Literature Review Because the field of ABE/ESL has not benefitted from the amount of research that has

taken place in K-12 and has not largely embraced the changes in professional development practice that have been informed by research, the following draws from both K-12 and adult education. Also included is Adult Basic Education (ABE) and Adult Secondary Education (ASE) research that may not appear to be ESL specific. However, much of the research in adult education combines ABE, ASE and ESL learners because the programs often offer both types of classes, the content is related and many ELLs transition into ABE or ASE classes and are no longer designated an ESL learner. Additionally, literature addressing teacher training and professional development in ESL and English as a Foreign Language environments outside of the U.S. have been reviewed because many of the teacher learning needs are similar. Following is a look at adult ESL learner needs, teacher profiles, traditional professional development, components of transforming professional development and examples of implementation of promising practices that increase teacher effectiveness. Needs Assessment: Learners and Teachers Adults who enter English language programs have varying goals related to speaking, listening, reading and writing. These goals often include supporting their childrens learning, survival English skills such as navigating healthcare and community services, working toward job placement, career advancement and/or college readiness (NCLE, 2003; Kallenbach et al., 2013). A learner is assessed with a standardized pre-test upon entering a literacy program to identify if they have need for instruction based on a speaking
5

assessment, a listening assessment, or a reading assessment. One is then placed within one of the six English as a second language (ESL) levels: (0-1) Beginning ESL Literacy, (2) LowBeginning ESL, (3) High-Beginning ESL, (4) Low-Intermediate ESL, (5) High-Intermediate ESL, and (6) Advanced ESL. Learner progress from level to level is determined using standardized pre and post assessment during each instructional year. Progress is reported to the National Reporting System (NRS) that is part of the Office of Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE). A student functioning at Beginning ESL Literacy, is described in part by the NRS as one who functions minimally or not at all in English and can communicate only through gestures or a few isolated words (National Reporting System [NRS], n.d.). A learner functioning at Advanced ESL, is described as one who can function independently to meet most survival needs and to use English in routine social and work situations (NRS, n.d.). These NRS level descriptors are indicative of the nature of the funding; namely, the focus is on improving survival English, not academic English. Non-native English speakers who test above Advanced ESL can be placed into ABE or ASE instruction depending on their reading or mathematics level as defined by standardized assessment. ABE and ASE instruction spans content from grade level equivalency K-12. When learners transition to ABE/ASE he or she is no longer classified as an ESL learner: they become an ABE or ASE learner. At this point, a student may begin to focus on academic content that spans the subject areas of science, mathematics, social studies and English language arts. These ESL students may have reading or speaking levels that are advanced, though have not been prepared with academic English vocabulary and writing skills necessary to be successful in ASE

instruction to make post-secondary transitions. A solution could be for ESL, ABE and ASE teachers to have a common understanding of ELL needs at all ABE and ASE levels. Adult literacy programs should be developing their ability to address advancing workforce preparation needs, though there is no federally mandated way that instructors prepare to begin teaching or how they continue learning on-the-job. Within guidelines, states determine granting requirements (Sticht, 2002). A few states run programs entirely through their school districts or community college systems (Smith & Gomez, 2011). Some school district adult literacy programs require a K-12 teacher license to be eligible to instruct in adult ESL classes, though not a license that is specific to teaching a linguistically diverse population, nor adult learning theory (Crandall, Ingersoll & Lopez, 2008). Community colleges require credentials necessary to teach at the college level. Most states support programs in a wider variety of locations based on what is most suitable to a communitys needs. Libraries, workforce centers, and non-profit agencies frequently house ESL programs. Many adult ESL programs lack the funding that would allow them to operate full-time and staff accordingly, so the field is supported by volunteers, retired people from many professions, and many part-time staff (NCLE, 2003; Smith & Gomez, 2012). One norm across all program types is that adult ESL instructors often begin teaching without a background in teaching adults and/or teaching ESL. Because literacy instructors may come less than optimally prepared to teach, professional development should address gaps in preparation. Due to limited resources, instructors are often not engaged in activities that address these gaps. It is noted by Smith (2010) that, the adult literacy and learning field is structured and funded in such a way that we do not currently offer the kinds of professional development most likely to improve
7

