.

1920-1930-- .

2011
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1920-
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,
1920-1930- .
, .
.
Mikhail G. Agapov. ORIGINS OF SOVIET-IZRAELI RELATIONS:
THE JEWISH NATIONAL HOME IN SOVIET FOREIGN POLICY IN 19201930s: Monograph. Tyumen: Vector Book Publisher, 2011. 324 p.
The monograph is devoted to the Soviet policy regarding the national home
of Jewish people in Palestine established after the end of the First World War
under the aegis of Great Britain, in the 1920-1930s. Much attention is paid to
analysis of three Soviet policy areas: Comintern line, Ministry of Foreign Affairs
line and economic cooperation. The research is based on little-known documents
from Russian archives.
:

.. , ,
.. , ,

ISBN 978-5-91409-224-2
.. , 2011.
Mikhail G. Agapov, 2011.
: ,
. -, 1936 .


........................................................................................................5
....................................................................................................................................6
1.
1920-1930- . .......................................................................................................................14
1.1. ...........14
1.2. 1920-
1930- .: , .........................................37
1.3.
1930- . ......................................................................................50
2.

.................................................................................................67
2.1.
............................................................................67
2.2.
................................84
2.3. -

....................................................................99
2.4. ...............120
3. 1920-1930- . .....146
3.1. -
...........................................................................146
3.2. - -
..................................................198
3.3.

..........................................................................................................................215
3.4. ..................................................................................251

( ) .....................................................................................................280
.................................287
.......................................................................................................316
SUMMARY.................................................................................................................................318

CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.............................................................................................................5
INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................................6
CHAPTER 1.Establishment and development if the Jewish national home in Palestine
in the 19201930s. .........................................................................................................................14
1.1. The Jewish national home: creation and development of the concept ............................14
1.2. The Jewish national home in Palestine in 1920s first half of 1930s:
winning the land, labour and self-government ............................................................37
1.3. The Jewish national home in struggle for Palestine in the second half of 1930s ............50
CHAPTER 2. The Jewish national home in Palestine in the context of evolving Soviet policy
regarding the dependent states and colonies in the Middle East ...................................................67
2.1. The principles of Soviet policy regarding the dependent states and colonies
in the Middle East ............................................................................................................67
2.2. Historical and ideological preconditions of Soviet policy regarding the Jewish
national home in Palestine ...............................................................................................84
2.3. Soviet state and party leaders view of the role of the Jewish national home
in Palestine in world economy and international relations ..............................................99
2.4. The Jewish national home in Palestine in Comintern policy ........................................120
CHAPTER 3. The USSR and the Jewish national home in Palestine in the 19201930s. .........146
3.1. Economic and trade relations between the USSR and the Jewish national home
in Palestine.....................................................................................................................146
3.2. Scientific, cultural and socio-economic connections between the USSR
and the Jewish national home in Palestine ....................................................................198
3.3. Soviet policy regarding the Jewish national home in Palestine in the light
of solving the Jewish question and struggle against Zionism in the USSR ...............215
3.4. Jewish emigration from the USSR ................................................................................251
DRAW A LINE UNDER THE PAST AND THINK ABOUT THE FUTURE
(INSTEAD OF CONCLUSION).................................................................................................280
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................287
LIST OF ACRONYMS ...............................................................................................................316
SUMMARY.................................................................................................................................318


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207

Great Britain. Colonial Office. Palestine. Statement by His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom.
London, November 1938. Cmd. 5893.
208
Ibid. , .
-
. .,
, , .
. . 532. . 4. . 13. . 6.
209
. : . . 11.
. . . I. -, 1947.
. 41.
210
Palestine Statement of Policy Presented by the Secretary of State for the Colonies to Parliament by Command of
His Majesty. May 1939. L., 1939. P. 2.

