibcode2004PhRvD..69l4023E. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.69.124023. [63] Greenberger, Daniel M; Karl Svozil (2005). Quantum Theory Looks at Time Travel. arXiv:quant-ph/0506027. Bibcode2005quant.ph..6027G. [64] Kettlewell, Julianna (2005-06-17). "New model 'permits time travel'" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ 4097258. stm). BBC News. . Retrieved 2010-05-25. [65] Goldstein, Sheldon. "Bohmian Mechanics" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ qm-bohm/ ). . Retrieved 2006-10-30. [66] Nielsen, Michael; Chuang, Isaac (2000). Quantum Computation and Quantum Information. Cambridge. p.28. ISBN0521632358. [67] http:/ / tedsider. org/ [68] Keller, Simon; Michael Nelson (September 2001). "Presentists should believe in time-travel" (http:/ / people. bu. edu/ stk/ Papers/ Timetravel. pdf) (PDF). Australian Journal of Philosophy 79.3 (3): 333345. doi:10.1080/713931204. . [69] This view is contested by another contemporary advocate of presentism, Craig Bourne, in his recent book A Future for Presentism, although for substantially different (and more complex) reasons. [70] see this discussion (http:/ / www. sfu. ca/ philosophy/ swartz/ time_travel1. htm) between two philosophers, for example [71] Lewis, David (1976). "The paradoxes of time travel" (http:/ / www. csus. edu/ indiv/ m/ merlinos/ Paradoxes of Time Travel. pdf). American Philosophical Quarterly 13: 14552. arXiv:gr-qc/9603042. Bibcode1996gr.qc.....3042K. . [72] Grey, William (1999). "Troubles with Time Travel". Philosophy (Cambridge University Press) 74 (1): 5570. doi:10.1017/S0031819199001047. [73] Rickman, Gregg (2004). The Science Fiction Film Reader. Limelight Editions. ISBN0879109947. [74] Nahin, Paul J. (2001). Time machines: time travel in physics, metaphysics, and science fiction. Springer. ISBN0387985719. [75] Schneider, Susan (2009). Science Fiction and Philosophy: From Time Travel to Superintelligence. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN1405149078. [76] Friedman, John; Michael Morris, Igor Novikov, Fernando Echeverria, Gunnar Klinkhammer, Kip Thorne, Ulvi Yurtsever (1990). "Cauchy problem in spacetimes with closed timelike curves" (http:/ / authors. library. caltech. edu/ 3737/ ). Physical Review D 42 (6): 1915. Bibcode1990PhRvD..42.1915F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.42.1915. . [77] Sukys, Paul (1999). Lifting the scientific veil: science appreciation for the nonscientist. Ardsley House Publishers. pp.236237. ISBN0847696006. [78] Kelley L. Ross, " Time Travel Paradoxes (http:/ / www. friesian. com/ paradox. htm)" [79] Gott, J. Richard (2001). Time Travel in Einstein's Universe. Houghton Mifflin. p.23. ISBN0395955637. [80] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20040405144429/ http:/ / www. bttf. com/ film_faq. htm [81] Geroch, Robert (1978). General Relativity From A to B. The University of Chicago Press. p.124. ISBN0226288633. [82] Max Planck Institut fr Gravitationsphysik (2005-09-12). "Einstein Online: Actors on a changing stage" (http:/ / www. einstein-online. info/ en/ spotlights/ background_independence/ index. html). Einstein-online.info. . Retrieved 2010-05-25.

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Bibliography
Davies, Paul (1996). About Time. Pocket Books. ISBN0-684-81822-1. Davies, Paul (2002). How to Build a Time Machine. Penguin Books Ltd. ISBN0-14-100534-3. Gale, Richard M (1968). The Philosophy of Time. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN0-333-00042-0. Gott, J. Richard (2002). Time Travel in Einstein's Universe: The Physical Possibilities of Travel Through Time. Boston: Mariner Books. ISBN0-618-25735-7. Gribbin, John (1985). In Search of Schrdinger's Cat. Corgi Adult. ISBN0-552-12555-5. Miller, Kristie (2005). "Time travel and the open future". Disputatio 1 (19): 223232. Nahin, Paul J. (2001). Time Machines: Time Travel in Physics, Metaphysics, and Science Fiction. Springer-Verlag New York Inc.. ISBN0-387-98571-9. Nahin, Paul J. (1997). Time Travel: A writer's guide to the real science of plausible time travel. Writer's Digest Books. Cincinnati, Ohio. ISBN 0-89879-748-9 Nikolic, H (2006). "Causal paradoxes: a conflict between relativity and the arrow of time". Foundations of Physics Letters 19 (3): 259. arXiv:gr-qc/0403121. Bibcode2006FoPhL..19..259N. doi:10.1007/s10702-006-0516-5. Pagels, Heinz (1985). Perfect Symmetry, the Search for the Beginning of Time. Simon & Schuster. ISBN0-671-46548-1.

Pickover, Clifford (1999). Time: A Traveler's Guide. Oxford University Press Inc, USA. ISBN0-19-513096-0. Randles, Jenny (2005). Breaking the Time Barrier. Simon & Schuster Ltd. ISBN0-7434-9259-5. Shore, Graham M (2003). "Constructing Time Machines". Int. J. Mod. Phys. A, Theoretical 18 (23): 4169. arXiv:gr-qc/0210048. Bibcode2003IJMPA..18.4169S. doi:10.1142/S0217751X03015118. Toomey, David (2007). The New Time Travelers: A Journey to the Frontiers of Physics. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN978-0-393-06013-3.

External links
Black holes, Wormholes and Time Travel (http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programme/61), a Royal Society Lecture SF Chronophysics (http://www.xibalba.demon.co.uk/jbr/chrono.html), a discussion of Time Travel as it relates to science fiction On the Net: Time Travel (http://www.asimovs.com/_issue_0407/onthenet2.shtml) by James Patrick Kelly How Time Travel Will Work (http://www.howstuffworks.com/time-travel.htm.htm) at HowStuffWorks Time Travel in Flatland? (http://www.theory.caltech.edu/people/patricia/lctoc.html) NOVA Online: Time Travel (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/time) Professor Predicts Human Time Travel This Century (http://www.physorg.com/news63371210.html) Time Traveler Convention (http://web.mit.edu/adorai/timetraveler) at MIT Time Machines in Physics (http://www.math.siu.edu/Kocik/tm/tm-all-ch.htm) almost 200 citations from 1937 through 2001 Time Travel and Modern Physics (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/time-travel-phys/) at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Time Travel (http://www.iep.utm.edu/t/timetrav.htm) at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Aparta Krystian: Conventional Models of Time and Their Extensions in Science Fiction (http://www.timetravel. 110mb.com) Time travellers from the future 'could be here in weeks' (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/ large-hadron-collider/3324491/Time-travellers-from-the-future-could-be-here-in-weeks.html) Time machine on arxiv.org (http://xstructure.inr.ac.ru/x-bin/theme3.py?level=1&index1=-166308)

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Time travel in fiction

Time travel is a common theme in science fiction and is depicted in a variety of media. It simply means either going forward in time or backward, to experience the future, or the past.

Literature
Time travel can form the central theme of a book, or it can be simply a plot device. Time travel in fiction can ignore the possible effects of the time traveler's actions, as in A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court, or it can use one resolution or another of the Grandfather paradox.

Early stories featuring time travel

Although The Time Machine by H. G. Wells was instrumental in causing the idea of time travel to enter the public imagination, non-technological forms of time travel had appeared in a number of earlier stories, and some even earlier stories featured elements suggestive of time travel, but remain somewhat ambiguous. In ancient Hindu mythology, the Mahabharatha mentions the story of the King Revaita, who travels to a different world to meet the creator Brahma and is shocked to learn that many ages have passed when he returns to Earth.[1]
[2]

Urashima Tar, an early Japanese tale, involves traveling forwards in time to a distant future,[3] and was first described in the Nihongi (720).[4] It was about a young fisherman named Urashima Taro who visits an undersea palace and stays there for three days. After returning home to his village, he finds himself three hundred years in the future, where he is long forgotten, his house in ruins, and his family long dead.[3] In Walter Map's 12th century De nugis curialium (Courtiers' Trifles), Map tells of the Briton King Herla, who is transported with his hunting party over two centuries into the future by the enchantment of a mysterious harlequin. Memoirs of the Twentieth Century (1733) by Samuel Madden is mainly a series of letters from English ambassadors in various countries to the British "Lord High Treasurer", along with a few replies from the British foreign office, all purportedly written in 1997 and 1998 and describing the conditions of that era. However, the framing story is that these letters were actual documents given to the narrator by his guardian angel one night in 1728; for this reason, Paul Alkon suggests in his book Origins of Futuristic Fiction that "the first time-traveler in English literature is a guardian angel who returns with state documents from 1998 to the year 1728", although the book does not explicitly show how the angel obtained these documents. Alkon later qualifies this by writing "It would be stretching our generosity to praise Madden for being the first to show a traveler arriving from the future", but also says that Madden "deserves recognition as the first to toy with the rich idea of time-travel in the form of an artifact sent backwards from the future to be discovered in the present." In the play Anno 7603, written by the Dano-Norwegian poet Johan Herman Wessel in 1781, the two main characters are moved to the future (AD 7603) by a good fairy. Rip Van Winkle, Washington Irving's 1819 story, is about a man named Rip Van Winkle who takes a nap at a mountain and wakes up twenty years in the future, where he has been forgotten, his wife deceased, and his daughter grown up.[3] In the science fiction anthology Far Boundaries (1951), the editor August Derleth identifies the short story Missing One's Coach: An Anachronism, written for the Dublin University Magazine by an anonymous author in 1838, as a very early time travel story. In this story, the narrator is waiting under a tree to be picked up by a coach which will take him out of Newcastle, when he suddenly finds himself transported back over a thousand years, where he encounters the Venerable Bede in a monastery, and gives him somewhat ironic explanations of the developments of the coming centuries. It is never entirely clear whether these events actually occurred or were

Time travel in fiction merely a dream. In 1843, the Charles Dickens novella A Christmas Carol depicts Ebeneezer Scrooge being transported back and forth in time to points in his own lifetime by a series of ghosts to visit Christmases Past, Present and Future. The book Paris avant les hommes (Paris before Men) by the French botanist and geologist Pierre Boiterd, published posthumously in 1861, in which the main character is transported to various prehistoric settings by the magic of a "lame demon", and is able to actively interact with prehistoric life. The short story The Clock That Went Backward [5], written by editor Edward Page Mitchell appeared in the New York Sun in 1881, another early example of time travel in fiction. Looking Backward (1888) by Edward Bellamy and News from Nowhere (1890) by William Morris, which feature a protagonist who wakes up in a socialist utopian future. A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (1889) by Mark Twain. Tourmalin's Time Cheques (1891) by Thomas Anstey Guthrie (written under the pseudonym F. Anstey) was the first story to play with the paradoxes that time travel could cause. Golf in the Year 2000 (1892) by J. McCullough tells the story of an Englishman who fell asleep in 1892 and awakens in the year 2000. The focus of the book is how the game of golf would have changed by then, but many social and technological themes are also discussed along the way, including a device similar to television and women's equality.

151

Time travel themes and ideological function

A number of themes tend to recur in time travel stories, often with enough variations to make them interesting. Changing the past: in this genre, a visitor to the past changes history using knowledge and/or technology from their own time, either for good or evil, or sometimes accidentally, creating an alternate history as a result. Examples of this genre include Lest Darkness Fall by L. Sprague de Camp. The Guardians of Time: in this genre, a group of people are charged with ensuring that time turns out 'properly' (or protecting it from changes by other travelers). This includes The Big Time and the other Change War stories by Fritz Leiber, Terry Pratchett's Thief of Time, Simon Hawke's TimeWars series, Simon Lee's Timekeepers, A Tempus Viator Novel [6] and The End of Eternity by Isaac Asimov. Another example of this concept is the Doctor Who sci-fi series, whose main character is a "Time Lord" called "the Doctor" who personally intervenes to fight the evil he encounters if he is called on to do so and whose people are essentially scholars and historians who usually only observe histories. Preventing a bad future: in this genre, the main characters learn, either by going to the future and returning or by the arrival of a time traveler from the future, that the future has not turned out well, having either turned into a dystopia or resulting in the end of the world. The characters then try to change something in the present which prevents said future from coming to pass. The Terminator franchise includes several stories of time travelers from the future, waging disputes to influence a post-apocalyptic future. Unintentional change or fulfillment: in this genre, a time traveler intends to observe past events, or is taken to the past against his will and tries to return to his proper time. However, the time traveler discovers that his actions have unintentionally altered the future because of the Butterfly effect. A Sound of Thunder is an example of this genre. The time travel motif also has an ideological function because it literally provides the necessary distancing effect that science fiction needs to be able to metaphorically address the most pressing issues and themes that concern people in the present. If the modern world is one where the individuals feel alienated and powerless in the face of bureaucratic structures and corporate monopolies, then time travel suggests that Everyman and Everybody is important to shaping history, to making a real and quantifiable difference to the way the world turns out. Sean Redmond,Liquid Metal: the science fiction film reader (2004)[7]

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References
[1] Encyclopedia for Epics of Ancient India - Revati (http:/ / www. mythfolklore. net/ india/ encyclopedia/ revati. htm) [2] Lord Balarama | Sri Mayapur (http:/ / mayapur. com/ node/ 1160/ ) [3] Yorke, Christopher (February 2006), "Malchronia: Cryonics and Bionics as Primitive Weapons in the War on Time" (http:/ / jetpress. org/ volume15/ yorke-rowe. html), Journal of Evolution and Technology 15 (1): 7385, , retrieved 2009-08-29 [4] Rosenberg, Donna (1997), Folklore, myths, and legends: a world perspective, McGraw-Hill, p.421, ISBN084425780X [5] http:/ / www. horrormasters. com/ Text/ a2221. pdf [6] http:/ / www. timekeepersbook. com [7] Redmond, Sean (editor). Liquid Metal: the Science Fiction Film Reader. London: Wallflower Press, 2004.