teacher effectiveness. Smith is referring to a lack of long-term, focused and active professional development that improves practice. Professional development of this kind may not seem possible when time and resource restraints are pervasive. Many programs offer a split schedule of classes to meet the times when students are available. Classes are offered during the day and the evening to accommodate all participants. It is not unusual for classes to be offered twice per week for two hours at a time. This type of limited schedule makes sense for many learners who have jobs and children and instructors who also may have other jobs (Smith & Gillespie, 2007). Some programs offer classes at various sites at the same times and part-time teachers arent always available during non-teaching times to meet together as they may have other jobs. Moreover, programs typically do not offer teachers many extra hours outside of the classroom for planning and professional development. Need for professional development is not exclusive to teachers without certification or teaching experience. A recent study of ESL instructors teaching adult refugees in which 40% had formal teaching certification and 70% had prior teaching experience, instructors felt inadequately prepared to teach, and most had difficulty articulating what they still wanted, or needed to know (Perry & Hart, 2013, p. 118). This information shows a gap in on-the-job learning opportunities that are targeted to instructor and student needs. Staff development should be focused on continual teacher improvement. Instructors should understand their students needs and the implications on their teaching. On-the-job improvement should be organized at the program to be a consistent part of each educators workload. Mentorship, collaboration and a breadth of professional learning opportunities

are cited as indicators of healthy adult instructional environments (Rodriguez & McKay, 2010). The learning opportunities for these educators have historically been individual and often passive. Individual activities are those that consist primarily of reading. Passive activities include reading and attending lectures, conferences and workshops that require very little input by the attendee. Participation in workshops and conferences is the most readily-available and time-efficient mode of training (Hanna, Salzman, Reynolds & Fergus, 2010; NCLE, 2003; Smith & Gillespie, 2007). Further, because standardized assessment is the mandated measure of student achievement, dollars are spent to send staff to training each year on administration of NRS approved assessments (Smith 2010). Until adult basic education is restructured, creative solutions that include on-the-job training and distance learning could be helpful. If initiatives are planned that begin with a face-to-face or virtual workshop, then are taken back to the classroom and supported locally, a positive shift from historical professional development to contemporary professional development could take-hold in adult literacy. There has been a movement over the last decade to restructure systems, revitalize and change the way the field views teacher professional development. The shift is toward teacher-crafted, local, collaborative, supported, intensive practices that are ongoing and based on local student data (Blackburn & Williamson, 2010; Borko, 2004; Desimone, 2009; Association of Adult Literacy Professional Developers [AALPD], n.d.; Center for Applied Linguistics [CAL], 2010; California Adult Literacy Professional Development Project, 2011). Creating environments for teachers to continually improve could better their ability to help

students prepare for arduous workforce training requirements. Restructuring includes offering full-time work, salaries and benefits that supports staff retention and opportunity to be involved in collaborative activities with other teachers (CAL, 2010; NCLE, 2003; Desimone, 2009; Smith, 2010). It may be necessary for states to divert resources toward these endeavors or fund participation for fewer teachers (Birman, Desimone, Porter & Garet, 2000). Adult ESL programs should look at ideal models and glean improved practices from them. Transforming Professional Development to Professional Learning Structure and Communities of Practice Promising models of professional development and teacher learning originate in K12 teacher development theories. Due to this premise and the limited amount of research that is specific to adult ESL teachers, K-12 research is accessed by the field of adult education as a basis to extrapolate structures that can support feasible solutions. Theory of teacher learning and conditions that allow for teacher change are reviewed and research projects developed from these models are discussed. Teacher learning in K-12 has gone through a reform movement over the last decade as prevailing belief links high-quality professional development to higher-quality teaching and high-quality teaching to student achievement (Borko, 2004; Smith, 2010; Desimone, 2009; Darling-Hammond, Wei & Andree, 2010; Yoon, Duncan, Lee, Scarloss & Shapely, 2007). Directly linking student achievement to teacher learning is not part of this review, but links from promising practices to potential for enhanced student achievement are made within the research. Appropriate conditions and characteristics of professional
10

