Plaxis 2D Manual

PLAXIS 2D
Reference Manual
2012
Build 5848
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Introduction 9
2 General information 11
2.1 Units and sign conventions 11
2.2 File handling 13
2.3 Help facilities 13
3 Input program - General overview 15
3.1 Starting the Input program 15
3.1.1 New project 16
3.1.2 Existing project 20
3.1.3 Importing a geometry 20
3.1.4 Packing a project 21
3.2 Layout of the Input program 23
3.3 Menus in the Menu bar 25
3.3.1 File menu 25
3.3.2 Edit menu 26
3.3.3 View menu 26
3.3.4 Geometry menu 26
3.3.5 Loads menu 27
3.3.6 Materials menu 28
3.3.7 Mesh menu 28
3.3.8 Help menu 28
3.4 Geometry 29
3.4.1 Points and lines 29
3.4.2 Plates 30
3.4.3 Embedded pile row 32
3.4.4 Geogrids 36
3.4.5 Interfaces 37
3.4.6 Node-to-node anchors 40
3.4.7 Fixed-end anchors 40
3.4.8 Tunnels 41
3.4.9 Hinges and rotation springs 46
3.4.10 Drains 47
3.4.11 Wells 48
3.5 Loads and boundary conditions 48
3.5.1 Standard xities 48
3.5.2 Standard earthquake boundaries 49
3.5.3 Standard absorbent boundaries (dynamics) 49
3.5.4 Set dynamic load system 49
3.5.5 Fixities 49
3.5.6 Rotation xities (plates) 50
3.5.7 Absorbent boundaries 50
3.5.8 Prescribed displacements 50
3.5.9 Distributed loads 52
3.5.10 Point loads 53
3.5.11 Bending moments 54
PLAXIS 2D 2012 | Reference Manual 3
REFERENCE MANUAL
3.6 Design approaches 54
3.6.1 Denition of design approaches 55
3.6.2 Denition of partial factors for loads 57
3.6.3 Denition of partial factors for materials 58
3.7 Mesh generation 60
3.7.1 Basic element type 61
3.7.2 Global coarseness 61
3.7.3 Global renement 61
3.7.4 Local coarseness 61
3.7.5 Local renement 62
3.7.6 Automatic renement 62
4 Material properties and material database 65
4.1 Modelling soil and interface behaviour 67
4.1.1 General tabsheet 67
4.1.2 Parameters tabsheet 73
4.1.3 Flow parameters tabsheet 90
4.1.4 Interfaces tabsheet 96
4.1.5 Initial tabsheet 102
4.2 Modelling undrained behaviour 104
4.2.1 Undrained (A) 105
4.2.2 Undrained (B) 105
4.2.3 Undrained (C) 106
4.3 Simulation of soil tests 106
4.3.1 Triaxial test 109
4.3.2 Oedometer 110
4.3.3 CRS 111
4.3.4 DSS 112
4.3.5 General 113
4.3.6 Results 113
4.3.7 Parameter optimisation 114
4.4 Material data sets for plates 121
4.4.1 Material set 121
4.4.2 Properties 122
4.5 Material data sets for geogrids 125
4.6 Material data sets for embedded pile rows 127
4.6.3 Interaction properties (pile bearing capacity) 130
4.6.4 Interface stiffness factor 131
4.7 Material data sets for anchors 133
4.8 Assigning data sets to geometry components 136
5 Calculations 137
5.1 Layout of the Calculations program 137
4 Reference Manual | PLAXIS 2D 2012
TABLE OF CONTENTS
5.2 Menus in the menu bar 139
5.3 Calculation modes 141
5.3.1 Classical mode 141
5.3.2 Advanced mode 142
5.3.3 Flow mode 142
5.4 Dening calculation phases 143
5.4.1 Calculation tabsheets 143
5.4.2 Inserting and deleting calculation phases 144
5.4.3 Phase identication and ordening 145
5.5 Types of analysis 145
5.5.1 Initial stress generation 146
5.5.2 Plastic calculation 149
5.5.3 Consolidation calculation in Classical mode 149
5.5.4 Consolidation calculation in Advanced mode 150
5.5.5 Safety calculation (phi/c reduction) 150
5.5.6 Dynamic calculation 153
5.5.7 Free vibration 153
5.5.8 Groundwater ow (steady-state) 153
5.5.9 Groundwater ow (transient) 154
5.5.10 Plastic nil-step 154
5.5.11 Updated mesh analysis 154
5.6 Load stepping procedures 157
5.6.1 Automatic step size procedure 157
5.6.2 Load advancement - Ultimate level 158
5.6.3 Load advancement - Number of steps 160
5.6.4 Automatic time stepping (consolidation) 160
5.6.5 Automatic time stepping (dynamics) 161
5.7 Calculation control parameters 161
5.7.1 Iterative procedure control parameters 161
5.7.2 Pore pressure limits 168
5.7.3 Loading input 168
5.7.4 Control parameters 173
5.8 Staged construction - geometry denition 175
5.8.1 Changing geometry conguration 176
5.8.2 Activating and deactivating clusters or structural objects 176
5.8.3 Activating or changing loads 178
5.8.4 Applying prescribed displacements 179
5.8.5 Reassigning material data sets 180
5.8.6 Applying a volumetric strain in volume clusters 181
5.8.7 Prestressing of anchors 182
5.8.8 Applying contraction of a tunnel lining 183
5.8.9 Denition of design calculations 183
5.8.10 Staged construction with Mstage < 1 184
5.8.11 Unnished staged construction calculation 185
5.9 Staged construction - water conditions 186
5.9.1 Water unit weight 187
5.9.2 Phreatic level 188
5.9.3 Closed boundary 191
5.9.4 Precipitation 192
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5.9.5 Cluster pore pressure distribution 194
5.9.6 Boundary conditions for ow and consolidation 196
5.9.7 Special objects 202
5.9.8 Water pressure generation 203
5.10 Calculation using design approaches 206
5.11 Load multipliers 206
5.11.1 Standard load multipliers 207
5.11.2 Other multipliers and calculation parameters 209
5.11.3 Dynamic multipliers 210
5.12 Sensitivity analysis & Parameter variation 212
5.12.1 Sensitivity analysis 213
5.12.2 Parameter variation 213
5.12.3 Dening variations of parameters 213
5.12.4 Starting the analysis 214
5.12.5 Sensitivity - View results 215
5.12.6 Parameter variation - Calculate boundary values 217
5.12.7 Viewing upper and lower values 218
5.12.8 Viewing results of variations 218
5.12.9 Delete results 218
5.13 Starting a calculation 218
5.13.1 Previewing a construction stage 218
5.13.2 Selecting points for curves 219
5.13.3 Execution of the calculation process 219
5.13.4 Aborting a calculation 220
5.13.5 Output during calculations 220
5.13.6 Selecting calculation phases for output 225
5.13.7 Reset staged construction settings 225
5.13.8 Adjustment to input data in between calculations 226
5.13.9 Automatic error checks 226
6 Output program - General overview 229
6.1 Layout of the output program 230
6.2 Menus in the Menu bar 231
6.2.1 File menu 231
6.2.2 View menu 231
6.2.3 Project menu 233
6.2.4 Geometry menu 233
6.2.5 Mesh menu 234
6.2.6 Deformations menu 235
6.2.7 Stresses menu 235
6.2.8 Forces menu 235
6.2.9 Tools menu 235
6.2.10 Window menu 236
6.2.11 Help menu 236
6.3 Tools in the Output program 237
6.3.1 Accessing the Output program 237
6.3.2 Exporting output data 237
6.3.3 Curves manager 239
6.3.4 Store the view for reports 239
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6.3.5 Zooming the plot 239
6.3.6 Relocation of the plot 240
6.3.7 Scaling the displayed results 240
6.3.8 Tables 240
6.3.9 Selection of results 241
6.3.10 Display type of results 241
6.3.11 Select structures 242
6.3.12 Partial geometry 243
6.3.13 Viewing results in cross sections 244
6.3.14 Plot annotations 245
6.3.15 Miscellaneous tools 247
6.4 Display area 250
6.4.1 Legend 250
6.4.2 Modifying the display settings 251
6.5 Views in Output 253
6.5.1 Model view 253
6.5.2 Structures view 253
6.5.3 Cross section view 253
6.5.4 Forces view 253
6.6 Report generation 254
6.6.1 Conguration of the document 256
6.7 Creating animations 256
7 Results available in Output program 259
7.1 Connectivity plot 259
7.2 Deformations 259
7.2.1 Deformed mesh 259
7.2.2 Total displacements 260
7.2.3 Phase displacements 260
7.2.4 Sum phase displacements 260
7.2.5 Incremental displacements 260
7.2.6 Extreme total displacements 261
7.2.7 Velocities 261
7.2.8 Accelerations 261
7.2.9 Accelerations in 'g' 262
7.2.10 Total cartesian strains 262
7.2.11 Phase cartesian strains 262
7.2.12 Incremental cartesian strains 262
7.2.13 Total strains 263
7.2.14 Phase strains 263
7.2.15 Incremental strains 263
7.3 Stresses 264
7.3.1 Cartesian effective stresses 264
7.3.2 Cartesian total stresses 264
7.3.3 Principal effective stresses 264
7.3.4 Principal total stresses 266
7.3.5 State parameters 266
7.3.6 Pore pressures 268
7.3.7 Groundwater ow 269
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7.3.8 Plastic points 270
7.3.9 Fixed end anchors 271
7.3.10 Node to node anchors 271
7.3.11 Wells 272
7.3.12 Drains 272
7.4 Structures and interfaces 272
7.4.1 Deformation in structural elements 272
7.4.2 Resulting forces in Plates 272
7.4.3 Resulting forces in Geogrids 273
7.4.4 Resulting forces in embedded pile rows 273
7.4.5 Anchors 274
7.4.6 Interfaces 274
7.4.7 Results in Hinges and rotation springs 275
7.4.8 Structural forces in volumes 275
8 Curves 279
8.1 Selecting points for curves 279
8.1.1 Mesh point selection 279
8.1.2 Pre-calculation points 280
8.1.3 Post-calculation points 280
8.2 Generating curves 281
8.2.1 Load-displacement curves 283
8.2.2 Force-displacement curves 283
8.2.3 Displacement-time or force-time curves 284
8.2.4 Stress and strain diagrams 284
8.2.5 Curves in Dynamic calculations 284
8.3 Formatting curves 287
8.3.1 Menus for curves 288
8.3.2 Editing curve data in table 289
8.3.3 Value indication 291
8.4 Formatting options 291
8.4.1 Chart settings 291
8.4.2 Curve settings 292
8.5 Regeneration of curves 294
8.6 Multiple curves in one chart 294
9 References 295
Index
Appendix A - Possibilities and limitations of PLAXIS 2D 301
Appendix B - Program and Data File Structure 315
Appendix C - Shortcuts Output program 319
INTRODUCTION
1 INTRODUCTION
The PLAXIS 2D program is a special purpose two-dimensional nite element program
used to perform deformation and stability analysis for various types of geotechnical
applications. Real situations may be modelled either by a plane strain or an axisymmetric
model. The program uses a convenient graphical user interface that enables users to
quickly generate a geometry model and nite element mesh based on a representative
vertical cross section of the situation at hand. Users need to be familiar with the Windows
environment. To obtain a quick working knowledge of the main features of the PLAXIS
program, users should work through the example problems contained in the Tutorial
Manual.
The Reference Manual is intended for users who want more detailed information about
program features. The manual covers topics that are not covered exhaustively in the
Tutorial Manual. It also contains practical details on how to use the PLAXIS program for
a wide variety of problem types. The user interface consists of three sub-programs
(Input, Calculations and Output).
The Input program is a pre-processor,
which is used to dene the problem geometry and to create the nite element mesh.
The Calculations program is a separate part
of the user-interface that is used to dene and execute nite element calculations.
The Output program is a post-processor, which is used to inspect the results
of calculations in a two dimensional view or in cross sections, and to plot graphs
(curves) of output quantities of selected geometry points.
The contents of this Reference Manual are arranged according to the sub-programs and
their respective options as listed in the corresponding menus. This manual does not
contain detailed information about the constitutive models, the nite element formulations
or the non-linear solution algorithms used in the program. For detailed information on
these and other related subjects, users are referred to the various papers listed in the
Scientic Manual and the Material Models Manual.
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GENERAL INFORMATION
2 GENERAL INFORMATION
Before describing the specic features in the three parts of the PLAXIS 2D user interface,
the information given in this chapter applies to all parts of the program.
2.1 UNITS AND SIGN CONVENTIONS
It is important in any analysis to adopt a consistent system of units. At the start of the
input of a geometry, a suitable set of basic units should be selected. The basic units
comprise a unit for length, force and time. These basic units are dened in the Model
tabsheet of the Project properties window in the Input program. The default units are
meters [m] for length, kiloNewton [kN] for force and day [day] for time. Table 2.1 gives an
overview of all available units, the [default] settings and conversion factors to the default
units. All subsequent input data should conform to the selected system of units and the
output data should be interpreted in terms of the same system. From the basic set of
units, as dened by the user, the appropriate unit for the input of a particular parameter is
generally listed directly behind the edit box or, when using input tables, above the input
column. In all of the examples given in the PLAXIS manuals, the standard units are used.
Table 2.1 Available units and their conversion factor to the default units
Length Conversion Force Conversion Time Conversion
mm = 0.001 m N = 0.001 kN s (sec) = 1/86400 day
[m] = 1 m [kN] = 1 kN min = 1/1440 day
in (inch) = 0.0254 m MN = 1000 kN [h] = 1/24 day
ft (feet) = 0.3048 m lbf (pounds force) = 0.0044482 kN [day] = 1 day
kip (kilo pound) = 4.4482 kN
For convenience, the units of commonly used quantities in two different sets of units are
listed below:
Int. system (SI) Imperial system
Basic units: Length [m] [in]
Force [kN] [lbf]
Time [day] [sec]
Geometry: Coordinates [m] [in]
Displacements [m] [in]
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Material properties: Young's modulus [kN/m
2
]=[kPa] [psi]=[lbf/in
2
]
Cohesion [kN/m
2
] [psi]
Friction angle [deg.] [deg.]
Dilatancy angle [deg.] [deg.]
Unit weight [kN/m
3
] [lbf/cu in]
Permeability [m/day] [in/sec]
Forces & stresses: Point loads [kN] [lbf]
Line loads [kN/m] [lbf/in]
Distributed loads [kN/m
2
] [psi]
Stresses [kN/m
2
] [psi]
Units are generally only used as a reference for the user but, to some extent, changing
the basic units in the Project properties window will automatically convert existing input
values to the new units. This applies to parameters in material data sets and other
material properties in the Input program. It does not apply to geometry related input
values like geometry data, loads, prescribed displacements or phreatic levels or to any
value outside the Input program. If it is the users intention to use a different system of
units in an existing project, the user has to modify all geometrical data manually and redo
all calculations.
In a plane strain analysis, the calculated forces resulting from prescribed displacements
represent forces per unit length in the out of plane direction (z-direction; see Figure 2.1).
In an axisymmetric analysis, the calculated forces (Force X, Force Y) are those that
act on the boundary of a circle subtending an angle of 1 radian. In order to obtain the
forces corresponding to the complete problem therefore, these forces should be
multiplied by a factor of 2. All other output for axisymmetric problems is given per unit
width and not per radian.
Sign convention
The generation of a two-dimensional (2D) nite element model in the PLAXIS 2D
program is based on the creation of a geometry model. This geometry model is created
in the x-y-plane of the global coordinate system (Figure 2.1), whereas the z-direction is
the out-of-plane direction. In the global coordinate system the positive z-direction is
pointing towards the user. In all of the output data, compressive stresses and forces,
including pore pressures, are taken to be negative, whereas tensile stresses and forces
are taken to be positive. Figure 2.1 shows the positive stress directions.
Although PLAXIS 2D is a 2D program, stresses are based on the 3D Cartesian
coordinate system shown in Figure 2.1. In a plane strain analysis
zz
is the out-of-plane
stress. In an axisymmetric analysis, x represents the radial coordinate, y represents the
axial coordinate and z represents the tangential direction. In this case,
xx
represents the
radial stress and
zz
represents the hoop stress.
GENERAL INFORMATION
y
z
x
xx
xy
xz
yy
yx
yz
zz
zx
zy
Figure 2.1 Coordinate system and indication of positive stress components
2.2 FILE HANDLING
All le handling in PLAXIS is done using a modied version of the general Windows
le
requester (Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.2 PLAXIS le requester
With the le requester, it is possible to search for les in any admissible directory of the
computer (and network) environment. The main le used to store information for a
PLAXIS project has a structured format and is named <project>.P2D, where <project> is
the project title. Besides this le, additional data is stored in multiple les in the
sub-directory <project>.P2DAT. It is generally not necessary to enter such a directory
because it is not possible to read individual les in this directory.
If a PLAXIS project le (*.P2D) is selected, a small bitmap of the corresponding project
geometry is shown in the le requester to enable a quick and easy recognition of a
project.
2.3 HELP FACILITIES
To inform the user about the various program options and features, PLAXIS 2D provides
a link in the Help menu to a digital version of the Manuals. Moreover, the Help menu may
be used to generate a le with software license information as stored in the security lock
(to be used for license updates and extensions). A more detailed description of the Help
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menu of the Input and Output program is given in Sections 3.3.8 and 6.2.11 respectively.
Many features are available as buttons in a toolbar. When the mouse pointer is
positioned on a button for more than a second, a short description ('hint') appears,
indicating the function of the button. For some input parameters side panels appear to
help the user decide which value to select.
INPUT PROGRAM - GENERAL OVERVIEW
3 INPUT PROGRAM - GENERAL OVERVIEW
To carry out a nite element analysis using the PLAXIS 2D program, the user has to
create a two dimensional geometry model composed of points, lines and other
components, in the x y-plane and specify the material properties and boundary
conditions. This is done in the Input program. The generation of an appropriate nite
element mesh and the generation of properties and boundary conditions on an element
level is automatically performed by the PLAXIS mesh generator based on the input of the
geometry model. Users may also customise the nite element mesh in order to gain
optimum performance.
When a geometry model is created in the Input program it is suggested that the different
input items are selected in the order given by the model toolbar (from left to right). In
principle, rst draw the geometry contour, then add the soil layers, then structural objects,
then construction layers, then boundary conditions and then loadings. Using this
procedure, the model toolbar acts as a guide through the Input program and ensures that
all necessary input items are dealt with. Of course, not all input options are generally
required for any particular analysis. For example, some structural objects or loading
types might not be used when only soil loading is considered. Nevertheless, by following
the toolbar the user is reminded of the various input items and will select the ones that
are of interest. The program will also give warning messages if some necessary input
has not been specied. It is important to realise that the nite element mesh must be
regenerated when the geometry of an existing model is changed. This is also checked by
the program. On following these procedures the user can be condent that a consistent
nite element model is obtained.
3.1 STARTING THE INPUT PROGRAM
This icon represents the Input program. At the start of the Input program the Quick
select window appears in which a choice must be made between the selection of
an existing project and the creation of a new project (Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1 Quick select window
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3.1.1 NEW PROJECT
When the Start a new project option is selected, the Project properties window (Figure
3.4) appears in which the basic model parameters of the new project can be dened. The
Project properties window contains the Project and the Model tabsheets. The Project
tabsheet (Figure 3.4) contains the project name and description, the type of model and
acceleration data. The Model tabsheet (Figure 3.5) contains the basic units for length,
force and time (see Section 2.1), the initial dimensions of the model contour and the grid
specications. The default values can be replaced by the current values when selecting
Set as default and clicking the OK button. A more detailed description of all these
options is given below.
Project
The title, directory and the le name of the project are available in the Project group box
available in the Project tabsheet.
Title The dened title appears as a default name for the le of the
project when it is saved.
Directory The address to the folder where the project is saved is displayed.
For a new project, there is no information shown.
File name The name of the project le is displayed. For a new project, there
is no information shown.
Comments
The Comments box in the Project tabsheet gives the possibility to add some extra
comments about the project.
General options
The general options of the project are available in the Project tabsheet of the Project
properties window.
Model
PLAXIS 2D may be used to carry out two-dimensional nite element analysis. The nite
element model is dened by selecting the corresponding option in the Model drop
down-menu in the Project tabsheet.
Plane strain: A Plane strain model is used for geometries with a (more or less) uniform
cross section and corresponding stress state and loading scheme over a certain length
perpendicular to the cross section (z-direction). Displacements and strains in z-direction
are assumed to be zero. However, normal stresses in z-direction are fully taken into
account.
In earthquake problems the dynamic loading source is usually applied along the bottom
of the model resulting in shear waves that propagate upwards. This type of problems is
generally simulated using a plane strain model.
Axisymmetric: An Axisymmetric model is used for circular structures with a (more or
less) uniform radial cross section and loading scheme around the central axis, where the
deformation and stress state are assumed to be identical in any radial direction. Note that
for axisymmetric problems the x-coordinate represents the radius and the y-axis
corresponds to the axial line of symmetry. Negative x-coordinates cannot be used.
Single-source vibration problems are often modelled with axisymmetric models. This is
because waves in an axisymmetric system radiate in a manner similar to that in a three
dimensional system. In this case, the energy disperses leading to wave attenuations with
distance. Such effect can be attributed to the geometric damping (or radiation damping),
which is by denition included in the axisymmetric model.
The selection of Plane strain or Axisymmetric results in a two dimensional nite element
model with only two translational degrees of freedom per node (x- and y-direction).
x
y
y
x
Figure 3.2 Example of a plane strain (left) and axisymmetric problem (right)
Elements
The user may select either 6-node or 15-node triangular elements (Figure 3.4) to model
soil layers and other volume clusters.
nodes
stress points
a. 15-node triangle
nodes stress points
b. 6-node triangle
Figure 3.3 Position of nodes and stress points in soil elements
15-Node: The 15-node triangle is the default element. It provides a fourth order
interpolation for displacements and the numerical integration involves twelve Gauss
points (stress points). The type of element for structural elements and interfaces is
automatically taken to be compatible with the soil element type as selected here.
The 15-node triangle is a very accurate element that has produced high quality stress
results for difcult problems, as for example in collapse calculations for incompressible
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soils (Nagtegaal, Parks & Rice,1974, Sloan,1981 and Sloan & Randolph,1982). The
15-node triangle is particularly recommended to be used in axi-symmetric analysis. The
use of 15-node triangles leads to more memory consumption and slower calculation and
operation performance. Therefore a more simple type of elements is also available.
6-Node: The 6-node triangle provides a second order interpolation for displacements
and the numerical integration involves three Gauss points. The type of element for
structural elements and interfaces is automatically taken to be compatible with the soil
element type as selected here.
The 6-node triangle is a fairly accurate element that gives good results in standard
deformation analyses, provided that a sufcient number of elements are used. However,
care should be taken with axisymmetric models or in situations where (possible) failure
plays a role, such as a bearing capacity calculation or a safety analysis by means of phi-c
reduction. Failure loads or safety factors are generally overpredicted using 6-noded
elements. In those cases the use of 15-node elements is preferred.
One 15-node element can be thought of a composition of four 6-node elements, since the
total number of nodes and stress points is equal. Nevertheless, one 15-node element is
more powerful than four 6-node elements.
In addition to the soil elements, compatible plate elements are used to simulate the
behaviour of walls, plates and shells (Section 3.4.2) and geogrid elements are used to
simulate the behaviour of geogrids and wovens (Section 3.4.4). Moreover, compatible
interface elements are used to simulate soil-structure interaction (Section 3.4.5). Finally,
the geometry creation mode allows for the input of xed-end anchors and node-to-node
anchors (Sections 3.4.6 and 3.4.7).
Gravity and acceleration
By default, the earth gravity acceleration, g, is set to 9.8 m/s
2
and the direction of gravity
coincides with the negative y-axis, i.e. an orientation of -90
in the x-y-plane. Gravity is