External links
timelinks - the big list of time travel video, time travel movies, & time travel TV (http://www.aetherco.com/ timelinks/timevideo-thebiglist.html) - over 700 movies and television programs featuring time travel SciFan: Time Travel - Time Control - Time Warp (http://www.scifan.com/themes/themes. asp?TH_themeid=4&Items=) - list of over 2400 books featuring time travel Aparta Krystian. Conventional Models of Time and Their Extensions in Science Fiction (http://www.timetravel. 110mb.com) A master's thesis exploring conceptual blending in time travel. Andy's Anachronisms (http://www.timetravelreviews.com) - Exploring the themes of Time Travel and Alternate Universes in Literature and Entertainment Ultimate Time Travel (http://www.UltimateTimeTravel.com) - Reviewing books, movies and computer games that deal with concept of Time Travel Time Travel Movies (http://www.toptenz.net/top-ten-time-travel-movies.php) - Reviews and clips of the some more influential movies involving time travel.

Grandfather paradox
The grandfather paradox is a proposed paradox of time travel first described (in this exact form) by the science fiction writer Ren Barjavel in his 1943 book Le Voyageur Imprudent (Future Times Three).[1] The paradox is this: suppose a man traveled back in time and killed his biological grandfather before the latter met the traveler's grandmother. As a result, one of the traveler's parents (and by extension the traveler himself) would never have been conceived. This would imply that he could not have traveled back in time after all, which means the grandfather would still be alive, and the traveler would have been conceived allowing him to travel back in time and kill his grandfather. Thus each possibility seems to imply its own negation, a type of logical paradox. Another alternative, is just the fact that the time traveller is alive in the present means that he failed in his endeavour to kill the grandparent. This would mean that you could act with complete freedom as whatever you did in the past cannot change the present because its implications have already been felt. Despite the name, the grandfather paradox does not exclusively regard the impossibility of one's own birth. Rather, it regards any action that makes impossible the ability to travel back in time in the first place. The paradox's namesake example is merely the most commonly thought of when one considers the whole range of possible actions. Another example would be using scientific knowledge to invent a time machine, then going back in time and (whether through murder or otherwise) impeding a scientist's work that would eventually lead to the very information that you used to invent the time machine. An equivalent paradox is known (in philosophy) as autoinfanticide, going back in time and killing oneself as a baby.[2] The grandfather paradox has been used to argue that backwards time travel must be impossible. However, a number of hypotheses have been postulated to avoid the paradox, such as the idea that the past is unchangeable, so the grandfather must have already survived the attempted killing (as stated earlier); or the time traveler creates an alternate time line in which the traveler was never born.

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Scientific theories
Novikov self-consistency principle
The Novikov self-consistency principle and Kip S. Thorne expresses one view on how backwards time travel could be possible without a danger of paradoxes. According to this hypothesis, the only possible time lines are those entirely self-consistentso anything a time traveler does in the past must have been part of history all along, and the time traveler can never do anything to prevent the trip back in time from happening, since this would represent an inconsistency. In layman's terms, this is often called determinism. It conflicts with the notion of free-will. Succinctly, this explanation states that if time travel is possible, then actions are determined by history.

Parallel universes
There could be "an ensemble of parallel universes" such that when the traveller kills the grandfather, the act took place in (or resulted in the creation of) a parallel universe where the traveler's counterpart never exists as a result. However, his prior existence in the original universe is unaltered. Succinctly, this explanation states that: if time travel is possible, then multiple versions of the future exist in parallel universes. This theory would also apply if a person went back in time to shoot himself, because in the past he would be dead as in the future he would be alive and well. Examples of parallel universes postulated in physics are: In quantum mechanics, the many-worlds interpretation suggests that every seemingly random quantum event with a non-zero probability actually occurs in all possible ways in different "worlds", so that history is constantly branching into different alternatives. The physicist David Deutsch has argued that if backwards time travel is possible, it should result in the traveler ending up in a different branch of history than the one he departed from.[3] See also quantum suicide and immortality. M-theory is put forward as a hypothetical master theory that unifies the six superstring theories, although at present it is largely incomplete. One possible consequence of ideas drawn from M-theory is that multiple universes in the form of 3-dimensional membranes known as branes could exist side-by-side in a fourth large spatial dimension (which is distinct from the concept of time as a fourth dimension) - see Brane cosmology. However, there is currently no argument from physics that there would be one brane for each physically possible version of history as in the many-worlds interpretation, nor is there any argument that time travel would take one to a different brane.

Nonexistence theory
According to this theory, if one were to do something in the past that would cause their nonexistence, upon returning to the future, they would find themselves in a world where the effects of (and chain reactions thereof) their actions are not present, as the person never existed. Through this theory, they would still exist, though. A famous example of this theory is It's A Wonderful Life.

Theories in science fiction

Parallel universes resolution
The idea of preventing paradoxes by supposing that the time traveler is taken to a parallel universe while his original history remains intact, which is discussed above in the context of science, is also common in science fictionsee Time travel as a means of creating historical divergences.

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Restricted action resolution

Another resolution, of which the Novikov self-consistency principle can be taken as an example, holds that if one were to travel back in time, the laws of nature (or other intervening cause) would simply forbid the traveler from doing anything that could later result in their time travel not occurring. For example, a shot fired at the traveler's grandfather misses, or the gun jams or misfires, or the grandfather is injured but not killed, or the person killed turns out to be not the real grandfatheror some other event prevents the attempt from succeeding. No action the traveler takes to affect or change history can ever succeed, as some form of "bad luck" or coincidence always prevents the outcome. In effect, the traveler cannot change history. Often in fiction, the time traveler does not merely fail to prevent the actions, but in fact precipitate them (see predestination paradox), usually by accident. This theory might lead to concerns about the existence of free will (in this model, free will may be an illusion, or at least not unlimited). This theory also assumes that causality must be constant: i.e. that nothing can occur in the absence of cause, whereas some theories hold that an event may remain constant even if its initial cause was subsequently eliminated. Closely related but distinct is the notion of the time line as self-healing. The time-traveller's actions are like throwing a stone in a large lake; the ripples spread, but are soon swamped by the effect of the existing waves. For instance, a time traveller could assassinate a politician who led his country into a disastrous war, but the politician's followers would then use his murder as a pretext for the war, and the emotional effect of that would cancel out the loss of the politician's charisma. Or the traveller could prevent a car crash from killing a loved one, only to have the loved one killed by a mugger, or fall down the stairs, choke on a meal, killed by a stray bullet, etc. In the 2002 film The Time Machine, this scenario is shown where the main character builds a time machine to save his fiance from being killed by a mugger, only for her to die in a car crash instead; as he learns from a trip to the future, he cannot save her with the machine or he would never have been inspired to build the machine so that he could go back and save her in the first place. In some stories it is only the event that precipitated the time traveler's decision to travel back in time that cannot be substantially changed, in others all attempted changes "heal" in this way, and in still others the universe can heal most changes but not sufficiently drastic ones. This is also the explanation advanced by the Doctor Who role-playing game, which supposes that Time is like a stream; you can dam it, divert it, or block it, but the overall direction resumes after a period of conflict. It also may not be clear whether the time traveler altered the past or precipitated the future he remembers, such as a time traveler who goes back in time to persuade an artist whose single surviving work is famous to hide the rest of the works to protect them. If, on returning to his time, he finds that these works are now well-known, he knows he has changed the past. On the other hand, he may return to a future exactly as he remembers, except that a week after his return, the works are found. Were they actually destroyed, as he believed when he traveled in time, and has he preserved them? Or was their disappearance occasioned by the artist's hiding them at his urging, and the skill with which they were hidden, and so the long time to find them, stemmed from his urgency?

Destruction resolution
Some science fiction stories suggest that any paradox would destroy the universe, or at least the parts of space and time affected by the paradox. The plots of such stories tend to revolve around preventing paradoxes, such as the final episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation. A less destructive alternative of this theory suggests the death of the time traveller whether the history is altered or not; an example would be in the first part of the Back to the Future trilogy, where the lead character's alteration of history results in a risk of his own disappearance, and he has to fix the alteration to preserve his own existence. In this theory, killing one's grandfather would result in the disappearance of oneself, history would erase all traces of the person's existence, and the death of the grandfather would be caused by another means (say, another existing person firing the gun); thus, the paradox would never occur from a historical viewpoint.

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Temporal Modification Negation Theory

While stating that if time travel is possible it would be impossible to violate the grandfather paradox, it goes further to state that any action taken that itself negates the time travel event cannot occur. The consequences of such an event would in some way negate that event, be it by either voiding the memory of what one is doing before doing it, by preventing the action in some way, or even by destroying the universe among other possible consequences. It states therefore that to successfully change the past one must do so incidentally. For example, if one tried to stop the murder of one's parents, he would fail. On the other hand, if one traveled back and did something else that as a result prevented the death of someone else's parents, then such an event would be successful, because the reason for the journey and therefore the journey itself remains unchanged preventing a paradox. In addition, if this event had some colossal change in the history of mankind, and such an event would not void the ability or purpose of the journey back, it would occur, and would hold. In such a case, the memory of the event would immediately be modified in the mind of the time traveler. An example of this would be for someone to travel back to observe life in Austria in 1887 and while there shoot five people, one of which was one of Hitler's parents. Hitler would therefore never have existed, but since this would not prevent the invention of the means for time travel, or the purpose of the trip, then such a change would hold. But for it to hold, every element that influenced the trip must remain unchanged. This would void someone convincing another party to travel back to kill the people without knowing who they are and making the time line stick, because by being successful, they would void the first party's influence and therefore the second party's actions. These issues are treated humorously in an episode of Futurama in which Fry travels back in time and inadvertently causes his grandfather's death before he marries his grandmother. His distraught grandmother then seduces him, and on returning to his own time, Fry learns that he is his own grandfather.

Other considerations
Consideration of the grandfather paradox has led some to the idea that time travel is by its very nature paradoxical and therefore logically impossible, on the same order as round squares. For example, the philosopher Bradley Dowden made this sort of argument in the textbook Logical Reasoning, where he wrote:

Nobody has ever built a time machine that could take a person back to an earlier time. Nobody should be seriously trying to build one, either, because a good argument exists for why the machine can never be built. The argument goes like this: suppose you did have a time machine right now, and you could step into it and travel back to some earlier time. Your actions in that time might then prevent your grandparents from ever having met one another. This would make you not born, and thus not step into the time machine. So, the claim that there could be a time machine is self-contradictory.

However, some philosophers and scientists believe that time travel into the past need not be logically impossible provided that there is no possibility of changing the past, as suggested, for example, by the Novikov self-consistency principle. Bradley Dowden himself revised the view above after being convinced of this in an exchange with the philosopher Norman Swartz.[4] Consideration of the possibility of backwards time travel in a hypothetical universe described by a Gdel metric led famed logician Kurt Gdel to assert that time might itself be a sort of illusion.[5] [6] He seems to have been suggesting something along the lines of the block time view in which time does not really "flow" but is just another dimension like space, with all events at all times being fixed within this 4-dimensional "block".