development augment the potential for depth of understanding that leads to change in teaching practice. The shift is from intermittent professional development to professional learning that is based in the teaching environment and supported by peers. Practices that support teacher professional growth in K-12 have been culled from schools around the world. Researchers supported by Stanford University, the Ford Foundation, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, the Wallace Foundation, the MetLife Foundation, and Learning Forward have looked at teaching across the U.S. and the globe to explore, explain and synthesize practices that high-performing schools have incorporated. A study by the Stanford Center for Opportunity Policy in Education (SCOPE) profiled teacher learning in countries around the world whose students achieve the highest scores on international assessments. In Northern European and Asian nations that are highestachieving, a number of consistencies in teacher learning exist that appear to lead to student success. International teacher preparation, induction processes and learning for experienced teachers are supported. In Scandinavia, teachers complete graduate programs that are paid for by the government that include training in a school for one year (DarlingHammond et al., 2010). New-teacher mentoring or coaching programs are required in the schools of high-achieving nations. Hours that new instructors are in the classroom are limited so that they can focus on building their practice and related coursework. Teachers in these countries spend less of their work time in the classroom than U.S. teachers do so that they can focus on intensive professional learning opportunities (Darling-Hammond et al., 2010, p. 3). Generally, U.S. teachers have three to five hours per week to plan lessons, and teachers in high-performing countries may have 15-25 hours outside of the classroom
11

each week to plan lessons and collaborate with others (Darling-Hammond et al., 2010). The implication is that if the U.S. wants to compete with high-achieving nations, we should alter our practices to better support teacher learning that leads to student success. Teachers need to spend more time preparing to become teachers, taking part in mentoring relationships, planning lessons and collaborating with colleagues to improve their instruction. In a four-phase, multi-year study, also conducted by SCOPE, researchers looked for components of professional development that impact student success. The phases of the study were: 1. Overviewing promising practices of professional learning 2. Looking at current professional development activities in the U.S. 3. Examining four top-performing states professional learning policies 4. Completing two case studies of top-performing schools in the U.S. The third and fourth phases review solutions that are applicable to adult learning environments. In phase three, teacher learning policies were profiled in four states whose students scored above average on the 2009 National Assessment of Educational Progress. Though delivery models were different state to state, there were similarities in the features and processes of professional learning. The key findings included: allocation of resources that established a sustainable infrastructure professional development plans correlated to content standards strong leadership that invited shared decision-making mentoring programs for new teachers communities of practice as the primary method of professional learning
12

The theme throughout these findings is organized practices at the state level, the district level and at the school level provide structure for meaningful work to take place. Structure and planning were complemented by shared decision-making and local engagement of communities of practice. A community of practice is a group of professionals who have committed to working on a project together over the course of a semester or longer with the goal of professional improvement. The length of time working together is important, but more important is the process. In a community of practice, teachers steer the focus and look critically at student data and student work together. The mission is to gain a deeper understanding of how students learn content to then apply that understanding to how content is taught. Ideally, teachers work together in cycles to revise lessons and implement them with observation and feedback. (Jaquith, Mindich, Wei, Darling-Hammond, 2010). The Association for Adult Literacy Professional Developers recommends similar practices for adult literacy instructors: 1. to take part in mentoring 2. to take part in professional learning communities 3. to take part in the planning of PD activities each year 4. to engage in reflective practice (AALPD, n.d.) There should be clear expectations from the program that staff engage in professional learning. Expectations that exist as part of a job-description can include creation of annual professional development plans that include the following types of activities: (AALPD, n.d.).