implicitly included in the unit weights given by the user (Section 4.1). In this way, the
gravity is controlled by the total load multiplier for weights of materials, Mweight
(Section 5.11.1).
In addition to the normal gravity the user may prescribe an independent acceleration to
model dynamic forces in a pseudo-static way. The input values of the x- and
y-acceleration components are expressed in terms of the normal gravity acceleration g
and entered in the Project tabsheet of the Project properties window. The activation of
the additional acceleration in calculations is controlled by the load multipliers Maccel and
Maccel (Section 5.11.1).
In dynamic calculations, the value of the gravity acceleration, g, is used to calculate the
material density, , from the unit of weight, ( = /g).
Units
Units for length, force and time to be used in the analysis need to be specied. These
basic units are entered in the Model tabsheet of the Project properties window (Figure
3.5).
Figure 3.4 Project properties window (Project tabsheet)
The default units, as suggested by the program, are m (meter) for length, kN (kiloNewton)
for force and day for time. The corresponding units for stress and unit weights are listed
in the box below the basic units.
In a dynamic analysis, the time is usually measured in [seconds] rather than the default
unit [days]. Hence, for dynamic analysis the unit of time could be changed in the Project
tabsheet of the Project properties window. However, this is not strictly necessary since in
PLAXIS Time and Dynamic time are different parameters. The time interval in a dynamic
analysis is always the dynamic time and PLAXIS always uses seconds [s] as the unit of
Dynamic time. In the case where a dynamic analysis and a consolidation analysis are
involved, the unit of Time can be left as [days] whereas the Dynamic time is in seconds
[s].
All input values should be given in a consistent set of units (Section 2.1). The appropriate
unit of a certain input value is usually given directly behind the edit box, based on the
basic set of units.
Geometry dimensions
At the start of a new project, the user needs to specify the dimensions of the draw area in
such a way that the geometry model that is to be created will t within the dimensions.
The dimensions are entered in the Model tabsheet of the Project properties window. The
dimensions of the draw area do not inuence the geometry itself and may be changed
when modifying an existing project, provided that the existing geometry ts within the
modied dimensions. Clicking on the rulers in the geometry creation mode may be used
as a shortcut to proceed to the input of the geometry dimensions in the Project properties
window.
Grid
To facilitate the creation of the geometry model, the user may dene a grid for the draw
area. This grid may be used to snap the pointer into certain 'regular' positions. The grid is
dened by means of the parameters Spacing and Number of snap intervals. The Spacing
is used to set up a coarse grid, indicated by the small dots on the draw area. The actual
grid is the coarse grid divided into the Number of snap intervals. The default number of
intervals is 1, which gives a grid equal to the coarse grid. The grid specication is entered
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in the Model tabsheet of the Project properties window. The View menu may be used to
activate or deactivate the grid and snapping options.
Figure 3.5 Project properties window (Model tabsheet)
3.1.2 EXISTING PROJECT
When the Input program is started, a list of the recent projects appears in the Quick select
window. In the case when a project other than the listed recent ones is required, the Open
an existing project option should be selected. As this selection is made, the Windows
le requester (Figure 2.2) pops up. It enables the user to browse through all available
directories and to select the desired PLAXIS project le (*.P2D). After the selection of an
existing project, the corresponding geometry is presented in the main window.
An existing PLAXIS 2D project can also be read by selecting the Open option in the File
menu. In the le requester, the type of the le is, by default, set to 'PLAXIS 2D les
(*.P2D)'.
3.1.3 IMPORTING A GEOMETRY
It is possible to import tab-separated value (.txt) or comma-separated value (.csv) text
les to import a geometry in PLAXIS. Such les need to include a table with the
coordinates of the points (preceded by the command Points; each new line starting with a
number which serves as the point's ID, followed by the point coordinates) and lines
(preceded by the command Lines; each new line starting with a number , which serves
as the line's ID, followed by the starting and ending point ID's). Examples of such les are
on given in Table 3.1 and 3.2. Note that PLAXIS only supports the English notation of
decimal numbers using a dot.
It is possible to import a geometry composed of points and straight lines (with the
AcdbLine property) from external sources in different formats like AutoCAD native
(*.DWG) and interchange (*.DXF) le formats. Lines as part of polylines(AcdbPolyLine)
are not imported. In the cases where the imported geometry contains curved elements
as well (like arcs), the geometry will be partly imported (only points and straight lines).
Table 3.1 Example of a tab-separated value le (.txt)
Points
0 0.0 0.0
1 20.0 0.0
2 20.0 10.0
3 0.0 10.0
Lines
0 0 1
1 1 2
2 2 3
3 3 0
Table 3.2 Example of a comma-separated value le (.csv)
Points
0 , 0.0 , 0.0
1 , 20.0 , 0.0
2 , 20.0 , 10.0
3 , 0.0 , 10.0
Lines
0 , 0 , 1
1 , 1 , 2
2 , 2 , 3
3 , 3 , 0
Scaling of the imported geometry
When a geometry is imported the Import scale factor (Figure 3.6) pops up where a
scaling factor can be dened for the imported geometry. The scale factor is relevant when
the imported geometry is dened in a unit of length different from the one used in the
PLAXIS project. The scaled geometry will be displayed when the OK button is clicked.
Figure 3.6 Import scale factor window
3.1.4 PACKING A PROJECT
The created project can be compressed using the Pack project application which
is available in the File menu of the Input program. This application can be executed
directly from the PLAXIS 2D installation folder by double clicking the corresponding le
(PackProject.exe). A shortcut to the application can be created as well. In the Pack
project window (Figure 3.7) the information archiving process and information can
The project to be compressed and the archive can be located using the Browse button.
The options available in the Purpose box are:
Backup All the les in the project are included in the compressed project
as well as the mesh information, phase specication and the
results of all the saved calculation steps. The extension of the
REFERENCE MANUAL
project le, indicating in which program it was created, and the
archiving date are included in the archive name.
Support Selecting this option enables including all the information
required to give support for the project at hand. Note that
support is only provided to VIP users.
Custom The user can dene the information to be included in the archive.
Figure 3.7 Pack project window
The options for compression and volume size are available in the Archive
options window (Figure 3.8), displayed by clicking the button in the Purpose box.
Figure 3.8 Archive options window
The Content box displays the options for the information to be included in the archive is
shown. The options available are:
Mesh The information related to geometry is imported when the Mesh
option is selected.
Phases The options available are:
Smart When a phase is selected in the tree,
the parent phase is selected
automatically in order to provide a
consistent chain of phases.
All All the phases available in the project
are selected.
Manual Specic phases can be selected by the
user.
Results The results to be included in the archive can be selected. The
options available are:
All steps The results of all the calculation steps
are included in the archive.
Last step only The results of only the last calculation
step of each phase are included in the
archive.
Manual The results of specic calculation steps
can be selected by the user.
Note that when the Backup or the Support option is selected, the Content options are
automatically selected by the program.
3.2 LAYOUT OF THE INPUT PROGRAM
The general layout of the Input program for a new project is shown in Figure 3.9.
Figure 3.9 Layout of the Input program
REFERENCE MANUAL
The main window of the Input program contains the following items:
Title bar
The name of the program and the title of the project is displayed in the title bar. Unsaved
modications in the project are indicated by a '' in the project name.
Menu bar
The menu bar contains drop-down menus covering the options available in the Input
program.
General toolbar
The general toolbar contains buttons for general actions such as disk operations,
printing, zooming or selecting objects. It also contains buttons to start the other
sub-programs (Calculations, Output).
Hint: If the mouse is moved over a button in a toolbar, a hint about the function of
this button is displayed.
Mode tabs
The mode tabs are used to separate different modelling modes. The following tabs are
available:
Geometry The geometry of the model is dened.
Calculations The calculation phases and calculation process are dened and
the project is calculated.
Model toolbar
The model toolbar contains buttons for actions that are related to the creation of a
geometry model. The buttons are ordered in such a way that, in general, following the
buttons on the tool bar from the left to the right results in a fully dened model.
Draw area
The draw area is the drawing sheet on which the geometry model is created and
modied. The geometry model can be created by means of the mouse and using the
buttons available in the Model toolbar.
The physical origin is indicated by the intersection of the x and y axes. Each axis is
displayed in a different colour and their positive directions are indicated by arrows.
Rulers
At both the left and the top of the draw area, rulers indicate the physical x- and
y-coordinates of the geometry model. This enables a direct view of the geometry
dimensions. The rulers can be switched off in the View menu. When clicking on the
rulers the Project properties window appears in which the geometry dimensions can be
changed.
Status bar
The status bar displays information about the location of the mouse cursor in the draw
area. The cursor position is given in both in physical units (x, y-coordinates) and in
screen pixels.
Command line
If drawing with the mouse does not give the desired accuracy, the Manual input line can
be used. Values for the x- and y-coordinates can be entered here by typing the required
values separated by a space (x-value <space> y-value <Enter>) or by a semicolon
(x-value;y-value <Enter>). Manual input of coordinates can be given for all objects,
except for Hinges and Rotation xities.
Instead of the input of absolute coordinates, increments with respect to the previous point
can be given by typing an @ directly in front of the value (@x-value <space> @y-value
<Enter>). In addition to the input of coordinates, existing geometry points may be
selected by their number.
3.3 MENUS IN THE MENU BAR
The menu bar of the Input program contains drop-down menus covering most options for
handling les, transferring data, viewing graphs, creating a geometry model, generating
nite element meshes and entering data in general.
The menus available in the Input program are:
3.3.1 FILE MENU
New To create a new project. In case of a new project, the Project
properties window is automatically displayed to dene its
properties.
Open To open an existing project. The le requester is displayed.
Recent projects To quickly open one of the most recent projects.
Import To import geometry data from other le types (Section 3.1.3).
Save To save the current project under the existing name. If a name
has not been given before, the le requester is presented.
Save as To save the current project under a new name. The le requester
is displayed.
Pack project To compress the current project.
Project properties To activate the Project properties window (Section 3.1.1).
Print To print the geometry model on a selected printer.
Exit To leave the Input program.
REFERENCE MANUAL
3.3.2 EDIT MENU
Undo To restore a previous status of the geometry model (after an
input error). Repetitive use of the undo option is limited to the 10
most recent actions.
Copy to clipboard To copy the view of the model displayed in the draw area to
clipboard.
3.3.3 VIEW MENU
Zoom in To zoom into a rectangular area for a more detailed view.
Alternatively, the mouse wheel may be used for zooming.
Zoom out To restore the view to before the most recent zoom action.
Reset view To restore the full draw area.
Table To view the table with the x- and y-coordinates of all geometry
points. The table may be used to adjust existing coordinates.
Rulers To show or hide the rulers along the draw area.
Cross hair To show or hide the cross hair during the creation of a geometry
model.
Grid To show or hide the grid in the draw area.
Axes To show or hide the arrows indicating the x- and y-axes.
Snap to grid To activate or deactivate the snapping into the regular grid points.
Change color scheme To change the intensity of the colours indicating the material data
sets assigned to soil layers.
Point numbers To show or hide the geometry point numbers.
Chain numbers To show or hide the 'chain' numbers of geometry objects.
'Chains' are clusters of similar geometry objects that are drawn
in one drawing action without intermediately clicking the right
hand mouse button or the <Esc> key.
3.3.4 GEOMETRY MENU
Geometry line To create points and lines in the draw area.
Plate To create structural objects with a signicant exural rigidity (or
bending stiffness)
Geogrid To create slender structures with a normal stiffness but with no
bending stiffness.
Interface To model the soil-structure interaction.
Node-to-node anchor To create springs that are used to model ties between two points.
Fixed-end anchor To create springs that are used to model a tying of a single point.
Tunnel To create circular and non-circular tunnel cross sections which
are to be included in the geometry model.
Hinge and rotation spring
To create a plate connection that allows for a discontinuous
rotation in the point of connection.
Drain To prescribe lines inside the geometry model where (excess)
pore pressures are reduced.
Well To prescribe points inside the geometry model where a specic
discharge is extracted from or inltrated into the soil.
Check consistency To check the geometry consistency. The program gives a
message indicating whether consistency issues exist. Possible
inconsistencies are overlapping lines or multiple points at the
same location.
3.3.5 LOADS MENU
Standard xities To impose a set of general boundary conditions to the geometry
model.
Standard earthquake boundaries
To impose standard boundary conditions for earthquake loading.
Standard absorbent boundaries (dynamics)
To impose standard absorbent boundaries for single source
vibrations.
Set dynamic load system
To specify which of the load system(s) will be used as a dynamic
load.
Total xities To impose total xities.
Vertical xities To impose vertical xities.
Horizontal xities To impose horizontal xities.
Rotation xities (plates) To x the rotational degree of freedom of a plate around the z
axis.
Absorbent boundaries To dene a boundary that absorbs the increments of stresses
caused by dynamic loading.
Prescribed displacements
To impose special conditions on the model to control the
displacement of certain points.
Distributed load - static load system A
To dene distributed loads for load system A.
Distributed load - static load system B
To dene distributed loads for load system B.
Point load - static load system A
To dene point loads for load system A.
Point load - static load system B
To dene point loads for load system B.
REFERENCE MANUAL
Design approaches To dene partial factors according to a design approach and to
select the design approaches for the current project.
Hint: Note that point loads actually represent line loads in the out-of-plane
direction.
3.3.6 MATERIALS MENU
Soil & interfaces To activate the data base engine for the creation and
modication of material data sets for soil and interfaces.
Plates To activate the data base engine for the creation and
modication of material data sets for plates.
Geogrids To activate the data base engine for the creation and
modication of material data sets for geogrids.
Anchors To activate the data base engine for the creation and
modication of material data sets for anchors.
The use of the data base and the parameters contained in the data sets are described in
detail in Chapter 4.
3.3.7 MESH MENU
Basic element type To display the Project tabsheet of the Project properties window
where the basic element type can be selected.
Global coarseness To select one of the available options for the global mesh
coarseness.
Rene global To rene the mesh globally.
Rene cluster To locally rene the selected clusters.
Rene line To locally rene the mesh around selected lines.
Rene around point To locally rene the mesh around selected points.
Reset all To reset all the renements.
Generate To generate the mesh.
The options in this menu are explained in detail in Section 3.7.
3.3.8 HELP MENU
Manuals To display the manuals.
Instruction movies To reach the PLAXIS TV website where instruction movies are
displayed.
Update license To update the PLAXIS 2D license via e-mail.
http://www.plaxis.nl/ To reach the PLAXIS website.
Disclaimer The complete disclaimer text is displayed.
About Information about the program version and license are displayed.
3.4 GEOMETRY
The generation of a nite element model begins with the creation of a geometry model,
which is a representation of the problem of interest. A geometry model consists of points,
lines and clusters. Points and lines are entered by the user, whereas clusters are
generated by the program. In addition to these basic components, structural objects or
special conditions can be assigned to the geometry model to simulate tunnel linings,
walls, plates, soil-structure interaction or loadings.
It is recommended to start the creation of a geometry model by drawing the full geometry
contour. In addition, the user may specify material layers, structural objects, lines used
for construction phases, loads and boundary conditions. The geometry model should not
only include the initial situation, but also situations that occur in the various calculation
phases.
After the geometry components of the geometry model have been created, the user
should compose data sets of material parameters and assign the data sets to the
corresponding geometry components (Section 4). When the full geometry model has
been dened and all geometry components have their initial properties, the nite element
mesh can be generated (Section 3.7).
Selecting geometry components
When the Selection tool is active, a geometry component may be selected
by clicking once on that component in the geometry model. Multiple selection is
possible by holding down the <Shift> key on the keyboard while selecting the desired
components.
Properties of geometry components
Most geometry components have certain properties, which can be viewed and altered in
property windows. After double clicking a geometry component the corresponding
property window appears. If more than one object is located on the indicated point, a
selection dialog box appears from which the desired component can be selected.
3.4.1 POINTS AND LINES
The basic input item for the creation of a geometry model is the Geometry line. This
item can be selected from the Geometry menu as well as from the second tool bar.
When the Geometry line option is selected, the user may create points and lines in the
draw area by clicking with the mouse pointer (graphical input) or by typing coordinates at
the command line (keyboard input). As soon as the left hand mouse button is clicked in
the draw area a new point is created, provided that there is no existing point close to the
pointer position. If there is an existing point close to the pointer, the pointer snaps into the
existing point without generating a new point. After the rst point is created, the user may
draw a line by entering another point, etc. The drawing of points and lines continues until
the right hand mouse button is clicked at any position or the <Esc> key is pressed.
REFERENCE MANUAL
If a point is to be created on or close to an existing line, the pointer snaps onto the line
and creates a new point exactly on that line. As a result, the line is split into two new
lines. If a line crosses an existing line, a new point is created at the crossing of both lines.
As a result, both lines are split into two new lines. If a line is drawn that partly coincides
with an existing line, the program makes sure that over the range where the two lines
coincide only one line is present. All these procedures accomplish that a consistent
geometry is created without double points or lines. The Check consistency option in the
Geometry menu may be used to check the consistency of the geometry model.
Existing points or lines may be modied or deleted by rst choosing the Selection tool
from the tool bar. To move a point or line, select the point or the line in the cross section
and drag it to the desired position. To delete a point or line, select the point or the line in
the cross section and press <Delete> on the keyboard. If more than one object is present
at the selected position, a delete dialog box appears from which the object(s) to be
deleted can be selected. If a point is deleted where one or more geometry lines come
together, then all these connected geometry lines will be deleted as well.
After each drawing action the program determines the clusters that can be formed. A
cluster is a closed loop of different geometry lines. In other words, a cluster is an area
fully enclosed by geometry lines. The detected clusters are lightly shaded. Each cluster
can be given certain material properties to simulate the behaviour of the soil in that part
of the geometry (Section 4.1). The clusters are divided into soil elements during mesh
generation (Section 3.7).
3.4.2 PLATES
Plates are structural objects used to model slender structures in the ground with
a signicant exural rigidity (or bending stiffness) and a normal stiffness. Plates can
be used to simulate the inuence of walls, plates, shells or linings extending in
z-direction. In a geometry model, plates without assigned material properties appear as
'light blue lines', whereas plates with assigned material properties appear in their material
set colour. Examples of geotechnical structures involving plates are shown in Figure 3.10.
Figure 3.10 Applications in which plates, anchors and interfaces are used
Plates can be selected from the Geometry menu or by clicking on the corresponding
button in the tool bar. The creation of plates in the geometry model is similar to the
creation of geometry lines (Section 3.4.1). When creating plates, the corresponding
geometry lines are created simultaneously. Hence, it is not necessary to create rst a
geometry line at the position of a plate. Plates can be erased by selecting them in the
geometry and pressing the <Delete> key.
The material properties of plates are contained in material data sets (Section 4.2). The
most important parameters are the exural rigidity (bending stiffness) EI and the axial
stiffness EA.
From these two parameters an equivalent plate thickness d
eq
is calculated from the
equation:
d
eq
=
_
12
EI
EA
Plates can be activated or de-activated in calculation phases using Staged construction
as Loading input.
Plate elements
Plates in the 2D nite element model are composed of plate elements (line elements)
with three degrees of freedom per node: two translational degrees of freedom (u
x
, u
y
)
and one rotational degrees of freedom (rotation in the x-y plane:
z
). When 6-node soil
elements are employed then each plate element is dened by three nodes whereas
5-node plate elements are used together with the 15-node soil elements (Figure 3.15).
The plate elements are based on Mindlin's plate theory (Bathe, 1982). This theory allows
for plate deections due to shearing as well as bending. In addition, the element can
change length when an axial force is applied. Plate elements can become plastic if a
prescribed maximum bending moment or maximum axial force is reached.
Bending moments and axial forces are evaluated from the stresses at the stress points. A
3-node plate element contains two pairs of Gaussian stress points whereas a 5-node
plate element contains four pairs of stress points. Within each pair, stress points are
located at a distance
1
/
6
3d
eq
above and below the plate centre-line.
Figure 3.15 shows a single 3-node and 5-node plate element with an indication of the
nodes and stress points.
stress point
node
3-node plate element 5-node plate element
Figure 3.11 Position of nodes and stress points in plate elements
It is important to note that a change in the ratio EI/EA will change the equivalent
thickness d
eq
and thus the distance separating the stress points. If this is done when
existing forces are present in the plate element, it would change the distribution of
bending moments, which is unacceptable. For this reason, if material properties of a
plate are changed during an analysis (for example in the framework of Staged
Construction) it should be noted that the ratio EI/EA must remain unchanged.
REFERENCE MANUAL
3.4.3 EMBEDDED PILE ROW
Since the stress state and deformation pattern around piles is fully three-dimensional, it is
impossible to model piles realistically in a 2D model. Hence, the 2D embedded pile
element is only a simplied approach to deal with a row of piles in the out-of-plane
direction in a 2D plane strain model.
The idea behind the 2D embedded pile is that the pile (represented by a Mindlin beam
element) is not 'in' the 2D mesh, but superimposed 'on' the mesh, while the soil element
mesh itself is continuous (Figure 3.12, after Sluis (2012)). A special out-of-plane interface
connects the beam with the underlying soil elements. The beam is supposed to represent
the deformations of an out-of-plane row of individual piles, whereas displacements of the
soil elements are supposed to represent the 'average' soil displacement in the
out-of-plane direction. The interface stiffness should be chosen such that it accounts for
the difference between the (average) soil displacement and the pile displacement while
transferring loads from the pile onto the soil and vice versa. This requires at least the
out-of-plane spacing of the piles to be taken into account in relation to the pile diameter.
Figure 3.12 Schematic representation of embedded pile (after Sluis (2012))
An embedded pile row can be utilised to model a row of long slender structural
members used to transmit loads to the ground at lower levels. The Embedded pile
row feature is available only for Plane strain models. The information required for an
embedded pile row consists of the properties of a single pile and the spacing of the piles
in the out-of-plane direction.
Hint: Since installation effects cannot be considered, the Embedded pile row
feature should be primarily used for pile types that cause a limited
disturbance of the surrounding soil during installation. This may include some
types of bored piles, but obviously not driven piles or soil displacement piles.
The feature can be selected from the Geometry menu or by clicking on the corresponding
button in the toolbar. The creation of embedded pile rows in the geometry model is
similar to the creation of a geometry line (Section 3.4.1). Note that one row is indicated
by one line in the model. When creating embedded pile rows, the corresponding
geometry line is created simultaneously. Hence it is not necessary to create rst a
geometry line at the position of an embedded pile row. It is also not necessary to create
interface elements around the embedded pile row, since special interface elements are
automatically created with the embedded pile elements. An embedded pile row can be
erased by selecting the corresponding pile in the geometry and pressing the <Delete>
key. Figure 3.13 is displayed as the <Delete> key is pressed and it indicates that both an
embedded pile and a line have been created simultaneously. In a geometry model,
embedded pile rows without assigned material properties appear as 'pink lines', whereas
embedded pile rows with assigned material properties appear in their material set colour.
Figure 3.13 Indication of an embedded pile and a line created simultaneously
The order of drawing an embedded pile row is relevant in dening the connection of the
embedded pile to the surrounding (soil or structure) and the application of the bearing
capacity. By default the rst drawn point corresponds to the top point of the pile and the
second drawn point corresponds to the tip of the pile. Note that the top point is the point
where the connection type may be dened. The user may redene the top point of the
pile, as well as modify the connection of the top point of the pile to the surrounding
geometry. To dene the connection of the embedded pile:
Select the embedded pile row in the model.
In the select window select the embedded pile and press OK. The Embedded pile
row window (Figure 3.14) is displayed. Note that the connection type can only be
dened for the top point.
Figure 3.14 Embedded pile row window
REFERENCE MANUAL
The options available are:
Free: The top of the pile is not directly coupled with the soil element in
which the pile top is located, but the interaction through the
interface elements is still present.
Hinged: The displacement at the top point of the pile is directly coupled
with the displacement of the element in which the top point is
located, which means that they undergo exactly the same
displacement.
Rigid: The displacement and rotation at the pile top are both coupled
with the displacement and rotation of the element in which the
pile top is located, provided that this element has rotational
degrees of freedom. This option only applies if the pile top
coincides with plates elements.
Hint: When embedded pile rows are located in a volume cluster with linear elastic
material behaviour, the specied values of the shaft resistance and spacing
are ignored. The reason for this is that the linear elastic material is not
supposed to be soil, but part of the structure. The connection between the
pile and the structure is supposed to be rigid to avoid, for example, punching
of piles through a concrete deck.
When an embedded pile row and a structure are both active and share the
same geometry point, the node created at the top point of the embedded pile
is by default rigidly connected to the structure node. However, if the structure
is not active, the embedded pile node is by default connected (hinged) to the
soil node at that location.
Note that when an interface is available, the embedded pile row is NOT
connected to the interface but to the structure or soil node at that location.
The material properties of embedded pile rows are contained in material data sets
(Section 4.6). Embedded pile rows can be activated or de-activated in calculation phases
using Staged construction as Loading input.
Embedded pile elements
Embedded piles in the 2D nite element model are composed of line elements with three
degrees of freedom per node: two translational degrees of freedom (u
x
, u
y
) and one
rotational degrees of freedom (rotation in the x-y plane:
z
). When 6-node soil elements
are employed then each embedded pile element is dened by three nodes whereas
5-node embedded pile elements are used together with the 15-node soil elements
(Figure 3.15). The elements are based on Mindlin's beam theory (Bathe, 1982). This
theory allows for deections due to shearing as well as bending. In addition, the element
can change length when an axial force is applied. Figure 3.15 shows a single 3-node and
5-node embedded pile element with an indication of the nodes and stress points.
Bending moments and axial forces are evaluated from the stresses at the stress points. A
3-node embedded pile element contains two pairs of Gaussian stress points whereas a
5-node embedded pile element contains four pairs of stress points. Within each pair,
stress point
node
3-node plate element 5-node plate element
Figure 3.15 Position of nodes and stress points in embedded pile elements
stress points are located at a distance
1
/
6
3d
eq
above and below the embedded pile
centre-line.
The interaction between the pile and the surrounding soil may involve a skin resistance as
well as a foot resistance. Therefore, special out-of-plane interface elements (line-to-line
interface along the shaft and point-to-point interface at the base) are used to connect the
pile elements to the surrounding soil elements. The interface elements involve springs in
the longitudinal and transverse pile direction and a slider in the longitudinal direction.
Figure 3.16 Embedded pile interaction with soil (after Sluis (2012))
Pile forces (structural forces) are evaluated at the embedded pile element integration
points and extrapolated to the beam element nodes. These forces can be viewed
graphically and tabulated in the Output program. Details about the embedded pile
element formulations are given in the Material Models Manual.
Embedded pile row properties
The material properties of embedded pile rows are contained in Embedded pile rows
material data sets (Section 4.6). In the material dataset geometric features of the pile,
material properties, spacing of the piles in the out of plane direction, skin friction and
bearing capacity of the pile as well as the interface stiffness factor can be dened.
REFERENCE MANUAL
3.4.4 GEOGRIDS
Geogrids are slender structures with a normal stiffness but with no bending
stiffness. Geogrids can only sustain tensile forces and no compression. These
objects are generally used to model soil reinforcements. Examples of geotechnical
structures involving geotextiles are presented in Figure 3.17.
Figure 3.17 Applications in which geogrids are used
Geogrids can be selected from the Geometry menu or by clicking on the corresponding
button in the tool bar. The creation of geogrids in the geometry model is similar to the
creation of geometry lines (Section 3.4.1). In a geometry model geogrids without
assigned material properties appear as 'light yellow lines', whereas geogrids with
assigned properties appear in their material colour. When creating geogrids,
corresponding geometry lines are created simultaneously. The only material property of a
geogrid is an elastic normal (axial) stiffness EA, which can be specied in the material
data base (Section 4.5). Geogrids can be erased by selecting them in the geometry and
pressing the <Delete> key. Geogrids can be activated or de-activated in calculation
phases using Staged construction as Loading input.
Geogrid elements
Geogrids are composed of geogrid elements (line elements) with two translational
degrees of freedom in each node (u
x
, u
y
). When 15-node soil elements are employed
then each geogrid element is dened by ve nodes whereas 3-node geogrid elements
are used in combination with 6-node soil lements. Axial forces are evaluated at the
Newton-Cotes stress points. These stress points coincide with the nodes. The locations
of the nodes and stress points in geogrid elements are indicated in Figure 3.18.
nodes
a. 3-node geogrid element
stress point
nodes
b. 5-node geogrid element
Figure 3.18 Position of nodes and stress points in geogrid elements
Modelling ground anchors
Geogrids may be used in combination with node-to-node anchors to simulate a ground
anchor. In this case the geogrid is used to model the grouted anchor section and the
node-to-node anchor is used to model the ungrouted part of the anchor (free length)
(Section 3.4.6).
3.4.5 INTERFACES
Each interface has assigned to it a 'virtual thickness' which is an imaginary
dimension used to dene the material properties of the interface. The higher the
virtual thickness is, the more elastic deformations are generated. In general, interface
elements are supposed to generate very little elastic deformations and therefore the
virtual thickness should be small. On the other hand, if the virtual thickness is too small,
numerical ill-conditioning may occur. The virtual thickness is calculated as the Virtual
thickness factor times the global element size. The global element size is determined by
the global coarseness setting for the mesh generation (Section 3.7.2). The default value
of the Virtual thickness factor is 0.1. This value can be changed by double clicking on the
geometry line and selecting the interface from the selection dialog box. In general, care
should be taken when changing the default factor. However, if interface elements are
subjected to very large normal stresses, it may be required to reduce the Virtual thickness
factor. Further details of the signicance of the virtual thickness are given in Section
4.1.4.
The creation of an interface in the geometry model is similar to the creation of a geometry
line. The interface appears as a dashed line at the right hand side of the geometry line
(considering the direction of drawing) to indicate at which side of the geometry line the
interaction with the soil takes place. The side at which the interface will appear is also
indicated by the arrow on the cursor pointing in the direction of drawing. To place an
interface at the other side, it should be drawn in the opposite direction. Note that
interfaces can be placed at both sides of a geometry line. This enables a full interaction
between structural objects (walls, plates, geogrids, etc.) and the surrounding soil. To be
able to distinguish between the two possible interfaces along a geometry line, the
interfaces are indicated by a plus-sign (+) or a minus-sign (-). This sign is just for
identication purposes; it does not have a physical meaning and it has no inuence on
the results. Interfaces can be erased by selecting them in the geometry and pressing the
<Delete> key.
A typical application of interfaces would be in a region which is intermediate between
smooth and fully rough. The roughness of the interaction is modelled by choosing a
suitable value for the strength reduction factor in the interface (R
inter
). This factor relates
the interface strength (wall friction and adhesion) to the soil strength (friction angle and
cohesion). Instead of entering R
inter
as a direct interface property, this parameter is
specied together with the soil strength parameters in a material data set for soil and
interfaces. For detailed information about the interface material properties, see Section
4.1.4.
Interfaces can be activated or de-activated in calculation phases using Staged
construction as Loading input.
Interface elements
Interfaces are composed of interface elements. Figure 3.19 shows how interface
elements are connected to soil elements. When using 15-node soil elements, the
corresponding interface elements are dened by ve pairs of nodes, whereas for 6-node
soil elements the corresponding interface elements are dened by three pairs of nodes.
In the gure, the interface elements are shown to have a nite thickness, but in the nite
element formulation the coordinates of each node pair are identical, which means that the
element has a zero thickness.
REFERENCE MANUAL
nodes
a. 6-node soil element
stress point
nodes
b. 15-node soil element
Figure 3.19 Distribution of nodes and stress points in interface elements and their connection to soil
elements
The stiffness matrix for interface elements is obtained by means of Newton Cotes
integration. The position of the Newton Cotes stress points coincides with the node pairs.
Hence, ve stress points are used for a 10-node interface element whereas three stress
points are used for a 6-node interface element.
Interface properties
The basic property of an interface element is the associated material data set for soil and
interfaces. This property is contained in the interface properties window, which can be
entered by double clicking an interface in the geometry model and selecting the positive
or negative interface element or interface chain from the selection window. Alternatively,
the right-hand mouse button may be clicked, then the Properties option should be
selected and nally the positive or negative interface element or interface chain may be
selected from the right-hand mouse button menu. As a result, the Interface window
appears showing the associated Material set. By default, the Material set is set to
<Cluster material> indicating that the material of the associated cluster has been
assigned. However, any other existing material data set for soil and interfaces can be
selected in the Material set drop down menu to change the associated material data set.
In addition, the interface properties window shows the Virtual thickness factor. This factor
is used to calculate the Virtual thickness of interface elements (see Page 37). The
standard value of the Virtual thickness factor is 0.1. Care should be taken when changing
the standard value. The standard value can be restored using the Standard button.
In a consolidation analysis or a groundwater ow analysis, interface elements can be
used to block the ow perpendicular to the interface, for example to simulate an
impermeable screen. In fact, when interfaces are used in combination with plates, the
interface is used to block the ow since plate elements are fully permeable. In situations
where interfaces are used in a mesh where they should be fully permeable, it is possible
to de-activate the interface (see Sections 5.9.8, 5.9.6 and 5.8.1).
Interfaces around corner points
Figure 3.20 and Figure 3.21 show that problems of soil-structure interaction may involve
points that require special attention. Corners in stiff structures and an abrupt change in
boundary condition may lead to high peaks in the stresses and strains. Volume elements
are not capable of reproducing these sharp peaks and will, as a result, produce
non-physical stress oscillations. This problem can be solved by making use of interface
elements as shown in Figure 3.21.
Figure 3.20 Inexible corner point, causing poor quality stress results
Figure 3.21 Flexible corner point with improved stress results
Figure 3.21 shows that the problem of stress oscillation may be prevented by specifying
additional interface elements inside the soil body. These elements will enhance the
exibility of the nite element mesh and will thus prevent non-physical stress results.
However, these elements should not introduce an unrealistic weakness in the soil.
Therefore special attention should be made to the properties of these interface elements
(Section 4.1.4).
It is advised to extend the interface beyond the end (ends) of the plate in the soil. This
avoids the end (ends) of the plate becoming xed to the soil. Figure 3.22 displays the
effect of extending the interface in the mesh. A possible result of not extending the
interface may be an unrealistic end bearing capacity or unrealistic contact stresses.
a. Not extended interface b. Extended interface
Figure 3.22 Effect of the interface extension in the mesh
REFERENCE MANUAL
Additional theoretical details on this special use of interface elements is provided by
Goodman, Taylor & Brekke (1968) and van Langen & Vermeer (1991).
3.4.6 NODE-TO-NODE ANCHORS
Node-to-node anchors are springs that are used to model ties between two points.
This type of anchors can be selected from the Geometry menu or by clicking on the
corresponding button in the tool bar. Typical applications include the modelling of a
cofferdam as shown in Figure 3.10. It is not recommended to draw a geometry line at the
position where a node-to-node anchor is to be placed. However, the end points of
node-to-node anchors must always be connected to geometry lines, but not necessarily
to existing geometry points. In the latter case a new geometry point is automatically
introduced. The creation of node-to-node anchors is similar to the creation of geometry
lines (Section 3.4.1) but, in contrast to other types of structural objects, geometry lines
are not simultaneously created with the anchors. Hence, node-to-node anchors will not
divide clusters nor create new ones.
A node-to-node anchor is a two-node elastic spring element with a constant spring
stiffness (normal stiffness). This element can be subjected to tensile forces (for anchors)
as well as compressive forces (for struts). Both the tensile force and the compressive
force can be limited to allow for the simulation of anchor or strut failure. The properties
can be entered in the material data base for anchors (Section 4.7). Node-to-node
anchors can be activated, de-activated or prestressed in a calculation phase using
Staged construction as Loading input.
3.4.7 FIXED-END ANCHORS
Fixed-end anchors are springs that are used to model a tying of a single point.
This type of anchor can be selected from the Geometry menu or by clicking on the
corresponding button in the tool bar. An example of the use of xed-end anchors is the
modelling of struts (or props) to sheet-pile walls, as shown in Figure 3.10. Fixed-end
anchors must always be connected to existing geometry lines, but not necessarily to
existing geometry points. A xed-end anchor is visualised as a rotated T (|). The length
of the plotted T is arbitrary and does not have any particular physical meaning. By
default, a xed-end anchor is pointing in the positive x-direction, i.e. the angle in the
x,y-plane is zero. By double clicking in the middle of the T the Fixed-end anchor window
appears in which the angle can be changed. The angle is dened in the anticlockwise
direction, starting from the positive x-direction towards the y-direction. In addition to the
angle, the equivalent length of the anchor may be entered in the Fixed-end anchor
window. The equivalent length is dened as the distance between the anchor connection
point and the ctitious point in the longitudinal direction of the anchor where the
displacement is assumed to be zero.
A xed-end anchor is a one-node elastic spring element with a constant spring stiffness
(or normal stiffness). The other end of the spring (dened by the equivalent length and
the direction) is xed. The properties can be entered in the material database for anchors
(Section 4.7).
Fixed-end anchors can be activated, de-activated or prestressed in a calculation phase
using Staged construction as Loading input.
3.4.8 TUNNELS
The Tunnel option can be used to create circular and non-circular tunnel cross
sections which are to be included in the geometry model. A tunnel cross section is
composed of arcs and lines, optionally supplied with a lining and an interface. A tunnel
cross section can be stored as an object on the hard disk (i.e. as a le with the extension
.TNL) and included in other projects. The tunnel option is available from the Geometry
menu or from the tool bar.
Tunnel designer
Once the tunnel option has been selected, the Tunnel designer window appears. The
Tunnel designer contains the following items (Figure 3.23):
Figure 3.23 Tunnel designer with standard tunnel shape
Tunnel menu Menu with options to open and save a tunnel object and to set
tunnel attributes.
Tool bar Bar with buttons as shortcuts to set tunnel attributes.
Display area Area in which the tunnel cross section is plotted.
Rulers The rulers indicate the dimension of the tunnel cross section in
local coordinates. The origin of the local coordinate system is
used as a reference point for the positioning of the tunnel in the
geometry model.
Section group box Box containing shape parameters and attributes of individual
tunnel sections. Use the buttons to select other sections.
Other parameters See further.
Standard buttons To accept (OK) or to cancel the created tunnel.
REFERENCE MANUAL
Basic tunnel shape
Once the tunnel option has been selected, the following toolbar buttons can be used to
select a basic tunnel shape:
A Whole tunnel should be used if the full tunnel cross section is included in the
geometry model.
A half tunnel should be used if the geometry model includes only one symmetric half of
the problem where the symmetry line of the geometry model corresponds to the
symmetry line of the tunnel. Depending on the side of the symmetry line that is used in
the geometry model the user should select the right half of a tunnel or the left half.
Half a tunnel - Left half
Half a tunnel - Right half
Hint: A half tunnel can also be used to dene curved sides of a larger structure,
such as an underground storage tank. The remaining linear parts of the
structure can be added in the draw area using geometry lines or plates.
Type of tunnel
Before creating the tunnel cross section the type of tunnel must be selected.
None: Select this option when you want to create an internal geometry contour
composed of different sections and have no intention to create a tunnel. Each section is
dened by a line, an arc or a corner. The outline consists of two lines if you enter a
positive value for the Thickness parameter. The two lines will form separate clusters with
a corresponding thickness when inserting the outline in the geometry model.
Bored tunnel: Select this option to create a circular tunnel that includes a homogeneous
tunnel lining (composed of a circular shell) an outside and an inside interface. The tunnel
shape consists of different sections that can be dened with arcs. Since the tunnel lining
is circular, each section has the radius that is dened in the rst section. The tunnel
outline consists of two lines if you enter a positive value for the Thickness parameter.
This way a thick tunnel lining can be created that is composed of volume elements.
The tunnel lining (shell) is considered to be homogeneous and continuous. As a result,
assigning material data and the activation or deactivation of the shell in the framework of
staged construction can only be done for the lining as a whole (and not individually for
each section). If the shell is active, a contraction of the tunnel lining (shrinkage) can be
specied to simulate the volume loss due to the tunnel boring process (Section 5.8.8).
NATM tunnel: The tunnel lining (shell) is considered to be discontinuous. As a result,
assigning material data and the activation or deactivation of lining parts in the framework
of staged construction is done for each section individually. It is not possible to apply a
contraction of the shell (shrinkage) for NATM tunnels. To simulate the deformations due
to the excavation and construction in NATM tunnels other calculation methods are
available (Sections 5.8.6 and 5.8.10).
The tunnel lining (shell) is considered to be discontinuous. As a result, assigning material
data and the activation or deactivation of lining parts in the framework of staged
construction is done for each section individually. It is not possible to apply a contraction
of the shell (shrinkage) for NATM tunnels. To simulate the deformations due to the
excavation and construction in NATM tunnels other calculation methods are available
(Sections 5.8.6 and 5.8.10).
Geometrical features of tunnel sections
The creation of a tunnel cross section starts with the denition of the inner tunnel
boundary, which is composed of sections. Each section is either an Arc (part of a circle,
dened by a centre point, a radius and an angle), or a Line increment (dened by a
starting point and a length). In addition, sharp corners can be dened, i.e. a sudden
transition in the inclination angle of two adjacent tunnel sections. When entering the
tunnel designer, a standard circular tunnel is presented composed of 6 sections (3
sections for half a tunnel).
The rst section starts with a horizontal tangent at the lowest point on the local y-axis
(highest point for a left half), and runs in the anti-clockwise direction. The position of this
rst start point is determined by the Center coordinates and the Radius (if the rst section
is an Arc) or by the Starting point coordinates (if the rst section is a Line). The end point
of the rst section is determined by the Angle (in the case of an arc) or by the Length (in
the case of a line).
The start point of a next section coincides with the end point of the previous section. The
start tangent of the next section is equal to the end tangent of the previous section. If
both sections are arcs, the two sections have the same radial (normal of the tunnel
section), but not necessarily the same radius (Figure 3.24). Hence, the centre point of the
next section is located on this common radial and the exact position follows from the
section radius.
If the tangent of the tunnel outline in the connection point is discontinuous, a sharp corner
may be introduced by selecting the Corner option for the next section. In this case a
sudden change in the tangent can be specied by the Angle parameter. The radius and
the angle of the last tunnel section are automatically determined such that the end radial
coincides again with the y-axis.
For a whole tunnel the start point of the rst section should coincide with the end point of
the last section. This is not automatically guaranteed. The distance between the start
point and the end point (in units of length) is dened as the closing error. The closing
error is indicated on the status line of the tunnel designer. A well-dened tunnel cross
section must have a zero closing error. When a signicant closing error exists, it is
advisable to carefully check the section data.
The number of sections follows from the sum of the section angles. For whole tunnels the
sum of the angles is 360 degrees and for half tunnels this sum is 180 degrees. The
maximum angle of a section is 90.0 degrees. The automatically calculated angle of the
last section completes the tunnel cross section and it cannot be changed. If the angle of
an intermediate section is decreased, the angle of the last section is increased by the
same amount, until the maximum angle is reached. Upon further reduction of the
intermediate section angle or by reducing the last section angle, a new section will be
created. If the angle of one of the intermediate tunnel sections is increased, the angle of
the last tunnel section is automatically decreased. This may result in elimination of the
last section.
REFERENCE MANUAL
R
2
R
2
R
1
R
1
common
radial
Figure 3.24 Detail of connection point between two tunnel sections
When the creation of the tunnel cross section is nished, it can be saved as a tunnel
object on the hard disk by using the Save as option from the File menu in the Tunnel
designer window.
Symmetric tunnel: The option Symmetric is only relevant for whole tunnels. When this
option is selected, the tunnel is made fully symmetric. In this case the input procedures
are similar to those used when entering half a tunnel (right half). The left half of the
tunnel is automatically made equal to the right half.
Circular tunnel: When changing the radius of one of the tunnel sections, the tunnel
ceases to be circular. To enforce the tunnel to be circular, the Circular option may be
selected. If this option is selected, all tunnel sections will be arcs with the same radius. In
this case the radius can only be entered for the rst tunnel section. This option is
automatically selected when the type of tunnel is a bored tunnel.
Structural features of tunnel sections
Beside the geometric features, structural features can be assigned as well to the tunnel
sections. The available structural features for tunnel sections are:
Shell To model the boring machine in shield tunneling or shotcrete
lining in NATM. Note that nal lining can be modelled by dening
a thickness greater than 0.
Outside interface To model the interaction of the tunnel lining with the surrounding
soil in the selected section.
Inside interface To model for example the interaction between the shotcrete and
the nal lining in the selected section.
Load To assign loads to the selected segment. When this option is
selected, the options to dene the distribution, the reference
point (for varying loads), and the necessary numerical values (,
ref
are displayed. More description on load options is given as
follows.
Hint: Selecting the For all segments option enables assigning all the selected
options and the dened values to all the segments in the tunnel.
Load options for tunnel segments
The information required to dene a load assigned to a segment in the tunnel consists of
load distribution, load value and the point of reference (in case of linear loads).
The distribution options for loads are:
Perpendicular: To create a uniformly distributed load perpendicular to the
selected segment. The value of the load (
n
) needs to be
specied.
Perpendicular, vertical increment:
To create a load perpendicular to the selected segment varying
in y direction by dening the components and the magnitude of
the load at the reference point and its increment in y direction.
The values of the reference load (
n,ref
) and the load increment
(
n,inc
) as well as the reference point need to be specied.
X direction: To create a uniformly distributed horizontal load. The value of the
load (
x
) needs to be specied.
X direction, vertical increment:
To create a linearly distributed horizontal load varying in
y-direction. The values of the reference load (
x,ref
) and the load
increment (
x,inc
) as well as the reference point need to be
specied.
X direction, horizontal increment:
To create a linearly distributed horizontal load varying in
x-direction. The values of the reference load (
n,ref
) and the load
increment (
n,inc
) as well as the reference point need to be
specied.
Y direction: To create a uniformly distributed vertical load. The value of the
load (
y
) needs to be specied.
Y direction, vertical increment:
To create a linearly distributed vertical load varying in y-direction.
y,ref
(
y,inc
Y direction, horizontal increment:
To create a linearly distributed vertical load varying in y-direction.
y,ref
(
y,inc
The reference point to be considered when linear loads are dened can be specied by
selecting the corresponding option in the drop down menu.
The options available for the reference point are:
Top of the tunnel: To specify the highest point in the tunnel cross section as the
reference point.
Bottom of the tunnel: To specify the lowest point in the tunnel cross section as the
reference point.
Start point of segment: To specify the start point of the segment as the reference point.
REFERENCE MANUAL
End point of segment: To specify the end point of the segment as the reference point.
Hint: The coordinates of the reference point are displayed under the drop down
menu containing the available options. The location of the coordinated is
calculated according to the coordinate system displayed in the plot shown in
the Tunnel designer window.
Including tunnel in geometry model
After clicking on the OK button in the Tunnel designer the window is closed and the main
input window is displayed again. A tunnel symbol is attached to the cursor to emphasize
that the reference point for the tunnel must be selected. The reference point will be the
point where the origin of the local tunnel coordinate system is located. When the
reference point is entered by clicking with the mouse in the geometry model or by
entering the coordinates in the manual input line, the tunnel is included in the geometry
model, taking into account eventual crossings with existing geometry lines or objects.
Editing an existing tunnel
An existing tunnel can be edited by double clicking its reference point or one of the other
tunnel points. As a result, the Tunnel designer window reappears showing the existing
tunnel cross section. Desired modications can now be made. On clicking the OK button
the 'old' tunnel is removed and the 'new' tunnel is directly included in the geometry model
using the original reference point. Note that previously assigned material sets of a lining
must be reassigned after modication of the tunnel.
Moving an existing tunnel
An existing tunnel can be moved in the geometry by dragging the tunnel reference point.
Note that this is only possible if the tunnel reference point does not coincide with another
point.
3.4.9 HINGES AND ROTATION SPRINGS
A hinge is a plate connection that allows for a discontinuous rotation in the point of
connection (joint). By default, in a geometry point where plate ends come together,
the rotation is continuous and the point contains only one rotational degree of freedom. In
other words, the default plate connection is rigid (clamped). If it is desired to create a
hinge connection (a joint where plate ends can rotate freely with respect to each other) or
a rotation spring (a joint where the rotation of plate ends with respect to each other
requires a nite torque), the option Hinges and rotation springs can be selected from the
Geometry menu or by clicking the corresponding button in the tool bar.
When this option is selected and an existing geometry point is clicked where at least two
plates come together, the Hinges and rotation springs window appears presenting a
detailed view of the joint with all connected plates. For each individual plate end it can be
indicated whether the connection is a hinge or a clamp. A hinge is indicated by an open
circle whereas a clamp is indicated by a solid circle.
Figure 3.25 Example of a joint in the hinges and rotation springs window
After selecting a particular plate connection by clicking on the corresponding circle, the
connection can be toggled from a clamp into a hinge or vice versa by clicking again on
the circle. For each hinge, an additional rotational degree of freedom is introduced in
order to allow for an independent rotation.
In reality, plate connections may allow for rotations, but this generally requires a torque.
To simulate such a situation, PLAXIS enables the input of rotation springs and
corresponding relative rotation spring stiffnesses between two plates. This option is only
useful if at least one of the two individual plate connections is a hinge (otherwise the
connection between the two plates is rigid). To dene rotation springs in a joint, the joint
is surrounded by large circle sections in which rotation springs can be activated. Possible
locations of rotation springs are indicated by small circles (comparable with the hinges)
on the large circle sections. In the case of a straight plate there are no large circles
around the joint. In that case the central circle represents the rotation spring. After
selecting a particular rotation spring by clicking on the corresponding circle, the rotation
spring can be toggled on and off by clicking again on the circle.
When a rotation spring is created, the properties of the rotation spring must be entered
directly in the right part of the window. The properties of a rotation spring include the
spring stiffness and the maximum torque that it can sustain. The spring stiffness is
dened as the torque per radian (in the unit of Force times Length per Radian per Length
out of plane).
In the project geometry, a hinge and a rotation spring are indicated by a white and a cyan
circle respectively. To modify the hinges and rotation spring properties in a plate
connection, the Hinge and rotation spring button is clicked in the toolbar and the
connection is clicked in the model. The modication can be done in the appearing Hinges
and rotation springs window.
3.4.10 DRAINS
Drains are used to prescribe lines inside the geometry model where (excess)
pore pressures are reduced. Together with the creation of a drain, the input of a
groundwater head is required. This option is only relevant for consolidation analyses or
groundwater ow calculations. In such calculations, the pore pressure in all nodes of the
drain is reduced such that it is equivalent to the given head. Pore pressures lower than
the equivalent to the given head are not affected by the drain.
The Drain option can be selected from the Geometry menu or by clicking on the
REFERENCE MANUAL
corresponding button in the tool bar. The creation of a drain in the geometry model is
similar to the creation of a geometry line (Section 3.4.1). In a geometry model drains
appear as blue dashed lines.
Drains can be activated or de-activated in calculation phases when the Loading input is
dened as Staged construction. Drains can be activated by clicking on them in the Water
conditions mode. Active drains are indicated by a blue colour. A description of the
properties of the drains is given in Section 5.9.7.
3.4.11 WELLS
Wells are used to prescribe points inside the geometry model where a specic
discharge is extracted from or inltrated into the soil. This option is only relevant for
groundwater ow calculations. The Well option can be selected from the Geometry menu
or by clicking on the corresponding button in the tool bar. The creation of a well in the
geometry model is similar to the creation of a xed-end anchor, but it is not restricted to
existing geometry lines. In a geometry model wells appear as a blue circles attached to
small black lines.
After creating a well, the discharge of the well can be specied by double clicking the well
in the geometry model. This may require zooming into the area where the well is located.
As a result, the Well window appears. In this window the discharge can be specied as a
positive value in the unit of volume per unit time per unit of width out of plane. In addition,
it can be selected whether the well is used to apply Extraction from the soil or to apply
Inltration in the soil. In the case of an Extraction well, the minimum groundwater head
must be specied in [m] with respect to the global system of axes. The default Equal to
well location means that the extraction is automatically stopped if the groundwater level
drops below the well level.
Wells can be activated or de-activated in calculation phases using Staged construction as
Loading input. A description of the properties of the wells is given in Section 5.9.7.
3.5 LOADS AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The Loads menu contains the options to introduce boundary conditions, prescribed
displacements and loads in the geometry model. Loads and prescribed displacements
can be applied at the model boundaries as well as inside the model.
3.5.1 STANDARD FIXITIES
On selecting Standard xities from the Loads menu or by clicking the corresponding
button in the tool bar PLAXIS automatically imposes a set of general boundary
conditions to the geometry model. These boundary conditions are generated according
to the following rules:
Vertical geometry lines for which the x-coordinate is equal to the lowest or highest
x-coordinate in the model obtain a horizontal xity (u
x
= 0).
Horizontal geometry lines for which the y-coordinate is equal to the lowest
y-coordinate in the model obtain a full xity (u
x
= u
y
= 0).
Plates that extend to the boundary of the geometry model obtain a xed rotation in
the point at the boundary (
z
= 0) if at least one of the displacement directions of
that point is xed.
Standard xities can be used as a convenient and fast input option for many practical
applications.
3.5.2 STANDARD EARTHQUAKE BOUNDARIES
PLAXIS has a convenient default setting to generate standard boundary conditions for
earthquake loading. This option can be selected from the Loads menu. On selecting
Standard earthquake boundaries, the program will automatically generate absorbent
boundaries at the left-hand and right-hand vertical boundaries and prescribed
displacements with u
x
= 0.01 m and u
y
= 0.00 m at the bottom boundary (see also
below).
3.5.3 STANDARD ABSORBENT BOUNDARIES (DYNAMICS)
An absorbent boundary is aimed to absorb the increments of stresses on the boundaries
caused by dynamic loading, that otherwise would be reected inside the soil body.
For single-source vibrations, PLAXIS has a default setting for generating appropriate
absorbent boundaries. This option can be selected from the Loads menu. For plane
strain models, the standard absorbent boundaries are generated at the left-hand, the
right-hand and the bottom boundary. For axisymmetric models, the standard absorbent
boundaries are only generated at the bottom and the right-hand boundaries.
For manual setting, however, the input of an absorbent boundary is similar to the input of
xities (Section 3.5.5).
3.5.4 SET DYNAMIC LOAD SYSTEM
In PLAXIS 2D, the input of a dynamic load is similar to that of a static load. Here, the
standard external load options (point loads and distributed loads in system A and B and
prescribed displacements) can be used. In the Input program, the user must specify
which of the load system(s) will be used as a dynamic load. This can be done using the
Set dynamic load system option in the Loads menu. Load systems that are set as
dynamic, cannot be used for static loading. Load systems that are not set as dynamic,
are considered to be static.
3.5.5 FIXITIES
Fixities are prescribed displacements equal to zero. These conditions can be applied to
geometry lines as well as to geometry points. Fixities can be selected from the Loads
menu. The following options can be selected:
Total xities Displacements in both x and y directions are equal to zero
(u
x
= u
y
= 0).
Vertical xities Displacements in y directions are equal to zero (u
y
= 0).
Horizontal xities Displacements in x directions are equal to zero (u
x
= 0).
To introduce a sharp transition in different prescribed displacements or between
prescribed displacements and xities (for example to model a trap-door problem; Figure
REFERENCE MANUAL
3.26), it is necessary to introduce an interface at the point of transition perpendicular to
the geometry line. As a result, the thickness of the transition zone between the two
different displacements is zero. If no interface is used then the transition will occur within
one of the elements connected to the transition point. Hence, the transition zone will be
determined by the size of the element. The transition zone will therefore be unrealistically
wide.
Figure 3.26 Modelling of a trap-door problem using interfaces
Only one type of boundary conditions can be applied to individual points. In points where
xities as well as loads are dened, the xities have priority over the loads. In points
where xities as well as prescribed displacements are dened, the prescribed
displacements have priority over xities.
3.5.6 ROTATION FIXITIES (PLATES)
Rotations xities are used to x the rotational degree of freedom of a plate around
the z-axis. Rotation xities can be selected from the Loads menu or by clicking on
the corresponding button in the tool bar. Rotation xities must always act on plates, but
not necessarily on existing geometry points. In the latter case a new geometry point is
automatically introduced.
Existing rotation xities can be eliminated by selecting the rotation xity in the geometry
model and pressing the <Delete> key on the keyboard.
3.5.7 ABSORBENT BOUNDARIES
An absorbent boundary is aimed to absorb the increments of stresses on the boundaries
caused by dynamic loading, that otherwise would be reected inside the soil body.
3.5.8 PRESCRIBED DISPLACEMENTS
Prescribed displacements are special conditions that can be imposed on the model
to control the displacements of certain points. Prescribed displacements can be
selected from the Loads menu or by clicking on the corresponding button in the tool bar.
The input of Prescribed displacements in the geometry model is similar to the creation of
geometry lines (Section 3.4.1). By default, the input values of prescribed displacements
are set such that the vertical displacement component is one unit in the negative vertical
direction (u
y
= 1) and the horizontal displacement component is free.
The input values of prescribed displacements can be changed by double clicking the
corresponding geometry line and selecting Prescribed displacements from the selection
dialog box. As a result, the Prescribed displacements window appears in which the input
Figure 3.27 Input window for prescribed displacements
values of the prescribed displacements of both end points of the geometry line can be
changed (Figure 3.5.8). The distribution is always linear along the line. The input value
must be in the range [-9999, 9999]. In the case that one of the displacement directions is
prescribed whilst the other direction is free, one can use the check boxes in the Free
directions group to indicate which direction is free. The Perpendicular button can be used
to impose a prescribed displacement of one unit perpendicular to the corresponding
geometry line. For internal geometry lines, the displacement is perpendicular to the right
side of the geometry line (considering that the line goes from the rst point to the second
point). For geometry lines at a model boundary, the displacement direction is towards the
inside of the model.
On a geometry line where both prescribed displacements and loads are applied, the
prescribed displacements have priority over the loads during the calculations, except if
the prescribed displacements are not activated. On a geometry line where both
prescribed displacements and full xities are applied, the prescribed displacements have
priority over the xities during the calculations, except if the prescribed displacements are
not activated.
Although the input values of prescribed displacements can be specied in the geometry
model, the actual values that are applied during a calculation may be changed in the
framework of Staged construction (Section 3.4.1). Moreover, an existing composition of
prescribed displacements may be increased globally by means of the load multipliers
Mdisp and Mdisp (Section 5.11.1).
During calculations, the reaction forces corresponding to prescribed displacements in x-
and y-direction are calculated and stored as output parameters (Force-X, Force-Y).
Hint: Prescribed displacements should be interpreted as specied total
displacements at the end of the phase instead of additional phase
displacements.
Prescribed displacements in dynamics
A special method for introducing dynamic loads in a model is by means of prescribed
displacements. Earthquakes are usually modelled by means of prescribed horizontal
displacements. When the Standard earthquake boundaries in the Loads menu is
REFERENCE MANUAL
selected the horizontal displacement component is dened automatically by PLAXIS.
To dene the prescribed displacement for an earthquake manually:
Enter a prescribed displacement in the geometry model (usually at the bottom).
Double click on the prescribed displacement.
Select Prescribed displacement in the window that appears.
Change the x-values of both geometry points to 1 (or 0.01 when working with
standard SMC les with unit of length in meters, or 0.0328 with unit of length in feet)
and the y-values to 0. Now the given displacement is one unit in horizontal direction.
Optionally, the same input value can be entered for both x- and y-values to allow for
(independent) horizontal and vertical motions (see Section 5.11.3 for the application
of dynamic loads).
In the Loads menu, set the dynamic load system to Prescribed displacements.
3.5.9 DISTRIBUTED LOADS
The creation of a distributed load in the geometry model is similar to the creation
of a geometry line (Section 3.4.1). Two load systems (A and B) are available for a
combination of distributed loads or point loads. The load systems A and B can be
activated independently. Distributed loads for load system A or B can be selected from
the Loads menu or by clicking on the corresponding button in the tool bar.
The input values of a distributed load are given in force per area (for example kN/m
2
).
Distributed loads may consist of a x- and/or y-component. By default, when applying
loads to the geometry boundary, the load will be a unit pressure perpendicular to the
boundary. The input value of a load may be changed by double clicking the
corresponding geometry line and selecting the corresponding load system from the
selection dialog box. As a result, the Distributed load window is opened in which the two
components of the load can be specied for both end points of the geometry line in the
geometry model. The distribution is always linear along the line.
Figure 3.28 Input window for distributed loads
Although the global input values of distributed loads can be specied in the geometry
model, the actual value that is applied in a calculation may be changed in the framework
of Staged construction (Section 5.8.3). Moreover, an existing composition of loads may
be increased globally by means of the load multipliers MloadA (or MloadA) for load
system A and MloadB (or MloadB) for load system B (Section 5.11.1).
On a geometry line where both prescribed displacements and distributed loads are
applied, the prescribed displacements have priority over the distributed loads during the
calculations, provided that the prescribed displacements are active. Hence, it is not
useful to apply distributed loads on a line with fully prescribed displacements. When only
one displacement direction is prescribed whilst the other direction is free, it is possible to
apply a distributed load in the free direction.
3.5.10 POINT LOADS
This option may be used to create point loads, which are actually line loads in the
out-of-plane direction. The input values of point loads are given in force per unit of
width (for example kN/m). In axisymmetric models, point loads are in fact line loads on a
circle section of 1 radian. In that case the input value of is still given in force per unit of
width, except when the point load is located at x = 0. In the latter case (axisymmetry;
point load in x = 0) the point load is a real point load and the input value is given in the
unit of force (for example kN, though the input window still shows kN/m). Note that this
force is acting on a circle section of 1 radian only. To derive the input value from a real
situation, the real point force must be divided by 2 to get the input value of the point
force at the centre of the axisymmetric model.
The creation of a point or line load in the geometry model is similar to the creation of a
geometry point (Section 3.4.1). Two load systems (A and B) are available for a
combination of distributed loads and line loads or point loads. The load systems A and B
can be activated independently. Point loads for load system A or B can be selected from
the Loads menu or by clicking on the corresponding button in the tool bar.
The input values of a point load (or line load) are given in force per unit of length (for
example kN/m). Point loads may consist of a x- and/or y-component. By default, when
applying point loads, the load will be one unit in the negative y-direction. The input value
of a load may be changed by double clicking the corresponding point and selecting the
corresponding load system from the selection dialog box. As a result, the Point load
window is opened in which the two components of the load can be specied (Figure
3.5.10).
Figure 3.29 Input window for point loads
A bending moment can be specied in the Point load window as well. For more
information on Bending moments see Section 3.5.11.
Although the input values of point loads can be specied in the geometry model, the
actual value that is applied in a calculation may be changed in the framework of Staged
construction. Moreover, an existing composition of loads may be increased globally by
means of the load multipliers MloadA (or MloadA) for load system A and MloadB (or
MloadB) for load system B (Section 5.11.1).
REFERENCE MANUAL
On a part of the geometry where both prescribed displacements and point loads are
applied, the prescribed displacements have priority over the point loads during the
calculations, provided that the prescribed displacements are active. Hence, it is not
useful to apply point loads on a line with fully prescribed displacements. When only one
displacement direction is prescribed whilst the other direction is free, it is possible to
apply a point load in the free direction.
3.5.11 BENDING MOMENTS
Bending moments can be assigned as a value at a specic point in a plate. The bending
moment can be dened by clicking the Point load button in the toolbar and clicking on the
location on the plate where the bending moment is to be assigned. The value of the
bending moment can be specied in the corresponding cell in the Point load window
(Figure 3.5.11). A positive value indicates a counter clockwise bending moment whereas
a negative sign indicates a clockwise one.
Figure 3.30 Denition of bending moment
Hint: Note that the Bending moment option is not accessible in the Point load
window (Figure 3.5.10) when the point is not located on a plate.
Although the input values of bending moment can be specied in the geometry model,
the actual value that is applied in a calculation may be changed in the framework of
Staged construction. Moreover, an existing composition of loads may be increased
globally by means of the load multipliers MloadA (or MloadA) for load system A and
MloadB (or MloadB) for load system B (Section 5.11.1).
On a part of the geometry where both a rotation xity and a bending moment are applied,
the rotation xity has priority over the bending moment during the calculations, provided
that the rotation xity is active. Hence, it is not useful to apply bending moment on a point
with a rotation xity.
3.6 DESIGN APPROACHES
PLAXIS 2D has a facility to deal with partial factors for loads and model parameters. This
facility is called 'Design approaches' and enables PLAXIS 2D to be used for design
calculations in the framework of the Eurocode, LRFD or other design methods based on
partial factors.
The main idea is that a project is rst analyzed for a Serviceability Limit State (SLS)
situation, without using Design approaches. The input values of loads and the model
parameters are supposed to be representative or characteristic values. The result would
be a cautious estimate of deformations, stresses and structural forces.
If satisfactory results have been obtained for the serviceability state, one may consider
using Design approaches to deal with Ultimate Limit State (ULS) design. In order to
perform design calculations, new phases need to be dened in addition to the
serviceability state calculations. There are two main schemes to perform design
calculations in relation to serviceability calculations (Bauduin, Vos & Simpson (2000)).
Scheme 1:
0. Initial phase
1. Phase 1 (SLS) 4. Phase 4 (ULS)
In this scheme, the design calculations (ULS) are performed for each serviceability state
calculation separately. This means that Phase 4 starts from Phase 1, Phase 5 starts from
Phase 2, etc. Note that in this case a partial factor on a stiffness parameter is only used
to calculate additional displacements as a result of stress redistribution due to the
factored (higher) loads and the factored (reduced) strength parameters.
Scheme 2:
0. Initial phase 4. Phase 4 (ULS)
3. Phase 3 (SLS)
In this scheme, the design calculations (ULS) start from the initial situation and are
performed subsequently. This means that Phase 4 starts from the Initial phase, Phase 5
starts from Phase 4, etc.
It is the responsibility of the geotechnical engineer to consider all the different conditions
that effect the design. Engineering judgment plays a vital role in the determination of
different combinations to be considered in the design.
3.6.1 DEFINITION OF DESIGN APPROACHES
Different design approaches, i.e. coherent sets of partial factors, can be dened for loads
and model parameters according to the applicable design methods (for example:
Eurocode 7 - DA 3). After dening such a coherent set of partial factors by the user, it
may then be exported (stored) under an appropriate name in a global data base, after
which it can be imported and re-used in other projects. Hence, once complete sets of
partial factors have been dened and stored, it is a relatively small effort to make design
calculations in addition to serviceability calculations.
REFERENCE MANUAL
Figure 3.31 Design approaches window
To add a new design approach click the corresponding option under the design
approaches list. The New design approach window pops up where the name of the
new design approach can be dened (Figure 3.32). The new approach is added in
the list when OK is clicked in the New design approach window.
Figure 3.32 New design approach window
To delete a design approach from the list select the design in the list and click the
corresponding button under the list.
To create a copy of a predened design approach select the design approach in the
list and click the Copy button.
To import design approaches from other projects or from the global repository of
design approaches. Click the corresponding button under the list. As a result, the
Import/Export to global repository window appears.The global repository is a
database of the design approaches contained in other projects, simplifying their
reuse. The address to the location of the global repository is given under the list of
the global design approaches. A different repository can be selected by clicking the
Select button and selecting the new repository. Global design approaches can be
removed from the depository by selecting them rst in the list and by clicking Delete
button.
Within a design approach, distinction is made between partial factors for loads (actions)
and partial factors for model parameters (providing resistances). Design approaches
available in the model can be dened and managed in the Design approaches window
Figure 3.33 Import design approach window
that appears when the corresponding option, available in the Loads menu is selected.
The Design approaches window consists of two parts. In the upper part of the window a
list of the design approaches is displayed. By default no design approaches are
available. The buttons available under the design approaches list enable adding and
deleting of the approaches in the list as well as importing and exporting design
approaches between different projects.
3.6.2 DEFINITION OF PARTIAL FACTORS FOR LOADS
Loads to be considered in the design approaches for a geotechnical project are:
Distributed loads
Point loads
Different partial factors may apply to different loads or groups of loads. This can be
arranged by assigning Labels to individual loads or groups of loads. Considering partial
factors for loads, distinction can be made between different load cases, for example
permanent unfavourable, permanent favourable, variable unfavourable, variable
favourable, etc.
To change a label, double click it and type the new label. Up to 10 labels and their
corresponding partial factors can be dened. The partial factors for loads are used as a
multiplication factor to the reference values of the loads.
Hint: The partial factors for loads are dened such that the design value of a
parameter is the reference value multiplied with the partial factor.
By default, the rst load case (permanent unfavourable) is assigned to external loads in
the model, but this may be changed when dening a design calculation. Other labels can
be assigned to loads in the Staged construction tabsheet, as part of the denition of a
calculation phase. However, the partial factors corresponding to the load labels are only
applied when the calculation is performed according to the selected design approach
(see Section 5.8.9); otherwise reference values of loads are used.
REFERENCE MANUAL
3.6.3 DEFINITION OF PARTIAL FACTORS FOR MATERIALS
The partial factors for materials for a selected design approach in the list can be dened
in the corresponding tabsheet in the Design approaches window. A list of all the available
material models for soil and the materials for structural elements, for which partial factors
are supported is displayed (Figure 3.34).
Figure 3.34 Partial factors for materials tabsheet
Considering partial factors for model parameters, a rst distinction is made between the
different material models, because different models have different sets of parameters. If a
project contains Mohr-Coulomb material as well as Hardening Soil material, separate sets
of partial factors are needed for MC and for HS, even when the parameters to be factored
happen to be the same (e.g. ' and c').
A further distinction can be made between different cases of how the parameters or the
material model are used. For example, when using the Mohr-Coulomb model, soil
strength may be dened in terms of effective strength (using ' and c', i.e. the Drained or
Undrained A approach) or in terms of undrained strength (using s
u
, i.e. the Undrained B
or Undrained C approach), for which different partial factors may apply. Hence, separate
sets of partial factors may be dened for a case named 'Effective strength' (= default
case) and a case named 'Undrained strength'.
To add a case:
Click the Add case button. The corresponding window pops up (Figure 3.35).
Figure 3.35 Add materialcase window
Specify the name of the new case and select the material set and the material
model from the corresponding drop-down menus. Note that the Model option is not
applicable for the structural elements.
Click OK to add the new material case. Note that a new column is added for the
new material case, where the selected material model is indicated by a green
button. The window for the soil material set pops up where the partial factors can be
dened for the material parameters.
Hint: The partial factors for materials are dened such that the design value of a
parameter is the reference value divided by the partial factor.
In the case of a partial factor on the friction angle or the dilatancy angle ,
the partial factor is applied to tan and tan respectively.
By default, all partial factors are set to 1.0.
In addition to partial factors for soil model parameters, partial factors for structural model
parameters may be dened as well. After creating the different material cases, they
should be assigned to the materials in the current project, listed in the table named
accordingly (Figure 3.36). The rst two columns in the table give the name of the material
dataset and the material model respectively. The cells in the third column are
transformed into drop-down menus where the material cases available in the selected
design approach are listed. Clicking on the options will assign the material case to the
selected material in the model. Make sure all material data sets have been assigned a
corresponding material case other than the default 'none'.
Figure 3.36 Assignment of material cases
Subsequently, the material data sets can be opened via the material data base to view
(and modify, if necessary!) the actual values of model parameters that will be used when
design calculations are performed.
REFERENCE MANUAL
To complete the denition of a design calculation it is necessary to proceed to the Staged
construction tabsheet (Section 5.8.9) where the design approach to be used for a specic
phase is selected and the loads in the model are labelled. Make sure that the required
load labels with corresponding partial factors are properly assigned to the external loads
in the model.
When using Design approaches in combination with advanced soil models, these models
will continue to behave as advanced models, maintaining all their features, such as
stress-dependent stiffness behaviour and hardening effects. This is different than when
using a Safety analysis with advanced models (Section 5.5.5), since in the latter case
advanced models loose their advanced features and basically switch to Mohr-Coulomb.
When comparing a Safety analysis to a target value of Msf with a Design approaches
analysis using the same partial factor for c and tan, it should be realized that the results
could be different because of this reason.
3.7 MESH GENERATION
When the geometry model is fully dened and material properties have been assigned to
all clusters and structural objects, the geometry has to be divided into nite elements in
order to perform nite element calculations. A composition of nite elements is called a
mesh. The basic type of element in a mesh is the 15-node triangular element or the
6-node triangular element, as described in Section 3.1.1. In addition to these elements,
there are special elements for structural behaviour (plates, embedded pile rows, geogrids
and anchors), as described in Section 3.4.2 to 3.4.7. PLAXIS 2D allows for a fully
automatic mesh generation of nite element meshes. The generation of the mesh is
based on a robust triangulation procedure.
Although PLAXIS 2D automatically applies local mesh renements (Section 3.7.6),
meshes that are automatically generated by PLAXIS may not be accurate enough to
produce acceptable numerical results. Please note that the user remains responsible to
judge the accuracy of the nite element meshes and may need to consider further global
and local renement options.
The required input for the mesh generator is a geometry model composed of points, lines
and clusters, of which the clusters (areas enclosed by lines) are automatically generated
during the creation of the geometry model. Geometry lines and points may also be used
to inuence the position and distribution of elements.
The generation of the mesh is started by clicking on the mesh generation
button in the tool bar or by selecting the Generate option from the Mesh menu. The
generation is also activated directly after the selection of a renement option from the
Mesh menu.
After the mesh generation the Output program is started and a plot of the mesh is
displayed. Although interface elements have a zero thickness, the interfaces in the mesh
are drawn with a certain thickness to show the connections between soil elements and
interfaces. This so-called Connectivity plot is also available as a regular output option
(Section 7.1). The scale factor (Section 6.3.7) may be used to reduce the graphical
thickness of the interfaces. To return to the Input program, the green Close arrow must
be clicked.
3.7.1 BASIC ELEMENT TYPE
On selecting Basic element type from the Mesh menu, the Project properties window is
opened. The user may select either 15-Node or 6-Node triangular elements (Figure 3.3)
as the basic type of element to model soil layers and other volume clusters. The type of
element for structures and interfaces is automatically taken to be compatible with the
basic type of soil element.
3.7.2 GLOBAL COARSENESS
The mesh generator requires a general meshing parameter which represents the average
element size, l
e
. In PLAXIS this parameter is calculated from the outer geometry
dimensions (x
min
, x
max
, y
min
, y
max
) and a Global coarseness setting as dened in the
Mesh menu:
le
=
n
c
12
_
(x
max
x
min
)(
y
max
y
min
)
Distinction is made between ve levels of global coarseness: Very coarse, Coarse,
Medium, Fine and Very ne. By default, the global coarseness is set to Medium. The
global element size and the number of generated triangular elements depends on this
global coarseness setting. A rough estimate is given below (based on a generation
without local renement):
Very coarse: n
c
= 2.0 Around 70 elements
Coarse: n
c
Medium: n
c
Fine: n
c
Very ne: n
c
The exact number of elements depends on the shape of the geometry and optional local
renement settings. The number of elements is not inuenced by the Type of elements
parameter, as set in the Project properties window. Note that a mesh composed of
15-node elements gives a much ner distribution of nodes and thus much more accurate
results than a similar mesh composed of an equal number of 6-node elements. On the
other hand, the use of 15-node elements is more time consuming than using 6-node
elements.
3.7.3 GLOBAL REFINEMENT
A nite element mesh can be rened globally by selecting the Rene global option from
the Mesh menu. When selecting this option, the global coarseness parameter is
increased one level (for example from Medium to Fine) and the mesh is automatically
regenerated.
3.7.4 LOCAL COARSENESS
In areas where large stress concentrations or large deformation gradients are expected, it
is desirable to have a more accurate (ner) nite element mesh, whereas other parts of
the geometry might not require a ne mesh. Such a situation often occurs when the
geometry model includes edges or corners or structural objects. For these cases PLAXIS
REFERENCE MANUAL
uses local coarseness parameters in addition to the global coarseness parameter. The
local coarseness parameter is the Local element size factor, which is contained in each
geometry point. These factors give an indication of the relative element size with respect
to the average element size as determined by the Global coarseness parameter. By
default, the Local element size factor is set to 1.0 at all geometry points. Automatic
renement will be applied where necessary (see Section 3.7.6). To reduce the length of
an element to half the global element size, the Local element size factor should be set to
0.5.
The local element size factor can be changed by double clicking the corresponding
geometry point. Alternatively, when double clicking a geometry line, one can set the local
element size factor for both points of the geometry line simultaneously. Values in the
range from 0.05 to 5.0 are acceptable.
3.7.5 LOCAL REFINEMENT
Instead of specifying local element size factors, a local renement can be achieved by
selecting clusters, lines or points and selecting a local renement option from the Mesh
menu.
When selecting one or more clusters, the Mesh menu allows for the option Rene cluster.
Similarly, when selecting one or more geometry lines, the Mesh menu provides the option
Rene line. When selecting one or more points, the option Rene around point is
available.
Using one of the options for the rst time will give a local element size factor of 0.5 for all
selected geometry points or all geometry points that are included in the selected clusters
or lines. Repetitive use of the local renement option will result in a local element size
factor which is half the current factor, however, the minimum and maximum value are
restricted to the range [0.05, 5.0]. After selecting one of the local renement options, the
mesh is automatically regenerated.
3.7.6 AUTOMATIC REFINEMENT
To supply a good quality mesh for every geometry which also takes into account the
necessary mesh renement around structural elements, loads and prescribed
displacements, PLAXIS will apply automatic mesh renements. These automatic
renements in terms of an implicit local element size multiplication factor will be applied in
case of:
structural elements, loads and prescribed displacements: the Local element size
factor will be multiplied by 0.25, except when prescribed displacements or loads
have been applied along a whole edge of the geometry. The implicit multiplication
factors can be compensated in the Input program by setting the Local element size
factor manually to 4.0.
the distance between points and/or lines is rather close, which requires a smaller
element size to avoid large aspect ratios.
an angle between geometry lines other than a multiple of 90
0
, to allow for more
accurate stresses around geometry discontinuities. The Local element size factor
will be multiplied according to Figure 3.37.
Figure 3.37 The implicit Local element size multiplication factor as a function of the angle between
two lines.
Note that the Local element size factors are implicitly applied, and are not visible to the
user. In order to 'compensate' implicitly applied Local element size factors, an inverse
Local element size factor can be given manually to the corresponding geometry point
(e.g. a Local element size factor of 4 will compensate the implicit factor of 0.25 for loads
such that the global coarseness is retained).
REFERENCE MANUAL
MATERIAL PROPERTIES AND MATERIAL DATABASE
4 MATERIAL PROPERTIES AND MATERIAL DATABASE
In PLAXIS, soil properties and material properties of structures are stored in material
data sets. There are four different types of material sets grouped as data sets for soil and
interfaces, data sets for plates, data sets for geogrids, data sets for embedded pile rows
and data sets for anchors. All data sets are stored in the material database. From the
database, the data sets can be assigned to the soil clusters or to the corresponding
structural objects in the geometry model.
The material database can be activated by selecting one of the options from the
Materials menu or by clicking the Materials button in the tool bar. As a result, the
Material sets window appears showing the contents of the project material database. The
window can be extended to show the global database by clicking the Show global button
in the upper part of the window. The Material sets window displaying the material dened
in the current project and the ones available in a selected global database is shown in
Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1 Material sets window showing the project and the global database
The database of a new project is empty. The global database can be used to store
material data sets in a global folder and to exchange data sets between different projects.
At both sides of the window (Project materials and Global materials) there are two
drop-down menus and a tree view. The Set type can be selected from the drop-down
menu on the left hand side. The Set type parameter determines which type of material
data set is displayed in the tree view (Soil and interfaces, Plates, Embedded pile rows,
Geogrids, Anchors).
The data sets in the tree view are identied by a user-dened name. The data sets for
Soil and interfaces can be ordered in groups according to the material model, the
material type or the name of the data set by selecting this order in the Group order
drop-down menu. The None option can be used to discard the group ordering.
The small buttons between the two tree views can be used to copy individual data sets
from the project database to the selected global database or vice versa.
REFERENCE MANUAL
To copy the selected project material set to the global database.
To copy all the project material sets of the specied type to the global database.
To copy the selected global material set to the project database.
The location of the selected global database is shown below its tree view. The buttons
below the tree view of the global database enable actions in the global database.
Select To select an existing global database.
Delete To delete a selected material data set from the selected global
database.
By default, the global database for soil and interface data contains the data sets of all the
tutorials and it is contained in the le 'SoilMat.matdb'. This le is compatible with other
PLAXIS database les for soil and interfaces and is stored in the installation folder of
PLAXIS 2D. Material data sets for structural elements will be contained in separate les.
Similarly, the global data bases for plates, geogrids and anchors are contained in the les
'PlateMat2D.matdb', 'GeogridMat.matdb', 'EmbeddedPile2DMat.matdb' and
'AnchorMat2D.matdb' respectively.
Note that besides the global material les (*.matdb), it is possible to select project
material les (*.plxmat) and legacy project material les (*.mat) as global database.
In addition, databases with data sets of standard sheet-pile wall proles are available
from the Plaxis Knowledge Base
(http://kb.plaxis.nl/downloads/material-parameter-datasets-sheetpiles-and-beams).
Hint: A new global database can be created by clicking the Select button, dening
the name of the new global database and clicking Open.
The project data base can be managed using the buttons below the tree view of the
project database.
New To create a new data set in the project. As a result, a new
window appears in which the material properties or model
parameters can be entered. The rst item to be entered is
always the Identication, which is the user-dened name of the
data set. After completing a data set, it will appear in the tree
view, indicated by its name as dened by the Identication.
Edit To modify the selected data set in the project material database.
SoilTest To perform standard soil lab tests. A separate window will open
where several basic soil tests can be simulated and the
behaviour of the selected soil material model with the given
material parameters can be checked (Section 4.3).
Copy To create a copy of a selected data set in the project material
database.
Delete To delete a selected material data set from the project material
database.
4.1 MODELLING SOIL AND INTERFACE BEHAVIOUR
The material properties and model parameters for soil clusters are entered in material
data sets (Figure 4.2). The properties in the data sets are divided into ve tabsheets:
General, Parameters , Flow parameters, Interfaces and Initial .
4.1.1 GENERAL TABSHEET
The General tabsheet contains the type of soil model, the drainage type and the general
soil properties such as unit weights. Several data sets may be created to distinguish
between different soil layers. A user may specify any identication title for a data set in
the General tabsheet of the Soil window. It is advisable to use a meaningful name since
the data set will appear in the database tree view by its identication.
For easy recognition in the model, a colour is given to a certain data set. This colour also
appears in the database tree view. PLAXIS 2D selects a unique default colour for a data
set, but this colour may be changed by the user. Changing the colour can be done by
clicking on the colour box in the General tabsheet.
Figure 4.2 General tabsheet of the Soil window
Material model
Soil and rock tend to behave in a highly non-linear way under load. This non-linear
stress-strain behaviour can be modelled at several levels of sophistication. Clearly, the
number of model parameters increases with the level of sophistication. PLAXIS supports
different models to simulate the behaviour of soil and other continua. The models and
their parameters are described in detail in the Material Models Manual. A short
discussion of the available models is given below:
Linear elastic model: This model represents Hooke's law of isotropic linear elasticity.
The linear elastic model is too limited for the simulation of soil behaviour. It is primarily
used for stiff structures in the soil.
Mohr-Coulomb model (MC): This well-known linear elastic perfectly-plastic model is
used as a rst approximation of soil behaviour in general. It is recommended to use this
model for a rst analysis of the problem considered. A constant average stiffness is
REFERENCE MANUAL
estimated for the soil layer. Due to this constant stiffness, computations tend to be
relatively fast and a rst estimate of deformations can be obtained.
Hardening Soil model (HS): This is an advanced model for the simulation of soil
behaviour. The Hardening Soil model is an elastoplastic type of hyperbolic model,
formulated in the framework of shear hardening plasticity. Moreover, the model involves
compression hardening to simulate irreversible compaction of soil under primary
compression. This second-order model can be used to simulate the behaviour of sands
and gravel as well as softer types of soil such as clays and silts.
Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness (HSsmall): This is an elastoplastic
type of hyperbolic model, similar to the Hardening Soil model. Moreover, this model
incorporates strain dependent stiffness moduli, simulating the different reaction of soils
from small strains (for example vibrations with strain levels below 10
-5
) to large strains
(engineering strain levels above 10
-3
).
Soft Soil model (SS): This is a Cam-Clay type model that can be used to simulate the
behaviour of soft soils like normally consolidated clays and peat. The model performs
best in situations of primary compression.
Soft Soil Creep model (SSC): This is a second order model formulated in the
framework of viscoplasticity. The model can be used to simulate the time-dependent
behaviour of soft soils like normally consolidated clays and peat. The model includes
logarithmic primary and secondary compression.
Jointed Rock model (JR): This is an anisotropic elastic-perfectly plastic model where
plastic shearing can only occur in a limited number of shearing directions. This model
can be used to simulate the anisotropic behaviour of stratied or jointed rock.
Modied Cam-Clay model (MCC): This well-known critical state model can be used to
simulate the behaviour of normally consolidated soft soils. The model assumes a
logarithmic relationship between the volumetric strain and the mean effective stress.
NGI-ADP model (NGI-ADP): The NGI-ADP model may be used for capacity,
deformation and soil-structure interaction analysis involving undrained loading of clay.
Distinct anisotropic stress strengths may be dened for different stress paths.
Hoek-Brown model (HB): This well-known elastic perfectly-plastic model is used to
simulate the isotropic behaviour of rock. A constant stiffness is used for the rock mass.
Shear failure and tension failure are described by a non-linear stress curve.
Sekiguchi-Ohta model (Inviscid): The Sekiguchi-Ohta model (Inviscid) is a Cam-Clay
type effective stress model for time-independent behaviour of clay-type soils.
Sekiguchi-Ohta model (Viscid): The Sekiguchi-Ohta model (Viscid) is a Cam-Clay
type effective stress model for time-dependent behaviour (creep) behaviour of clay-type
soils.
User-dened soil models (UDSM): With this option it is possible to use other
constitutive models than the standard PLAXIS models. For a detailed description of this
facility, reference is made to the Material Models Manual. Links to existing User-dened
soil models are available on the Plaxis Knowledge Base (http://kb.plaxis.nl/models).
Drainage type
In principle, all model parameters in PLAXIS are meant to represent the effective soil
response, i.e. the relation between the stresses and strains associated with the soil
skeleton. An important feature of soil is the presence of pore water. Pore pressures
signicantly inuence the soil response. To enable incorporation of the water-skeleton
interaction in the soil response PLAXIS offers a choice of different types of drainage:
Drained behaviour: Using this setting no excess pore pressures are generated. This is
clearly the case for dry soils and also for full drainage due to a high permeability (sands)
and/or a low rate of loading. This option may also be used to simulate long-term soil
behaviour without the need to model the precise history of undrained loading and
consolidation.
Undrained behaviour: This setting is used for saturated soils in cases where pore
water cannot freely ow through the soil skeleton. Flow of pore water can sometimes be
neglected due to a low permeability (clays) and/or a high rate of loading. All clusters that
are specied as undrained will indeed behave undrained, even if the cluster or a part of
the cluster is located above the phreatic level.
Distinction is made between three different methods of modelling undrained soil
behaviour. Method A is an undrained effective stress analysis with effective stiffness as
well as effective strength parameters. This method will give a prediction of the pore
pressures and the analysis can be followed by a consolidation analysis. The undrained
shear strength (s
u
) is a consequence of the model rather then an input parameter. It is
recommended to check this shear strength with known data. To consider this type of
analysis, the Undrained (A) option should be selected in the Drainage type drop-down
menu.
Method B is an undrained effective stress analysis with effective stiffness parameters and
undrained strength parameters. The undrained shear strength s
u
is an input parameter.
This method will give a prediction of pore pressures. However, when followed by a
consolidation analysis, the undrained shear strength (s
u
) is not updated, since this is an
input parameter. To consider this type of analysis, the Undrained (B) option should be
selected in the Drainage type drop-down menu.
Method C is an undrained total stress analysis with all parameters undrained. This
method will not give a prediction of pore pressures. Therefore it is not useful to perform a
consolidation analysis. The undrained shear strength (s
u
) is an input parameter. To
consider this type of analysis, the Undrained (C) option should be selected in the
Drainage type drop-down menu.
More information about modelling undrained behaviour can be found in Section 4.2 and
the Material Models Manual.
Non-porous behaviour: Using this setting neither initial nor excess pore pressures will
be taken into account in clusters of this type. Applications may be found in the modelling
of concrete or structural behaviour. Non-porous behaviour is often used in combination
with the Linear elastic model. The input of a saturated weight is not relevant for
non-porous materials or intact rock.
In a consolidation analysis it is the permeability parameter in the Flow tabsheet that
determines the drainage capacity of a layer rather than the drainage type. Still, the
drainage type has inuence on the applied compressibility of water in a consolidation
analysis. For more information see Appendix A.
REFERENCE MANUAL
Saturated and unsaturated weight (
sat
and
unsat
)
The saturated and the unsaturated weight refer to the total unit weight of the soil skeleton
including the uid in the pores. The unsaturated weight
unsat
applies to all material
above the phreatic level and the saturated weight
sat
applies to all material below the
phreatic level. The unit weights are entered as a force per unit volume.
For non-porous material only the unsaturated weight is relevant, which is just the total unit
weight. For porous soils the unsaturated weight is obviously smaller than the saturated
weight. For sands, for example, the saturated weight is generally around 20 kN/m
3
whereas the unsaturated weight can be signicantly lower, depending on the degree of
saturation.
Note that soils in practical situations are never completely dry. Hence, it is advisable not
to enter the fully dry unit weight for
unsat
. For example, clays above the phreatic level
may be almost fully saturated due to capillary action. Other zones above the phreatic
level may be partially saturated. However, the steady-state pore pressures above the
phreatic level are always set equal to zero. In this way tensile capillary stresses are
disregarded. However, excess pore stresses (both pressure and suction) may occur
above the phreatic line as a result of undrained behaviour A or B. The latter does not
affect the unit weight of the soil.
In the Advanced mode (Section 5.3.2), the actual unit weight for the soil that is used in
the calculations depends on the effective degree of saturation S
e
as calculated in the
previous calculation step.
= (1 S
e
)
unsat
+ S
e
sat
(4.1)
where
S
e
= (S S
min
)/(S
max
S
min
) (4.2)
S is the actual degree of saturation, S
min
is the minimum degree of saturation and S
sat
is
the maximum degree of saturation.
Weights are activated by means of Gravity loading or K0 procedure in the Calculation
mode, which is always the rst calculation phase (Initial phase) (see Section 5.5.1).
Advanced general properties
Additional properties for advanced modelling features can be dened in the Advanced
subtree in the General tabsheet (Figure 4.2).
Void ratio (e
init
, e
min
, e
max
): The void ratio, e, is related to the porosity, n
(e = n/(1 n)). This quantity is used in some special options. The initial value e
init
is the
value in the initial situation. The actual void ratio is calculated in each calculation step
from the initial value and the volumetric strain
v
. These parameters are used to
calculate the change of permeability when input is given for the c
k
value (in the Flow
tabsheet). In addition to e
init
, a minimum value e
min
and a maximum value e
max
can be
entered. These values are related to the maximum and minimum density that can be
reached in the soil. When the Hardening Soil model or Hardening Soil model with
small-strain stiffness is used with a certain (positive) value of dilatancy, the mobilised
dilatancy is set to zero as soon as the maximum void ratio is reached (this is termed
dilatancy cut-off). For other models this option is not available. To avoid the dilatancy
cut-off in the Hardening Soil model or Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness
the option may be deselected in the Advanced general properties subtree.
Rayleigh and : Material damping in dynamic calculations is caused by the viscous
properties of soil, friction and the development of irreversible strains. All plasticity models
in PLAXIS 2D can generate irreversible (plastic) strains, and may thus cause material
damping. However, this damping is generally not enough to model the damping
characteristics of real soils. For example, most soil models show pure elastic behaviour
upon unloading and reloading which does not lead to damping at all. There is one model
in PLAXIS that includes viscous behaviour, which is the Soft Soil Creep model. Using the
model in dynamic calculations may lead to viscous damping, but also the Soft Soil Creep
model hardly shows any creep strain in load / reload cycles. There is also one model in
PLAXIS that includes hysteretic behaviour in loading / reload cycles, which is the HS
small model (Chapter 7 of the Material Models Manual). When using this model, the
amount of damping that is obtained depends on the amplitude of the strain cycles.
Considering very small vibrations, even the HS small model does not show material
damping, whereas real soils still show a bit of viscous damping. Hence, additional
damping is needed to model realistic damping characteristics of soils in dynamic
calculations. This can be done by means of Rayleigh damping.
Rayleigh damping is a numerical feature in which a damping matrix C is composed by
adding a portion of the mass matrix M and a portion of the stiffness matrix K:
C = M + K
The parameters and are the Rayleigh coefcients. is the parameter that
determines the inuence of mass in the damping of the system. The higher is, the more
the lower frequencies are damped. is the parameter that determines the inuence of
stiffness in the damping of the system. The higher is, the more the higher frequencies
are damped. In PLAXIS 2D, these parameters can be specied for each material data set
for soil and interfaces as well as for material data sets for plates. In this way, the (viscous)
damping characteristics can be specied for each individual material in the nite element
model. The values for and can be specied in the corresponding cells in the
Parameters tabsheet of the Soil window.
Figure 4.3 Damping parameters in the General tabsheet
REFERENCE MANUAL
Despite the considerable amount of research work in the eld of dynamics, little has been
achieved yet for the development of a commonly accepted procedure for damping
parameter identication. Instead, for engineering purposes, some measures are made to
account for material damping. A commonly used engineering parameter is the damping
ratio . The damping ratio is dened as = 1 for critical damping, i.e. exactly the amount
of damping needed to let a single degree-of-freedom system that is released from an
initial excitation u
0
, smoothly stop without rebouncing.
Considering Rayleigh damping, a relationship can be established between the damping
ratio and the Rayleigh damping parameters and :
+
2
= 2 and = 2 f
where is the angular frequency in rad/s and f is the frequency in Hz (1/s).
u
t
Critically damped ( = 1)
Underdamped ( < 1)
Overdamped ( > 1)
Figure 4.4 Role of damping ratio in free vibration of a single degree-of-freedom system
Solving this equation for two different target frequencies and corresponding target
damping ratios gives the required Rayleigh damping coefcients:
= 2
1
2
1
2
2
and = 2
2
1
2
2
For example, when it is desired to have a target damping of 8% at the target frequencies
f = 1.5 Hz and 8.0 Hz, the corresponding Rayleigh damping ratios are = 1.2698 and
= 0.002681. From Figure 4.5 it can be seen that within the range of frequencies as
dened by the target frequencies the damping is less than the target damping, whereas
outside this range the damping is more than the target damping.
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
1.5 8.0
1
0
10 100
8%
D
a
m
p
i
n
g
r
a
t
i
o
(
-
)
Frequency (Hz)
Inuence of Inuence of
Damping curve
Figure 4.5 Rayleigh damping parameter inuence
The damping parameters ( and ) can be automatically calculated by the program when
the target damping ratio () and the target frequencies (f) are specied in the pane
displayed in the General tabsheet when one of the cells corresponding to the damping
parameters is clicked (Figure 4.6). A graph shows the damping ratio as a function of the
frequency.
Figure 4.6 Input of and f
4.1.2 PARAMETERS TABSHEET
The Parameters tabsheet contains the stiffness and strength parameters of the selected
soil model. These parameters depend on the selected soil model as well as on the
selected drainage type.
Linear Elastic model (LE): The Parameters tabsheet for the Linear Elastic model
(drained behaviour) is shown in Figure 4.7.
REFERENCE MANUAL
Hint: Optional drainage types when the Linear Elastic model is selected are:
Drained, Undrained (A), Undrained (C), and Non-porous.
In the case of Undrained (A) or Non-porous drainage types, the same
parameters are used as for drained behaviour.
In the case of Undrained (C) drainage type, an undrained Young's modulus
(E
u
) and undrained Poisson's ratio (
u
) are used.
The model involves two elastic stiffness parameters, namely the effective Young's
modulus E' and the effective Poisson's ratio '.
E' : Effective Young's modulus [kN/m
2
]
' : Effective Poisson's ratio [-]
During the input for the Linear Elastic model the values of the shear modulus G and the
oedometer modulus E
oed
are presented as auxiliary parameters (alternatives).
G : Shear modulus, where G =
E'
2(1 + ')
[kN/m
2
]
E
oed
: Oedometer modulus, where E
oed
=
E'(1 ')
(1 + ')(1 2')
[kN/m
2
]
Figure 4.7 Parameters tabsheet for the Linear Elastic model (drained behaviour)
Note that the alternatives are inuenced by the input values of E' and '. Entering a
particular value for one of the alternatives G or E
oed
results in a change of the Young's
modulus E'.
It is possible for the Linear Elastic model to specify a stiffness that varies linearly with
depth. Therefore, the increment of stiffness per unit of depth, E'
inc
, can be dened.
Together with the input of E'
inc
the input of y
ref
becomes relevant. For any y-coordinate
above y
ref
the stiffness is equal to E'
ref
. For any y-coordinate below y
ref
the stiffness is
given by:
E'(y) = E' +(y
ref
y)E'
inc
y < y
ref
(4.3)
The Linear Elastic model is usually inappropriate to model the highly non-linear behaviour
of soil, but it is of interest to simulate structural behaviour, such as thick concrete walls or
plates, for which strength properties are usually very high compared with those of soil.
For these applications, the Linear Elastic model will often be selected together with
Non-porous type of material behaviour in order to exclude pore pressures from these
structural elements.
Hint: When embedded piles penetrate a volume cluster with linear elastic material
behaviour, the specied value of the shaft resistance is ignored. The reason
for this is that the linear elastic material is not supposed to be soil, but part of
the structure. The connection between the pile and the structure is supposed
to be rigid to avoid, for example, punching of piles through a concrete deck.
Beside the parameters related to strength and stiffness of the soil, the velocities of wave
propagation in soil can be dened in the Parameters tabsheet of the Soil window when
the Dynamics module of the program is available. These velocities are:
V
s
: Shear wave velocity, where V
s
=
_
G/ [m/s]
V
p
: Compression wave velocity, where V
p
=
_
E
oed
/ [m/s]
Note that = /g.
Hint: Note that the wave velocities are inuenced by the input values of E' and '.
Entering a particular value for one of the wave velocities results in a change
of the Young's modulus.
Velocities of wave propagation in soil can be dened only for models with
stress independent stiffness.
Mohr-Coulomb model (MC): The linear-elastic perfectly-plastic model with
Mohr-Coulomb failure contour (in short the Mohr-Coulomb model) requires a total of ve
parameters (two stiffness parameters and three strength parameters), which are
generally familiar to most geotechnical engineers and which can be obtained from basic
tests on soil samples.
The stiffness parameters of the Mohr-Coulomb model (drained behaviour) are:
E' : Effective Young's modulus [kN/m
2
]
REFERENCE MANUAL
Figure 4.8 Parameters tabsheet for the Mohr-Coulomb model (drained behaviour)
Hint: Optional drainage types when Mohr-Coulomb model is selected are:
Drained, Undrained (A), Undrained (B), Undrained (C), and Non-porous.
In the case of Undrained (A) or Non-porous drainage types, the same
parameters are used as for drained behaviour.
In the case of Undrained (B) drainage type, =
u
= 0, = 0 and the
undrained shear strength s
u
is used instead of the effective cohesion (c').
In the case of Undrained (C) drainage type all parameters are undrained. i.e.
E
u
,
u
and s
u
as undrained Young's modulus, undrained Poisson's ratio and
undrained shear strength respectively, and = = 0.
Instead of using the Young's modulus as a stiffness parameter, alternative stiffness
parameters can be entered. These parameters, the relations and their standard units are
listed below:
G : Shear modulus, where G =
E'
2(1 + ')
[kN/m
2
]
E
oed
: Oedometer modulus, where E
oed
=
E'(1 ')
(1 + ')(1 2')
[kN/m
2
]
Note that the alternatives are inuenced by the input values of E' and '. Entering a
particular value for one of the alternatives G or E
oed
results in a change of the Young's
modulus E'.
Stiffness varying with depth can be dened in Mohr-Coulomb model by entering a value
for E'
inc
which is the increment of stiffness per unit of depth. Together with the input of
E'
inc
the input of y
ref
becomes relevant. For any y-coordinate above y
ref
the stiffness is
equal to E'
ref
ref
the stiffness is given by:
E'(y) = E' +(y
ref
y)E'
inc
y < y
ref
(4.4)
The strength parameters for the Mohr-Coulomb model are:
c'
ref
: Effective cohesion [kN/m
2
]
' : Effective friction angle [
]
: Dilatancy angle [
]
A cohesion varying with depth can be dened in Mohr-Coulomb model by entering a
value for c'
inc
which is the increment of effective cohesion per unit of depth. Together with
the input of c'
inc
the input of y
ref
becomes relevant. For any y-coordinate above y
ref
the
cohesion is equal to c'
ref
ref
the cohesion is given by:
c'(y) = c'
ref
+(y
ref
y)c'
inc
y < y
ref
(4.5)
In some practical problems an area with tensile stresses may develop. This is allowed
when the shear stress is sufciently small. However, the soil surface near a trench in clay
sometimes shows tensile cracks. This indicates that soil may also fail in tension instead
of in shear. Such behaviour can be included in a PLAXIS analysis by selecting the
Tension cut-off option. When selecting the Tension cut-off option the allowable tensile
strength (
t ,soil
) may be entered. For the Mohr-Coulomb model model the default value of
the tension cut-off is zero.
Beside the parameters related to strength and stiffness of the soil, the velocities of wave
propagation in soil can be dened in the Parameters tabsheet of the Soil window. These
velocities are:
V
s
: Shear wave velocity, where V
s
=
_
G/ [m/s]
V
p
: Compression wave velocity, where V
p
=
_
E
oed
/ [m/s]
Note that = /g.
Hint: Note that the wave velocities are inuenced by the input values of E' and '.
Entering a particular value for one of the wave velocities results in a change
of the Young's modulus.
Velocities of wave propagation in soil can be dened only for models with
stress independent stiffness.
Hardening Soil model (HS): The Parameters tabsheet for the Hardening Soil model is
shown in Figure 4.9.
Hint: Optional drainage types when Hardening Soil model is selected are:
Drained, Undrained (A), and Undrained (B).
In the case of Undrained (A) drainage type, the same parameters are used
as for drained behaviour.
u
= 0 , = 0 and the
u
REFERENCE MANUAL
Figure 4.9 Parameters tabsheet for the Hardening Soil model (drained behaviour)
The stiffness parameters of the Hardening Soil model are:
E
ref
50
: Secant stiffness in standard drained triaxial test [kN/m
2
]
E
ref
oed
: Tangent stiffness for primary oedometer loading [kN/m
2
]
E
ref
ur
: Unloading / reloading stiffness (default
E
ref
ur
= 3
E
ref
50
) [kN/m
2
]
m : Power for stress-level dependency of stiffness [-]
Instead of entering the basic parameters for soil stiffness, alternative parameters can be
entered. These parameters are listed below:
C
c
: Compression index [-]
C
s
: Swelling index or reloading index [-]
e
init
: Initial void ratio [-]
In addition, advanced parameters can be dened for stiffness (it is advised to use the
default setting):
ur
: Poisson's ratio for unloading-reloading (default = 0.2) [-]
p
ref
: Reference stress for stiffnesses (default p
ref
= 100
kN/m
2
)
[kN/m
2
]
K
nc
0
: K
0
-value for normal consolidation (default K
nc
0
=
1 sin)
[-]
The strength parameters of the present hardening model coincide with those of the
non-hardening Mohr-Coulomb model:
c'
ref
2
]
' : Effective angle of internal friction [
]
: Angle of dilatancy [
]
In addition, advanced parameters can be dened for strength:
c'
inc
: As in Mohr-Coulomb model (default c
inc
= 0) [kN/m
3
]
R
f
: Failure ratio q
f
/ q
a
(default R
f
= 0.9) [-]
tension
: Tensile strength (default
tension
= 0 stress units) [kN/m
2
]
In some practical problems an area with tensile stresses may develop. This is allowed
when the shear stress is sufciently small. However, the soil surface near a trench in clay
sometimes shows tensile cracks. This indicates that soil may also fail in tension instead
of in shear. Such behaviour can be included in a PLAXIS analysis by selecting the
Tension cut-off option. When selecting the Tension cut-off option the allowable tensile
strength may be entered. For the Hardening Soil model the default value of the tension
cut-off is zero.
Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness (HSsmall): Compared to the
standard HS model, the HS small model requires two additional stiffness parameters as
input:
0.7
and G
ref
0
. The Parameters tabsheet for the HS small model is shown in Figure
4.10.
Hint: Optional drainage types when Hardening Soil model with small-strain
stiffness is selected are: Drained, Undrained (A), and Undrained (B).
u
= 0, = 0 and the
u
Figure 4.10 Parameters tabsheet for the HS small model (drained behaviour)
REFERENCE MANUAL
All other parameters, including the alternative stiffness parameters, remain the same as
in the standard Hardening Soil model. In summary, the input stiffness parameters of the
HS small model are listed below:
Parameters for stiffness:
E
ref
50
: Secant stiffness in standard drained triaxial test [kN/m
2
]
E
ref
oed
: Tangent stiffness for primary oedometer loading [kN/m
2
]
E
ref
ur
: unloading / reload stiffness at engineering strains
( 10
3
to 10
2
)
[kN/m
2
]
m : Power for stress-level dependency of stiffness [-]
Alternative parameters for stiffness:
C
c
C
s
e
init
Advanced parameters for stiffness:
ur
: Poisson's ratio for unloading-reloading (default = 0.2) [-]
p
ref
: Reference stress for stiffnesses (default p
ref
= 100
kN/m
2
)
[kN/m
2
]
K
nc
0
: K
0
-value for normal consolidation (default K
nc
0
=
1 sin)
[-]
Parameters for strength:
c'
ref
2
]
' : Effective angle of internal friction [
]
: Angle of dilatancy [
]
Advanced parameters for strength:
c'
inc
: As in Mohr-Coulomb model (default c'
inc
= 0) [kN/m
3
]
R
f
: Failure ratio q
f
/ q
a
(default R
f
= 0.9) [-]
tension
: Tensile strength (default
tension
= 0 stress units) [kN/m
2
]
Parameters for small strain stiffness:
0.7
: shear strain at which G
s
= 0.722G
0
[-]
G
ref
0
: reference shear modulus at very small strains
( < 10
6
)
[kN/m
2
]
Hysteretic damping
The elastic modulus ratio is plotted as a function of the shear strain () in a side pane
when specifying the small-strain stiffness parameters (Modulus reduction curve). The HS
small model shows typical hysteretic behaviour when subjected to cyclic shear loading. In
dynamic calculations this leads to hysteretic damping. The damping ratio is plotted as a
function of the cyclic shear strain
c
. Details are given in Brinkgreve, Kappert & Bonnier
(2007).
Figure 4.11 Effect of small strain stiffness parameters on dumping
Hint: Note that the Modulus reduction curve and the Damping curve are based on
fully elastic behaviour. Plastic strains as a result of hardening or local failure
may lead to signicant lower stiffness and higher damping.
Soft Soil model (SS): The Parameters tabsheet for the Soft Soil model is shown in
Figure 4.12.
Hint: Optional drainage types when Soft Soil model is selected are: Drained and
Undrained (A).
The parameters for stiffness are:
: Modied compression index [-]
: Modied swelling index [-]