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References
[1] Barjavel, Ren (1943). Le voyageur imprudent ("The imprudent traveler").; actually, the book refers to an ancestor of the time traveler not his grandfather. [2] Horwich, Paul (1987). Asymmetries in Time. Cambridge, MIT Press. pp.116. When the term was coined by Paul Horwich, he used the term autofanticide. [3] Deutsch, David (1991). "Quantum mechanics near closed timelike curves". Physical Review D 44 (10): 31973217. Bibcode1991PhRvD..44.3197D. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.44.3197. [4] "Dowden-Swartz Exchange" (http:/ / www. sfu. ca/ philosophy/ swartz/ time_travel1. htm). . [5] Yourgrau, Palle (2004). A World Without Time: The Forgotten Legacy Of Godel And Einstein. Basic Books. ISBN0-465-09293-4. [6] Holt, Jim (2005-02-21). "Time Bandits" (http:/ / www. newyorker. com/ printables/ critics/ 050228crat_atlarge). The New Yorker. . Retrieved 2006-10-19.

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Perception of time
Mental chronometry
Mental chronometry is the use of response time in perceptual-motor tasks to infer the content, duration, and temporal sequencing of cognitive operations. Mental chronometry is one of the core paradigms of experimental and cognitive psychology, and has found application in various disciplines including cognitive psychophysiology/cognitive neuroscience and behavioral neuroscience to elucidate mechanisms underlying cognitive processing. Mental chronometry is studied using the measurements of reaction time (RT). Reaction time is the elapsed time between the presentation of a sensory stimulus and the subsequent behavioral response. In psychometric psychology it is considered to be an index of speed of processing.[1] That is, it indicates how fast the thinker can execute the mental operations needed by the task at hand. In turn, speed of processing is considered an index of processing efficiency. The behavioral response is typically a button press but can also be an eye movement, a vocal response, or some other observable behavior.

Types
Response time is the sum of reaction time plus movement time. Usually the focus in research is on reaction time. There are four basic means of measuring RT given different operational conditions during which a subject is to provide a desired response: Simple reaction time is the time required for an observer to respond to the presence of a stimulus. For example, a subject might be asked to press a button as soon as a light or sound appears. Mean RT for college-age individuals is about 160 milliseconds to detect an auditory stimulus, and approximately 190 milliseconds to detect visual stimulus.[2] The mean reaction times for sprinters at the Beijing Olympics were 166 ms for males and 189 ms for females, but in one out of 1,000 starts they can achieve 109 ms and 121 ms, respectively [3] Interestingly, that study concluded that longer female reaction times are an artifact of the measurement method used; a suitable lowering of the force threshold on the starting blocks for women would eliminate the sex difference. Recognition or Go/No-Go reaction time tasks require that the subject press a button when one stimulus type appears and withhold a response when another stimulus type appears. For example, the subject may have to press the button when a green light appears and not respond when a blue light appears. Choice reaction time (CRT) tasks require distinct responses for each possible class of stimulus. For example, the subject might be asked to press one button if a red light appears and a different button if a yellow light appears. The Jensen Box is an example of an instrument designed to measure choice reaction time. Discrimination reaction time involves comparing pairs of simultaneously presented visual displays and then pressing one of two buttons according to which display appears brighter, longer, heavier, or greater in magnitude on some dimension of interest. Due to momentary attentional lapses, there is a considerable amount of variability in an individual's response time, which does not tend to follow a normal (Gaussian) distribution. To control for this, researchers typically require a subject to perform multiple trials, from which a measure of the 'typical' response time can be calculated. Taking the mean of the raw response time is rarely an effective method of characterizing the typical response time, and alternative approaches (such as modeling the entire response time distribution) are often more appropriate.[4]

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The evolution of mental chronometry methodology

Ab Rayhn al-Brn
Psychologists have developed and refined mental chronometry for over the past 100 years. The Persian scientist Ab Rayhn al-Brn was the first person to describe the concept of reaction time: "Not only is every sensation attended this by a corresponding change localized in the sense-organ, which demands a certain time, but also, between the stimulation of the organ and consciousness of the perception an interval of time must elapse, corresponding to the transmission of stimulus for some distance along the nerves."[5]

Galton and differential psychology

Sir Francis Galton is typically credited as the founder of differential psychology, which seeks to determine and explain the mental differences between individuals. He was the first to use rigorous reaction time tests with the express intention of determining averages and ranges of individual differences in mental and behavioral traits in humans. Galton hypothesized that differences in intelligence would be reflected in variation of sensory discrimination and speed of response to stimuli, and he built various machines to test different measures of this, including reaction time to visual and auditory stimuli. His tests involved a selection of over 10,000 men, women and children from the London public.[1]

Donders' experiment
The first scientist to measure reaction time in the laboratory was Franciscus Donders (1869). Donders found that simple reaction time is shorter than recognition reaction time, and that choice reaction time is longer than both.[2] Donders also devised a subtraction method to analyze the time it took for mental operations to take place.[6] By subtracting simple reaction time from choice reaction time, for example, it is possible to calculate how much time is needed to make the connection. This method provides a way to Donders (1868s): method of subtraction. Picture from the Historical Introduction to Cognitive Psychology webpage. investigate the cognitive processes underlying simple perceptual-motor tasks, and formed the basis of subsequent developments.[6] Although Donders' work paved the way for future research in mental chronometry tests, it was not without its drawbacks. Donders' insertion method was based on the assumption that inserting a particular complicating requirement into an RT paradigm would not affect the other components of the test. This assumption - that the incremental effect on RT was strictly additive - was not able to hold up to later experimental tests, which showed that the insertions were able to interact with other portions of the RT paradigm. Despite this, Donders' theories are still of scientific interest and his ideas are still being used in certain areas of psychology, which now have the statistical tools to use them more accurately.[1]

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Hick's Law
W. E. Hick (1952) devised a CRT experiment which presented a series of nine tests in which there are n equally possible choices. The experiment measured the subject's reaction time based on number of possible choices during any given trial. Hick showed that the individual's reaction time increased by a constant amount as a function of available choices, or the "uncertainty" involved in which reaction stimulus would appear next. Uncertainty is measured in "bits", which are defined as the quantity of information that reduces uncertainty by half in information theory. In Hick's experiment, the reaction time is found to be a function of the binary logarithm of the number of available choices (n). This phenomenon is called "Hick's Law" and is said to be a measure of the "rate of gain of information." The law is usually expressed by the formula , where and are constants representing the intercept and slope of the function, and is the number of alternatives.[7] The Jensen Box is a more recent application of Hick's Law.[1] Hick's Law has some interesting modern applications in marketing, where restaurant menus and web interfaces (among other things) take advantage of its principles in striving to [8] achieve speed and ease of use for the consumer.

Sternbergs memory-scanning task

Sternberg (1966) devised an experiment wherein subjects were told to remember a set of unique digits in short-term memory. Subjects were then given a probe stimulus in the form of a digit from 0-9. The subject then answered as quickly as possible whether the probe was in the previous set of digits or not. The size of the initial set of digits was the independent variable and the reaction time of the subject was the dependent variable. The idea is that as the size of the set of digits increases the number of processes that need to be completed before a decision can be made increases as well. So if the subject has 4 items in short-term memory (STM), then after encoding the information obtained from the probe stimulus the subject will need to compare the probe to each of the 4 items in memory and then make a decision. If there were only 2 items in the initial set of digits then the number of processes would be reduced by 2. The data from this study found that for each additional item added to the set of digits that the subject had in STM about 38 milliseconds were added to the response time of the subject. This finding supported the idea that a subject did a serial exhaustive search through memory rather than a serial self-terminating search.[9] Sternberg (1969) developed a much-improved method for dividing reaction time into successive or serial stages, called the additive factor method.[10]

Shepard and Metzlers mental rotation task

Shepard and Metzler (1971) presented a pair of three-dimensional shapes that were identical or mirror-image versions of one another. Reaction time to determine whether they were identical or not was a linear function of the angular difference between their orientation, whether in the picture plane or in depth. They concluded that the observers performed a constant-rate mental rotation to align the two objects so they could be compared.[11] Cooper and Shepard (1973) presented a letter or digit that was either normal or mirror-reversed, and presented either upright or at angles of rotation in units of 60 degrees. The subject had to identify which type of stimulus it was: normal or mirror-reversed. Response time increased roughly linearly as the orientation of the letter deviated from upright (0 degrees) to inverted (180 degrees), and then decreases again until it reaches 360 degrees. The authors concluded that the subjects mentally rotate the image the shortest distance to upright, and then judge whether it is normal or mirror-reversed.[12]

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Sentence-picture verification
Mental chronometry has been a useful tool in identifying some of the processes associated with understanding a sentence. This type of research typically revolves around the differences in processing 4 types of sentences: true affirmative (TA), false affirmative (FA), false negative (FN), and true negative (TN). A picture can be presented with an associated sentence that falls into one of these 4 categories. The subject then decides if the sentence matches the picture or does not. The type of sentence determines how many processes need to be performed before a decision can be made. According to the data from Clark and Chase (1972) and Just and Carpenter (1971), the TA sentences are the simplest and take the least time, than FA, FN, and TN sentences.[13] [14]

Mental chronometry and models of memory

Hierarchical network models of memory were largely discarded due to some findings related to mental chronometry. The TLC model proposed by Collins and Quillian (1969) had a hierarchical structure indicating that recall speed in memory should be based on the number of levels in memory traversed in order to find the necessary information. But the experimental results did not agree with this model. For example, a subject will reliably answer that a robin is a bird more quickly than he will answer that an ostrich is a bird despite these questions accessing the same two levels in memory. This led to the development of spreading activation models of memory (e.g., Collins & Loftus, 1975), wherein links in memory are not organized hierarchically but by importance instead.[15] [16]

Posners letter matching studies

Posner (1978) used a series of letter-matching studies to measure the mental processing time of several tasks associated with recognition of a pair of letters. The simplest task was the physical match task, in which subjects were shown a pair of letters and had to identify whether the two letters were physically identical or not. The next task was the name match task where subjects had to identify whether two letters had the same name. The task involving the most cognitive processes was the rule match task in which subjects had to determine whether the two letters presented both were vowels or not vowels. The physical match task was the most simple because mentally subjects had to encode the letters, compare them to each other, and make a decision. When doing the name match task subjects were forced to add a cognitive step before making a decision. They had to search memory for the names of the letters, and then compare those before deciding. In the rule based task they had to also categorize the letters as either vowels or consonants before making their choice. The time taken to perform the rule match task was longer than the name match task which was longer than the physical match task. Using the subtraction method experimenters were able to determine the approximate amount of time that it took for subjects to perform each of the cognitive processes associated with each of these tasks.[17]

Mental chronometry and cognitive development

In recent years there has been extensive research using mental chronometry methods for the study of cognitive development. Specifically, various measures of speed of processing were used to examine changes in the speed of information processing as a function of age. Kail (1991) showed that speed of processing increases exponentially from early childhood to early adulthood.[18] Studies of reaction times in young children of various ages are consistent with common observations of children engaged in activities not typically associated with chronometry.[1] This includes speed of counting, reaching for things, repeating words, and other developing vocal and motor skills that develop quickly in growing children.[19] Once reaching early maturity, there is then a long period of stability until speed of processing begins declining from middle age to senility (Salthouse, 2000).[20] In fact, cognitive slowing is considered a good index of broader changes in the functioning of the brain and intelligence. Demetriou and colleagues, using various methods of measuring speed of processing, showed that it is closely associated with changes in working memory and thought (Demetriou, Mouyi, & Spanoudis, 2009). These relations are extensively

Mental chronometry discussed in the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development.[21] During senescence, RT deteriorates (as does fluid intelligence), and this deterioration is systematically associated with changes in many other cognitive processes, such as executive functions, working memory, and inferential processes.[21] In the theory of Andreas Demetriou,[22] one of the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development, change in speed of processing with age, as indicated by decreasing reaction time, is one of the pivotal factors of cognitive development.

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Mental chronometry and cognitive ability

Researchers have reported medium-sized correlations between reaction time and measures of intelligence: There is thus a tendency for individuals with higher IQ to be faster on reaction time tests. Research into this link between mental speed and general intelligence (perhaps first proposed by Charles Spearman) was re-popularised by Arthur Jensen, and the "Choice reaction Apparatus" associated with his name became a common standard tool in reaction time-IQ research. The strength of the RT-IQ association is a subject of research. Several studies have reported association between simple reaction time and intelligence of around (r=.31), with a tendency for larger associations between choice reaction time and intelligence (r=.49).[23] Much of the theoretical interest in reaction time was driven by Hick's Law, relating the slope of reaction time increases to the complexity of decision required (measured in units of uncertainty popularised by Claude Shannon as the basis of information theory). This promised to link intelligence directly to the resolution of information even in very basic information tasks. There is some support for a link between the slope of the reaction time curve and intelligence, as long as reaction time is tightly controlled.[24] Standard deviations of reaction times have been found to be more strongly correlated with measures of general intelligence (g) than mean reaction times. The reaction times of low-g individuals are more spread-out than those of high-g individuals.[25] The cause of the relationship is unclear. It may reflect more efficient information processing, better attentional control, or the integrity of neuronal processes.

