Child and Adolescent Development

(II-B BSBT)

INTRODUCTION
The field of psychology may have grown to be respected as a science. Human development is one of the most popular areas of interest for those who study psychology. Freud, Erikson and Piaget are all great theorists with different ideas concerning human development. Each theorist developed ideas and stages for human development. Each theory differed on what these stages were. Freud is known as the father of psychology. Although some of his work has been dismissed, most of it still holds weight in the world of psychology. Freud believed that human development was fueled by inner forces. He believed the most powerful of all inner forces was our sexual beingto which gave way to the different aspects that make life. The study of development concerns the events and the processes that occur as a single cell becomes a complex organism. These same processes are also seen as the newly born or hatched organism matures, as a lost part regenerates, as a wound heals and even during aging. Furthermore, development requires growth, differentiation and morphogenesis. During growth, cells divide, enlarge and divide once again. Differentiation occurs when cells become specialized in structure and in function. Like how a muscle cell looks and acts quite differently than a nerve cell. While morphogenesis occurs when body parts are shaped and patterned into a certain form. Thus, there is a great deal of difference between the function of the legs and arms even though they contain the same type of tissue. Moreover, human development not only covers the different stages from conception of offspring to birth, but it as well encompasses the different factors that determine the initial event before the actual beginning of life which are reproduction, inheritance and sexual orientation.

Concepts and Terms

Gamete - one of the two types of reproductive cells that join fertilization to form a zygote. X-chromosome - Female chromosome Y chromosome - Male chromosome Gonads - sex glands; the ovaries in females, and the testes for males Social context - refers to the psychological position that people react to things differently depending on their immediate environment. Context - is a setting, and every childs development occurs in numerous contexts including homes, schools, peer groups, churches, neighborhoods, communities, cities and countries. Each of these settings is influenced by social and economic factors. Each may reflect the influence of culture, ethnicity and socioeconomic status. Culture - encompasses the behavior patterns, beliefs and all other products of a particular group that are passed on from generation to generation. Ethnicity - refers to characteristics that are rooted in cultural heritage, including religion, nationality, race and language. Ethnicity is central to the development of an ethnic identity, which is a sense of membership in an ethnic group, based on shared language, religion, customs, values, history and race. Race and ethnicity are sometimes confused. Race is a controversial classification of people according to real or imagined biological characteristics such as skin color and blood group. An individuals ethnicity can include his or her race but also many other characteristics. Socioeconomic status (SES) - refers to the grouping of people with similar occupational, educational and economic characteristics. Socioeconomic status implies certain inequalities. Generally, members of a society have (1) occupations that vary in prestige and some individuals have more access than others to higher-status occupations; (2) different levels of educational attainment, and some individuals have more access than others to better education; (3) different economic resources; and (4) different degrees of power to influence a communitys institutions. Conceptionit is the union of the ovum (female) and sperm (male).

Implantation- it is the process by which or stage at which an embryo becomes embedded in the lining of the womb.

I.

CHROMOSOMAL DIFFERENTIATION OF SEX

When a human egg or sperm cell is produced, it contains 23 chromosomes. Twenty-two of these are autosomes that carry most of the genetic information used by the organism. The other chromosome is a sex-determining chromosome. There are two kinds of sexdetermining chromosomes: the Xchromosome and the Y-chromosome. The two sex-determining chromosomes, X and Y, do not carry equivalent amounts of information, nor do they have equal functions. X chromosomes carry typical genetic information about the production of specific proteins in addition to their function in determining sex. For example, the X-chromosome carries information on blood clotting, color vision and many other characteristics. The Y chromosome, however, appears to be primarily concerned with determining maleness and has few other genes on it. When a human sperm cell is produced, it carries 22 autosomes and a sex-determining chromosome. Unlike eggs, which always carry an Xchromosome, half the sperm cells carry an X chromosome and the other half carry a Y-chromosome. If an X-carrying sperm cell fertilizes an X-containing egg cell, the resultant embryo will develop into a female. A typical human female has an X-chromosome from each parent. If a Y carrying sperm cell fertilizes the egg, a male embryo develops. It is the presence or absence of the Y chromosome that determines the sex of the developing individual. A. Male and Female Fetal Development

Development of embryonic gonads begins very early during fetal growth. First, a group of cells begin to differentiate into primitive gonads at about week 5. By week 7 or 8, these gonads will become testes if a Y-chromosome is present; they will develop later into ovaries beginning at about week 10 if two X chromosomes are present. As soon as the gonad has differentiated into an embryonic testis or ovary it begins to produce hormones. The ovary produces estrogen and the testis produces testosterone. These chemical control molecules produced by the ovaries and testes influence the further development of the embryo, causing it to complete its sexual differentiation. B. Sexual Maturation of Young Adults Following birth, sexuality plays only a small part in physical development for several years. Culture and environment shape the responses that the individual will come to recognize as normal behavior. During puberty, normally between 12 and 14 years of age, increasing production of sex hormones causes major changes as the individual reaches sexual maturity. Generally, females reach puberty six months to a year before males. After puberty, humans are sexually mature and have the capacity to produce offspring.

A.

PRODUCTION OF SEX CELLS

1)

SPERMATOGENESIS

2)

OOGENESIS

GERMINAL STAGE (Conception to implantation)

The egg and the sperm.

Millions of sperm enters the fallopian tube seeking for the egg.

As the sperm reaches the egg, it attaches itself and penetrates the membrane

As it penetrates the membrane, the tail disengages to the head and penetrates the nucleus.

As the head of the sperm enters the nucleus, it forms into a zygote. The zygote divides into two.

And after the zygote divides into two, it divides into four and so forth.

Until it becomes a hallow ball of cells called blastula.

Then after that the blastula, implants itself to the uterine wall and other developments occur.

EMBRYONIC STAGE (3 to 8 Weeks After Conception) MONTH 1 : (4TH,5TH,6TH,7THWEEK) As the fertilized egg grows, a water sac forms around it, gradually filling with fluid called amniotic sac , in which the baby floats and helps cushion the growing embryo. The placenta also develops. The placenta is a round, flat organ that transfers nutrients from the mother to the baby. At about 4 weeks , the babys heart starts beating at a normal rate of 65 times per minute. And at the end of the first month, the baby is about inch long-smaller than a grain of rice. FETAL STAGE (9th week to birth) MONTH 2 : (8TH,9TH,10TH,11TH,12TH WEEK) Babys facial features continue to develop. Ear begins as a little fold of skin at the side of head. Tiny buds that eventually forms into arms and legs starts to develop. Fingers, toes and eyes are also forming. Neural tube (where the brain, spinal cord and other neural tissue is connected to the central nervous system) is well formed. Digestive tract and sensory organs begin to develop. Head is large in proportion to the body. And at the end of the month the baby is about1 inch long and 1/30 of an ounce. MONTH 3 : (13TH,14TH,15TH,16TH WEEK) Babys arms, hands, fingers, feet and toes are fully formed. Baby can open its fists and mouth. Fingernails and toenails begins to develop The ears are fairly complete. Reproductive organs also develop, but it is hard to distinguish the gender of the baby. The circulatory and urinary systems are working and liver produces bile. The baby is about 3 inches long and weighs an ounce.

MONTH 4 (17TH,18TH,19TH,20TH WEEK) Babys heartbeat can be heard though the use of the instrument called Doppler. Fingers and toes are well defined. Eyelids,eyebrows,eyelashes,nails are formed. Cartilage starts to condense and be replaced by bones. Baby can suck his/her thumb,yawn,stretch and make faces. Hair growth begins; fetus is very human looking at this age. The nervous is starting to function. The reproductive organs and genitalia are now fully formed. Babys gender can be determined By the end of the month, the baby is about 6 inch long and weighs about 4 ounces. MONTH 5 (21ST,22ND,23RD,24TH WEEK) By this month you may feel the baby is moving. He/she is developing his/her muscles and exercising it. Babys shoulders, back and temples are covered by a soft fine hair called laguno. This hair protects the baby and is usually shed at the end of the babysfirst week of life. Babys skin is covered with whitish coating called vernix caseosa. This cheesy substance protects the babys skin in its long exposure to amniotic fluid. By the end of the month, the baby is about 10 inches long and weighs to 1 pound. MONTH 6 (25TH,26TH,27TH,28TH,29TH WEEK) The babys skin is reddish in color. Veins are visible because of translucent skin. The baby matures and develop reserves of body fat Babys finger prints and toe prints are visible. Baby responds to stimulus by moving. You may also notice jerking motions if baby hiccups. Nervous system, blood and breathing systems are functioning. By the end of the month the baby is about 12 inches long and weighs about 2 pounds.

MONTH 7 (30TH,31ST,32ND,33RD WEEK). Babys hearing is fully developed. Responds to stimuli by moving and change position. The amniotic fluid begins to diminish. By the end of the month the baby is about 15 inches long and weighs about 2 to 4 pounds.

MONTH 8 (34TH,35TH,36TH WEEK) The baby continues to mature and develop. The baby is kicking more. Babys brain is developing rapidly at this time. Baby can see and hear. Most internal systems are well developed but lungs may still be immature. By the end of the month the baby is about 18 inches long and weighs as much as 5 pounds.

MONTH 9 (37TH,38TH,39TH,40TH WEEK) Babys lungs are nearly matured. Babys reflexes are coordinated he/she can blink, close the eyes, turn the head ,grasp firmly and responds to sounds, light and touch. Moves less because of tight space. Babys position changes to prepare for labor and delivery The baby drops down to the pelvis and its head is down to the birth canal. By the end of the month the baby is about 18 to 20 inches long and weighs about 7 pounds.

II. BIRTH

Birth normally begins 266 days after the conception and occurs in 3 stages: 1. Dilation of the cervix 2. Descent and emergence of the baby, and 3. Expulsion of the placenta and the umbilical cord

The First Stage

During the first stage, the uterus contracts and the cervix flatten and dilate to allow the fetus to pass through. This stage can last from about 2- 16 hours, or even longer; it tends to be longer with the first child. When the contraction starts, they usually come at approximately 15- 20 minute intervals and are generally mild. Near the end of this stage, the contraction will change and become more difficult, longer and more frequent. The most difficult part of labor is called transition By the end of this stage, the cervix is dilated to about 10 centimeters and contractions occur every minute or so.

The Second Stage

Involves the actual delivery of the baby The expulsion stage is quite variable and can last anywhere from 2-60 minutes or more. In the average delivery, the babys head appears first, an event referred to as crowning The rest of the body soon follows The Third Stage

Involves the delivery of the placenta and fetal membranes. Mild contraction continue for some time Contraction helps decrease the blood flow to the uterus and reduce the uterus to normal size.

HISTORY OF PREPARED CHILDHOOD

Before the 1920s, birth took place, for most part, at home and were attended to by the doctors or midwives. In those times, women flocked to hospitals for the new modern methods of painless childbirth. This consists of: Separating the mother from the rest of the family, using drugs to make her oblivious to what was happening. Breast- feeding was discouraged and replaced with modern infant formulas and baby bottles. The father and the mother had absolutely no control over their childbirth experience, everything was orchestrated by the doctor. Dr. Grantley Dick-Read of England saw the beauty in participatory childbirth. He noticed that women who had someone with them to explain events had significantly less pain. He wrote Birth Without Fear LAMAZE METHOD -Collection of techniques designed to manage discomfort and facilitate birth so that the use of painkilling drugs can be avoided or minimized In the late 1940s Fernand Lamaze, a French obstetrician, studied Russian techniques of conditioned responses to reduce childbirth pain. His techniques were embraced by French women who felt American drugs were dangerous and expensive. His theory was rejected. However an American woman who gave birth to her first child and Elizabeth Bing started a movement promoting Lamaze Method. How is the Lamaze Method done? 1. Lamaze method explain the whole birth process to expectant mothers to ease their fears and anxieties in child bearing 2. Expectant mothers learn the methods of breathing and muscular control that reduces pain. 3. The father, a partner or a friend is trained to give emotional support the mother during childbirth. Childbirth Techniques in Lamaze method Controlled deep breathing Light massage of the abdomen Concentrating on a focal point (e.g picture, flower etc.) The coach is very much involved Allows the woman to have control over her body and helps with her labor management

The Lamaze Method of Delivery can help reduce the pain of labor and birth. Relaxation is the cornerstone or comfort during labor. The theory of Lamaze Method is that a woman in labor can condition her responses to contractions through breathing and imagery to minimize her pain.

THE LEBOYER METHOD Frederick Leboyer -wrote Birth Without Violence This method encourages the mothers to: Take up Indian chanting and thus to transform pregnancy and childbirth into spiritual experience. Breathe deeply and slowly from the belly Chant a loud pure sound on the outbreath and with the contractions.

Leboyer believes that when a woman is giving birth, she is reborn herself. Birth is not something sweet. It is the most intense experience a woman can go through. A controversial method called gentle birth involves delivering babies in quiet, dimly lit delivery rooms, without forceps and with only local anesthetic. The umbilical cord is not clamped immediately, nor is the new born slapped to initiate breathing. Instead, the infant is bathed in warm water and placed on mothers belly right after birth. THE BRADLEY METHOD This method feels that there is danger in current obstetrical procedures. They encourage the use of midwives rather than technical oriented doctors. Parents should take the responsibility for the birth place, procedures and emergency back up.

THE KITZINGER METHOD -Uses mental imagery to enhance relaxation The use of touch, massage and visualization helps the woman flow with the contraction rather than ignore or breath it away The mother is encouraged to labor in any positions that is comfortable for her. Pushing is done when the body tells you. Between pushes, short breaths are taken

THE GAMPER METHOD Self-determination and confidence given by the instructor in the ability to work and cooperate with the natural forces of childbirth Classes begin early in pregnancy so that the fear-tension-pain cycle can be broken and new self-confidence instilled early

THE SIMKINS METHOD Elizabeth Nobles technique involves relaxation of the pelvic floor muscles and learning ways to relax them. Her gently pushing or breathing baby out technique is how incorporated in many classes. Her approach emphasizes on women listening to their body

THE ORDENT METHOD Places the mother and baby both in water. When some women are reluctant to leave at the time of delivery, they were delivered submerged, without drowning the baby since the baby lived in fluid for 9 months.

KINDS OF BIRTH
A. Spontaneous or Normal Birth - The position of the fetus and its size in relation to the mothers reproductive organs allow it to emerge in the normal, head first position.

The head is born and rotates back to its the left is born. previous position. The shoulder rotates to pass through the pelvis.

The right shoulder, and then

The baby breathes spontaneously 30 minutes Mucus is cleaned from its air passages. The umbilical cord is clamped

The placenta is delivered within of the baby.

B. Breech Birth - The buttocks of the fetus appear first, flowed by the legs, the arms and finally the head. Instruments like forceps are used to aid the delivery

Transverse Presentation The fetus lies crosswise in the mothers uterus, so that if this portion cannot be changed before birth process, instrument must be used to aid the delivery.

C. Instrument Birth o When the fetus s too large to emerge spontaneously or when its position makes normal birth impossible, instruments must be used to aid the delivery.

D. Caesarean Section If the fetus is too big to pass through the birth canal without a prolonged and difficult labor, even when instruments are used, it is delivered surgically by making a slit in the maternal abdominal wall.

Issues, Problems & Concerns

A. Chromosomal Defect

The evidence that the Y-chromosome controls male development comes as a result of studying individuals who have an abnormal number of chromosomes. An abnormal meiotic division that results in sex cells with too many or too few chromosomes is called nondisjunction. Turners Syndrome If nondisjuncton affects the X and Y chromosomes, a gamete might be produced that has only 22 chromosomes and lacks a sex-determining chromosome, or it might have 24, with the two sex-determining chromosomes. If a cell with too few or too many sex chromosomes is fertilized, an abnormal embryo develops. If a normal egg cell is fertilized by a sperm with no sex chromosome, the offspring will have only one X chromosome. These people are designated as XO. An individual with this condition is female, is short for her age, and fails to mature sexually, resulting in sterility. Klinefelters Syndrome A person with Klinefelters syndrome is an individual who has XXY chromosomes and is basically male. The symptoms include sterility because of small testes that do not usually produce viable sperm, lack of facial hair, and occasional breast tissue development. Although they are sterile, men with this condition have normal sexual function.

B.

PROBLEMS IN PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT Diseases of a mother Rubella Rubella (German Measles) A contagious disease of short duration, caused by virus infection. The disease is characterized by a rosecolored rash and frequently by other mild symptoms, such as a slight fever, sore throat, and swelling of the lymph glands behind the ears. The rash, which lasts from one to four days, first appears on the face and spreads rapidly to the chest, limbs, and abdomen. German measles is most common among teenagers and young adults and rarely occurs in infants or in adults over the age of 40. It has an incubation period of 14 to 21 days, more commonly 17 or 18 days. An attack of the disease usually confers lifelong immunity. In the United States, some 360 cases of German measles are reported each year. German measles can have severe consequences for women in the first three months of pregnancy. The newborn child may be afflicted with various congenital abnormalities, including heart defects, mental retardation, deafness, and cataracts. AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) HIV can be transmitted from an infected mother to her baby while the baby is still in the womans uterus or, more commonly, during childbirth. The virus can also be transmitted through the mothers breast milk during breast-feeding. Mother-to-child transmission accounts for 90 percent of all cases of AIDS in children. Mother-tochild transmission is particularly prevalent in Africa. Aids weaken the immune system. Children show a susceptibility to more bacterial and viral infections than adults. More than 20 percent of HIV-infected children develop serious, recurring bacterial infections, including meningitis and pneumonia. Some HIV-infected children suffer from repeated bouts of viral infections, such as chicken pox. Healthy children generally develop immunity to these viral illnesses after an initial infection.

