The Charnel-House

F R OM BA UH AU ST O BE I N HA US

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C o n t a c t |

D i s c l a i me r

C u r r i c u l u mV i t a e

P r a i s ef o r The Charnel-House

Mar

23

Man and Nature, Part II: The Marxist Theory of Mans Alienation from Nature

S t i l l f r o m T a r k o v s k i i sS t a l k e r( 1 9 7 9 )

Wh e nMa r xwr o t eh i sEconomic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844, h e wa sl i k e wi s ec o n c e r n e dwi t ht h ep r o b l e mo f ma n s( s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e wo r k e r s )r e l a t i o n s h i pt on a t u r e .I twa sp a r to f t h ewo r k e r sf o u r f o l d a l i e n a t i o nu n d e r c a p i t a l i s tmo d e r n i t y :h i se s t r a n g e me n tf r o mn a t u r e , f r o m t h ep r o d u c t so f h i sl a b o r , f r o mo t h e r p e o p l e , a n df r o mh i ms e l f .A sMa r x e x p l a i n e d , wi t hr e s p e c tt on a t u r e : T h ewo r k e r c a nc r e a t en o t h i n gwi t h o u t nature, wi t h o u tt h esensuous external world. I ti st h ema t e r i a l i nwh i c hh i s

l a b o r r e a l i z e si t s e l f [ 1 ]H o we v e r , a st h ep r o d u c t so f t h ewo r k e r sl a b o r a r e e x p r o p r i a t e d , n a t u r ei sr e d u c e dt oame r eme a n so f s u b s i s t e n c e . I na p h y s i c a l s e n s ema nl i v e so n l yf r o mt h e s en a t u r a l p r o d u c t s , wh e t h e r i nt h e f o r mo f n o u r i s h me n t , h e a t i n g , c l o t h i n g , s h e l t e r , e t c . N a t u r ei sma n s inorganic body, t h a ti st os a yn a t u r ei ns of a r a si ti sn o tt h eh u ma n b o d y . [ 2 ]T h en a t u r a l wo r l di sf u r t h e r a n df u r t h e r r e mo v e df r o mt h ewo r k e r , a n da r r i v e st h e no n l yi nar e l a t i v e l yp r o c e s s e d , me d i a t e df o r m. T h e i mme d i a c yo f n a t u r eh a sb e e nl o s t , a n dn a t u r ec o n f r o n t sh u ma n i t ya sa n a l i e n , u n k n o wne n t i t y .T h i sa l i e n a t i o ni se x a c e r b a t e db yt h es h a r e d e s t r a n g e me n tf r o mn a t u r et h a tt h ei n d i v i d u a l s e e si no t h e r me n : E v e r y s e l f e s t r a n g e me n to f ma nf r o mh i ms e l f a n dn a t u r ei sma n i f e s t e di nt h e r e l a t i o n s h i ph es e t su pb e t we e no t h e r me na n dh i ms e l f a n dn a t u r e . [ 3 ]O r , a st h eMa r x i s tt h e o r i s tMa xH o r k h e i me r wo u l dl a t e r p u ti t , e c h o i n gMa r x , T h eh i s t o r yo f ma n se f f o r t st os u b j u g a t en a t u r ei sa l s ot h eh i s t o r yo f ma n ss u b j u g a t i o nb yma n . [ 4 ] C l e a r l y , t h ea l i e n a t i o nf e l tb yt h eR o ma n t i c st o wa r dn a t u r ewa sar e a l o n e , Ma r xr e c o g n i z e d , b u th ed i dn o ts e ei ta st h er e s u l to f s o mes o r to f s p i r i t u a l d o wn f a l l o r f a l l f r o mg r a c e .R a t h e r , h eu n d e r s t o o di tt ob es y mp t o ma t i co f t h er i s eo f an e ws o c i a l f o r ma t i o n n a me l y , c a p i t a l i s m. T h a ti st os a y , t h e a l i e n a t i o nf r o mn a t u r et h a twa sr e g i s t e r e di d e o l o g i c a l l y( i np o e t r y , p h i l o s o p h y , a n da r t )b yt h eR o ma n t i c swa si n d i c a t i v eo f ad e e p e r s h i f ti n t h es o c i o e c o n o mi cs u b s t r u c t u r eo f t h e i r t i me . A l t h o u g hh u ma n i t y sa l i e n a t i o nf r o mn a t u r ewa sc l e a r l yac e n t r a l c o n c e r no f t h ey o u n gMa r x , mo s to f h i sl a t e r wo r kwa ss o l e l yd e v o t e dt ot h ea n a l y s i s o f c l a s sr e l a t i o n su n d e r c a p i t a l i s ma n dt h ec r i t i q u eo f p o l i t i c a l e c o n o my .I t wa st h u sE n g e l s , r a t h e r , wh owo u l de v e n t u a l l yt a k eu pt h es u b j e c to f n a t u r ea g a i ni nh i swr i t i n g s .N o to n l yi nh i s1 8 8 3Dialectics of Nature, a t e x tt h a tr e ma i n sc o n t r o v e r s i a l wi t h i nt h ea n n a l so f Ma r x i s tl i t e r a t u r e , b u t e v e ni no t h e r wo r k sl i k eAnti-Duhring a n dSocialism: Utopian and Scientific , E n g e l sd i s c u s s e dt h ewa yi nwh i c hh u ma n i t yb e c a mef u r t h e r e s t r a n g e df r o m n a t u r ee v e na ss c i e n c eb e g a nt od i s c o v e r i t si n n e r mo s two r k i n g s .F o r r a t h e r t h a ne n c o u n t e r i n gn a t u r ei na no r g a n i c , h o l i s t i cf a s h i o n , n a t u r a l s c i e n c ewa sme t h o d o l o g i c a l l ymi c r o s c o p i c , i s o l a t i n gi n d i v i d u a l p h e n o me n a f r o mt h e i r o r i g i n a l c o n t e x ta n do b s e r v i n gt h e i r o p e r a t i o ni na b s t r a c t i o nf r o m t h ewh o l e .T h i se n t a i l e d , a sB a c o nh a da l r e a d yh i ms e l f a d mi t t e d , ac e r t a i n d o mi n a t i o no f n a t u r e .A n dt h i s , i nt u r n , i mp l i e da ne q u a l d e g r e eo f a l i e n a t i o nf r o mn a t u r e .E n g e l se x p l a i n e dt h eh i s t o r i c a l u n f o l d i n go f t h i s p r o c e s sa sf o l l o ws :