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Application of mental chronometry in biological psychology/cognitive neuroscience

With the advent of functional neuroimaging techniques, notably PET and fMRI, psychologists started to modify their mental chronometry paradigms for functional imaging (Posner, 2005). Although psycho(physio)logists have been using electroencephalographic measurements for decades before the conception of PET and fMRI, the images obtained with PET have attracted great interest from other branches of neuroscience, increasingly popularizing mental chronometry among a more elaborate breed of scientists in recent years. The way that mental chronometry is utilized is by performing tasks based on reaction time which measures through neuroimaging the parts of the brain which are involved in the cognitive processes.[26] In the 1950s, the use of a micro electrode recording of single neurons in anaesthetized monkeys allowed research to look at physiological process in the brain and supported this idea that people encode information serially.

Regions of the Brain Involved in a Number Comparison Task Derived from EEG and fMRI Studies. The regions represented correspond to those showing effects of notation used for the numbers (pink and hatched), distance from the test number (orange), choice of hand (red), and errors (purple). Picture from the article: Timing the Brain: Mental Chronometry as a Tool in Neuroscience.

In the 1960s, these methods were used extensively in humans: researchers recorded the electrical potentials in human brain using scalp electrodes while a reaction tasks was being conducted using digital computers. What they found was that there was a connection between the observed electrical potentials with motor and sensory stages for information processing. For example, researchers found in the recorded scalp potentials that the frontal cortex was being activated in association with motor activity. These finding can be connected to Donders idea of the subtractive method of the sensory and motor stages involved in reaction tasks. In the 1970s and early 1980s, development of signal processing tool for EEG translated into a revival of research using this technique to assess the timing and the speed of mental processes. For example, high-profile research showed how reaction time on a given trial correlated with the latency of the P300 wave[27] or how the timecourse of the EEG reflected the sequence of cognitive processes involved in perceptual processing.[28] Then, with the invention of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), techniques were used to measure activity through electrical event-related potentials in a study when subjects were asked to identify if a digit that was presented was above or below five. According to Sternbergs additive theory, each of the stages involved in performing this task includes: encoding, comparing against the stored representation for five, selecting a response, and then checking for error in the response.[29] This fMRI image presents the specific locations where these stages are occurring in the brain while performing this simple mental chronometry task. In the 1980s, neuroimaging experiments allowed researchers to detect the activity in localized brain areas by injecting radionuclides and using positron emission tomography (PET) to detect them. Also, fMRI was used which have detected the precise brain areas that are active during mental chronometry tasks. Many studies have shown that

Mental chronometry there is a small number of brain areas which are widely spread out which are involved in performing these cognitive tasks.

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References
[1] Jensen, A. R. (2006). Clocking the mind: Mental chronometry and individual differences. Amsterdam: Elsevier. (ISBN 978-0-08-044939-5) [2] Kosinski, R. J. (2008). A literature review on reaction time, Clemson University. (http:/ / biae. clemson. edu/ bpc/ bp/ Lab/ 110/ reaction. htm#Type of Stimulus) [3] Lipps, D.B., Galecki, A.T. and Ashton-Miller, J.A. On the Implications of a Sex Difference in the Reaction Times of Sprinters at the Beijing Olympics. PLoS ONE 6(10): e26141. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0026141. http:/ / www. plosone. org/ article/ info%3Adoi%2F10. 1371%2Fjournal. pone. 0026141 [4] (http:/ / opensiuc. lib. siu. edu/ cgi/ viewcontent. cgi?article=1077& context=tpr) Whelan, R. (2008). Effective analysis of reaction time data. The Psychological Record, 58, 475-482. [5] Iqbal, Muhammad. "The Spirit of Muslim Culture" (http:/ / www. allamaiqbal. com/ works/ prose/ english/ reconstruction). The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam. ISBN8171510817. . Retrieved 2008-01-25 [6] Donders, F.C. (1869). On the speed of mental processes. In W. G. Koster (Ed.), Attention and Performance II. Acta Psychologica, 30, 412-431. (Original work published in 1868.) [7] Hick's Law at Encyclopedia.com (http:/ / www. encyclopedia. com/ doc/ 1O87-Hickslaw. html) Originally from Colman, A. (2001). A Dictionary of Psychology. Retrieved February 28, 2009. [8] W. Lidwell, K. Holden and J. Butler: Universal. Principles of Design. Rockport, Gloucester, MA, 2003. [9] Sternberg, S. (1966). "High speed scanning in human memory". Science 153 (3736): 652654. doi:10.1126/science.153.3736.652. PMID5939936. [10] Sternberg, S. (1969). "The discovery of processing stages: Extensions of Donders' method". Acta Psychologica 30: 276315. doi:10.1016/0001-6918(69)90055-9. [11] Shepard, R.N.; Metzler, J. (1971). "Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects". Science 171 (3972): 701703. doi:10.1126/science.171.3972.701. PMID5540314. [12] Cooper, L. A., & Shepard, R. N. (1973). Chronometric studies of the rotation of mental images. New York: Academic Press. [13] Clark, H. H.; Chase, W. G. (1972). "On the process of comparing sentences against pictures". Cognitive Psychology 3 (3): 472517. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(72)90019-9. [14] Just, M. A.; Carpenter, P. A. (1971). "Comprehension of negation with quantification". Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 10 (3): 244253. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(71)80051-8. [15] Collins, A. M.; Loftus, E. F. (1975). "A spreading activation theory of semantic processing". Psychological Review 82 (6): 407428. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.82.6.407. [16] Collins, A. M.; Quillian, M. R. (1969). "Retrieval time from semantic memory". Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 8 (2): 240247. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(69)80069-1. [17] Posner, M. I. (1978). Chronometric explorations of mind. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1978. [18] Kail, R. (1991). "Developmental functions for speed of processing during childhood and adolescence". Psychological Bulletin 109 (3): 490501. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.109.3.490. PMID2062981. [19] Case, Robbie (1985). Intellectual development: birth to adulthood. Boston: Academic Press. ISBN0-12-162880-9. [20] Salthouse, T. A. (2000). "Aging and measures of processing speed". Biological Psychology 54 (13): 3554. doi:10.1016/S0301-0511(00)00052-1. PMID11035219. [21] Demetriou, A.; Mouyi, A.; Spanoudis, G. (2008). "Modeling the structure and development of g". Intelligence 5 (5): 437454. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2007.10.002. [22] Demetriou, A., Mouyi, A., & Spanoudis, G. (2010). The development of mental processing. Nesselroade, J. R. (2010). Methods in the study of life-span human development: Issues and answers. In W. F. Overton (Ed.), Biology, cognition and methods across the life-span. Volume 1 of the Handbook of life-span development (pp. 36-55), Editor-in-chief: R. M. Lerner. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. [23] Deary, I. J.; Der, G.; Ford, G. (2001). "Reaction times and intelligence differences: A population-based cohort study" (http:/ / eprints. gla. ac. uk/ 2590/ ). Intelligence 29 (5): 389399. doi:10.1016/S0160-2896(01)00062-9. . [24] Bates, T. C.; Stough, C. (1998). "Improved Reaction Time Method, Information Processing Speed, and Intelligence". Intelligence 26 (1): 5362. doi:10.1016/S0160-2896(99)80052-X. [25] van Ravenzwaaij, Don; Brown, Scott; Wagenmakers, Eric-Jan (2011). "An integrated perspective on the relation between response speed and intelligence" (http:/ / www. donvanravenzwaaij. com/ Papers_files/ van Ravenzwaaij, Brown, & Wagenmakers, 2011. pdf). Cognition 119 (3): 38193. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.02.002. PMID21420077. . [26] Posner, Michael I. (2005). "Timing the Brain: Mental Chronometry as a Tool in Neuroscience". PLoS Biology 3 (2): e51. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030051. PMC548951. PMID15719059. [27] Kutas, M; McCarthy, G; Donchin, E (1977). "Augmenting mental chronometry: the P300 as a measure of stimulus evaluation time". Science 197 (4305): 792795. doi:10.1126/science.887923. PMID887923. [28] Renault, B; Ragot, R; Lesevre, N; Remond, A. (1982). "Onset and offset of brain events as indices of mental chronometry". Science 215 (4538): 14131415. doi:10.1126/science.7063853. PMID7063853.

Mental chronometry
[29] Sternberg, S. (1975). "Memory scanning: New findings and current controversies". Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 27: 132. doi:10.1080/14640747508400459.

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Further reading
Luce, R.D. (1986). Response Times: Their Role in Inferring Elementary Mental Organization. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-503642-5. Meyer, D.E.; Osman, A.M.; Irwin, D.E.; Yantis, S. (1988). "Modern mental chronometry". Biological Psychology 26 (13): 367. doi:10.1016/0301-0511(88)90013-0. PMID3061480. Townsend, J.T.; Ashby, F.G. (1984). Stochastic Modeling of Elementary Psychological Processes. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-27433-8. Weiss, V; Weiss, H (2003). "The golden mean as clock cycle of brain waves" (http://www.v-weiss.de/chaos. html). Chaos, Solitons and Fractals 18 (4): 643652. doi:10.1016/S0960-0779(03)00026-2.

External links
Reaction Time Test (http://www.humanbenchmark.com/tests/reactiontime/index.php) - Measuring Mental Chronometry on the Web Historical Introduction to Cognitive Psychology (http://www.mtsu.edu/~sschmidt/Cognitive/intro/intro. html) Timing the Brain: Mental Chronometry as a Tool in Neuroscience (http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/ ?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0030051) Sample Chronometric Test on the web (http://cognitivelabs.com/mydna_speedtestno.htm)

Time perception
Time perception is a field of study within psychology and neuroscience. It refers to the sense of time, which differs from other senses since time cannot be directly perceived but must be reconstructed by the brain. Humans can perceive relatively short periods of time, in the order of milliseconds, and also durations that are a significant fraction of a lifetime. Human perception of duration is subjective and variable.[1] [2] Some researchers attempt to categorise people by how they differ in their perception of time (see Personality characteristics).
A contemporary quartz watch

Pioneering work, emphasizing species-specific differences, was done by Karl Ernst von Baer. Experimental work began under the influence of the psycho-physical notions of Gustav Theodor Fechner with studies of the relationship between perceived and measured time. Work with animals conducted by Jakob von Uexkll included measurement of length of momentum in snails.

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Theories
William J. Friedman also contrasted two theories for a sense of time:[3] The strength model of time memory. This posits a memory trace that persists over time, by which one might judge the age of a memory (and therefore how long ago the event remembered occurred) from the strength of the trace. This conflicts with the fact that memories of recent events may fade more quickly than more distant memories. The inference model suggests the time of an event is inferred from information about relations between the event in question and other events whose date or time is known.

Short-term
Although the sense of time is not associated with a specific sensory system the work of psychologists and neuroscientists indicates that human brains do have a system governing the perception of time,[4] composed of a highly distributed system involving the cerebral cortex, cerebellum and basal ganglia. One particular component, the suprachiasmatic nucleus, is responsible for the circadian (or daily) rhythm, while other cell clusters appear to be capable of shorter-range (ultradian) timekeeping. Experiments have shown that rats can successfully estimate intervals of time around 40 seconds despite having their cortex entirely removed, which suggests it is a low level (subcortical) process.[5] [6]

Specious present
The specious present is the time duration wherein a state of consciousness is experienced as being in the present.[7] The term was first introduced by the philosopher E. R. Clay.[8] [9] and developed by William James.[9] A version of the concept was used by Edmund Husserl in his works and discussed further by Francisco Varela based on the writings of Husserl, Heidegger, and Merleau-Ponty.[10] The experienced present is an interval; it's not a momentary instant except 'speciously'. The concept was further developed by William James.[9] James defined the specious present to be "the prototype of all conceived times... the short duration of which we are immediately and incessantly sensible". C. D. Broad in "Scientific Thought" (1930) further elaborated on the concept of the specious present, and considered that the Specious Present may be considered as the temporal equivalent of a sensory datum.