 Herpes Name applied to several types of skin eruptions characterized by formation of blisters. The term embraces primarily two distinct disorders, herpes simplex and herpes zoster, both caused by types of herpes viruses. Other herpes viruses include Epstein-Barr virus, the cause of infectious mononucleosis and cytomegalovirus, which can lead to birth defects when the virus invades pregnant women. Together, these viruses are estimated to cause more human illnesses than any other group of viruses. Genital herpes can be transmitted through delivery when the mothers herpes is active that time. If it is active other complications may occur like the menigoencephalitis that may affect the brain and spinal cord. Drugs taken by the mother Smoking infants of mothers who smoke are on average about half a pound lighter at birth than are of infants of nonsmoking mothers. Nicotine constricts the blood vessels, which reduces blood flow to the placenta, in turn reducing nutrition to the fetus. In the long term, such nutritional deprivation seems to increase slightly the risk of learning problems or poor attention span on school age. There are also some signs of higher rates of behavior problems. Drinking The effects of alcohol on the developing fetus range from mild to severe. At the extreme end of the continuum are children who exhibit a syndrome called Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. The effects of it to the fetus, they are generally smaller than normal, with smaller brains. They frequently have heart defects and their faces are distinctively different. They have mild mental retardation. Cocaine Some mothers who take illegal drugs may have a big possibility to have a baby that is below the normal weight. Some developing fetuses that are exposed to cocaine are born prematurely. And also they are more likely to be the same as the alcohol exposed babies because

they have small head circumference. Some exposed babies also show withdrawal symptoms after birth. Such as irritability, restlessness, shrill crying, and tremors. Other influences on Prenatal Development Diet. if there is malnutrition during pregnancy, there is a high risk of having a baby with low birth weight and infant death in its first year of life. If the baby have survived its first year and the following years there is still a high risk of having a child with low IQ. Mothers Age. Current researches shows that mothers over 30 have a high risk of having complications like miscarriages, complications of pregnancy such as high blood pressure or bleeding and death during pregnancy or delivery. And also early pregnancy in the ages 15 to 18, can cause many risk like low birth weight and other complications like miscarriages because of not so matured uterus Mothers emotional state. Exposure to heat, light, noise, shock and stress may lead to low birth weight and miscarriages. GENETIC ERRORS -Huntingtons disease Huntingtons Disease (HD), also known as Huntingtons chorea, hereditary, progressive disease of the nervous system characterized by involuntary twitching movements of the arms, legs, face, and body. Patients with HD also develop concentration, memory, and emotional problems that eventually prevent them from participating in everyday activities and caring for themselves. People with HD are born with an abnormal gene, but actual symptoms of the disease usually do not begin until middle age. According to the Huntingtons disease Society of America, approximately 30,000 people in the United States have the disease. An additional 150,000 people are said to be at risk for HD they have an affected parent or sibling and may have inherited the disease themselves, but have not yet developed symptoms.

 Down syndrome

The most common chromosomal disorder, the down syndrome, affects about 1 in 800 newborns. People with Down syndrome characteristically have three copies of the autosomal chromosome known as number 21 instead of the normal pair of number 21 chromosomes. For this reason, Down syndrome is commonly called trisomy 21. People with Down syndrome usually have mild to severe learning disabilities and physical symptoms that include a small skull, an extra fold of skin at the inner corner of each eye, and a flattened bridge of the nose. They also may have heart defects and other serious health problems. o Klinefelters Syndrome, genetic disease affecting 1 in 850 males. It occurs when a male inherits an extra X, or female, sex chromosome that interferes with the development of male characteristics. Klinefelters syndrome is characterized by enlarged breasts (gynecomastia), little or no facial and body hair, a small penis and testes, reduced sex drive, and the inability to produce sperm. Although a child with the condition is not developmentally disabled, he may learn to speak later than other children and have difficulty learning to read and write. o Turner Syndrome, relatively common genetic disorder that causes abnormal growth development and infertility in females. Turner syndrome is characterized by certain physical features, including short stature, loose folds of skin on the neck, a small jaw, and a higher incidence of heart, kidney, and thyroid problems. Some individuals with the disease experience learning difficulties. There is no cure for Turner syndrome, but early diagnosis of the disease and continuous medical treatment throughout life can promote growth and effectively manage related medical conditions. Turner Syndrome occurs in about 1 out of every 2,000 live female births. Girls with the disorder do not develop secondary sexual characteristics, the body changes, such as breast development, that occur during puberty. They typically have underdeveloped ovaries, which prevents the onset of menstruation and also contributes to infertility later in life.

Turner syndrome is caused by a partially or completely missing sex chromosome. Chromosomes are gene-carrying structures found within the nuclei of cells. In the human body, all cells except for sperm and egg cells contain 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. Of these, 22 of the pairs each consist of chromosomes that are almost identical, while the 23rd pair contains special chromosomes that determine the sex of the individual. The sex chromosome pair in healthy males contains an X and a Y chromosome, while the sex chromosome pair in females contains two X chromosomes. In a female born with Turner syndrome, part or all of one X chromosome in her sex chromosome pair is absent. Scientists do not know what causes this chromosomal abnormalityit apparently occurs randomly and is not linked to factors known to increase the risk of a birth defect, such as a pregnant womans exposure to d rugs, radiation, or disease-causing viruses or bacteria. Tay - Sachs disease Tay-Sachs Disease (TSD), rare genetic disorder of the central nervous system that leads to progressive brain deterioration and death. Babies born with TSD appear to develop normally for about six months but then develop signs of rapid deterioration of physical and mental functions that lead to blindness, seizures, mental retardation, inability to swallow, respiratory problems, and paralysis. There is no cure for TSDeven with the best of care, children with the disease die in early childhood, usually by the age of five. An estimated 20 cases of TSD are diagnosed in the United States each year. TSD is caused by a defective gene that is unable to produce the enzyme hexosaminidase A (hex A). This enzyme is necessary to break down GM2 ganglioside, a fatty substance in the nerve cells of the brain. Children with TSD have no hex A; as a result, GM2 ganglioside builds up in their brain cells, causing the cells to degenerate and die. Although this process begins in the fetus early in the mothers pregnancy, the TSD symptoms are not apparent until GM2 ganglioside has built up to toxic levels in the brain.

Childbirth
Pre-term

is an inherently dangerous and risky activity, subject to many complications. The "natural" mortality rate of childbirthwhere nothing is done to avert maternal deathhas been estimated at 1500 deaths per 100,000 births. Modern medicine has greatly alleviated the risk of childbirth. In modern Western countries, such as the United States and Sweden, the current maternal mortality rate is around 10 deaths per 100,000 births. As of June 2011, about one third of American births have some complications, "many of which are directly related to the mother's health. Birthing complications may be maternal or fetal, and long term or short term.

Newborn mortality at 37 weeks may be 2.5 times the number at 40 weeks, and was elevated compared to 38 weeks of gestation. These early term births were also associated with increased death during infancy, compared to those occurring at 39 to 41 weeks ("full term").Researchers found benefits to going full term and no adverse effects in the health of the mothers or babies. Medical researchers find that neonates born before 39 weeks experienced significantly more complications (2.5 times more in one study) compared with those delivered at 39 to 40 weeks. Health problems among babies delivered "pre-term" included respiratory distress, jaundice and low blood sugar. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists and medical policy makers review research studies and find increased incidence of suspected or proven sepsis, RDS, Hypoglycemia, need for respiratory support, need for NICU admission, and need for hospitalization > 4 5 days. In the case of cesarean sections, rates of respiratory death were 14 times higher in pre-labour at 37 compared with 40 weeks gestation, and 8.2 times higher for prelabour cesarean at 38 weeks. In this review, no studies found decreased neonatal morbidity due to non-medically indicated (elective) delivery before 39 weeks. Labor complications The second stage of labor may be delayed or lengthy due to: malpresentation (breech birth (i.e. buttocks or feet first), face, brow, or other) failure of descent of the fetal head through the pelvic brim or the interspinous diameter poor uterine contraction strength active phase arrest cephalo-pelvic disproportion (CPD) shoulder dystocia Secondary changes may be observed: swelling of the tissues, maternal exhaustion, fetal heart rate abnormalities. Left untreated, severe complications include death of mother and/or baby, and genitovaginalfistula.

Dystocia (obstructed labor) Dystocia- is an abnormal or difficult childbirth or labour. Approximately one fifth of human labours have dystocia. Dystocia may arise due to incoordinate uterine activity, abnormal fetal lie or presentation, absolute or relative cephalopelvic disproportion, or (rarely) a massive fetal tumor such as a sacrococcygealteratoma. Oxytocin is commonly used to treat incoordinate uterine activity, but pregnancies complicated by dystocia often end with assisted deliveries, including forceps, ventouse or, commonly, caesarean section. Recognized complications of dystocia include fetal death, respiratory depression, hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy (HIE), and brachial nerve damage. A prolonged interval between pregnancies, primigravid birth, and multiple birth have also been associated with increased risk for labor dystocia. Shoulder dystocia is a dystocia in which the anterior shoulder of the infant cannot pass below the pubic symphysis or requires significant manipulation to pass below it. It can also be described as delivery requiring additional manoeuvres after gentle downward traction on the head has failed to deliver the shoulders. A prolonged second stage of labour is another type of dystocia whereby the fetus has not been delivered within three hours in a nulliparous woman, or two hours in multiparous woman, after her cervix has become fully dilated. Maternal complications Vaginal birth injury With visible tears or episiotomies are common. Internal tissue tearing as well as nerve damage to the pelvic structures lead in a proportion of women to problems with prolapse, incontinence of stool or urine and sexual dysfunction. Fifteen percent of women become incontinent, to some degree, of stool or urine after normal delivery, this number rising considerably after these women reach menopause. Vaginal birth injury is a necessary, but not sufficient, cause of all non hysterectomy related prolapse in later life. Risk factors for significant vaginal birth injury include:

A baby weighing more than 9 pounds. The use of forceps or vacuum for delivery. These markers are more likely to be signals for other abnormalities as forceps or vacuum are not used in normal deliveries. The need to repair large tears after delivery.

Pelvic girdle pain- Hormones and enzymes work together to produce ligamentous relaxation and widening of the symphysis pubis during the last trimester of pregnancy. Most girdle pain occurs before birthing, and is known as diastasis of the pubic symphysis. Predisposing factors for girdle pain include maternal obesity. Infection- remains a major cause of maternal mortality and morbidity in the developing world. The work of IgnazSemmelweis was seminal in the pathophysiology and treatment of puerperal fever and saved many lives.

Hemorrhage, or heavy blood loss, is still the leading cause of death of birthing mothers in the world today, especially in the developing world. Heavy blood loss leads to hypovolemic shock, insufficient perfusion of vital organs and death if not rapidly treated. Blood transfusion may be lifesaving. Rare sequelae include HypopituitarismSheehan's syndrome. The maternal mortality rate (MMR) varies from 9 per 100,000 live births in the US and Europe to 900 per 100,000 live births in Sub-Saharan Africa. Every year, more than half a million women die in pregnancy or childbirth. Fetal complications Mechanical fetal injury Risk factors for fetal birth injury include fetal macrosomia (big baby), maternal obesity, the need for instrumental delivery, and an inexperienced attendant. Specific situations that can contribute to birth injury include breech presentation and shoulder dystocia. Most fetal birth injuries resolve without long term harm, but brachial plexus injury may lead to Erb's palsy or Klumpke's paralysis. Neonatal infection Disability-adjusted life year for neonatal infections and other (perinatal) conditions per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004. Excludes prematurity and low birth weight, birth asphyxia and birth trauma which have their own maps/data. Neonates are prone to infection in the first month of life. Some organisms such as S. agalactiae (Group B Streptococcus) or (GBS) are more prone to cause these occasionally fatal infections. Risk factors for GBS infection include:

prematurity (birth before 37 weeks gestation) a sibling who has had a GBS infection prolonged labour or rupture of membranes

Untreated sexually transmitted infections are associated with congenital and perinatal infections in neonates, particularly in the areas where rates of infection remain high. The overall perinatal mortality rate associated with untreated syphilis, for example, approached 40%. Neonatal death Infant deaths (neonatal deaths from birth to 28 days, or perinatal deaths if including fetal deaths at 28 weeks gestation and later) are around 1% in modernized countries. The most important factors affecting mortality in childbirth are adequate nutrition and access to quality medical care ("access" is affected both by the cost of available care, and distance from health services).

Intrapartum asphyxia Intrapartum asphyxia is the impairment of the delivery of oxygen to the brain and vital tissues during the progress of labour. This may exist in a pregnancy already impaired by maternal or fetal disease, or may rarely arise de novo in labour. This can be termed fetal distress, but this term may be emotive and misleading. True intrapartum asphyxia is not as common as previously believed, and is usually accompanied by multiple other symptoms during the immediate period after delivery. Monitoring might show up problems during birthing, but the interpretation and use of monitoring devices is complex and prone to misinterpretation. Intrapartum asphyxia can cause long-term impairment, particularly when this results in tissue damage through encephalopathy.

References: Mader, Sylvia S. (1994). Inquiry into Life 7th ed. Wm. C. Brown Communications Inc.. Dubuque, Iowa. http://www.google.com.ph/?gws_rd=cr#bav=on.2,or.rqf.&fp=2c47a942cd4d814&q=birth +methods http://pregnancy.familyeducation.com/labor-and-delivery/medicalinterventions/57540.html http://www.webmd.com/baby/guide/delivery-methods http://www.bradleybirth.com/ http://themotherbabycenter.org/during-delivery/childbirth-methods

Submitted By: Mia Samantha M. Carungay Jolina Cambaling Krizzia Leanne R. Beltran Lander T. Barrogo

Submitted to: Prof. Zhanina Custodio

Written Report On Infancy and Its Development

Submitted by: IIB-BSBT CORPORAL, Aziel O. CUYUGAN, Matthew S. DEHESA, Joshua Lenoirz FELIZARTA, Joshua Micole

Submitted to: Prof. Zhanina Custodio

I. Introduction 1. Baby Shark Dance The facilitator will ask the students to stand and will introduce to them the motivational activity entitled Baby Shark Dance. He/ She will show the whole class how to perform the Baby Shark Dance then afterwards the students will join him/her in performing the said motivational activity. 2. Facial Expression This motivational activity will be lead by the facilitator. The students will need to make faces after the facilitator tell them to show what a person looks like when feeling a certain emotion.

II. Concepts TERM Canalization Cephalocaudal Principle Cognitive Development MEANING self-righting process in which the child catches up in growth despite a moderate amount of stress or illness. growth principle explaining that development begins at the head and proceeds downwards Cognitive development is the construction of thought processes, including remembering, problem solving, and decision-making, from childhood through adolescence to adulthood. theory that neonates show limited number of emotions that are biologically determined theory of motor development emphasizing the interaction between the organism and the environment The process by which infants and children begin developing the capacity to experience, express, and interpret emotions. The ability to understand and share the feelings of other transient changes in the brains' electrical activity that refelect the activtity of a group of neurons responding to a stimulus. process by which an individual spends less and less time attending to a familiar stimulus The earliest period of childhood, especially before the ability to walk has been acquired refers to the entire first year of life Principle of muscular development stating that control

Differential Emotions Theory Dynamic System Theory Emotional Development

Empathy Event-related potential

Habituation Infancy Infant Mass to Specific

Neonates Primary Emotions

Proximodistal Principle Saltatory Growth Secondary Emotion

SIDS

Social Development

Social Referencing

of the mass, or larger muscles, precedes control of the fine muscles. baby's first month of life Emotions that appear early in infancy, are innately determined, xan be recognized through the facial expreessions, and reflect a subjective experiences. growth principle explaining why internal organs develop faster than the extremities growth marked by brief spurts and stops Emotion that begins to appear in the second year of life and require sophisticated cognitive abilities, for example envy and pride. Known as the sudden infant death syndrome. It is the sudden death of an infant under 1 year of age that remains unexplained after a thorough investigation Social development is a process that results in the transformation of social structures to improve the capacity of a society in order to fulfil its objectives. It aims specifically in developing power to elevate expansion of human activity. Phenomenon in which a person uses information received from others to appraise events and regulate behavior.

II.

Characteristics Shortest of all developmental stage ( 0 to 2 weeks) Time of radical adjustments Platue in development Preview of later development, and Hazardous period

This period is divided into 2 PERIOD OF PARTUNATE birth to cutting and tying of umbilical cord PERIOD OF NEONATE from cutting and tying of umbilical cord to the end of 2 weeks

First adaptation First breath babies are blue at the moment of birth, but right after the first breath their skin change into pinkish color.