Alternative parameters can be used to dene stiffness:
C
c
C
s
e
init
The parameters for strength are:
c'
ref
2
]
' : Effective friction angle [
]
: Dilatancy angle [
]
REFERENCE MANUAL
Figure 4.12 Parameters tabsheet for the Soft Soil model (drained behaviour)
Advanced parameters (use default settings):
ur
: Poissons ratio for unloading / reloading (default
ur
= 0.15)
[-]
K
nc
0
: Coefcient of lateral stress in normal consolidation
(default K
nc
0
= 1 sin)
[-]
M : K
nc
0
- related parameter [-]
Soft Soil Creep model (SSC): The Parameters tabsheet for the Soft Soil Creep model
is shown in Figure 4.13.
Hint: Optional drainage types when Soft Soil Creep model is selected are: Drained
and Undrained (A).
The parameters for stiffness are:

The parameter taking time effect into account is:
: Modied creep index [-]

C
c
C
s
C
: Secondary compression index [-]

e
init
Figure 4.13 Parameters tabsheet for the Soft Soil Creep model (drained behaviour)
The parameters for strength are:
c'
ref
: Cohesion [kN/m
2
]
' : Friction angle [
]
: Dilatancy angle [
]
Advanced parameters (use default settings):
ur
: Poissons ratio for unloading / reloading (default
ur
= 0.15)
[-]
K
nc
0
(default K
nc
0
= 1 sin)
[-]
M : K
nc
0
- related parameter [-]
Jointed Rock model (JR): The Parameters tabsheet for the Jointed Rock model is
Hint: Optional drainage types when Jointed Rock model is selected are: Drained
and Non-porous.
In the case of Non-porous drainage type, the same parameters are used as
for drained behaviour.
E
1
: Young's modulus for rock as a continuum [kN/m
2
]
1
: Poisson's ratio for rock as a continuum [-]
Anisotropic elastic parameters 'Plane 1' direction (e.g. stratication direction):
E
2
: Young's modulus in 'Plane 1' direction [kN/m
2
]
G
2
: Shear modulus in 'Plane 1' direction [kN/m
2
]
REFERENCE MANUAL
Figure 4.14 Parameters tabsheet for the Jointed Rock model (drained behaviour)
2
: Poisson's ratio in 'Plane 1' direction [-]
Strength parameters in joint directions (Plane i=1, 2, 3):
c
i
: Cohesion [kN/m
2
]
i
: Friction angle [
i
: Dilatancy angle [
t ,i
: Tensile strength [kN/m
2
]
Denition of joint directions (Plane i=1, 2, 3):
n : Number of joint directions (1 n 3) [-]
1,i
: Dip angle [
2,i
: Dip direction [
]
Modied Cam-Clay model (MCC): This is a critical state model that can be used to
simulate the behaviour of normally consolidated soft soils. The model assumes a
logarithmic relationship between the volumetric strain and the mean effective stress. The
Parameters tabsheet for the Modied Cam-Clay model is shown in Figure 4.15.
Hint: Optional drainage types when Modied Cam-Clay model is selected are:
Drained and Undrained (A).
Figure 4.15 Parameters tabsheet for the Modied Cam-Clay model (drained behaviour)
: Cam-Clay compression index [-]
: Cam-Clay swelling index [-]
: Poissons ratio [-]
e
init
: Initial void ratio for loading/unloading [-]
M : Tangent of the critical state line [-]
K
nc
0
derived from M. The relationship between M and K
nc
0
is given in Section 9.7 of the Material Models Manual
[-]
NGI-ADP model (NGI-ADP): The NGI-ADP model may be used for capacity,
deformation and soil-structure interaction analysis involving undrained loading of clay.
The Parameters tabsheet for the NGI-ADP model is shown in Figure 4.16.
Hint: Optional drainage types when NGI-ADP model is selected are: Drained,
Undrained (B) and Undrained (C).
In the case of Undrained (B) drainage type, the same parameters are used
G
ur
/s
A
u
: Ratio unloading/reloading shear modulus over (plane
strain) active shear strength
[-]
C
f
: Shear strain in triaxial compression (|
C
f
= 3/2
C
1
|) [%]
E
f
: Shear strain in triaxial extension [%]
DSS
f
: Shear strain in direct simple shear [%]
REFERENCE MANUAL
Figure 4.16 Parameters tabsheet for the NGI-ADP model
s
A,ref
u
: Reference (plane strain) active shear strength [kN/m
2
/m]
s
C,TX
u
/s
A
u
: Ratio triaxial compressive shear strength over (plane
strain) active shear strength (default = 0.99)
[-]
y
ref
: Reference depth [m]
s
A
u,inc
: Increase of shear strength with depth [kN/m
2
/m]
s
P
u
/s
A
u
: Ratio of (plane strain) passive shear strength over
(plane strain) active shear strength
[-]
0
/s
A
u
: Initial mobilization (default = 0.7) [-]
s
DSS
u
/s
A
u
: Ratio of direct simple shear strength over (plain strain)
active shear strength
[-]
Advanced parameters:
u
: Undrained Poisson's ratio [-]
Hoek-Brown model (HB): The Parameters tabsheet for the Hoek-Brown model is
Hint: Optional drainage types when Hoek-Brown model is selected are: Drained
and Non-porous.
In the case of Non-porous drainage type, the same parameters are used as
for drained behaviour.
Figure 4.17 Parameters tabsheet for the Hoek-Brown model (drained behaviour)
The stiffness parameters of the Hoek-Brown model are:
E : Young's modulus [kN/m
2
]
: Poisson's ratio [-]
The Hoek-Brown parameters are:
ci
: Uniaxial compressive strength [kN/m
2
]
m
i
: Material constant for the intact rock [-]
GSI : Geological Strength Index [-]
D : Disturbance factor which depends on the degree of
disturbance to which the rock mass has been
subjected.
[-]
max
: Dilatancy at zero stress level [
: Stress level at which dilatancy is fully suppressed [
]
Sekiguchi-Ohta model (Inviscid): The Parameters tabsheet for the Sekiguchi-Ohta
model (Inviscid) is shown in Figure 4.18.
Hint: Optional drainage types when Sekiguchi-Ohta model (Inviscid) is selected
are: Drained and Undrained (A).
The stiffness parameters of the Sekiguchi-Ohta model (Inviscid) are:

REFERENCE MANUAL
Figure 4.18 Parameters tabsheet for the Sekiguchi-Ohta model (drained behaviour)
C
c
C
s
e
init
ur
: Poisson's ratio for unloading-reloading [-]
K
nc
0
: Coefcient of lateral stress in normal consolidation [-]
Sekiguchi-Ohta model (Viscid): The Parameters tabsheet for the Sekiguchi-Ohta
model (Viscid) is shown in Figure 4.19.
Hint: Optional drainage types when Sekiguchi-Ohta model (Viscid) is selected are:
Drained and Undrained (A).
The stiffness parameters of the Sekiguchi-Ohta model (Viscid) are:
: Coefcient of secondary compression [-]

dot v
0
: Initial volumetric strain rate [day
1
]
Figure 4.19 Parameters tabsheet for the Sekiguchi-Ohta model (Viscid) (drained behaviour)
C
c
C
s
C
: Secondary compression index [-]

e
init
ur
: Poisson's ratio for unloading-reloading [-]
K
nc
0
: Coefcient of lateral stress in normal consolidation [-]
User-dened soil models (UDSM): The Parameters tabsheet shows two drop-down
menus; the top combo box lists all the DLLs that contain valid User-dened soil models
and the next combo box shows the models dened in the selected DLL. Each UD model
has its own set of model parameters, dened in the same DLL that contains the model
denition.
When an available model is chosen PLAXIS will automatically read its parameter names
and units from the DLL and ll the parameter table below. For a detailed description of
this facility, reference is made to the Material Models Manual.
REFERENCE MANUAL
Hint: Available drainage types when User-dened soil models is selected are:
Drained, Undrained (A) and Non-porous.
Advanced parameters for Undrained behaviour
The advanced parameters available in the Parameters tabsheet can be used to model the
Undrained behaviour of soils. The advanced parameters for the Undrained behaviour
are:
Skempton-B : A measure of how the applied stress is distributed
between the skeletal framework and the uid
[-]
u
: Undrained Poisson's ratio [-]
K
w,ref
/n : The corresponding reference bulk stiffness of the
pore uid
[kN/m
2
]
A more detailed information is available in Section 2.4 of the Material Models Manual.
4.1.3 FLOW PARAMETERS TABSHEET
The ow parameters are dened in the corresponding tabsheet of the Soil window.
The ow parameters involve the (saturated) permeability as well as the models and
parameters for ow in the unsaturated zone. These parameters dene the relationship
between the degree of saturation S and the suction height as well as the relative
permeability K
r
and the suction height . In order to enable an easy selection of the
unsaturated ow parameters, predened data sets are available for common soil types.
These data sets can be selected based on standardized soil classication systems.
Hint: Although the predened data sets have been created for the convenience of
the user, the user remains at all times responsible for the model parameters
that he/she uses. Note that these predened data sets have limited accuracy.
Hydraulic data sets and models
The program provides different data sets and models to model the ow in the saturated
zone in soil. The data sets available in the program are:
Standard: This option allows for a simplied selection of the most common soil types
(Coarse, Medium, Medium ne, Fine and Very ne non-organic materials and Organic
material) and is based on the Hypres topsoil classication series.
The only model available for this data set is Van Genuchten (see Section 16.1 of the
Material Models Manual).
When one of the soil type options is selected, the particle fractions are automatically
dened and the soil type is indicated in the soil texture triangle (Figure 4.20). The particle
fractions can also be dened by clicking on the corresponding location in the soil texture
triangle or by directly typing the values.
Figure 4.20 Flow parameters for Standard data set
Hypres: The Hypres series is an international soil classication system. The hydraulic
models available for Hypres data set are the Van Genuchten model and the Approximate
Van Genuchten (see Sections 16.1 and 16.2 of the Material Models Manual).
A distinction can be made between Topsoil and Subsoil. In general, soils are considered
to be subsoils. The Type drop-down menu for the Hypres data set includes Coarse,
Medium, Medium ne, Fine, Very ne and Organic soils.
Hint: Only soil layers that are located not more than 1 m below the ground surface
are considered to be Upper soils.
The selected soil type and grading (particle fractions) is indicated in the soil texture
triangle. As an alternative, the user can also select the type of soil by clicking one of the
sections in the triangle or by manually specifying the particle fraction values (Figure 4.21).
Figure 4.21 Flow parameters for Hypres data set
REFERENCE MANUAL
The predened parameters for both the Van Genuchten model as well as the
Approximate Van Genuchten model are shown in Table 4.1 and 4.2.
Table 4.1 Hypres series with Van Genuchten parameters
r
(-)
s
(-) K
sat
(m/day) g
a
(1/m) g
l
(-) g
n
(-)
Topsoil :
coarse 0.025 0.403 0.600 3.83 1.2500 1.3774
medium 0.010 0.439 0.121 3.14 -2.3421 1.1804
medium ne 0.010 0.430 0.0227 0.83 -0.5884 1.2539
ne 0.010 0.520 0.248 3.67 -1.9772 1.1012
very ne 0.010 0.614 0.150 2.65 2.5000 1.1033
Subsoil :
coarse 0.025 0.366 0.700 4.30 1.2500 1.5206
medium 0.010 0.392 0.108 2.49 -0.7437 1.1689
medium ne 0.010 0.412 0.0400 0.82 0.5000 1.2179
ne 0.010 0.481 0.0850 1.98 -3.7124 1.0861
very ne 0.010 0.538 0.0823 1.68 0.0001 1.0730
organic 0.010 0.766 0.0800 1.30 0.4000 1.2039
Table 4.2 Hypres series with Approximate Van Genuchten parameters
s
(m)
k
(m)
Topsoil :
coarse -2.37 -1.06
medium -4.66 -0.50
medium ne -8.98 -1.20
ne -7.12 -0.50
very ne -8.31 -0.73
Subsoil :
coarse -1.82 -1.00
medium -5.60 -0.50
medium ne -10.15 -1.73
ne -11.66 -0.50
very ne -15.06 -0.50
organic -7.35 -0.97
USDA: The USDA series is another international soil classication system. The
hydraulic models available for USDA data set are the Van Genuchten model and the
Approximate Van Genuchten (see Sections 16.1 and 16.2 of the Material Models
Manual).
The Type drop-down menu for the USDA date set includes Sand, Loamy sand, Sandy
loam, Loam, Silt, Silt loam, Sandy clay loam, Clay loam, Silty clay loam, Sandy clay, Silty
clay and Clay. The selected soil type and grading (particle fractions) are different from
the Hypres data sets and can be visualised in the soil texture triangle. As an alternative,
the user can also select the type of soil by clicking one of the sections in the triangle or by
manually specifying the particle fraction values (Figure 4.22).
The parameters for the Van Genuchten and the Approximate Van Genuchten models are
shown in Table 4.3 and 4.4.
Figure 4.22 Flow parameters for USDA data set
Table 4.3 USDA series with Van Genuchten parameters (g
l
= 0.5 for all sets)
r
(-)
s
(-) K
sat
(m/day) g
a
(1/m) g
n
(-)
sand 0.045 0.430 7.13 14.5 2.68
loamy sand 0.057 0.410 3.50 12.4 2.28
sandy loam 0.065 0.410 1.06 7.5 1.89
loam 0.078 0.430 0.250 3.6 1.56
silt 0.034 0.460 0.600 1.6 1.37
silty loam 0.067 0.450 0.108 2.0 1.41
sandy clay loam 0.100 0.390 0.314 5.9 1.48
clayey loam 0.095 0.410 0.624 1.9 1.31
silty clayey loam 0.089 0.430 0.168 1.0 1.23
sandy clay 0.100 0.380 0.288 2.7 1.23
silty clay 0.070 0.360 0.00475 0.5 1.09
clay 0.068 0.380 0.0475 0.8 1.09
Table 4.4 USDA series with Approximate Van Genuchten parameters
s
(m)
k
(m)
sand -1.01 -0.50
loamy sand -1.04 -0.50
sandy loam -1.20 -0.50
loam -1.87 -0.60
silt -4.00 -1.22
silty loam -3.18 -1.02
sandy clay loam -1.72 -0.50
clayey loam -4.05 -0.95
silty clayey loam -8.23 -1.48
sandy clay -4.14 -0.55
silty clay -31.95 -0.95
clay -21.42 -0.60
Staring: The Staring series is a soil classication system which is mainly used in The
Netherlands. The hydraulic models available for Staring data set are the Van Genuchten
model and the Approximate Van Genuchten (see Sections 16.1 and 16.2 of the Material
Models Manual).
REFERENCE MANUAL
Figure 4.23 Flow parameters for Staring data set
A distinction can be made between Topsoil and Subsoil. In general, soils are considered
to be subsoils. The Type drop-down menu for the Staring series (Figure 4.23) contains
the following subsoils: Non-loamy sand (O1), Loamy sand (O2), Very loamy sand (O3),
Extremely loamy sand (O4), Coarse sand (O5), Boulder clay (O6), River loam (O7),
Sandy loam (O8), Silt loam (O9), Clayey loam (O10), Light clay (O11), Heavy clay (O12),
Very heavy clay (O13), Loam (O14), Heavy loam (O15), Oligotrophic peat (O16),
Eutrophic peat (O17) and Peaty layer (O18), and the following topsoils: Non-loamy sand
(B1), Loamy sand (B2), Very loamy sand (B3), Extremely loamy sand (B4), Coarse sand
(B5), Boulder clay (B6), Sandy loam (B7), Silt loam (B8), Clayey loam (B9), Light clay
(B10), Heavy clay (B11), Very heavy clay (B12), Loam (B13), Heavy loam (B14), Peaty
sand (B15), Sandy peat (B16), Peaty clay (B17) and Clayey peat (B18). The selected soil
type and grading (particle fractions) are different from the Hypres and the USDA data
sets. The parameters of the hydraulic model for the selected soil type are displayed in the
Soil tab at the right side of the Flow parameters tabsheet.
Hint: Only soil layers that are located not more than 1 m below the ground surface
are considered to be Upper soils.
User dened: The User dened option enables the user to dene both saturated and
unsaturated properties manually. Please note that this option requires adequate
experience with unsaturated groundwater ow modelling. The hydraulic models available
are:
Van Genuchten This well-known and widely accepted model requires direct input
of the residual saturation S
res
, the saturation at p = 0 S
sat
and
the three tting parameters g
n
, g
a
and g
l
(see Section 16.1 in the
Material Models Manual).
Spline The Spline function requires direct input of the capillary height
(in unit of length), the relative permeability K
r
(-), and the degree
of saturation S
r
(-). Data for the Spline function can be entered
by clicking the Table tab. During the calculations, PlaxFlow will
use 'smooth' relationships based on a spline function between
the relative permeability and the capillary height and also
between the relative saturation and the capillary height.
Saturated When the Saturated option is selected, no extra data input is
required. During the calculations, PlaxFlow will continuously use
the saturated permeabilities for soil layers where a Saturated
data set was assigned.
Figure 4.24 Flow parameters for User dened data set
Permeabilities (k
x
and k
y
)
Permeabilities have the dimension of discharge per area, which simplies to unit of length
per unit of time. This is also known as the coefcient of permeability. The input of
permeability parameters is required for consolidation analyses and groundwater ow.
For those types of calculations, it is necessary to specify permeabilities for all clusters,
including almost impermeable layers that are considered to be fully impervious. PLAXIS
2D distinguishes between a horizontal permeability, k
x
, and a vertical permeability, k
y
,
since in some types of soil (for example peat) there can be a signicant difference
between horizontal and vertical permeability.
In real soils, the difference in permeabilities between the various layers can be quite
large. However, care should be taken when very high and very low permeabilities occur
simultaneously in a nite element model, as this could lead to ill-conditioning of the ow
matrix. In order to obtain accurate results, the ratio between the highest and lowest
permeability value in the geometry should not exceed 10
5
.
Note that the input eld for permeabilities are greyed out when the Non-porous option is
selected.
One of the advanced features is to account for the change of permeability during a
consolidation analysis. This can be applied by entering a proper value for the change of
permeability parameter c
k
and the void ratio's e
init
, e
min
and e
max
in the General tabsheet
of the Soil window.
In case of a Standard, Hypres, USDA or Staring data set default values for the
REFERENCE MANUAL
permeability can be automatically set by selecting the Set to default values option. These
values can be modied by unselecting the Set to default values option.
Unsaturated zone (
unsat
)
unsat
(in unit of length relative to the phreatic level) sets the maximum pressure head
until which the Mualem-Van Genuchten functions are used for calculation of relative
permeability and degree of saturation. The negative sign indicates suction. Above the
level of
unsat
, the value of K
r
and S remain constant. In this way a minimum degree of
saturation (S
min
) is guaranteed (Figure 4.25). It is used to limit the relative permeability
K
r
and degree of saturations for high unsaturated zones.
Figure 4.25 Relative permeability vs. Degree of saturation
By default a very large value is assigned to
unsat
(= 10
4
). This value is only an indication
that the unsaturated zone is by default unlimited.
Change of permeability (c
k
): This advanced feature is to account for the change of
permeability during a consolidation analysis. This can be applied by entering a proper
value for the c
k
parameter and the void ratio's. On entering a real value, the permeability
will change according to the formula:
log
_
k
k
0
_
=
e
c
k
where e is the change in void ratio, k is the permeability in the calculation and k
0
is the
input value of the permeability in the data set (= k
x
and k
y
). Note that a proper input of
the initial void ratio e
init
, in the General tabsheet is required. It is recommended to use a
changing permeability only in combination with the Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil
model with small-strain stiffness , Soft Soil model or the Soft Soil Creep model. In that
case the c
k
-value is generally in the order of the compression index C
c
. For all other
models the c
k
-value should be left to its default value of 10
15
.
4.1.4 INTERFACES TABSHEET
The properties of interface elements are related to the soil model parameters of the
surrounding soil. The required parameters to derive the interface properties are dened
in the Interfaces tabsheet of the Soil window. These parameters depend on the material
model selected to represent the behaviour of the surrounding soil. In case the Linear
Elastic model, the Mohr-Coulomb model, the Hardening Soil model, the HS small model,
the Soft Soil model, the Soft Soil Creep model, the Jointed Rock model, the Hoek-Brown
model or the NGI-ADP model has been selected as the Material model, the strength
reduction factor R
inter
is the main interface parameter (see Figure 4.26). In case of the
Modied Cam-Clay model, the interface parameters required are the effective cohesion
c'
ref
, the effective friction angle ' and the dilatancy angle '. In case of the User-dened
soil models, the tangent stiffness for primary oedometer loading E
ref
oed
, the effective
cohesion c'
ref
, the effective friction angle ', the dilatancy angle ' and the parameters
UD-Power and UD-P
ref
are required as interface parameters. For more information on the
interface parameters required for the User-dened soil models, see Section 14.3 in
Material Models Manual.
Figure 4.26 Interfaces tabsheet of the Soil window
Interface strength
In case of the Linear Elastic model, the Mohr-Coulomb model, the Hardening Soil model,
the HS small model, the Soft Soil model, the Soft Soil Creep model, the Jointed Rock
model, the Hoek-Brown model or the NGI-ADP model, the interface strength is dened by
the parameter R
inter
. The interface strength can be set using the following options:
Rigid: This option is used when the interface should not have a reduced strength with
respect to the strength in the surrounding soil. For example, extended interfaces around
corners of structural objects (Figure 3.20) are not intended for soil-structure interaction
and should not have reduced strength properties. The strength of these interfaces should
be assigned as Rigid (which corresponds to R
inter
= 1.0). As a result, the interface
properties, including the dilatancy angle
i
, are the same as the soil properties in the
data set, except for Poisson's ratio
i
(see further).
Manual: The value of R
inter
can be entered manually if the interface strength is set to
Manual. In general, for real soil-structure interaction the interface is weaker and more
exible than the surrounding soil, which means that the value of R
inter
should be less than
1. Suitable values for R
inter
for the case of the interaction between various types of soil
REFERENCE MANUAL
and structures in the soil can be found in the literature. In the absence of detailed
information it may be assumed that R
inter
is of the order of 2/3. A value of R
inter
greater
than 1 would not normally be used.
When the interface is elastic then both slipping (relative movement parallel to the
interface) and gapping or overlapping (i.e. relative displacements perpendicular to the
interface) could be expected to occur. The magnitudes of the interface displacements
are:
Elastic gap displacement =

K
N
=
ti
Eoed,i
Elastic slip displacement =

Ks
=
ti
Gi
where G
i
is the shear modulus of the interface, E
oed,i
is the one-dimensional
compression modulus of the interface, t
i
is the virtual thickness of the interface generated
during the creation of interfaces in the geometry model (Section 3.4.5), K
N
is the elastic
interface normal stiffness and K
S
is the elastic interface shear stiffness.
The shear and compression moduli are related by the expressions:
E
oed,i
= 2
Gi
1
i
1 2
i
G
i
= R
2
inter
G
soil
G
soil
i
= 0.45
Hint: Note that a reduced value of R
inter
not only reduces the interface strength,
but also the interface stiffness.
It is clear from these equations that, if the elastic parameters are set to low values, the
elastic displacements may be excessively large. If the values of the elastic parameters
are too large, however, this can result in numerical ill-conditioning of the stiffness matrix.
The key factor in the stiffness is the virtual thickness. This value is automatically chosen
such that an adequate stiffness is obtained. The user may change the virtual thickness.
This can be done in the Interface window that appears after double clicking an interface
in the geometry model (Section 3.4.5).
Manual with residual strength: When the limit value of the interface strength as
dened by R
inter
is reached, the interface strength may soften down to a reduced value
as dened by R
inter ,residual
. Denition of the R
inter ,residual
is possible when the Manual with
residual strength option is selected for the interface strength.
Interface strength (R
inter
): An elastic-plastic model is used to describe the behaviour of
interfaces for the modelling of soil-structure interaction. The Coulomb criterion is used to
distinguish between elastic behaviour, where small displacements can occur within the
interface, and plastic interface behaviour when permanent slip may occur. For the
interface to remain elastic the shear stress is given by:
||<
n
tan
i
+ c
i
where
n
is the effective normal stress.
For plastic behaviour is given by:
||=
n
tan
i
+ c
i
where
i
and c
i
are the friction angle and cohesion (adhesion) of the interface. The
strength properties of interfaces are linked to the strength properties of a soil layer. Each
data set has an associated strength reduction factor for interfaces R
inter
. The interface
properties are calculated from the soil properties in the associated data set and the
strength reduction factor by applying the following rules:
c
i
= R
inter
c
soil
tan
i
= R
inter
tan
soil
tan
soil
i
= 0 for R
inter
< 1, otherwise
i
=
soil
In addition to Coulomb's shear stress criterion, the tension cut-off criterion, as described
before (see Section 4.1.2), also applies to interfaces (if not deactivated):
n
<
t ,i
= R
inter
t ,soil
where
t ,soil
is the tensile strength of the soil.
Residual interface strength (R
inter ,residual
): When the Manual with residual strength
option is selected the parameter R
inter ,residual
can be specied. The interface strength will
reduce to the residual strength as dened by (R
inter ,residual
) and the strength properties of
the soil, as soon as the interface strength is reached.
Hint: Note that the same values of the Design Approach factors are applied to both
interface strength R
inter
and residual interface strength R
inter ,residual
.
Consider gap closure: When the interface tensile strength is reached a gap may occur
between the structure and the soil. When the load is reversed, the contact between the
structure and the soil needs to be restored before a compressive stress can developed.
This is achieved by selecting the Consider gap closure option in the Interfaces tabsheet
of the Soil window. If the option is NOT selected, contact stresses will immediately
develop upon load reversal, which may not be realistic.
Interfaces using the Hoek-Brown model: When using the Hoek-Brown model as a
continuum model to describe the behaviour of a rock section in which interface elements
are used, equivalent interface strength properties
i
, c
i
and
t ,i
are derived from this
model. The general shear strength criterion for interfaces as well as the tensile strength
criterion are still used in this case:
REFERENCE MANUAL
||
n
tan
i
+ c
i
n

t ,i
Starting point for the calculation of the interface strength properties is the minor principal
effective stress '
3
in the adjacent continuum element. At this value of conning stress
the tangent to the Hoek-Brown contour is calculated and expressed in terms of and c:
sin =
f '
2 + f '
c =
1 sin
2 cos
_
f +
2'
3
sin
1 sin
_
where
f =
ci
_
m
b
'
3
ci
+ c
_
a
f ' = am
b
_
m
b
'
3
ci
+ s
_
a1
and a, m
b
, s and c
i
are the Hoek-Brown model parameters in the corresponding material
data set. The interface friction angle '
i
and adhesion c'
i
as well as the interface tensile
strength
t ,i
are now calculated using the interface strength reduction factor R
inter
:
tan
i
= R
inter
c
c
i
= R
inter
c
t ,i
= R
inter
t
= R
inter
s
ci
m
b
For more information about the Hoek-Brown model and an explanation of its parameters,
reference is made to Chapter 4 of the Material Models Manual.
Interfaces using the Modied Cam-Clay model: If the Modied Cam-Clay model is
selected in the Parameters tabsheet to describe the behaviour of the surrounding soil, the
following parameters are required to model the interface behaviour:
c
ref
: Cohesion of the interface [kN/m
2
]
i
: Internal friction angle of the interface [
i
: Dilatancy angle of the interface [
]
When the interface is elastic then both slipping (relative movement parallel to the
interface) and gapping or overlapping (i.e. relative displacements perpendicular to the
interface) could be expected to occur.
The magnitudes of these displacements are:
Elastic gap displacement =

K
N
=
ti
Eoed,i
Elastic slip displacement =

Ks
=
ti
Gi
where G
i
is the shear modulus of the interface, E
oed,i
is the one-dimensional
compression modulus of the interface and t
i
is the virtual thickness of the interface,
generated during the creation of interfaces in the geometry model (Section 3.4.5). K
N
is
the elastic interface normal stiffness and K
S
is the elastic interface shear stiffness. The
shear and compression moduli are related by the expressions:
E
oed,i
=
3
(1
i
)
(1 +
i
)
n
(1 + e
0
)
G
i
=
3(1 2
i
)
2(1 +
i
)
n
(1 + e
0
)
i
= 0.45
Real interface thickness (
inter
)
The real interface thickness
inter
is a parameter that represents the real thickness of a
shear zone between a structure and the soil. The value of
inter
is only of importance
when interfaces are used in combination with the Hardening Soil model. The real
interface thickness is expressed in the unit of length and is generally of the order of a few
times the average grain size. This parameter is used to calculate the change in void ratio
in interfaces for the dilatancy cut-off option. The dilatancy cut-off in interfaces can be of
importance, for example, to calculate the correct bearing capacity of tension piles.
Interfaces below or around corners of structures
When interfaces are extended below or around corners of structures to avoid stress
oscillations (Section 3.4.5), these extended interfaces are not meant to model
soil-structure interaction behaviour, but just to allow for sufcient exibility. Hence, when
using R
inter
< 1 for these interface elements an unrealistic strength reduction is
introduced in the ground, which may lead to unrealistic soil behaviour or even failure.
Therefore it is advised to create a separate data set with R
inter
= 1 and to assign this data
set only to these particular interface elements. This can be done by dropping the
appropriate data set on the individual interfaces (dashed lines) rather than dropping it on
the associated soil cluster (the dashed lines should blink red; the associated soil cluster
may not change colour). Alternatively, you can click the right-hand mouse button on
these particular interface elements and select Properties and subsequently Positive
interface element or Negative interface element. In the Interface window, select the
appropriate material set in the Material set drop-down menu and click the OK button.
Interface permeability
Interfaces do not have a permeability assigned to them, but they are, by default, fully
impermeable. In this way interfaces may be used to block the ow perpendicular to the
interface in a consolidation analysis or a groundwater ow calculation, for example to
simulate the presence of an impermeable screen. This is achieved by a full separation of
the pore pressure degrees-of-freedom of the interface node pairs. On the other hand, if
interfaces are present in the mesh it may be the user's intension to explicitly avoid any
REFERENCE MANUAL
inuence of the interface on the ow and the distribution of (excess) pore pressures, for
example in interfaces around corner points of structures (Section 3.4.5). In such a case
the interface should be de-activated in the water conditions mode. This can be done
separately for a consolidation analysis and a groundwater ow calculation. For inactive
interfaces the pore pressure degrees-of-freedom of the interface node pairs are fully
coupled.
In conclusion:
An active interface is fully impermeable (separation of pore pressure
degrees-of-freedom of node pairs).
An inactive interface is fully permeable (coupling of pore pressure
4.1.5 INITIAL TABSHEET
The Initial tabsheet contains parameters to generate the initial stresses by means of the
K0 procedure (Figure 4.27).
Figure 4.27 Soil window (Initial tabsheet of the Mohr-Coulomb model)
The K
0
-value can be dened automatically by selecting the option Automatic in the K
0
determination drop-down menu or manually by selecting the option Manual.
K
0
-values
In general, only one K
0
-value can be specied:
K
0,x
= '
xx
/'
yy
K
0,z
= '
zz
/'
yy
= K
0,x
The default K
0
-value is then in principal based on Jaky's formula:
K
0
= 1 sin
For advanced models (Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with small-strain
stiffness, Soft Soil model, Soft Soil Creep model, Modied Cam-Clay model) the default
value is based on the K
nc
0
model parameter and is also inuenced by the OCR-value and
POP-value in the following way:
K
0,x
= K
nc
0
OCR

ur
1
ur
(OCR 1) +
K
nc
0
POP

ur
1
ur
POP
0
yy
The POP-value will result in a stress-dependent K

0
-value within the layers resulting in
invisible K
0
-values.
Be careful with very low or very high K
0
-values, since these values might bring the initial
stress in a state of failure. For a cohesionless material it can easily be shown that to
avoid failure, the value of K
0
is bounded by:
1 sin
1 + sin
< K
0
<
1 + sin
1 sin
OCR and POP
When using advanced models (Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with
small-strain stiffness, Soft Soil model, Soft Soil Creep model, Modied Cam-Clay model,
Sekiguchi-Ohta model) an initial pre-consolidation stress has to be determined. In the
engineering practice it is common to use a vertical pre-consolidation stress,
p
, but
PLAXIS needs an equivalent isotropic pre-consolidation stress, p
eq
p
to determine the
initial position of a cap-type yield surface. If a material is over-consolidated, information is
required about the Over-Consolidation Ratio (OCR), i.e. the ratio of the greatest effective
vertical stress previously reached,
p
(see Figure 4.28), and the in-situ effective vertical
stress, '
0
yy
.
OCR =

p
'
0
yy
(4.6)
=
'
0
yy
'
0
yy
p
OCR
a. Using OCR
'
0
yy

p
POP
b. Using POP
Figure 4.28 Illustration of vertical pre-consolidation stress in relation to the in-situ vertical effective
stress
It is also possible to specify the initial stress state using the Pre-Overburden Pressure
(POP) as an alternative to prescribing the over-consolidation ratio. The Pre-Overburden
Pressure is dened by:
POP = |
p
'
0
yy
| (4.7)
REFERENCE MANUAL
These two ways of specifying the vertical pre-consolidation stress are illustrated in Figure
4.28.
The pre-consolidation stress
p
is used to compute p
eq
p
which determines the initial
position of a cap-type yield surface in the advanced soil models. The calculation of p
eq
p
is
based on the stress state:
'
1
=
p
and: '
2
= '
3
= K
nc
0

p
(4.8)
where
K
nc
0
is the
K0
-value associated with normally consolidated states of stress, which
is based on Jaky's formula,
K
nc
0
1 sin, or it is a direct input parameter for the
advanced soil models.
4.2 MODELLING UNDRAINED BEHAVIOUR
In undrained conditions, no water movement takes place. As a result, excess pore
pressures are built up. Undrained analysis is appropriate when:
Permeability is low or rate of loading is high.
Short term behaviour has to be asses
Different modelling schemes are possible in PLAXIS to model undrained soil behaviour.
These methods are described here briey. More details about these methods are give in
Section 2.4 to 2.7 of the Material Models Manual.
Hint: The modelling of undrained soil behaviour is even more complicated than the
modelling of drained behaviour. Therefore, the user is advised to take the
utmost care with the modelling of undrained soil behaviour.
Undrained effective stress analysis with effective stiffness parameters
A change in total mean stress in an undrained material during a Plastic calculation phase
gives rise to excess pore pressures. PLAXIS differentiates between steady-state pore
pressures and excess pore pressures, the latter generated due to small volumetric strain
occurring during plastic calculations and assuming a low (but non zero) compressibility of
the pore water. This enables the determination of effective stresses during undrained
plastic calculations and allows undrained calculations to be performed with effective
stiffness parameters. This option to model undrained material behaviour based on
effective stiffness parameters is available for all material models in the PLAXIS. The
undrained calculations can be executed with effective stiffness parameters, with explicit
distinction between effective stresses and (excess) pore pressures.
Undrained effective stress analysis with effective strength parameters
Undrained effective stress analysis can be used in combination with effective strength
parameters ' and c' to model the material's undrained shear strength. In this case, the
development of the pore pressure plays a crucial role in providing the right effective
stress path that leads to failure at a realistic value of undrained shear strength (c
u
or s
u
).
However, note that most soil models are not capable of providing the right effective stress
path in undrained loading. As a result, they will produce the wrong undrained shear
strength if the material strength has been specied on the basis of effective strength
parameters. Another problem is that for undrained materials effective strength
parameters are usually not available from soil investigation data.
The advantage of using effective strength parameters in undrained loading conditions is
that after consolidation a qualitatively increased shear strength is obtained, although this
increased shear strength could also be quantitatively wrong, for the same reason as
explained before.
Undrained effective stress analysis with undrained strength parameters
Especially for soft soils, effective strength parameters are not always available, and one
has to deal with measured undrained shear strength (c
u
or s
u
) as obtained from
undrained tests. Undrained shear strength, however, cannot easily be used to determine
the effective strength parameters ' and c'. Moreover, even if one would have proper
effective strength parameters, care has to be taken as to whether these effective strength
parameters will provide the correct undrained shear strength in the analysis. This is
because the effective stress path that is followed in an undrained analysis may not be the
same as in reality, due to the limitations of the applied soil model.
In order to enable a direct control on the shear strength, PLAXIS allows for an undrained
effective stress analysis with direct input of the undrained shear strength (Undrained (B)).
4.2.1 UNDRAINED (A)
The Drainage type Undrained (A) enables modelling undrained behaviour using effective
parameters for stiffness and strength. The characteristic features of method Undrained
(A) are:
The undrained calculation is performed as an effective stress analysis. Effective
stiffness and effective strength parameters are used.
Pore pressures are generated, but may be inaccurate, depending on the selected
model and parameters.
Undrained shear strength s
u
is not an input parameter but an outcome of the
constitutive model. The resulting shear strength must be checked against known
data.
Consolidation analysis can be performed after the undrained calculation, which
affect the shear strength.
Undrained (A) drainage type is available for the following models: Linear Elastic model,
Mohr-Coulomb model, Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with small-strain
stiffness, Soft Soil model, Soft Soil Creep model, Modied Cam-Clay model and
User-dened soil models.
4.2.2 UNDRAINED (B)
The Drainage type Undrained (B) enables modelling undrained behaviour using effective
parameters for stiffness and undrained strength parameters. The characteristic features
of method Undrained (B) are:
REFERENCE MANUAL
The undrained calculation is performed as an effective stress analysis.
Effective stiffness parameters and undrained strength parameters are used.
Pore pressures are generated, but may be highly inaccurate.
u
Consolidation analysis should not be performed after the undrained calculation. If
consolidation analysis is performed anyway, s
u
must be updated.
Undrained (B) drainage type is available for the following models: Mohr-Coulomb model,
Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness and NGI-ADP
model. Note that when using Undrained (B) in the Hardening Soil model or Hardening
Soil model with small-strain stiffness, the stiffness moduli in the model are no longer
stress-dependent and the model exhibits no compression hardening.
4.2.3 UNDRAINED (C)
The Drainage type Undrained (C) enables simulation of undrained behaviour using a total
stress analysis with undrained parameters. In that case, stiffness is modelled using an
undrained Young's modulus E
u
and an undrained Poisson ratio
u
, and strength is
modelled using an undrained shear strength c
u
(s
u
) and =
u
= 0. Typically, for the
undrained Poisson ratio a value close to 0.5 is selected (between 0.495 and 0.499). A
value of exactly 0.5 is not possible, since this would lead to singularity of the stiffness
matrix. The disadvantage of this approach is that no distinction is made between effective
stresses and pore pressures. Hence, all output referring to effective stresses should now
be interpreted as total stresses and all pore pressures are equal to zero. Note that a
direct input of undrained shear strength does not automatically give the increase of shear
strength with consolidation. The characteristic features of method Undrained (C) are:
The undrained calculation is performed as a total stress analysis.
Undrained stiffness parameters and undrained strength parameters are used.
Pore pressures are not generated.
u
Consolidation analysis has no effect and should not be performed. If consolidation
analysis is performed anyway, s
u
must be updated.
Undrained (C) drainage type is available for the following models: Linear Elastic model,
Mohr-Coulomb model and NGI-ADP model.
Hint: For Undrained (B) and Undrained (C) an increased shear strength with depth
can be modelled using the advanced parameter s
u,inc
.
4.3 SIMULATION OF SOIL TESTS
The SoilTest option is a quick and convenient procedure to simulate basic soil tests on
the basis of a single point algorithm, i.e. without the need to create a complete nite
element model. This option can be used to compare the behaviour as dened by the soil
model and the parameters of a soil data set with the results of laboratory test data
obtained from a site investigation. It also offers the possibility to optimise model
parameters such that a best t is obtained between the model results and the lab test
data. The SoilTest facility works for any soil model, both standard soil models as well as
user-dened models.
The SoilTest option is available from the Material sets window if a soil data set is selected
(see Figure 4.29). Alternatively, the SoilTest option can be reached from the Soil dialog.
Figure 4.29 Material sets window showing the project and the global database
Once the SoilTest option has been selected, a separate window will open (Figure 4.30).
This window contains a menu, a toolbar and several smaller sections. The various items
are described in more detail below.
Figure 4.30 SoilTest window showing drained triaxial test input
REFERENCE MANUAL
Main menu
The menus available in the menu bar are:
File To open, save and close a soil test data le (*.vlt).
Test To select the test that will be simulated. The options available
are Triaxial, Oedometer, CRS, DSS (Simple Shear) and General.
Results To select the conguration of diagrams to display.
Toolbar
The toolbar allows for loading, saving and running of soil test results and opening the
PLAXIS SoilTest - Settings window to set the conguration of the results. It also contains
the parameter optimisation feature (Section 4.3.7).
Material properties
The Material properties box displays the name, material model and parameters of the
currently selected data set. Transferring of material parameters to and from the material
database is possible. To copy the modied parameters to the material database:
Click the Copy material button in the Material properties box.
In the program open the Material sets window and either select the corresponding
material set or click New.
In the Soil window click Paste material button. The parameters will be copied in the
material database. In the same way it is also possible to copy material from material
database to soil test.
Test area
The type of test and the testing conditions are dened in the test area. The test options
available are Triaxial, Oedometer, CRS, DSS and General. As one of these options is
selected by clicking the corresponding tab, the testing conditions can be dened in the
tabsheet. A more detailed description of the tests is given in the following sections.
Run
The Run button starts the currently selected test
. Once the calculation has nished, the

