19.

2 Taylor Series
Introduction The correspondence between a complex number z within the circle of conq vergence and the number to which the series g k 5 1ak1 z 2 z02 k converges is single-valued. In this sense, a power series defines or represents a function f ; for a specified z within the circle 19.2 Taylor Series 823

of convergence, the number L to which the power series converges is defined to be the value of f at z; that is, f (z) L. In this section we present some important facts about the nature of this function f. In the preceding section we saw that every power series has a radius of convergence R. q Throughout the discussion in this section, we will assume that a power series g k 5 1ak1 z 2 z02 k has either a positive or an infinite radius R of convergence. The next three theorems will give some important facts about the nature of a power series within its circle of convergence |z z0| R, R 0. Theorem 19.2.1 Continuity
q

A power series g k 5 0 ak(z z0)k represents a continuous function f within its circle of convergence |z z0| R, R 0. Theorem 19.2.2 A power series |z z0| R, R Theorem 19.2.3 Term-by-Term Integration
q g k 5 0 ak(z z0)k can be integrated term by term within its circle of convergence

0, for every contour C lying entirely within the circle of convergence.

Term-by-Term Differentiation
q

A power series g k 5 0 ak(z z0)k can be differentiated term by term within its circle of convergence |z z0| R, R 0. Taylor Series Suppose a power series represents a function f for |z z0| R, R
q

0; that is, (1)

f (z) a ak(z z0)k a0 a1(z z0) a2(z z0)2 a3(z z0)3 .

k50

It follows from Theorem 19.2.3 that the derivatives of f are

q

f (z) a kak (z z0)k1 a1 2a2(z z0) 3a3(z z0)2

k51 q

(2) (3) (4)

f (z) a k (k 1)ak(z z0)k2 2 1a2 3 2a3(z z0)

k52 q

f (z) a k (k 1)(k 2)ak(z z0)k3 3 2 1a3

k53

and so on. Each of the differentiated series has the same radius of convergence as the original series. Moreover, since the original power series represents a differentiable function f within its circle of convergence, we conclude that when R 0: A power series represents an analytic function within its circle of convergence. There is a relationship between the coefficients ak and the derivatives of f. Evaluating (1), (2), (3), and (4) at z z0 gives f (z0) a0, f (z0) 1!a1, f (z0) 2!a2, and f (z0) 3!a3,

respectively. In general, f (n)(z0) n!an or an 5 f 1 n2 1 z02 , n $ 0. n! (5)

When n 0, we interpret the zeroth derivative as f (z0) and 0! 1. Substituting (5) into (1) yields
q

f 1 z2 5 a

k50

f 1k2 1 z02 1 z 2 z02 k. k!

(6)

824

CHAPTER 19 Series and Residues

This series is called the Taylor series for f centered at z0. A Taylor series with center z0 0,
q

f 1 z2 5 a

k50

f 1k2 1 02 k z, k!

(7)

is referred to as a Maclaurin series. We have just seen that a power series with a nonzero radius of convergence represents an analytic function. On the other hand, if we are given a function f that is analytic in some domain D, can we represent it by a power series of the form (6) and (7)? Since a power series converges in a circular domain, and a domain D is generally not circular, the question becomes: Can we expand f in one or more power series that are valid in circular domains that are all contained in D? The question will be answered in the affirmative by the next theorem. Theorem 19.2.4 Taylors Theorem

Let f be analytic within a domain D and let z0 be a point in D. Then f has the series representation
q

f 1 z2 5 a

k50

f 1k2 1 z02 1 z 2 z02 k k!

(8)

valid for the largest circle C with center at z0 and radius R that lies entirely within D.

PROOF

Let z be a fixed point within the circle C and let s denote the variable of integration. The circle C is then described by |s z0| R. See FIGURE 19.2.1. To begin, we use the Cauchy integral formula to obtain the value of f at z: f 1 s2 f 1 s2 1 1 f 1 z2 5 ds ds 5 s 2 z 2pi C 2 p i 1 s 2 z 2 C C C 0 2 1 z 2 z02

s z0 z R C

(9)

f 1 s2 1 1 5 ds. c z 2 z0 s s 2 z 2pi C 0 C 12 s 2 z0

By replacing z by (z z0)/(s z0) in (8) of Section 19.1, we have 1 z 2 z02 n z 2 z0 z 2 z0 2 z 2 z0 n 2 1 1 511 1 a b 1p1 a b 1 , z 2 z0 s 2 z0 s 2 z0 s 2 z0 1 s 2 z21 s 2 z02 n 2 1 12 s 2 z0 and so (9) becomes f 1 z2 5 f 1 s2 f 1 s2 1 z 2 z02 2 f 1 s2 z 2 z0 1 ds 1 ds 1 ds 1 p 2 3 2pi C 2pi C 2pi C C s 2 z0 C 1 s 2 z02 C 1 s 2 z02

FIGURE 19.2.1 Circular contour C used in proof of Theorem 19.2.4

1 z 2 z02 n 2 1 f 1 s2 1 z 2 z02 n f 1 s2 1 ds 1 n n ds. 2pi 2pi C C C 1 s 2 z02 C 1 s 2 z21 s 2 z02

(10)

Utilizing Cauchys integral formula for derivatives, we can write (10) as f 1 z2 5 f 1 z02 1 f 1 z02 f 1 z02 1 z 2 z02 1 1 z 2 z02 2 1 p 1! 2!

f 1 n 2 12 1 z02 1 1 z 2 z02 n 2 1 1 Rn 1 z2 , 1 n 2 12 ! where Rn 1 z2 5 1 z 2 z02 n f 1 s2 n ds. 2pi C C 1 s 2 z21 s 2 z02

(11)