 CHANGE in temperature babys body shivers after they were born to warm themselves Burning stored brown fats that is only found in fetuses & newborn Getting used to germs baby is born with ability to ward all certain types of infection. Sticky eyes or a sticky discharge from the eyes. First feed breast feeding . colostrums first milk of the mother Theories related Psychosocial trust vs mistrus Psychoanalytic oral stage Cognitive -- sensorimotor

REFLEXES simple automatic reaction to a stimulus Kinds of reflexes 1. Sucking when he gets his mouth around something suckable 2. Swallowing present at birth but not coordinated with breathing 3. Placing when the backs of the babys feet are drawn against the edge of the flat surface, the baby withdraws his feet 4. Tonic neckbaby is laid down and he is imitating a fencers position 5. Stepping when the feet touches the ground he starts to make steps 6. Moro startle reflex, throws both arms outward and arches his back 7. Darwinian (grasping) baby curls fingers around your hand or other objects 8. Babinsky you stroke the bottom of his foot, splays out his foot and curls them 9. Swimming when baby is placed in water faced down, the baby makes well coordinated movements 10. Rooting infant touched in the cheek will turn towards the touch and search for something to suck

ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT 1. Cognitive (Physical Knowledge Activities) The cognitive development of a child depends on the parents. According to Burton White (1971), there are three major differences between mothers of competitive and less competitive infants. Mothers of competent child are able to understand the meaning of learning through experience. Second, parent doesnt smoother the child with attention, but they are available when needed. Third, they had firm limits; they are not too permissive or too punishing. Parents can create an environment conducive for the learning of the infant. But problem starts to arise if the parent put pressure on their children to achieve certain abilities too early for their age. 2. Physical/ Motor Infants grow rapidly. Although some scientists believe that growth is basically slow but regular process, Lampl et. Al (1992, 1995) suggested that a pattern of brief spurts and stops in which a child grow as much as 0.5inch a day and then enter a considerable period of no growth or also known as salutatory growth. But according to Heinrich et. Al in 1995, the growth takes place in a gradual manner. Child development follows a patter and is governed by principles. One of which is the cephalocaudal principle. This principle explains that the development will start from the head down to the feet. Another principle which explains child development is proximodistal principle. In this principle, organs nearest to the middle of the organism develop faster than the extremities. When it comes to muscle development it follows a path from a control of mass to specific muscles. We develop control over the larger muscles responsible for major movements. Development is also directional. It moves from a state of largely involuntary t incomplete control toward one of the voluntary control. Another theory of motor development emerged called dynamic systems theory (thelen & Adolph, 1992; Theleb & Smith, 1998). This theory states that interaction between the organism and the environment helps in the motor development of a child. 3. Social Babies are affected by physical form of communication, like facial expressions, tone and loudness of voice. This helps them in communicating with the people around them. The phenomenon in which a person uses information received from others to appraise events and regulate is called social referencing. 4. Emotional

Since infants cant talk and tell how they feel, psychologist investigated the facial gestures, psychological responses, or the sound infants make in response to some stimulus to understand their emotional development. Malatesta et. Al (1989) states that young infants possess a limited number of emotion also called the differential emotions theory. These specific emotions are innate and include interest, disgust, physical distress, and a precursor of surprise, called a startle. Primary emotions appear early in life and they can be easily recognized from facial expressions. Secondary emotions, on the other hand, appear during the second year of life and requires more cognitive and, since the infant has no personality (identity), every action is based upon the pleasure principle. IV. Theories Attachment Theory Attachment theory describes the dynamics of long-term relationships between humans. Its most important tenet is that an infant needs to develop a relationship with at least one primary caregiver for social and emotional development to occur normally. Attachment theory explains how much the parents' relationship with the child influences development. Infants become attached to individuals who are sensitive and responsive in social interactions with them, and who remain as consistent caregivers for some months during the period from about six months to two years of age; this is known as sensitive responsiveness. ability. Learning plays a big part on emotional development thus relating this to cognitive development. Babies can discriminate different facial expression as young as 2 or 3 months. They can also distinguish their own cry. We often hear a baby cry when he/ she is hungry or something pains him/her. Babies can detect another babys cry and usually when he/ she hear it he/she will respond with a cry. This way they are able to show empathy to the other baby. 5. Moral The id dominates, because neither the ego nor the super ego is yet fully developed, Psychosexual Development Oral stage

The first stage of psychosexual development is the oral stage, spanning from birth until the age of two years, wherein the infant's mouth is the focus of libidinal gratification derived from the pleasure of feeding at the mother's breast, and from the oral exploration of his or her environment, i.e. the tendency to place objects in the mouth. Nonetheless, the infantile ego is forming during the oral stage; two factors contribute to its formation: (i) in developing a body image, he or she is discrete from the external world, e.g. the child understands pain when it is applied to his or her body, thus identifying the physical boundaries between body and environment; (ii) experiencing delayed gratification leads to understanding that specific behaviours satisfy some needs, e.g. crying gratifies certain needs. Weaning is the key experience in the infant's oral stage of psychosexual development, his or her first feeling of loss consequent to losing the physical intimacy of feeding at mother's breast. Yet, weaning increases the infant's self-awareness that he or she does not control the environment, and thus learns of delayed gratification, which leads to the formation of the capacities for independence (awareness of the limits of the self) and trust (behaviors leading to gratification). Yet, thwarting of the oralstage too much or too little gratification ofdesire might lead to an oralstage fixation, characterised by passivity, gullibility, immaturity, unrealistic optimism, which is manifested in a manipulative personality consequent to ego malformation. In the case of too much gratification, the child does not learn that he or she does not control the environment, and that gratification is not always immediate, thereby forming an immature personality. In the case of too little gratification, the infant might become passive upon learning that gratification is not forthcoming, despite having produced the gratifying behavior.

Psychosocial Development Trust Vs Mistrust The trust versus mistrust stage is the first stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage occurs between birth and approximately 18 months of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child's caregivers. If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of

mistrust in the children they care for. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.

Cognitive Development Sensori-motor The first stage of Piaget's theory lasts from birth to approximately age two and is centered on the infant trying to make sense of the world. During the sensorimotor stage, an infant's knowledge of the world is limited to his or her sensory perceptions and motor activities. Behaviors are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli. Children utilize skills and abilities they were born with (such as looking, sucking, grasping, and listening) to learn more about the environment. Object Permanence:According to Piaget, the development of object permanence is one of the most important accomplishments at the sensorimotor stage of development. Object permanence is a child's understanding that objects continue to exist even though they cannot be seen or heard. Imagine a game of peek-a-boo, for example. A very young infant will believe that the other person or object has actually vanished and will act shocked or startled when the object reappears. Older infants who understand object permanence will realize that the person or object continues to exist even when unseen. Substages of the Sensorimotor Stage: The sensorimotor stage can be divided into six separate substages that are characterized by the development of a new skill. Reflexes (0-1 month): During this substage, the child understands the environment purely through inborn reflexes such as sucking and looking. V. Issues EyesWhen you get home from the hospital, the baby's eyes may have some white or yellow discharge caused by irritation from the medicine that was put in at birth. This should clear up within 5 or 6 days and should not get much worse at any time. If it does get worse or lasts more than a week, get medical advice promptly.

 Head ShapeIn passing through the birth canal, the head may become molded into a peculiar shape. It will become more normal in the first several weeks of life.Body fluid may accumulate under part of the scalp, causing a firm, spongy lump or "caput." This will disappear in a few weeks. Blood may accumulate on the surface of one of the bones of the skull, causing a soft squashy lump "cephalohematoma." This kind of lump may take several months to disappear completely. A child who always lies on one side may show flattening and loss of hair on that part of the head. This, too, will disappear as your infant grows older. None of these conditions will cause any problems later in your child's life. The Umbilical Cord and the Navel or Belly Button The stump of the umbilical cord, which is cut at birth, usually falls off within 5 to 9 days. The navel then often shows a slight oozing or bleeding for a few days. If it does, clean it once or twice a day with soap and water or with alcohol. Bleeding or oozing that lasts more than 2 or 3 days after the cord falls off should be brought to the attention of a doctor. Older Brothers and SistersOlder brothers and sisters are often jealous of the time that you spend with your new baby. Try to find some time to give each of them special attention. Don't be surprised if a child between ages 2 and 5 starts thumb sucking, wetting pants, or asking for bottles or diapers in imitation of a new baby. This child is simply seeking attention. Give as much as you can of the attention needed but don't encourage such a child to return to baby-like habits. A child older than 3 1/2 or 4 years can usually understand the arrival of a baby and help you take care of the newborn. Children between ages 1 and 3 1/2 years should never be left alone with the baby They are too young to understand the baby. They may pick up and drop, squeeze too hard, sit on, or put dangerous things in the infant's mouth or crib. They may hurt the infant with tools, utensils or furniture! This is not because they are "bad," but because they may be jealous of the new arrival. Give them the individual attention they need, let them help you and the baby in whatever way they can when you are with the baby, and NEVER LEAVE THEM ALONE WITH THE BABY. Crying Babies cry to tell parents that they are in some way not satisfied or comfortable. Your job is to find out why and, if possible, to do something about it. Hunger is the most common cause. Loneliness is probably the next most common cause, especially after the first few months. Some babies cry only because they are tired. Actual pain from an open diaper pin or from colic is much less common. The baby's own temperament makes a big difference. Some will let out a roaring cry at the first sign of hunger or discomfort while others will become quietly restless and not actually cry for some time. Some will cry whenever the diaper is wet or soiled; others will ignore the diaper until it causes enough irritation to cause actual pain. Some will object to baths, to being placed

in bed, to having the lights put out or to other sudden changes. Excessive clothing or clothing that is not warm enough may cause discomfort and crying. But there is always a cause, and usually you should be able to figure out what the cause is and to do something about it. This does not mean that you can't let a hungry or wet child wait for several minutes while you finish what you are doing. But it does mean that no child should be left to cry for any prolonged period of time without serious attempts to find out what is wrong and to correct it.Many babies do have a time each day when they are just fussy or crying without any reason that you can discover. After you have checked for a cause of crying, you can safely ignore these fussy periods.Most children want attention and handling. If a baby becomes quiet and content when picked up, it was probably just loneliness that caused the crying. A few minutes offondling and play, and then perhaps leaving the baby in the room with you where you can be seen is all that is needed. If there is actually hunger or pain, the crying will soon start again even if you are holding or playing with your infant. Don't worry about "spoiling" your baby. Giving the needed attention during the first year will help build the trust which will help him or her learn more "grownup" behavior later on.Many infants rest better if they are firmly wrapped, or swaddled, in a blanket or wrapper. Colic some babies have attacks of crying nearly every evening, usually between 6:00 and 10:00 p.m. During such attacks, babies frown, their faces redden, and they draw their legs up. They scream loudlya cry quite different from the cries of hunger or loneliness. Crying may continue from 2 to 20 minutes even when the baby is picked up and comforted. The attack may end suddenly, or soft crying may last a few minutes after the hard crying stops. Just as the baby is about to fall asleep, another attack may occur. Gas may rumble in the stomach and be passed through the rectum.No one knows what causes such attacks. They often come at the same time every day. At other times of the day the infant is happy, alert, eats well and gains weight. During an attack, holding the infant across your knees on his or her stomach often will give some comfort. There is little you can do except comfort the baby until the attack stops. Be sure the baby isn't just hungry, wet or lonely, and that no part of the clothing is uncomfortable. Most importantly, remember that colic does not interfere with your baby's general health and growth, and that your baby will grow out of it by the time he or she is 12 to 16 weeks old. Colicky babies do annoy their mothers and fathers and anybody living in the household. Remind everyone that it is not the baby's fault, it is not your fault, and the baby will get over it. If the colic becomes a real problem, it is worth a special trip or call to the doctor, who may be able to prescribe a medicine to make the baby rest more comfortably. Babies enjoy using their fingers to feed themselves Encourage your baby to eat such "finger foods" as crackers, bits of bread or toast, bits of cheese or meat, or small bits of banana or peeled apple. Let the baby try drinking from a cup by 5 or 6 months old. Put just a little bit in the bottom of the cup at first, then increase the amount as your baby learns to drink more skillfully. Encourage your baby to hold the cup and the bottle during feedingsthe sooner your baby learns this,

the less you will have to help. Let your baby help you handle the spoon during feedings. If you sit behind your baby during feedings, your infant can hold onto the spoon or your hand and learn the movements needed to eat without your help. This may slow you down and make some mess, but your baby will be eating without your help sooner. By 9 or 10 months old, babies generally are able to eat most of the things cooked for the rest of the family. You will still have to mash up some of the vegetables and cut the meat, chicken, or fish into tiny bites.

VI. Problems and Diseases COMMON PROBLEMS AND DISEASES OF NEWBORN BABIES Anemia What is anemia? Anemia is having too few red blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen to the body. Why do babies get anemia? They may be born with anemia If there is loss of blood from the baby before or near the time of delivery. If the baby's mother makes antibodies against their red blood cells, destroying them. This is called ABO or Rh incompatibility. Babies may become anemic later because their red blood cells have a shorter life than red blood cells of adults. This may be exaggerated if the baby's blood type is different than the mother's. Because they make few new red blood cells in the first few weeks of life Because blood is taken from the baby to do necessary laboratory tests. How is anemia treated? Anemia is usually treated by transfusions of red blood cells obtained from the blood bank. This is the only way to increase the number of red blood cells rapidly.Anemia can also be treated by erythropoietin. This is a drug similar to the substance the body normally produces to increase the number of red blood cells. It works slowly over days to weeks. It is not useful if the anemia needs to be treated more rapidly.Anemia does not always need to be treated if it is not severe and if the baby is not sick or having frequent laboratory tests. Eventually the baby will make more red blood cells.Later, as the baby grows, s/he may need an additional source of iron. This may be an iron fortified formula, vitamins with iron, or iron drops. Iron is needed by the body to make red blood cells.

Can my baby have my blood for transfusions? Women who have recently given birth are not usually considered for blood donation because they have already lost blood with the delivery of the baby.Blood for a baby must be from someone with a compatible blood type and it must pass several screens for exposures to certain viruses. The majority of potential donors are not acceptable for these reasons. Even if you give blood regularly, your blood may not be acceptable for your baby. Apnea and Bradycardia What is apnea? Apnea is a pause in breathing that has one or more of the following characteristics: lasts more than 15-20 seconds is associated with the baby's color changing to pale, purplish or blue is associated with bradycardia or a slowing of the heart rate What is bradycardia? Bradycardia is a slowing of the heart rate, usually to less than 80 beats per minute for a premature baby. Bradycardia often follows apnea or periods of very shallow breathing. Sometimes it is due to a reflex, especially with the placing of a feeding tube or when the baby is trying to have a stool. Is all apnea due to prematurity? No, apnea of prematurity is by far the most common cause of apnea in a premature infant. However, apnea can be caused or increased by many problems including infection, low blood sugar, patent ductus arteriosus, seizures, high or low body temperature, brain injury or insufficient oxygen. Why do premature babies have apnea? Premature babies have immature respiratory centers in the brain. Preemies normally have bursts of big breaths followed by periods of shallow breathing or pauses. Apnea is most common when the baby is sleeping. Will apnea of prematurity go away? As your baby gets older, his/her breathing will become more regular. The time course is variable. Usually apnea of prematurity markedly improves or goes away by the time the baby nears his/her due date. How is apnea treated? Several treatments are possible. Your baby may be treated with one or more of the following:

 Medications that stimulate breathing. Commonly used drugs include theophylline, aminophylline, or caffeine. CPAP or continuous positive airway pressure. This is air or oxygen delivered under pressure through little tubes into the baby's nose. Mechanical ventilation (breathing machine). If the apnea is severe, the baby may need a few breaths from the ventilator every minute. These might be given at regular intervals or only if apnea occurs. Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia What is bronchopulmonary dysplasia? Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is a form of longer lasting lung disease. It occurs in term infants who have had severe lung problems including infection, meconium aspiration or poor lung development before birth (pulmonary hypoplasia).

What causes BPD? BPD is an imflammatory reaction of the baby's lung to the lung disease and to the oxygen and mechanical ventilation that were needed to treat the infants lung disease. How will I know if my baby has BPD? BPD is usually diagnosed if a baby continues to have an abnormal chest x-ray and still needs oxygen for a month or more. However, your baby's doctor may be concerned enough to treat your baby's continuing lung disease long before this date. A baby with BPD may also have one or more of the following: rapid breathing more difficult breathing wheezing or noisy breathing wet or crackling sound to the lungs heard with a stethoscope more difficult time growing

How is BPD treated? A baby with BPD needs extra oxygen for a long period of time. This may be several weeks or months, occasionally for more than a year. Babies with BPD may be discharged on home oxygen. Some babies are treated with other medications. These might include: Steroids - drugs to decrease the body's reaction to oxygen Diuretics - drugs to help the body to get rid of extra water Drugs to decrease wheezing Feeding and Nutrition

VII. Characteristics and traits of a Filipino Infant Filipino Traits, Traditions & Beliefs: Beliefs on Children Posted by Carrie B. Yan If a baby often holds his feet, it means that he wants a younger brother or sister. Cutting a baby's eyelashes during her first month will make it grow long and beautiful. An infant must not be kissed when he is sleeping because he will become naughty when he grows up. A baby who sucks on her toes means her mother will soon be pregnant again. Kissing a baby's feet will result to the child talking back to her parents when she grows up. A breech baby will bring luck to the family. He or she will also have the power to remove fish spines stuck in another person's throat merely by touching that person's neck. When a baby is baptized, he should be carried by a person with plenty of coins in his hand or pocket. This brings good luck to the baby. A child that cries during his baptism is a sign of prosperity. The harder the child cries, the richer he will be. When a child is ready to walk, put him on the stairs. Have him step on a plate or anywhere else so long as his feet do not touch the ground first. This is to ensure that he will always find his way home wherever he may roam. If a child's milk tooth falls out, throw it up on the roof of the house so that the rats will find it. When the new tooth grows in, it will be as strong and as powerful as a rat's tooth. Children should not be allowed to play late in the afternoon when the horizon is yelloworange in color, because evil spirits roam around that time. Stepping over a child while he is asleep will slow down his growth.

References: Goldenring, J., (2011). Infant reflexes. Retrieved from https://ufhealth.org/infant-reflexes Mayo Clinic Staff, (2010). Infant and toddler health. Retrieved from http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/infant-development/PR00061. Yan, C., (2011). Filipino Traits, Traditions & Beliefs: Beliefs on Children. Retrieved from http://www.globalpinoy.com/gp.topics.v1/viewtopic.php?postid=4e2d1f01e9cf4&channel Name=4e2d1f01e9cf4.