Long-term
Psychologists assert that time seems to go faster with age, but the literature on this age-related perception of time remains controversial.[11] One day to an eleven-year-old would be approximately 1/4,000 of their life, while one day to a 55-year-old would be approximately 1/20,000 of their life. This is perhaps why a day would appear much longer to a young child than to an adult.[12] In an experiment comparing a group of subjects aged between 19 and 24 and a group between 60 and 80 asked to estimate when they thought 3 minutes had passed, it was found that the younger group's estimate was on average 3 minutes and 3 seconds, while the older group averaged 3 minutes and 40 seconds,[13] indicating a change in the perception of time with age. People tend to recall recent events as occurring further back in time (backward telescoping) and distant events occurring more recently (forward telescoping).[14] It has been proposed that the subjective experience of time changes with age due to changes in the individual's biological makeup.[15]

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Illusions of time
A temporal illusion is a distortion in sensory perception caused when the time between the occurrence of two or more events is very short (typically less than a second). In such cases a person may misperceive the temporal order of the events. The kappa effect is a form of temporal illusion verifiable by experiment[16] whereby time intervals between visual events are perceived as relatively longer or shorter depending on the relative spatial positions of the events. In other words: the perception of temporal intervals appears to be directly affected, in these cases, by the perception of spatial intervals. The Kappa effect can be displayed when considering a journey made in two parts that take an equal amount of time. Between these two parts, the journey that covers more distance will appear to take longer than the journey covering less distance, even though they take an equal amount of time.

Psychoactive substances
Psychoactive drugs can alter the judgement of time. Some such as entheogens may also dramatically alter a person's temporal judgement. Substances such as LSD, psilocybin, and mescaline may affect our time perception. At higher doses time may appear to slow down, stop, speed up, go backwards or even seem out of sequence. In 1955, British MP Christopher Mayhew took mescaline hydrochloride in an experiment under the guidance of his friend, Dr Humphry Osmond. On the BBC documentary The Beyond Within, he described that half a dozen times during the experiment, he had "a period of time that didn't end for me". Stimulants can lead both humans and rats to overestimate time intervals,[17] [18] while depressants can have the opposite effect.[19] The level of activity in the brain of neurotransmitters such as dopamine and norepinephrine may be the reason for this.[20]

Altered states
Hypnosis can affect the perception of time.[21]

Clinical disorders
The sense of time is altered in some people with neurological diseases such as Parkinson's disease and attention deficit disorder. Along with other perceptual abnormalities, it has been noted by psychologists that schizophrenia patients also have an altered sense of time. This was first described in psychology by Minkowski in 1927.[22] Many schizophrenic patients stop perceiving time as a flow of causally linked events, but perceive events as discrete. It has also been suggested that there is a delay in time perception in schizophrenic patients compared to a normal subject. These possible defects in time perception may play a part in hallucinations and delusions according to some studies. According to an article titled, Altered Subjective Time of Events in Schizophrenia, in the Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease in 2005 (Volume 193(5), May 2005), researchers suggest that "a possible explanation is that abnormal timing judgment leads to a deficit in action attribution and action perception."[23]

Personality characteristics
Some researchers aim to explain the differences between people in the way they relate to the time they have to perform different tasks. They claim that time perception is influenced by both internal-personal characteristics and by external-environmental factors. Some theorists suggest that time perception is categorized by two axes: "time perspective" and "time urgency" and these ideas have been used in occupational psychology settings.[24] These axes typically create four personalities that differ in their personal characteristics and the way they deal with tasks. Time perspective can be affected by genetics, culture, religion, arise from education, family, past employment, and so on. As it is well known, the timeline axis moves between past, present and future, which is also the way the time perspective axis is organised. People with a present perspective of time have a tendency to believe that the actions

Time perception in the present do not significantly affect the future. That is, these people do not think that an action taken place in the present will increase the probability of a future outcome. People with this perspective tend to use the term "why do today what can be done tomorrow?" Individuals with personality characteristics of present time perspective tend to think that it is unnecessary to make future plans. These individuals also tend to take risks and act impulsively. People with future perspective tend to believe that an action taken place in the present increases the probability of a future outcome. These people are very goal-oriented, with high capacity to infer future results, usually prepare task lists, use a calendar, and tend to wear a watch. When a team is assembled from the majority of future time perspective people, the team tends to be more "flexible" and tends to make more changes in strategic thinking than teams with more present time perception individuals.[25] Such an individual will delay his or her performances to the very last moment, which can at times lead to inability to meet deadlines. When such a person belongs to a work team, he/she makes the team less focused strategically, being late in submitting tasks and acting impulsively. Time urgency relates to the need for quick response or action, to achieve a particular goal (or non existence of this feeling). It can be described as an axis ranging from high to low.[24] The two dimensions described above, produce four types of personalities, that can be described as follows: Organizers have high time urgency and future time perspective and are characterized by high awareness of time, scheduling tasks and activities and high achievement striving.[24] Crammers have high time urgency and present time perspective and are characterized by high awareness of time, needing to exert control over deadlines, competitiveness, high achievement striving and impatience.[24] Relators have low time urgency and present time perspective and are characterized by attending little to deadlines or passage of time, taking risks, acting impulsively, focusing on present tasks and focusing on relations with others.[24] Visioners have low time urgency and future time perspective and are characterized by attending little to deadlines or passage of time, taking risks, acting impulsively and focusing on future goals.[24]

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References
[1] G Underwood, RA Swain (1973). "Selectivity of attention and the perception of duration". Perception 2 (1): 101. doi:10.1068/p020101. PMID4777562. [2] SW Brown, DA Stubbs (1992). "Attention and interference in prospective and retrospective timing". Perception 21 (4): 54557. doi:10.1068/p210545. PMID1437469. [3] "The Experience and Perception of Time" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ time-experience). . Retrieved 2009-10-22. [4] "Brain Areas Critical To Human Time Sense Identified" (http:/ / www. unisci. com/ stories/ 20011/ 0227013. htm). UniSci - Daily University Science News. 2001-02-27. . [5] Mackintosh, N. J.. Animal Learning and Cognition. ISBN9780121619534. [6] Jaldow, Eli J.; Oakley, David A.; Davey, Graham C. L. (1989). "Performance of Decorticated Rats on Fixed Interval and Fixed Time Schedules" (http:/ / www3. interscience. wiley. com/ journal/ 119443633/ abstract). European Journal of Neuroscience (European Journal of Neuroscience) 1 (5): 461. doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.1989.tb00352.x. PMID12106131. . [7] James, W. (1893). The principles of psychology (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=JLcAAAAAMAAJ). New York: H. Holt and Company. Page 609. [8] Anonymous (E. Robert Kelly), The Alternative: A Study in Psychology. London: Macmillan and Co., 1882. [9] Andersen, Holly; Rick Grush (pending) (PDF). A brief history of time-consciousness: historical precursors to James and Husserl (http:/ / mind. ucsd. edu/ papers/ bhtc/ Andersen& Grush. pdf). Journal of the History of Philosophy. . Retrieved 2008-02-02. [10] "The Specious Present: A Neurophenomenology of Time Consciousness." In Petitot, Varela, Pacoud & Roy (eds.), Naturalizing Phenomenology. Stanford University Press. [11] Gruber, Ronald P.; Wagner, Lawrence F.; Block, Richard A. (2000). "Subjective Time Versus Proper (Clock) Time" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LMsDqsvcxckC). In Buccheri, R.; Di Ges, V.; Saniga, Metod. Studies on the structure of time: from physics to psycho(patho)logy. Springer. p.54. ISBN0-306-46439-X. ., Extract of page 54 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LMsDqsvcxckC& pg=PA54) [12] Robert, Adler. "Look how time flies . . ." (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ mg16422180. 900-look-how-time-flies). . Retrieved 2009-10-22. [13] New Scientist magazine: Why time flies in old age (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ mg15220571. 700-why-time-flies-in-old-age. html)

Time perception
[14] It Seems Like Only Yesterday: The Nature and Consequences of Telescoping Errors in Marketing Research (http:/ / www. questia. com/ googleScholar. qst;jsessionid=KgPbgnYGLQyyHQtdPQbVMGHm5wp3tr94mQLkBF4hTvYJ09dlJx5N!-1941634607!-2081211395?docId=77055094). Journal of Consumer Psychology. . [15] Svetlana V. Ukraintseva (2001). "Aging and the subjective sense of time" (http:/ / upload. wikimedia. org/ wikipedia/ commons/ f/ f1/ SVUAging. pdf). Current Concepts in Experimental Gerontology. . [16] Wada Y, Masuda T, Noguchi K, 2005, "Temporal illusion called 'kappa effect' in event perception" Perception 34 ECVP Abstract Supplement [17] Wittmann, M.; Leland DS, Churan J, Paulus MP. (8 October 2007). "Impaired time perception and motor timing in stimulant-dependent subjects". Drug Alcohol Depend. 90 (23): 18392. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.03.005. PMC1997301. PMID17434690. [18] Cheng, Ruey-Kuang; Macdonald, Christopher J.; Meck, Warren H. (2006). "Differential effects of cocaine and ketamine on time estimation : Implications for neurobiological models of interval timing" (http:/ / cat. inist. fr/ ?aModele=afficheN& cpsidt=18303059). Pharmacology, biochemistry and behavior 85 (1): 114122. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2006.07.019. PMID16920182. . [19] Tinklenberg, Jared R.; Walton T. Roth1; Bert S. Kopell (January 1976). "Marijuana and ethanol: Differential effects on time perception, heart rate, and subjective response" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ q1227453r481x439/ ). Psychopharmacology 49 (3): 275279. doi:10.1007/BF00426830. PMID826945. . [20] Arzy, Shahar; Istvan Molnar-Szakacs; Olaf Blanke (2008-06-18). "Self in Time: Imagined Self-Location Influences Neural Activity Related to Mental Time Travel" (http:/ / www. jneurosci. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 28/ 25/ 6502). The Journal of Neuroscience 28 (25): 65026507. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5712-07.2008. PMID18562621. . Retrieved 2008-08-25. [21] Bowers, Kenneth; Brenneman, HA (January 1979). "Hypnosis and the perception of time" (http:/ / www. informaworld. com/ smpp/ content~content=a790232921~db=all). International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis (International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis) 27 (1): 2941. doi:10.1080/00207147908407540. PMID541126. . [22] Franck, Nicolas; Posada, Andrs; Pichon, Swann; Haggard, Patrick (2005). "Altered Subjective Time of Events in Schizophrenia". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Inc.) 193 (5): 350353. [23] Franck, Nicolas; Posada, Andrs; Pichon, Swann; Haggard, Patrick (2005). "Altered Subjective Time of Events in Schizophrenia". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Inc.) 193 (5): 350353. [24] M. J. Waller; J. M. Conte, C. B. Gibson, M. A. Carpenter (2001) (PDF). The effects of individual perceptions of deadlines on team performance (http:/ / web. gsm. uci. edu/ ~cgibson/ Publication files/ Articles/ The Effect of Individual Perceptions. pdf). Academy of Management Review. . Retrieved 2011-10-13. [25] Zimbardo, P.G., & Boyd, J.N., 1999. Putting time in perspective: A valid, reliable, individual-differences metric. Journal of personality and Social Psychology, 77: 1271-1288.

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Sources and further reading

Andersen, Holly, and Rick Grush, " A brief history of time-consciousness: historical precursors to James and Husserl (http://mind.ucsd.edu/papers/bhtc/Andersen&Grush.pdf)", To appear in the Journal of the History of Philosophy. Le Poidevin, Robin, " The Experience and Perception of Time (http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2004/ entries/time-experience/)", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2004 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.) Hodder, A. (1901). The adversaries of the sceptic; or, The specious present, a new inquiry into human knowledge. Chapter II, The Specious Present (http://books.google.com/books?id=uZ5RAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA36& source=gbs_toc_r&cad=0_0). London: S. Sonnenschein &. Pages 36 56.