13

Recommendations from both parties include structure and practice supported by mentoring and collaboration. Communities of practice can be enhanced by employing outside facilitators (coaches or trainers) able to assist in aligning job-embedded learning to the broader vision (Jaquith et al., 2010). The broader vision is often linked to statewide initiatives such as understanding and implementing content standards. Enhanced outcomes are described in an action research project with six teacher groups in seven schools in the Netherlands. Teachers were better able to connect their teaching strategies to research methods and related theories when outside facilitators helped guide their questioning techniques and learning processes. Before facilitators intervened, teachers were not making deeper connections between their teaching issues and their teaching behaviors, nor linking behaviors to concepts of teaching theory (Ponte, 2004). A related idea is to cultivate teacher leaders who can assist in directing and supporting others throughout the span of the project (Baecher, 2012). One method of teacher-led learning are study groups or study circles. Two instances of English language acquisition teacher study groups were reviewed, one in the U.S. and one in Taiwan. Both researchers indicated the necessity for collaborative engagement that was focused on their students specific ESL needs. The underlying goal in both cases was to foster an environment in which teacher change could be cultivated to improve curriculum. When teachers worked together over a number of weeks, depth of understanding of research to practice occurred. The study in the U.S. spanned three meetings and classroom observations and the study in Taiwan spanned nine meetings and shared lesson planning. Teachers in all locations observed increased ability to process and understand elements of
14

English language content as a result of discussion, reflection and collaboration (Hung & Yeh, 2013; Vinogradov, 2012). A key idea that was not found explicitly in adult teacher-learning research was the necessity for professional learning groups to have a collegial atmosphere (Blackburn & Williamson, 2010; Lieberman & Miller, 2008 cited in Mindich & Lieberman, 2012). A collegial atmosphere implies a group that is not only friendly, but willing to offer and receive feedback and challenge others in a professional manner that will forward objectives. When professional learning communities are comprised of teachers who have positive social bonds, congeniality can transfer to collegiality, otherwise, it is important to spend time on teambuilding and trust building exercises so that group members are comfortable sharing their reflections, giving and receiving feedback to deepen learning (Mindich & Lieberman, 2012). Teambuilding is addressed through methods that create a foundation for group work to lead to improved practice in the book, Unmistakable Impact (Knight, 2011). Communities of practice can be difficult to manage successfully if all participants are not invested in the work they are doing. Likewise, if members of a learning group do not feel comfortable they may not be able to offer or receive feedback in a constructive manner. Difference of opinion and critical analysis of work should be discussed in an environment in which all have contributed to the organization of the group. Knight lists seven partnership principles that outline a healthy group learning environment in which teachers are personally motivated. Attending to these seven partnership principles invites assessment of teacher needs and shared decision-making before embarking on an intensive project together. A collegial atmosphere supported by theses partnership principles
15

includes commitment from each participant to engage in professional learning and forward their practice as a member of a group.

Principle Equality Choice Voice Reflection Dialogue Praxis Reciprocity (p. 46, 2011).

Description professional learning vs. training teachers choose what and how they learn professional learning empowers and respects teacher voices integral part of learning authentic dialogue is enabled learning is applied to real-life practice expect to get as much as we give

Learning communities with a solid organization invite honest feedback and could motivate teachers to innovate together. A work group may not appeal to instructors who prefer autonomy and are not accustomed to or comfortable with feedback and collaborative practice. Historically, teaching has been more of an individual profession so professional learning communities may pose a challenge to those who see their classroom as their orchestrated sanctuary (Kise, 2006). For those who are not comfortable collaborating in a group, maybe a peer collaboration within a pair would create an environment that would be preferable.
16

New models of professional development for adult literacy should incorporate elements of successful practices around the globe. Leadership at the state level should outline expectations of professional learning and divert resources from traditional, singlemeeting, passive professional development to support local communities of practice in organizing and tying their work to statewide initiatives. Professional development organizers can link statewide initiatives to local efforts, guide planning and facilitation of local learning communities. This could include supporting local groups as a coach, or coaching and supporting teacher leaders to run projects. Part of organizing groups should include attention to building a collegial atmosphere using the seven partnership principles. Local learning communities can then specialize on identified areas of need, and when tied to broader statewide initiatives, results from these projects will have common threads. When projects are constructed within a common initiative, they can be later shared to enhance teaching throughout the field. If states change protocols enough to allow programs to envision learning communities as a sustainable model, many gaps in the field can be addressed. When new instructors join a learning community, they will have the opportunity to grow professionally gaining from the work of others in the group as well as feedback on their work. Experienced instructors will have the opportunity to better their teaching practices while sharing their expertise. Roles for seasoned teachers could be those of mentor or teacher-leader to guide the group. Meaningful work groups are necessary in the field to refine instruction and better serve ELLs academic and workforce preparation needs. Features of Professional Learning