The analysis of Nature into its individual parts, the grouping of the different natural processes and objects in definite classes, the study of the internal anatomy of organized bodies in their manifold forms these were the fundamental conditions of the gigantic strides in our knowledge of Nature that have been made during the last 400 years. But this method of work has also left us as a legacy the habit of observing natural objects and processes in isolation, apart from their connection with the vast whole; of observing them in repose, not in motion; as

constraints, not as essentially variables; in their death, not in their life.[ 5 ] A l t h o u g hE n g e l sh i ms e l f r e p u d i a t e dt h eF r e n c hma t e r i a l i s t sa n dn a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h e r sl i k eB a c o na n dL o c k ef o r t h e i r me t a p h y s i c a l a p p r o a c ht o n a t u r e , a n dc o n s i d e r e dt h eme c h a n i s t i cv i e wo f t h ewo r l dt oh a v eb e e n s u p e r s e d e db yd i a l e c t i c a l t h o u g h t , i twa st h eme c h a n i s t i cwo r l d v i e wt h a t e v e n t u a l l ywo no u ti nt h ef i e l do f t h en a t u r a l s c i e n c e s .I tr e ma i n sd o wnt o t h ep r e s e n td a y f o r b e t t e r o r f o r wo r s e t h ep r e d o mi n a n tmo d eo f t h o u g h ta mo n g s tt h ed i s c i p l i n e so f p h y s i c s , c h e mi s t r y , a n db i o l o g y .T h i si s al a r g er e a s o nwh yE n g e l s l a t e r Dialectics of Nature h a ss u b s e q u e n t l yb e e n s od i s p a r a g e db ys c i e n t i s t sa n dp h i l o s o p h e r s , d e s p i t et h ef a c tt h a ts o meo f i t sc o n t e n ti sb o t hs a l v a g e a b l ea n dv a l u a b l et oMa r x i s tl i t e r a t u r e . B u ti twa sp r e c i s e l yt h ea p p l i c a t i o no f t h i sme c h a n i s t i cWeltanschauung i n t h en a t u r a l s c i e n c e st ot h es o c i a l s c i e n c e st h a tl a t e r f o r me dt h ep r e mi s ef o r t h ey o u n gMa r x i s tp h i l o s o p h e r G e o r gL u k c s c r i t i q u eo f r e i f i c a t i o na n d c o mmo d i t yf e t i s h i s mi ns o c i e t y .T h i swa st h ev i e wa d o p t e db yb o t h b o u r g e o i se c o n o mi s t sa n dB e r n s t e i n i a nR e v i s i o n i s t sa r o u n dt h et u r no f t h e c e n t u r y .T h e yb e l i e v e dt h a ts o c i e t yo p e r a t e da c c o r d i n gt oas e r i e so f t i me l e s s , me c h a n i c a l l a wst h a tc o u l db ec o mp r e h e n d e da n dc o n t r o l l e d , j u s t a si nn a t u r e .L u k c sp o i n t e do u tt h a tt h i st o o kf o r g r a n t e dt h en o t i o nt h a t t h el a wsp e c u l i a r t ot h ec a p i t a l i s ts o c i a l f o r ma t i o nh a da l wa y se x i s t e di n e v e r yp a s ts o c i e t y .A sMa r xh a da l r e a d ys h o wnb e f o r eh i m, s u c hc a t e g o r i e s a s s u p p l ya n dd e ma n d a n d s o c i a l l yh o mo g e n e o u sl a b o r t i me we r eo n l y v a l i df o r d e s c r i b i n go n ep a r t i c u l a r f o r mo f s o c i e t y , c a p i t a l i s m. B u tt h e s e c a t e g o r i e st h e ms e l v e swe r eme r e l yt h et r a n s i t o r yo u t g r o wt ho f t h i ss o c i a l f o r ma t i o n , a n dd i dn o tn e c e s s a r i l yb e l o n gt op r i o r mo d e so f p r o d u c t i o n :