57

 , ,

. ,

1922 . 300 000 ,
450 000 1/3
211. ,
.
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211

Palestine Statement of Policy Presented by the Secretary of State for the Colonies to Parliament by Command of
His Majesty. May 1939. L., 1939. P. 34. , 1919 .
635 000 58 000 . 1939 .
1 113 000, 422 000 . . . 0512. . 1. . 37. . 31.
212
Ibid. P. 4.
213
Ibid. P. 5.

58

 .
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217.
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:
214

Palestine Statement of Policy Presented by the Secretary of State for the Colonies to Parliament by Command of
His Majesty. May 1939. L., 1939. P. 56 .
215
Ibid. P. 7.
216
Ibid. P. 8.
217
Ibid. P. 89.
218
Ibid. P. 1112.

59

 , ,

. 1939 .
,

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.. . ., 1990. . 53.
. . 0512. . 1. . 37. . 20.
221
.: . . , 1997. . 193.
222
Martin Gilbert. Exile and Return. The Emergence of Jewish Statehood. L., 1978.
223
House of Commons. Deb 23 May 1939. Vol. 347. Col. 21292197.
220

60

. - ,

224.
-
. . 225.
268
179, .. 89
230 226.
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224

House of Commons. Deb 05 June 1939 Vol. 348. Col. 2122.

House of Commons. Deb 23 May 1939. Vol. 347. Col. 21292197.
226
. . 0512. . 1. . 37. . 22.
227
Ibid. . 2223.
228
Ibid. . 23.
229
Bauer Yehuda. From Diplomacy to Resistance. A History of Jewish Palestine. 19391945. N.Y., 1973. P.43.
225

61

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status quo .


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231

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. 284.
16
British Government. The Political History of Palestine under the British Administration (Memorandum to the
United Nations Special Committee on Palestine). Jerusalem, 1947. P.15-16; Lowdermilk Walter Clay. Palestine,
land of promise. L., 1944. P.108.
17
Bockenheimer P. Struktur und Entwicklung ausgewhlter Kibbuzim in Israel. Gieen, 1978. S. 78.
18
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Garfinkle Adam M. Politics and society in modern Israel: myths and realities. Armonk, NY, M. E. Sharpe, 2000.
P. 8283.
20

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38
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Smith Barbara Jean. The roots of separatism in Palestine: British economic policy, 19201929. N.Y., 1993. P.
120121.
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Plessner Yakir. The political economy of Israel: from ideology to stagnation. Albany, N.Y., 1994. P. 7273.
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81
Shenhav A. Yehouda. The Arab Jews: a postcolonial reading of nationalism, religion, and ethnicity. Stanford,
2006. P. 4041.
82
Reports of the experts submitted to the Joint Palestine survey commission. Boston, 1928. P. 528
83
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1923 . 459 , 1924 .
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118
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1960. . 964.
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19271928 . ,

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, .
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228
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229
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.
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248
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249
Israel directory: the register of commerce and industry in Israel. 1936. P. XXV; Kats Yosef, Katz Yossi. The
battle for the land: the history of the Jewish National Fund (KKL) before the establishment of the State of Israel.
Jerusalem, 2005. P. 312.
250
. . 8350. . 1. . 2405. . 3.
251
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193

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(19201922 .)
288

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. 2. . 15.
. 3. . 9.
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All Russian Cooperative Society Limited (
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Cmd. Command paper 1919 1956.
FRUS Foreign Relations of the United States
HMSO Her Majesty's Stationery Office
ICOR (YKOR) The Organization for Jewish Colonization in Russia
( )
KKL (. Keren Kayemet LeYisrael)
PROKOR