results will be shown in the Results window.
Test congurations
The Test congurations button can be used to add and manage different soil
congurations. A test conguration contains information about the test type and the
values of test input parameters. To save a test conguration select the Save option in the
menu displayed as the Test conguration button is clicked. The Manage option can be
used to manage the test congurations available. When the Manage option is selected,
the Manage conguration window pops up. Note that the name of the window indicates
the test to which the conguration belongs (Figure 4.31).
Although the soil test calculation kernel is a reduced version of the nite element calculation kernel, the
implementation of the soil models is identical.
Figure 4.31 Manage congurations window for triaxial tests
The name and the location of the conguration le is indicated in the Filename and Path
respectively in the Manage congurations window.
Set as default
The Set as default button saves the current input parameters as the default parameters.
These will be initialised as such the next time the SoilTest window is opened.
Loaded tests
When previously saved tests of the current type have been opened from the File menu,
the Loaded tests window lists all these tests within each tabsheet. The results of all
loaded tests are shown together with the results of the current test. The Delete button
can be used to remove the selected test from the list of loaded tests. It does not remove
the soil test le (*.vlt) from disk.
Results
The results of the test are displayed in the predened diagrams in the results area.
4.3.1 TRIAXIAL TEST
The Triaxial tabsheet contains facilities to dene different types of triaxial tests. Before
specifying the test conditions, a selection can be made between different triaxial tests
options.
Triaxial test - Options
Drained / undrained triaxial test
In the latter case, undrained soil conditions and zero drainage
are assumed (similar as when the Drainage type has been set to
Undrained (A) or Undrained (B), see Section 4.2), irrespective of
the drainage type setting in the material data set.
Triaxial compression / triaxial extension test
In the former case the axial load is increased; in the latter case
the axial load is decreased.
Isotropically consolidated / K
0
-consolidated test
In the latter case the K
0
-value (ratio of lateral stress over axial
REFERENCE MANUAL
stress) can be specied to set the initial stress state.
Triaxial test - Conditions
The following test conditions can be dened:
Initial effective stress |'
3
|
The absolute value of the isotropic cell pressure at which the
sample is consolidated, entered in units of stress. This sets the
initial stress state. In the case of a K
0
-consolidated test, this
value represents the initial lateral stress,
3
; the initial vertical
stress,
1
, is dened as
3
/K
0
.
Hint: During a laboratory consolidated undrained triaxial test (CU test) a
backpressure is applied to make sure that the sample is fully saturated. Then
the sample is consolidated by using a constant cell pressure and back
pressure. Note that the value assigned to the Initial effective stress in the
SoilTest should be the effective stress at the start of the test, which is equal
to the cell pressure minus the back pressure at the start of the test.
Maximum strain |
1
| The absolute value of the axial strain that will be reached in the
last calculation step.
Time t Time increment (only relevant for time-dependent models;
consolidation is not considered).
Number of steps The number of steps that will be used in the calculation.
|vertical precons. stress|
The vertical pre-consolidation pressure to which the soil has
been subjected. If the soil is normally consolidated this value
should be set equal to the initial stress state, i.e. zero. From the
vertical pre-consolidation stress the program calculates the
isotropic pre-consolidation stress based on the K
nc
0
loading path
(see Section 2.8 of the Material Models Manual). This option is
only available for the advanced soil models.
Mobilized relative shear strength
This option is only available for the Hardening Soil model and HS
small model to set the initial shear hardening contour. This value
must be between 0 (isotropic stress state) and 1 (failure state).
4.3.2 OEDOMETER
The Oedometer tabsheet contains facilities to dene a one-dimensional compression
(oedometer) test. The following settings can be dened:
nc
0
loading path
Phases Lists the different phases of the oedometer test. Each phase is
dened by a Duration (in units of time), a vertical Stress
increment (in units of stress) and a Number of steps. The initial
state is always assumed to be stress free. The given stress
increment will be reached at the end of the given duration in the
given number of steps. The input values can be changed by
clicking in the table. A negative stress increment implies
additional compression, whereas a positive stress increment
implies unloading or tension. If a period of constant load is
desired, enter the desired duration with a zero stress increment.
Add Adds a new phase to the end of the Phases list.
Insert Inserts a new phase before the currently selected phase.
Remove Removes the currently selected phase from the Phases list.
4.3.3 CRS
The CRS tabsheet contains facilities to dene a constant rate-of-strain compression test.
The following settings can be dened:
nc
0
loading path
small model models to set the initial shear hardening contour.
This value must be between 0 (isotropic stress state) and 1
(failure state).
Phases Lists the different phases of the CRS test. Each phase is dened
by a Duration (in units of time), a vertical Strain increment (in %)
and a Number of steps. The initial state is always assumed to be
stress free. The given strain increment will be reached at the end
of the given duration in the given number of steps. The input
values can be changed by clicking in the table. A negative strain
increment implies additional compression, whereas a positive
REFERENCE MANUAL
strain increment implies unloading or tension. If a period of zero
strain is desired, enter the desired duration with a zero strain
increment.
4.3.4 DSS
The DSS tabsheet contains facilities to dene a direct simple-shear test. Before
specifying the test conditions, a selection can be made between different test options.
DSS - Options
Drained / undrained DSS test
In the latter case, undrained soil conditions and zero drainage
are assumed (similar as when the Drainage type has been set to
Undrained (A) or Undrained (B), see Section 4.2), irrespective of
the drainage type setting in the material data set.
Isotropically consolidated / K
0
-consolidated test
In the latter case the K
0
-value (ratio of lateral stress over axial
stress) can be specied to set the initial stress state.
DSS - Conditions
should be set equal to the initial stress state or kept zero. From
the vertical pre-consolidation stress the program calculates the
nc
0
loading path
Initial stress |
yy
| The absolute value of the initial vertical stress at which the
sample is consolidated, entered in units of stress. In the case of
an isotropically consolidated test, the initial lateral stress is equal
to the initial vertical stress. In the case of a K
0
-consolidated test,
the initial lateral stress is equal to K
0
yy
.
Time t Time increment (only relevant for time-dependent models;
consolidation is not considered).
Number of steps The number of steps that will be used in the calculation.
Maximum shear strain |
xy
|
The maximum value of shear strain (entered in %) that will be
reached in the last calculation step.
4.3.5 GENERAL
The General tabsheet contains facilities to dene arbitrary stress and strain conditions.
Type of test The type of the test, whether Drained or Undrained can be
specied.
should be set equal to the initial stress state or kept zero. From
the vertical pre-consolidation stress the program calculates the
nc
0
loading path
Phases Lists the initial stress conditions and the stress/strain conditions
in the subsequent phases of the test. In the initial phase it should
be indicated for each direction whether a stress increment or a
strain increment is dened for that direction (applies to all
phases). Each phase is dened by a Duration (in units of time)
and a Number of steps, followed by the applied stress or strain
increments. The given stress or strain increment will be reached
at the end of the given duration in the given number of steps.
The input values can be changed by clicking in the table. A
negative stress or strain increment implies additional
compression, whereas a positive stress or strain increment
implies unloading or tension.
4.3.6 RESULTS
The Results window shows several predened typical diagrams to display the results of
the current test. Double-clicking one of the graphs opens the selected diagram in a larger
window (Figure 4.32). This window shows the selected diagram, the table of the data
points that are used to plot this diagram as well as the tangent and the secant values of
the plot. Note that the point to be taken into consideration for the calculation of the
tangent and the secant values can be determined by clicking on the plot. Both the
REFERENCE MANUAL
diagram and the data can be copied to the clipboard using the Copy button on the toolbar.
Figure 4.32 Results diagram
The diagram can be zoomed in or out using the mouse by rst clicking and holding the
left mouse button in the diagram area and then moving the mouse to a second location
and releasing the mouse button. Moving the mouse from the left upper corner to the right
lower corner zooms the diagram to the selected area, whereas moving the mouse from
the right lower corner to the left upper corner resets the view. The zoom action can also
be undone using the Zoom out option on the toolbar.
The wheel button of the mouse can be used for panning: click and hold the mouse wheel
down and move the diagram to the desired position. When clicking the left mouse button
on a curve in the diagram, the corresponding secant and tangent line through the
selected point are indicated by dashed lines. The corresponding secant and tangent
values are indicated below the table.
Hint: The failure line is indicated by a dashed line in the plot.
In plots where deviatoric stress q is considered, the failure line is always
shown for the compression point.
4.3.7 PARAMETER OPTIMISATION
The soil test facility can be used to optimise model parameters such that a best t is
obtained between the model results and the results of real soil lab tests. This option can
be selected from the toolbar.
Click the Parameter optimisation button in the toolbar. The Parameter optimisation
window will appear, showing different colour tabs according to the various steps to
follow in the parameter optimisation process (Figure 4.33). The rst tab (Select
parameters) is active.
Figure 4.33 Parameter optimisation window
Select parameters
The Select parameters tab shows the parameters of the selected material data set that
could participate in the optimisation process. Click on the square in front of the
parameter(s) that need(s) to be optimised (Figure 4.34). The more parameters are
selected, the more time the optimisation process will take. For the selected parameters,
minimum and maximum values need to be specied. The optimisation algorithm will
search for optimum values within this range. If the optimised value turns out to be equal
to the minimum or maximum value, it might be that the best value lies outside the
specied range.
Note that parameters may inuence only specic parts of a test. For example, when
considering a triaxial test, the initial part of the test curve is dominated by stiffness
parameters (such as E
50
), whereas the last part of the curve is dominated by strength
parameters (such as '). In order to obtain a best t the optimisation should be
performed in separate runs; one for the stiffness parameter using the initial part of the
curve and one for the strength parameter using the last part of the curve, while xing the
stiffness as the previously optimised value.
Figure 4.34 Selection of the parameters in the Select parameters tabsheet
REFERENCE MANUAL
Select curves
The Select curves tab enables selection and uploading of real soil lab test data and
corresponding test conditions. Alternatively, synthetic test data may be used in the form
of other PLAXIS soil test results. In this way it is possible to optimise, for example,
parameters of the Mohr-Coulomb model against simulated tests using the Hardening Soil
model.
Initially, the window shows a tree with the ve standard test types (Triaxial, Oedometer,
CRS, DSS and General ). For each test type, different test conditions can be dened,
which can be taken into account in the optimisation process. By default, the Current
model test is available as test conditions for each test type. The Current model test
contains the test conditions as previously dened for that test (Figure 4.35).
Figure 4.35 Selection of the test curves in the Select curves tabsheet
New test conditions can be dened by selecting the New test conguration option
from the tool bar. This will introduce Custom # under the selected test, for which the
test conditions can be dened in the right-hand panel (Figure 4.36).
Figure 4.36 Custom test denition in the Select curves tabsheet
In both cases (Current model test and Custom test) corresponding test data need
to be selected and uploaded using the Import curve option. Another possibility is to
upload test conditions together with the test data in case it is stored in the format of a
PLAXIS soil test project (<test>.vlt).
Hence, there are different ways to dene test conditions and to select the external test
data. The possibilities are summarized below:
If the test data corresponds to one of the Current model test conditions, the
corresponding line should be selected in the tree and the Import curve option should
be used to upload the test data (Figure 4.37). The test data are assumed to be
stored in a text le (<data>.txt) and should contain two columns, separated by a
Space, Tab, Comma, Colon (:), Semicolon (;) or arbitrary character. The separator is
to be indicated at the top of the Import test data window. The meaning of the values
in each column has to be selected from the drop down list below the column. Here,
a selection can be made amongst various stress and strain quantities. Moreover, the
basic units of the test data quantities need to be selected from the drop down lists in
the Units group. By pressing OK the data is read and visualised in a diagram, and
the curve is listed in the tree under the Current model (test) conditions.
Figure 4.37 Import test data window
If the test data corresponds to other than one of the current model test conditions,
rst new Custom test conditions need to be dened. Select the appropriate test type
and click the New test conguration button. The test conditions of the data to be
uploaded can be dened in the right-hand panel. Subsequently, the Import curve
option should be used to upload the test data. The test data are assumed to be
stored in a text le (<data>.txt) and should contain two columns (see explanation
before). The meaning of the values in each column has to be selected from the drop
down list below the column. Moreover, the basic units of the test quantities need to
be selected from the drop down lists in the Units group. By pressing OK the data is
read and a visualised in a diagram, and the curve is listed in the tree under the
Custom (test) conditions (Figure 4.38).
If the test data together with the test conditions are stored in the format of a PLAXIS
REFERENCE MANUAL
Figure 4.38 Display of the imported test curves
soil test project (<test>.vlt), the Open le option should be used. After selection of a
valid PLAXIS soil test project, the test conditions are listed under the corresponding
test type in the tree, and the available test data curves are listed under the test
conditions (Figure 4.39). This option should typically be used to t current model
parameters to synthetic data previously produced in the PLAXIS soil test facility and
stored in <test>.vlt format.
Figure 4.39 Importing data from SoilTest
All test data to be used in the optimisation process need to be selected in the tree by
clicking the square in front of the corresponding line (if not already selected). The
corresponding test conditions are automatically selected.
Hint: When a line representing test conditions is selected in the tree, the
corresponding test conditions are shown on the panel at the right-hand side.
When a line representing test data is selected in the tree, the corresponding
curve is visualised in the diagram, and a table of corresponding data points is
shown at the right-hand side of the diagram.
A sub-set of test data to be used in the optimisation process can be selected
in the table at the right-hand side by clicking on the corresponding cells,
using the standard multi-select convention (using <Shift> for ranges and
<Ctrl> for individual values). The selected values are indicated as 'thick' lines
in the curve whereas non-selected values are indicated as 'thin' lines.
A line in the tree (either test conditions or test data) can be removed by
selecting that line and clicking the red cross in the toolbar.
Multiple phases
In the case of an Oedometer, CRS or General test, the SoilTest facility allows for multiple
phases. However, the parameter optimisation facility can only deal with one phase at a
time. Therefore, after importing the test data, the desired calculation phase needs to be
selected from the drop down list above the test data curve, together with the
corresponding part of the test data in the column at the right-hand side. In this way it is
possible, for example, to optimise a primary loading stiffness against the rst (loading)
phase in an oedometer test and the unloading stiffness against the second (unloading)
phase. Note that this has to be done in two separate optimisation runs.
Settings
The Settings tab enables the accuracy selection of the optimisation process (Figure
4.40). Three levels of search intensity are available: Coarse and quick, Moderate,
Thorough. In addition, the relative tolerance of the search algorithm can be selected. The
default value is 1E-3. Note that a more rigorous optimisation may give more accurate
results, but also requires more calculation time. The calculation time also depends on the
number of parameters to be optimised, as selected in the rst tab.
Figure 4.40 Settings window
REFERENCE MANUAL
Resulting parameters
The Resulting parameters tab shows the optimum values of the parameters used to
obtain the best t to the selected test data in addition to the minimum and maximum
values and the reference values in the material data set (Figure 4.41). If the optimum
value is equal to the minimum or maximum value, it might be that the best value lies
outside the specied range. Finally, the table shows the sensitivity of the selected
parameters. A sensitivity of 100% means that the parameter has a high inuence on the
simulated test results, whereas a low sensitivity means that the parameter has a low
inuence on the simulated test results. Note that a low sensitivity also means that the test
may not be suitable to optimise that parameter and, as a result, the suggested optimum
value may not be accurate. Therefore it is better to do separate optimisations for different
parameters based on relevant sections of test data curves rather than one optimisation
with multiple parameters based on the full data curves.
Figure 4.41 Resulting parameters window
A button is available to copy the optimised parameters to the material data
set. This should only be done after it has been properly validated that the optimised
parameters are indeed better than the original parameters, considering the use of the
material data set in the nite element model.
Note that the parameters optimised for soil lab tests may not be the best parameters for
the practical application as considered in the nite element model.
Resulting charts
The Resulting charts tab shows the results of the selected tests (Figure 4.42).
For each test, three curves are visible:
Optimisation target This curve represents the uploaded test data.
Optimisation results This curve represents the simulated test with optimised
parameters.
Reference simulation This curve represents the simulated test with original
parameters. It has no meaning in the optimisation process, but
just shows how good or bad the existing material data set would
t the uploaded test data for the selected test conditions without
optimisation.
Figure 4.42 Resulting charts window
Limitations
The Parameter optimisation facility should be used with care. Note that parameters
optimised for soil lab tests may not be the best parameters for the practical application as
considered in the nite element model. This is because the application may involve
stress levels, stress paths and strain levels which might be signicantly different from the
ones that occur in the soil lab tests.
Furthermore, the parameter optimisation facility has the following limitations:
It is not possible to automatically optimise test data curves that consist of multiple
phases (for example loading and unloading phases). Such curves may be uploaded
at once, but then individual parts of the curves (phases) need to be selected in order
to perform the optimisation phase by phase.
The optimisation process itself is a numerical procedure which may involve
numerical errors. The user remains responsible for validating the outcome of the
optimisation process and the use of optimised model parameters in applications.
4.4 MATERIAL DATA SETS FOR PLATES
In addition to material data sets for soil and interfaces, the material properties and model
parameters for plates are also entered in separate material data sets. Plates are used to
model the behaviour of slender walls, plates or thin shells. Distinction can be made
between elastic and elastoplastic behaviour. A data set for plates generally represents a
certain type of plate material, and can be assigned to the corresponding (group of) plate
elements in the geometry model.
4.4.1 MATERIAL SET
Several data sets may be created to distinguish between different types of plates. Figure
4.43 shows the Plate window. The material data set is dened by:
REFERENCE MANUAL
Figure 4.43 Plate window
Identication:
A user may specify any identication title for a data set. It is advisable to use a
meaningful name since the data set will appear in the database tree view by its
identication.
Comments:
A user may write down comments related to the material data set.
Colour: Colour can be used as a distinction tool in the model.
Material type:
There are two available options, describing the material type of a plate. These
options are Elastic and Elastoplastic. The availability of the parameters dened
in the Properties box depends on the selected material type.
4.4.2 PROPERTIES
The properties required for plates can be grouped into general properties, stiffness
properties, strength properties in case of elastoplastic behaviour and dynamic properties.
Isotropic
Different stiffnesses in-plane and out-of-plane may be considered. The latter is most
relevant for axisymmetric models when modelling sheet pile proles (which have a low
stiffness in the out-of-plane direction). If this is not the case, the Isotropic option may be
selected to ensure that both stiffness are equal.
End bearing of plates
In reality vertical loads on structures, such as walls, are sustained by the shaft friction
and the tip resistance. A certain amount of resistance is offered by the soil under the tip,
depending on the thickness or the cross section area of the tip.
Slender structures are often modelled as plates. Due to the zero thickness of the plate
elements vertical plates (walls) have no end bearing. The effects of the end bearing can
still be considered in the calculation when the corresponding option is selected in the
material data set. In order to consider the bearing capacity at the bottom of plates, a zone
in the soil volume elements surrounding the bottom of the plate is identied where any
kind of soil plasticity is excluded (elastic zone). The size of this zone is determined as
D
eq
=
_
12EI/EA.
General properties
A plate has two general properties:
d: The (equivalent) thickness (in the unit of length) is automatically calculated from
the ratio of the axial stiffness EA and exural rigidity EI (see Stiffness properties).
w: In a material set for plates a specic weight can be specied, which is entered as
a force per unit of length per unit width in the out-of-plane direction.
For relatively massive structures the weight of a plate is, in principle, obtained by
multiplying the unit weight of the plate material by the thickness of the plate. Note that in
a nite element model, plates are superimposed on a continuum and therefore 'overlap'
the soil. To calculate accurately the total weight of soil and structures in the model, the
unit weight of the soil should be subtracted from the unit weight of the plate material. For
sheet-pile walls the weight (force per unit area) is generally provided by the manufacturer.
This value can be adopted directly since sheet-pile walls usually occupy relatively little
volume.
The weight of plates is activated together with the soil weight by means of the Mweight
parameter.
Stiffness properties
For elastic behaviour, several parameters should be specied as material properties.
PLAXIS 2D allows for orthotropic material behaviour in plates, which is dened by the
following parameters:
EA: For elastic behaviour an in-plane axial stiffness EA should be specied. For both
axisymmetric and plane strain models the value relates to a stiffness per unit
width in the out-of-plane direction.
EA
2
: For orthotropic elastic behaviour an axial stiffness EA
2
should be specied
where 2 indicates the direction out of plane.
EI: For elastic behaviour a exural rigidity EI should be specied. For both
axisymmetric and plane strain models the value relates to a stiffness per unit
(nu): Poisson's ratio.
From the ratio of EI and EA an equivalent thickness for an equivalent plate (d
eq
) is
automatically calculated from the equation:
d
eq
=
_
12
EI
EA
REFERENCE MANUAL
For the modelling of plates, PLAXIS uses the Mindlin beam theory as described in Bathe
(1982). This means that, in addition to bending, shear deformation is taken into account.
The shear stiffness of the plate is determined from:
Shear stiffness =
5EA
12(1 + )
=
5E
_
deq
1m
_
12(1 + )
This implies that the shear stiffness is determined from the assumption that the plate has
a rectangular cross section. In the case of modelling a solid wall, this will give the correct
shear deformation. However, in the case of steel prole elements, like sheet-pile walls,
the computed shear deformation may be too large. You can check this by judging the
value of d
eq
. For steel prole elements, d
eq
should be at least of the order of a factor 10
times smaller than the length of the plate to ensure negligible shear deformations.
More information about the behaviour and structural forces in plates can be found in
Section 15.5 of the Material Models Manual.
In addition to the above stiffness parameters, a Poisson's ratio, , is required. For thin
structures with a certain prole or structures that are relatively exible in the out-of-plane
direction (like sheet-pile walls), it is advisable to set Poisson's ratio to zero. For real
massive structures (like concrete walls) it is more realistic to enter a true Poisson's ratio
of the order of 0.15.
Since PLAXIS considers plates (extending in the out-of-plane direction) rather than
beams (one-dimensional structures), the value of Poisson's ratio will inuence the exural
rigidity of the isotropic plate as follows:
Input value of exural rigidity: EI
Observed value of exural rigidity:
EI
1
2
The stiffening effect of Poisson's ratio is caused by the stresses in the out-of-plane
direction (
zz
) and the fact that strains are prevented in this direction. Note that the
Poisson's ration () is assumed to be zero in anisotropic case.
Strength properties (plasticity)
Strength parameters are required in case of plasticity:
M
p
: Maximum bending moment.
N
p,1
: The maximum force in 1-direction.
N
p,2
: The maximum force in 2-direction (anisotropic behaviour).
Plasticity may be taken into account by specifying a maximum bending moment, M
p
. The
maximum bending moment is given in units of force times length per unit width. In
addition to the maximum bending moment, the axial force is limited to N
p
. The maximum
axial force, N
p
, is specied in units of force per unit width. When the combination of a
bending moment and an axial force occur in a plate, then the actual bending moment or
axial force at which plasticity occurs is lower than respectively M
p
or N
p
. More
information is given in Section 15.5 of the Material Models Manual.
The relationship between M
p
and N
p
is visualised in Figure 4.44. The diamond shape
represents the ultimate combination of forces for which plasticity will occur. Force
combinations inside the diamond will result in elastic deformations only. The Scientic
Manual describes in more detail how PLAXIS deals with plasticity in plates.
Bending moments and axial forces are calculated at the stress points of the beam
elements (Figure 3.15). If M
p
or N
p
is exceeded, stresses are redistributed according to
the theory of plasticity, so that the maxima are complied with. This will result in
irreversible deformations. Output of bending moments and axial forces is given in the
nodes, which requires extrapolation of the values at the stress points. Due to the position
of the stress points in a beam element, it is possible that the nodal values of the bending
moment may slightly exceed M
p
. If the Isotropic option is checked the input is limited to
N
p,1
where as N
p,1
=N
p,2
.
N
M
N
p
N
p
M
p
M
p
Figure 4.44 Combinations of maximum bending moment and axial force
It is possible to change the material data set of a plate in the framework of staged
construction. However, it is very important that the ratio of EI / EA is not changed, since
this will introduce an out-of-balance force (see Section 3.4.2).
Dynamic properties
For dynamic behaviour, two additional parameters can be specied as material
properties:
Rayleigh :
Rayleigh damping parameter determining the inuence of mass in the damping
of the system.
Rayleigh :
Rayleigh damping parameter determining the inuence of the stiffness in the
damping of the system.
For more information on Rayleigh damping, see Page 71.
4.5 MATERIAL DATA SETS FOR GEOGRIDS
parameters for geogrids are also entered in separate material data sets. Geogrids are
exible elastic elements that represent a grid or sheet of fabric. Geogrids cannot sustain
REFERENCE MANUAL
compressive forces. A data set for geogrids generally represents a certain type of
geogrid material, and can be assigned to the corresponding (group of) geogrid elements
in the geometry model.
Figure 4.45 Geogrid window
4.5.1 MATERIAL SET
Several data sets may be created to distinguish between different types of geogrids.
Figure 4.45 shows the Geogrid window. The material data set is dened by:
Identication:
identication.
Comments:
Material type:
There are two available options, describing the material type of a plate. These
options are Elastic and Elastoplastic. The availability of the parameters dened
in the Properties box depends on the selected material type.
4.5.2 PROPERTIES
The properties required for geogrids can be grouped into stiffness properties and
strength properties in case of elastoplastic behaviour.
Isotropic
Different stiffnesses in-plane and out-of-plane may be considered. The latter is most
relevant for axisymmetric models when modelling geogrids with an anisotropic pattern. If
this is not the case, the Isotropic option may be selected to ensure that both stiffness are
equal.
For elastic behaviour, the axial stiffness EA should be specied. PLAXIS 2D allows for
orthotropic material behaviour in geogrids, which is dened by the following parameters:
EA
1
: The normal elastic stiffness in 1-direction (in plane).
EA
2
: The normal elastic stiffness in 2-direction (out of plane, anisotropic behaviour).
The axial stiffness EA is usually provided by the geogrid manufacturer and can be
determined from diagrams in which the elongation of the geogrid is plotted against the
applied force in a longitudinal direction. The axial stiffness is the ratio of the axial force
per unit width and the axial strain (l /l where l is the elongation and l is the length):
EA =
F
l /l
If the Isotropic option is checked the input is limited to EA
1
where as EA
1
=EA
2
.
Hint: When a material dataset is imported from PLAXIS 2D to PLAXIS 3D the
value of GA is dened as GA = min (EA
1
, EA
2
) / 2.
Strength properties (plasticity)
Strength parameters are required in case of plasticity:
N
p,1
: The maximum force in 1-direction (in-plane).
N
p,2
: The maximum force in 2-direction (out of plane, anisotropic behaviour).
The maximum axial tension force N
p
is specied in units of force per unit width. If N
p
is
exceeded, stresses are redistributed according to the theory of plasticity, so that the
maxima are complied with. This will result in irreversible deformations. Output of axial
forces is given in the nodes, which requires extrapolation of the values at the stress
points. Due to the position of the stress points in a geogrid element, it is possible that the
nodal values of the axial force may slightly exceed N
p
.
If the Isotropic option is checked the input is limited to Np, 1 where as Np, 1 =Np, 2.
4.6 MATERIAL DATA SETS FOR EMBEDDED PILE ROWS
Properties and model parameters for embedded pile rows are entered in separate
material data sets. A data set for embedded piles generally represents a certain type of
pile, including the pile material and geometric properties, the interaction properties with
the surrounding soil (pile bearing capacity) as well as the out of plane spacing of the
piles.
Note that the embedded pile material data set does not contain so-called 'p-y curves', nor
equivalent spring constants. In fact, the stiffness response of an embedded pile
REFERENCE MANUAL
Figure 4.46 Embedded pile row window
subjected to loading is the result of the specied pile length, equivalent radius, spacing,
stiffness, bearing capacity, the stiffness of the interface as well as the stiffness of the
surrounding soil.
Hint: In contrast to what is common in the Finite Element Method, the bearing
capacity of an embedded pile is considered to be an input parameter rather
than the result of the nite element calculation. The user should realise the
importance of this input parameter. Preferably, the input value of this
parameter should be based on representative pile load test data. Moreover, it
is advised to perform a calibration in which the behaviour of the embedded
pile is compared with the behaviour as measured from the pile load test.
Since embedded piles are used in a row, the group action must be taken into
account when dening the pile bearing capacity.
4.6.1 MATERIAL SET
Several data sets may be created to distinguish between different types of embedded
piles or pile spacings. Figure 4.46 shows the Embedded pile row window.
The material data set is dened by:
Identication:
identication.
Comments:
4.6.2 PROPERTIES
The material properties are dened for a single pile, but the use of PLAXIS 2D implies
that a row of piles in the out-of-plane direction is considered. The properties required for
embedded piles are:
E: Young's modulus.
: Unit weight of the pile material.
Geometric properties
An embedded pile requires several geometric parameters used to calculate additional
properties:
Pile type:
Either a Predened or a User dened type can be selected.
Predened pile type:
A list of predened types (Massive circular pile, Circular tube, Massive square
pile).
Diameter:
The pile diameter is to be dened for Massive circular pile and Circular tube
predened pile types. The pile diameter determines the size of the elastic zone
in the soil under the pile in which plastic soil behaviour is excluded. It also
inuences the default values of the interface stiffness factors (Section 4.6.4).
Width: The pile width is to be dened for a Massive square pile predened pile type.
The pile width is recalculated into an equivalent diameter, D
eq
=
_
12EI/EA.
This diameter determines the size of the elastic zone in the soil under the pile in
which plastic soil behaviour is excluded. It also inuences the default values of
the interface stiffness factors.
Thickness:
The wall thickness needs to be dened for a Circular tube predened pile type.
Alternatively, a user-dened type may be dened by means of the pile cross section area,
A, and its respective moment of inertia I:
A: The cross section area is the actual area (in the unit of length squared)
perpendicular to the pile axis where pile material is present. For piles that have
a certain prole (such as steel beams), the cross section area can be found in
tables that are provided by steel factories.
I: Moment of inertia against bending around the pile axis.
REFERENCE MANUAL
I =
1
64
D
4
Massive circular pile
I =
1
4
[(
D
4
)
4
(
D
2
t )
4
] Circular tube
I =
1
12
h
4
Massive square pile
where D is the pile diameter, t is the wall thickness and h is the pile width.
L
spacing
:
Spacing of the piles in the out-of-plane direction
Dynamic properties
For dynamic behaviour, two additional parameters can be specied as material
properties:
Rayleigh :
Rayleigh damping parameter determining the inuence of mass in the damping
of the system.
Rayleigh :
Rayleigh damping parameter determining the inuence of the stiffness in the
damping of the system.
For more information on Rayleigh damping, see Page 71.
4.6.3 INTERACTION PROPERTIES (PILE BEARING CAPACITY)
The interaction between the pile (embedded pile element) and the surrounding soil (soil
volume element) is modelled by means of a special interface element. An elastic-plastic
model is used to describe the behaviour of the interface. The elastic behaviour of the
interface should account for the difference in pile displacements and average soil
displacements in the out-of-plane direction. This depends on the out-of-plane pile
spacing in relation to the pile diameter. Regarding the plastic behaviour distinction is
made in the material data set between the Skin resistance (in the unit of force per unit
pile length) and the Base resistance (in the unit of force). In a plane strain analysis, these
values are automatically recalculated per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction. For
the skin resistance as well as the base resistance a failure criterion is used to distinguish
between elastic interface behaviour and plastic interface behaviour. For elastic behaviour
relatively small displacement differences occur within the interface (i.e. between the pile
and the average soil displacement), and for plastic behaviour permanent slip may occur.
For the interface to remain elastic the shear force t
s
at a particular point is given by:
|t
s
|< T
max
where T
max
is the equivalent local skin resistance at that point.
For plastic behaviour the shear force t
s
is given by:
|t
s
|= T
max
The input for the shaft resistance is dened by means of the skin resistance at the pile
top, T
top,max
(in force per unit pile length) and the skin resistance at the pile bottom,
T
bot ,max
(in force per unit pile length). This way of dening the pile skin resistance is
mostly applicable to piles in a homogeneous soil layer. Using this approach the total pile
bearing capacity, N
pile
, is given by:
N
pile
= F
max
+
1
2
L
pile
_
T
top,max
+ T
bot ,max
_
where L
pile
is the pile length.
Hint: Note that the length of the embedded pile and the magnitude of the skin
resistance increments are inversely proportional.
In addition to the shaft resistance, the embedded pile has extra bearing capacity at the
base. The base resistance F
max
can be entered directly (in the unit of force) in the
embedded pile material data set window.
Hint: The base resistance is only mobilized when the pile body moves in the
direction of the base (example: with a load on top).
The pile bearing capacities are automatically divided by the pile spacing in order to obtain
the equivalent bearing capacity per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction.
4.6.4 INTERFACE STIFFNESS FACTOR
The interface stiffnesses are related to the shear stiffness of the surrounding soil (G
soil
)
according to:
R
S
= ISF
RS
G
soil
L
spacing
R
N
= ISF
RN
G
soil
L
spacing
K
F
= ISF
KF
G
soil
R
eq
L
spacing
The interface stiffness factors to be dened are:
Axial skin stiffness factor, ISF
RS
Lateral skin stiffness factor, ISF
RN
Pile base stiffness factor, ISF
KF
where the default values of the interface stiffness are calculated according to:
REFERENCE MANUAL
Figure 4.47 Modelling of soil-pile interaction
ISF
RS
= 2.5
_
L
spacing
D
eq
_
0.75
ISF
RN
= 2.5
_
L
spacing
D
eq
_
0.75
ISF
KF
= 25
_
L
spacing
D
eq
_
0.75
where
D
eq
=
_
12EI
EA
In order to ensure that a realistic pile bearing capacity as specied can actually be
reached, a zone in the soil volume elements surrounding the bottom of the pile is
identied where any kind of soil plasticity is excluded (elastic zone). The size of this zone
is determined by the embedded pile's diameter D
eq
or equivalent radius R
eq
(= D
eq
/2)
(Figure 4.48).
Figure 4.48 Elastic zone surrounding the bottom of the pile (after Sluis (2012))
In addition to displacement differences and shear forces in axial direction along the pile,
the pile can undergo transverse forces, t
, due to lateral displacements. These

transverse forces are not limited in the special interface element that connects the pile
with the soil, but, in general, they are limited due to failure conditions in the surrounding
soil itself. However, embedded piles are not meant to be used as laterally loaded piles
and will therefore not show accurate failure loads when subjected to transverse forces.
Note that the default values of the interface stiffness factors are valid for bored piles
which are loaded statically in the axial direction and behaviour of the surrounding soil is
modelled using the HS small model. The phreatic level is assumed to be located at the
ground surface. These values should be modied if the conditions in the model are
different from the ones assumed to derive the default values.
4.7 MATERIAL DATA SETS FOR ANCHORS
parameters for anchors are also entered in separate material data sets. A material data
set for anchors may contain the properties of node-to-node anchors as well as xed-end
anchors. In both cases the anchor is just a spring element. A data set for anchors
generally represents a certain type of anchor material, and can be assigned to the
corresponding (group of) anchor elements in the geometry model.
Figure 4.49 Anchor window
4.7.1 MATERIAL SET
Several data sets may be created to distinguish between different types of anchors.
Figure 4.49 shows the Anchor window. The material data set is dened by:
Identication:
identication.
Comments:
REFERENCE MANUAL
Material type:
There are three available options, describing the material type of an anchor.
These options are Elastic, Elastoplastic and Elastoplastic with residual strength.
The availability of the parameters dened in the Properties box depends on the
selected material type.
4.7.2 PROPERTIES
The properties required for anchors can be grouped into stiffness properties and strength
properties in case of elastoplastic behaviour.
An anchor requires only one stiffness parameter:
EA: Axial stiffness, entered per anchor in the unit of force and not per unit width in the
out-of-plane direction
To calculate an equivalent stiffness per unit width, the out-of-plane spacing, L
s
, must be
entered.
Strength parameters (plasticity)
If the material type is selected as Elastoplastic, two maximum anchor forces can be
entered:
F
max,tens
:
Maximum tension force
F
max,comp
:
Maximum compression force
The Force-displacement diagram displaying the elastoplastic behaviour of the anchors is
given in Figure 4.50.
Figure 4.50 The force-displacement diagram displaying the elastoplastic behaviour of anchors
In the same way as the stiffness, the maximum anchor forces are divided by the
out-of-plane spacing in order to obtain the proper maximum force in a plane strain
analysis.
The Elastoplastic with residual strength option can be used to model anchor failure or
softening behaviour (e.g. buckling of struts). When this option is selected two residual
anchor forces can be specied:
F
residual ,tens
:
Residual tension force
F
residual ,comp
:
Residual compression force
The Force-displacement diagram displaying the elastoplastic behaviour with residual
strength of the anchors is given in Figure 4.51.
Figure 4.51 The force-displacement diagram displaying the elastoplastic behaviour with residual
strength of the anchors
If, during a calculation, the maximum anchor force is reached, the maximum force will
immediately reduce to the residual force. From that point on the anchor force will not
exceed the residual force anymore. Even if the anchor force would intermediately reduce
to lower values, the dened residual force will be its maximum limit.
Note that if the anchor has failed (in tension, compression or both) the residual force will
be valid in the following calculation phases where the anchor is active. If the anchor is
deactivated in a phase and reactivated in the next phase, the maximum anchor force will
be restored, assuming that the anchor is a completely a new one.
Anchors can be prestressed in a Staged construction calculation. In such a calculation
the prestress force for a certain calculation phase can directly be given in the Anchor
window. The prestress force is not considered to be a material property and is therefore
not included in an anchor data set.
REFERENCE MANUAL
4.8 ASSIGNING DATA SETS TO GEOMETRY COMPONENTS
After creating all material data sets for the various soil layers and structures, the data sets
must be assigned to the corresponding components. This can be done in different ways.
The rst method is based on an opened Material sets window, showing the created
material sets in the project data base tree view. The desired material set can be dragged
(select it and keep the left mouse button down) to the draw area and dropped on the
desired component. It can be seen from the shape of the cursor whether or not it is valid
to drop the material set. Note that material sets cannot be dragged directly from the
global data base tree view.
The second method is to double click the desired component. As a result, the Properties
window appears on which the material set is indicated. If no material set has been
assigned, the Material set box displays <Unassigned>. When clicking on the Change
button the Material sets window appears from which the required material set can be
selected. The material set can be dragged from the project data base tree view and
dropped on the Properties window. Alternatively, after the selection of the required
material set it can be assigned to the selected geometry component by clicking on the
OK button in the Material sets window. In this case, the Material sets window is
subsequently closed.
The third method is to move the cursor to a geometry component and to click the right
hand mouse button. Through the cursor menu (Properties) one can select the desired
geometry component. As a result, the Properties window appears. From here the
selection of the proper material set is the same as for the second method.
After assigning a material data set to a soil cluster, the cluster obtains the colour of the
corresponding data set. By default, the colours of data sets have a low intensity. To
increase the intensity of all data set colours, the user may press <Ctrl><Alt><C>
simultaneously on the keyboard. There are ve levels of colour intensity that can be
selected in this way.
When data sets are assigned to structural objects, these objects will blink red for about
half a second to conrm the correct data set assignment.
CALCULATIONS
5 CALCULATIONS
After the generation of a nite element model, the actual nite element calculations can
be executed. Therefore it is necessary to dene which types of calculations are to be
performed and which types of loadings or construction stages are to be activated during
the calculations. This is done in the Calculations program.
PLAXIS 2D allows for different types of nite element calculations. The calculation
process can be dened in three different modes, the Classical mode, the Advanced mode
and the Flow mode (see Section 5.3).
In the engineering practice, a project is divided into project phases. Similarly, a
calculation process in PLAXIS is also divided into calculation phases. Examples of
calculation phases are the activation of a particular loading at a certain time, the
simulation of a construction stage, the introduction of a consolidation period, the
calculation of a safety factor, etc. Each calculation phase is generally divided into a
number of calculation steps. This is necessary because the non-linear behaviour of the
soil requires loadings to be applied in small proportions (called load steps). In most
cases, however, it is sufcient to specify the situation that has to be reached at the end of
a calculation phase. Robust and automatic procedures in PLAXIS will take care of the
sub-division into appropriate load steps.
Distinction is made between Plastic, Consolidation, Safety (phi/c reduction), Dynamic,
Free vibration, Groundwater ow (steady-state) or Groundwater ow (transient). The
Dynamic and Free vibration options require the presence of the PLAXIS Dynamics
module, whereas the latter two options require the presence of the PLAXIS PlaxFlow
module. Both modules are available as extensions to PLAXIS 2D. The rst three types of
calculations (Plastic, Consolidation and Safety) optionally allow for the effects of large
displacements being taken into account. This is termed Updated mesh, which is available
as an advanced option. The different types of calculations are explained in Section
5.5.The rst calculation phase (Initial phase) is always a calculation of the initial stress
eld for the initial geometry conguration by means of Gravity loading or K0 procedure.
After this initial phase, subsequent calculation phases may be dened by the user. In
each phase, the type of calculation must be selected.
5.1 LAYOUT OF THE CALCULATIONS PROGRAM
This icon represents the Calculations program. The Calculations
program contains all facilities to dene and start up nite element calculations.
The calculation process can be activated in the Input program by selecting the
Calculations mode tab sheet. In this case, the current project is automatically selected in
the Calculations program. Alternatively, the Calculations program can be run by clicking
the program icon. As a result, the general le requester appears which enables the user
to browse through all available directories and to select the desired PLAXIS project le
(*.P2D). In this case, the user has to select the project for which calculations are to be
dened. The selection window allows for a quick selection of one of the fteen most
recent projects. If a project that does not appear in the list is to be selected, the option
Open an existing project can be used.
After the selection of a project, the main window of the Calculations program appears,
REFERENCE MANUAL
which contains the following items (Figure 5.1).
Figure 5.1 Main window of the Calculations program
Title bar
The name of the program and the title of the project is displayed in the title bar. Unsaved
modications in the project are indicated by a '' in the project name.
Menu bar
The menus in the menu bar contain all operation facilities of the Calculations program.
Most options are also available as buttons in the toolbar.
Toolbar
The toolbar contains buttons that may be used as a shortcut to menu facilities. The
meaning of a particular button is presented after the pointer is positioned above the
button.
Open project.
Save project.
Print the information displayed in the phases list.
Select points for curves.
Calculate the phases market for calculation.
Display the results of the selected phase.
Indication of the current calculation mode. Clicking the button activates the Select
calculation mode window.
Tabsheets
The tabsheets are used to dene and preview a calculation phase (see Section 5.4 and
further). Switching between tabsheets can be done by clicking the corresponding tab.
CALCULATIONS
Phases list
This list gives an overview of all calculation phases of a project. Each line corresponds to
a separate phase.
Identication ID of the phase as dened in the General tabsheet.
Phase no. Number of the calculation phase. Phases are numbered
successively by the program.
Start from Number of the parent phase the current phase starts from.
Calculation The calculation type of the phase as dened in the General
tabsheet.
Loading input The loading input as dened in the Parameters tabsheet.
Pore pressure The pore pressure generation option as dened in the Water
conditions tabsheet in the Staged construction.
Time Time interval of the calculation phase.
Stage Indication of the binary le extension where stage information is
stored.
Water Indication of the binary le extension where the information
about the water conditions of the calculation phase is stored.
First The number of the rst calculation step of the phase.
Last The number of the last calculation step of the phase.
Design approach The design approach considered when the phase is calculated.
Hint: If the phase has not yet been executed, the step numbers will be blank.
The status of the calculation phases is indicated by a mark at the left of the phase ID.
The phase is to be calculated.
The phase is not to be calculated.
The phase was calculated. No error occurred during calculation.
Calculation failed. Information is provided in the Log info box in the General
tabsheet of the Phases window.
Calculation failed however the calculation of the child phases is possible.
Information is provided in the Log info box in the General tabsheet of the Phases
window. Note that the calculation of the child phase will not start automatically.
Calculation is correct but there are additional non-crucial modications required.
The next calculation must be a Staged construction calculation.
The menu bar of the Calculations program contains pull-down menus covering most
options for handling les, dening calculation phases and executing calculations. The
REFERENCE MANUAL
Calculations menu consists of the menus File, Edit, Tools, Calculate and Help.
File menu
Open To open a project for which calculation phases have to be
dened. The le requester is presented.
Save To save the current status of the calculations list.
Save as To save the current status of the calculations list under a different
name.
Print To print the list of calculations phases.
Pack project To compress the current project.
Recent projects To quickly open one of the fteen most recent projects.
Exit To leave the program.
Edit menu
Next phase To focus on the next phase in the calculations list. If the next
phase does not exist, a new calculation phase is introduced.
Insert phase To insert a new calculation phase at the position of the currently
focused phase.
Delete phase (s) To erase the selected calculation phase or phases.
Copy to clipboard To copy the list of calculation phases to the clipboard.
Select all To select all calculation phases.
Tools menu
Select points for curves To select nodes and stress points for the generation of
load-displacement curves and stress paths.
Calculation mode To select the calculation mode in which the calculation process
will be dened (Section 5.3).
Calculate menu
Current project To start up the calculation process of the current project.
Multiple projects To select a project for which the calculation process has to be
started. The le requester is presented. After selection of a
project, the project is added to the calculation manager window.
Sensitivity To perform Sensitivity analysis.
Parameter variation To perform Parameter variation analysis.
Help menu
Update license To update the PLAXIS 2D license via e-mail.
CALCULATIONS
5.3 CALCULATION MODES
The calculation process denition depends on the selected calculation mode. When a
project is opened in the Calculation program for the rst time, the Select calculation mode
window will automatically be shown (see Figure 5.2). In this window one of the three
modes Classical mode, Advanced mode or Flow mode can be selected and a short
description of each calculation mode is given. In addition, the Select calculation mode
window can be opened by selecting the option Calculation mode in the Tools menu or by
clicking the corresponding button in the toolbar. A description of all three modes is given
next.
Figure 5.2 Select calculation mode window
5.3.1 CLASSICAL MODE
This is the default mode which uses Terzaghi's denition of stress and is very similar to
the old PLAXIS 2D versions. Old projects can be modelled in this mode.
In this mode, pore pressures are divided into steady-state pore pressures and excess
pore pressures. Steady-state pore pressures are input data, i.e. generated based on
phreatic levels or groundwater ow. Excess pore pressures are generated in undrained
material during plastic calculations or consolidation analyses. The weight of the soil is
calculated according to its position compared to the phreatic level: the saturated weight of
the soil,
sat
, is used in case the soil is below the phreatic level and the unsaturated
weight of the soil,
unsat
, is used in case the soil is above the phreatic level.
The types of calculations which can be performed in this mode are:
Plastic
REFERENCE MANUAL
Consolidation based on excess pore pressure
Safety
Dynamic (available in Dynamics module of PLAXIS 2D )
Free vibration (available in Dynamics module of PLAXIS 2D )
5.3.2 ADVANCED MODE
This mode uses Bishop's denition of stress instead of Terzaghi's stress and is suitable
for calculating unsaturated response of soils and for performing fully coupled
hydro-mechanical behaviour of soils. Bishops stress is dened by:
= ' + S
e

w
in which S
e
is the effective degree of saturation. The effective degree of saturation
depends on the suction pore pressure and this relationship is known as the Soil Water
Characteristic Curve (SWCC). The options Van Genuchten, Approximated Van
Genuchten and User dened are available in PLAXIS 2D to describe the Soil Water
Characteristic Curve. Note that in the partially saturated zone, effective stresses may
change by changing SWCC parameters. This causes a difference in the results obtained
in the Advanced mode compared to the results obtained in the Classical mode when
calculating the same project. Therefore, it is strongly recommended to select proper
values for SWCC.
The weight of the soil is dened as:
=(1 S
e
)
unsat
+ S
e

sat
where
sat
and
unsat
are the saturated and unsaturated weight of the soil, respectively.
The types of calculations which can be done in this mode are:
Plastic
Consolidation based on total pore pressure
Safety
Dynamic (available in Dynamics module of PLAXIS 2D )
Free vibration (available in Dynamics module of PLAXIS 2D )
5.3.3 FLOW MODE
In this calculation mode pure groundwater ow calculations under saturated and
unsaturated conditions can be performed.
The types of calculations in this mode are:
Groundwater ow (steady-state)
Groundwater ow (transient)
The rst calculation phase is always a steady-state calculation. Subsequent phases are,
by default, transient calculations, but they may also be steady-state. For further
information about the Groundwater ow calculations, Consolidation, undrained behaviour
CALCULATIONS
and unsaturated modelling, see Galavi (2010).
5.4 DEFINING CALCULATION PHASES
Finite element calculations can be divided into several sequential calculation phases.
Each calculation phase corresponds to a particular loading or construction stage.
Consider a new project for which no calculation phase has yet been dened. In this case,
the calculations list contains only one line, indicated as 'Initial phase' with phase number
0. This line represents the initial situation of the project. The 'Initial phase' is the starting
point for further calculations.
To introduce the rst calculation phase for the current project, the Next button just above
the calculations list should be clicked after which a new line appears. Alternatively, the
Next phase option may be selected from the Edit menu. After the introduction of the new
calculation phase, the phase has to be dened. This should be done using the General,
Parameters and Multipliers tabsheets. On pressing the <Enter> or <Tab> key after each
input parameter, the user is guided through all parameters. Most parameters have a
default setting, which simplies the input. In general, only a few parameters have to be
considered to dene a calculation phase. More details on the various parameters are
given in the following sections.
When all parameters have been set, the user can choose to dene another calculation
phase or to start the calculation process. Introducing and dening another calculation
phase can be done in the same way as described above.
The calculation process can be started by clicking the Calculate button in the tool
bar or, alternatively, by selecting the Current project option in the Calculate menu. It
is not necessary to dene all calculation phases before starting the calculation process
since the program allows for dening new calculation phases after previous phases have
been calculated.
5.4.1 CALCULATION TABSHEETS
The Calculation program consists of four tabsheets to dene and preview a calculation
phase. These tabsheets are listed below.
General tabsheet
The General tabsheet is used to dene the general settings of a particular calculation
phase (Figure 5.1).
Phase: The items in the Phase group box can be used to identify the calculation phase
and, more importantly, to determine the ordering of calculation phases by selecting the
calculation phase that is used as a starting point for the current calculation (Section
5.4.3).
Calculation type: The selections made in the Calculation type group determine the type
of calculation that is used (Section 5.5); the options in the drop-down menu depend on
the active calculation mode (Section 5.3). Clicking the Comments button will open the
Comments window in which any information related to a particular calculation phase can
be stored.
REFERENCE MANUAL
Log info: The Log info box displays messages generated during the nite element
calculation and is used for logging purposes.
Remarks: The Remarks box displays messages that give information about the selected
calculation type.
Parameters tabsheet
The Parameters tabsheet is used to dene the control parameters of a particular phase
and the corresponding solution procedure (see Section 5.7).
Multipliers tabsheet
The Multipliers tabsheet is used to dene the multipliers of a particular phase. The values
in this tabsheet can only be modied when either the option Incremental multipliers or
Total multipliers is selected as Loading input (see Section 5.11).
Preview tabsheet
The Preview tabsheet is used to take a look at the preview of a particular phase.
5.4.2 INSERTING AND DELETING CALCULATION PHASES
In general, a new calculation phase is dened at the end of the calculation list using the
Next button. It is possible, however, to insert a new phase between two existing phases.
This is done by clicking the Insert button while the line where the new phase is to be
inserted is focused. By default, the new phase will start from the results of the previous
phase in the list, as indicated by the Start from phase value. This means that the status
of active clusters, structural objects, loads, water conditions and multipliers is adopted
from the previous phase.
Hint: When inserting and deleting calculation phases note that the start conditions
for the subsequent phases will change and must again be specied manually.
The user has to dene the settings for the inserted phase in a similar way as dening a
new phase at the end of the calculations list.
The next phase, which originally started from a previous phase, will keep the existing
Start from phase value and will thus not start automatically from the inserted phase. If it
is desired that the next phase starts from the inserted phase then this should be specied
manually by changing the Start from phase parameter. In this case it is required that the
next phase is fully redened, since the start conditions have changed. This may also
have consequences for the phases thereafter.
Besides inserting calculation phases it is also possible to delete phases. This is done by
selecting the phase to be deleted and clicking on the Delete button. Before deleting a
phase it should be checked which of the subsequent phases refer to the phase to be
deleted in the Start from column. After conrmation of the delete operation, all phases of
which the Start from phase value referred to the deleted phase will be modied
automatically such that they now refer to the predecessor of the deleted phase.
CALCULATIONS
Nevertheless, it is required that the modied phases are redened, since the start
conditions have changed.
5.4.3 PHASE IDENTIFICATION AND ORDENING
The Phase group in the General tabsheet shows the phase number and an identication
string of the current calculation phase. PLAXIS automatically assigns a number to each
calculation phase which cannot be changed by the user. The identication string is, by
default, set to <Phase #>, where # is the phase number, but this string may be changed
by the user to give it a more appropriate name. The identication string and phase
number appear in the list of calculation phases at the lower part of the window.
In addition, the Start from phase parameter must be selected from the drop-down menu
in the Phase group. This parameter refers to the phase from which the current calculation
phase should start (this is termed the reference phase). By default, the previous phase is
selected here, but, if more calculation phases have already been dened, the reference
phase may also be an earlier phase. A phase that appears later in the calculation list
cannot be selected.
Special cases
In some special cases, the order of calculation phases is not straightforward. Examples
of some cases are:
The Initial phase may be selected as reference if different loadings or loading
sequences are to be considered separately for the same project.
For a certain situation, a load is increased until failure to determine the safety
margin. When continuing the construction process, the next phase should start from
the previous construction stage rather than from the failure situation.
A third example where the phase ordering is not straightforward is in calculations
where safety analysis for intermediate construction stages is considered. The
calculation type in this case is Safety. In general, such a phase results in a state of
failure. When continuing the construction process, the next stage should start from
the previous phase rather than from the results of the safety analysis. Alternatively,
safety analyses for the various construction stages can be performed at the end of
the calculation process. In that case, the reference phase selected in the Start from
phase drop-down menu should refer to the corresponding construction stage.
In the Phases window, users need to select at least the Calculation type and the Loading
type for each new phase. PLAXIS provides convenient default values for most calculation
control parameters, but the user can change these values. A description of the
calculation types and control parameters is given in the next section.
5.5 TYPES OF ANALYSIS
The rst step in a PLAXIS analysis is dening a calculation type of a phase in the
Calculation type drop-down menu in the Phases window. The options available are K0
procedure and Gravity loading for the initial phase, and Plastic, Consolidation, Safety and
Dynamic for other phases.
REFERENCE MANUAL
The calculation types available depend on the program modules available and on the
selected calculation mode. For the sake of completeness, all possible calculation types
available in PLAXIS will be discussed.
5.5.1 INITIAL STRESS GENERATION
Many analysis problems in geotechnical engineering require the specication of a set of
initial stresses. The initial stresses in a soil body are inuenced by the weight of the
material and the history of its formation. This stress state is usually characterised by an
initial vertical effective stress ('
v,0
). The initial horizontal effective stress '
h,0
is related
to the initial vertical effective stress by the coefcient of lateral earth pressure K
0
('
h,0
= K
0
'
v,0
).
In PLAXIS, initial stresses may be generated by using the K0 procedure or by using
Gravity loading. Note that these options are available in the Calculation type drop-down
menu only for the Initial phase. It is recommended to generate and inspect results from
initial stresses rst before dening and executing other calculation phases.
Hint: As a rule, one should use the K0 procedure only in cases with a horizontal
surface and with all soil layers and phreatic levels parallel to the surface. For
all other cases, Gravity loading should be used.
Examples of non-horizontal surfaces, and non-horizontal weight stratications are:
K0 procedure
K0 procedure is a special calculation method available in PLAXIS to dene the initial
stresses for the model, taking into account the loading history of the soil. The parameters
required in the initial stresses development procedures are dened in the Initial tabsheet
of material data sets for soil and interfaces (Section 4.1.5).
Only one K
0
value can be specied:
K
0,x
= '
xx
/'
yy
K
0,z
= '
zz
/'
yy
= K
0,x
In practice, the value of K
0
for a normally consolidated soil is often assumed to be related
to the friction angle by Jaky's empirical expression:
K
0
= 1 sin
In an over-consolidated soil, K
0
would be expected to be larger than the value given by
this expression.
For the Mohr-Coulomb model, the default value K
0
-value is based on Jaky's formula. For
the advanced models, (Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with small-strain
stiffness, Soft Soil model, Soft Soil Creep model, Modied Cam-Clay model,
CALCULATIONS
Sekiguchi-Ohta model), the default value is based on the K
nc
0
parameter and is also
inuenced by the overconsolidation ratio (OCR) or the pre-overburden pressure (POP)
(see Section 4.1.5 and the Material Models Manual for more information):
K
0,x
= K
nc
0
OCR

ur
1
ur
(OCR 1) +
K
nc
0
POP

ur
1
ur
POP
0
yy
Using very low or very high K

0
-values in the K0 procedure may lead to stresses that
violate the Mohr-Coulomb failure condition. In this case PLAXIS automatically reduces
the lateral stresses such that the failure condition is obeyed. Hence, these stress points
are in a plastic state and are thus indicated as plastic points. Although the corrected
stress state obeys the failure condition, it may result in a stress eld which is not in
equilibrium. It is generally preferable to generate an initial stress eld that does not
contain Mohr-Coulomb plastic points.
Hint: The plot of plastic points may be viewed after the presentation of the initial
effective stresses in the Output program by selecting the Plastic points option
from the Stresses menu (see Section 7.3.8).
For a cohesionless material it can easily be shown that to avoid Mohr-Coulomb plasticity,
the value of K
0
is bounded by:
1 sin
1 + sin
< K
0
<
1 + sin
1 sin
When the K0 procedure is adopted, PLAXIS will generate vertical stresses that are in
equilibrium with the self-weight of the soil. Horizontal stresses, however, are calculated
from the specied value of K
0
. Even if the value of K
0
is chosen such that plasticity does
not occur, the K0 procedure does not ensure that the complete stress eld is in
equilibrium. Full equilibrium is only obtained for a horizontal soil surface with any soil
layers parallel to this surface and a horizontal phreatic level. If the stress eld requires
only small equilibrium corrections, then these may be carried out using the calculation
procedures described below. If the stresses are substantially out of equilibrium, then the
K0 procedure should be abandoned in favor of the Gravity loading procedure.
At the end of the K0 procedure, the full soil is weight activated. The soil weight can not be
changed in any other calculation phase.
Gravity loading
Gravity loading is a type of Plastic calculation (Section 5.5.2), in which initial stresses are
generated based on the volumetric weight of the soil. If Gravity loading is adopted, then
the initial stresses are set up by applying the soil self-weight in the rst calculation phase.
In this case, when using an elastic perfectly-plastic soil model such as the Mohr-Coulomb
model, the ratio of horizontal effective stress over vertical effective stress, K
0
, depends
strongly on the assumed values of Poisson's ratio. It is important to choose values of
Poisson's ratio that give realistic values of K
0
. If necessary, separate material data sets
may be used with Poisson's ratio adjusted to provide the proper K
0
-value during gravity
REFERENCE MANUAL
loading. These sets may be changed by other material sets in subsequent calculations
(Section 5.8.5). For one-dimensional compression an elastic computation will give:
K
0
=

