Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
2008
History
HISTORY OF ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS Thomas A. Edison, Father of electric light in 1882 Frank Julian Sprague, Produced dc motor for Edison systems in 1884 Nikola Tesla, Father of two-phase ac induction and synchronous motors in 1888 William Stanley, Father of commercially practical transformer 1885/86
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Well, I know sometimes it feels like we speak foreign language And sometimes even simple concepts are presented in a quite confusing way
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I hope that this presentation will help you to understand electricity and make selling Amprobe products easier
Basics
Electrons Electrons are the smallest and lightest of the particles in an atom. Electrons are in constant motion as they circle around the nucleus of that atom. Electrons are said to have a negative charge, which means that they seem to be surrounded by a kind of invisible force field. This is called an electrostatic field. Protons They are much larger and heavier than electrons. Protons have a positive electrical charge. This positively charged electrostatic field is exactly the same strength as the electrostatic field in an electron, but it is opposite in polarity. Notice the negative electron and the positive proton have the same number of force field lines in each of the diagrams. In other words, the proton is exactly as positive as the electron is negative.
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Basics
Like charges repel, unlike charges attract
Two electrons repel each other because both have a negative electrical charge. Two protons repel each other because they both have a positive charge. Electrons and protons attract each other because of their unlike charges.
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Voltage
Mathematical definition The electrical potential difference is defined as the amount of work needed to move a unit electric charge from the second point to the first, or equivalently, the amount of work that a unit charge flowing from the first point to the second can perform. The potential difference between two points a and b is the line integral of the electric field E:
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I V R
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(Ohm) - Resistance
Air Valve Air tool
Pressure
Air tank
V - voltage
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Basics
VOLTAGE (V)
Voltage is the difference of electrical potential between two points of an electrical circuit, expressed in volts.
Electromotive force, or EMF - the force that causes the electrons to move in an electrical circuit . An electric potential difference must exist for current to flow in an electric circuit.
VA - VD = 12 - 0 = 12 V
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Basics
Electrical Current and Amperage (A) Electrical Current is defined as a flow (movement) of electrons. Current is measured in units called Amperes or Amps. Amperage is a term used to describe the number of electrons moving past a fixed point in a conductor in one second.
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Basics
Resistance Resistance - measured in units called Ohms () . It describes the forces that oppose the flow of electron current in a conductor. All materials naturally contain some resistance to the flow of electron current, some more, some less Symbol
Formula
where L represents the length of the wire (in meters), A represents the cross-sectional area of the wire (in meters2), and represents the resistivity of the material (in ohmmeter).
Basics Of Electricity Seminar
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Basics
Resistance Is resistance good or bad? It can be both good and bad. If we want to transmit electricity from one place to another through a conductor, resistance is undesirable in the conductor. It causes some of the electrical energy to turn into heat. However, it is resistance that allows us to use electricity for heat and light. The heat that is generated from electric heaters or the light that we get from light bulbs is due to resistance.
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Basics
Conductors and Insulators Conductors - materials that have free electrons and allow electrical current to flow easily (e.i. copper, aluminum). These materials have LOW resistance for electric current. Insulators - materials that do not have free electrons (e.i. glass, plastic, rubber, air). They have HIGH resistance for electric current. Insulators are used to protect us from the dangerous effects of electricity flowing through conductors.
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Basics
Electromagnetic fields The term electromagnetism is defined as the production of a magnetic field by current flowing in a conductor. The magnetic field around the conductor flows in closed loops.
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Basics
Field Intensity The term field intensity is used to describe the strength of the magnetic field. Field intensity is determined by the amount
electromagnetic field
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Quiz
Who invented the light bulb?
In addressing the question "Who invented the incandescent lamp?" historians Robert Friedel and Paul Israel list 22 inventors of incandescent lamps prior to Swan and Edison. They conclude that Edison's version was able to outstrip the others because of a combination of factors: an effective incandescent material, a higher vacuum than others were able to achieve and a high resistance lamp that made power distribution from a centralized source economically viable.
2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar
AC / DC
In the DC circuit current flows in one direction. On the other hand the AC power sources pump current back and forth.