The categories of bourgeois economics consist precisely of forms of this [relative] kind. They are forms of thought which are socially valid, and therefore objective, for the relations of production belonging to this historically determined mode of social production, i.e., commodity production. The whole mystery of commodities, all the magic and necromancy that surrounds the products of labour on the basis of commodity production, vanishes therefore as soon as we come to other forms of production.[ 6 ] I ti st h e r e f o r ei n v a l i df o r e c o n o mi s t sa n ds o c i a l t h e o r i s t sa l i k et oc l a i mt h a t t h e r ea r e e t e r n a l l a wst h a tg o v e r ns o c i e t yi na l l a g e s , u n l i k et h eo n e st h a t a r ep r e s u me dt oe x i s ti nt h eme c h a n i s t i cv i e wo f n a t u r e .I nt h ec a s eo f c o mmo d i t yf e t i s h i s m, as o c i a l r e l a t i o nb e t we e np e o p l eb e c o me so b j e c t i f i e d a sap e r ma n e n ts t a t eo f a f f a i r st h a te x i s t si n d e p e n d e n to f t h e i r o wn a c t i v i t y , [ 7 ]a s j u s tt h ewa yt h i n g sa r e . O r , a sL u k c sp u ti t , ar e l a t i o n b e t we e np e o p l et a k e so nt h ec h a r a c t e r o f at h i n ga n dt h u sa c q u i r e sa p h a n t o mo b j e c t i v i t y , a na u t o n o myt h a ts e e mss os t r i c t l yr a t i o n a l a n da l l e mb r a c i n ga st oc o n c e a l e v e r yt r a c eo f i t sf u n d a me n t a l n a t u r e :t h er e l a t i o n b e t we e np e o p l e . [ 8 ]

L u k c s g r e a tc o n t r i b u t i o nt oMa r x st h e o r yo f ma n sa l i e n a t i o nf r o mn a t u r e a r o s eo u to f h i sr e c o g n i t i o no f t h i smy s t e r i o u s q u a s i o b j e c t i v i t y t h a ts o c i a l r e l a t i o n ss e e me dt oa s s u me .I twa sa si f , t h r o u g ht h ea l i e n a t i o no f c o mmo d i t i e sf r o mt h e i r p r o d u c e r sa n dt h e i r s u b s e q u e n tc i r c u l a t i o n t h r o u g h o u ts o c i e t y , b o u r g e o i ss o c i a l r e l a t i o n sb e c a meas o r to f s e c o n d n a t u r e . A sL u k c se x p l a i n e di t :