317

SUMMARY
The idea of creation of a national home for Jewish people in Palestine
emerged from the nationalist doctrine which was formed at about the turn of the
19th and 20th centuries. According to the key proposition of the nationalist
doctrine, the cultural (considered as national) uniqueness of a nation is integrally
connected with its independence (considered as state independence). The
nationalist doctrine, conceptually framed in the Basel Programme of 1897, gave
rise to the united international Zionist movement. During the First World War
when British special interests in Palestine became apparent, the idea of creation
of a national home for Jewish people protected by the UK was supported by
HM Government. The Balfour Declaration of November 2, 1917 was the first
step towards the international legitimization of the Jewish national home in the
Promised land. On April 25, 1920 during San-Remo Conference Entente
Supreme Council confirmed the League of Nations mandate over Palestine and
assigned it to Britain. So the national home for Jewish people in Palestine
became legitimate.
Ever since the moment it was established, the Jewish national home in
Palestine developed under constantly escalating conflict between the local Arab
population and the Zionist settlers. Purely Jewish industrial organizations
established in 1920-30s segregated the Jewish workers from Arab ones. In the
1930s it became possible to speak about two economic systems in Palestine the
Jewish and the Arabic. The strengthening of the Jewish national centre evoked
the Arab response in the shape of sporadic armed anti-Jewish attacks which grew
into an anti-British revolt of 1936 with demands for the national independence of
Palestine and halt to the Jewish immigration. London political strategy consisted in
maneuvering between the Zionists and the Arabs in order to hold the plenitude of
power. In the first half of the 1930s London was trying to find a way out of the
situation using the concept of common home for the Jewish people and the Arab
people, yet the British efforts were supported by neither of the opposing parties.
Palestine became a de facto binational country, with both peoples claiming their
right for self-determination. The Great Arab revolt of the 1936-1939 triggered
the failure of the Mandate system, if not the whole of it but at least the original
model for it which had been established in the early 1920s.
The Soviet party and state leaders attitude to Zionism and its Palestinian
project was influenced by both internal and external political environment. The
determining factors at the domestic level were the interests to protect and
strengthen the Soviet regime, national and state building and economic
development of the country. Internationally most important was the security of
Soviet state and normalization of relations with the West as part of peaceful
coexistence doctrine. The latter allowed supporting revolutions and national
liberation movements of oppressed peoples by the Soviet government, which
became the ideological basis for developing a special branch of Soviet diplomacy
policy regarding the dependent states and colonies in the Middle East.
318

The principles of Soviet policy regarding the dependent states and colonies in
the Middle East included, (1) the right of nations to self-determination in
compliance with juridical consciousness of democracy in general and by the
working class in particular; (2) struggle against colonialism being one of the main
carriers of universal capitalism and an obstacle to progress; (3) support of
national revolutionary movements of the Eastern peoples integrally connected to
the revolutionary struggle of Soviet republic against international imperialism.
The idea of world revolution was the fundamental principle for the Soviet policy
regarding the dependent states and colonies in 1917-1920s.
Soviet party and state leaders referred to Middle Eastern countries as
liberating world resisting the world of European imperialist predators. They
discussed current situation in the Middle East and developed the regional policy
within the bounds of national and colonial questions which were considered
in close connection with each other. Moscow regarded the countries of East as the
main rear of imperialism and the reserve for the world revolution to be thrown
into the battle under slogans of national liberation, at the same time. To consolidate
the national liberation movements of East, Comintern initiated and held in 1920
the First international congress of indigenous workers and peasants of East in
Baku, which called for the peoples of East to start the sacred war against
imperialism.
As British-Soviet relations improved and Moscow started the new economic
policy (NEP), the Soviet policy regarding the dependent states and colonies in
the Middle East transformed from its political phase, as Chicherin defined it,
when Soviet Republic and Eastern states fought for political independence
against the global imperialism, their common enemy, to the economic phase,
when the USSR and Eastern countries aimed to cooperate in order to develop
their productive forces and win back or protect their economic independence.
Thus, the intention was to prevent less-developed countries from being
economically enslaved by powerful states, and also to facilitate the rise of
working class in Middle East, which later on would strengthen and play its part in
world revolution.
The main provision of 1921 trade agreement between the UK and the USSR
was the commitment of parties to abstain from hostile action or undertakings
against the other and from conducting outside of its own borders any official
propaganda direct or indirect against the institutions of the British Empire or the
Russian Soviet Republic respectively. The Soviet government formally agreed
with this provision; yet in practice Moscow never refrained from revolutionary
propaganda or support of national revolutionary movements in the East these
activities only shifted to Comintern. The combination of two lines of Soviet policy
one carried out by the Peoples Commissariat of foreign affairs, the other by
Comintern marked the Soviet foreign policy in the interwar period generally and
its Middle Eastern aspect in particular.
In line with the state policy needs, the Soviet school of oriental studies
developed a proletarian theory of West-East synthesis, which was to provide
319