Gabon, Edward Geografo, Jasmin Ginoo, Rick Jofhel Jovisino, John Michael II-B BSBT

Toddlerhood/Babyhood
I. Introduction Whos that girl/boy? The group will collect photographs among the class during their toddlerhood stage. The class will guess or identify who among their classmates is shown on the picture. Afterwards, this will be used by describing how they look on their picture during the stage of toddlerhood. Simpy Describe. The reporter will present pictures to the class. The class will simply describe what the picture depicts. Upon describing all of the pictures, the class now has an idea of a toddler and the most important characteristics of a toddler. Concepts Babyhood This period occupies the first two years of life. There is gradual but pronounced decrease in helplessness. It means that everday, week, and month, the individual becomes more independent, so that, when the babyhood ends with the second birthday, the individual is a quite different person than when babyhood began.

II.

III.

Characteristics During the first year of life, the baby is labeled lap baby as he is still very much a helpless individual. During the second year of life, he is labeled as a toddler. A toddler is a baby who has achieved enough body control to be relatively independent. The outstanding characteristics of babyhood which extends from the end of the second week to the second year of life, are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. True foundation age A time of rapid growth and development A time of decreased dependency A time of increased individuality Beginning of socialization

6. A time of sex role typing and creativity 7. A time that is both appealing and hazardous 8. Development of physiological functions occur at a rapid stage 9. Pre-speech 10. Combination of sensory exploration, motor manipulation 11. Critical period in personality development 12. "terrible two's"

One-year old Toddler

Physical Development - Toddlers may eat less, but they tend to eat frequently throughout the day. They get better at feeding themselves, although spills should still be expected. They may grow less quickly than during infancy. Most walk without support by 14 months. Most walk backward and up steps by 22 months. They can drink from a cup with help. They can scribble. They can stack blocks. Social and Emotional Development - Temper tantrums are common. They have difficulty sharing toys. They may be possessive. They want to do things independently. They cannot remember rules. They show increasing fears. They have rapid mood shifts. Their emotions are usually very intense but short-lived. Routines are very important. They enjoy playing by themselves or beside (not with) other children. They view themselves as the center of the world. They may continuously ask for their parents. They become increasingly more self-aware. They begin to express new emotions such as jealousy, affection, pride and shame. Intellectual Development - Toddlers name familiar people and objects. Their attention span is short. They are curious. They use "NO" frequently. They point to objects that they want. They name body parts and familiar pictures. They imitate animal sounds. They use pronouns me and mine. They can hold a pencil and scribble. They combine two words to form a basic sentence. They point to objects that they want. They use objects for their intended purpose. They begin to include a second person in pretend play. Two-year old Toddler

Physical Development - They stand on tip toes. They throw balls and kick them forward. They walk, run, climb, walk up and down stairs alone and dig. They jump with two feet together. They feel discomfort with wet or soiled diapers. They start to show an interest in toilet training. They take things apart and put them back together. They like to screw and unscrew lids. Children are generally more active than at any other point in their lives.

Social and Emotional Development - They try to assert themselves by saying "No." They like to imitate the behavior of adults and others. They want to help with household tasks. They begin to play simple pretend games. Their fantasy play is very short and simple. It does not involve others. They sometimes do the opposite of what is asked. They are generally very self-centered and sharing is still difficult. They enjoy playing near other children. They refuse to help. They are more sure of themselves than oneyear-old children. They become frustrated easily. They still need security. Intellectual Development - They express their feelings and wishes. They follow simple directions. They still have a very limited attention span. They use three or more words in combination. They can memorize short rhymes. They use objects to represent other objects. They can join in simple songs. They have trouble making choices, but they want to make choices. They begin to think about doing something before doing it. IV. Theories Anal stage reflects the toddlers need for gratification along the rectal area. During this stage, children must endure the demands of toilet training. For the first time, outside agents interfere with instructional impulses by insisting that the child should inhibit the urge to defecate until he has reached a designated place to do so. Trust vs. Mistrust infants whose needs are met, and who are cuddled, fondled, and shown genuine affection evolve a sense of the world as a safe and dependable place. In contrast, when a child is chaotic, unpredictable, and rejecting, the child approaches the world with fear and suspicion. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt as children begin to crawl, walk, climb, and explore, a new conflict confronts them: whether to assert their wills or not. When parents are patient, cooperative and encouraging, children acquire a sense of independence and competence. In contrast, when children are not allowed with such freedom and overprotected, they develop an excessive sense of shame and doubt. They too approach the world with fear and suspicion. Sensorimotor stage is determined basically on actual perception of the senses and the external or physical factors. The first experience develops continuously on its encounter. How learning takes place depends on what is experienced at the beginning. V. Issues

TODDLERS WHO OVEREAT Toddlers eat too much and may be on the road toward childhood obesity. Obesity can cause medical problems such as diabetes, heart disease and early puberty as well as psychological and self-esteem problems. PICKY TODDLERS ANOTHER FEEDING PROBLEM COMES WHEN TODDLERS ARE HUNGRY AND WANT TO EAT, BUT THEY ONLY WANT TO EAT CERTAIN FOODS.

SWALLOWING PROBLEMS

The condition that children sometimes develop that causes swallowing problems is called dysphagia. Problems with tooth development, tonsils that are too large for the throat or a cleft palate, throat tumors, digestive tract deformities, paralyzed vocal chords and an enlarged tongue also can cause the problems. Children with dysphagia often take more than 30 minutes to finish a meal.

Toddlers Toilet Problems

Toilet training a toddler can be a lengthy process that requires patience from parents. No matter how frustrated you get, you should never force your child to use the toilet, because your child will lose motivation and the entire training process will be difficult for you both. Speech Delay

Delayed speech can be a problem related to other issues, such as autism or a hearing difficulty. Other factors like large tonsils, allergies that cause congestion or having a sibling who does most of the talking can cause a delay. Regression Speech regression occurs when a child stops using words he has used previously, halting his progression.

VI.

Teaching and learning applications Toddlers limited concentration

In this age toddlers easily break their attention. There are so many stimulus that may get the childs concentration, example of it are sounds and things to her surroundings. In this situation the focus of the child is so very limited that she may not get what are youre talking or what are you doing to make her improved. Application Do a series of activities that caught the interest of your child Make her surroundings less stimulated, sound resistant room, placing things in a cabinet.

Runaway toddlers In this stage of toddlerhood theyre often to runaway to their parents because they want to explore the world independently. They are too eager to discover the world in their own. Application Ask for the Behavior You Want Give Specific Warnings Create Consequences Turn It into a Game Saying no Toddlers want some control in her surroundings so they often say no to you. Saying no is normal to this stage.

Application Focus on the positive Give reasons to your request Encourage imitation Get her into giggle mode Reward good behavior Tantrums Toddlers common problems are tantrums. There are reasons why toddlers doing tantrums. First they didnt get what they want. Second it was their way to communicate to you. Application Give the child some space Create diversion Find out whats Really Frustrating the Kid Hugs Offer Food or suggest a Little activity

Give Your Kid Incentive to Behave Speak Calmly Toddlers learn how to share Sharing in this stage is difficult to the toddlers because they always want their belongings alone with them. Application Make all the materials the same to the others.

Early bullies Biting, hitting, kicking and others are one of the factors that they often dont control in that stage of development. Applications Give direct instructions by using your words Be consistent Give him an alternative Know your child's triggers. References
http://www.babycenter.com/0_potty-training-problems-and-solutions_12439.bc Dreisbach, Shaun. 10 Ways to Tame Your Kids Tantrums. Retrieved from http://www.parents.com/toddlers-preschoolers/discipline/tantrum/tame-your-kidstantrums/ Hanton, Cynthia. Controlling Hitting, Biting, Pushing, and Shoving. Retrieved from http://www.parents.com/toddlers-preschoolers/discipline/improper-behavior/controllingtoddler-hitting-biting-pushing-shoving/ Rank Lev, Katy. Kid on the Loose: Stop Toddlers from Running Away. Retrieved from http://www.parents.com/toddlers-preschoolers/development/physical/stop-toddlers-fromrunning-away/ http://www.mumsnet.com/toddlers/sleep-problems

Submitted by: Jusi, Judy Ann Lozada, Ma. Rossana Mae D. Lozada, Shelomith Hope P. Mazo, John Louelle

II- B BSBST

Submitted to: Ms. Zhanina Custodio

OBJECTIVES
To know how children process concepts, behave, feel, and react at this stage. To understand why is early childhood considered as critical period. To know what and how do we address the issues, concerns, and problems in this period.

INTRODUCTION
Early childhood is a stage in human development. It generally includes toddlerhood and some time afterwards. Play age is an unspecific designation approximately within the scope of early childhood. Early childhood is a time of remarkable physical, cognitive, social and emotional development. Infants enter the world with a limited range of skills and abilities. Watching a child develop new motor, cognitive, language and social skills is a source of wonder for parents and caregivers.

CONCEPTS:
Animistic thinking - It is characterized by the child's belief that inanimate objects, for example, dolls, possess desires, beliefs, and feelings in a similar way that the child does. Autism - is a disorder of neutral development characterized by impaired social interaction and verbal and non-verbal communication, and by restricted, repetitive or stereotyped behavior. Castration Anxiety- boys develop a fear that their father will punish them for these feelings, such as by castrating them.

Centration refers to the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a situation, problem or object. Early Childhood (2 to 6 years old), labeled by parents as the problem, the troublesome, or the toy age; by educators as the preschool age and by psychologists as the pre-gang, the exploratory, and the questioning age.

Electra Complex - a girl's sense of competition with her mother for the affections of her father. Empathy - a major stimulus for prosocial behavior; the sharing of another's emotional response.

Fixation- It occurs when certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage.

Imitation- one of the most important ways children learn about the social world

Memory - the ability to encode information, store it, and retrieve it

Oedipus complex - the boy wishes to possess his mother and replace his father

Physical development results from the interaction between individual factors of heredity and environmental forces

Private Speech talking aloud to oneself with no intent to communicate with others

Prosocial behaviors- behaviors such as altruism, empathy and cooperation that are common among children

Socialization the process of acquiring the standards, values and knowledge of communities

Social and Emotional Development a two sided process in which children become increasingly integrated into the larger community as distinct individuals

CHARACTERISTICS
Physical: Extremely active; have good control of their bodies; enjoy activity for itself Have inclination toward bursts of activity, so they need frequent rest periods as they often dont know they need to slow down. They are clumsy especially in skills like typing shoes and buttoning.

Social : Play groups tend to be small and too highly organized Play patterns vary according to social class, gender, or age. Awareness of sex role typing is evident.

Emotional: Tend to express their emotions freely and openly; anger outbursts are frequent. Jealousy among classmates is likely to be common because they seek attention and affection of teachers.

Cognitive: Quite skillful with languages; most like to talk especially in front of groups. May stick to own rules in the use of language.

ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT
Physical

Their weight quadruples and increase height by two-thirds. May begin to lose "baby" (deciduous) teeth. Body is adult-like in proportion. Visual tracking and binocular vision are well developed. Boys are on average slightly taller and heavier than girls

Cognitive

Can builds tower out of blocks, mold clay into rough shapes Understands concept of same shape, same size. Sorts objects on the basis of two dimensions, such as color and form. Identifies objects with specified serial position: first, second, last. Recognizes numerals from 1 to 10. Many children know the alphabet and names of upper- and lowercase letters. Can use larger writing instruments such as fat crayons and pen Begin to show the skills necessary for starting or succeeding schools Start to manipulate clothing Children continue to refine eating skills and can use utensils like forks and spoon Asks innumerable questions: Why? What? Where? When? How? Eager to learn new things. Start to manipulate clothing

Social and emotional

Enjoys and often has one or two focus friendships. Shows affection and caring towards others especially those below them or in pain Generally subservient to parent or caregiver requests. Likes entertaining people and making them laugh. Boasts about accomplishments. Often has an imaginary friend

Anxious to please; needs and seeks adult approval, reassurance, and praise; may complain excessively about minor hurts to gain more attention. Often can't view the world from anothers point of view Self-perceived failure can make the child easily disappointed and frustrated. Does not understand ethical behavior or moral standards especially when doing things that have not been given rules May be increasingly fearful of the unknown like things in the dark, noises, and animals.

Moral

Concept of Morality may emerge as a result of interactions with adults and peers. Show concern about deviations from the way objects should be and how people

THEORIES
Psychosexual Development Theory By: Sigmund Freud

Early Childhood stage: Erogenous Zone: Genitals (3-6 years old) During the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and females. Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mothers affections. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to replace the father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety. The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy.

Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this stage.

Cognitive Development Theory By: Jean Piaget

Early Childhood Stage: Preoperational Stage During this stage, young children are able to think about things symbolically. Their language use becomes more mature. They also develop memory and imagination, which allows them to understand the difference between past and future, and engage in make-believe. But their thinking is based on intuition and still not completely logical. They cannot yet grasp more complex concepts such as cause and effect, time, and comparison.

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY By: Erik Erikson

Early Childhood Stage: Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control. Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different then that of Freud's. Erikson believe that learning to control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection.

Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt During the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social interactions. Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT By: Lawrence Kohlberg Level: Preconventional Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment Orientation Kohlberg's stage 1 is similar to Piaget's first stage of moral thought. The child assumes that powerful authorities hand down a fixed set of rules which he or she must unquestioningly obey. At this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid punishment. The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished.

ISSUES, CONCERNS, AND PROBLEMS DURING THIS PERIOD

1. Speech and Language Development

Speech and language development issues affect a young child's ability to articulate well and speak properly. Parents should discuss concerns about their child's capacity to form sentences, understand receptive language and use expressive language effectively with an early childhood specialist. Speech services and language exposure promotes communication development in young children.

Hearing problems are also commonly related to delayed speech, which is why a child's hearing should be tested by an audiologist whenever there's a speech concern. A child who has trouble hearing may have trouble articulating as well as understanding, imitating, and using language. Ear infections, especially chronic infections, can affect hearing ability. Simple ear infections that have been adequately treated, though, should have no effect on speech. And, as long as there is normal hearing in at least one ear, speech and language will develop normally.

2. Physical Development Physical development issues affect a child's gross motor development and fine motor skills. Gross motor problems alter a child's ability to walk, run, kick and jump. A child with physical development delays may have poor muscle tone, lack strength or suffer from improper quality and range of motions. Fine motor difficulties affects the way a child holds a pencil, picks up an object or uses his hands. Physical and occupational therapists can help improve physical development issues in early childhood. On average, children are expected to grow at least 2 to 3 inches per year. Children should get plenty of exercise and sleep, and eat a balanced diet in order to continue to develop strong muscles and bones and to maintain a healthy weight. Teaching children about healthy lifestyles and promoting a positive body image is vitally important at this age. Obesity in young children can lead to diabetes, as well as increased risk for cardiovascular and other serious health problems in adulthood. Young children who are very overweight may also be teased, bullied, or ignored, which can set the stage for problems with self-esteem, depression, and other mental illnesses. The best way for parents to help children develop healthy lifestyle attitudes and behaviors toward food and exercise is to educate, to model, and to encourage appropriate eating and activity patterns. Continuing to provide children with love and nurturing that builds strong, positive self-images based on attributes other than appearance (e.g., kindness, trying hard, sharing, and doing well in sports or school) is also important.

3. Emotional and Social Development Emotional and social impairments concerns in child development affect coping ability, social interaction, emotional control and can cause impairments in school. These children often suffer from frustration when trying to learn new tasks. Adults that interact with children who suffer from early childhood issues involving emotional and social development should address the problem through proper role modeling, positive feedback and praise.

Autism is a disorder of neutral development characterized by impaired social interaction and verbal and non-verbal communication, and by restricted, repetitive or stereotyped behavior.

4. Behavioral Development Early childhood behavior issues lead to challenging conduct in young children. These concerns cause difficulty in school and among peers. Often children display disruptive behavior in response to the way adults interact with them. Therefore, adults who work with challenging young children should change the way they respond to the child. Performing an extensive review of the child can help determine effective interventions. Temporary behavior problems due to stress. For example, the birth of a sibling, a divorce, or a death in the family may cause a child to act out. Behavior disorders are more serious. They involve a pattern of hostile, aggressive, or disruptive behaviors for more than 6 months. The behavior is also not appropriate for the child's age

Warning signs can include : Harming or threatening themselves, other people or pets Damaging or destroying property Lying or stealing Not doing well in school, skipping school Early smoking, drinking or drug use Early sexual activity

Frequent tantrums and arguments Consistent hostility towards authority figures If you see signs of a problem, ask for help. Poor choices can become habits. Kids who have behavior problems are at higher risk for school failure, mental health problems, and even suicide. Classes or family therapy may help parents learn to set and enforce limits. Talk therapy and behavior therapy for your child can also help.

IMPLICATIONS TO TEACHING AND LEARNING

Provide plenty of opportunities for running, climbing, and jumping but these should be under control. Schedule quiet activities after strenuous ones Avoid too many small motor activities such as pasting paper chains; provide big tools and supplies. As much as possible, minimize the need for children to look at small things. Intervene immediately when blows to the head in games or fights between children occur and explain why. Avoid boy/ girl comparison or competition involving such skills. Provide assistance to those who like to be with others but lack the confidence or ability to join them. Determine when silence and sedentary activities are justifiable. Determine what type of social behavior each child exhibits and provide appropriate activities, especially free play ad experimentation. Give attention to the variety of play activities, to know what play patterns most children prefer or should be provided them. As much as possible, let the children settle their differences and intervene only quarrels get out of hand. Help children resist forms of sex typing and begin to acquire traits of both sexes (andrology).

Let children express their feelings within broad limits so they can recognize and face their emotions. Spread attention as equitably as possible; do most praising in private. Provide sharing time sessions. At the same time, help them become good listeners. Interact with children often, showing interest in what they do, appreciating their achievement, and allowing them to investigate and experience many things independently to certain limits.