[M]en are constantly smashing, replacing, and leaving behind the natural, irrational, and actually existing bonds, while, on the other hand, they erect around themselves in the reality that they have created and made, a kind of second nature which evolves with exactly the same inexorable necessity as was the case earlier with irrational forces of nature (more exactly: the social relations which appear in this form).[ 9 ] A sas o r to f n a t u r ei ni t so wnr i g h t , b o u r g e o i se c o n o mi s t sa n dB e r n s t e i n i a n R e v i s i o n i s t sb e l i e v e dt h a tt h e yc o u l ds e tf o r t hn o t i o n sl i k e ma r g i n a l u t i l i t y , s u p p l ya n dd e ma n d , a n ds oo na si n e x o r a b l el a wso f s o c i e t y .T h e s el a ws we r et h o u g h tt oo p e r a t ei name c h a n i c a l , p r e d i c t a b l ea n du n c h a n g i n g f a s h i o n , i ne v e r ys o c i e t yt h a th a se v e r e x i s t e d . Wh a ti sl o s ti st h e d i a l e c t i c a l r e c o g n i t i o nt h a tt h i ss y s t e mo f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n shas come into being, a n dc o u l dj u s ta se a s i l ypass away. I ni t smy s t i f i e df o r m, Ma r x e x p l a i n e d , t h ed i a l e c t i cb e c a met h ef a s h i o ni nG e r ma n y , b e c a u s ei ts e e me d t ot r a n s f i g u r ea n dg l o r i f ywh a te x i s t s . I ni t sr a t i o n a l f o r m, h ec o n t i n u e d , i ti sas c a n d a l a n da na b o mi n a t i o nt ot h eb o u r g e o i s i ea n di t sd o c t r i n a i r e s p o k e s me n , b e c a u s ei ti n c l u d e si ni t sp o s i t i v eu n d e r s t a n d i n go f wh a te x i s t s as i mu l t a n e o u sr e c o g n i t i o no f i t sn e g a t i o n , i t si n e v i t a b l ed e s t r u c t i o n ; b e c a u s ei tr e g a r d se v e r yh i s t o r i c a l l yd e v e l o p e df o r ma sb e i n gi naf l u i d s t a t e , i nmo t i o n , a n dt h e r e f o r eg r a s p si t st r a n s i e n ta s p e c ta swe l l ;a n d b e c a u s ei td o e sn o tl e ti t s e l f b ei mp r e s s e db ya n y t h i n g , b e i n gi ni t sv e r y e s s e n c ec r i t i c a l a n dr e v o l u t i o n a r y . [ 1 0 ] L u k c s d i s c o v e r yo f t h i sa p p a r e n t s e c o n dn a t u r e c a r r i e swi t hi te v e n f u r t h e r c o n s e q u e n c e s .F o r , e n t a n g l e di nt h i ss e l f c r e a t e d s e c o n dn a t u r e , ma nf o u n dh i ms e l f f u r t h e r a n df u r t h e r d i s t a n c e df r o m f i r s t n a t u r e .T h e s e e mi n gi mme d i a c yo f n a t u r ee n j o y e di np r e v i o u ss o c i e t i e s , wh e r et h ewo o d h eu s e dt ob u i l dh i sh o u s ec a mef r o mt h en e a r b yf o r e s t , i nwh i c ht h eme a t h ea t ec a mef r o ma n i ma l st h a th er a i s e da n ds l a u g h t e r e d , o r g a met h a th e h u n t e d , b e c a mei n c r e a s i n g l yr a r e .I n s t e a d , wh a th u ma n i t ye n c o u n t e r e d wa sas y s t e mo f c o mmo d i t i e s , g o o d si mp o r t e df r o me v e r yc o r n e r o f t h e g l o b e , s e r i a l l yp r o c e s s e dt h r o u g hac o mp l e xd i v i s i o no f l a b o r b e f o r ea r r i v i n g t ot h e i r c o n s u me r i nt h e i r f i n i s h e df o r ms . I no t h e r wo r d s , this n a t u r e , s e c o n dn a t u r e , b e c a met h ewo r l dt owh i c hh u ma n i t ywa si mme d i a t e l y a c c u s t o me d . Wi t ht h er i s eo f c a p i t a l i s m, e v e r y t h i n gc h a n g e d . I np l a c eo f t h eo l dn e e d ss a t i s f i e db yh o mep r o d u c t i o nweh a v en e wo n e swh i c h d e ma n dt h ep r o d u c t so f t h emo s td i s t a n tl a n d sa n dc l i me sf o r t h e i r s a t i s f a c t i o n .I np l a c eo f t h eo l dl o c a l a n dn a t i o n a l s e l f s u f f i c i e n c ya n d i s o l a t i o nweh a v eau n i v e r s a l c o mme r c e , au n i v e r s a l d e p e n d e n c eo f n a t i o n s o no n ea n o t h e r . [ 1 1 ]D e s p i t et h ee x t r e me l ya b s t r a c tc h a r a c t e r o f t h i ss o c i a l t o t a l i t y , wi t hi t smu l t i p l el a y e r so f me d i a t i o n , t h i sc o mp l e xs y s t e ma p p e a r s