External links
Time perception research at the University of Manchester (http://www.manchestertiming.co.uk) "A Cognitive Model of Retrospective Duration Estimations", Hee-Kyung Ahn, et al., March 7, 2006. (http:// www.rotman.utoronto.ca/bicpapers/pdf/memoryfortime.pdf) "Time, Force, Motion, and the Semantics of Natural Languages", Wolfgang Wildgen, Antwerp Papers in Linguistics, 2003/2004. (http://www.fb10.uni-bremen.de/homepages/wildgen/pdf/antwerpen_time.pdf) Can Time Slow Down? (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RjlpamhrId8&feature=related) "Interactions emerge between biological clocks", The Pharmaceutical Journal, Vol 275 No 7376 p644, 19 November 2005 (http://www.pjonline.com/Editorial/20051119/comment/onlooker.html) Registration

Time perception required. Eagleman, David M.; Peter U. Tse, Dean Buonomano, Peter Janssen, Anna Christina Nobre, Alex O. Holcombe (November 9, 2005). "Time and the Brain: How Subjective Time Relates to Neural Time" (http://www. jneurosci.org/cgi/content/full/25/45/10369?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=1& title=time+ratio&andorexacttitle=or&andorexacttitleabs=and&andorexactfulltext=and&searchid=1& FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevance&resourcetype=HWCIT). The Journal of Neuroscience 25 (45): 1036910371. Retrieved October 2, 2011. Slanger, Tom G. (1998). "Evidence for a Short-Period Internal Clock in Humans" (http://www. scientificexploration.org/journal/jse_02_2_slanger.pdf). Journal of Scientific Exploration 2 (2): 203216. Retrieved October 2, 2011. LePoidevin, Robin (2007). The images of time: an essay on temporal representation (http://books.google.ca/ books?id=l0qrewXYnOYC&lpg=PA115&ots=BZgbSjmIbn&dq). Oxford University Press. ISBN0199265895. Time experience (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/time-experience/)

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Use of time
Time management
Time management is the act or process of planning and exercising conscious control over the amount of time spent on specific activities, especially to increase efficiency or productivity. Time management may be aided by a range of skills, tools, and techniques used to manage time when accomplishing specific tasks, projects and goals complying with a due date. This set encompasses a wide scope of activities, and these include planning, allocating, setting goals, delegation, analysis of time spent, monitoring, organizing, scheduling, and prioritizing. Initially, time management referred to just business or work activities, but eventually the term broadened to include personal activities as well. A time management system is a designed combination of processes, tools, techniques, and methods. Usually time management is a necessity in any project development as it determines the project completion time and scope.

Categorization
Stephen R. Covey has offered a categorization scheme for the hundreds of time management approaches that they reviewed: First generation: reminders based on clocks and watches, but with computer implementation possible; can be used to alert a person when a task is to be done. Second generation: planning and preparation based on calendar and appointment books; includes setting goals. Third generation: planning, prioritizing, controlling (using a personal organizer, other paper-based objects, or computer or PDA-based systems) activities on a daily basis. This approach implies spending some time in clarifying values and priorities. Fourth generation: being efficient and proactive using any of the above tools; places goals and roles as the controlling element of the system and favors importance over urgency.[1] [2] Time management literature can be paraphrased as follows: "Get Organized" - paperwork and task triage "Protect Your Time" - insulate, isolate, delegate "Set gravitational goals" - that attract actions automatically "Achieve through Goal management Goal Focus" - motivational emphasis "Work in Priority Order" - set goals and prioritize "Use Magical Tools to Get More Out of Your Time" - depends on when written "Master the Skills of Time Management" "Go with the Flow" - natural rhythms, Eastern philosophy "Recover from Bad Time Habits" - recovery from underlying psychological problems, e.g. procrastination

More unconventional time usage techniques, such as those discussed in "Where Did Time Fly,"[3] include concepts that can be paraphrased as "Less is More," which de-emphasizes the importance of squeezing every minute of your time, as suggested in traditional time management schemes. In recent years, several authors have discussed time management as applied to the issue of digital information overload, in particular, Tim Ferriss with "The 4 hour workweek",[4] and Stefania Lucchetti with "The Principle of Relevance"[5]

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Time management and related concepts

Time management has been considered as subsets of different concepts such as: Project management. Time Management can be considered as a project management subset and is more commonly known as project planning and project scheduling. Time Management has also been identified as one of the core functions identified in project management.[6] Attention management: Attention Management relates to the management of cognitive resources, and in particular the time that humans allocate their mind (and organizations the minds of their employees) to conduct some activities. Personal knowledge management: see below (Personal time management).

Conceptual effect on labor

Professor Stephen Smith, of BYUI, is among recent sociologists that have shown that the way workers view time is connected to social issues such as the institution of family, gender roles, and the amount of labor by the individual.[7]

Personal Time Management

Time management strategies are often associated with the recommendation to set personal goals. These goals are recorded and may be broken down into a project, an action plan, or a simple task list. For individual tasks or for goals, an importance rating may be established, deadlines may be set, and priorities assigned. This process results in a plan with a task list or a schedule or calendar of activities. Authors may recommend a daily, weekly, monthly or other planning periods associated with different scope of planning or review. This is done in various ways, as follows. Time management also covers how to eliminate tasks that don't provide the individual or organization value.

Task list
A task list (also to-do list or things-to-do) is a list of tasks to be completed, such as chores or steps toward completing a project. It is an inventory tool which serves as an alternative or supplement to memory. Task lists are used in self-management, grocery lists, business management, project management, and software development. It may involve more than one list. When one of the items on a task list is accomplished, the task is checked or crossed off. The traditional method is to write these on a piece of paper with a pen or pencil, usually on a note pad or clip-board. Writer Julie Morgenstern suggests "do's and don'ts" of time management that include: Map out everything that is important, by making a task list Create "an oasis of time" for one to control Say "No" Set priorities Don't drop everything Don't think a critical task will get done in one's spare time.[8]

Numerous digital equivalents are now available, including PIM (Personal information management) applications and most PDAs. There are also several web-based task list applications, many of which are free.[9]

Time management Task list organization Task lists are often tiered. The simplest tiered system includes a general to-do list (or task-holding file) to record all the tasks the person needs to accomplish, and a daily to-do list which is created each day by transferring tasks from the general to-do list.[8] Task lists are often prioritized: An early advocate of "ABC" prioritization was Alan Lakein. In his system "A" items were the most important ("A-1" the most important within that group), "B" next most important, "C" least important.[10] A particular method of applying the ABC method[11] assigns "A" to tasks to be done within a day, "B" a week, and "C" a month. To prioritize a daily task list, one either records the tasks in the order of highest priority, or assigns them a number after they are listed ("1" for highest priority, "2" for second highest priority, etc.) which indicates in which order to execute the tasks. The latter method is generally faster, allowing the tasks to be recorded more quickly.[8] Another way of prioritizing compulsory tasks (group A) is to put the most unpleasant one first. When its done, the rest of the list feels easier. Groups B and C can benefit from the same idea, but instead of doing the first task (which is the most unpleasant) right away, it gives motivation to do other tasks from the list to avoid the first one.[12] A completely different approach which argues against prioritising altogether was put forward by British author Mark Forster in his book "Do It Tomorrow and Other Secrets of Time Management". This is based on the idea of operating "closed" to-do lists, instead of the traditional "open" to-do list. He argues that the traditional never-ending to-do lists virtually guarantees that some of your work will be left undone. This approach advocates getting all your work done, every day, and if you are unable to achieve it helps you diagnose where you are going wrong and what needs to change.[13]

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Software applications
Modern task list applications may have built-in task hierarchy (tasks are composed of subtasks which again may contain subtasks),[14] may support multiple methods of filtering and ordering the list of tasks, and may allow one to associate arbitrarily long notes for each task. In contrast to the concept of allowing the person to use multiple filtering methods, at least one new software product additionally contains a mode where the software will attempt to dynamically determine the best tasks for any given moment.[15] Many of the software products for time management support multiple users. It allows the person to give tasks to other users and use the software for communication[16] In law firms, law practice management software may also assist in time management. Task list applications may be thought of as lightweight personal information manager or project management software.

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Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder / Attention Deficit Disorder

Excessive and chronic inability to manage time effectively may be a result of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) or Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD). Diagnostic criteria include: A sense of underachievement, difficulty getting organized, trouble getting started, many projects going simultaneously and trouble with follow-through.[17] Prefrontal cortex: The prefrontal cortex is the most recently evolved part of the brain. It controls the functions of attention span, impulse control, organization, learning from experience and self-monitoring, among others. Some authors argue that changing the way the prefrontal cortex works is possible and offers a solution.[18] Caveats Dwelling on the lists According to Sandberg,[19] task lists "aren't the key to productivity [that] they're cracked up to be". He reports an estimated "30% of listers spend more time managing their lists than [they do] completing what's on them". This could be caused by procrastination by prolonging the planning activity. This is akin to analysis paralysis. As with any activity, there's a point of diminishing returns. Rigid adherence Hendrickson asserts[20] that rigid adherence to task lists can create a "tyranny of the to-do list" that forces one to "waste time on unimportant activities". Again, the point of diminishing returns applies here too, but toward the size of the task. Some level of detail must be taken for granted for a task system to work. Rather than put "clean the kitchen", "clean the bedroom", and "clean the bathroom", it is more efficient to put "housekeeping" and save time spent writing and reduce the system's administrative load (each task entered into the system generates a cost in time and effort to manage it, aside from the execution of the task). The risk of consolidating tasks, however, is that "housekeeping" in this example may prove overwhelming or nebulously defined, which will either increase the risk of procrastination, or a mismanaged project. Listing routine tasks wastes time. If you are in the habit of brushing your teeth every day, then there is no reason to put it down on the task list. The same goes for getting out of bed, fixing meals, etc. If you need to track routine tasks, then a standard list or chart may be useful, to avoid the procedure of manually listing these items over and over. To remain flexible, a task system must allow for disaster. A company must be ready for a disaster. Even if it is a small disaster, if no one made time for this situation, it can metastasize, potentially causing damage to the company .[21] To avoid getting stuck in a wasteful pattern, the task system should also include regular (monthly, semi-annual, and annual) planning and system-evaluation sessions, to weed out inefficiencies and ensure the user is headed in the direction he or she truly desires.[22] If some time is not regularly spent on achieving long-range goals, the individual may get stuck in a perpetual holding pattern on short-term plans, like staying at a particular job much longer than originally planned.

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Techniques for setting priorities

There are several ways to set priorities.

ABC analysis
A technique that has been used in business management for a long time is the categorization of large data into groups. These groups are often marked A, B, and Chence the name. Activities are ranked upon these general criteria: A Tasks that are perceived as being urgent and important, B Tasks that are important but not urgent, C Tasks that are neither urgent nor important. Each group is then rank-ordered in priority. To further refine priority, some individuals choose to then force-rank all "B" items as either "A" or "C". ABC analysis can incorporate more than three groups.[10] ABC analysis is frequently combined with Pareto analysis.

Pareto analysis
This is the idea that 80% of tasks can be completed in 20% of the disposable time. The remaining 20% of tasks will take up 80% of the time. This principle is used to sort tasks into two parts. According to this form of Pareto analysis it is recommended that tasks that fall into the first category be assigned a higher priority. The 80-20-rule can also be applied to increase productivity: it is assumed that 80% of the productivity can be achieved by doing 20% of the tasks. Similarly, 80% of results can be attributed to 20% of activity.[23] If productivity is the aim of time management, then these tasks should be prioritized higher. It depends on the method adopted to complete the task. There is always a simpler and easy way to complete the task. If one uses a complex way, it will be time consuming. So, one should always try to find out the alternate ways to complete each task.

The Eisenhower Method

All tasks are evaluated using the criteria important/unimportant and urgent/not urgent and put in according quadrants. Tasks in unimportant/not urgent are dropped, tasks in important/urgent are done immediately and personally, tasks in unimportant/urgent are delegated and tasks in important/not urgent get an end date and are done personally. This method is said to have been used by U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, and is outlined in a quote attributed to him: What is important is seldom urgent and what is urgent is seldom important.

POSEC method
POSEC is an acronym for Prioritize by Organizing, Streamlining, Economizing and Contributing.
A basic "Eisenhower box" to help evaluate urgency and importance. Items may be placed at more precise points within each quadrant.

The method dictates a template which emphasizes an average individual's immediate sense of emotional and monetary security. It suggests that by attending to one's personal responsibilities first, an individual is better positioned to shoulder collective responsibilities. Inherent in the acronym is a hierarchy of self-realization which mirrors Abraham Maslow's "Hierarchy of needs".

Time management 1. 2. 3. 4. Prioritize - Your time and define your life by goals. Organizing - Things you have to accomplish regularly to be successful. (Family and Finances) Streamlining - Things you may not like to do, but must do. (Work and Chores) Economizing - Things you should do or may even like to do, but they're not pressingly urgent. (Pastimes and Socializing) 5. Contributing - By paying attention to the few remaining things that make a difference. (Social Obligations).