REFERENCES:
MandyMac, (2010, November). Supermandymac. Retrieved from http://www.studymode.com/essays/Supermandymac-485715.html Fidalgo, Jennifer. Early Childhood Development Issues. Retrieved from http://www.ehow.com/list_6609209_early-childhood-development-issues.html

Kidshealth. Delayed Speech or Language Development. Retrieved from. http://kidshealth.org/parent/growth/communication/not_talk.html

U.S. National Library of Medicine, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services & National Institutes of Health, (2013, August 16). Child Behavior Disorders. Also called: Conduct disorders. Retrieved from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/childbehaviordisorders.html Angela Oswalt, MSW (2008, January 16) Early Childhood Physical Development: Average Growth. Retrieved from http://www.mentalhelp.net/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=12754

Kendra, Cherry (2013). Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development. Retrieved from http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/ss/psychosexualdev_4.htm WebMD(2012). Piaget Stages of Development. Retrieved from http://children.webmd.com/piaget-stages-of-development Kendra, Cherry (2013).Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development Psychosocial Development in Infancy and Early Childhood. Retrieved fromhttp://psychology.about.com/od/psychosocialtheories/a/psychosocial.htm

W.C. Crain. (1985). Theories of Development. Prentice-Hall. pp. 118136.Retrieved from http://faculty.plts.edu/gpence/html/kohlberg.htm Dr. Helen F. delos Santos & Dr. Conchita O. Manuel. Child and Adolescent Development.

MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (7-11 YEARS OLD)

Submitted by: Paule, Marie Anne B. Piloneo, Roy R. Quismorio, Ernesto Jr. C. Ramos, Diana L. Submitted to: Miss Zhanina U. Custodio

MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (7-11 years of age) Middle childhood brings many changes in a childs life. By this time, children can dress themselves, catch a ball more easily using only their hands, and tie their shoes. Having independence from family becomes more important now. Events such as starting school bring children this age into regular contact with the larger world. Friendships become more and more important. Physical, social, and mental skills develop quickly at this time. This is a critical time for children to develop confidence in all areas of life, such as through friends, schoolwork, and sports. CHARACTERISTICS MIDDLE CHILDHOOD ( 6-9 years old ) Physical Characteristics Still extremely active, hence, when restricted, their energy is released through nervous habits like fidgeting. Get fatigued easily because of physical and mental exertion. With more superior large-muscle control than fine coordination. Many have difficulty focusing on small prints or objects. Have excellent control over their bodies, are confident in their skills, and often underestimate danger. Bone growth is not complete yet, so, bones and ligaments can't stand heavy pressure. Social Characteristics Somewhat more selective in choosing friends and are likely to have a more or less permanent friends. Like organized games in small groups, but may tend to be overly concerned with rules or get carried away by team spirit. Quarrels are still frequent although words are used more often than physical aggression. Emotional Characteristics Sensitive to criticism and ridicule and may have difficulty in adjusting to failure. Most are eager to please the teacher. Beginning to become sensitive to the feelings of others. Cognitive Characteristics Are generally eager to learn; they have built-in motivation for this.

 Have much more facility in speech than in writing. Can make generalizations but based only on concrete experiences. Moral Characteristics Have the tendency to tell on their classmates, maybe due to jealousy or malice or simply to get attention or curry favor. LATE CHILDHOOD ( 9-11 years old ) Physical Characteristics Growth spurt occurs in most girls and starts in early-maturing boys. On the average girls between 10 and 14 are taller and heavier than boys of the same age. Concern and curiosity about sex are prevalent because these involve drastic biological adjustments. Fine coordination is quite good; manipulation of small objects is easy and enjoyable. Social Characteristics Peer group becomes powerful and begins to replace adults as basis of behavior standards and recognition of achievements. Increase development of interpersonal reasoning that leads to greater understanding to others' feelings. Emotional Characteristics Delinquent behavior may be manifested, caused more by disruptive family relationships, social rejection, and school failure. Some may show behavior disorder such as hyperactivity, bed wetting, antisocial behavior, ties, excessive fears, depression, eating disorder, anxiety, and withdrawal. Cognitive Characteristics Sex differences in specific abilities decrease in number and magnitude. Differences in cognitive styles become apparent. May be able to deal with abstraction but may still need to generalize from concrete experience. Moral Characteristics Emotions concerning pride and guilt become clearly governed by personal responsibility.

 Ideas about justice. Can now follow advance internalized standards. ASPECTS OF DEVOLOPMENT A. Physical/ Motor Development Growth slow in middle childhood and wide differences in height and weight exist. Children with retarded growth due to growth hormone deficiency may be given synthetic growth hormone. Proper nutrition is essential for normal growth and health. The permanent teeth arrive in middle childhood. Dental heath has improved, in part because of use of sealants on chewing surfaces. Malnutrition can affect all aspects of development. Concern with body image, especially among girls, may lead to eating disorders. Because of improved motor development, boys and girls in middle childhood can engage in a wide range of motor activities. About 10 percent of schoolchildren's play, especially among boys, is roughand-tumble play. Many children, mostly boys, go into organized, competitive sports. A sound physical education program should aim at skill development and fitness for all children. Many children, especially girls, do not meet fitness standards. B. Cognitive Development Piagetian Approach: The Concrete Operational Child A child at about age 7 enters the stage of concrete operations. Children are less egocentric than before and are more proficient at tasks requiring logical reasoning, such as spatial thinking, understanding of causality, categorization, inductive and deductive reasoning, conservation, and working with numbers. However, their reasoning is largely limited to the here and now. Cultural experience, as well as neurological development, seems to contribute to the rate of development of conservation and other Piagetian skills. According to Piaget, moral development is linked with cognitive maturation and occurs in two stages as children move from rigid to more flexible thinking. Information Processing and Intelligence Although sensory memory shows little change with age, the capacity of working memory increases greatly during middle childhood. The central executive, which controls the flow of information to and from longterm memory, seems to mature between ages 8 and 10.

Reaction time, processing speed, selective attention, and concentration also increase. These gains in information-processing abilities may help explain the advances Piaget described. Metamemory, selective attention, and use of memory strategies improve during these years. Language and Literacy Use of vocabulary, grammar, and syntax become increasingly sophisticated, but the major area of linguistic growth is in pragmatics. Despite the popularity of whole-language programs, early phonics training is a key to reading proficiency. Metacognition contributes to reading comprehension. Acquisition of writing skills accompanies development of reading. C. Social Development Along with their broadened exposure to adults and peers outside the family, children of these ages are typically given more freedom, more responsibilities, and more rights. They see adults acting in various social roles, and they see different adults acting in the same roleas teacher or camp counselor, for example. Increasingly, children spend time with their peers outside the orbit of parental control. As children get older, they become sensitive to what matters to other people. Children are concerned with winning acceptance from their peers, and they must manage conflicts between the behavior expected of them by adults and the social goals of the peer group. D. Self-Concept Development Children in the age of 7 are optimistic. They will rank themselves near the top, regardless of their actual performance levels. By age 10, however, children are typically far less optimistic, and there is a much stronger relation between their self-ratings and their actual performance. Their ability self-concepts and their expectations for success tend to decline over the years. Young children's skills improve quite rapidly, so for them it is not unrealistic to expect to shift from failure to success on any particular task. Self-esteem which grows out of comparisons with others is extremely important to success and happiness. E. Emotional Development

In middle childhood, the self-conscious emotions of pride and guilt become clearly integrated by personal responsibility; these feelings are now experienced in the absence of adult monitoring. Shame is often felt when violating a standard is not under one's control. Shame may also be experienced after a controllable breach of standards if the self-as-a-whole is blamed for it. Pride motivates children to take on further challenges, and guilt prompts them to make amends and strive for self-improvement as well. School-age children's understanding of psychological dispositions means that they are likely to explain emotion by making reference to internal states rather than physical events. These children are also more aware of the diversity of emotional experiences. Similarly, school-age children appreciate that emotional reactions need not reflect a person's true feelings, and they can use information about a person's past experiences to predict how he or she will feel in a new situation. Cognitive and social experience also contributes to a rise in empathy. Children come up with more ways to handle emotionally arousing situations as they make rapid gains in emotional self-regulation during middle childhood. When the development of emotional self-regulation has gone along well, school-age children acquire a sense of emotional self-efficacy-a feeling of being in control of their emotional experience. Emotionally well-regulated children are generally upbeat in mood, more empathic and pro-social, and better liked by their peers. F. Moral Development As children enter middle childhood, ideas of fairness are based on equalitychildren in the early school grades are intent on making sure that each person gets the same amount of a treasured resource. Soon children start to view fairness in terms of merit-extra rewards should be given to someone who has worked especially hard or otherwise performed in an exceptional way. Around age 8, children can reason on the basis of benevolence-they recognize that special consideration should be given to those in a condition of disadvantage. Parental advice and encouragement support these developing standards of justice, but the give and-take of peer interaction is especially important. As their ideas about justice advance, children clarify and create linkages between moral rules and social conventions. Culture influences the extent to which children separate moral rules from social conventions. THEORIES

A. Piaget's Cognitive Theory Middle childhood is talked about in Jean Piaget's Cognitive Theory. The concrete operational stage in his theory spans the years from 7 to 11; during this period thought is more logical, flexible, and organized than it was during early childhood. According to Piaget, children of this stage are characterized by the following: Conservation (Objects stay the same even if their form changes.). The ability to pass conservation tasks provides clear evidence of operations-mental actions that obey logical rules. Decentration is the ability to focus on several aspects of a problem at once and relate to them. Reversibility is the ability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem and then reverse the direction, returning to the starting point. Seriation is the ability to order items along a quantitative dimension, such as length or weight. Transitive inference is the ability to perform seriation mentally. Piaget found that school-age children have a more accurate understanding of space than they did earlier. Middle childhood brings improved understanding of distance. By the early school years, children understand that a filled-up space has the same value as an empty space. Between 7 and 8 years, children start to perform mental rotations, in which they align the self's frame to match that of a person in a different orientation. As a result, they can identify left and right for positions they do not occupy. Around 8 to 10 years, children can give clear, well-organized directions for how to get from one place to another by using a "mental walk" strategy in which they imagine another person's movement along a route. They can now group objects into hierarchies of classes and subclasses. Collections become common in middle childhood.

Limitations of Concrete Operational Thought Children think in an organized, logical fashion only when dealing with concrete information that they can perceive directly. Their mental operations work poorly when applied to abstract ideas. Horizontal decal age is gradual development that occurs within a Piagetian stage. For example, children usually grasp conservation problems in a certain order: first number; then length, mass, and liquid; and finally area and weight.

The Impact of Culture and Schooling

According to Piaget, brain maturation combined with experience in a rich and varied world should lead children in every culture to reach the concrete operational stage. Research indicates that conservation is often delayed in non-Western societies. For children to master conservation and other Piagetian concepts, they must take part in everyday activities that promote this way of thinking. Some researchers believe that the forms of logic required by Piagetian tasks are socially generated by practical activities in particular cultures. B. Erik Eriksons Psychosocial Theory Industry vs. Inferiority During the Middle School age, Erikson believes that recognition is a big asset to a child's life. He sees that children start to new skills and start to master skills that adults, such as parents, should give recognition to their kids. For example when they complete projects or accomplish athletic or artistic performances children want to see acknowledgment in their work. When they start to realize they are good with something they will continue to repeat this skill or also move on to other challenging skills to better themselves in life. The pattern of your child working hard and mastering lengthening a certain task is known as industry. Inferiority on the other hand is, when children feel they are punished for their hard work or efforts and when they understand they cannot meet their parental or adult needs they develop inferiority.

As a parent, it is important to encourage your child at this age to try new activities, such as sports or arts. While they are accomplishing a new task, parents need to recognize that and continue to praise and encourage their child. At this age, children need to feel they are accomplishing activities that adults do, it is an important strategy as a parent to remember their child wants to be accepted.

C. Morality Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to the question of whether Heinz was wrong or right, but in the reasoning for each participant's decision. The responses were then classified into various stages of reasoning in his theory of moral development. Level 1. Preconventional Morality Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment The earliest stage of moral development is especially common in young children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid punishment.

Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was the choice that bestserved Heinzs needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's own interests. Level 2. Conventional Morality

Stage 3 - Interpersonal Relationships Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships. Stage 4 - Maintaining Social Order At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing ones duty and respecting authority.

Issues, concerns, and problems during this period Developmental Milestones Childs growing independence from the family and interest in friends might be obvious by now. Healthy friendships are very important to childs development, but peer pressure can become strong during this time. Children who feel good about themselves are more able to resist negative peer pressure and make better choices for themselves. This is an important time for children to gain a sense of responsibility along with their growing independence. Also, physical changes of puberty might be showing by now, especially for girls. Another big change children need to prepare for during this time is starting middle or junior high school. Here is some information on how children develop during middle childhood:

Emotional/Social Changes

Children in this age group might:

Start to form stronger, more complex friendships and peer relationships. It becomes more emotionally important to have friends, especially of the same sex. Experience more peer pressure. Become more aware of his or her body as puberty approaches. Body image and eating problems sometimes start around this age.

Emerging Issues in Early and Middle Childhood The keys to understanding early and middle childhood health are recognizing the important role these periods play in adult health and well-being and focusing on conditions and illnesses that can seriously limit childrens abilities to learn, grow, play, and become healthy adults. Emerging issues in early and middle childhood include implementing and evaluating multidisciplinary public health interventions that address social determinants of health by:

Fostering knowledgeable and nurturing families, parents, and caregivers. Creating supportive and safe environments in schools, communities, and homes. Increasing access to high-quality health care.

A stronger and more robust surveillance system is needed to provide the data to understand and plan for the health and well-being of children. Issues to consider in understanding the results

Mastery and competence Eric Erikson characterized middle childhood as the stage when children are most challenged by the issues of mastery and competence. This time of life coincides with the child's increasing experience in the social arena. Middle childhood is marked by the transition from the world of the family to the world of peers and school. With children's increased exposure to others, they encounter new comparisons and judgements. This combination of factors leads to the development of a critical self, with self-esteem and identity based on a mixture of subjective, personalized opinions and objective opinions received from the external world. Whereas family and experience shape certain values and attitudes, others are influenced by society. From grades to clothes, others' ideas affect children's perceptions of themselves and their areas of competence. Adult influence: sprawl In many ways these children demonstrate that middle childhood is an age of enlightenment. Cognitively, children this age are more capable of understanding the complex adult world, no longer able to retreat with blinders to an age of innocence. Confronted with adult concerns, these enlightened children may be overwhelmed, and may not yet have developed effective coping tools. Although some results are consistent with developmental expectations, more distressing are other results suggesting that (1) sex role stereotyping in academic and social areas is being reinforced by society and that (2) attitudes and anxieties are being shaped by the adult world. Adult influence: protective factors Children in these middle years yearn for, and when given the chance, capitalize

on age appropriate resources: they seek comfort from adults. When allowed to choose anyone in their world for specific roles, "real" people rather than celebrities prove to be crucial in a child's world. Parents and other adults in a child's life are most likely underestimating their influence. In fact, parent-family connectedness and perceived school connectedness repeatedly have been found protective against various health risk behaviors such as emotional distress, suicidal thoughts, violence, use of cigarettes, alcohol and marijuana, and age of first sexual encounter for children.

Media Media are ubiquitous in life today. Consider that in 1950 only about 9% of American homes had TV sets, by 1955 the figure increased to 65% and by 1985 it reached 98%. Add to this the number of homes with a CD player (90%), with a personal computer or video-game equipment (89%) and homes with children having a VCR (97%) and media has a clear presence in family life. Interestingly, these results uphold gender differences within this media sphere, with boys prizing electronics more than do girls. Known differences between boys and girls are also reflected in their use of media. From an early age, girls tend to use more emotionally toned language and have relationships based on closeness whereas boys' relationships are based more on sameness and activity. Thus it is not surprising that girls use the internet for e-mail forms of communication and boys for games. Fears Certain identified fears are expected, such as those of bugs and the dark. But the preponderance of fears about violence raises questions about both the cause and effect of these fears. Put in a developmental context, by age 9 or 10, children have a mature concept of death, understand its cause and significance, and can imagine the reality of their own or another's death. Thus the study findings regarding fear are reflective of an age-appropriate sensitivity to fears of death. However, the expressed concern about guns and violence are likely out of proportion to the reality for many children. Distinguishing between realistic and perceived fear is difficult. Whether realistic or not, adults must still grapple with the stress caused by a child's fears. The effect of the media on perception of danger can not be dismissed. Whereas the homicide rate decreased 33% from 1990 to 1998, network coverage increased almost 500%. Since 1975 the scientific community has become confident in the link between violence in the media and aggression yet the news is reporting a weak link. Children's work: play Children's concern for the environment was represented by concern about the viability of play spaces - parks, black top for basketball games. This speaks to two different issues, one, a child's need for play and two, the long-range sensitivity to improving the world. Engaging in imaginative and creative play has always been important for development. Play allows children the opportunity to be self-reliant, to work through problems, and re-charge. Concern about an atrisk environment suggests children are attentive to accumulated ecological

hazards faced by society. Stepped-up efforts to educate children about everything from the greenhouse effect to recycling seem to be having a positive impact on children and their worry about the future. Concern about the loss of play spaces could also symbolize the potential loss of avenues of recreation perhaps representing the fear of diminished playtime as children get older and the limited leisure time used by adults.