mo r ef a mi l i a r a n dr e c o g n i z a b l et h a nt h es o r to f n a t u r eo n ee n c o u n t e r si nt h e wi l d e r n e s s . E v e nt h ee x p e r i e n c eo f t h i ss o r to f p r i mi t i v e wi l d e r n e s si si n c r e a s i n g l y me d i a t e du n d e r mo d e r n i t y .T h e yc o mei nt h ef o r mo f a r t i f i c i a l l y d e s i g n e d p a r k se s t a b l i s h e di nt h emi d s to f h u g ec i t i e s , i nz o o sa n dn a t u r er e s e r v e s , i n a c t i v i t i e sl i k eh i k i n g , r o c k c l i mb i n g , a n de v e ns a f a r i s .T h ec r i t i c a l t h e o r i s t T h e o d o r A d o r n or e c o g n i z e dt h ep a t e n tf a l s i t yo f t h en o t i o nt h a tt h e s es i t e s a n dp a s t i me sc o u l ds e r v et or e u n i t ema n , i f o n l yb r i e f l y , wi t hn a t u r e . T h e mo r ep u r e l yn a t u r ei sp r e s e r v e da n dt r a n s p l a n t e db yc i v i l i z a t i o n , h ewr o t e , t h emo r ei mp l a c a b l yi ti sd o mi n a t e d . [ 1 2 ]H u ma n i t yu n d e r c a p i t a l i s mc a n ma i n t a i nt h ei l l u s i o nt h a twea r es t i l l a to n ea n da r ei nh a r mo n ywi t hn a t u r e , b u ti ti si l l u s o r yn e v e r t h e l e s s . O n l yt h ei r r a t i o n a l i t yo f c i v i l i z a t i o ni t s e l f , i n t h en o o k sa n dc r a n n i e so f t h ec i t i e s , t owh i c ht h ewa l l s , t o we r s , a n d b a s t i o n so f t h ez o o swe d g e da mo n gt h e ma r eme r e l ya na d d i t i o n , c a n n a t u r eb ec o n s e r v e d .T h er a t i o n a l i z a t i o no f c u l t u r e , i no p e n i n gi t sd o o r st o n a t u r e , t h e r e b yc o mp l e t e l ya b s o r b si t , a n de l i mi n a t e swi t hd i f f e r e n c et h e p r i n c i p l eo f c u l t u r e , t h ep o s s i b i l i t yo f r e c o n c i l i a t i o n . [ 1 3 ]T h ep a r k s , f o r e s t s , a n dz o o sc a np r o v i d es o mec o mf o r tt oah u ma n i t yy e a r n i n gf o r i t sl o s t r e l a t i o n s h i pwi t hn a t u r e , b u ti nt h ef i n a l a n a l y s i ss u c ha r t i f a c t s( a n dy e s , t h e ya r ea r t i f a c t s )c a no n l ys e r v ea sar e mi n d e r o f t h ee x t e n tt owh i c h ma n k i n dh a sa l r e a d yt r a n s f o r me d , a n ds o me t i me sd i s f i g u r e d , n a t u r e . B u ti f h u ma n i t yc a n n o tb er e u n i t e dwi t hn a t u r eb ys u c hme a n s , h o wc a n o n ee v e r h o p et oa c h i e v et h i sl o s to n e n e s swi t ht h ewo r l d ?T h et o t a l f l i g h t f r o ms o c i e t ya n di t sn e t wo r ko f u n n a t u r a l r e l a t i o n s( i n t ot h ewi l d )i sn o l e s sp r o b l e ma t i c , a n da l mo s ta s s u r e d l ymo r er e a c t i o n a r y .A sA d o r n o s c o l l e a g u eH o r k h e i me r e x p l a i n e d , T h ed o c t r i n e st h a te x a l tn a t u r eo r p r i mi t i v i s ma tt h ee x p e n s eo f s p i r i t[ i . e . , c i v i l i z a t i o n , s o c i e t y ]d on o tf a v o r r e c o n c i l i a t i o nwi t hn a t u r e ;o nt h ec o n t r a r y , t h e ye mp h a s i z ec o l d n e s sa n d b l i n d n e s st o wa r dn a t u r e . Wh e n e v e r ma nd e l i b e r a t e l yma k e sn a t u r eh i s p r i n c i p l e , h er e g r e s s e st op r i mi t i v eu r g e s . [ 1 4 ]Mo r eo nt h i sp o i n tl a t e r . A l l t h i sb r i n g su st oap o i n tt h a td o v e t a i l sn e a t l ywi t ht h eq u e s t i o np o s e da t t h ee n do f myf i r s tb l o ge n t r yo nt h es u b j e c t :H o wi si tp o s s i b l et oc o n c e i v e o f n a t u r ea saf u n d a me n t a l l ysocial p r o b l e m?F o r i f i n d e e dt h es o c i a l c o n c e p t i o no f n a t u r ei sh i s t o r i c a l l yv a r i a b l e i . e . i tc h a n g e sf r o me p o c ht o e p o c h h o w mi g h tt h er e l a t i o n s h i pb e t we e nma na n dn a t u r eb e r e c o n c e i v e ds oa st ob r i n ga ne n dt ot h e i r mu t u a l a l i e n a t i o n ?T h ep r o b l e mo f n a t u r emu s tn e c e s s a r i l yi n v o l v eat r a n s f o r ma t i o no f t h e s e c o n dn a t u r e c o n s t r u c t e db ys o c i e t yu n d e r c a p i t a l i s m. T h i sma y , i nt u r n , n e c e s s i t a t ea t r a n s f o r ma t i o no f t h en a t u r a l wo r l df r o m wh e n c es o c i e t ys p r a n g .N a t u r e mu s tn o ta p p e a r t ou sa ss o me t h i n ge n t i r e l yo u t s i d eo f u s , a sa n a u t o n o mo u st h i n g i n i t s e l f , e v e ni f i td o e sp o s s e s sc e r t a i nl a wsa n d r e g u l a r i t i e so f i t so wn .I tmu s tb er e c o g n i z e da si n e x t r i c a b l yb o u n du pwi t h s o c i e t y , s u c ht h a ti t sf a t ei st i e dwi t ho u r o wn .T h er e a l i t yo f t h e e s t r a n g e me n tmu s tb ea c k n o wl e d g e d , t h ec o n t r a d i c t i o no f n a t u r ea n d c u l t u r ea f f i r me d , s oa st oe n s u r et h a tt h ep r o b l e mi sn o td e n i e do r h a s t i l y wr i t t e no f f a si n c o n s e q u e n t i a l . Ap o s t c a p i t a l i s ts o c i e t ymu s tn e c e s s a r i l y b ef r e eo f a l l t h ec o n t r a d i c t i o n st h a ta r ei n h e r e n ti nc a p i t a l i s m, a n da