the key to liberation of East from Western capitalist influence. In the framework
of this theory a new understanding of the Jewish national home and its role in
world politics was being formed in special Eastern departments of Peoples
Commissariat of foreign affairs, Comintern, Stalin Communist University of the
Toilers of the East. Contributions to the class analysis of Zionist activities in
Palestine were made by ideologists of Central Committee of the Russian
Communist Party (Bolsheviks) All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and the
Jewish Social Democratic Labour Party (Poale Zion) (since 1923 - Jewish
Communist Labour Party (Poalei Zion), which worked in the USSR until 1928), as
well as Palestinian communists.
Over the interwar period Comintern considered the Jewish national home in
Palestine as a stronghold of British imperialism in Middle East. In the early 1920s
the Executive Committee of the Communist International admitted that Zionism
played a progressive role in developing capitalism in Palestine and
proletarianization of its Arab population, thus forming the revolutionary class.
Hence the conviction of Moscow that Arab national liberation movement would
become the main hitting power able to overcome British imperialism. Palestinian
Jewish communists were given a task to penetrate into Arab Palestinian
environment spreading revolutionary propaganda and promoting unity of left
nationalist groups. Moscow suppressed any Palestinian Communist Party
attempts to engage the proletariat from the Jewish national home. As Arab
proletariats smallness and weakness became evident, Comintern staked on
engaging vast Arab masses in anti-imperialist fight under slogans of agrarian
(bourgeois-democratic) revolution. Jewish colonists were thus threatened by
Arab national liberation movement, whereas anti-Zionism was proclaimed an
integrative platform for Arab insurgent groups.
In the 1920-30s the Jewish national home became involved in economic, trade,
cultural, political and social Soviet policies regarding the dependent states and
colonies in the Middle East. Booming economic growth in the Jewish national
home in Palestine turned the latter into the most attractive country, in the eyes of
Soviet government, for Soviet export trading associations and economic
institutions to enter Middle Eastern market. RSFSR Peoples Commissariat for
Foreign Trade, specifically its Constantinople trade mission, and the Middle
Eastern section of Russian Eastern Chamber of Commerce pioneered the Soviet
trade in Palestinian market. In 1923 All Russia Cooperative Society Limited (since
1922 Arcos Ltd.) opened its Agency in Palestine (Palestinian Arcos Agency,
PAA), which undertook regular monitoring of Middle Eastern markets,
establishing connections with local business community, British administration
and representatives of the Jewish national home. As the USSR Commercial and
Industrial Bank mission opened in Jaffa in 1926, banking connections were
established between the USSR and the Jewish national home in Palestine. Finally,
the establishment of Soviet merchant marine mission the Main Agency of Soviet
merchant marine in the Middle East, Jaffa office, set up regular communication
between the USSR and the Jewish national home in Palestine.
320