17

Once groups are formed and cohesive, various activities are recommended that can be worked on collaboratively through cycles of development, implementation, observation, feedback, reflection and improvement. Targeted needs assessment and evaluation should be developed to plan appropriately, to assess progress, and to measure outcomes. In order to truly professionalize and continue to build upon successes, evaluation is imperative. To simplify evaluation, activities should be clear and broken into components that are measurable. When activities are task-based a group can designate who is responsible for what and allow potential for work to be measured (Mindich & Lieberman, 2012). As work is measured, professional developers and state leaders should gather this data or work with researchers to add to the limited research within the field of adult literacy. Needs assessment should be one of the first activities when forming a learning community. To create the most effective learning environment, adults should be a part of the planning of the project (NCELE, 2003, AALPD, n.d., Mindich & Lieberman 2012, Schaetzel et al., 2007, McKay & Rodriguez 2007). This means taking teacher needs into account when planning professional development. When learning is generalized to professional developers perception of needs in the field, participants may not find activities to be transferrable to their classroom. Needs assessment can happen before a group begins working together with a questionnaire, a pre assessment or other tool that is designed to reveal specific information that will inform planning. As a group begins working together, needs can be incorporated as each participant voices their opinion on the focus of the project and their professional needs that relate to the work of the community of practice. Once teacher needs are incorporated, student learning needs should be added to the equation. Adult student input is an important factor in designing
18

classroom interventions (CAL, 2010, AALPD, n.d.). Generally, collecting information on learners goals, needs, English language functioning levels and learning styles can inform design of professional learning content that is relevant and appropriate. English language acquisition components also should be incorporated as should adult learning theory (CAL, 2010). Crafting the work of the community of practice in this way allows for the process to be structured as a research project. Ellis (2010) explains principles to consider when doing second language acquisition research in a classroom: He highlights the importance of the teacher identifying the issue to be researched. Because it is a reflection of the teachers understanding of language teaching, not an outside influence that chances to be irrelevant to that persons belief system or local student needs. Information can be gathered as a needs assessment at the local level in any way that teachers are allowed to have input into the decision making process. This can help to create, a vision and goals that are shared by all involved (Schaetzel et al., 2007). When teachers work with outside professional developers or researchers, there can be a divide due to differing goals that pertain to either theory or procedure exclusively (Erlam, 2008; Light & Gnida, 2012). Ideally, practice is informed by research and research is strengthened by linkage to examples of successful practice. Albertas home to adult ESL teaching, Language Instruction for Newcomers to Canada (LINC), attempted to bring research to practice by engaging the field of practitioners in focus groups that would assist in development of program standards that incorporated Second Language Acquisition theory. This is an example of involving teachers in the needs assessment and decision-

19

making process. Teachers said they would use a standards document to reflect upon and evaluate their teaching, so it was known that the document would not be created and left unused. Teachers asked for the document to include some specific guidelines within the instruction section which may have reinforced beliefs about the quality and usefulness of the completed product. Now that LINC has a standards document, there is the possibility that learning initiatives can be tied to it and there is potential to elevate classroom practices to alignment with research. Collaborative research allows for teachers to lead projects that can be documented and evaluated. Pairing a facilitator or a researcher with a teacher-led group is model that can isolate and address a specific instructional need within a controlled study. In Singapore, universities partner with schools to bring action research into practice with teacher-led study circles. A problem or issue is defined, and researchers assist teachers in discussion and carrying-out research (Mindich & Lieberman, 2012). In New Zealand, a collaborative action research project amongst adult literacy instructors identified that instructors were capable of taking learning to a deeper level when facilitators guided questioning and reflection (McKim & Wright, 2012). As new ideas and changes are integrated into program operations and classroom instruction, reflection is encouraged in order to deeply consider the effects on learners and instructors. This type of reflection is crucial, because as Farrell (2007) indicates, reflective practice is an evidence-based exploration of ones work where data is collected in order to define the impact of ones teaching on the learning of their students.