s o l u t i o nt ot h i sp r o b l e m mu s tt h e r e f o r eb es o u g h t .I n d e e d , n u mb e r o f s o l u t i o n sh a v ea l r e a d yb e e np r o p o s e d .B u tb e f o r eweu n c r i t i c a l l ya t t a c h o u r s e l v e st ot h i so r t h a tp r o p o s e ds o l u t i o n , ar e v i e wo f t h ema j o r p o s i t i o n s i si no r d e r .T h en e x ts e g me n to f t h i ss e r i e swi l l t h u sl a yt h eg r o u n d wo r kf o r ar a d i c a l c r i t i q u eo f t h ev a r i o u si d e o l o g i e ss u r r o u n d i n gt h er e l a t i o n s h i po f ma nt on a t u r eb ye x a mi n i n go n eo f t h ec e n t r a l d i c h o t o mi e st ot h ed e b a t e : t h en a t u r e / c u l t u r ed i s t i n c t i o n .

[ 1 ]Ma r x , K a r l . Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts. F r o m Early Writings. T r a n s l a t e db yR o d n e yL i v i n g s t o n ea n dG r e g o r B e n t o n .( P e n g u i n B o o k s .N e wY o r k , N Y :1 9 9 2 ) .P g . 3 2 5 . [ 2 ]Ibid., p g . 3 2 8 . [ 3 ]Ibid., p g . 3 3 1 . [ 4 ]H o r k h e i me r , Ma x . T h eR e v o l to f N a t u r e . F r o m The Eclipse of Reason. ( T h eC o n t i n u u mP u b l i s h i n gC o mp a n y .N e wY o r k , N Y :2 0 0 4 ) .P g . 7 2 . [ 5 ]E n g e l s , F r i e d r i c h . Socialism: Utopian and Scientific . T r a n s l a t e db yB a r r i e S e l ma n .F r o m Marx & Engels: Collected Works, Volume 24 (1874-1883). ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l P u b l i s h e r s .N e wY o r k , N Y :1 9 8 9 ) .P g . 2 9 9 . [ 6 ]Ma r x , K a r l . Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. T r a n s l a t e db yB e n F o wk e s .( P e n g u i nB o o k s .N e wY o r k , N Y :1 9 8 2 ) .P g . 1 6 9 . [ 7 ] T h emy s t e r i o u sc h a r a c t e r o f t h ec o mmo d i t y f o r mc o n s i s t st h e r e f o r e s i mp l yi nt h ef a c tt h a tt h ec o mmo d i t yr e f l e c t st h es o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c so f me n so wnl a b o u r a so b j e c t i v ec h a r a c t e r i s t i c so f t h ep r o d u c t so f l a b o u r t h e ms e l v e s , a st h es o c i o n a t u r a l p r o p e r t i e so f t h e s et h i n g s .H e n c ei ta l s o r e f l e c t st h es o c i a l r e l a t i o no f t h ep r o d u c e r st ot h es u mt o t a l o f l a b o u r a sa s o c i a l r e l a t i o nb e t we e no b j e c t s , ar e l a t i o nwh i c he x i s t sa p a r tf r o ma n d o u t s i d et h ep r o d u c e r s .T h r o u g ht h i ss u b s t i t u t i o n , t h ep r o d u c t so f l a b o u r b e c o mec o mmo d i t i e s , s e n s u o u st h i n g swh i c ha r ea tt h es a met i me s u p r a s e n s i b l eo r s o c i a l .I nt h es a mewa y , t h ei mp r e s s i o nma d eb yat h i n g o nt h eo p t i cn e r v ei sp e r c e i v e dn o ta sas u b j e c t i v ee x c i t a t i o no f t h a tn e r v e b u ta st h eo b j e c t i v ef o r mo f at h i n go u t s i d et h ee y e .I nt h ea c to f s e e i n g , o f c o u r s e , l i g h ti sr e a l l yt r a n s mi t t e df r o mo n et h i n g , t h ee x t e r n a l o b j e c t , t o a n o t h e r t h i n g , t h ee y e .I ti sap h y s i c a l r e l a t i o nb e t we e np h y s i c a l t h i n g s . A sa g a i n s tt h i s , t h ec o mmo d i t y f o r m, a n dt h ev a l u e r e l a t i o no f t h ep r o d u c t s o f l a b o u r wi t h i n , wh i c hi ta p p e a r s , h a v ea b s o l u t e l yn oc o n n e c t i o nwi t ht h e p h y s i c a l n a t u r eo f t h ec o mmo d i t ya n dt h ema t e r i a l [ dinglich]r e l a t i o n sa r i s i n g o u to f t h i s .I ti sn o t h i n gb u tt h ed e f i n i t es o c i a l r e l a t i o nb e t we e nme n t h e ms e l v e swh i c ha s s u me sh e r e , f o r t h e m, t h ef a n t a s t i cf o r mo f ar e l a t i o n b e t we e nt h i n g s .I no r d e r , t h e r e f o r e , t of i n da na n a l o g ywemu s tt a k ef l i g h t i n t ot h emi s t yr e a l mo f r e l i g i o n .T h e r et h ep r o d u c t so f t h eh u ma nb r a i n a p p e a r a sa u t o n o mo u sf i g u r e se n d o we dwi t hal i f eo f t h e i r o wn , wh i c he n t e r i n t or e l a t i o n sb o t hwi t he a c ho t h e r a n dwi t ht h eh u ma nr a c e .S oi ti si nt h e wo r l do f c o mmo d i t i e swi t ht h ep r o d u c t so f me n sh a n d s .I c a l l t h i st h e