19.2 Taylor Series

825

Equation (11) is called Taylors formula with remainder Rn. We now wish to show that Rn(z) S 0 as n S q. Since f is analytic in D, | f (z)| has a maximum value M on the contour C. In addition, since z is inside C, we have |z z0| R, and, consequently,

|s z| |s z0 (z z0)| |s z0| |z z0| R d, where d |z z0| is the distance from z and z0. The ML-inequality then gives
Z Rn 1 z2 Z 5 2 1 z 2 z02 n f 1 s2 dn MR M d n ds 2 # 2 p R 5 a b . n 2pi C 2p 1 R 2 d 2 Rn R2d R C 1 s 2 z21 s 2 z02

Because d R, (d/R)n S 0 as n S q, we conclude that |Rn(z)| S 0 as n S q. It follows that the infinite series f 1 z02 f 1 z02 1 z 2 z02 1 1 z 2 z02 2 1 p 1! 2! converges to f (z). In other words, the result in (8) is valid for any point z interior to C. f 1 z02 1 We can find the radius of convergence of a Taylor series in exactly the same manner illustrated in Examples 57 of Section 19.1. However, we can simplify matters even further by noting that the radius of convergence is the distance from the center z0 of the series to the nearest isolated singularity of f. We shall elaborate more on this concept in the next section, but an isolated singularity is a point at which f fails to be analytic but is, nonetheless, analytic at all other points throughout some neighborhood of the point. For example, z 5i is an isolated singularity of f (z) 1/(z 5i). If the function f is entire, then the radius of convergence of a Taylor series centered at any point z0 is necessarily infinite. Using (8) and the last fact, we can say that the Maclaurin series representations ez 5 1 1 sin z 5 z 2
q z z2 zk 1 1p5 a 1! 2! k 5 0 k!

(12) (13) (14)

q z3 z5 z2k 1 1 1 2 p 5 a 1 212 k 3! 5! 1 2k 1 12 ! k50 2 4 q z z z2k cos z 5 1 2 1 2 p 5 a 1 212 k 2! 4! 1 2k2 ! k50

are valid for all z. If two power series with center z0:
q k50 q k50 k k a ak1 z 2 z02 and a bk1 z 2 z02

represent the same function and have the same nonzero radius of convergence, then ak bk , k 0, 1, 2, . Stated in another way, the power series expansion of a function with center z0 is unique. On a practical level, this means that a power series expansion of an analytic function f centered at z0, irrespective of the method used to obtain it, is the Taylor series expansion of the function. For example, we can obtain (14) by simply differentiating (13) term by term. The 2 Maclaurin series for ez can be obtained by replacing the symbol z in (12) by z2.

EXAMPLE 1

Maclaurin Series

1 . 1 1 2 z2 2 Solution We could, of course, begin by computing the coefficients using (8). However, we know from (5) of Section 19.1 that for |z| 1, 1 1 z z2 z3 . (15) 12z Differentiating both sides of the last result with respect to z then yields q 1 5 1 1 2z 1 3z2 1 p 5 a kz k 2 1. 2 1 1 2 z2 k51 Find the Maclaurin expansion of f (z) Since we are using Theorem 19.2.3, the radius of convergence of this last series is the same as the original series, R 1. 826 CHAPTER 19 Series and Residues

 EXAMPLE 2
Expand f (z)

Taylor Series

1 in a Taylor series with center z0 2i. 12z Solution We shall solve this problem in two ways. We begin by using (8). From the first several derivatives, 1 21 32 f 1 z2 5 , f 1 z2 5 , f 1 z2 5 , 1 1 2 z2 2 1 1 2 z2 3 1 1 2 z2 4 we conclude that f (n)(z) n!/(1 z)n1 and so f (n)(2i) n!/(1 2i)n1. Thus from (8) we obtain the Taylor series q 1 1 5 a 1 z 2 2i2 k. (16) k11 12z k 5 0 1 1 2 2i2

Since the distance from the center z0 2i to the nearest singularity z 1 is !5, we conclude that the circle of convergence for the power series in (16) is |z 2i| !5. This can be verified by the ratio test of the preceding section. Alternative Solution In this solution we again use the geometric series (15). By adding and subtracting 2i in the denominator of 1/(1 z), we can write 1 1 1 1 1 5 5 5 . 12z 1 2 z 1 2i 2 2i 1 2 2i 2 1 z 2 2i2 1 2 2i z 2 2i 12 1 2 2i 1 as a power series by using (15) with the symbol z replaced We now write z 2 2i 12 1 2 2i by (z 2i)/(1 2i): 1 1 z 2 2i z 2 2i 2 z 2 2i 3 5 c1 1 1 a b 1 a b 1 pd 12z 1 2 2i 1 2 2i 1 2 2i 1 2 2i 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 z 2 2i2 1 1 z 2 2i2 2 1 1 z 2 2i2 3 1 p . 2 3 1 2 2i 1 1 2 2i2 1 1 2 2i2 1 1 2 2i2 4

The reader should verify that this last series is exactly the same as that in (16). In (15) and (16) we represented the same function 1/(1 z) by two different power series. The first series 1 1 z z2 z3 12z has center zero and radius of convergence one. The second series 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 z 2 2i2 1 1 z 2 2i2 2 1 1 z 2 2i2 3 1 p 2 3 12z 1 2 2i 1 1 2 2i2 1 1 2 2i2 1 1 2 2i2 4 has center 2i and radius of convergence 25. The two different circles of convergence are illustrated in FIGURE 19.2.2. The interior of the intersection of the two circles (shaded) is the region where both series converge; in other words, at a specified point z* in this region, both series converge to the same value f (z*) 1/(1 z*). Outside the shaded region, at least one of the two series must diverge.

|z 2i| = 5

z* x |z| = 1

FIGURE 19.2.2 Series (15) and (16) both converge within the shaded region