(1 )
If a value of K
0
of 0.5 is required, for example, then it is necessary to specify a value of
Poisson's ratio of 0.333. As Poisson's ratio must be lower than 0.5, it is not
straightforward to generate K
0
values larger than 1 using Gravity loading. If K
0
values
larger than 1 are desired, it is necessary to simulate the loading history and use different
Poisson's ratio for loading and unloading or use the K0 procedure.
When advanced soil models are used, the resulting K
0
-value after gravity loading
corresponds to the K
nc
0
in the material data set.
Hint: To make sure that Gravity loading results in initial effective stresses in
situations where undrained materials are used, the parameter Ignore
undrained behaviour should be selected.
Once the initial stresses have been set up using Gravity loading, the
displacements should be reset to zero at the start of the next calculation
phase. This removes the effect of the initial stress generation procedure on
the displacements developed during subsequent calculations, whereas the
stresses remain.
In some cases plastic points will be generated during the Gravity loading procedure. For
cohesionless soils in one-dimensional compression, for example, plastic Mohr-Coulomb
points will be generated unless the following inequality is satised:
1 sin
1 + sin
<

1
< 1
Results of initial stress generation
After the generation of initial stresses the plot of the initial effective stresses can be
inspected (Section 6.3.1). It is also useful to view the plot of plastic points.
Using K
0
values that differ substantially from unity may sometimes lead to an initial stress
state that violates the Mohr-Coulomb criterion. If the plot of the plastic points shows many
red plastic points (Mohr-Coulomb points), the value of K
0
should be chosen closer to 1.0.
If there are a small number of plastic points, it is advisable to perform a plastic nil-step.
When using the Hardening Soil model and dening a normally consolidated initial stress
state (OCR = 1.0 and POP = 0.0), the plot of plastic points shows many hardening points.
Users need not be concerned about these plastic points as they just indicate a normally
consolidated stress state.
Plastic nil-step
If the K0 procedure generates an initial stress eld that is not in equilibrium or where
Mohr-Coulomb plastic points occur, then a plastic nil-step should be adopted. A plastic
nil-step is a plastic calculation step in which no additional load is applied (Section 5.5.10).
CALCULATIONS
After this step has been completed, the stress eld will be in equilibrium and all stresses
will obey the failure condition.
If the original K0 procedure generates a stress eld that is far from equilibrium, then the
plastic nil-step may fail to converge. This happens, for example, when the K0 procedure
is applied to problems with very steep slopes. For these problems, the Gravity loading
procedure should be adopted.
It is important to ensure that displacements calculated during a plastic nil-step (if it is
applied immediately after generating the initial stresses) do not affect later calculations.
This is achieved by selecting the Reset displacements to zero parameter in the
subsequent calculation phase (Section 5.7.4).
5.5.2 PLASTIC CALCULATION
A Plastic calculation is used to carry out an elastic-plastic deformation analysis in which it
is not necessary to take the decay of excess pore pressure with time into account. If the
Updated mesh parameter has not been selected, the calculation is performed according
to the small deformation theory. The stiffness matrix in a normal plastic calculation is
based on the original undeformed geometry. This type of calculation is appropriate in
most practical geotechnical applications.
Although a time interval can be specied, a plastic calculation does not take time effects
into account, except when the Soft Soil Creep model is used (see Material Models
Manual). Considering the quick loading of saturated clay-type soils, a Plastic calculation
may be used for the limiting case of fully undrained behaviour using the Undrained (A),
Undrained (B) or Undrained (C) option in the material data sets. On the other hand,
performing a fully drained analysis can assess the settlements on the long term. This will
give a reasonably accurate prediction of the nal situation, although the precise loading
history is not followed and the process of consolidation is not dealt with explicitly.
An elastic-plastic deformation analysis where undrained behaviour (Undrained (A) or
Undrained (B)) is temporarily ignored can be dened by checking the Ignore undr.
behaviour (A, B) parameter. In this case the stiffness of water is not taken into account.
Note that Ignore undrained behaviour does not affect materials of which the drainage
type is set to Undrained (C).
When changing the geometry conguration (Section 5.8) it is also possible (for each
calculation phase) to redene the water boundary conditions and recalculate the pore
pressures (Section 5.9). For more details on theoretical formulations of a plastic
calculation reference should be made to the Scientic Manual.
5.5.3 CONSOLIDATION CALCULATION IN CLASSICAL MODE
A Consolidation calculation in the Classical mode is usually conducted when it is
necessary to analyse the development and dissipation of excess pore pressures in a
saturated clay-type soil as a function of time. PLAXIS allows for true elastic-plastic
consolidation analysis. In general, consolidation analysis without additional loading is
performed after an undrained plastic calculation. It is also possible to apply loads during
a consolidation analysis. However, care should be taken when a failure situation is
approached, since the iteration process may not converge in such a situation.
REFERENCE MANUAL
A consolidation analysis requires additional boundary conditions on excess pore
pressures (Section 5.9).
Hint: In PLAXIS, total pore pressures are divided into steady-state pore pressures
and excess pore pressures. Steady state pore pressures are generated
according to the water conditions assigned to the soil layers for each phase,
whereas excess pore pressures are calculated as a result of undrained soil
behaviour (Undrained (A) or Undrained (B)) or consolidation. A Consolidation
calculation in Classical mode in PLAXIS only affects the excess pore
pressures.
A Consolidation calculation in Classical mode does not affect Undrained (C)
materials.
5.5.4 CONSOLIDATION CALCULATION IN ADVANCED MODE
A Consolidation analysis in Advanced mode is a more general formulation of the
Consolidation analysis in Classical mode, based on Biot's theory of consolidation which
enables the user to simultaneously calculate deformation and groundwater ow with
time-dependent boundary conditions in saturated and partially saturated soils. In this
type of calculation, no distinction between the steady-state and the excess pore
pressures is made and the resulting pore pressure is the active pore pressure. In cases
where the stationary pore pressure is unknown at the beginning of the calculation stage
(e.g. undrained excavation with dewatering or simulation of wave loading in off-shore
conditions), this type of calculation can be used. For more details see Galavi (2010).
5.5.5 SAFETY CALCULATION (PHI/C REDUCTION)
The Safety calculation type is an option available in PLAXIS to compute global safety
factors. This option can be selected as a separate Calculation type in the General
tabsheet.
In the Safety approach the strength parameters tan and c of the soil are successively
reduced until failure of the structure occurs. The dilatancy angle is, in principle, not
affected by the phi/c reduction procedure. However, the dilatancy angle can never be
larger than the friction angle. When the friction angle has reduced so much that it
becomes equal to the (given) dilatancy angle, any further reduction of the friction angle
will lead to the same reduction of the dilatancy angle. The strength of interfaces, if used,
is reduced in the same way. The strength of structural objects like plates and anchors is
not inuenced by a Safety (phi/c reduction) calculation.
The total multiplier Msf is used to dene the value of the soil strength parameters at a
given stage in the analysis:
Msf =
tan
input
tan
reduced
=
c
input
c
reduced
=
s
u,input
s
u,reduced
where the strength parameters with the subscript 'input' refer to the properties entered in
the material sets and parameters with the subscript 'reduced' refer to the reduced values
used in the analysis. Msf is set to 1.0 at the start of a calculation to set all material
CALCULATIONS
strengths to their input values.
A Safety calculation is performed using the Load advancement number of steps
procedure (Section 5.6.3). The incremental multiplier Msf is used to specify the increment
of the strength reduction of the rst calculation step. This increment is by default set to
0.1, which is generally found to be a good starting value. The strength parameters are
successively reduced automatically until all Additional steps have been performed. By
default, the number of additional steps is set to 100, but a larger value up to 10000 may
be given here, if necessary. It must always be checked whether the nal step has resulted
in a fully developed failure mechanism. If that is the case, the factor of safety is given by:
SF =
available strength
strength at failure
= value of Msf at failure
The Msf -value of a particular calculation step can be found in the Calculation
information window displayed as the corresponding option is selected in the Project
menu of the Output program. It is also recommended to view the development of Msf
for the whole calculation using the Curves option (Chapter 8.2). In this way it can be
checked whether a constant value is obtained while the deformation is continuing; in
other words: whether a failure mechanism has fully developed. If a failure mechanism
has not fully developed, then the calculation must be repeated with a larger number of
additional steps.
To capture the failure of the structure accurately, the use of Arc-length control parameter
is required. The use of a Tolerated error of no more than 1% is also required. Both
requirements are complied with when using the default iteration parameters (Section
5.7.1.)
Hint: When performing Safety calculation without Arc-length control, the reduction
factor Msf cannot go down and an overestimation of safety factor can occur.
When using Safety calculation in combination with advanced soil models, these models
will actually behave as a standard Mohr-Coulomb model, since stress-dependent
stiffness behaviour and hardening effects are excluded from the analysis. In that case,
the stiffness is calculated at the beginning of the calculation phase based on the starting
stresses and kept constant until the calculation phase is completed. Note that when using
the Modied Cam-Clay model and Sekiguchi-Ohta model, the strength is not reduced at
all since these models do not have a cohesion or friction angle as model parameter.
Hint: In case of the Jointed Rock model the strength on all the planes will be
reduced by Msf.
In the case of the NGI-ADP model all undrained parameters are reduced by
the Msf .
Strength in the Modied Cam-Clay model and Sekiguchi-Ohta model is not
reduced in Safety analysis.
When using Safety analysis in combination with user-dened soil models,
none of the parameters of these models will be reduced.
REFERENCE MANUAL
The Safety approach resembles the method of calculating safety factors as
conventionally adopted in slip-circle analysis. For a more detailed description of the
method of Safety you are referred to Brinkgreve & Bakker (1991).
Hint: Due to the use of suction in the Advanced mode, a more realistic value of the
safety factor will be obtained. This value is generally higher than a
conventional safety factor ignoring suction. Therefore, care should be taken
when interpreting this value. It is possible to ignore suction in the Advanced
mode by performing a plastic nil-step and using the Pore pressure tension
cut-off before running the Safety analysis.
Strength factorization in the Hoek-Brown model
When using the Hoek-Brown model to describe the behaviour of a rock section, the
Safety analysis procedure is slightly modied, since the failure contour is not described
by the Mohr-Coulomb criterion anymore. In order to have an equivalent denition of a
safety factor as for the Mohr-Coulomb model, the Hoek-Brown yield function is
reformulated to include the strength reduction factor Msf for safety analyses:
f
HB
= '
1
'
3
+ f
red
('
3
)
with
f
red
=
f
=