20

A group of English teachers in Argentina organized a learning community and a researcher together to improve their courses and student motivation which was declining. After exploring and refining the issues, the group developed their action process and then completed three cycles of intervention and evaluation. As they were planning the intervention, they got input from their students to help direct instruction toward student needs. During the intervention, the researcher observed and recorded lessons so that all teachers could work through the teaching and learning experiences together. As they evaluated their teaching, they got better at giving each other feedback and sharing reflections with the group. (Banegas, Peles, Velazques & Velez, 2013). This project took place over an academic year and employed many of the recommended factors of professional learning: linked to a program initiative, student input, teacher decisionmaking, job-embedded active learning, collaborative, reflective and it occurred over a length of time that allowed for cycles of implementation and evaluation. In all of the prior examples, the communities of practice embody the idea of professional learning at a more profound level that results in change founded within teacher beliefs. In a study in which 22 teachers spent a year working on improving ESL teaching through nine collaborative workshops, various measurements were included. A needs assessment/pre assessment was done with the group to determine their foundational understanding of trends in ESL instruction, language acquisition theory, and particulars of assessment (He, 2011). The needs assessment gave the professional development organizers data to help them with project design. During the course of the year-long project evaluation of the professional development was collected. Each workshop was evaluated by participants so that the organizers could improve the workshops throughout
21

the project based on feedback. Hes study also included a post ESL knowledge inventory to measure growth amongst the group after the year working together. The post project knowledge inventory did not reflect remarkable growth in English language content knowledge, but did reflect growth in knowledge of teaching strategies (He, 2011). This study utilized tools to evaluate incoming needs, the professional development content, and the impact of the project on teaching. Evaluating learning needs, project progress and impact is a valuable way to frame a project and build upon positive attributes and learnings. While considering the features of a professional learning project, attention to evaluation is important. Activities that are recommended for professional learning groups include: examining data on student progress, analyzing student work, determining effective strategies to facilitate learning, designing and critiquing powerful lessons, and developing classroombased common assessments to measure progress (Professional Development Partnership 2008 cited in Mindich & Lieberman 2012). An example of lesson design and critique is Japans lesson study process in which teachers work together to hone lessons. Lessons are first designed to address a particular learning objective with a defined strategy. Then lessons are delivered, videotaped or observed, critiqued and revised within a work group for many weeks (Jaquith et al., 2010). The revised lesson may then be delivered by another member of the work group and the process continued. While adult ESL instructors may not have the capacity to complete a lesson study that is as intensive as Japans model, an adapted and shortened version of this technique could yield positive results within a community of practice or within a mentoring relationship.

22

The following table shows the components of projects that can lead to depth of teaching practice. Desimone (2009) proposes a core conceptual framework with five key features of professional learning. If participants are committed to incorporating all of these parts within a shared framework over time, cycles of inquiry, development, implementation and evaluation can be completed. Desimones work is rooted in K-12 research and has been adapted by adult literacy researchers. Collaborative and reflective practices are interwoven into each of the following features of professional learning.

Features

Description

Content focus

Understanding of learning objectives and deepening understanding of how students learn the content

Active learning

Direct participation that may include: reviewing student work and program data, leading discussions, observing others teach and being observed with feedback afterward

Coherence

Learning matches with teachers belief system so that it is perceived as relevant and learning matches with state initiatives so that it is relevant to the big picture

Duration

Activities span at least a semester and at least twenty hours of contact time

23

Collective

Working on learning projects with teachers in the same school or within

participation the same school, grade or department (p. 184, 185). Adapting more rigorous models does not mean that current practices must change dramatically. Adapting this model to adult literacy environments could facilitate teacher induction and mentorship relationships. With common goals, group learning attending to these elements could easily engage teachers of all levels of experience and expertise, whereby mentoring situations could be an organic part of this type of group work. The recommended practices can be worked into teaching with some extra time built in outside of the classroom. Professional development opportunities for teachers that are passive can be a part of professional learning, though alone do not have all of the elements that support refining teaching practices. Conferences and single-day trainings that are disconnected from participants daily realities may offer some helpful insights, but do not include participant input and relevance beyond exposure to new strategies. Smith has outlined a list of activities and how they affect depth of adult literacy teachers learning utilizing Desimones (2009) core features of professional learning: PD approach PD activities Objective Core Features