f e t i s h i s m wh i c ha t t a c h e si t s e l f t ot h ep r o d u c t so f l a b o u r a ss o o na st h e y a r ep r o d u c e da sc o mmo d i t i e s , a n di st h e r e f o r ei n s e p a r a b l ef r o mt h e p r o d u c t i o no f c o mmo d i t i e s . Ibid., p g s . 1 6 4 1 6 5 . [ 8 ]L u k c s , G e o r g . R e i f i c a t i o na n dt h eC o n s c i o u s n e s so f t h eP r o l e t a r i a t . F r o m History and Class Consciousness: Studies in Marxist Dialectics. T r a n s l a t e db yR o d n e yL i v i n g s t o n e .( MI TP r e s s .C a mb r i d g e , MA :1 9 7 1 ) .P g . 8 3 . [ 9 ]Ibid., p g . 1 2 8 . [ 1 0 ]Ma r x , Capital. P g . 1 0 3 . [ 1 1 ]Ma r x , K a r l a n dE n g e l s , F r i e d r i c h . Manifesto of the Communist Party. F r o m Later Political Writings. T r a n s l a t e db yT e r r e l l C a r v e r .( C a mb r i d g e U n i v e r s i t yP r e s s .N e wY o r k , N Y :1 9 9 6 ) .P g . 5 . [ 1 2 ]A d o r n o , T h e o d o r . Minima Moralia. T r a n s l a t e db yE . F . N . J e p h c o t t . ( V e r s oB o o k s .N e wY o r k , N Y L2 0 0 5 ) .P g . 1 1 5 . [ 1 3 ]Ibid., p g . 1 1 6 . [ 1 4 ]H o r k h e i me r , T h eR e v o l to f N a t u r e . P g . 8 6 .
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Man and Nature, Part I: The Shifting Historical Conceptions of Nature in Society

Man and Nature, Part III: An Excursus into the Structuralist Opposition of Nature and Culture

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Ou r wo r l d , l i k eac h a r n e l h o u s e , l i e ss t r e wnwi t ht h ed e t r i t u so f d e a de p o c h s . L eC o r b u s i e r , Urbanisme ( 1 9 2 5 )

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e v e n t ( 1 6 ) p a n e l ( 1 5 ) g u e s t p o s t ( 9 5 ) i ma g e s( 1 7 ) i n t e r v i e ws( 2 0 ) me d i a( 1 1 7 ) i ma g e s( 1 1 2 ) P D F s( 4 ) v i d e o s( 6 ) mo d e r n i t y( 1 9 5 ) n e ws( 8 ) t r a n s l a t i o n s( 4 7 )

wr i t i n g s( 2 4 6 ) a r t i c l e s( 9 1 ) e s s a y s( 2 5 ) f r a g me n t s( 2 2 ) r e v i e ws( 2 9 ) b o o kr e v i e ws( 1 8 ) e v e n t r e v i e ws( 6 ) mo v i er e v i e ws( 2 ) mu s i cr e v i e ws( 2 ) s h o r t s t o r i e s( 1 ) wr i t e u p s( 9 0 )