ci
_
m
b
'
3
ci
+ s
_
a
and
=
1
2
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
Msf
_
2 f '
_
_1 +
_
_
1
Msf
2
1
_
_
f '
2
_
2 f '
_
2
+ f '
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
where
f ' =
f
'
3
= am
b
_
m
b
'
3
ci
+ s
_
a1
More details and a derivation of the above equations can be found in Benz, Schwab,
Vermeer & Kauther (2007).
Updated mesh
The geometry of the model considered in a Safety calculation depends on whether the
Updated mesh option is selected or not in the parent phase. If the mesh is updated, the
resulting geometry at the end of the parent phase will be considered in the safety
CALCULATIONS
calculations.
During a safety calculation the mesh is not updated at the beginning of each load step
even if the Updated mesh option is selected for the Safety phase.
5.5.6 DYNAMIC CALCULATION
The Dynamic option should be selected when it is necessary to consider stress waves
and vibrations in the soil. With PLAXIS 2D it is possible to perform a dynamic analysis
after a series of plastic calculations.
Hint: It is not possible to use updated mesh in a dynamic analysis.
It is not possible to use staged construction type of loading for a dynamic
calculation.
In the Calculation program, dynamic loads are treated in a different way than static loads.
The input value of a dynamic load is usually set to a unit value, whereas dynamic
multipliers in the Calculation program are used to scale the loads to their actual
magnitudes (Section 5.7.3). The applied dynamic load is the product of the input value
and the corresponding dynamic load multiplier. This principle is valid for both static and
dynamic loads. However, static loads are applied generally in Staged Construction by
activating the load or changing the input value (whilst the corresponding load multiplier is
usually equal to 1), whereas dynamic loads are applied in the Dynamic load multiplier
input window by specifying the variation of the corresponding load multiplier with time
(whilst the input value of the load is a unit value and the load is active).
The procedure to apply dynamic loads is summarised below:
Create loads in the Input program (point loads, distributed loads in load system A or
B, and/or prescribed displacements).
Set the appropriate load system as a dynamic load system in the Loads menu of the
Input program.
Activate the dynamic loads by entering the dynamic load multipliers in the Dynamic
load multipliers input window of the Calculation program.
5.5.7 FREE VIBRATION
Free vibration is a type of dynamic calculation in which a previously activated external
load is released, as a result of which the system starts to vibrate. This type of calculation
is only available after a plastic or consolidation type of calculation in which a static
external load was applied. The external load should be released via the Loading type in
the Parameter tabsheet of the Calculation program.
5.5.8 GROUNDWATER FLOW (STEADY-STATE)
Groundwater ow (steady-state) is an analysis in which the pore water pressure at any
point in the geometry remains constant with time. A Groundwater ow (steady-state)
calculation can be considered to set up an situation of groundwater ow or to evaluate
steady-state conditions where time tends to go to innity. Note that this option is only
REFERENCE MANUAL
available in the Flow calculation mode.
5.5.9 GROUNDWATER FLOW (TRANSIENT)
In contrast to a steady-state groundwater ow calculation, the pore pressures and water
conditions may change with time during Groundwater ow (transient) analyses. Time
dependent boundary conditions are available for this type of calculation. Note that this
option is only available in the Flow calculation mode.
5.5.10 PLASTIC NIL-STEP
A plastic calculation may also be used to carry out a so-called plastic nil-step. A plastic
nil-step is a plastic calculation phase in which no additional loading is applied. Each new
phase introduced in the Phases explorer is initially a plastic nil-step, until the calculation
type, geometry or load conguration is changed. It may sometimes be required to solve
large out-of-balance forces and to restore equilibrium. Such a situation can occur after a
calculation phase in which large loadings were activated (for example gravity loading) or if
the K0 procedure generates an initial stress eld that is not in equilibrium or where plastic
points occur. After this step has been completed, the stress eld will be in equilibrium and
all stresses will obey the failure condition. In this case no changes should be made to the
geometry conguration or to the water conditions. If necessary, such a calculation can be
performed with a reduced Tolerated error to increase the accuracy of the equilibrium
stress eld.
If the original K0 procedure generates a stress eld that is far from equilibrium, then the
plastic nil-step may fail to converge. This happens, for example, when the K0 procedure
is applied to problems with very steep slopes. For these problems the Gravity loading
procedure should be adopted instead.
It is important to ensure that displacements calculated during a plastic nil-step (if it is
used applied immediately after generating the initial stresses) do not affect later
calculations. This may be achieved by using the Reset displacements to zero option in
the subsequent calculation phase (Section 5.7.4).
The Staged construction loading type is used to perform plastic nil-steps
to solve existing out-of-balance forces. No changes in the geometry, load level, load
conguration and water pressure distribution should be made.
5.5.11 UPDATED MESH ANALYSIS
In conventional nite element analysis, the inuence of the geometry change of the mesh
on the equilibrium conditions is neglected. This is usually a good approximation when the
deformations are relatively small as is the case for most engineering structures. However,
there are circumstances under which it is necessary to take this inuence into account.
Typical applications where updated mesh analyses may be necessary include the
analysis of reinforced soil structures, the analysis of large offshore footing collapse
problems and the study of problems where soils are soft and large deformations occur.
When large deformation theory is included in a nite element program some special
features need to be considered. Firstly it is necessary to include additional terms in the
structure stiffness matrix to model the effects of large structural distortions on the nite
element equations.
CALCULATIONS
Secondly, it is necessary to include a procedure to model correctly the stress changes
that occur when nite material rotations occur. This particular feature of large
displacement theory is usually dealt with by adopting a denition of stress rate that
includes rotation rate terms. Several stress rate denitions have been proposed by
researchers working in this eld although none of these are wholly satisfactory. In
PLAXIS the co-rotational rate of Kirchhoff stress (otherwise known as the Hill stress rate)
is adopted. This stress rate would be expected to give accurate results provided that the
shear strains do not become excessive.
Thirdly, it is necessary to update the nite element mesh as the calculation proceeds.
This is done automatically within PLAXIS when the Updated mesh option is selected.
It should be clear from the descriptions given above that the updated mesh procedures
used in PLAXIS involve considerably more than simply updating nodal coordinates as the
calculation proceeds. These calculation procedures are in fact based on an approach
known as an Updated Lagrangian formulation (Bathe, 1982). Implementation of this
formulation within PLAXIS is based on the use of various advanced techniques that are
beyond the scope of this manual (van Langen, 1991).
The three basic types of calculations (Plastic, Consolidation and Safety) can optionally
be performed as an Updated mesh analysis, taking into account the effects of large
deformations. Therefore, the Updated mesh parameter should be selected. It can also be
selected whether water pressures should be continuously recalculated according to the
updated position of the stress points. This option is termed Updated water pressures and
is meant to take into account the effects of soil settling (partly) below a constant phreatic
level.
Please note that an updated mesh calculation cannot be followed by a 'normal'
calculation. Reversely, a normal calculation can be followed by an updated mesh
calculation, provided that the option Reset displacements to zero is used (Section 5.7.4).
It should be noted that an updated mesh analysis takes much more time and is less
robust than a normal calculation. Hence, this option should only be used in special cases.
Distributed loads
Distributed loads on deformed boundaries are taken into account as if those boundaries
were not deformed. This is to avoid that the total force involved does not change when
the boundary stretches or shrinks. This also applies to axisymmetric applications where
the radius changes as a result of deformation.
Calculation procedures
In order to carry out an updated mesh analysis the Advanced button should be clicked in
the Calculation type box of the General tabsheet. As a result, the Advanced general
settings window appears in which the Updated mesh option can be selected.
Updated mesh calculations are carried out using iteration procedures similar to the
conventional calculation options (Plastic or Consolidation) as described in preceding
sections. Therefore an updated mesh analysis uses the same parameters. However,
because of the large deformation effect, the stiffness matrix is always updated at the
beginning of a load step. Due to this procedure and to the additional terms and more
complex formulations, the iterative procedure in an updated mesh analysis is
REFERENCE MANUAL
considerably slower than that for conventional calculations.
Safety calculations
The geometry of the model considered in a Safety calculation depends on whether the
Updated mesh option is selected or not in the parent phase. If the mesh is updated, the
resulting geometry at the end of the parent phase will be considered in the safety
calculations.
During a safety calculation the mesh is not updated at the beginning of each load step
even if the Updated mesh option is selected for the Safety phase.
Practical considerations
Updated mesh analysis tends to require more computer time than an equivalent,
conventional calculation. It is recommended, therefore, that when a new project is under
study a conventional calculation is carried out before an updated mesh analysis is
attempted.
It is not possible to give simple guidelines that may be used to indicate when an updated
mesh analysis is necessary and where a conventional analysis is sufcient. One simple
approach would be to inspect the deformed mesh at the end of a conventional calculation
using the Deformed mesh option in the Output program. If the geometry changes are
large (on a real scale!) then signicant importance of geometric effects might be
suspected. In this case the calculation should be repeated using the updated mesh
option. It cannot denitely be decided from the general magnitudes of the deformations
obtained from a conventional plasticity calculation whether geometric effects are
important or not. If the user is in any doubt about whether updated mesh analysis is
necessary then the issue can only be resolved by carrying out the updated mesh analysis
and comparing the results with the equivalent conventional analysis.
In general, it is not appropriate to use an updated mesh calculation for gravity loading to
set up the initial stress eld. Displacements resulting from gravity loading are physically
meaningless and should therefore be reset to zero. Resetting displacements to zero is
not possible after an updated mesh analysis. Hence, gravity loading should be applied in
a normal plastic calculation.
Changing from a 'normal' plastic calculation or consolidation analysis to an updated mesh
analysis is only valid when displacements are reset to zero, because a series of updated
mesh analyses must start from an undeformed geometry. Changing from an updated
mesh calculation to a 'normal' plastic calculation or consolidation analysis is not valid,
because then all large deformation effects will be disregarded.
By default, the loading type of most types of calculation is set to Staged construction. In
this PLAXIS specic feature it is possible to change the geometry and load conguration
by deactivating or reactivating loads, structural objects or soil volumes. An overview of
the available options is given below.
Updated water pressures
After the selection of Updated mesh option in the Advanced window of the General
tabsheet, a further selection of Updated water pressures may be selected. When this
option is selected, pore pressures in stress points and external water pressures at model
CALCULATIONS
boundaries are updated during the calculation according to the deformed model
boundaries and the displaced position of stress points. Basis for the update of water
pressures is the general phreatic level and the cluster phreatic levels. In this way, the
buoyancy effect of soil that is submerged below the phreatic level is taken into account.
Note that the pore pressures in clusters that have user-dened pore pressures are not
updated. Also, pore pressures that are calculated from groundwater ow calculations are
not updated.
5.6 LOAD STEPPING PROCEDURES
When soil plasticity is involved in a nite element calculation the equations become
non-linear, which means that the problem needs to be solved in a series of calculation
steps. An important part of the non-linear solution procedure is the choice of step size
and the solution algorithm to be used.
During each calculation step, the equilibrium errors in the solution are successively
reduced using a series of iterations. The iteration procedure is based on an accelerated
initial stress method. If the calculation step is of a suitable size then the number of
iterations required for equilibrium will be relatively small, usually around ten.
If the step size is too small, then many steps are required to reach the desired load level
and computer time will be excessive. On the other hand, if the step size is too large then
the number of iterations required for equilibrium may become excessive or the solution
procedure may even diverge.
In PLAXIS there are various procedures available for the solution of non-linear plasticity
problems. All procedures are based on an automatic step size selection. The following
procedures are available: Load advancement ultimate level , Load advancement number
of steps and Automatic time stepping. Users do not need to worry about the proper
selection of these procedures, since PLAXIS will automatically use the most appropriate
procedure by itself to guarantee optimum performance.
The automatic load stepping procedure is controlled by a number of calculation control
parameters (Section 5.7). There is a convenient default setting for most control
parameters, which strikes a balance between robustness, accuracy and efciency. For
each calculation phase, the user can inuence the automatic solution procedures by
manually adjusting the control parameters in the Numerical control parameters subtree
in the the Phases window. In this way it is possible to have a stricter control over step
sizes and accuracy. Before proceeding to the description of the calculation control
parameters, a detailed description is given of the solution procedures themselves.
5.6.1 AUTOMATIC STEP SIZE PROCEDURE
Both of the Load advancement procedures (Ultimate level and Number of steps) make
use of an automatic step size algorithm (van Langen & Vermeer, 1990). The size of the
rst load step is either chosen automatically (Section 5.6.2) or manually by the user
(Section 5.6.3), depending on the applied algorithm. The automatic step size procedure
for subsequent computations is described below.
When a new load step is applied, a series of iterations are carried out to reach
equilibrium. The following three outcomes of this process are possible:
REFERENCE MANUAL
Case 1: The solution reaches equilibrium within a number of iterations that is less than
the Desired minimum control parameter. By default, the Desired minimum number of
iterations is 6, but this value may be changed in the Manual settings window of the
Iterative procedure group box of the Numerical control parameters subtree in the Phases
window(Section 5.7.1). If fewer iterations than the desired minimum are required to reach
the equilibrium state then the calculation step is assumed to be too small. In this case,
the size of the load increment is multiplied by two and further iterations are applied to
reach equilibrium.
Case 2: The solution fails to converge within a Desired maximum number of iterations.
By default, the Desired maximum number of iterations is 15, but this value may be
changed in the Manual settings window of the Iterative procedure group box of the
Numerical control parameters subtree in the Phases window. (Section 5.7.1). If the
solution fails to converge within the desired maximum number of iterations then the
calculation step is assumed to be too large. In this case, the size of the load increment is
reduced by a factor of two and the iteration procedure is continued.
Case 3: The number of required iterations lies between the Desired minimum number of
iterations and the Desired maximum number of iterations in which case the size of the
load increment is assumed to be satisfactory. After the iterations are complete, the next
calculation step begins. The initial size of this calculation step is made equal to the size
of the previous successful step.
If the outcome corresponds to either case 1 or case 2 then the process of increasing or
reducing the step size continues until case 3 is achieved.
5.6.2 LOAD ADVANCEMENT - ULTIMATE LEVEL
This automatic step size procedure is used for calculation phases where a certain 'state'
or load level (the 'ultimate state' or 'ultimate level') has to be reached, as in the case for a
Plastic calculation where the Undrained A and Undrained B behaviours are ignored. The
procedure terminates the calculation when the specied state or load level is reached or
when soil failure is detected. By default, the Max steps parameter is set to 250, but this
parameter does not play an important role, since in most cases the calculation stops
before the maximum number of steps is reached.
An important property of this calculation procedure is that the user species the state or
the values of the total load that is to be applied. A Plastic calculation where the Loading
input is set to Staged construction or Total multipliers uses this Load advancement
ultimate level procedure. The size of the rst load step is obtained automatically using
one of the two following methods:
PLAXIS performs a trial calculation step and determines a suitable step size on the
basis of this trial.
PLAXIS sets the initial load step size to be equal to the nal load step size of any
previous calculation.
The rst method is generally adopted. The second method would only be used if the
loading applied during the current load step is similar to that applied during the previous
load step, for example if the number of load steps applied in the previous calculation
proved to be insufcient.
In subsequent steps, the automatic load stepping procedures are adopted (Section
CALCULATIONS
5.6.1). If at the end of the calculation, the dened state or load level has been reached,
the calculation is considered to be successful. A successful calculation is indicated by a
check mark in a green circle in the Phases window.
If the dened state or load level has NOT been reached, the calculation is considered to
have failed. A failed calculation is indicated by a cross mark in a red circle in the Phases
window. A message describing the error is given in the Log info for the last calculation
box in the Phases window:
Prescribed ultimate state not reached; Soil body collapses: A collapse load has
been reached. In this case, the total specied load has not been applied. Collapse is
assumed when the applied load reduces in magnitude in a number successive
calculation steps as dened by the Additional steps parameter and the current stiffness
parameter CSP is less than 0.015 (see Section 5.13.9 for the denition of CSP). It is also
possible that the problem is failing but due to switched-off arc-length control, the program
is not allowed to take negative step sizes. The user should check the output of the last
step and judge whether the project is failing or not. In case of failure, recalculating the
project with a higher Additional steps parameter is useless.
Prescribed ultimate state not reached; load advancement procedure fails. Try
manual control: The load advancement procedure is unable to further increase the
applied load, but the current stiffness parameter CSP is larger than 0.015. In this case
the total load specied has not been applied. The user can now attempt to rerun the
calculation with slight changes to the iterative parameters in Numerical control
parameters subtree in the the Phases window, in particular turning off the Arc-length
control type parameter.
Prescribed ultimate state not reached; Not enough load steps: The maximum
specied number of additional load steps have been applied. In this case, it is likely that
the calculation stops before the total specied load has been applied. It is advised to
recalculate the phase with an increased value of Max steps.
Cancelled by user: This occurs when the calculation process is terminated by clicking
Stop in the Active tasks window.
Prescribed ultimate state not reached; Numerical error: A numerical error has
occurred. In this case, the total specied load has not been applied. There may be
different causes for a numerical error. Most likely, it is related to an input error. Careful
inspection of the input data, the nite element mesh and the dened calculation phase is
suggested.
Severe divergence: This is detected when the global error is increasing and has
reached huge values. This error, for example, can be caused by very small time steps in
a consolidation phase. The program scales down the step size when the tolerated error
cannot be reached, resulting in small time steps. One of the reasons can be that a failure
situation is reached. As for consolidation the arc-length procedure is not used, the
program cannot really detect failure.
File xxxx not found: Such a message appears when a le that ought to exist does not
exist.
Messages may indicate errors related to the iterative solution algorithm or the matrix
condition. In the case of 'oating' elements (insufcient boundary conditions), one could
get a message indicating that the matrix is nearly singular. Checking and improving the
REFERENCE MANUAL
dened calculation phase usually solves the problem.
5.6.3 LOAD ADVANCEMENT - NUMBER OF STEPS
This automatic step size procedure always performs the number of steps specied in
Additional steps and is, in general, used for calculation phases where a complete failure
mechanism should be developed during the analysis. This algorithm is therefore used
during a Safety analysis or a Plastic calculation where the Loading input is set to
Incremental multipliers.
The size of the rst step is determined by the incremental multiplier as dened for the
particular calculation phase. For Safety calculations the Loading type parameter is
Incremental multipliers and the default increment is M
sf
= 0.1. This value may be
changed in the General subtree of the Phases window. In subsequent steps, the
automatic load stepping procedures are adopted (Section 5.6.1).
If at the end of the calculation the value assigned to the Additional steps parameter has
been reached, the calculation is considered to be successful. A successful calculation is
indicated by a tick mark in a green circle in the Phases window.
If the value assigned to the Additional steps parameter has NOT been reached, the
calculation is considered to have failed. A failed calculation is indicated by a cross mark
in a red circle in the Phases window. A message describing the error is given in the Log
info for last calculation box in the Phases window.
Cancelled by user: This occurs when the calculation process is terminated by clicking
Stop in the Active tasks window.
Apart from cancellation by the user, a load advancement calculation will proceed until the
number of additional steps dened in the Additional steps parameter have been applied.
In contrast to the Ultimate level procedure the calculation will not stop when failure is
reached.
5.6.4 AUTOMATIC TIME STEPPING (CONSOLIDATION)
When the Calculation type is set to Consolidation, the Automatic time stepping procedure
is used. This procedure will automatically choose appropriate time steps for a
consolidation analysis. When the calculation runs smoothly, resulting in very few
iterations per step, then the program will choose a larger time step. When the calculation
uses many iterations due to an increasing amount of plasticity, then the program will take
smaller time steps.
The rst time step in a consolidation analysis is generally based on the First time step
parameter. This parameter is, by default, based on the advised minimum time step
(overall critical time step) as described in Section 5.7. The First time step parameter can
be changed in the Manual settings window appearing after clicking the Dene button
when Manual settings has been selected in the Iterative procedure group box. However,
care should be taken with time steps that are smaller than the advised minimum time
step.
In a consolidation analysis where the Loading input is set to Incremental multipliers, the
applied rst time step is based on the Time increment parameter rather than on the First
time step parameter. In this case, the specied number of Additional steps is always
CALCULATIONS
performed. In a consolidation analysis where the Loading input is set to Staged
construction or Minimum pore pressure, the specied number of Additional steps is just
an upper bound. In that case, the calculation is generally stopped earlier, when other
conditions are met.
During a Consolidation calculation, arc-length control is always inactive.
5.6.5 AUTOMATIC TIME STEPPING (DYNAMICS)
When the Calculation type is set to Dynamic, the Newmark time integration scheme is
used in which the time step is constant and equal to the critical time step during the whole
analysis. The proper critical time step for dynamic analyses is calculated based on
material property, element size and time history functions (see Section 5.7.1 for more
information). The critical time steps is calculated based on the values assigned to
Additional steps, Number of sub-steps and Dynamic time interval. To be able to change
the critical time step, the user needs to change the number of sub-steps.
During a dynamic calculation, arc-length control is always inactive.
5.7 CALCULATION CONTROL PARAMETERS
The Parameters tabsheet is used to dene the control parameters of a particular
calculation phase and the corresponding solution procedure (Figure 5.3).
Figure 5.3 Parameters tabsheet of the Calculations window
5.7.1 ITERATIVE PROCEDURE CONTROL PARAMETERS
The iterative procedures, in particular the load advancement procedures, are inuenced
by some control parameters. These parameters can be set in the Iterative procedure
group. PLAXIS has an option to adopt a Standard setting for these parameters, which in
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most cases leads to good performance of the iterative procedures. Users who are not
familiar with the inuence of the control parameters on the iterative procedures are
advised to select the Standard setting.
Figure 5.4 Manual settings window of the Iterative procedure group
In some situations, however, it might be desired or even necessary to change the
standard setting. In this case the user should select the Manual setting option and click
on the Dene button in the Iterative procedure group. As a result, a window is opened in
which the control parameters are displayed with their current values (Figure 5.4).
Tolerated error
In any non-linear analysis where a nite number of calculation steps are used there will
be some drift from the exact solution, as shown in Figure 5.5. The purpose of a solution
algorithm is to ensure that the equilibrium errors, both locally and globally, remain within
acceptable bounds (Section 5.13.9). The error limits adopted in PLAXIS are linked
closely to the specied value of the Tolerated error.
Within each step, the calculation program continues to carry out iterations until the
calculated errors are smaller than the specied value. If the tolerated error is set to a high
value then the calculation will be relatively quick but may be inaccurate. If a low tolerated
error is adopted then computer time may become excessive. In general, the standard
setting of 0.01 is suitable for most calculations. For preliminary calculations an increased
value of 0.03 or even 0.05 may be used.
Hint: A warning appears when a value higher than 0.05 is assigned to the
Tolerated error parameter.
If a plastic calculation gives failure loads that tend to reduce unexpectedly with increasing
displacement, then this is a possible indication of excessive drift of the nite element
results from the exact solution. In these cases the calculation should be repeated using a
lower value of the tolerated error. For further details of the error checking procedures
used in PLAXIS see Section 5.13.9.
CALCULATIONS
l
o
a
d
exact solution
numerical solution
displacement
Figure 5.5 Computed solution versus exact solution
Tolerated error (ow)
In the case of performing a ow calculation (steady-state or transient) or a Consolidation
analysis based on total pore pressure, it is possible to dene the tolerated error for ow
as a separate parameter to ensure that the equilibrium errors in a ow calculation remain
within acceptable bounds. For more information about the use of a tolerated error, see
above.
Over-relaxation
To reduce the number of iterations needed for convergence, PLAXIS makes use of an
over-relaxation procedure as indicated in Figure 5.6. The parameter that controls the
degree of over-relaxation is the over-relaxation factor. The theoretical upper bound value
is 2.0, but this value should never be used. For low soil friction angles, for example <
20
, an over-relaxation factor of about 1.5 tends to optimise the iterative procedure. If the
problem contains soil with higher friction angles, however, then a lower value may be
required. The standard setting of 1.2 is acceptable in most calculations.
l
o
a
d
l
o
a
d
over relaxation = 1
displacement displacement
over relaxation > 1
Figure 5.6 Iteration process
Maximum iterations
This value represents the maximum allowable number of iterations within any individual
calculation step. In general, the solution procedure will restrict the number of iterations
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that take place. This parameter is required only to ensure that computer time does not
become excessive due to errors in the specication of the calculation. The standard value
of Maximum iterations is 60, but this number may be changed within the range 1 to 100.
If the maximum allowable number of iterations is reached in the nal step of a calculation
phase, then the nal result may be inaccurate. If this is the case then the message
'Maximum iterations reached in nal step' is displayed in the Log info box of the General
tabsheet. Such a situation occasionally occurs when the solution process does not
converge. This may have various causes, but it mostly indicates an input error. It may
also happen at the end of a Safety analysis when very large deformations have occurred.
Desired minimum and desired maximum
If Plastic or Safety is selected as calculation type then PLAXIS makes use of an
automatic step size algorithm (Load advancement ultimate level or Number of steps).
This procedure is controlled by the two parameters Desired minimum and Desired
maximum, specifying the desired minimum and maximum number of iterations per step
respectively. The standard values of these parameters are 6 and 15 respectively, but
these numbers may be changed within the range 1 to 100. For details on the automatic
step size procedures see Section 5.6.
It is occasionally necessary for the user to adjust the values of the desired minimum and
maximum from their standard values. It is sometimes the case, for example, that the
automatic step size procedure generates steps that are too large to give a smooth
load-displacement curve. This is often the case where soils with very low friction angles
are modelled. To generate a smoother load-displacement response in these cases, the
calculations should be repeated with smaller values for these parameters, for example:
Desired minimum =3 Desired maximum = 7
If the soil friction angles are relatively high, or if high-order soil models are used, then it
may be appropriate to increase the desired minimum and maximum from their standard
values to obtain a solution without the use of excessive computer time. In these cases
the following values are suggested:
Desired minimum = 8 Desired maximum = 20
In this case it is recommended to increase the Maximum iterations to 80.
Arc-length control
The Arc-length control procedure is a method that is by default selected in a Plastic
calculation or a Safety analysis to obtain reliable collapse loads for load-controlled
calculations (Rheinholdt & Riks, 1986). Arc-length control is not available for
Consolidation analyses.
The iterative procedure adopted when arc-length control is not used is shown in Figure
5.7a for the case where a collapse load is being approached. In the case shown, the
algorithm will not converge. If arc-length control is adopted, however, the program will
automatically evaluate the portion of the external load that must be applied for collapse
as shown in Figure 5.7b.
CALCULATIONS
load
displacement
step 1
step 2
step 3
load control
a. Normal load control
load
displacement
step 1
step 2
step 3
arc
arc-length control
ol
b. Arc-length control
Figure 5.7 Iterative procedure
Arc-length control is activated by selecting the corresponding check box in the Manual
settings window, which is displayed as the Manual settings option is selected and Dene
is clicked in the Iterative procedure box in the Parameters tabsheet. The arc-length
control procedure should be used for load-controlled calculations, but it may be
deactivated, if desired, for displacement-controlled calculations. When using Incremental
multipliers as loading input, arc-length control will inuence the resulting load increments.
As a result, the load increments applied during the calculation will generally be smaller
than prescribed at the start of the analysis.
Hint: The use of arc-length control occasionally causes spontaneous unloading to
occur (i.e. sudden changes in sign of the displacement and load increments)
when the soil body is far from collapse. If this occurs, then the user is
advised to de-select Arc-length control and restart the calculation. Note that
if arc-length control is deselected and failure is approached, convergence
problems may occur.
First time step
The First time step is the increment of time used in the rst step of a consolidation
analysis, except when using Incremental multipliers as Loading input. By default, the rst
time step is equal to the overall critical time step, as described below.
Care should be taken with time steps that are smaller than the advised minimum time
step. For most numerical integration procedures, accuracy increases when the time step
is reduced, but for consolidation there is a threshold value. Below a particular time
increment (critical time step) the accuracy rapidly decreases and stress oscillations may
occur. For one-dimensional consolidation (vertical ow) this critical time step is calculated
as:
t
critical
=
H
2
w
(1 2)(1 + )
80k
y
E(1 )
(15 node triangles)
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t
critical
=
H
2
w
(1 2)(1 + )
40k
y
E(1 )
(6 node triangles)
Where
w
is the unit weight of the pore uid, is Poisson's ratio, k
y
is the vertical
permeability, E is the elastic Young's modulus, and H is the height of the element used.
Fine meshes allow for smaller time steps than coarse meshes. For unstructured meshes
with different element sizes or when dealing with different soil layers and thus different
values of k, E and , the above formula yields different values for the critical time step. To
be on the safe side, the time step should not be smaller than the maximum value of the
critical time steps of all individual elements. This overall critical time step is automatically
adopted as the First time step in a consolidation analysis. For an introduction to the
critical time step concept, the reader is referred to Vermeer & Verruijt (1981). Detailed
information about various types of nite elements is given by Song (1990).
Extrapolation
Extrapolation is a numerical procedure, which is automatically used in PLAXIS if
applicable, when a certain loading that was applied in the previous calculation step is
continued in the next step. In this case, the displacement solution to the previous load
increment can be used as a rst estimate of the solution to the new load increment.
Although this rst estimate is generally not exact (because of the non-linear soil
behaviour), the solution is usually better than the solution according to the initial stress
method (based on the use of the elastic stiffness matrix) (Figure 5.8). After the rst
iteration, subsequent iterations are based on the elastic stiffness matrix, as in the initial
stress method (Zienkiewicz, 1977). Nevertheless, using Extrapolation the total number of
iterations needed to reach equilibrium is less than without extrapolation. The
extrapolation procedure is particularly useful when the soil is highly plastic. Note that
there is no possibility to activate or de-activate this option by the user.
load
without extrapolation
displacement
apolation
a. Elastic prediction
load
displacement
with extrapolation
b. Extrapolation
Figure 5.8 Difference between elastic prediction and extrapolation from previous step
CALCULATIONS
Dynamic sub steps
The time step used in a dynamic calculation is constant and equal to t = t / (m n),
where t is the duration of the dynamic loading (Time interval ), m is the number of
Additional steps and n is the number of Dynamic sub steps. The result of the
multiplication of the Additional step number (m) and the Dynamic sub steps number (n)
gives the total number of steps to be used in the time discretization. It is important to
dene a proper number of steps such that the dynamic signal used in dynamic loading is
properly covered.
The number of the additional steps species the number of the steps which can be used
in plots in the Output program. A higher number of Additional steps provides more
detailed plots, however the processing time required by the Output program is increased
as well.
For each given number of additional time step, PLAXIS estimates the number of sub
steps on the basis of the generated mesh and the calculated t
critical
(see theory on
critical time, Section 7.2.1 of the Scientic Manual). If the wave velocities (functions of
material stiffness) in a model exhibit remarkable differences and/or the model contains
very small elements, the standard number of sub steps can be very large. In such
situations it may not always be vital to follow the automatic time stepping with the
standard number of dynamic sub-steps.
It is possible to change the calculated number of Dynamic sub steps in the Manual
settings window in the Iterative procedure box of the Parameters tabsheet. Changing the
number of sub steps will also inuence the time step (t ) used in a dynamic calculation.
In general it is a good habit to check the number of dynamic sub-steps by selecting the
Manual settings option and clicking the Dene button.
Newmark alpha and beta
The Newmark alpha and beta parameters in the Manual settings of the Iterative
procedure group determine the numeric time-integration according to the implicit
Newmark scheme. In order to obtain an unconditionally stable solution, these parameters
must satisfy the following conditions:
Newmark 0.5 and Newmark 0.25(0.5 + )
2
For an average acceleration scheme you can use the standard settings ( = 0.25 and
= 0.5). Using a higher -value and corresponding -value results in a damped
Newmark scheme (e.g. = 0.3025 and = 0.6).
Hint: Newmark alpha and beta should not be confused with Rayleigh and . For
more information about Rayleigh and see Section 4.1.1.
Boundary C
1
and Boundary C
2
Boundary C
1
and Boundary C
2
are relaxation coefcients used to improve the wave
absorption on the absorbent boundaries. C
1
corrects the dissipation in the direction
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normal to the boundary and C
2
does this in the tangential direction. If the boundaries are
subjected only to waves that come in perpendicular to the boundary, relaxation is not
necessary (C
1
= C
2
= 1). When there are waves in arbitrary direction (which is normally
the case), C
2
has to be adjusted to improve the absorption. The standard values are
C
1
= 1 and C
2
= 1.
5.7.2 PORE PRESSURE LIMITS
Limitations to the pore pressures can be dened in the Pore pressure limits group.
Cavitation cut-off
In case of unloading of undrained materials tensile excess pore pressures may be
generated. These excess pore pressures might give rise to tensile active pore pressures.
In case the cavitation cut-off option is activated, excess pore pressures are limited so that
the tensile active pore pressure is never larger than the cavitation cut-off stress. By
default, the cavitation cut-off option is not activated. If it is activated, the default cavitation
cut-off stress is set to 100 kN/m
2
.
Pore pressure tension cut-off
When the pore pressures are generated by the phreatic level option or by groundwater
ow calculations, tensile pore water stresses will be generated above the phreatic level.
In the Classical mode in which Terzaghi stress is used, the use of these tensile pore
stresses in a deformation analysis will lead to an overestimation of the shear strength
when effective strength parameters are used for the soil. In order to avoid such a
situation, tensile pore stresses can be cut off by selecting the Pore pressure tension
cut-off option. Subsequently, the Max. tensile stress parameter can be set to the
maximum allowable tensile stress (in the unit of stress). When using the Classical mode,
the Pore pressure tension cut-off option is selected by default and the Max.tensile stress
parameter is set to 0.001 kPa.
In the Advanced mode, in which Bishop stress is used, this option is not selected and the
maximum tensile pore water pressure, by default, is not limited. In this mode, the strength
of material is mainly governed by the selection of the Soil Water Characteristic Curve
(SWCC) used for unsaturated area (see Section 5.3.2). It is strongly suggested to
activate the Pore pressure tension cut-off in a Plastic analysis before performing a Safety
analysis.
5.7.3 LOADING INPUT
The Loading input group box is used to specify which type of loading is considered in a
particular calculation phase. Only one of the described loading types can be activated in
any single calculation phase.
In Plastic calculations, distinction is made between the following types of Loading input :
Loading in the sense of changing the load combination, stress state, weight,
strength or stiffness of elements, activated by changing the load and geometry
conguration or pore pressure distribution by means of Staged construction. In this
case, the total load level that is to be reached at the end of the calculation phase is
CALCULATIONS
dened by specifying a new geometry and load conguration, and/or pore pressure
distribution, in the Staged construction mode (Section 5.8).
Loading in the sense of increasing or decreasing a predened combination of
external forces, activated by changing Total multipliers. In this case, the total load
level that is to be reached at the end of the calculation phase is dened by entering
values for the Total multipliers in the Multipliers tabsheet.
Loading in the sense of increasing or decreasing a predened combination of
external forces, activated by changing Incremental multipliers. In this case, the rst
increment of load is dened by entering values for the Incremental multipliers in the
Multipliers tabsheet, and this loading is continued in subsequent steps.
When selecting Safety distinction is made between the following types of Loading input :
Reduction of the soil and interface strength parameters towards a target value of the
total multiplier Msf . The program rst performs a full safety analysis until failure
and then it recalculates the last step before the target value of Msf in order to
reach the target exactly. Note that the Msf parameter is available in the Multipliers
tabsheet as well.
Reduction of the soil and interface strength parameters by using the Incremental
multipliers option. In this case, the increment of the strength reduction of the rst
calculation step, Msf , is dened. Note that the Msf parameter is available in the
Multipliers tabsheet as well.
In a Consolidation analysis based on excess pore pressure, the following options are
available:
Consolidation and simultaneous loading in the sense of changing the load
combination, stress state, weight, strength or stiffness of elements, activated by
changing the load and geometry conguration or pore pressure distribution by
means of Staged construction. It is necessary to specify a value for the Time interval
parameter, which has in this case the meaning of the total consolidation period
applied in the current calculation phase. The applied rst time increment is based on
the First time step parameter in the Manual settings window of the Iterative
procedure group. The Staged construction option should also be selected if it is
desired to allow for a certain consolidation period without additional loading.
Consolidation without additional loading, until all excess pore pressures have
decreased below a certain minimum value, specied by the Minimum pore
pressures parameter. By default, Minimum pore pressures is set to 1 stress unit, but
this value may be changed by the user. Please note that the Minimum pore
pressures parameter is an absolute value, which applies to pressure as well as
tensile stress. The input of a Time interval is not applicable in this case, since it
cannot be determined beforehand how much time is needed to fulll the minimum
pore pressure requirement. The applied rst time increment is based on the First
time step parameter in the Manual settings window of the Iterative procedure group.
Consolidation and simultaneous loading in the sense of increasing or decreasing a
predened combination of external forces, activated by changing Incremental
multipliers. It is necessary to specify a value for the Time increment parameter in
the unit of time. The Time increment sets in this case the applied rst time step and
determines the loading rate, together with the current conguration of external loads
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and the incremental multipliers in the Multipliers tabsheet.
Consolidation without additional loading, until a desired degree of consolidation,
specied by the Degree of consolidation parameter, is reached. By default, Degree
of consolidation is set to 90.0 %, but this value may be changed by the user. The
input of a Time interval is not applicable in this case, since it cannot be determined
beforehand how much time is needed to fulll the degree of consolidation
requirement. The applied rst time increment is based on the First time step
parameter in the Manual settings window of the Iterative procedure group.
In a Consolidation analysis based on total pore pressure, the following options are
available:
Consolidation and simultaneous loading in the sense of changing the load
combination, stress state, weight, strength or stiffness of elements, activated by
changing the load and geometry conguration or pore pressure distribution by
means of Staged construction. It is necessary to specify a value for the Time interval
parameter, which has in this case the meaning of the total consolidation period
applied in the current calculation phase. The applied rst time increment is based on
the First time step parameter in the Manual settings window of the Iterative
procedure group. The Staged construction option should also be selected if it is
desired to allow for a certain consolidation period without additional loading.
Consolidation and simultaneous loading in the sense of increasing or decreasing a
predened combination of external forces, activated by changing Incremental
multipliers. It is necessary to specify a value for the Time increment parameter in
the unit of time. The Time increment sets in this case the applied rst time step and
determines the loading rate, together with the current conguration of external loads
and the incremental multipliers in the Multipliers tabsheet.
In a Dynamics analysis, the following options are available:
Dynamic loading in the sense of increasing or decreasing a predened combination
of external dynamic forces, activated by changing Total multipliers. In this case, the
total load level that is to be reached at the end of each calculation step is specied
as a (harmonic) function or is imported from a le which contains values for the Total
multipliers, in the Multipliers tabsheet.
In a Free vibration analysis, the following options are available:
Dynamic analysis by releasing external static load system A.
Dynamic analysis by releasing external static load system B.
Dynamic analysis by releasing all external static load systems (A and B).
In a Groundwater ow (steady-state), the following options are available:
Steady state groundwater ow calculation in the sense of changing (or dening) ow
boundary conditions or dening a new geometry conguration by means of Staged
construction.
In a Groundwater ow (transient), the following options are available:
Transient groundwater ow calculation in the sense of changing (or dening)
time-dependent ow boundary conditions or dening a new geometry conguration
by means of Staged construction.
CALCULATIONS
Staged construction
If Staged construction is selected from the Loading input box, then the user can specify a
new state that is to be reached at the end of the calculation phase. This new stage can be
dened by pressing the Dene button and changing the water pressure distribution, the
geometry, the input values of loads and the load conguration in the Water conditions and
Staged construction mode. The Staged construction option may also be used to perform
plastic nil-steps to solve existing out-of-balance forces. In this case, no changes in the
geometry, load level, load conguration and water pressure distribution should be made.
Before specifying the construction stage, the Time interval of the calculation phase
should be considered. The Time interval is expressed in the unit of time. A non-zero
value is only relevant in the case of a Consolidation analysis or if a time-dependent soil
model (such as Soft Soil Creep model ) is used. The appropriate value can be entered in
the Loading input group of the Parameters tabsheet.
Since staged construction is performed using the Load advancement ultimate level
procedure (Section 5.6.2), it is controlled by a total multiplier (Mstage). This multiplier
always starts at zero and is expected to reach the ultimate level of 1.0 at the end of the
calculation phase. In some special situations, however, it might be necessary to split the
staged construction process into more than one calculation phase and to specify an
intermediate value of Mstage. This can be done by clicking on the Advanced button in
the Loading input group, which is only available for a Plastic calculation. As a result, a
window appears in which the desired ultimate level of Mstage can be specied.
However, care must be taken with an ultimate level smaller than 1.0, since this is
associated with a resulting out-of-balance force. Such calculations must always be
followed by another staged construction calculation.Without specifying a value for
Mstage, the program always assumes an ultimate level of Mstage = 1.0. Before
starting any other type of calculation the Mstage parameter must rst have reached the
value 1.0. This can be veried after a calculation by selecting the Reached values option
in the Multipliers tabsheet (Section 5.11.2).
Total multipliers
If the Total multipliers option is selected in the Loading input box, then the user may
specify the multipliers that are applied to current conguration of the external loads. The
actual applied load at the end of the calculation phase is the product of the input value of
the load and the corresponding load multiplier, provided a collapse mechanism or
unloading does not occur earlier.
Before specifying the external loads, the Time interval of the calculation may be specied
in the Loading input box of the Parameters tabsheet. The time interval is the time
involved in the current calculation phase, expressed in the unit of time as specied in the
Project properties window of the Input program. A non-zero value is only relevant if a
time-dependent soil model (such as the Soft Soil Creep model) is used. The combination
of the total multipliers and the time interval determine the loading rate that is applied in
the calculation.
In addition to the time interval, an estimate is given of the total time at the end of the
calculation phase (Estimated end time), which is a summation of all time intervals of
preceding calculation phases including the current one. If the calculation phase has been
executed, the Realised end time is given instead, which is the total time that has actually
REFERENCE MANUAL
been reached at the end of the calculation phase. In addition the reached values of the
multipliers can be viewed by selecting the corresponding radio button in the Multipliers
tabsheet.
Incremental multipliers
Selecting Incremental multipliers in the Loading input box enables the user to specify
incremental load multipliers that are applied to current conguration of the external loads.
The initially applied load increment in the rst step of the calculation phase is the product
of the input value of the load and the corresponding incremental multiplier. Note that the
resulting increments of load in the rst calculation step will be inuenced by the
Arc-length control procedure if it is active.
Before entering an increment of external load, a Time increment can be entered in the
Loading input box of the Parameters tabsheet. This is only relevant for a Consolidation
analysis or if a time dependent soil models (such as the Soft Soil Creep model) is used.
The combination of the incremental multipliers and the time increment determine the
loading rate that is applied in the calculation. The time increment is expressed in the unit
of time as entered in the Project properties window of the Input program.
Minimum pore pressure (consolidation)
The Minimum pore pressure option in the Loading input box is a criterion for terminating
a consolidation analysis. The calculation stops when the maximum absolute excess pore
pressure is below the prescribed value of Minimum pore pressure. Note that the number
of Additional steps is a maximum number and will not be reached if the Minimum pore
pressure criterion is met before. For example, when the maximum excess pore pressure
has reached a certain value during the application of load, the user can make sure that
the consolidation process is continued until all nodal values of excess pore pressure are
less than Minimum pore pressure, provided the number of Additional steps is sufcient.
Degree of consolidation
The option Degree of consolidation is an alternative criterion for terminating a
consolidation analysis. The calculation stops when the degree of consolidation, as
denes herein, is below the value of Degree of consolidation. The degree of
consolidation is an important indication of the consolidation state. Strictly, the degree of
consolidation, U, is dened in terms of the proportion of the nal settlement although the
term is often used to describe the proportion of pore pressures that have dissipated to at
least (100-U)% of their values immediately after loading. The Degree of consolidation
option may be used to specify the nal degree of consolidation in any analysis.
In this case the Minimum pore pressure parameter (see above) is set to a value as
dened by the maximum excess pore pressure in the previous phase and the dened
Degree of consolidation (U):
Minimumpore pressure = (100 U)Pmax
where Pmax is the maximum excess pore pressure reached in the previous phase which
can be found in the Multipliers tabsheet of the previous calculation phase when selecting
the Reached values option (Section 5.11.2). The calculation steps when the maximum
absolute excess pore pressure is below this calculated value of Minimum pore pressure.
CALCULATIONS
Releasing a load system (free vibration)
An applied external static load (system A, B or both) can be released in a dynamic Free
vibration analysis to evaluate the eigen frequencies of a structure.
Before entering which load system should be released, a Time interval can be entered in
the Loading input box of the Parameters tabsheet. A dynamic analysis is preformed
based on the time interval and the out of balance force generated by the released load.
The time interval is expressed in seconds similar to all dynamic calculations.
Time increment, Time interval, Realised end time, Estimated end time
These time parameters control the progress of time in the calculations. All time
parameters are expressed in the unit of time as dened in the Model tabsheet of the
Project properties window. A non-zero value for the Time increment or Time interval
parameters is only relevant when a consolidation analysis is performed, when transient
groundwater ow is considered or when using time-dependent material models (such as
the Soft Soil Creep model). The meaning of the various time parameters is described
below:
Time increment is the increment of time considered in a single step (rst step) in the
current calculation phase.
Time interval is the total time period considered in the current calculation phase.
Realised end time is the actual accumulated time at the end of a nished calculation
phase.
Estimated end time is an estimation of the accumulated time at the end of a phase
that is to be calculated. This parameter is estimated from the Time interval of the
current phase and the Realised or Estimated end time of the previous phase.
5.7.4 CONTROL PARAMETERS
In addition to the parameters dening the solution procedure and the loading input, some
additional control parameters can be dened.
Additional steps
This parameter species the maximum number of calculation steps (load steps) that are
performed in a particular calculation phase.
If Plastic or Consolidation analysis is selected as the calculation type and the loading
input is set to Incremental multipliers, then the number of additional steps should be set
to an integer number representing the required number of steps for this calculation
phase. In this case the number of additional steps is an upper bound to the actual
number of steps that will be executed. By default, the Additional steps parameter is set to
250, but this number can be changed within the range 1 to 10000.
If Safety, Dynamic or Free vibration is selected as the calculation type and the loading
input is set to Staged construction, Total multipliers, Minimum pore pressure or Degree of
consolidation, then the number of additional steps is always exactly executed. In general,
it is desired that such a calculation is completed within the number of additional steps and
REFERENCE MANUAL
stops when either the prescribed ultimate state is reached or the soil body collapses. If
such a calculation reaches the maximum number of additional steps, it usually means
that the ultimate level has not been reached. By default, the Additional steps parameter is
set to 100, which is generally sufcient to complete the calculation phase. However, this
number may be changed within the range 1 to 10000.
In the case of a dynamic calculation, it is suggested to check the number of dynamic
sub-steps by selecting the Manual settings and click the Dene button. If the number of
dynamic sub-steps is high (e.g. > 10) it is suggested to increase the number of Additional
steps such that the number of sub-steps is not larger than 10.
Max number of steps stored
This parameter denes the number of steps to be saved in a calculation phase. In
general the nal output step contains the most relevant result of the calculation phase,
whereas intermediate steps are less important. The nal step of a calculation phase is
always saved.
When Max. steps saved is larger than one, then also the rst step is saved plus (when
>2) a selection of available intermediate steps, such that the intervals between the step
numbers are more or less equally divided.
If a calculation phase does not nish successfully then all calculation steps are retained,
regardless of the dened value. This enables a stepwise evaluation of the cause of the
problem.
Reset displacements to zero
This option should be selected when irrelevant displacements of previous calculation
steps are to be disregarded at the beginning of the current calculation phase, so that the
new calculation starts from a zero displacement eld. For example, deformations due to
gravity loading are physically meaningless. Hence, this option may be chosen after
gravity loading to remove these displacements. If the option is not selected then
incremental displacements occurring in the current calculation phase will be added to
those of the previous phase. The selection of the Reset displacements to zero option
does not inuence the stress eld.
The use of the Reset displacements to zero option may not be used in a sequence of
calculations where the Updated Mesh option is used. However, if an Updated mesh
calculation starts from a calculation where the Updated mesh option is not used, then the
Reset displacements to zero option must be used in this Updated mesh calculation.
Ignore undrained behaviour
Ignore undrained behaviour excludes temporarily the effects of undrained behaviour in
situations where undrained material data sets (Undrained (A) or Undrained (B)) are used.
The selection of this option is associated with the selection of the Plastic and Plastic
drained calculation types. In the latter case, the option Ignore undrained behaviour is
selected whereas in the former case it is not selected. When the option is selected, the
stiffness of water is not taken into account. As a result, all undrained material clusters
(except for Undrained (C) materials) become temporarily drained. Existing excess pore
pressures that were previously generated will remain, but no new excess pore pressures
will be generated in that particular calculation phase.
CALCULATIONS
Gravity loading of undrained materials will result in unrealistic excess pore pressures.
Stresses due to the self-weight of the soil, for example, are based on a long-term process
in which the development of excess pore pressures is irrelevant. The Ignore undrained
behaviour option enables the user to specify the material type from the beginning as
undrained for the main loading stages and to ignore the undrained behaviour during the
Gravity loading stage, at least for data sets dened as Undrained A or Undrained B.
Hint: The Ignore undrained behaviour option is not available for Consolidation
analyses, since a consolidation analysis does not consider the Drainage type
as specied in the material data sets, but uses the material permeability
instead.
Note that Ignore undrained behaviour does not affect materials of which the drainage
type is set to Undrained (C).
5.8 STAGED CONSTRUCTION - GEOMETRY DEFINITION
Staged construction is the most important type of Loading input. In this special PLAXIS
feature it is possible to change the geometry and load conguration by deactivating or
reactivating loads, volume clusters or structural objects as created in the geometry input.
Staged construction enables an accurate and realistic simulation of various loading,
construction and excavation processes. The option can also be used to reassign material
data sets or to change the water pressure distribution in the geometry. To carry out a
staged construction calculation, it is rst necessary to create a geometry model that
includes all of the objects that are to be used during the calculation.
A staged construction analysis can be executed in a Plastic calculation as well as a
Consolidation analysis or ow calculation. In the Parameters tabsheet, the Staged
construction option can be selected in the Loading input box (except for a ow
calculation). On subsequently clicking on the Dene button, the Input program is started
in the staged construction window.
The staged construction window consists of two different modes:
The Staged construction mode and the Water conditions mode. The Staged construction
mode can be used to activate or deactivate loadings, soil clusters and structural objects
and to reassign material data sets to clusters and structural objects. In addition to these
facilities, staged construction allows for the prestressing of anchors. The Water
conditions mode can be used to generate a new water pressure distribution based on the
input of a new set of phreatic levels or on a groundwater ow calculation using a new set
of boundary conditions.
Switching between the Staged construction mode and the Water conditions mode can be
achieved by clicking the appropriate blue button in the toolbar. After the new situation has
been dened, the Update button should be clicked to store the information and return to
the Calculations program. In addition, the next calculation phase may be dened or the
calculation process may be started.
Changes to the geometry conguration or the water conditions generally cause
substantial out-of-balance forces. These out-of-balance forces are stepwise applied to
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the nite element mesh using a Load advancement ultimate level procedure. During a
staged construction calculation, a multiplier that controls the staged construction process
(Mstage) is increased from zero to the ultimate level (generally 1.0). In addition, a
parameter representing the active proportion of the geometry (Marea) is updated.
5.8.1 CHANGING GEOMETRY CONFIGURATION
Clusters or structural objects may be reactivated or deactivated to simulate a process of
construction or excavation. This can be done by clicking on the object in the geometry
model. When clicking once on an object, the object will change from active to inactive,
and vice versa. If more than one object is present on a geometry line (for example plates
and distributed loads), a selection window appears from which the desired object can be
selected.
Active soil clusters are drawn in the material data set colour whereas deactivated clusters
are drawn in the background colour (white). Active structural objects are drawn in their
original colour, whereas deactivated structures are drawn in grey.
When double clicking a structural object, the corresponding properties window appears
and the properties can be changed.
In the Select window that appears after double clicking a soil cluster, you can either
change the material properties (Section 5.8.5) or apply a volume strain to the selected
cluster (Section 5.8.6).
Interfaces can be activated or deactivated individually. Deactivation of interfaces may be
considered in the following situations:
To avoid soil-structure interaction (slipping and gapping) e.g. before a sheet pile wall
or tunnel is installed in the soil (when corresponding plate elements are inactive).
To avoid blocking of ow before a structure composed of plate elements is active.
In any case, interface elements are present in the nite element mesh from the very
beginning. However, the following special conditions are applied to inactive interfaces:
Purely elastic behaviour (no slipping or gapping).
Fully coupled pore pressure degrees-of-freedom in node pairs (no inuence on ow
in consolidation or groundwater calculations).
5.8.2 ACTIVATING AND DEACTIVATING CLUSTERS OR STRUCTURAL OBJECTS
Soil clusters and structural objects can be activated or deactivated by clicking once on
the cluster or structural object in the geometry model in the Staged construction mode.
Anchors may only be active if at least one of the soil clusters or plates to which they are
connected is also active; otherwise the calculations program deactivates them
automatically.
At the start of a staged construction calculation the information about active and inactive
objects in the geometry model is transformed into information on an element level.
Hence, deactivating a soil cluster results in 'switching off' the corresponding soil elements
during the calculation.
The following rules apply for elements that have been switched off:
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Properties, such as weight, stiffness and strength, are not taken into account.
All stresses are set to zero.
All inactive nodes will have zero displacements.
Boundaries that arise from the removal of elements are automatically taken to be
free and permeable. In the case of groundwater ow or consolidation, these
boundaries allow for free outow of water if not specied otherwise.
Steady-state pore pressures (not excess pore pressures) are always taken into
account, even for inactive elements. This means that PLAXIS will automatically
generate suitable water pressures on submerged boundaries caused by the removal
of elements. This may be checked when entering the Water conditions mode. On
'excavating' (i.e. deactivating) clusters below the general phreatic level, the
excavation remains lled with water. If, on the other hand, it is desired to remove the
water from the excavated part of the soil, then a new water pressure distribution
should be dened in the Water conditions mode. This feature is demonstrated in the
Tutorial Manual.
External loads or prescribed displacements that act on a part of the geometry that is
inactive will not be taken into account.
For elements that have been inactive and that are (re)activated in a particular calculation,
the following rules apply:
Stiffness and strength will be fully taken into account from the beginning (i.e. the rst
step) of the calculation phase.
Weight will, in principle, be fully taken into account from the beginning of the
calculation phase. However, in general, a large out-of-balance force will occur at the
beginning of a staged construction calculation. This out-of-balance force is stepwise
solved in subsequent calculation steps.
The stresses will develop from zero.
When a node becomes active, an initial displacement is estimated by stressless
predeforming the newly activated elements such that they t within the deformed
mesh as obtained from the previous step. Further increments of displacement are
added to this initial value. As an example, one may consider the construction of a
block in several layers, allowing only for vertical displacements (one-dimensional
compression). Starting with a single layer and adding one layer on top of the rst will
give settlements of the top surface. If a third layer is subsequently added to the
second layer, it will be given an initial deformation corresponding to the settlements
of the surface.
If an element is (re)activated and the Material type of the corresponding material
data set has been set to Undrained (A) or Undrained (B), then the element will
temporarily behave "drained" in the phase where the element was activated. This is
to allow for the development of effective stresses due to the self weight in the newly
activated soil. If the element remains active in later calculation phases, then the
original type of material behaviour is retained in those phases.
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5.8.3 ACTIVATING OR CHANGING LOADS
By default, all loads will be inactive in the initial phase, but they can be reactivated using
a staged construction process. As in the case of structural objects, loads can be
activated or deactivated by clicking once on the load in the geometry model. Active loads
are drawn in their original colour, whereas deactivated loads are drawn in grey.
When activating loads, the actual value of the load that is applied during a calculation is
determined by the input value of the load and the corresponding load multiplier
(MloadA or MloadB).
Input value of a load
By default, the input value of a load is the value as given during the geometry creation.
The input value of the load may be changed in each calculation phase in the framework
of Staged construction. This can be done by double clicking the load in the geometry.
After double clicking a point load the Point load window appears in which the x- and
y-components can be entered directly (Figure 5.9).
Figure 5.9 Input window for a point load
After double clicking a distributed load the Distributed load window appears in which the
x- and y-components can be entered directly at the two respective geometry points
(Figure 5.10). The Perpendicular button may be used to make sure that the distributed
load is perpendicular to the corresponding geometry line.
Load labels
When an ULS phase is dened and a design approach is selected in the Staged
construction window, the predened labels (Section 3.6.2) can be assigned to loads by
using the options available in the Load window. The predened labels are listed in the
Label drop-down menu. The dened value of the selected partial factor is displayed in
the Factor cell. Note that the reference values of the load are displayed when the Show
reference values option is selected at the bottom of the window.
Load multiplier
The actual value of the load that is applied during a calculation is determined by the
product of the input value of the load and the corresponding load multiplier (MloadA or
MloadB). The multiplier MloadA is used to globally increase (or decrease) all loads of
load system A (point loads and distributed loads), whereas MloadB is used to change
all loads of load system B (Section 5.11.1). However, in general it is not necessary to
CALCULATIONS
Figure 5.10 Input window for a distributed load
change the load multipliers when applying or changing loads by means of staged
construction since the program will initially set the corresponding multiplier to unity.
5.8.4 APPLYING PRESCRIBED DISPLACEMENTS
Prescribed displacements that were created in the geometry input are not automatically
applied during calculations, but they can be activated by means of a staged construction
process. As long as prescribed displacements are not active, they do not impose any
condition on the model. Hence, at parts of the model where prescribed displacements
have been dened that are currently inactive, the nodes are fully free. Similar as for
loads, prescribed displacements can be activated or deactivated by selecting and clicking
once on the prescribed displacement in the geometry. Active prescribed displacements
are drawn in their original colour, whereas inactive prescribed displacements are drawn in
grey.
If it is desired to temporarily 'x' the nodes where prescribed displacements are created,
the input value of the prescribed displacement should be set to 0.0 rather than
deactivating the prescribed displacement. In the former case a prescribed displacement
of zero is applied to the nodes, whereas if the prescribed displacement is deactivated the
nodes are free.
When activating prescribed displacements, the actual value of the prescribed
displacement that is applied during a calculation is determined by the input value of the
prescribed displacement and the corresponding load multiplier (Mdisp).
Input value of prescribed displacement
By default, the input value of a prescribed displacement is the value given during the
geometry creation. The input value of the load may be changed in each calculation
phase using a staged construction procedure. This can be done by double clicking the
prescribed displacement in the geometry. As a result, a prescribed displacement window
appears in which the input values of the prescribed displacement can be changed.
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Figure 5.11 Input window for a prescribed displacement
Prescribed displacement labels
When an ULS phase is dened and a design approach is selected in the Staged
construction window, the predened labels (Section 3.6.2) can be assigned to prescribed
displacements by using the options available in the Prescribed displacement window.
The predened labels are listed in the Label drop-down menu. The dened value of the
selected partial factor is displayed in the Factor cell. Note that the reference values of the
prescribed displacement are displayed when the Show reference values option is
selected at the bottom of the window.
Corresponding multiplier
The actual value of the prescribed displacement that is applied during a calculation is
determined by the product of the input value of the prescribed displacement and the
corresponding load multiplier (Mdisp). The multiplier Mdisp is used to globally
increase (or decrease) all prescribed displacements (Section 5.11.1). However, in
general it is not necessary to change the multiplier when applying or changing prescribed
displacements by means of a staged construction process since the program will initially
set the corresponding multiplier to unity.
5.8.5 REASSIGNING MATERIAL DATA SETS
The option to reassign material data sets may be used to simulate the change of material
with time during the various stages of construction. The option may also be used to
simulate soil improvement processes, e.g. removing poor quality soil and replacing it with
soil of a better quality.
On double clicking a soil cluster or structural object in the geometry model, the properties
window appears (Figure 5.12) in which the material data set of that object can be
changed.
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Figure 5.12 Soil properties window
The material data set of the cluster can be changed by clicking the Change button. As a
result, the material data base is presented with all existing material data sets. It is either
possible to change the data in the material data set itself or to assign another (already
existing or newly created) data set to the cluster or object (see also Chapter 4). However,
it is not possible to delete a material data set. At the start of the calculations, the data in
the material data sets are stored for each calculation phase separately, so that the Output
program can always show the data used during the calculations. However, changing the
data of a material data set in one calculation phase will also change the data of this
material data set in all other calculation phases calculated after this change.
After selecting the appropriate material data set from the data base tree view and clicking
the OK button the data set is assigned to the soil cluster or structural object.
In addition, it is possible to change the material data set of a cluster or object by rst
opening the material database by clicking the Materials button in the toolbar, select
the appropriate material data set and then using the drag-and-drop procedure (see
Section 4.8).
The change of certain properties, for example when replacing peat by dense sand, can
introduce substantial out-of-balance forces. These out-of-balance forces are solved
during the staged construction calculation. This is the most important reason why the
reassignment of material data sets is considered to be a part of a staged construction
process.
If a change in the data set of a plate is considered it is important to note that a change in
the ratio EI/EA will change the equivalent thickness d
eq
and thus the distance separating
the stress points. If this is done when existing forces are present in the beam element, it
would change the distribution of bending moments, which is unacceptable. For this
reason, if material properties of a plate are changed during an analysis it should be noted
that the ratio EI/EA must remain unchanged.
5.8.6 APPLYING A VOLUMETRIC STRAIN IN VOLUME CLUSTERS
In PLAXIS you can impose an internal volumetric strain in soil clusters. This option may
be used to simulate mechanical processes that result in volumetric strains in the soil,
such as grouting or thermal expansion. In the properties window that appears after
double clicking a soil cluster, you can click the Volume strain button.
In the Volume strain window that appears you can specify the volumetric strain. In
addition, an estimation of the total volume change is given in the unit of volume per unit of
REFERENCE MANUAL
Figure 5.13 Volume strain window
An Anisotropic volumetric strain can be assigned to a soil cluster by selecting the Apply
anisotropic volumetric stain option in the window. The components of the volumetric
strain in x, y and z direction (
x
,
y
,
z
) can be dened.
In contrast to other types of loading, volume strains are not activated with a separate
multiplier. Note that the imposed volume strain is not always fully applied, depending on
the stiffness of the surrounding clusters and objects.
A positive value of the volume strain represents a volume increase (expansion), whereas
a negative value represents a volume decrease (compaction).
5.8.7 PRESTRESSING OF ANCHORS
Prestressing of anchors can be activated in the Staged construction mode. Therefore the
desired anchor should be double clicked. As a result, the Anchor window appears, which
indicates by default no prestress. On selecting the Adjust prestress check box it is
possible to enter a value for the prestress force in the corresponding edit box. A
prestress force should be given as a force per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction.
Note that tension is considered to be positive and compression is considered negative.
To deactivate a previously entered prestress force, the Adjust prestress parameter must
be deselected rather than setting the prestress force to zero. In the former case the
anchor force will further develop based on the changes of stresses and forces in the
geometry. In the latter case the anchor force will remain at zero, which is generally not
correct. After the input of the prestress force the OK button should be clicked. As a
result, the Anchor window is closed and the geometry conguration mode is presented,
where the prestressed anchor is indicated with a 'p'.
During the staged construction calculation the prestressed anchor is automatically
deactivated and a force equal to the prestress force is applied instead. At the end of the
calculation the anchor is reactivated and the anchor force is initialised to match the
prestress force exactly, provided that failure had not occurred. In subsequent calculations
the anchor is treated as a spring element with a certain stiffness, unless a new prestress
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force is entered.
5.8.8 APPLYING CONTRACTION OF A TUNNEL LINING
To simulate soil volume loss due to the construction of a shield tunnel, the contraction
method may be used. In this method a contraction is applied to the tunnel lining to
simulate a reduction of the tunnel cross section area. The contraction is expressed as a
percentage, representing the ratio of the area reduction and the original outer tunnel
cross section area. Contraction can only be applied to circular tunnels (bored tunnels)
with an active continuous homogeneous lining (Section 3.4.8).
Contraction can be activated in the Staged construction mode by double clicking the
centre point of a tunnel for which a contraction is to be specied. As a result, the Tunnel
contraction window appears, in which an input value of the contraction increment can be
entered. In contrast to other types of loading, contraction is not activated with a separate
multiplier.
As the contraction is applied to the tunnel lining (shell elements) these must be present
and active during the phase a contraction is applied. Note that no contraction can be
applied to a tunnel lining represented by volume elements.
Note that the entered value of contraction is not always fully applied, depending on the
stiffness of the surrounding clusters and objects. The computed contraction can be
viewed in the output program (Section 7.4.2)
5.8.9 DEFINITION OF DESIGN CALCULATIONS
A design calculation can be dened by assigning a predened design approach to the
phase in the Staged construction tabsheet. Note that the layout of the project of the
phase is already dened in the ULS phase. A drop-down menu where the dened
designed approaches are listed appears in the Staged construction tabsheet.
Figure 5.14 Assignment of design approach to phases
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By default, the Staged construction tabsheet indicates that Reference values will be used
for loads and model parameters (drop down list at the top left side of the window),
meaning that all partial factors are set to unity. For design calculations, the user must
select the appropriate design approach from the drop-down menu. The list only shows
the design approaches that are available for this project. Note that it is not possible to
assign design approaches dened in other projects or available in the Global design
approaches database that are not imported to the current project. More information on
assigning labels to loads and prescribed displacements is given in the Section 5.8.3 and
the Section 5.8.4 respectively.
5.8.10 STAGED CONSTRUCTION WITH MSTAGE < 1
In general, the total multiplier associated with the staged construction process, Mstage,
goes from zero to unity in each calculation phase where staged construction has been
selected as the loading input. In some very special situations it may be useful to perform
only a part of a construction stage. This can be done by clicking on the Advanced button
in the Parameters tabsheet and specifying an ultimate level of Mstage smaller than 1.0.
The lowest allowed input value is 0.001. If Mstage is lower than this value, the load is
considered to be negligible and no calculations take place. A value larger than 1.0 is not
possible. By entering the default value of 1.0, the staged construction procedure is
performed in the normal way.
In general, care must be taken with an ultimate level of Mstage smaller than 1.0, since
this leads to a resulting out-of-balance force at the end of the calculation phase. Such a
calculation phase must always be followed by another staged construction calculation. If
Mstage is not specied by the user, the default value of 1.0 is always adopted, even if a
smaller value was entered in the previous calculation phase.
Tunnel construction with Mstage < 1
In addition to the simulation of the construction of shield tunnels using the contraction
method (Section 5.8.8), it is possible with PLAXIS to simulate the construction process of
tunnels with a sprayed concrete lining (NATM). The major point in such an analysis is to
account for the three-dimensional arching effect that occurs within the soil and the
deformations that occur around the unsupported tunnel face. A method that takes these
effects into account is described below.
There are various methods described in the literature for the analysis of tunnels
constructed according to the New Austrian Tunnelling Method. One of these is the
so-called Converge connement method or -method (Schikora & Fink, 1982), but others
have presented similar methods under different names. The idea is that the initial
stresses p
k
acting around the location where the tunnel is to be constructed are divided
into a part (1 ) p
k
that is applied to the unsupported tunnel and a part p
k
that is
applied to the supported tunnel (Figure 5.15). The -value is an 'experience value',
which, among other things, depends on the ratio of the unsupported tunnel length and
the equivalent tunnel diameter. Suggestions for this value can be found in literature
(Schikora & Fink, 1982).
Instead of entering a -value in PLAXIS, one can use the staged construction option with
a reduced ultimate level of Mstage. In fact, when deactivating the tunnel clusters an
initial out-of-balance force occurs that is comparable with p
k
. In the beginning of the
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staged construction calculation, when Mstage is zero, this force is fully applied to the
active mesh and it will be stepwise decreased to zero with the simultaneous increase of
Mstage towards unity. Hence, the value of Mstage can be compared with 1 . In
order to allow for the second step in the -method, the ultimate level of Mstage should
be limited to a value of 1 while deactivating the tunnel clusters. This can be done by
clicking on the Advanced button while the Staged construction option has been selected
from the Loading input group of the Parameters tabsheet. In general, care must be taken
with an ultimate level of Mstage smaller than 1.0, since this is associated with a
resulting out-of-balance force at the end of the calculation phase. In this case the next
calculation phase is a staged construction calculation in which the tunnel construction is
completed by activating the tunnel lining. By default, the ultimate level of Mstage is 1.0.
Hence, the remaining out-of-balance force will be applied to the geometry including the
tunnel lining.
1 P
k
2
(1 )P
k
3 P
k
Figure 5.15 Schematic representation of the -method for the analysis of NATM tunnels
The process is summarised below:
1. Generate the initial stress eld and apply eventual external loads that are present
before the tunnel is constructed.
2. De-activate the tunnel clusters without activation of the tunnel lining and apply an
ultimate level of Mstage equal to 1 .
3. Activate the tunnel lining.
5.8.11 UNFINISHED STAGED CONSTRUCTION CALCULATION
At the start of a staged construction calculation, the multiplier that controls the staged
construction process, Mstage, is zero and this multiplier is stepwise increased to the
ultimate level (generally 1.0). When Mstage has reached the ultimate level, the current
phase is nished. However, if a staged construction calculation has not properly nished,
i.e. the multiplier Mstage is less than the desired ultimate level at the end of a staged
construction analysis, then a warning appears in the Log info box. The reached value of
the Mstage multiplier may be viewed by selecting the Reached values option in the
Show group on the Multipliers tabsheet (Section 5.11.2).
There are three possible reasons for an unnished construction stage.
The ultimate value of Mstage was reduced using the Advanced staged
construction option (Section 5.8.10). Note that the out-of-balance force is still partly
unresolved. The remain out-of-balance forces must be solved in the next calculation
phase.
Failure of the soil body has occurred during the calculation. This means that it is not
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possible to nish the construction stage. Note that the out-of-balance force is still
partly unsolved so that further calculations starting from the last calculation phase
are meaningless.
The maximum number of loading steps was insufcient. In this case the
construction stage should be continued by performing another staged construction
calculation that is directly started without changing the geometry conguration or
water pressures. Alternatively, the phase may be recalculated using a larger number
of Additional steps. Note that it is advised against applying any other type of loading
as long as the multiplier Mstage has not reached the value 1.0.
In the case of an unnished staged construction calculation, the load that has actually
been applied differs from the dened load conguration. The reached value of the
Mstage multiplier may be used in the following way to estimate the load that has
actually been applied:
f
applied
= f
0
+ Mstage(f
dened
f
0
)
where f
applied
is the load that has actually been applied, f
0
is the load at the beginning of
the calculation phase (i.e. the load that has been reached at the end of the previous
calculation phase) and f
dened
is the dened load conguration.
A reduced ultimate level of Mstage may be reduced repetitively. In the case of multiple
subsequent phases with Mstage < 1, it should be realized that Mstage starts at 0 in
every phase. For example, if three phases are dened, where in phase 1
Mstage = 0.5; in phase 2 Mstage = 0.5 and phase 3 Mstage = 1.0 (without
additional changes), it means that:
At the end of phase 1 50% of the unbalance is solved
At the end of phase 2 50% of the remainig unbalance (= 75% of the initial
unbalance) is solved
At the end of phase 3 100% of the remaining unbalance (= 100%of the initial
unbalance) is solved
5.9 STAGED CONSTRUCTION - WATER CONDITIONS
PLAXIS is generally used for effective stress analyses in which a clear distinction is made
between active pore pressures, p
active
, and effective stresses, '. In the active pore
pressures, a further distinction is made between steady-state pore pressures, p
steady
, and
excess pore pressures, p
excess
:
p
active
= p
steady
+ p
excess
Excess pore pressures are pore pressures that occur due to loading of clusters for which
the type of material behaviour in the material data set is specied as Undrained (A) or
Undrained (B). In a Plastic analysis, excess pore pressures can be created only in these
undrained clusters. A Consolidation analysis based on excess pore pressure may be
used to calculate the time-dependent generation or dissipation of excess pore pressures.
In this type of calculation the development of excess pore pressures is determined by the
permeability parameters rather than by the drainage type as specied in the material data
CALCULATIONS
set. This type of calculation is suitable for applications that involve a horizontal phreatic
surface for which the governing equations can be simplied by decomposing the active
pore pressure into a constant component (steady-state pore pressure) and a time
dependent component (excess pore pressure).
Steady-state pore pressures are pore pressures that represent a stable hydraulic
situation. Such a situation is obtained when external water conditions remain constant
over a long period. To reach a steady-state, it is not necessary that pore pressures, by
themselves, are in static equilibrium (i.e. a horizontal phreatic surface), since situations in
which permanent groundwater ow or seepage occur may also lead to a stable state.
Water pressures can be generated in the following way:
By a phreatic level based on a general phreatic level and cluster pore pressure
distribution.
By a steady-state groundwater ow calculation based on hydraulic boundary
conditions.
By a transient groundwater ow transient based on time-dependent hydraulic
boundary conditions. Although transient ow does not generally give steady-state
pore pressures, the pore pressures obtained from this program are treated in a
deformation analysis as if they are steady.
From the previous calculated step.
In addition to, or instead of, a change in the geometry conguration, the water pressure
distribution in the geometry may be changed. Examples of problems that may be
analysed using this option include the settlement of soft soil layers due to a lowering of
the water table, the deformation and force development of walls or tunnel linings due to
excavation and dewatering, and the stability of a river embankment after an increase of
the external water level. However, the Water conditions mode may be skipped in projects
that do not involve water pressures. In this case, a general phreatic level is taken at the
bottom of the geometry model and all pore pressures are zero (by default).
5.9.1 WATER UNIT WEIGHT
The properties of water are dened in the Water window (Figure 5.16) which is activated
when the corresponding option is selected in the Geometry menu.
Figure 5.16 Water window
In projects that involve pore pressures, the input of a unit weight of water is required to
distinguish between effective stresses and pore pressures. By default, the unit weight of
water is set to 10 kN/m
3
or its equivalent value when other units of force or length have
been chosen.
REFERENCE MANUAL
5.9.2 PHREATIC LEVEL
Pore pressures and external water pressures can be generated on the basis
of phreatic levels. A phreatic level represents a series of points where the water
pressure is just zero. Using the input of a phreatic level, the water pressure will increase
linearly with depth according to the specied water weight (i.e. the pressure variation is
assumed to be hydrostatic). Before entering a phreatic level the user must enter the
correct water weight. The option to enter phreatic levels can be selected from the
Geometry menu or by clicking on the corresponding button in the tool bar. The input of a
phreatic level is similar to the creation of a geometry line (Section 3.4.1).
Phreatic levels are dened by two or more points. Points may be entered from 'left' to
'right' (increasing x-coordinate) or vice versa (decreasing x-coordinate). The points and
lines are superimposed on the geometry model, but they do not interact with the model.
Crossings of a phreatic levels and existing geometry lines do not introduce additional
geometry points.
If a phreatic level does not cover the full x-range of the geometry model, the phreatic level
is considered to extend horizontally from the most left point to minus innity and from the
most right point to plus innity. Below the phreatic level there will be a hydrostatic pore
pressure distribution, whereas above the phreatic level the pore pressures will be positive
(suction) and will increase according to the hydrostatic distribution. This is the case at
least when the water pressure is generated on the basis of phreatic levels.
The generation of water pressures is actually performed when selecting the Generate
water pressures option (Section 5.9.8). The positive pore pressures generated above the
phreatic level are cut off according to the pore pressure tension cut-off in the calculation
program (Section 5.9.1).
Hint: When a steady state calculation of ow is performed, the phreatic level
dened in the input species the boundary conditions of the ow. The
pressure distribution in the model is calculated by the program. The resulting
phreatic level can be displayed by selecting the Phreatic level option in the
Geometry menu in the Output program (Section 6.2.4).
General phreatic level
If none of the clusters is selected and a phreatic level is drawn, this phreatic level is
considered to be the General phreatic level. By default, the general phreatic level is
located at the bottom of the geometry model; on entering a new line the old general
phreatic level is replaced. The general phreatic level can be used to generate a simple
hydrostatic pore pressure distribution for the full geometry. The general phreatic level is,
by default, assigned to all clusters in the geometry.
If the general phreatic level is outside the geometry model and the corresponding
boundary is a free boundary, external water pressures will be generated on the basis of
this surface. This also applies to free boundaries that arise due to the excavation
(de-activation) of soil clusters in the framework of staged construction. The calculation
program will treat external water pressures as distributed loads and they are taken into
account together with the soil weight and the pore pressures as controlled by the
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Mweight parameter. The external water pressures are calculated such that equilibrium
of water pressures is achieved across the boundary. However, if the phreatic level
crosses the boundary in a non-existing geometry point, the external water pressures
cannot be calculated accurately (Figure 5.17).
inaccurate accurate
Figure 5.17 Inaccurate and accurate modelling of external water pressures
This is because the value of the external water pressure is only dened at the two end
points of the geometry line and the pressure can only vary linearly along a geometry line.
Hence, to calculate external water pressures accurately, the general phreatic level should
preferably cross the model boundary at existing geometry points. This condition should
be taken into account when creating the geometry model. If necessary, an additional
geometry point should be introduced for this purpose at the geometry boundary.
The general phreatic level can also be used to create boundary conditions for the
groundwater head in the case that pore pressures are calculated on the basis of a
groundwater ow calculation (Section 5.9.6).
If a horizontal general phreatic level is required, the general phreatic level can also be
dened by selecting the Set global phreatic level option in the Geometry menu. The Set
global phreatic level will pop up in which it is either possible to dene the general phreatic
level below the geometry (option below the geometry) or at a specic y-coordinate
(option at specic y-coordinate) (see Figure 5.18).
Figure 5.18 Set global phreatic level window
Cluster phreatic level
To allow for a discontinuous pore pressure distribution, each cluster can be given a
separate Cluster phreatic level. In fact, a cluster phreatic level is not necessarily a true
phreatic level. In the case of an aquifer layer, the cluster phreatic level represents the
pressure height, i.e. the virtual zero-level of the pore pressures in that layer. It should be
noted that Cluster phreatic level is ignored in all groundwater ow calculation types.
A cluster phreatic level can be entered by rst selecting the cluster for which a separate
phreatic level has to be specied and subsequently selecting the Phreatic level option
REFERENCE MANUAL
from the tool bar or the Geometry menu and entering the phreatic level while the cluster
remains selected. When selecting multiple clusters at the same time (by holding the
<Shift> key down) and entering a phreatic level, this line will be assigned to all selected
clusters as a cluster phreatic level. The clusters for which no specic cluster phreatic level
was entered, retain the general phreatic level. To identify which phreatic level belongs to
a particular cluster, one can select the cluster and see which phreatic level is indicated in
red. If no phreatic level is indicated in red, then another option was chosen for that cluster.
After double clicking on a cluster in the Water conditions mode the Cluster pore pressure
distribution window appears in which it is indicated by means of radio buttons how the
pore pressures will be generated for that soil cluster. If a cluster phreatic level was
assigned to the cluster by mistake, it can be reset to the general phreatic level by
selecting General phreatic level in this window. As a result, the cluster phreatic level is
deleted unless other clusters share the same cluster-phreatic level. More information
about the options in the Cluster pore pressure distribution window are given in Section
5.9.5.
Time-dependent water level
In case of a groundwater ow (transient) calculation or a Consolidation analysis based on
total pore pressure with a non-zero time interval, seasonal or irregular variations in water
levels can be modelled using linear, harmonic or user-dened time distributions. This can
be done by double clicking the water level in the Water conditions mode. As a result, the
Time dependent head window appears (see Figure 5.19). After selecting the option Use
time dependent data, distinction can be made between Linear input, Harmonic input or
input by a Table.
Hint: The external parts of the water level must be horizontal, as shown in Figure
5.20
Figure 5.19 Time dependent head window
Linear: For a linear variation of groundwater head, the input of the following parameters
are required:
t This parameter represents the time interval for the calculation
CALCULATIONS
Figure 5.20 External parts of the water level must be horizontal
phase, expressed in unit of time. Its value is equal to the Time
interval parameter as specied in the Parameters tabsheet of the
Phase list window. The value is xed and cannot be changed in
the Time dependent head window.
y
0
This parameter represents the actual height of the water level,
expressed in unit of length. Its value is taken from the water level
as entered for the current calculation phase and cannot be
changed in the Time dependent head window.
y This parameter, specied in unit of length, represents the
increase or decrease of the water level in the time interval for the
current calculation phase. Hence, together with the time interval
this parameter determines the rate of the water level increase or
decrease.
Harmonic: The harmonic variation of the groundwater head is described as:
y(t ) = y
0
+ 0.5H sin(
0
t +
0
), with
0
= 2/T
in which H is wave height (in unit of length), T is the wave period (in unit of time) and
0
is the initial phase angle.
Table: In addition to the pre-dened functions for variations with time, PLAXIS provides
the possibility to enter user-dened time series. This option can be useful for a
back-analysis when measurements are available. After selection of the Table radio
button, a table appears at the right hand side of the window, as shown in Figure 5.21.
Time series can be either entered manually by direct input in this table or by importing a
table. The time value should increase with each new line. It is not necessary to use
constant time intervals.
Clicking the Open .txt le button on the right hand side of the window will open the
Open window where the le can be selected. The le must be an ASCII le that can
be created with any text editor. For every line a pair of values (actual time and
corresponding water level value) must be dened, leaving at least one space between
them. Note that PLAXIS only supports the English notation of decimal numbers using a
dot. The resulting graph of the input data is shown in the Graph tabsheet of the Time
dependent head window (see Figure 5.22).
5.9.3 CLOSED BOUNDARY
A closed boundary is a geometry boundary where ow (groundwater ow or
consolidation) across this boundary does not occur. This option can be selected by
clicking the Closed boundary button on the tool bar or by selecting the corresponding
REFERENCE MANUAL
Figure 5.21 Table input for user-dened time-dependent conditions
Figure 5.22 Graph tabsheet of the Time dependent head window
option from the Conditions submenu. The input of a closed boundary is similar to the
creation of a geometry line. However, a closed boundary can only be placed over existing
geometry lines of the geometry model. Note that a closed boundary is effective only if it is
located at the outer boundaries of the geometry of the phase being calculated.
Hint: In contrast to the previous PLAXIS versions, no distinction is made between
closed ow and closed consolidation boundaries.
5.9.4 PRECIPITATION
The Precipitation option can be used to specify a general vertical recharge or inltration
(q) due to weather conditions. This condition is applied at all boundaries that represent
the ground surface. This option can be selected from the Geometry menu or by clicking
on the Precipitation button on the tool bar.
The parameters used to dene precipitation are:
q Recharge (inltration), specied in the unit of length per unit of
time. Negative values can be used to model evapotranspiration
CALCULATIONS
Figure 5.23 Precipitation window
Hint: It is not possible to have a combination of inltration and a phreatic line
conditions on inclined surfaces.If the inclined boundary is divided in two
pieces by adding an additional geometry point on the spot where the phreatic
level and the inclined surface intersect, Precipitation can be assigned to the
part of the boundary above the point of intersection.
(evaporation + transpiration).
max
Maximum pore pressure head, relative to the elevation of the
boundary, specied in the unit of length (default 0.1 length units).
min
Minimum pore pressure head, relative to the elevation of the
boundary, specied in the unit of length (default -1.0 length
units).
At horizontal ground surface boundaries, the full precipitation as specied by the value of
q is applied as a recharge. At inclined ground surface boundaries (slopes) under an
angle with respect to the horizon, a recharge is applied perpendicular to the inclined
boundary with a magnitude qcos().
If the resulting pore pressure head at a certain point of a boundary where a positive
precipitation has been prescribed is increased such that it reaches the value y +
max
(i.e. the water level comes above the ground surface at a depth of
max
) then the water is
supposed to run-off. As a result, a constant head boundary condition equal to y +
max
is
applied instead.
If the resulting pore pressure head at a certain point of a boundary where a negative
precipitation (evapotranspiration) has been prescribed is below a value y +
min
(i.e. the
upper part of the ground has become unsaturated), then the evapotranspiration is
supposed to stop. As a result, a constant head boundary condition equal to y +
min
is
applied instead.
For transient groundwater ow calculations, a variation of the precipitation in time can be
specied resulting in time-dependent boundary conditions. This can be done by clicking
the Time-dependent option in the Precipitation window. As a result, a Time dependent
precipitation window appears where the time-dependent variation of the precipitation can
be specied after selection of the option Use time dependent data. There is a choice
between Linear, Harmonic or a user-dened variation using Table input.
Linear: This option can be used to describe the increase or decrease of a condition
REFERENCE MANUAL
linearly in time. For a linear variation of groundwater head, the input of the following
parameters are required:
the Time dependent precipitation window.
q
0
This parameter is the initial specic discharge through the
geometry line under consideration, expressed in unit of length
per unit of time. Its value is xed (already specied in the
Precipitation window) and cannot be changed in the Time
dependent precipitation window.
q This parameter, specied in unit of length per unit of time,
represents the increase or decrease of the specic discharge in
the time interval of the current calculation phase.
Harmonic: This option can be used when a condition varies harmonically in time. The
harmonic variation of the water level is described as:
q(t ) = q
0
+ 0.5q
A
sin(
0
t +
0
), with
0
= 2/T
in which q
A
is amplitude of the specic discharge (in unit of length per unit of time), T is
the wave period (in unit of time) and
0
Table: In addition to the pre-dened functions for variations with time, PlaxFlow provides
button, a table appears at the right hand side of the window (see for example Figure
5.21). Time series can be either entered manually by direct input in this table or by
importing a table. The time value should increase with each new line. It is not necessary
to use constant time intervals.
dependent precipitation window.
5.9.5 CLUSTER PORE PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
After double clicking a cluster, the Cluster pore pressure distribution window will appear
(Figure 5.24). The options available, besides the General phreatic level and Cluster
phreatic level options (see Section 5.9.2) are explained below.
Interpolation of pore pressures from adjacent clusters or lines
A third possibility to generate pore pressures in a soil cluster is the Interpolate from
adjacent clusters or lines option. This option is, for example, used if a relatively
CALCULATIONS
Figure 5.24 Cluster pore pressure distribution window
impermeable layer is located between two permeable layers with a different groundwater
head. The pore pressure distribution in the relatively impermeable layer will not be
hydrostatic, so it cannot be dened by means of a phreatic level.
On selecting the option Interpolate from adjacent clusters or lines, the pore pressure in
that cluster is interpolated linearly in a vertical direction, starting from the value at the
bottom of the cluster above and ending at the value at the top of the cluster below, except
if the pore pressure in the cluster above or below is dened by means of a user-dened
pore pressure distribution. In the latter case the pore pressure is interpolated from the
general phreatic level. This option can be used repetitively in two or more successive
clusters (on top of each other). In the case that a starting value for the vertical
interpolation of the pore pressure cannot be found, then the starting point will be based
on the general phreatic level.
Cluster dry
A fast and convenient option is available for clusters that should be made dry or, in other
words, that should have zero pore pressures. This can be done by selecting the Cluster
dry option. As a result, the steady-state pore pressures, generated by means of phreatic
level or steady state groundwater ow, in that cluster are set to zero and the soil weight is
considered to be the unsaturated weight.
Note that clusters representing massive (concrete) structures where pore pressures
should be excluded permanently (like diaphragm walls or caissons) can be specied as
Non-porous in the corresponding material data set. It is not necessary to set such
non-porous clusters to Cluster dry in the Water conditions mode. The dry clusters are
treated as Non-porous material in all types of calculations and consequently no excess
pore pressure (and no ow) is generated.
User-dened pore pressure distribution
If the pore pressure distribution in a particular soil cluster is very specic and cannot be
dened by one of the above options, it may be specied as a user-dened pore pressure
distribution.
REFERENCE MANUAL
The available parameters to dene this pore pressure distribution are the vertical level
(y-coordinate) where the pore pressure is equal to the reference pressure (y
ref
), the pore
pressure at the reference level (p
ref
) and an increment of pressure (p
inc
).
If the cluster is (partly) located above the reference level, the pore pressure in that part of
the cluster will also be equal to the reference pressure. Below the reference level, the
pore pressure in the cluster is linearly increased, as set by the value of p
inc
. Please note
that the values of p
ref
and p
inc
are negative for pressure and pressure increase with
depth, respectively. A user-dened pore pressure distribution cannot be used to
interpolate pore pressures in other clusters. This should be taken into account when the
Interpolate pore pressures from adjacent clusters or lines option is used in the cluster
above or below.
5.9.6 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR FLOW AND CONSOLIDATION
Boundary conditions for ow and consolidation can be dened on outer geometry lines by
double clicking the geometry line. As a result, the Boundary conditions window will
appear (see Figure 5.25) in which the type of boundary condition and the magnitudes can
be entered. By default, all boundaries are set to Free (seepage), except for the bottom
boundary of the geometry, which is set to Closed. Apart from the direct input of boundary
conditions in the Boundary conditions window, some frequently used boundary conditions
may be specied in a more user-friendly way.
Figure 5.25 Boundary conditions window
The boundary conditions necessary for the calculation of steady-state and/or transient
groundwater ow can always be dened in the Boundary conditions window. In this way,
water pressures on the basis of a groundwater ow calculation or a Consolidation
analysis based on total pore pressure can be generated taking these boundary conditions
into account. In case of a Consolidation analysis based on excess pore pressure, only
the excess pore pressures will be affected by closed boundary conditions only, whereas
CALCULATIONS
the steady-state pore pressures will be generated on the basis of phreatic levels.
It is not possible to prescribe excess pore pressures as a boundary condition for a
Consolidation analysis based on excess pore pressure. Excess pore pressures at the
beginning of a consolidation analysis can only be the result of earlier calculations where
undrained clusters were used, i.e. clusters where the Material type in the corresponding
material data set was set to Undrained (A) or Undrained (B). For more information on
Consolidation analyses based of excess pore pressures, see Sections 5.5 and 5.6.4 and
the Scientic Manual.
Below the different types of boundary conditions and their input procedures are described
in detail.
Free (seepage)
A free boundary is a boundary where water can ow in or out freely. A free boundary is
generally used at the ground surface above the phreatic level or above the external water
level.
If a boundary is free and completely above the (external) water level, then the seepage
condition applies to this boundary. This means that water inside the geometry may ow
freely out of this boundary. If, at the same time, precipitation is specied, the free
boundary condition automatically turns into an inltration condition (see below), where
the inltration rate is determined by the recharge value of the precipitation. If the
boundary is non-horizontal, the precipitation recharge is recalculated into a component
perpendicular to the boundary.
If a boundary is free and completely below the (external) water level, the free boundary
condition automatically turns into a groundwater head condition. In that case the
magnitude of the groundwater head in each boundary node is determined by the vertical
distance between the boundary node and the water level.
A geometry point needs to be dened where a (external) water level crosses a geometry
boundary line. In this point, the pore pressure is zero. The part of the geometry line
above the transition point is treated as a boundary above the water level, whereas the
part of the geometry line below the transition point is treated as a boundary below the
water level. Hence, different conditions can apply to such a geometry boundary line. This
is possible because, in general, a geometry line consists of many nodes and the actual
information on boundary conditions as used by the calculation program is contained in
the boundary nodes rather than in geometry lines.
Flow problems with a free phreatic level may involve a seepage surface on the
downstream boundary, as shown in Figure 5.26. A seepage surface will always occur
when the phreatic level touches an open downstream boundary. The seepage surface is
not a streamline (in contrast to the phreatic level) or an equipotential line. It is a line on
which the groundwater head, h, equals the elevation head y (= vertical position). This
condition arises from the fact that the water pressure is zero on the seepage surface,
which is the same condition that exists at the phreatic level.
For seepage boundaries the hydraulic head, h, needs to be equal to the vertical position,
y, which is the default condition used in PLAXIS. It is not necessary to know the exact
length of the seepage surface before the calculation begins, since the same boundary
conditions (h = y) may be used both above and below the phreatic level. 'Free'
REFERENCE MANUAL
axis of symmetry
seepage surface
Figure 5.26 Flow through an embankment with indication of a seepage surface
boundaries with h = y may therefore be specied for all boundaries where the hydraulic
head is unknown. Alternatively, for boundaries well above the phreatic level where it is
obvious that a seepage surface does not occur, it may also be appropriate to prescribe
those boundaries as closed boundaries. If no specic condition is prescribed for a
particular boundary line, PLAXIS assumes that this boundary is 'free' and sets the
seepage condition here.
Closed
A closed boundary is a geometry boundary where neither ow nor consolidation across
this boundary occurs. This option can also be selected by clicking the Closed boundary
button on the tool bar (see Section 5.9.3).
Head
Selecting the option Head will use the general phreatic level to calculate the groundwater
head.
Head (user-dened)
The prescribed groundwater head on external geometry boundaries is, by default,
derived from the position of the general phreatic level, at least when the general phreatic
level is outside the active geometry. Also internal geometry lines that have become
external boundaries due to a de-activation of soil clusters are considered to be external
geometry boundaries and are therefore treated similarly.
In addition to the automatic setting of boundary conditions based on the general phreatic
level, a prescribed groundwater head may be entered manually. After double clicking an
existing geometry line, a window appears in which the groundwater head at the two
points of that line can be entered. On entering the groundwater head at a point, the
program will display the corresponding pore pressure (pore pressure = water weight
times [groundwater head minus vertical position]).
A prescribed groundwater head can be removed by selecting the corresponding
geometry line and pressing the <Delete> key on the keyboard, or by selecting another
condition in the Boundary conditions window.
If a groundwater head is prescribed at an outer geometry boundary, external water
pressures will be generated for that boundary. The deformation analysis program will
treat external water pressures as traction loads and they are taken into account together
with the soil weight and the pore pressures.
CALCULATIONS
Inow
Inow is a recharge without further conditions. The inow can be applied to a boundary
above the water level by double clicking the corresponding geometry line. In the
Boundary conditions window, the inow option can subsequently be selected and the
recharge, q, can be specied at the end points of the geometry line. The program
automatically calculates the distribution over the intermediate boundary nodes.
Outow
Outow is a discharge without further conditions. Similar to the inow condition the
outow can be applied to a boundary above the water level by double clicking the
corresponding geometry line. In the Boundary conditions window, the outow option can
subsequently be selected and the discharge, q, can be specied at the end points of the
geometry line. The program automatically calculates the distribution over the
intermediate boundary nodes.
Inltration
For each boundary, the dened precipitation is transformed into inltration boundary
conditions, which is a conditional inow. The recharge (q) and the minimum and
maximum pore pressure head (
min
and
max
) entered for the precipitation are
automatically applied as inltration boundary conditions to all free boundaries above the
water level.
Hint: If the boundary is non-horizontal, the precipitation recharge is recalculated
into a component perpendicular to the boundary and a component parallel to
the boundary.
When the boundary is non-horizontal and a water level crosses it, the
boundary should be consist of two sub-boundaries. The precipitation and the
water level will be effective in the upper and lower sub-boundaries
respectively.
When the boundary is not dened as consisting of two sub-boundaries, the
precipitation on the non-linear boundary will be ignored.
Apart from the automatic generation of inltration boundary conditions from precipitation,
inltration conditions may also be specied manually for geometry boundaries above the
water level. To this end, the appropriate geometry line should be double clicked. In the
Boundary conditions window the inltration conditions can be selected and the
appropriate inltration rate (recharge, q) and corresponding minimum and maximum pore
pressure head (
min
and
max
) can be entered (Figure 5.27).
q Recharge (inltration), specied in the unit of length per unit of
time. Negative values can be used to model evapotranspiration
(evaporation + transpiration).
max
Maximum pore pressure head, relative to the elevation of the
boundary, specied in the unit of length (default 0.1 length units).
min
Minimum pore pressure head, relative to the elevation of the
REFERENCE MANUAL
Figure 5.27 Boundary conditions window for inltration
boundary, specied in the unit of length (default -1.0 length
units).
Time-dependent boundary conditions
Time-dependent conditions can be dened for all options except for Closed. Clicking the
Time dependent button in the Boundary conditions window will open the Time dependent
condition window (see Figure 5.28).
Figure 5.28 Time dependent condition window in case of the Head option
When activating the Use time dependent data option in the Time dependent condition
window the following options are available:
Linear: This option can be used to describe the increase or decrease of a condition
linearly in time. For a linear variation of groundwater head, the input of the following
parameters are required:
CALCULATIONS
the Time dependent head window.
y
0
This parameter represents the actual height of the water level,
expressed in unit of length. Its value is taken from the water level
as entered for the current calculation phase and cannot be
changed in the Time dependent head window.
y This parameter, specied in unit of length, represents the
increase or decrease of the water level in the time interval for the
current calculation phase. Hence, together with the time interval
this parameter determines the rate of the water level increase or
decrease.
For a linear variation of inltration, inow or outow the input of the following parameters
are required:
q 0 This parameter is the initial specic discharge through the
geometry line under consideration, expressed in unit of length
per unit of time. Its value is xed (already specied in the
Boundary conditions window) and cannot be changed in the
Time dependent condition window.
q This parameter, specied in unit of length per unit of time,
represents the increase or decrease of the specic discharge in
the time interval of the current calculation phase.
Harmonic: This option can be used when a condition varies harmonically in time. The
harmonic variation of the water level is described as:
y(t ) = y
0
+ 0.5H sin(
0
t +
0
), with
0
= 2/T
in which H is wave height (in unit of length), T is the wave period (in unit of time) and
0
In case of inltration, inow or outow, the parameter q
A
needs to be entered instead
of H. q
A
represents the amplitude of the specic discharge and is specied in unit of
length per unit of time.
Table: In addition to the pre-dened functions for variations with time, PLAXIS provides
button, a table appears at the right hand side of the window (see for example Figure
5.21). Time series can be either entered manually by direct input in this table or by
importing a table. The time value should increase with each new line. It is not necessary
to use constant time intervals.
REFERENCE MANUAL
dependent condition window.
5.9.7 SPECIAL OBJECTS
Several special objects, like interfaces, drains and wells can be activated or de-activated
in the Water conditions mode.
Interfaces and plates
When using interfaces in a consolidation analysis or a groundwater ow calculation, the
interfaces are, by default, fully impermeable, which means that no ow takes place
across the interface. In this way interfaces have a similar functionality as a Closed
boundary, except that interfaces can be used at the inside of a geometry whereas closed
boundaries can only be used at the geometry boundary. In this way, interfaces may be
used to simulate the presence of an impermeable screen. Plates are fully permeable. In
fact, it is only possible to simulate impermeable walls or plates when interface elements
are included between the plate elements and the surrounding soil elements. On the other
hand, if interfaces are present in the mesh it may also be the user's intension to explicitly
avoid any inuence of the interface on the ow process, for example in extended
interfaces around corner points of structures (Section 3.4.5). In such a case the interface
should be de-activated in the Water conditions mode. This can be done separately for a
consolidation analysis and a groundwater ow calculation. For inactive interfaces the
excess pore pressure degrees-of-freedom of the interface node pairs are fully coupled
whereas for active interfaces the excess pore pressure degrees-of-freedom are fully
separated.
In conclusion:
An active interface is fully impermeable (separation of excess pore pressure
An inactive interface is fully permeable (coupling of excess pore pressure
Drains
Drains are used to prescribe lines inside the geometry model where (excess) pore
pressures are reduced. Drains can be activated or de-activated just by clicking the
drain. The pore pressure head of drains can be modied only when the type of pore
pressure generation of the phase is set to Groundwater ow (steady state or transient).
When the drain is double clicked in the Water conditions mode , the Drains window
appears in which the pore pressure head can be specied Figure 5.29. Drains appear as
blue dashed lines in the water mode if they are active and grey dashed lines if they are
inactive.
Hint: In a Consolidation analysis based on excess pore pressure, the excess pore
pressures in a drain will be set to zero rather than using the dened pore
pressure head.
CALCULATIONS
Figure 5.29 The Drains window
Wells
Wells are used to prescribe points inside the geometry model where a specic ux
(discharge) is extracted from or inltrated into the soil. To select the type of well
(extraction of inltration) and the amount of discharge, the user should double click in the
middle of the well line. The Well window will appear (Figure 5.30) in which the type of
well (Extraction or Inltration), discharge and minimum groundwater head (in case of an
extraction well) can be specied. The minimum groundwater head is used to limit the
suction pore pressure in the case that the well is located in unsaturated area. This head
is by default equal to the well elevation (y-coordinate) however any value can be chosen.
Figure 5.30 The Well window
5.9.8 WATER PRESSURE GENERATION
After the input of phreatic levels and/or the input of boundary conditions, the water
pressures can be generated. This can be done by selecting the appropriate type of
generation of water pressures from the tool bar (Figure 5.31).
Figure 5.31 Types of water pressure generation
Generated water pressures may be used as input data for a deformation analysis. The
water pressures are not active until they are actually applied in a calculation. Activation of
REFERENCE MANUAL
water pressures is associated with the activation of the soil weight using the Mweight
parameter. In principle, stress points in elements with a zero steady pore pressure are
considered to be unsaturated whereas stress points that have a non-zero steady pore
pressure are considered to be saturated. Hence, the value of the pore pressure
determines whether the saturated soil weight (
sat
) or the unsaturated soil weight (
unsat
)
is applied in a deformation analysis. In the Advanced mode, the actual weight that is
applied depends on the actual degree of saturation S:
applied
=(1 S
e
)
unsat
+ S
e
sat
where
S
e
=
S S
min
S
sat
S
min
Generate by phreatic level
The water pressure generation by Phreatic level is based on the input of a general
phreatic level, cluster phreatic levels and other options as described in Section 5.9.2
and Section 5.9.5. This generation is quick and straightforward.
When generating water pressures on the basis of phreatic levels when some clusters are
inactive, no distinction is made between active clusters and inactive clusters. This means
that steady pore pressures are generated both for active clusters and inactive clusters
according to the corresponding phreatic level or user-dened pore pressure distribution.
If it is desired to exclude water pressures in certain clusters, the Cluster dry option should
be used or a cluster phreatic level should be dened below the cluster.
After selection of the option Generate by phreatic level, the Water pressures button
can be clicked to start the calculation of the water pressures. After the generation of
water pressures the Output program is started and a plot of the water pressures and the
general phreatic level is displayed. To return to the Input program, the Close button
should be clicked.
Groundwater ow steady-state
Geotechnical engineers regularly need to deal with pore pressures
and groundwater ow when solving geotechnical problems. Many situations involve
permanent ow or seepage. Dams and embankments are subjected to permanent
seepage of groundwater. Similarly, permanent ow occurs around retaining walls which
separate different groundwater levels. Flow of this sort is governed by pore pressures
that are more or less independent of time. Hence, these pore pressures can be
considered to be steady-state pore pressures. PLAXIS includes a steady-state
groundwater ow calculation module. The water pressure generation by Groundwater
calculation is based on a nite element calculation using the generated mesh, the
permeabilities of the soil clusters and the hydraulic boundary conditions (prescribed
groundwater head, inow, outow and closed ow boundaries; see Section 5.9.6). This
generation is more complex and therefore more time consuming than a generation by
means of phreatic levels, but the results can be more realistic, provided that the
additional input parameters are properly selected.
When clusters have been de-activated in the Staged construction mode (Section 5.8.2),
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the inactive clusters do not take part in the groundwater ow calculation itself, but the
pore pressure at stress points within the inactive clusters is determined afterwards from
the general phreatic level. Hence, if inactive clusters are located (partly) below the
general phreatic level, there will be a hydrostatic water pressure distribution below the
general phreatic level, whereas the water pressure above the general phreatic level is
positive in these clusters. The water pressure generation window allows for a direct
switch to the geometry conguration mode to activate or de-activate clusters. This can be
done by clicking on the Staged construction button. After the desired selection has been
made, you can return to the water pressure generation window by clicking on the Water
conditions button in the tool bar.
When using interfaces in a groundwater ow calculation, the interfaces are, by default,
fully impermeable. In this way interfaces may be used to block the ow perpendicular to
the interface, for example to simulate the presence of an impermeable screen. Plates are
fully permeable. For more information about interfaces and plates in ow calculations,
see Section 5.9.7.
A steady-state groundwater ow calculation may be used for conned as well as for
unconned ow problems. The determination of the position of the free phreatic surface
and the associated length of the seepage surface is one of the main objectives of an
unconned groundwater ow calculation. In this case it is necessary to use an iterative
solution procedure. For conned ow problems, however, an iterative solution procedure
is not strictly necessary, since a direct solution can be obtained. Nevertheless, when
performing a groundwater ow calculation in PLAXIS the user must select the settings for
the control parameters of the iterative procedure, since it is not clear beforehand whether
the ow is conned or unconned. In general, the implemented Standard settings may be
used, which will normally lead to an acceptable solution. Alternatively, the user may
specify the control parameters manually (see Section 5.7.1).
Generation of the water pore pressures by a steady-state groundwater ow calculation
will be done in the calculation program, prior to the deformation analysis.
Groundwater ow transient
In addition to steady-state groundwater ow, PLAXIS allows for a time-dependent
calculation of pore water pressures in saturated and unsaturated conditions due to
changing boundary conditions on the groundwater head with time. This option is
available in the list of Water generation if a value is entered for the time interval in the
calculation program. The results of such a transient ow calculation, i.e. the
time-dependent distribution of pore pressures, can be used as input data for a
deformation analysis. This option requires the presence of the PlaxFlow module, which is
available as an extension to PLAXIS 2D. The denition of a time-dependent distribution
of pore pressures can only be done during the denition of calculation stages. It is not
available during the denition of the initial conditions.
In case of performing a groundwater ow calculation, inactive clusters do not take part in
the groundwater ow calculation itself, but the pore pressure at stress points within the
de-activated clusters is determined afterwards from the general phreatic level. Hence, if
inactive clusters are located (partly) below the general phreatic level, there will be a
hydrostatic water pressure distribution below the general phreatic level, whereas the
water pressure above the general phreatic level is zero in these clusters. The boundary
between active and inactive clusters is considered to be a free boundary so that water
REFERENCE MANUAL
can ow across such a boundary. In order to make such a boundary impermeable, the
boundary must be closed. To do this, click the Closed boundary button and draw a line
along the geometry. Please note that this option has changed in PLAXIS 2D compared to
previous PLAXIS versions.
Generation of the water pore pressures by groundwater ow will be done in the
calculation program. According to the type of calculation and the activated loads, the
groundwater ow calculation is performed parallel to or before the deformation analysis.
If the out of balance force of the current phase is only due to the change in the pore water
pressure and the type of groundwater ow is transient, then the groundwater ow and
deformation can be done in parallel, otherwise the groundwater ow is done prior to the
deformation analysis.
From previous calculated step
As the pore pressure can also be a result of calculation (for example Consolidation
analysis based on total pore pressure), this option can be used to indicate that the
calculation kernel should use the pore pressures of the previous step (phase) instead of
the pore pressures generated in the current phase.
5.10 CALCULATION USING DESIGN APPROACHES
PLAXIS 2D enables multiple calculations of the dened phases in design approaches.
Note that the layout of the Staged construction window has changed. Besides the layout
of the project for the selected phase, the design approach to be used should be selected
in the drop-down menu. By default the Reference values are selected.
The partial factors for materials and the loads are already dened in the Input program.
However, in the Staged construction window, besides the activations of the loads, the
corresponding labels should be assigned as well.
5.11 LOAD MULTIPLIERS
During a deformation analysis, it is necessary to control the magnitude of all types of
loading. In general, loads are activated in the framework of staged construction by
entering an appropriate input value. Nevertheless, the loadings to be applied are
calculated from the product of the input value of the load and the corresponding
multiplier. Hence, as an alternative to staged construction, loads can globally be
increased by changing the corresponding multiplier. Distinction is made between
Incremental multipliers and Total multipliers. Incremental multipliers represent the
increment of load for an individual calculation step, whereas total multipliers represent the
total level of the load in a particular calculation step or phase. The way in which the
various multipliers are used depends on the Loading input as selected in the Parameters
tabsheet. Both the incremental multipliers and the total multipliers for a particular
calculation phase are displayed in the Multipliers tabsheet (Figure 5.32). All incremental
multipliers are denoted by M... whereas all total multipliers are denoted by M.... A
multiplier does not have a unit associated with it, since it is just a factor.
CALCULATIONS
Figure 5.32 Multipliers tabsheet of the Calculations window
Input values and reached values
The input values of the multipliers might differ from the values that were actually reached
after the calculation. This may be the case if failure of the soil body occurs. The radio
buttons in the Show group can be used to display either the Input values or the Reached
values.
If the Reached values option is selected another group box appears in which some other
multipliers and calculation parameters are displayed.
5.11.1 STANDARD LOAD MULTIPLIERS
Descriptions of the various load multipliers are given below.
MdispX, MdispX, MdispY, MdispY
These multipliers control the magnitude of prescribed displacements as entered in the
Staged construction mode (Section 5.8.4). The total value of the prescribed displacement
applied in a calculation is the product of the corresponding input values as entered in the
Staged construction mode and the parameters MdispX and MdispY. When applying
prescribed displacements by entering an input value of prescribed displacement in the
staged construction mode, and the value of MdispX or MdispY is still zero, this
multiplier is automatically set to unity. The values of MdispX and MdispY may be
used to globally increase or decrease the applied prescribed displacement. In
calculations where the Loading input was set to Incremental multipliers, MdispX and
MdispY are used to specify a global increment of the prescribed displacement in the rst
calculation step.
REFERENCE MANUAL
MloadA, MloadA, MloadB, MloadB
These multipliers control the magnitude of the distributed loads and point loads as
entered in the load systems A and B (Section 5.8.3). The total value of the loads of either
load system applied in a calculation is the product of the corresponding input values as
entered in the Staged construction mode and the parameter MloadA or MloadB
respectively. When applying loads by entering an input value of load in the Staged
construction mode, and the value of the corresponding multiplier is still zero, this
multiplier is automatically set to 1.0. The values of MloadA and MloadB may be used
to globally increase or decrease the applied load. In calculations where the Loading input
was set to Incremental multipliers, MloadA and/or MloadB are used to specify a global
increment of the corresponding load systems of the rst calculation step.
Mweight, Mweight
It is possible in PLAXIS to carry out calculations in which gravity loading is applied to the
problem. The multipliers Mweight and Mweight control the proportion of standard
gravity applied in the analysis and thus the portion of the material weights (soil, water and
structures) as specied in the Input program. The total proportion of the material weights
applied in a calculation is given by the parameter Mweight . In calculations where the
Loading input was set to Incremental multipliers, Mweight is used to specify the
increment of weight in the rst calculation step.
The multiplier is applied to the material weights as well as to the water weight. Hence, if
Mweight is zero then the soil weight is not taken into account and all water pressures
(excluding eventual excess pore pressures generated during undrained loading) will also
be zero. If Mweight is set to 1.0 then the full soil weight and water pressures will be
applied. A value of Mweight larger than 1.0 is generally not used, except for the
simulation of a centrifuge test.
Maccel, Maccel
These multipliers control the magnitude of the pseudo-static forces as a result of the
acceleration components as entered in the Project properties window of the Input
program (Section 3.1.1). The total magnitude of the acceleration applied during the
calculation is the product of the input values of the acceleration components and the
parameter Maccel . Initially, the value of Maccel is set to zero. In calculations where
the Loading input was set to Incremental multipliers, Maccel can be used to specify the
increment of acceleration of the rst calculation step.
Pseudo-static forces can only be activated if the weight of the material is already active
(Mweight = 1). For Mweight = 1 and Maccel = 1 both gravity forces and
pseudo-gravity forces are active. The gure below gives an overview of different
combinations of soil weight and acceleration. Note that the activation of an acceleration
component in a particular direction results in a pseudo-static force in the opposite
direction. When increasing Mweight without increasing Maccel the resulting force will
be increased without a change of the resulting direction.
Msf, Msf
These multipliers are associated with the Safety option in PLAXIS for the computation of
safety factors (Section 5.5.5). The total multiplier Msf is dened as the quotient of the
CALCULATIONS
g
-a
r
r r r
-MWeight = 1 -MWeight = 1 -MWeight = 1 -MWeight = 2
-Maccel = 1 -Maccel = 1 -Maccel = 0 -Maccel = -1
(r = resulting direction)
Figure 5.33 Resulting force direction r due to combinations of gravity and acceleration a
original strength parameters and the reduced strength parameters and controls the
reduction of tan and c at a given stage in the analysis. Msf is set to 1.0 at the start of
a calculation to set all material strengths to their unreduced values. Msf is used to specify
the increment of the strength reduction of the rst calculation step. This increment is by
default set to 0.1, which is generally found to be a good starting value.
5.11.2 OTHER MULTIPLIERS AND CALCULATION PARAMETERS
Descriptions of the other multipliers and calculation parameters displayed when the
option Reached values has been selected are given below.
Stiffness
As a structure is loaded and plasticity develops then the overall stiffness of the structure
will decrease. The Stiffness parameter gives an indication of the loss of stiffness that
occurs due to material plasticity. The parameter is a single number that is 1.0 when the
structure is fully elastic and reduces in magnitude as plasticity develops.
At failure the value is approximately zero. It is possible for this parameter to have
negative values if softening occurs.
Force-X, Force-Y
These parameters indicate the forces corresponding to the non-zero prescribed
displacements (Section 3.5.8). In plane strain models, Force-X and Force-Y are
expressed in the unit of force per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction. In
axisymmetric models, Force-X and Force-Y are expressed in the unit of force per radian.
In order to calculate the total reaction force under a circular footing simulated by
prescribed displacements, Force-Y should be multiplied by 2. Force-X and Force-Y are
the value of the total force in the x- and y-directions respectively, applied to non-zero
prescribed displacements.
Pmax
The Pmax parameter is associated with undrained material behaviour and represents the
maximum absolute excess pore pressure in the mesh, expressed in the unit of stress.
During undrained loading in a plastic calculation Pmax generally increases, whereas
REFERENCE MANUAL
Pmax generally decreases during a consolidation analysis. Note that in case of a
Consolidation analysis based on total pore pressure the Pmax parameter represents the
maximum absolute total pore pressure in the mesh.
Mstage
The Mstage parameter is associated with the Staged construction option in PLAXIS
(Section 5.8). This total multiplier gives the proportion of a construction stage that has
been completed. Without input from the user, the value of Mstage is always zero at the
start of a staged construction analysis and at the end it will generally be 1.0. It is possible
to specify a lower ultimate level of Mstage using the Advanced option of the Parameters
tabsheet. However, care should be taken with this option. In calculations where the
loading input is not specied as Staged construction, the value of Mstage remains zero.
5.11.3 DYNAMIC MULTIPLIERS
When performing a Dynamic analysis, multipliers are used to activate the dynamic loads
by clicking on the Dynamics button to the right of the multipliers MdispX, MdispY,
MloadA and MloadB in the Multipliers tabsheet. Note that independent multipliers
can be used for the horizontal (x) and the vertical (y) components of prescribed
displacements. The Dynamic loading window will appear in which it is possible to dene
a harmonic load (option Harmonic load multiplier) or to read a dynamic load multiplier
from a data le (option Load multiplier from data le), see Figure 5.34. The Dynamics
button is only available if the corresponding load is set as dynamic load in the Loads
menu of the Input program.
Figure 5.34 Dynamic loading window
The active load that is used in a dynamic calculation is the product of the input value of
the load, as specied in the Input program, and the corresponding dynamic load
multiplier:
Active load = Dynamic multiplier Input value (5.1)
Harmonic loads
In PLAXIS harmonic loads are dened as:
CALCULATIONS
F =