Reading about a resource or method

Individual

Build awareness

Content focus

24

Training

A single workshop

Build knowledge

Content focus

Professional Development

Multiple session workshops

Content focus, Change practice Active learning, Duration, linked to teacher beliefs and standards

On-the-job, Professional Learning

Change

Learning in the workplace, using student data, learning through experience, learning through reflection

In a community theories and assumptions of practice

(2010, p. 69 & 71). Awareness of these features and attention to them could elevate teachers skills and thereby change instruction that will lead to improvements in student learning. Borko explains that students learn concepts when teachers have a rich and flexible understanding of the subject matter (2004, p. 5). ESL instructors can deepen their understanding of language learning and teaching by constructing knowledge through active learning exploring the content that they teach. This is a constructivist view of education that assumes teacher-learners to be self-directed in their own professional learning and growth (Hung & Yeh, 2013, p. 153). Within a professional learning context, teachers could start by looking at student data/student work to find issues to address. An example of this could be looking for trends in student work.
25

Are there patterns in the language they are not mastering? How are they being assessed? Could methods of informal assessment be improved? How well does the material match the learning objectives? Are the learning objectives tied to an organized curriculum? Is the curriculum tied to standards? Once an area of focus is determined, teachers can use particular strategies to then revamp and implement new practices in a collaborative environment with peer feedback and more opportunity to improve. This structure can allow for strategies to be applied and transform teaching. Alternately, if new ideas from a stand-alone workshop are applied in a classroom without first looking at areas for improvement and considering how progress will be identified, it is much more random and difficult to verify positive results. Furthermore, if teachers implement strategies learned by reading or other passive activities without observation and feedback, positive outcomes may be simply perceived by the individual and not truly evaluated. A study that employed content focus and active learning was carried out in an adult literacy program in Ohio. Professional developers brought a learning project into the classroom and instructors participated along-side their students. The lesson combined students at different functioning levels and was interactive. The intent was to give instructors a hands-on experience of how to successfully combine levels while providing opportunity for the students to meet learning objectives by constructing meaning working together. This activity allowed for the instructors to better internalize how the students received the lesson and how knowledge was constructed because they experienced the lesson as a student (Hanna, Salzman, Reynolds & Fergus, 2010). This approach did offer an

26

innovative spin on job-embedded engagement. Teachers gathered data on how students learn by participating. It is not clear what teachers did with the strategies they learned beyond expressing that they had a positive learning experience with their students. No matter how meaningful a learning experience is, if there is not application beyond the initial meeting, impact is minimal (Joyce & Showers, 2007). If the Ohio teachers solidified this activity within a learning group, there would be more chance that practices could continue to improve based on the concepts they learned in the intervention lesson. Attending to the features of professional learning within a community of practice can provide the structure needed to forward adult literacy teaching and research. When groups forward learning with application, reflection, feedback and evaluation of professional development activities, progress can be measured. Measurement of progress is important to advance students opportunities to be successful on a larger scale. Measurement of progress is also important to add to the small body of research in adult English language teaching. Conclusion Adult ESL programs across the country serve students with a range of educational background and learning needs. To meet students learning needs that support their lifeskills, work-skills, and academic needs, teachers should continually improve upon their understanding of how students learn specific ESL content. In order to do this, investment in focused and well-planned professional learning activities is key. High-quality professional development and transformative professional learning can be best built within infrastructures that have plentiful resources to support development and
27

implementation. These learning opportunities should be aligned to broader initiatives and goals within programs and states and be led by teacher leaders or other professional facilitators who can assist teachers in connecting research to practice with feedback and reflection ingrained. Teachers should have a stake in crafting learning goals relevant to their needs and the needs of their students. Professional learning should be appropriate to a teachers experience level: Mentoring relationships are an example of engagement for both new and experienced teachers and can be supported within a learning community. Teacher learning is most impactful when participants are part of a collegial community of practice with others from their program or those who teach the same student levels and type of content. Activities should be job-embedded, informed by data, centered on student work and how students learn, active, and occur over a length of time that will allow for cycles of development, implementation, and evaluation. Content should be focused and specific and correlated to second language acquisition theory and content standards that are aligned to initiatives in the field and a broad cohesive vision.

28