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Ross Wolfe
Writer, critic, translator
A u t h o r a n de d i t o r o f n u me r o u sp u b l i s h e da r t i c l e s , e s s a y s , a n dr e v i e ws , i n a d d i t i o nt oo r g a n i z i n gp u b l i cf o r aa n di n t e r v i e ws . T h ema i nf o c u so f mywo r ki s R u s s i a na n dS o v i e t s t u d i e s , b u t I ma l s oi n t e r e s t e di nt h eh i s t o r yo f E u r o p e , p h i l o s o p h y , a n dMa r x i s m. I wr i t ep r i ma r i l ya b o u t c l a s s i c a l a v a n t g a r d e a r c h i t e c t u r e , c o n t e mp o r a r yp o l i t i c a l i s s u e s( e l e c t i o n s , a c t i v i s m, c u r r e n t e v e n t s ) , a n dt o p i c ss u c ha st h ee n v i r o n me n t , t e c h n o l o g y , l i b e r a l i s m, u t o p i a n i s m, a n dt h e h i s t o r yo f t h eL e f t . Myf o r t h c o mi n gb o o k , The Graveyard of Utopia: Soviet Urbanism and the Fate of the International Avant-Garde, i ss c h e d u l e dt ob ep u b l i s h e di nt h en e x t f e w mo n t h s

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Myc h e mi c a l wa r ma n c e K h i d e k e l a n dt h ec o s mi s t l e g a c yo f s u p r e ma t i s mi na r c h i t e c t u r e N o t a r t b u t c o mmu n i s m A l l t h a t e x i s t sd e s e r v e st op e r i s h T h ep o l i t i c so f wo r k C o l o r a n dl i g h t i nmo d e r na r c h i t e c t u r e P a i n t i n g sb yS o n gWe n z h i , 1 9 7 2 1 9 7 5 H o n gK o n gh i g h r i s e U t o p i a , L t d . : C o n s t r u c t i v i s mr e c o n s t r u c t e d A r t a n dp o l i t i c si nc l a s ss o c i e t y

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F r u h s t u c k : L o n gR e a d sf o r t h eH o l i d a yS e a s o n| B o a t sA g a i n s t t h eC u r r e n t o n T h eD r e a me r i nt h eK r e ml i n Qu a n d oi l k a ma s u t r ae r ac o mu n i s t a : l e r o t i s moi nU n i o n eS o v i e t i c a| C o me A mo r eo nS o v i e t e r ae r o t i ca l p h a b e t b o o kf r o m1 9 3 1[ 1 9 3 1 ]

R o s aL i c h t e n s t e i no nT h eoikos o f Wi t t g e n s t e i n c h a r l o t t ep e r r i a n d| Ma r t i nL u i g ab l o go nT h emo d e r n i s mo f C h a r l o t t eP e r r i a n d A y u r S a n d a n o vo nS o v i e t e r ae r o t i ca l p h a b e t b o o kf r o m1 9 3 1[ 1 9 3 1 ] p u l s e wi d t h B l o gA r c h i v eo nA l l t h a t e x i s t sd e s e r v e st op e r i s h p u l s e wi d t h B l o gA r c h i v eo nN o t a r t b u t c o mmu n i s m

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@p h o r i s me s a g g r e g a t 4 5 6 A l t e r n a t i v eA r c h i t e c t u r eL e n s A r i s t i d eA n t o n a s A r r a nQ. H e n d e r s o n A r t Ma r g i n s A r t i f i c i a l Or d e r A r t Wr i t A wa k i n gL u c i d a x o n o m t r i c a B r a dT r o e me l C a r t o g r a p h i e so f t h eA b s o l u t e C i t yo f S o u n d C l a s s i cC a r t o o n sB l o g C o l l a g eL a b C r e a t ea nA c c i d e n t C r i t i c a l A r c h i t e c t u r eN e t wo r k D a n i e l Ma r c u s D B R B a r c e l o n a

D i f f u s i v eA r c h i t e c t u r e s d i s a s t u r b a t i o n D i s o r i e n t a l i s m D o K CL a b E i k o n o g r a p h i a E n t s c h wi n d e t F a a d e sC o n f i d e n t i a l f a n t a s t i cj o u r n a l I n t e r s t i c e s J a n u sP r o j e c t K e v i nR h o wb o t h a m K L A U S K o s mo g r a d K t i s ma t i c s L a b o r a t o i r eU r b a n i s meI n s u r r e c t i o n n e l L i f eWi t h o u t B u i l d i n g s ma c h i n ema c h i n e Ma r g oWo l o wi e c Me g a nP a n z a n od e s i g n mi c r o c i t i e s Mo n o s k o p N a s t y , B r u t a l i s t , a n dS h o r t N u i t ss a n sn u i t Og i n oK n a u s s P a t t e r n st h a t C o n n e x t P r o g r e s s i v eG e o g r a p h i e s P s y c h o c a r t o g r a p h y R e k o l e k t i v R e mi xT h e o r y R H E Omo d e R o b e r t A n d r a d e R o b e r t C o wh e r d R u i n so f t h e2 0 t hC e n t u r y S a r a hE l l i o t s e s q u i p e d a l i s t S u b t o p i a T h eF u n a mb u l i s t T h eF u n c t i o n a l i t y T h eP a p e r n yT i me s T h eS l e e po f R i g o u r T h o ma sWe n s i n g U r b a i n , T r o pU r b a i n Wo r d si nS p a c e

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