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AC vs. DC signal
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Distorted Sinewave
If we use a standard average sensing meter on a distorted sine wave the measuring error can reach over 30% (usually these meters tend to measure lower). So instead of displaying 120V at the receptacle, you may read as low as 90V! This is a huge measuring error!
2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar
TRMS
1 N
a
1
2 n
Capacitance
A capacitor is an electrical/electronic device that can store energy in the electric field between a pair of conductors (called "plates"). The process of storing energy in the capacitor is known as "charging", and involves electric charges of equal magnitude, but opposite polarity, building up on each plate. Capacitors are often used in electric and electronic circuits as energy-storage devices. They can also be used to differentiate between high-frequency and low-frequency signals. This property makes them useful in electronic filters. Capacitance is a measure of the amount of electric charge stored (or separated) for a given electric potential. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad; 1 farad = 1 coulomb per volt.
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Inrush Current
Inrush current or input surge current refers to the maximum, instantaneous input current drawn by an electrical device when first turned on. AC electric motors and transformers may draw several times their normal full-load current when first energized, for a few cycles of the input waveform.
2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar
Duty Cycle
Duty cycle is the proportion of time during which a component, device, or system is operated. Suppose a disk drive operates for 1 second, and is shut off for 99 seconds, then is run for 1 second again, and so on. The drive runs for one out of 100 seconds, or 1/100 of the time, and its duty cycle is therefore 1/100, or 1 percent.
D - duty cycle; - duration that the function is non-zero; - period of the function.
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Temperature
Where Gabriel Fahrenheit was Born?
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Three-Phase systems
Two main types in the US called Delta and Wye
Delta system (3-Phase 3-Wire) named after the schematic resemblance of the windings to the Greek letter Delta three independent transformer or generator windings that are connected head to toe - no single point common to all phases. Single voltage level available - the Phase to Phase voltages. Other voltages can be obtained only by using step-up or step-down transformers. Wye system (3-Phase 4-Wire) named after the schematic resemblance of the windings to the letter Wye ( Y ) three, independent transformer or generator windings that are connected at a common point, called a neutral or star point. Wye connected power has two different voltages available. The Phase to Phase voltage is the main system voltage (typically 208 VAC or 480 VAC in the United States). The Phase to Neutral voltage is also available, and is typically used for small single phase loads (120 VAC or 277 VAC)
2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar
Three-Phase systems
In a three-phase system, three circuit conductors carry three alternating currents (legs), with 120 degrees phase shift between them Why three phase? A three-phase system uses less conductor material to transmit electric power than equivalent singlephase, two-phase, or direct-current systems at the same voltage. Phase sequence is a term describing the order of the phases
Most domestic loads are single phase. In North America and some other countries, three phase power generally does not enter domestic houses at all. Even in areas where it does, it is typically split out at the main distribution board.
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2 + 2 = 4?
S VRMS I RMS
S P2 Q2
S - apparent power, P active power, Q - reactive power The first formula is only valid for non-distorted waveforms
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t ren a p Ap
( er w o
S)
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Energy
Energy is power used over time. Energy, like power, can be active, reactive or apparent. Active Energy it is active power consumed over time. It is measured in Watt Hours [Wh] Reactive Energy it is reactive power consumed over time. It is measured in Volt-Amp-Reactive Hours [VARh]. Apparent Energy it is apparent power consumed over time. It is measured in Volt-Amp hours [VAh].
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Power Factor
Power Factor is a measure of how efficient a system is. Displacement Power Factor is related to the efficiency cased by phase shift between voltage and current True Power Factor describes the total efficiency of the system including total harmonic distortion and phase shift. Power factor is measured from 0 to 1.
The lowest efficiency is with Power Factor = 0 (0%) meaning we loose all energy, and the highest is 1 (100% efficient system), meaning we use all produced energy.
Power factor of 0.5 describes system, which is 50% efficient, Power factor of 0.95 describes system, which is 95% efficient. And so on
The bottom line is: the higher the power factor, the better!