Characteristics of Filipino in Middle Childhood

MIDDLE CHILDHOOD Seven and eight-year-old children are in a stage of development often called middle childhood. They attend school and they enjoy mastering lots of new physical skills. They learn rapidly in school. The opinions of their classmates matter more than ever before, and they begin to feel the effects of peer pressure. Review the rules and limits with the children. Let them help set the limits and rules. Change them when necessary. Let them help plan some activities. They can help solve their own problems. Seven and eight-year-old children need adults who care about them and will talk and play with them. These can be exciting years for the children and you. You can help them prepare to be healthy teens and adults. Remember that two children of the same age may be at different stages of development. Every child is an individual with different strengths and weaknesses. Each child needs to feel special and cared about. PHYSICAL Characteristis

Large muscles in arms and legs are more developed than small muscles. Children can bounce a ball and run, but it is difficult to do both at the same time. There may be quite a difference in the size and abilities of children. This will affect the way they get along with others, how they feel about themselves, and what they do. Seven to nine-year-old children are learning to use their small muscle skills (printing with a pencil) and their large muscle skills (catching a fly ball). Even though children are tired, they may not want to rest. You will need to plan time for them to rest.

SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL Characteristics

Children want to do things by and for themselves, yet they need adults who will help when asked or when needed. Seven to nine-year-old children of the same age and sex help each other: o have fun and excitement by playing together, o learn by watching and talking to each other, o in time of trouble by banning together, o by giving support in time of stress, and o understand how they feel about themselves. Children need guidance, rules, and limits. They need help in solving problems. They are beginning to see things from another child's point of view, but they still have trouble understanding the feelings and needs of other people. Many children need help to express their feelings in appropriate ways when they are upset or worried. They need more love, attention, and approval from parents and you than criticism.

INTELLECTUAL Characteristics

With an increased ability to remember and pay attention, their ability to speak and express ideas can grow rapidly. Things tend to be black or white, right or wrong, great or disgusting, fun or boring to them. There is very little middle ground. They are learning to plan ahead and evaluate what they do. With increased ability to think and reason, they enjoy different types of activities, such as clubs, games with rules, and collecting things. When you suggest something, they may say, "That's dumb," or, "I don't want to do it." They are still very self-centered although they are beginning to think of others. They often say, "That's not fair!" Often, they do not accept rules that they did not help make.

ACTIVITIES TO DO WITH CHILDREN

Children learn best by doing. Try to demonstrate instructions for activities or projects. Do projects, games, crafts, or activities in which children use large and small muscles together. Use craft projects that beginners can complete. Do not expect perfection from the children.

Encourage cooperative rather than competitive games. Children like to play both cooperative and competitive games. They both help children prepare of the adult world. Help all children feel like winners. Encourage children to collect things like shells, stamps, or flowers. Encourage pretend play because it is still an important learning experience. Make time for running, hopping, skipping, jumping, and climbing. Encourage children to dance or skip to music. Encourage children to talk about their feelings while working or playing together.

CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS

For Six to Nine Years Old Avoid rules that require them to stay quiet for long periods; have frequent breaks; provide active class work. Schedule quiet and/or relaxing activities after periods of mental concentration. Avoid scheduling too much at one time. Try not to require too much reading at one stretch. Prepare materials with large prints. Encourage participation in essentially safe games. Encourage competition involving coordinated skills. Sociograms may be used to gain insight into friendships, give some assistance to children who have difficulty in making friends. Promote the idea that games should be fun and not excessively competitive. Try to give children a chance to work out their own situation to disagreements as social conflict is effective in spurring cognitive growth. Give frequent praise and recognition and other positive reinforcement especially for academic behavior. Assign "jobs" on a rotating basis. Be alert about the group pastime of increased teasing a particular child so much that it may make a tremendous effect on the attitude towards school of the victim. Sustain their eagerness to learn. Control participation so that they speak up only when called upon.

For Nine to Twelve Years Old Conflicts between physical and sex roles might arise, try to explain that things will eventually even out and to persuade pupils that being male or female not in itself determine what a person does.

Try to give accurate and unemotional answers to question about sex. Provide arts and crafts and musical and related creative activities. Keep in mind the pupils' growing independence and their need for understanding and limit setting rather than punishment, provide cooperative activities. Try to play down comparisons between best and worst learners. Encourage pupils to participate in rule setting. Keep students constructively busy. May need provisions for counseling and parent training and mastery of basic academic skills. Report unusual and repeated episodes to parents and school counselor. Provide opportunities for both sexes to further lessen differences. Use varied teaching methods and approaches.

References: http://psychology.about.com/od/early-child-development/a/social-emotionaldevelopment-in-middle-childhood.htm http://www.sevencounties.org/poc/center_index.php?cn=1272 http://psychology.about.com/od/psychosocialtheories/a/psychosocial_2.htm http://psych.ku.edu/dennisk/CP333/Emotional_Mid_Child.pdf http://psych.ku.edu/dennisk/CP333/Physical_Middle_C.pdf http://psychology.about.com/od/early-child-development/a/cognitive-development-inmiddle-childhood.htm http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/positiveparenting/middle2.html

http://www.nncc.org/Child.dev/mid.dev.html NNCC Middle Childhoodwww.nncc.org

Let Reviewer

Introduction
The period of adolescence is considered as crucial and significant period of an individuals life. Psychologically, adolescence is the age when the individual becomes integrated into the society of the adults. It is the stage when the child no longer feels that he is below the level of his elders but rather an equal with them, at least in rights. This integration into the adult society has many aspects, more or less linked with puberty. It also includes profound intellectual changes. These intellectual transformations, typical of an adolescents thinking, enable him to achieve his integration into the social relationships of the adults. This is the most general characteristic of this period of development. It is the period which begins with puberty and ends with the general cessation of the physical growth. It emerges from later childhood stage and merges into adulthood. It is difficult to assign definite years to it because they differ from country to country and culture to culture. Chronologically, age ranges are from 12/13 years to 18/19 years in India. In case of girls it begins about 1 year earlier than the boys. Our discussion on the stages of human development will continue in this unit also. Here, we will discuss adolescence, which is the most crucial period of human development. In this stage, the children become sexually mature and reach the age of legal maturity. It is the period of rapid and revolutionary changes in the individuals physical, mental, moral, emotional, spiritual, sexual and social outlook. Human personality develops new dimensions. The word adolescence comes from the Latin word adolescere which means to grow. So the essence of the word adolescence is growth and it is in this sense that adolescence represents a period of intensive growth and change in nearly all aspects of a childs physical, mental, social and emotional life. Adolescence has been described by Stanley Hall as the period of storm and stress of human life. It is a very crucial period of ones life which covers roughly from 12 -18/19+ years. The most important fact about adolescence is that it is a period of transition from childhood to adulthood. Transition from one period to another always is associated with some problems. Adolescence is not an exception and it is also associated with some problems. The purpose of this unit is to familiarise us with the Adolescence stage, the concepts, its important characteristics, the theories about adolescence stage, issues concerning on the Filipino adolescents and the teaching and learning implication of such topic.

Concepts
Adolescence (from Latin: adolescere meaning "to grow up")- is a transitional stage of physical and psychological human development generally occurring during the period from puberty to legal adulthood (age of majority). Biogenetic- The supposed recurrence of the evolutionary stages of a species during the embryonic development and differentiation of a member of that species. Commitment- refers to the degree of personal investment the individual expresses in an occupation or belief Crisis - refers to times during adolescence when the individual seems to be actively involved in choosing among alternative occupations and beliefs. Foreclosure- when a commitment is made without exploring alternatives. Often these commitments are based on parental ideas and beliefs that are accepted without question. Geistesswissenschaftliche Psychologie- humanistic psychology Identity Achievement- status of individuals who have typically experienced a crisis, undergone identity explorations and made commitments. Identity Diffusion -adolescents unable to face the necessity of identity development avoid exploring or making commitments by remaining in an amorphous state of identity diffusion, something which may produce social isolation. Masturbation- is the sexual stimulation of one's own genitals, usually to the point of orgasm. The stimulation can be performed using the hands, fingers, everyday objects, or dedicated sex toys. Menarche- (/mnrki/ m-nar-kee; Greek: mn "moon" + arkh "beginning")is the first menstrual cycle, or first menstrual bleeding, in female humans. From both social and medical perspectives, it is often considered the central event of female puberty, as it signals the possibility of fertility.

Menstruation- is the periodic discharge of blood and mucosal tissue (the endometrium) from the uterus and vagina. It starts at menarche at or before sexual maturity (maturation), in females of certain mammalian species, and ceases at or near menopause (commonly considered the end of a female's reproductive life). Moratorium- is the status of individuals who are in the midst of a crisis, whose commitments are either absent or are only vaguely defined, but who are actively exploring alternatives. Nocturnal Emission or wet dream- is a type of spontaneous orgasm, involving either erection and/or ejaculation during sleep for a male, or lubrication of the vagina for a female. Postpubescent- occurring in or pertaining to the period following puberty. Prepubescent- before puberty; pertaining to the period of accelerated growth preceding gonadal maturity. Psychoanalysis- is a psychological and psychotherapeutic theory which has its roots in the ideas of the Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud. Puberty- is the process of physical changes by which a child's body matures into an adult body capable of sexual reproduction to enable fertilisation. It is initiated by hormonal signals from the brain to the gonads; the ovaries in a girl, the testes in a boy. Pubescence- The quality or state of being pubescent, or of having arrived at puberty. Secondary sex characteristics- are features that distinguish the two sexes of a species, but that are not directly part of the reproductive system. They are believed to be the product of sexual selection for traits which give an individual an advantage over its rivals in courtship and aggressive interactions. Somatopsychology- is the study of the psychological impact of a disease or disability." Spermarche refers to the beginning of development of sperm in boys' testicles at puberty. The first ejaculatory experience of boys is termed semenarche; it contrasts with menarche in girls. Sturm and Drang (literally, storm and stress) - refers to how a teenager has conflicts with their parents, participates in risky behavior, and mood swings.

Characteristics Of Adolescence period

Cognitive (Changes in thinking; Formal operations) Physical/ Motor (Biological Changes; Changes in Appearance) Social (Change in Nature of Friendship; Dating; Sexual Activity) Emotional (Changes in Self- Concept) Moral (Moral Reasoning)

Cognitive (Changes in thinking; Formal operations)

Adolescence marks the beginning development of more complex thinking processes (also called formal logical operations) including abstract thinking (thinking about possibilities), the ability to reason from known principles (form own new ideas or questions), the ability to consider many points of view according to varying criteria (compare or debate ideas or opinions), and the ability to think about the process of thinking. They start to think differently. The biggest cognitive leap forward is that teens will begin thinking abstractly about things in ways that children simply cannot do. Because they can start to think abstractly, teens will begin to be able to consider multiple points of view, conduct reasoning from principles and ponder a full range of possibilities. On a practical level, this means that teens will start to challenge adults more as they begin to learn to reason, argue and respond. They should also become better able to forecast and consider the consequences of actions before those actions occur. Teens have these new problem-solving capabilities without life experience or context. So while teens can better understand and try to forecast consequences, they likely dont have enough experience to forecast them accurately yet. Teens abilities to question and ponder will also lead them to start to question their own identity. They will begin to understand that they play different roles to different people, such as child, sibling, student, athlete, etc. Testing out new identities is a typical and necessary part of adolescence. In early adolescence, youll notice teens begin to question authority and express personal opinions about their own life. Once in the middle of adolescence, teens will then begin start to think about the future, start making goals and become more involved in forging their identity. In late adolescence, teens will start forming firm opinions about external issues, often quite idealistically. Their lack of context and experience will tend to make them fairly intolerant of opposing views.

 They will also begin to explore what their identity will be once they reach adulthood.

Physical/ Motor (Biological Changes; Changes in Appearance)

When children hit puberty, their bodies produce certain hormones which cause physical changes. Some of these changes include an increase in height and weight, and the development of hair under the arms and around the genitals, pimples and even body odour. These physical changes are caused by hormones produced by the body, such as oestrogen and testosterone. However, because of the different levels of testosterone and oestrogen found in the two genders more testosterone in boys and more oestrogen in girls boys and girls undergo different physical changes. Females: Skin becomes oily, sometimes with pimples and acne Hair grows under arms, pubic area, legs Breasts grow Hips broaden, weight and height increase, hands, feet, arms, and legs become larger Perspiration increases and body odour may appear Voice deepens Menstruation begins, more wetness in the vaginal area. Menarche

Males Skin becomes oily, sometimes with pimples and acne Hair grows under arms, pubic areas, legs, chest, face Muscles especially in legs and arms get bigger and stronger Shoulders and chest broaden, weight and height increase, hands, feet, arms and legs become larger Perspiration increases and body odour may appear Voice cracks and then deepens Penis and testicles grow and begin to hang down

 Wet dreams and erection occur frequently Ejaculation occurs during sexual climax. Spermarche

Social (Change in Nature of Friendship; Dating; Sexual Activity)

Adolescence is a time of rapid emotional and social change. Many adolescents have concerns about whether or not their experiences are normal. Each person has his or her own "maturation schedule," which is normal for him or her. Families and communities can provide the information and support adolescents need to make a successful transition from childhood to adulthood. Because adolescence is a critical time of emotional and social development, adolescents have an opportunity to learn crucial interpersonal skills. Alcohol and other drugs, which impair the developmental process, should be avoided by adolescents. Feelings are strong and change quickly. Friendships become more important. They have stronger feelings of wanting to be liked and to "fit in." They sometimes feel lonely and confused. They want more independence. They become more interested in sex. Being interested in a boyfriend or girlfriend. Concern for the future increases. Concerns about appearance increase. Intense self-focus. (Worrying about what others think about them. Increased desire for privacy and sensitivity about body.) Frequent mood swings with changes in activities and contexts. Too much time spent alone can contribute to moodiness. Height of forgetfulness. For some, increased ability to empathize with others; greater vulnerability to worrying, depression, and concern for others, especially among girls. Many show an increase in responsible behaviors.

Emotional (Changes in SelfConcept)

As adolescents grow physically they also think and feel differently. Some of these changes in the way they think are a consequence of growing older and learning more about the world and the way other people think and behave. But changes in the way they feel are more likely to be a consequence of the hormonal changes in their bodies. These changed feelings can often be a source of confusion and unhappiness.

EARLY ADOLESCENCE (ages 11-14) Self-image can be challenged by body changes during puberty and social comparisons. Youth begin long-term process of establishing own identity separate from family. With the onset of puberty, many girls experience pressure to conform to gender stereotypes, might show less interest in math and science. With puberty, normal increases in girls' body fat can impact body image and selfconcept negatively for many. Both boys and girls might be concerned with skin problems, height, weight, and overall appearance. MIDDLE ADOLESCENCE (ages 15-18) Process of identity formation is intense. Experimentation with different roles: looks, sexuality, values, friendships, ethnicity, and especially occupations. Some girls might experience obsessive dieting or eating disorders, especially those who have higher body fat, are chronically depressed, or who have highly conflicted family relationships. Minority youths might explore several patterns of identity formation: * a strong ethnic identity * bi-cultural identity

* assimilation into the majority culture * alienation from the majority culture

Moral Development (Moral Reasoning)

Moral development in adolescents includes both a nurturing facet and a nature facet. Some of the moral development occurs as the adolescent watches others around him. However, a nurturing environment can still yield an adolescent who is lacking in moral development. This is because a child's own autonomy plays a large role in moral development.

EARLY ADOLESCENCE (ages 11-14) Continuing egocentrism. Often believes self to be invulnerable to negative events. Increasing ability to take perspective of others into account with own perspective. In addition to concern about gaining social approval, morals begin to be based on respect for the social order and agreements between people: "law and order" morality. Begins to question social conventions and re-examine own values and moral/ethical principles, sometimes resulting in conflicts with parents. MIDDLE ADOLESCENCE (ages 15-18) Less egocentric with age. Increased emphasis on abstract values and moral principles.

 Increased ability (for some) to take another's perspective; can see the bigger societal picture and might value moral principles over laws: "principled" morality. Different rates of cognitive and emotional development. For example, often advocates for specific values and violates them at the same time.

Theories on Adolescence
Adolescence is a developmental transition between childhood and adulthood. It is the period from puberty until full adult status has been attained. In our society, adolescence is a luxury. It is reported that the real reason there is the developmental period of adolescence was to delay young people from going into the workforce, due to the scarcity of jobs. There are also varying views on the actual time line of adolescenceespecially about when it ends. Typically, we view adolescence beginning at puberty and ending at 18 or 21 years. Others suggest that there is a period of late adolescence that extends well into what is now known as the period of young adulthood.

G. Stanley Hall's Biogenetic Psychology of Adolescence

Founder: Granville Stanley Hall (February 1, 1844 April 24, 1924) -a pioneering American psychologist and educator. His interests focused on childhood development and evolutionary theory. Hall was the first president of the American Psychological Association and the first president of Clark University. He was the first psychologist to advance a psychology of adolescence in its own right and to use scientific methods to study them. He defined this period to begin at puberty at about 12 or 13 years, and end late, between 22 years to 25 years of age.

Idea: Begin at puberty at about 12 or 13 years, and end late, between 22 years to 25 years of age. Adolescence as a period of Sturm und Drang," -- storm and stress." According to Hall's analogy and expansion of Darwin's concept of biological "evolution." into a psychological theory of recapitulation, adolescence corresponds to a time when the human race was in a turbulent transitional stage. (Muuss, 1975, pp.33-35) In this theory, Hall stated that the experiential history of the human species had become part of the genetic structure of each individual. Energy, exaltation, and supernatural activity are followed by indifference, lethargy, and loathing. Exuberant gaiety, laughter, and euphoria make place for dysphoria. depressive gloom, and melancholy. Egoism, vanity, and conceit are just as characteristic of this period of life as are abasement, humiliation, and bashfulness. Adolescent characteristics contained both the remnants of an uninhibited childish selfishness and an increasing idealistic altruism. The qualities of goodness and virtue are never so pure, but never again does temptation preoccupy the adolescent's thinking. Hall described the adolescenct as wanting solitude and seclusion, while he finds himself entangled in crushes and friendships. During this stage of development, there also is a yearning for idols and authority that does not exclude a revolutionary radicalism directed against any kind of authority.