In the 1920s the Soviet Union exported primarily vital provisions (potatoes,
wheat, etc.) and raw and semi-manufactured materials (mainly box shook and
veneer). Construction materials (timber, cement) and oil products also were major
export articles. By-turn, Jewish firms sought to sell the USSR citrus plants fruits
the main export product of the Jewish national home. Exhibitions and fairs devoted
to agriculture, trade and industry also played an important role in developing
economic and trade relations between the USSR and the Jewish national home.
In April 1926 PAA was closed owing to a series of incidents with the British
administration which seriously undermined the Soviet-Palestinian trade. In 1928,
in order to concentrate all the Soviet trade associations export and import work in
Middle and Near East in a single operation centre, an export and import office for
trade in Middle East (Blizhvosttorg) was opened, operating under the aegis of
Soviet trade mission in Turkey. After a new Anglo-Soviet trade agreement was
signed on April 16, 1930, Moscow resumed its economic and trade relations with
the Jewish national home in Palestine. The most important part in the trade
relations between the parties was played by Russian-Turkish export and import
joint-stock company Russoturk. Now the Soviet export included ferrous metals,
cast iron, steel products, and cotton. However, in the second half of 1930s the
dramatic change of the political situation in Palestine caused by the Great Arab
revolt of the 1936-1939 and rise of import duties led to a decrease in trade
between the USSR and the Jewish national home.
The main channel for cultural connections between the USSR and Palestine
was the All-Union society for cultural connections with foreign countries (VOKS).
VOKS worked under direct supervision of Peoples Commissariat of foreign
affairs, and its Palestinian activities were also controlled by the Central Bureau of
the Jewish section at Central Committee of the Russian/All-Union Communist
party (Bolsheviks). In the view of Moscow, the most significant and effective area
of VOKSs work was obtaining scientific information from the Jewish national
home research centres. Jewish scientists from Palestine sent their works to the
Soviet colleagues and requested information from them through VOKS. VOKS
meticulously meted out the Soviet scientists works and any social, political or
statistical information about the USSR, at the same time putting great endeavour to
get similar information from abroad for the Soviet economy.
It is important to keep in mind that the period of 1920-1930s was the time of
state formation both for the USSR and the Jewish national home in Palestine. Each
of them proposed its own project of building a fair society and forming a new
human through cutting-edge social practice. A successful solution to the
centuries old Jewish question had to prove the relevance of the ideological
paradigm and the efficiency of the socio-economic and political system based upon
it that finally removed the Jewish question from the agenda. In order to prove
that the Jewish question could be solved justly only in a soviet socialist state, the
Soviet government intended to secure integration of Jews in the family of Soviet
peoples through providing the Jewish people with a national autonomy (the
Crimea and then Birobidzhan projects) and thus giving them equal rights with
321

other ethnic groups of the USSR. Soviet state and party leaders considered the
main condition to putting these plans into life to be investments from foreign,
uppermost Jewish, funds. In the late 1920s early 1930s the struggle for the
Jewish soul, as Churchill wrote back in the 1920s meaning the Jewish peoples
choice between Zionism and Bolshivism, spread in full force.
Moscow represented the Soviet plans for territorial and national solution to the
Jewish question as alternatives to Zionist project of colonization of Palestine.
Jewish Autonomous Region in Birobidzhan was bluntly called a form of Jewish
national statehood by the Soviet state and party leaders. In the 1920s Moscow
suggested ZO a compromise in its own way: it was occasionally claimed in Soviet
foreign policy statements that the USSR had solved the Jewish question as well
as other national issues on the basis of Marxist-Leninist doctrine in the spirit of
all-round development of all nations and ethnic groups leading to their
harmonization and mutual brotherly support, so the Zionist version of Jewish
question solution was inapplicable in the USSR, whereas Moscow was ready to
admit it as suitable for the capitalist countries. However, such competence
allocation was absolutely inacceptable for ZO which espoused the idea of national
unity for the world Jewry and, just as important, put their hopes on Russian Zionist
movement for colonizing Palestine. In turn, Moscow did not accept Zionist groups:
Central Committee of the Russian Communist party (Bolsheviks) waged a silent
struggle against them, which resulted in suppression Zionism as a mass movement
by the late 1920s.
We can conclude that in the interwar period the relations between Moscow and
the Jewish national home in Palestine fell, at least discursively, within the basic
Soviet foreign policy concept regarding the dependent states and colonies in the
Middle East. However, the relations were not a result of a deliberate plan, but
rather a series of purely pragmatic interests realized more or less successfully by
different Soviet party institutions and foreign policy departments.

322

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