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Resistive loads
The resistive loads do not create a phase-shift. The voltage and current on above drawing are inphase, meaning that they cross the X (time) axis in the same places. Such a system is very efficient, with a Displacement Power Factor of 1 (100% efficient) since there is no Reactive power present.
2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar
Inductive loads
The inductive loads cause current to lag the voltage. Motors are good examples of such loads. Motors create Reactive power, which affects the power factor in a negative way. The more motors you connect to the system the more energy you are loosing. Due to this very reason the Displacement Power Factor can be as low as 0.6 (sometimes even lower), meaning that only 60% of supplied energy is used and almost 40% is wasted! That also means that somebody is paying for this 40% wasted energy. Wouldnt it be nice to save this money?
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Capacitive loads
And here is the good news. The capacitive loads cause the current to lead the voltage. Compare the previous slide. Have you noticed that capacitance (capacitor) shifts current in an opposite direction to inductance (motor coil)?
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PF correction
Q before
e f or e b
er S aft
Q after
Quiz
Why do two different instruments playing the same note sound different? Why do flutes and violins sound different? If the sound is a vibration of air molecules, and by playing the same note these instruments vibrate air molecules with the exact same frequency, why do they sound different?
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Hermann Helmholtz
He discovered that musical instruments produce entire array of sounds (frequencies). But all of these sounds (frequencies) are multiples of the single fundamental frequency.
So if we use 60Hz as fundamental frequency, instruments will generate second harmonic (60Hz*2 = 120 Hz), third harmonic (60Hz 3 = 180Hz) and so onThe combination of individual harmonics for each instrument varies, and that is a reason the instruments playing the same note sound different.
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Fourier analysis
Also in 19th century, French mathematician, Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier proved, in essence, any waveform could be decomposed or separated into sinusoids (sine waves) of different frequency (harmonics). All these sine waves would sum up to the original waveform. The Fourier Transform identifies or distinguishes the different frequency sinusoids and their respective amplitudes.
In other words, no matter how distorted a sine wave is, it can be broken down into a fundamental frequency and individual harmonics. If you perform harmonic analysis with power quality instrument, the distorted sine wave is going to be broken down into individual harmonics (sine waves), and individual harmonics can be linked to a specific malfunction of an electrical system. The harmonic analysis is performed separately for voltage and current, and for each phase of three-phase system
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Harmonic analysis
In other words, no matter how distorted a sine wave is, it can be broken down into a fundamental frequency and individual harmonics. If you perform harmonic analysis with power quality instrument, the distorted sine wave is going to be broken down into individual harmonics (sine waves), and individual harmonics can be linked to a specific malfunction of an electrical system. The harmonic analysis is performed separately for voltage and current, and for each phase of three-phase system
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Harmonics Readings
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Before we go to perform some hands on training, lets learn about product safety
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Electrical Shock
Current in mA
8 or less
Effect on Body
Sensation of shock but probably not painful Painful shock
8 to 15
15 to 20
Painful shock, may be frozen or locked to point of electric contact until circuit is de-energized Causes severe muscular contractions, paralysis of breathing, heart convulsions
Over 20
*Effects vary depending on time, path, amount of exposure and condition of body.
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Product Safety
Rule #1: After work go home Rule #2: Use safe meters to accomplish Rule #1
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Quiz
You are just about to check voltage on this 480V CAT III main panel shown on the picture. You have two meters to choose from, rated at:
1. 2. CAT I 1000V CAT III 600V
Which meter will be safer for the job? Answer: CAT III 600V Properly working electrical system rated at CAT III 600V can produce up to 6KV voltage impulse! Meters rated to CAT III 600V will safely absorb or otherwise deal with such impulse. The CAT I 1000V, even though is rated with higher voltage, may blow up in users hands in CAT III environment!
2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar
Most of applications for Electrical Maintenance and General Electrical Contractors require at least CAT III 600V
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CAT III-1000V meter has better protection than a CAT III-600V meter CAT I-1000V meter IS NOT "safer" than a CAT III600V meter
When it comes to transient protection, the CAT III-600V meter passes a test against a transient with much more energy than the CAT I -1000V meter
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CAT Ratings
Category ratings are marked next to the input terminals of the meter
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Prefixes
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