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References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Covey, Stephen (1990). The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People. Fireside. ISBN0743272455. *Covey, Stephen (1994). First Things First. ISBN0684802031. Where Did Time Fly, John Swift, CreateSpace, 2010 http:/ / wheredidtimefly. com The 4-Hour Workweek, Timothy Ferris, Crown Publishing Group 2007 The Principle of Relevance, Stefania Lucchetti, RT Publishing, Hong Kong 2010 http:/ / www. stefanialucchetti. com Project Management Institute (2004). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide) (http:/ / www. pmi. org/ Marketplace/ Pages/ ProductDetail. aspx?GMProduct=00100035801). ISBN193069945X. [7] Buck, M. L., Lee, M. D., MacDermid, S., & Smith S. C. (2000). Reduced load work and the experience of time among professionals and managers: Implications for personal and organizational life. In C. Cooper & D. Rousseau (Eds.), Trends in Organizational Behavior (Vol. 7). New York: John Wiley & Sons. [8] Morgenstern, Julie (2004). Time Management from the Inside Out: The Foolproof System for Taking Control of Your Scheduleand Your Life (2nd ed.). New York: Henry Holt/Owl Books. pp.285. ISBN0805075909. [9] "TodoBrew" (http:/ / www. todobrew. com). . Retrieved May 3, 2011. Todobrew.com, free online to-do list web application [10] Lakein, Alan (1973). How to Get Control of Your Time and Your Life.. New York: P.H. Wyden. ISBN0451134303. [11] "Time Scheduling and Time Management for dyslexic students" (http:/ / www. dyslexia-college. com/ schedule. html). Dyslexia at College. . Retrieved October 31, 2005. ABC lists and tips for dyslexic students on how to manage to-do lists [12] http:/ / myhappierlife. com/ 2011/ 08/ 02/ how-to-end-procrastination/ [13] Forster, Mark (2006-07-20). Do It Tomorrow and Other Secrets of Time Management. Hodder & Stoughton Religious. pp.224. ISBN0340909129. [14] "ToDoList 5.9.2 - A simple but effective way to keep on top of your tasks - The Code Project - Free Tools" (http:/ / www. codeproject. com/ tools/ ToDoList2. asp). ToDoList 5.9.2. . Retrieved October 3, 2009. Features, code, and description for ToDoList 5.3.9, a project based time management application [15] "Time Management Software - Email Management Software - Trog Bar" (http:/ / www. priacta. com/ trog/ Software_Features. shtml). Features of the Trog Bar. . Retrieved October 3, 2007. Description of features in the Trog Bar including "TaskSense," the feature which automatically prioritizes tasks. [16] "doTask! - unique instant messenger for business" (http:/ / dotask. megaterrain. com/ ). doTask!. . Retrieved October 1, 2008.. [17] Driven to Distraction, Edward Hallowell, M.D. [18] Change Your Brain Change Your Life: The Breakthrough Program for Conquering Anxiety, Depression, Obsessiveness, Anger, and Impulsiveness 1998 [19] Sandberg, Jared (2004-09-10). "Though Time-Consuming, To-Do Lists Are a Way of Life" (http:/ / www. careerjournal. com/ columnists/ cubicleculture/ 20040910-cubicle. html). The Wall Street Journal. . a report on to-do lists and the people who make them and use them [20] Elisabeth Hendrickson. "The Tyranny of the "To Do" List" (http:/ / www. stickyminds. com/ sitewide. asp?ObjectId=6656& Function=DETAILBROWSE& ObjectType=COL). Sticky Minds. . Retrieved October 31, 2005. an anecdotal discussion of how to-do lists can be tyrannical [21] Horton, Thomas. New York The CEO Paradox (1992) [22] "Tyranny of the Urgent" essay by Charles Hummel 1967 [23] "14-Day Action Challenge" (http:/ / davidguest. com. au/ 14-day-action-challenge/ ). 14-Day Action Challenge. . Retrieved April 25, 2011..

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Further reading
Allen, David (2001). Getting things done: the Art of Stress-Free Productivity. New York: Viking. ISBN9780670889068. Fiore, Neil A (2006). The Now Habit: A Strategic Program for Overcoming Procrastination and Enjoying GuiltFree Play. New York: Penguin Group. ISBN9781585425525. Le Blanc, Raymond (2008). Achieving Objectives Made Easy! Practical goal setting tools & proven time management techniques.. Maarheeze: Cranendonck Coaching. ISBN9079397032. Secunda, Al (1999). The 15 second principle : short, simple steps to achieving long-term goals. New York: New York : Berkley Books. pp.157. ISBN0425165051.

External links
2007 "Time Management" lecture by Randy Pausch ( Full Video (http://www.cs.virginia.edu/robins/ Randy_Time_Management_UVa_2007.html) | hi-res downloadable version (http://www.cs.virginia.edu/ ~robins/Randy/) | Lecture slides (http://www.cs.virginia.edu/~robins/ Randy_Time_Management_UVa_2007_slides.html))

Time discipline
In sociology and anthropology, time discipline is the general name given to social and economic rules, conventions, customs, and expectations governing the measurement of time, the social currency and awareness of time measurements, and people's expectations concerning the observance of these customs by others. The concept of "time discipline" as a field of special attention in sociology and anthropology was pioneered by E. P. Thompson in Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism, published in 1967. Coming from a Marxist viewpoint, Thompson argued that observance of clock-time is a consequence of the European industrial revolution, and that neither industrial capitalism nor the creation of the modern state would have been possible without the imposition of synchronic forms of time and work discipline. The new clock time imposed by government and capitalist interests replaced earlier, collective perceptions of time that Thompson believed flowed from the collective wisdom of human societies. While in fact it appears likely that earlier views of time were imposed instead by religious and other social authorities prior to the industrial revolution, Thompson's work identified time discipline as an important concept for study within the social sciences.

Time discipline and the natural world

In societies based around agriculture, hunting, and other pursuits that involve human interaction with the natural world, time discipline is a matter governed by astronomical and biological factors. Specific times of day or seasons of the year are defined by reference to these factors, and measured, to the extent that they need measuring, by observation. Different peoples' needs with respect to these things mean sharply differing cultural perceptions of time. For example, it surprises many non-Muslims that the Islamic calendar is entirely lunar and makes no reference at all to the seasons; the desert-dwelling Arabs who devised it were nomads rather than agriculturalists, and a calendar that made no reference to the seasons was no inconvenience for most of them.

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Time discipline in Western societies

In more urban societies, some of these natural phenomena were no longer at hand, and most were of much less consequence to the inhabitants. Artificial means of dividing and measuring time were needed. Plautus complained of the social effect of the invention of such divisions in his lines complaining of the sundial: The gods confound the man who first found out How to distinguish hours! Confound him, too, Who in this place set up a sun-dial, To cut and hack my days so wretchedly Into small portions. When I was a boy My belly was my sun-dial; one more sure, Truer, and more exact than any of them. This dial told me when 'twas proper time To go to dinner, when I had aught to eat. But now-a-days, why, even when I have, I can't fall-to, unless the sun give leave. The town's so full of these confounded dials, The greatest part of its inhabitants, Shrunk up with hunger, creep along the streets.

The alarm clock is for many people a reminder of the intrusion of socio-economic time discipline into their sleep cycle.

Plautus's protagonist here complains about the social discipline and expectations that arose when these measurements of time were introduced. The invention of artificial units of time measurement made the introduction of time management possible, and time management was not universally appreciated by those whose time was managed.

Religious influences on Western time discipline

In western Europe, the practice of Christian monasticism introduced new factors into the time discipline observed by members of religious communities. The rule of Saint Benedict introduced canonical hours; these were religious observances that were held on a daily basis, and based on factors again mostly unrelated to natural phenomena. It is no surprise, then, that religious communities were likely the inventors, and certainly the major consumers, of early clocks. The invention of the mechanical clock in western Europe, and its subsequent technical developments, enabled a public time discipline even less related to natural phenomena. (Highly sophisticated clepsydras existed in China, where they were used by astrologers connected with the imperial court; these water clocks were quite large, and their use limited to those who were professionally interested in precise timekeeping.)

The invention of the clock

The English word clock comes from an Old French word for "bell," for the striking feature of early clocks was a greater concern than their dials. Shakespeare's Sonnet XII begins, "When I do count the clock that tells the time." Even after the introduction of the clock face, clocks were costly, and found mostly in the homes of aristocrats. The vast majority of urban dwellers had to rely on clock towers, and outside the sight of their dials or the sound of their bells, clock time held no sway. Clock towers did define the time of day, at least for those who could hear and see them. As the saying goes, "a person with a clock always knows what time it is; a person with two clocks is never sure."

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Improvements of the clock

The discipline imposed by these public clocks still remained lax by contemporary standards. A clock that only strikes the hours can only record the nearest hour that has passed; most early clocks had only hour hands in any case. Minute hands did not come into widespread use until the pendulum enabled a large leap in the accuracy of clocks; for watches, a similar leap in accuracy was not made possible before the invention of the balance spring. Before these improvements, the equation of time, the difference between apparent and mean solar time, was not even noticed. During the 17th and 18th centuries, private ownership of clocks and watches became more common, as their improved manufacture made them available for purchase by at least the bourgeoisie of the cities. Their proliferation had many social and even religious consequences for those who could afford and use them.

Religious consequences of improved clocks

Religious texts of the period make many more references to the irreversible passage of time, and artistic themes appeared at this time such as Vanitas, a reminder of death in the form of a still life, which always included a watch, clock, or some other timepiece. The relentless ticking of a clock or watch, and the slow but certain movement of its hands, functioned as a visible and audible memento mori. Clocks and sundials would be decorated with mottos such as ultima forsan ("perhaps the last" [hour]) or vulnerant omnes, ultima necat ("they all wound, and the last kills"). Even today, clocks often carry the motto tempus fugit, "time flies." Mary, Queen of Scots was said to have owned a large watch made in the shape of a silver skull.

Economic consequences of improved clocks

Economically, their impact was even greater; an awareness that time is money, a limited commodity not to be wasted, also appears during this period. Because Protestantism was at this time chiefly a religion of literate city dwellers, the so-called "Protestant work ethic" came to be associated with this newly-fashioned time discipline. Production of clocks and watches during this period shifted from Italy and Bavaria to Protestant areas such as Geneva, the Netherlands, and England; the names of French clockmakers during this time disclose a large number of commonly Huguenot names from the Old Testament.

Standard, synchronous, public time

In the nineteenth century, the introduction of standard time and time zones divorced the "time of day" from local mean solar time and any links to astronomy. Time signals, like the bells and dials of public clocks, once were relatively local affairs; the ball that is dropped in Times Square on New Year's Eve in New York City once served as a time signal whose original purpose was for navigators to check their marine chronometers. However, when the railroads began running trains on complex schedules, keeping a schedule that could be followed over distances of hundreds of miles required synchronization on a scale not attempted before. Telegraphy and later shortwave radio were used to broadcast time signals from the most accurate clocks available. Radio and television broadcasting schedules created a further impetus to regiment everyone's clock so that they all told the same time within a very small tolerance; the broadcasting of time announcements over radio and television enabled all the households in their audience to get in synch with the clocks at the network. The mass production of clocks and watches further tightened time discipline in the Western world; before these machines were made, and made to be more accurate, it would be pointless to complain about someone's being fifteen, or five, minutes late. For many employees, the time clock was the clock that told the time that mattered: it was the clock that recorded their hours of work. By the time that time clocks became commonplace, public, synchronized clock time was considered a fact of life. Uniform, synchronized, public clock time did not exist until the nineteenth century.

Time discipline When one speaks about the intellectual history of time, one essentially is stating that changes have occurred in the way humans experience and measure time. Our conceived abstract notions of time have presumably developed in accordance with our art, our science, and our social infrastructure. (See also horology.)

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Towards time-keeping
The units of time first developed by humans would likely have been days and months (moons). In some parts of the world the cycle of seasons is apparent enough to lead to people speaking about years and seasons (e.g. 4 summers ago, or 4 floods ago). With the invention of agriculture in the 3rd millennium BC, people relied heavily on the cycle of the seasons for planting and harvesting crops. Most humans came to live in settled societies and the whole community relied upon accurate predictions of the seasonal cycle. This led to the development of calendars. Over time, some people came to recognize patterns of the stars with the seasons. Learning astronomy became an assigned duty for certain people so they could coordinate the lunar and solar calendars by adding days or months to the year. At about the same time, sundials were developed, likely marked first at noon, sunrise and sunset. In ancient Sumer and Egypt, numbers were soon used to divide the day into 12 hours; the night was similarly divided. In Egypt there is not as much seasonal variation in the length of the day, but those further from the equator would need to make many more modifications in calibrating their sundials to deal with these differences. Ancient traditions did not begin the day at midnight, some starting at dawn instead, others at dusk (both being more obvious). Since a sundial has only one "hand," a minute probably only meant "a short time." It took centuries for technology to make measurements precise enough for minutes (and later seconds) to become fixed meaningful unitslonger still for milliseconds, nanoseconds, and further subdivisions. When the water clock was invented, time could also be measured at nightthough there was significant variation in flow rate and less accuracy and precision. With water clocks, and also candle clocks, modifications were made to have them make sounds on a regular basis. With the invention of the hourglass (perhaps as early as the 11th century), hours and units of time smaller than an hour could be measured much more reliably than with water clocks and candle clocks. The earliest reasonably accurate mechanical clocks are the 13th century tower clocks probably developed for (and perhaps by) monks in Northern Italy. Using gears and gradually falling weights, these were adjusted to conform with canonical hourswhich varied with the length of the day. As these were used primarily to ring bells for prayer, the clock dial likely only came later. When dials were eventually incorporated into clocks, they were analogous to the dials on sundials, and, like a sundial, the clocks themselves had only one hand. A possible explanation for the shift from having the first hour being the one after dawn, to having the hour after noon being designated as 1 p.m. (post meridiem), is that these clocks would likely regularly be reset at local high noon each day. This, of course, results in midnight becoming 12 o'clock. Peter Henlein, a locksmith and burgher of Nuremberg, Germany, invented a spring-powered clock around 1510. It had only one hand, had no glass cover, and was rather imprecise because it slowed down as the spring unwound. In fact, Henlein went so far as to develop the first portable watch; it was six inches high. People usually carried it by hand, or wore it around their necks or in large pockets. The first reported person to actually wear a watch on the wrist was the French mathematician and philosopher, Blaise Pascal (16231662). He attached his pocket watch to his wrist with a piece of string. In 1577, the minute hand was added by a Swiss clock maker, Jost Burgi (who also is a contender for the invention of logarithms), and was incorporated into a clock Burgi made for astronomer Tycho Brahe, who had a need for more accuracy as he charted the heavens.