 In late adolescence, according to Hall, the individual recapitulates the state of the beginning of modern civilization. This stage corresponds to the end of the developmental process: maturity. Hall's genetic psychology did not see the human being as the final and finished product of the developmental process; it allowed for indefinite further development (Muuss, 1975, p.35-36).

Sigmund Freud and the Psychoanalytic Theory of Adolescent Development

Founder: Sigmund Freud (Born Sigismund Schlomo Freud; 6 May 1856 23 September 1939) An Austrian neurologist who became known as the founding father of psychoanalysis. Freud paid relatively little attention to adolescent development only to discuss it in terms of psychosexual development. He shared a common idea with that of Hall's evolutionary theory : that the period of adolescence could be seen as phylogenetic. Idea: According to Freud and psychoanalytic theory, the stages of psychosexual development are genetically determined and are relatively independent of environmental factors (Muuss, 1975, p.38). Freud believed that adolescence was a universal phenomenon and included behavioral, social and emotional changes; not to mention the relationships between the physiological and psychological changes, and the influences on the self-image. He also stated that the physiological changes are related to emotional changes, especially an increase in negative emotions, such as moodiness, anxiety, loathing, tension and other forms of adolescent behavior. Freud believed that adolescence is fraught with internal struggle. He viewed the pre-adolescent "latency" period as a time when the child develops a balance between the ego and id. Upon entering the "genital" phase of adolescence, the child is bombarded with instinctual impulses that disrupt this balance. The ego is torn between the strong impulses of the id and the restrictions of the superego. This conflict makes adolescence a time of tremendous stress and turmoil. Opposition: Karl Popper, who argued that all proper scientific theories must be potentially falsifiable, claimed that Freud's psychoanalytic theories were presented in unfalsifiable form, meaning that no experiment could ever disprove them.Adolf Grnbaum has maintained, in opposition to Popper, that many of Freud's

theories are empirically testable. Whilst in agreement with Grnbaum regarding Popper, Donald Levy rejects Grnbaum's argument that therapeutic success is the empirical basis on which Freuds theories stand or fall in that it rests on a false dichotomy between intra- and extraclinical evidence.In his wider consideration of and response to philosophical critics of Freuds scientific credibility Levy argues for the importance of clinical case material and the concepts related to it, notably resistance and transference, in establishing the evidentiary status of Freud's work.

Anna Freud's Theory of Adolescent Defense Mechanism

Founder: Ana Freud Anna Freud (3 December 1895 9 October 1982) was the sixth and last child of Sigmund Freud and Martha Bernays. Born in Vienna, she followed the path of her father and contributed to the newly born field of psychoanalysis. Alongside Melanie Klein, she may be considered the founder of psychoanalytic child psychology: as her father put it, child analysis 'had received a powerful impetus through "the work of Frau Melanie Klein and of my daughter, Anna Freud"'.Compared to her father, her work emphasized the importance of the ego and its ability to be trained socially. Idea: She believes that the physiological process of sexual maturation, beginning with the functioning of the sexual glands, plays a critical role in influencing the psychological realm. This interaction results in the instinctual reawakening of the libidinal forces, which, in turn, can bring about psychological disequilibrium. The painfully established balance between ego and id during the latency period is disturbed by puberty, and internal conflict results. Thus, one aspect of puberty, the puberty conflict, is the endeavor to regain equilibrium (Muuss, 1975, p.43). Among the many defense mechanisms the ego can use, Freud considered two as typical of pubescence: asceticism and intellectualization. Asceticism is due to a generalized mistrust of all instinctual wishes. This mistrust goes far beyond sexuality and includes eating, sleeping, and dressing habits. The increase in intellectual interests and the change from concrete to abstract interests are accounted for in terms of a defense mechanism against the libido. This naturally brings about a crippling of the instinctual tendencies in adult life, and again the situation is "permanently injurious to the individual" (A. Freud, 1948, p.164). Anna Freud believes the factors involved in adolescent conflict are: The strength of the id impulse, which is determined by physiological and endocrinological processes during pubescence.

The ego's ability to cope with or to yield to the instinctual forces. This in turn depends on the character training and superego development of the child during the latency period. The effectiveness and nature of the defense mechanism at the disposal of the ego.

Otto Rank's Emphasis on the Adolescent Need for Independence

Founder: Otto Rank (April 22, 1884 October 31, 1939) An Austrian psychoanalyst, writer, and teacher. Born in Vienna as Otto Rosenfeld, he was one of Sigmund Freud's closest colleagues for 20 years, a prolific writer on psychoanalytic themes, an editor of the two most important analytic journals, managing director of Freud's publishing house and a creative theorist and therapist. In 1926, Otto Rank left Vienna for Paris. For the remaining 14 years of his life, Rank had a successful career as a lecturer, writer and therapist in France and the U.S. (Lieberman & Kramer, 2012). Idea: Rank saw human nature not as repressed and neurotic, but as creative and productive. He criticized Freud's emphasis on the unconscious as a storehouse for past experiences and impulses. Rank pointed out that the past is of importance only to the degree that it acts in the present to influence behavior. He also places less emphasis on instinctual forces and instinctual behavior. He believed that Freud actually neglected the role of the ego and gave value to it only as a repressive force. Rank wanted to restore the balance of power in the psychic realm (Muuss, 1975, p.47). Rank stated that there must be an examination of the place that adolescent development has in this psychoanalytic theory based on consciousness and "will." Sexuality is no longer the strongest determining factor in the developmental process. It has found its counterpart in "will," which can to some degree, control sexuality. It is during the shift from childhood to adolescence that a crucial aspect of personailty development occurs - the change from dependence to independence (Muuss, 1975, p.47).

 During the latency period, the "will" grows stronger, more independent, and expands to the point where it turns against any authority not of its own choosing. The actual origin of the "will" goes further back into the oedipal situation. It is here that the individual will encounters a social will, represented by parents and expressed in a moral code centuries old (Muuss, 1975, p 47). Rank sees no necessity for external sexual restrictions and inhibitions, since the struggle is one in which the individual's will strives for independence against domination by biological needs. (Muuss, 1975, p.48).

Erik Erikson's Theory of Identity Development

Founder: Erik Erikson (15 June 1902 12 May 1994) A German-born American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychosocial development of human beings. He may be most famous for coining the phrase identity crisis. His son, Kai T. Erikson, is a noted American sociologist. Although Erikson lacked even a bachelor's degree, he served as a professor at prominent institutions such as Harvard and Yale. Idea: The core concept of Erikson's theory is the acquisition of an ego-identity, and the identity crisis is the most essential characteristic of adolescence. Although a person's identity is established in ways that differ from culture to culture, the accomplishment of this developmental task has a common element in all cultures. In order to acquire a strong and healthy ego-identity the child must receive consistent and meaningful recognition of his achievements and accomplishments (Muuss, 1975, p.55). Adolescence is described by Erikson as the period during which the individual must establish a sense of personal identity and avoid the dangers of role diffusion and identity confusion (Erikson, 1950). The search for an identity involves the production of a meaningful self-concept in which past, present, and future are linked together. Pubescence, according to Erikson, is characterized by rapidity of body growth, genital maturity, and sexual awareness. The search for a personal identity also includes the formation of a personal ideology or a philosophy of life that can serve to orient the individual. Such a perspective aids in making choices and guiding behavior. A personal identity influences the adolescent for the rest of their life. If the adolescent bows out and adopts someone else' identity or ideology, it is often less satisfactory than

developing their own. The adopted ideology rarely becomes personal and can lead to foreclosure in adolescent development. If the adolescent fails in his search for an identity, he will experience self-doubt, role diffusion, and role confusion; and the adolescent may indulge in selfdestructive one-sided preoccupation or activity. Such an adolescent may continue to be morbidly preoccupied with what others think of them, or may withdraw and no longer care about themselves and others. This leads to ego diffusion, personality confusion and can be found in the delinquent and in psychotic personality disorganization. In its most severe cases, according to Erikson, identity diffusion can lead to suicide or suicide attempts.

James Marcia's Extension of Erikson's Concept: Identity Status

Founder: James E. Marcia A clinical and developmental psychologist. He has held professorships in US and Canadian universities, and is currently an Emeritus Professor of Psychology at Simon Fraser University in British Columbia, Canada. He is also active in clinical private practice, clinical psychology supervision, community consultation, and international clinical-developmental research and teaching. Idea: According to Marcia, the criteria for the attainment of a mature identity are based on two essential variables: crisis and commitment. "Crisis refers to times during adolescence when the individual seems to be actively involved in choosing among alternative occupations and beliefs." "Commitment refers to the degree of personal investment the individual expresses in an occupation or belief" (Marcia, 1967, p. 119). Marcia interviewed students ages 18 to 22 years about their occupational choices, religious and political beliefs, and values --all central aspects of identity. The four categories of identity statuses as defined by Marcia are as follows: Identity diffused or identity confused. Individuals who had not yet experienced an identity crisis, nor made any commitment to a vocation or set of beliefs. Foreclosure. Individuals who have not experienced crisis, but has made commitments, however, these commitments are not the result of his own searching and exploring, but they are handed to him, ready-made, by others, frequently his parents.

Moratorium. Individuals who are in an acute state of crisis. They are exploring and actively searching for alternatives, and struggling to find their identity; but have not yet made any commitment or have only developed very temporary kinds of commitment. Identity Achieved. Individuals who have experienced crises but have resolved them on their own terms, and as a result of the resolution of the crisis had made a personal commitment to an occupation, a religious belief, a personal value system; and, has resolved their attitude toward sexuality.

Eduard Spranger's Geisteswissenschaftliche Theory of Adolescence

Founder: Eduard Spranger (1882-1963) A late professor of psychology at the University of Berlin. Geisteswissenschaft is translated as "cultural science" or "historical humanities." Allport translates it as "mental science." Spranger used the synonym "philosophy of culture." (Muuss, 1975, p.85). Idea: According to Spranger, the himself does not fully experience the meaning of his own development. Many of the phenomena of consciousness have a purposeful meaning only if one learns to understand them as developmental phenomena. Adolescence is not only the transition period from childhood to physiological maturity, but - more important - it is the age during which the relatively undifferentiated mental structure of the child reaches full maturity. During adolescence a more definite and lasting hierarchy of values is established. According to him, the "dominant value direction" of the individual is the profound determiner of personality (Spranger, 1928). Spranger describes three developmental patterns: The first pattern described by Spranger is experienced as a form of rebirth in which the individual sees himself as another person when he reaches maturity. Like G. Stanley Hall, Spranger believes that this is a period of storm, stress, strain, and crisis, and results in basic personality change. It has much in common with a religious conversion, also emphasized by Hall.

The second pattern is a slow, continuous growth process and a gradual acquisition of the cultural values and ideas held in the society, without a basic personality change. The third pattern is a growth process in which the individual actively participates. The youth consciously improves himself and contributes to his own development, overcoming obstacles and crises by his own energetic and goal-directed efforts. This pattern is characterized by selfcontrol and self-discipline, which Spranger related to a personality type that is striving for power (Muuss, 1975, p.88).

Margaret Meads Theory of Adolescence

Founder: Margaret Mead (December 16, 1901 November 15, 1978) An American cultural anthropologist, who was frequently a featured writer and speaker in the mass media throughout the 1960s and 1970s.She earned her bachelor degree at Barnard College in New York City, and her M.A. and Ph.D. degrees from Columbia University. Idea: Mead wrote 2 books that relevant to a discussion of adolescence: Coming of Age in Samoa (1950) and Growing Up in New Guinea (1953). The first book is devoted entirely to the adolescent period. Rapidity of social change, exposure to various secular and religious value systems, and modern technology make the world appear to the adolescent too complex, too relativistic, too unpredictable, and too ambiguous to provide him with a stable frame of reference (Muuss, 1975, p.111). In the past, there was a period which both Erikson and Mead called a "psychological moratorium," an "as if" period during which youth could tentatively experiment without being asked to show " success" and without final emotional, economic, or social consequences. The loss of such a period of uncommitted experimentation, during which youth can find itself makes it difficult to establish ego-identity. As a substitute, for psychological identity, youth utilizes peer group symbols to establish a semi-identity of deprived and/or semi criminal groups. Mead does advocate greater freedom for the adolescent and less conformity to family, peer and community expectations to allow the adolescent to realize his creative potential. She states, "we can attempt to alter out whole culture, and especially our child-rearing patterns, so as to incorporate within them a greater freedom for and expectation of variations" (Mead, 1951, p.185 as cited in Muuss, 1975, p.112).

 Mead also criticizes the American family for its too intimate organization and its crippling effect on the emotional life of the growing youth. She believes that too strong family ties handicap the individual in his ability to live his own life and make his own choices. Ruth Benedict's theory of continuities and discontinuities in cultural conditioning has important educational implications according to Muuss (1975). Our educational practices at home as well as in school should emphasize continuity in the learning process so that the child becomes conditioned to the same set of values and behavior in childhood that will be expected from him in adulthood. The child should be taught nothing that he will have to unlearn in order to become a mature adult.

Leta Hollingworth's Emphasis on the Continuity of Development

Founder: Leta Hollingworth (ne Leta Anna Setter 25 May 1886 Dawes County, Nebraska 27 November 1939 New York City) A famous psychologist who conducted pioneering work in the early 20th century. It is generally agreed upon that Hollingworth made significant contributions in three areas: psychology of women; clinical psychology; and educational psychology.She is best known for her work with exceptional children. Idea: An influential theory of development has been espoused by Leta Hollingworth (1886-1939) in her book, The Psychology of the Adolescent (1928). It is reported that she was even more pronounced than were Mead and Benedict in her attack on Hall's idea of adolescence as a period of "storm and stress." She dismissed his works as of little scientific or practical value. Her views were influenced by the work of cultural anthropologists (Muuss, 1975, p.113). Hollingworth emphasized the idea of continuity of development and the gradualness of change during the adolescent period. She indicates that "the child grows by imperceptible degrees into the adolescent, and the adolescent turns by gradual degrees into the adult" (Hollingworth, 1928,p.1, as cited in Muuss, 1975, p.113). She challenged the idea that there were distinct stages and sharp dividing lines among the different "epochs," "stages", and "phases of development."

 She also asserted that the sudden change in social status that results from puberty initiation rites and ceremonies of primitive people has become confused with the biological changes of organic development. She believed that there is no connection between the biological changes and the changes in social status. She attributes these changes to social institutions and ceremonies only (Muuss, 1975, p.114).

Kurt Lewin: Field Theory and Adolescence

Founder: Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) A pupil of the early Gestalt school of psychologists at the University of Berlin. He was influenced by Freud's psychoanalytic theory, specifically as it relates to motivation. But Lewin's theory on adolescence is conceptually different from other theories. His theory on adolescent development is explicitly stated in "Field Theory and Experiment in Social Psychology" (1939). His field theory explains and describes the dynamics of behavior of the individual adolescent without generalizing about adolescents as a group. His constructs help to describe and explain, and predict the behavior of a given individual in a specific situation. In a sense, the field theory of adolescence is expressed explicitly and stated more formally than other theories of adolescent development. Idea: Lewin makes explicit his position: "the psychological influence of environment on the behavior and development of the child is extremely important" (Lewin, 1935,p.94); "psychology in general [is regarded] as a field of biology" (Lewin, 1935, p.35). Fundamental to Lewin's theory of development is the view that adolescence is a period of transition in which the adolescent must change his group membership. The adolescent is in a state of "social locomotion," since he is moving into an unstructured social and psychological field.

 During adolescence changes in body structure, body experience, and new body sensations and urges are more drastic so that even the well-known life space of the body image becomes less familiar, unreliable, and unpredictable. According to Lewin, there are also cultural differences in adolescent behavior. He attributes these differences to several factors: the ideologies, attitudes, and values that are recognized and emphasized; the way in which different activities are seen as related or unrelated (for example, religion and work are more closely related in Mennonite society than in American society as a whole); and, the varying length of the adolescent period from culture to culture and from social class to social class within a culture.

Roger Barker's Somatopsychological Theory of Adolescence

Founder: Roger Garlock Barker (1903, Macksburg, Iowa 1990, Oskaloosa, Kansas) A social scientist, a founder of environmental psychology and a leading figure in the field for decades, perhaps best known for his development of the concept of behavior settings. Barker earned his PhD from Stanford University and spent two years studying with Kurt Lewin. In the 1940s Barker and his associate Herbert Wright from the University of Kansas in Lawrence set up the Midwest Psychological Field Station station in the nearby town of Oskaloosa, Kansas, a town of fewer than 2000 people. Barker's team gathered empirical data in Oskaloosa from 1947 through 1972, consistently disguising the town as 'Midwest, Kansas' for publications like "One Boy's Day" (1952) and "Midwest and Its Children" (1955). Idea: Roger Barker and others expanded and elaborated Lewin's theory of adolescent development in "Somatopsychological Significance of Physical Growth in Adolescence" (1953, as cited in Muuss, 1975,p.130). He uses the field theory to illustrate the effects of physiological changes on behavior during adolescence. According to Barker body dimensions, physique, and endocrinological changes occur at an accelerated speed during adolescence as compared to the preadolescent years. As a result, some corresponding psychological situations occur.

 First, "new psychological situations" arise during adolescence; and second, experiential psychological situations will take place in which "overlapping of the psychological field" occurs. According to Barker, in the US, the child group is clearly separated from the adult group, for whom different forms of behavior are accepted. Children have a social position equivalent to that of a minority group; this increases the difficulty of moving from one group to the other. The possibility of moving from one social group to the other is determined informally by one's physique: looking like an adult makes it easier to get adult privileges (Muuss, 1975, p.132).

Allison Davis: Adolescence and Socialized Anxiety

Founder: William Boyd Allison Davis (October 14, 1902 November 21, 1983) An educator, anthropologist, writer, researcher, and scholar. He was considered one of the most promising black scholars of his generation, and became the first African-American to hold a full faculty position at a major white university when he joined the staff of the University of Chicago in 1942, where he would spend the balance of his academic life. Among his students during his tenure at the University of Chicago were anthropologist St. Clair Drake and sociologist Nathan Hare. Idea: Allison Davis defines "socialization" as the process by which an individual learns and adapts the ways, ideas, beliefs, values, and norms of his culture and makes them part of his personality. He sees development as a continuous process of learning socially acceptable behavior by means of reinforcement and punishment. Acceptable and unacceptable behavior are defined by each society, or its socializing agents, the subgroups, social classes, or castes. Cultural behavior is acquired through social learning. Understanding the effects of social learning on adolescents is the crucial issue in Davis' theory (Muuss, 1975, p. 139). Socialized anxiety serves as a motivating and reinforcing agent in the socialization process: it brings about "anticipation of discomfort" and becomes a behavior-controlling mechanism. It is Davis' hypothesis that the effective socialization of adolescent behavior is dependent upon the amount of adaptive or socialized anxiety that has been implanted in an individual. If an individual's

socialized anxiety becomes strong enough, it will serve as an impetus toward mature, responsible, normal behavior. It is implied that if socialized anxiety is too weak or too strong, the attainment of mature behavior is less likely (Muuss, 1975, p. 140). The goals of socialization differ from culture to culture and from social class to social class within a culture. It is the characteristic of middle-class youth that his social anxiety increases with the onset of adolescence, since he faces new developmental and behavioral tasks, such as preparation for work and heterosexual adjustment.

Robert Havighurst's Developmental Tasks of Adolescence

Founder: Robert James Havighurst (June 5, 1900 in De Pere, Wisconsin January 31, 1991 in Richmond, Indiana) A professor, physicist, educator, and aging expert. Both his father, Freeman Alfred Havighurst, and mother, Winifred Weter Havighurst, had been educators at Lawrence University. Havighurst worked and published well into his 80s. According to his family, Havighurst died of Alzheimer's disease at the age of 90. Idea: According to Robert Havighurst, developmental tasks are defined as skills, knowledge, functions, and attitudes an individual has to acquire at a certain point in his or her life; they are acquired through physical maturation, social expectations, and personal efforts. Successful mastery of these tasks will result in adjustment and will prepare the individual for the harder tasks ahead. Failure in a given developmental task will result in a lack of adjustment, increased anxiety, social disapproval, and the inability to handle the more difficulty tasks to come (Muuss, 1975, p. 141). Each task is the prerequisite for the next one. For some of these tasks, there is a biological basis and consequently, there is a definite time limit within which a specific task must be accomplished. The inability to master a task within its time limit may make later learning of that task more difficult, if not impossible. The developmental tasks for adolescence (from about 12 to 18 years) are:

Accepting one's physique and accepting a masculine or feminine role. New relations with age-mates of both sexes. Emotional independence of parents and other adults. Achieving assurance of economic independence. Selecting and preparing for an occupation. Developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic competence. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior. Preparing for marriage and family life. Building conscious values in harmony with an adequate scientific worldpicture. (Havighurst, 1951,pp.30-55, as cited in Muuss, 1975,p.142)

Jean Piaget's Cognitive Theory of Adolescent Development

Founder: Jean Piaget (French: [ pja]; 9 August 1896 17 September 1980) A Swiss developmental psychologist and philosopher known for his epistemological studies with children. His theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together called "genetic epistemology". Idea: Jean Piaget began to look at the period of adolescent development later in his career with the publication of The Growth of Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence (with B. Inhelder, 1958). Piaget outlines the developmental stages in cognitive development. He discusses the concept of egocentrism in development. The first and most pronounced period of egocentrism occurs toward the end of the sensorimotor stage. The second burst of egocentrism appears toward the end of the preoperational stage and is reflected in a "lack of differentiation both between ego's and alter's point of view, between the subjective and the objective. "The adolescent not only tries to adapt his ego to his social environment but, just as emphatically, tries to adjust the environment to his ego" (Inhelder and Piaget, 1958, p.343, as cited in Muuss, 1975,p. 186).

 The adolescent can not only think beyond the present, but can analytically reflect about their own thinking. The adolescent thinker can leave the real objective world behind and enter the world of ideas. They are able to control events in their mind through logical deductions of possibilities and consequences. Even the direction of his thought processes change. Formal operations allow the adolescent to combine propositions and to isolate variables in order to confirm or disprove his hypothesis. He no longer needs to think in terms of objects or concrete events, but can carry out operations of symbols in his mind (Muuss, 1975, p.193).

Lawrence Kohlberg's CognitiveDevelopmental Approach to Adolescent Morality

Founder: Lawrence Kohlberg (October 25, 1927 January 19, 1987) A psychologist best known for his theory of stages of moral development. He served as a professor in the Psychology Department at the University of Chicago and at the Graduate School of Education at Harvard University. Even though it was considered unusual in his era, he decided to study the topic of moral judgment, extending Jean Piaget's account of children's moral development from twenty-five years earlier. In fact, it took Kohlberg five years before he was able to publish an article based on his views. Kohlberg's work reflected and extended not only Piaget's findings but also the theories of philosophers G.H. Mead and James Mark Baldwin. At the same time he was creating a new field within psychology: "moral development". Scholars such as Elliot Turiel and James Rest have responded to Kohlberg's work with their own significant contributions. In an empirical study by Haggbloom et al. using six criteria, such as citations and recognition, Kohlberg was found to be the 30th most eminent psychologist of the 20th century.

Idea: For Kohlberg, cognitive development precedes moral development. Morality is an idea of justice that is primitive, undifferentiated, and social as the adolescent moves through specific stages of moral thinking.

 In some individuals, it may reach an awareness of universal values and ethical principles. Kohlberg distinguishes three basic levels of moral development: the preconventional or premoral level; the conventional level; and the postcoventional or autonomous level. Morality is an idea of justice that is primitive, undifferentiated, and egocentric in young children. This becomes more sophisticated and social as the adolescent moves through specific stages of moral thinking; it may reach, in some individuals, an awareness of universal values and ethical principles (Muuss, 1975, p.311).

Social Learning Perspectives on Adolescent Development

Founder: Albert Bandura (born December 4, 1925, in Mundare, Alberta, Canada) A psychologist who is the David Starr Jordan Professor Emeritus of Social Science in Psychology at Stanford University. For almost six decades, he has been responsible for contributions to many fields of psychology, including social cognitive theory, therapy and personality psychology, and was also influential in the transition between behaviorism and cognitive psychology. He is known as the originator of social learning theory and the theory of self-efficacy, and is also responsible for the influential 1961 Bobo doll experiment. Idea: Social learning theory talks about how both environmental and cognitive factors interact to influence human learning and behavior. It focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational learning, imitation, and modeling (Abbott, 2007). Re: Modeling, Imitation and Identification: As children grow older they tend to imitate different models from their social environment. The young child usually identifies with his parents and attempts to imitate their behavior, including language, gesture, and mannerism, as well as more basic attitudes and values. Identification with his teacher is not uncommon for the child entering school or for

the preadolescent. The child imitates speech patterns and mannerisms that he has observed in the teacher (Muuss, 1975, p. 235). Ideas about social or community issues the child expresses in dinner conversations and that are new to the family are often those of his teacher. With the onset of adolescence parents and teachers frequently decline as important models, at least in regard to issues and choices that are of immediate consequences (Muuss, 1975, 235). During adolescence it is the peer group and selected entertainment heroes who become increasingly important as models, especially if communication between parents and adolescents break down. The adolescent peer group is particularly influential as a model in the use of verbal expressions, hair style, clothing, food, music and entertainment preferences, as well as in regard to decisions related to rapidly changing social values (Brittain, 1963, as cited in Muuss, 1975, p.236).

Issues, Concerns and Problems during Adolescence Period

Filipino Adolescent Sexual Debut and Sexual Practices

 Marriage during Adolescence Childbearing during Adolescence Contraceptive Use among Adolescents Contraception and Religion Reproductive Health Problems, Religion and Health Services Utilization: the Youth Perspective

Filipino Adolescent Sexual Debut and Sexual Practices

The 1994 YAFS discloses the following findings on the level and patterns of premarital sex experience among the Filipino youth aged 15-24 years and the relationship between premarital sex and religion (Raymundo and Berja, 1995; 1996; Xenos, Raymundo and Berja, 1999): Around 18 percent of the youth (26 percent of males and 10 percent of females) have ever engaged in premarital sex; Among all females, about 21 percent have had serious relationships or intimate relationships. Among males 38.6 percent have had such relationships (Xenos, Raymundo and Berja, 1999: 39-40); Unsupervised homes are the most popular venue for sexual debut of the youth; Ten percent of first sex was without the girls consent; As to timing of first premarital sex: At age 18, 22 percent of the boys but 8 percent of the girls have had sex; At age 21, 45 percent of the boys but 18 percent of the girls have had sex;

Boys are more likely to have premarital sex if they are Catholics; Girls are more likely to have premarital sex if they are not religious; and The majority of the married youth population report that they began their unions either by living-in or by elopement, still to be considered a premarital period if formal union is the reference.

In analyzing the same 1994 YAFS data, the AGI (2000) reveals that many Philippine youth have sex by age 20 both within and outside of marriage. The rates differ for men and women and by urban/rural residence.

Marriage during Adolescence

Based on the 1998 NDS, the AGI (2000) discloses that nationally, over one in four young women enter their first marriages before age 20. However, over half of less educated women do so. Close to half of young women in the Eastern Visayas and Central Mindanao and Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) combined also marry before age 20. Today, fewer women marry in their teens compared to a generation ago whether they reside in the rural or urban areas or in any of the major islands of the country. Among the less educated however, there is no difference between the present and older generations. According to the 1994 YAFS, one out of five Filipinos is married by age 19 and the rate of teen marriage may be declining slightly from a decade earlier (Balk and Raymundo, 1999).

Childbearing during Adolescence

Establishing the trend in age-specific fertility rates (ASFRs) for women aged 15-19 from the 1993 and 1998 NDSs, fertility among adolescent women declined by about 8 percent in the past five years, from a rate of 50 per 1,000 women per year in 1993 to a rate of 46 per 1,000 women in 1998 (NSO and MI, 1999, Table 3.3, p. 36). AGI (2000) reveals that two out of every ten young women have their first birth before age 20, and four in ten do so among the less educated. More women today delay childbearing past their teen years compared to a generation ago. The reverse is true among less-educated women. Young women today generally want smaller families. Based on the 1994 YAFS (Balk and Raymundo, 1999), more than one quarter of all women have begun childbearing by age 20. Rural women start childbearing at younger ages than urban women. Less-educated women are more likely to bear children in their teenage years than their better-educated counterparts.

Contraceptive Use among Adolescents

The 1998 NDS discloses that contraceptive use, especially of modern methods, is low among Philippine teenagers irrespective of urban-rural residence, education and region (AGI, 2000). About two out of five sexually active adolescent women have an unmet need for contraception, again irrespective of urban-rural residence, education and region

except Southern Tagalog showing about 60 percent level of unmet need.

Contraception and Religion

On the adolescents attitudes towards the relationship between contraception and religion, the 1994 YAFS also reveals the following (Raymundo and Xenos (n.d.): The majority of them, including 67 percent of the Catholics, think that their religion favors contraception; A significant portion close to one third of the youth in each religious group also expect their future contraceptive behavior to be influenced by the teachings of their religion; and Over 90 percent of the respondents in every group believe the government should provide family planning service, and some 80 to 90 percent think it proper that these services also be provided to the youth.

Reproductive Health Problems, Religion and Health Services Utilization: the Youth Perspective
The main findings of the 1994 YAFS (Cruz and Berja, 1999: 58-69) on the prevailing reproductive health problems of young Filipinos, the relationship between reproductive health problems and religion, and the level of utilization of health services are: The majority (57.6 percent) of adolescents report ever experiencing a reproductive health problem sometime in their life and 24.3 percent had at least one serious problem; Women are more likely to have experienced any form of reproductive health problem although most of these are not serious such as dysmenorrhea, diminished desire for sex and irregular menstruation; While males are less likely to have reproductive health problems, they are more likely to have experienced serious ones. The most common problem, affecting about a fifth of males, is painful urination. This is followed by diminished desire for sex and itching in the genital area which is indicative of bacterial infection. Other serious problems reported although less prevalent include genital warts or ulcers, impotence, and penile discharge. Less serious problems noted include diminished desire for sex, premature ejaculation, delayed ejaculation, infection from circumcision, and inability to have orgasm. Adolescents who are non-Catholics or more religious reported higher levels of reproductive health problems; Among those who experienced serious reproductive health problems, males with pre-marital sex (PMS) experience were more likely to utilize health services

compared with males with no PMS experience. The reverse is true among the females: those without PMS experience were more likely to utilize health services; Premarital sex patterns among Filipino youth generally indicate that once one gets initiated to premarital sex, a repeat either with the same partner or with another, is most likely; Categorizing adolescents in terms of their reproductive health profile shows that less than a third (31.2 percent) has a clean reproductive bill of health in the sense that they have not yet experienced any reproductive health problem and have not engaged in premarital sex. The greatest numbers are exposed to a reproductive health problem (40.9 percent) which could precipitate the former. Almost one in five (18.1 percent) reported that they were sexually active and had experienced some form of reproductive health problem; and While at least 18 percent reported having experienced both premarital sex and reproductive health problems, only five percent of the entire population had in fact utilized such services. And while only 1/3 is living healthy lives (i.e. no exposure to sexual activity and reproductive health problems) almost twice as many (65 percent) claimed not to have utilized any form of health service.

Teaching and Learning Implications

Adolescence is a distinct stage that marks the transition between childhood and adulthood. Adolescents are capable of abstract reasoning. Although you may still include the family in education, adolescents

themselves are a major focus of teaching since they have considerable independence and are, consequently, in more control of the degree to which recommendations will be carried out. Adolescents have many important developmental tasks to achieve. They are in the process of forming their own identity, separating themselves from parents, and adapting to rapidly changing bodies. Bodily changes at puberty may cause a strong interest in bodily functions and appearance. Sexual adjustment and a strong desire to express sexual urges become important. Adolescents may have difficulty imagining that they can become sick or injured. This may contribute to accidents due to risk taking or poor compliance in following medical recommendations.

Implications to Teaching

Engage students in "active" endeavors and hands-on learning. Give students considerable control over their learning. Engage them in meaningful tasks and encourage them to contribute. Students should have meaningful interaction with adults through their learning experiences. Teachers need to be aware of how outside expectations, pressures, demands and experiences affect their students. These outsinde influences come from home, family, friends, neighbors, peer groups, and communities. School best benefits the adolescent when it works in harmony with these other parts of students' environments. Teachers need to be aware of how different learning styles can be used as a way to measure the "whole person" rather than the small part of intelligence

represented by IQ tests. Teachers need to address as many of the intelligences as possible through differentiated teaching. Teachers should use interactive methods of teaching such as hands on activities and group work. Teachers should present students with challenges to increase problem solving abilities. Teachers should frequently use a high level of language. Teachers should use scaffolding to increase students' cognitive abilities. Teachers must learn to interpret students' strengths and weaknesses-all in the light of their growth process. Must determine a student's connection in experience to the new material to be learned-and use these connections in teaching. Must make sure that this knowledge is "experienced" by students instead of merely "learned."

Implications to Learning

Students should have some say in what and how they learn. Students must take charge of their learning experiences. Outside classroom experiences with the adult world are vital in the learning process. Meaningful relationships with adults will help students gain focus. School is one of the several microsystems (immediate setting in which an adolescent develops) that impacts the adolescent. A microsystem enriches an individual when there is a good balance of power and reciprocity. Adolescents are also affected by many other social, cultural and economic conditions, all of which influence and are influenced by the school.

 Different people have different latural affinities for a style or approach. The more aspects of the various intelligences are incorporated in presentation of material, the more that can be learned and remembered. Students will learn best through activity. Students should be encouraged to communicate frequently with self and with teacher. Using a higher level of language will help students to increase their language levels. Assisted problem solving creates learning. A child's developmental progress depends on the stimuli which surrounds him or her-it must be that which helps them gain new experience. The stimuli must be connected to a student's previous knowledge and experience. The quest for learning must be instrinsically motivated out of a sense of need.

Bibliography
Books: Cole, L., Ph.D.(1942). Psychology of Adolescence, Revised Edition. New York U.S.A: Farrar and Rinehart, Inc. Hurlock, E.B, Ph.D (1942). Adolescent Development. New York, U.S.A: McGraw-Hill Company, Inc. Josselyn, I.M, M.D (1967). The adolescent and his world. 44 East 23rd St., New York, U.S.A: Family Service Association of America Mitchell, J.J (1975). The Adolescent Predicament. Toronto, Canada: Holt,Rhinehart ND Winston of Canada, Ltd.

Online Reference

http://childdevelopmentinfo.com/child-development/teens_stages/ http://www.apa.org/pi/families/resources/develop.pdf http://www.psyking.net/id183.htm http://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/topics/adolescence/dev/en/

Adolescent Development
Submitted by:

Group VI
Recomo, Angelo C. Rodelas, Daisy Ruiz, Julie Ann Santos, Roa Torres, Czar Lorenzo Submitted to: Ms. Zhanina Custodio