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Isochronous time
With invention of the pendulum clock in 1656 by Christiaan Huygens, came isochronous time, with a fixed pace of 3600 seconds per hour. By 1680, both a minute hand and then a second hand were added. Some of the first of these had a separate dial for the minute hand (turning counter-clockwise), and a second hand that took 5 minutes per cycle. [1] Even as late as 1773, towns were content to order clocks without minute hands.[2] But the clocks were still aligned with the local noonday sun. Following the invention of the locomotive in 1830, time had to be synchronized across vast distances in order to organize the train schedules. This eventually led to the development of time zones, and, thus, global isochronous time. These time changes were not accepted everywhere right away, because many people's lives were still tied closely to the length of the daytime. With the invention in 1879 of the light bulb, that changed too. The isochronous clock changed lives. Appointments are rarely "within the hour," but at quarter hours (and being five minutes late is often considered being tardy). People often eat, drink, sleep, and even go to the bathroom in adherence to some time-dependent schedule.

References
Landes, David: Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World: (Belknap/Harvard, 1983) ISBN 0-674-76800-0 Aveni, Anthony: Empires of Time: Calendars, Clocks, and Cultures: (Basic Books, 1989) ISBN 0-465-01951-X Thompson, EP: Time, work-discipline and industrial capitalism. Past & Present 38(1), 56-97 (1967)

Further reading
The Discoverers Daniel J. Boorstin Theory Out of Bounds Isabelle Stengers/Ilya Prigogine Order out of Chaos Ilya Prigogine Multifractals and 1/f noise Benot Mandelbrot Conversations on Science, Culture, and Time ( Studies in Literature and Science) Michel Serres; et al. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions Thomas S. Kuhn Technics and Civilization Lewis Mumford

External links
24 hour analog clocks [3] 1773 town in Scotland orders clock without minute hand [2] Quotes About Time Passing [4] Huygens' clocks [5] Early Clock Face with separate minute dial [1] BBC article [6] on shortest time ever measured (1016 seconds) as of 2004.

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External links
Upside Down and Backwards: Time Discipline in a Canadian Inuit Town [7] by Pamela Stern of the University of Waterloo.

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] http:/ / www. sciencemuseum. org. uk/ on%2Dline/ huygens/ images/ 1656face. jpg http:/ / www. electricscotland. com/ history/ dunfermline/ chap8part10. htm http:/ / homepage. mac. com/ pete. boardman/ 24hourclock/ history. html http:/ / engravablewatches. com/ 25-quotes-about-time-passing/ http:/ / www. sciencemuseum. org. uk/ onlinestuff/ stories/ huygens_clocks. aspx http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 3486160. stm http:/ / www. wlupress. wlu. ca/ ~wwwpress/ jrls/ anthro/ issues/ 45_1/ stern. pdf

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Article Sources and Contributors

Time Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=463542691 Contributors: -Ril-, .alyn.post., 100110100, 12345green678910, 193.203.83.xxx, 2016matthew, 213.253.39.xxx, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 5 albert square, 62.253.64.xxx, A. 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File:Wooden hourglass 3.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wooden_hourglass_3.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:S Sepp File:Sundial Taganrog.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sundial_Taganrog.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: EvaK, Fagairolles 34, ISasha File:Swatch Irony angle below.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Swatch_Irony_angle_below.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Booksworm File:ChipScaleClock2 HR.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ChipScaleClock2_HR.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bibliomaniac15, Duesentrieb, Ewlloyd, Red devil 666, Severino666, Svdmolen, Tothwolf, Wst File:HinduMeasurements.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HinduMeasurements.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: BD2412, Roland zh, 1 anonymous edits File:World line.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:World_line.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: K. Aainsqatsi File:Relativity of Simultaneity.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Relativity_of_Simultaneity.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Army1987 created the original PNG file; Acdx converted it to SVG. File:Lorentz transform of world line.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lorentz_transform_of_world_line.gif License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Aushulz, Cyp, Darapti, Jarekt, Melchoir, Pieter Kuiper, Rovnet, Schekinov Alexey Victorovich, TommyBee, 4 anonymous edits File:CMB Timeline300 no WMAP.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Kaldari, 1 anonymous edits Image:Hindu calendar 1871-72.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hindu_calendar_1871-72.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Abecedare, Cohesion, Durga, Ekabhishek, Mattes, Ranveig, Redtigerxyz, Roland zh Image:wikisource-logo.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg License: logo Contributors: Nicholas Moreau Image:Wooden hourglass 3.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wooden_hourglass_3.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:S Sepp Image:Summer Solstice Sunrise over Stonehenge 2005.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Summer_Solstice_Sunrise_over_Stonehenge_2005.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic Contributors: 99of9, Carlos Luis M C da Cruz, Edward, Man vyi, Neukoln, RedWolf, Saperaud, Solipsist, Thesevenseas, Thierry Caro, Wereon, Winterkind, 4 anonymous edits Image:Louxor obelisk Paris dsc00780.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Louxor_obelisk_Paris_dsc00780.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 1.0 Generic Contributors: User:David.Monniaux Image:Clepsydra-Diagram-Fancy.jpeg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Clepsydra-Diagram-Fancy.jpeg License: Public Domain Contributors: The illustrator was probably w:John Farey, Jr. (17911851). The principal engraver for the encyclopedia was Wilson Lowry (17621824). UNIQ-ref-0-519379d2e96dcf18-QINU Image:Al-jazari elephant clock.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Al-jazari_elephant_clock.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Al-Jazari Image:Kerzenuhr.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kerzenuhr.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: de:Benutzer:Flyout Image:Oil-lamp clock00.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oil-lamp_clock00.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: JuergenG, Karel K., Rotational File:Washstand by Philo of Byzantium.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Washstand_by_Philo_of_Byzantium.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Carra de Vaux, B. Image:Clock Tower from Su Song's Book.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Clock_Tower_from_Su_Song's_Book.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: PericlesofAthens Image:Ridhwan al-Saati clock.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ridhwan_al-Saati_clock.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: S711 Image:Astrolabe-Persian-18C.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Astrolabe-Persian-18C.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic Contributors: Andrew Dunn File:Clock of al Jazari before 1206.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Clock_of_al_Jazari_before_1206.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: al Jazari, before 1206 Image:SevillaGlorietaDelReloj01.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SevillaGlorietaDelReloj01.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Balbo, Lobillo, Look2See1, SteveMcCluskey, 1 anonymous edits Image:Abbot Richard Wallingford.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Abbot_Richard_Wallingford.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: user:Leinad-Z Image:Giovanni Di Dondi clock .png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Giovanni_Di_Dondi_clock_.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Giovanni de Dondi Image:Orloj-AstronomicalDial.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orloj-AstronomicalDial.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Maksim, Olivier2, Paddy, TCY Image:MontreGousset001.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MontreGousset001.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Isabelle Grosjean ZA Image:Pocketwatch movement.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pocketwatch_movement.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Park Benjamin Image:MIH-film12 color cerrected denoise.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MIH-film12_color_cerrected_denoise.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: User:Rama Image:Swatch Irony angle below.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Swatch_Irony_angle_below.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Booksworm Image:InsideQuartzCrystal.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:InsideQuartzCrystal.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Altzone at en.wikipedia File:Clock in Kings Cross.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Clock_in_Kings_Cross.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Oxyman File:Greenwich clock.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Greenwich_clock.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Alvesgaspar File:IncenseAlarmClock.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IncenseAlarmClock.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Burn, Karel K., Man vyi, Wst, Xenophon File:SuSongClock1.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SuSongClock1.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Kowloonese at en.wikipedia File:Al-jazari elephant clock.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Al-jazari_elephant_clock.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Al-Jazari File:Abbot Richard Wallingford.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Abbot_Richard_Wallingford.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: user:Leinad-Z File:Henlein_Taschenuhr.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Henlein_Taschenuhr.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Pirkheimer File:Muse du temps Besanon 3.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Muse_du_temps_Besanon_3.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Arnaud 25 File:Clock-french-republic.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Clock-french-republic.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Cormullion File:Picadillycircuslinearclock.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Picadillycircuslinearclock.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Original uploader was Cormullion at en.wikipedia File:KanazawaStationClock.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KanazawaStationClock.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Rei at en.wikipedia File:Digital-clock-radio-basic hf.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Digital-clock-radio-basic_hf.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Althepal at en.wikipedia

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Android home.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Android_home.png License: GNU General Public License Contributors: Unamed102 File:RailwayStationClock.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RailwayStationClock.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Etan J. Tal Image:Harrison's Chronometer H5.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Harrison's_Chronometer_H5.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Racklever at en.wikipedia Image:Joseph Justus Scaliger.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Joseph_Justus_Scaliger.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Classical geographer File:wikisource-logo.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg License: logo Contributors: Nicholas Moreau File:Flammarion.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flammarion.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dbachmann, Diego pmc, Kersti Nebelsiek, Kugland, Leinad-Z, Martin H., Mladifilozof, Mu, Pieter Kuiper, Ragesoss, Tales23, W!B:, Warburg, 8 anonymous edits Image:Pendule de Foucault.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pendule_de_Foucault.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Arnaud 25 Image:Andromeda galaxy Ssc2005-20a1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Andromeda_galaxy_Ssc2005-20a1.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Ceranthor, User:Noodle snacks, User:Superborsuk Image:Relativity of Simultaneity.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Relativity_of_Simultaneity.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Army1987 created the original PNG file; Acdx converted it to SVG. Image:Lorentz transform of world line.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lorentz_transform_of_world_line.gif License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Aushulz, Cyp, Darapti, Jarekt, Melchoir, Pieter Kuiper, Rovnet, Schekinov Alexey Victorovich, TommyBee, 4 anonymous edits Image:WMAP.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WMAP.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bricktop, Chetvorno, DieBuche, Fastfission, Mike Peel, Nachcommonsverschieber, Nk, Pieter Kuiper, Shizhao, 2 anonymous edits Image:spacetime curvature.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Spacetime_curvature.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Johnstone Image:Spacetime dimensionality.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Spacetime_dimensionality.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Max Tegmark Image:Time-dilation-001.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Time-dilation-001.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Mdd4696 at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by DVdm at en.wikipedia. Image:Time-dilation-002.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Time-dilation-002.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Mdd4696 at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by DVdm at en.wikipedia. Image:Time dilation.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Time_dilation.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Zayani Image:Time dilation02.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Time_dilation02.gif License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Cleonis Image:Arthur Stanley Eddington.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Arthur_Stanley_Eddington.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: George Grantham Bain Collection (Library of Congress) Image:Twin Paradox Minkowski Diagram.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Twin_Paradox_Minkowski_Diagram.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Acdx Image:time-travel-illustration3.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Time-travel-illustration3.gif License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Grondilu File:time-travel-parallel-universe2.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Time-travel-parallel-universe2.gif License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Grondilu (talk) Image:time-travel-causal-loop.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Time-travel-causal-loop.gif License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Grondilu (talk) Image:time-travel-continuous-version.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Time-travel-continuous-version.gif License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Grondilu (talk) Image:Donders.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Donders.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Feedmecereal, Zazim Image:EEG fMRI.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EEG_fMRI.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Feedmecereal, Zazim Image:MerrillCoveyMatrix.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MerrillCoveyMatrix.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Rorybowman Image:Windup alarm clock.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Windup_alarm_clock.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Evil saltine (english language Wikipedia: w:User:Evil saltineEvil saltine)

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