M

F sin ( t +
0
)
in which
M Amplitude multiplier
F Input value of the load, as dened in the Input program

2 f with f = Frequency in Hz
0
Initial phase angle in degrees
Hint: A dynamic load can also suddenly be applied in a single time step or sub
step (block load). In case of a Harmonic load multiplier, a block load can be
modelled by setting the Amplitude multiplier equal to the magnitude of the
block load, the Frequency to 0Hz and Initial phase angle to 90
giving the
relation F =

M

F. In case of a Load multiplier from data le, a block load
can directly be dened.
Load multiplier from data le
Besides harmonic loading there is also the possibility to read data from a le with
digitised load signal. This le may be in plain ASCII or in SMC format. Note that PLAXIS
only supports the English notation of decimal numbers using a dot.
In case of a dynamic prescribed displacement, a selection has to be made whether the
input has to be considered as Displacements, Velocities or Accelerations. The velocities
and accelerations are converted into displacements in the Calculations program, taking
into account the time step and integration method.
Hint: PLAXIS assumes the data le is located in the current project directory when
no directory is specied in the Dynamic loading window.
Note that the signal is considered to start from rest. The value of the velocity
or acceleration at the starting time (t = 0) should be 0.
The option Drift correction is used to correct the displacement drift. Due to the integration
of the accelerations and velocities, a drift might occur in the displacements. The
displacement drift is corrected by applying a low frequency motion from the beginning of
the calculation and by correcting the acceleration accordingly.
ASCII le: An ASCII le can be created by the user with any text editor. In every line a
pair of values (actual time and corresponding multiplier) is dened, leaving at least one
space between them. The time should increase in each new line. It is not necessary to
use constant time intervals.
If the time steps in the dynamic analysis are such that they do not correspond with the
time series given in the le, the multipliers at a given (Dynamic) time will be linearly
interpolated from the data in the le. If the Dynamic time in the calculation is beyond the
last time value in the le a constant value, equal to the last multiplier in the le, will be
REFERENCE MANUAL
used in the calculations.
SMC le: In addition, it is possible to use earthquake records in SMC-format as input for
earthquake loading. The SMC (Strong Motion CD-ROM) format is currently used by the
U.S. Geological Survey National Strong-motion Program to record data of earthquakes
and other strong vibrations. This format uses ASCII character codes and provides text
headers, integer headers, real headers, and comments followed by either digitised
time-series coordinates or response values. The header information is designed to
provide the user with information about the earthquake and the recording instrument.
Most of the SMC les contain accelerations, but they may also contain velocity or
displacement series and response spectra. It is strongly recommended to use corrected
earthquake data records, i.e. time series, that are corrected for nal drift and non-zero
nal velocities.
The strong motion data are collected by the U.S. Geological Survey and are available
from the National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) of the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration. Information on NGDC products is available on the
World-wide Web at http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazard or by writing to:
National Geophysical Data Center NOAA/EGC/1
325 Broadway
Boulder, Colorado 80303
USA
Hint: The unit of length used in the SMC les is [cm], so accelerations are given in
[cm/s2]. This has consequences for the input value of the prescribed
displacements.
SMC les should be used in combination with prescribed boundary displacements at the
bottom of a geometry model. When using the standard unit of length [m] it is necessary
to use input values of 0.01 [m] for prescribed displacements. Alternatively, when using a
unit of length of [ft] it is necessary to use input values of 0.0328 [ft] (1/[feet in cm]) for
prescribed displacements. In this way the SMC le can directly be used for dynamic
analysis of earthquakes.
5.12 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS & PARAMETER VARIATION
After a project has been completely dened, the Calculations program allows for an
analysis of the inuence of variations of parameters on the computational results.
Preferably, the project should have been calculated and the user should have veried that
the project is consistent and the results are useable. Variations that can be considered
include mainly model parameters of material data sets for Soil and interfaces, Plates,
Geogrids and Anchors and are referred to as Material variations. These variations of
model parameters can be done by performing a Sensitivity analysis to analyse the
inuence of individual parameter variations on the results, or performing a Parameter
variation to analyse the upper and lower bounds of results.
Note that it is not possible to perform a Sensitivity analysis or a Parameter variation to
CALCULATIONS
study small geometric variations such as a variation in water pressures or a variation in
the magnitude of a load. These small geometric variations and combinations of
geometric variations must be made manually on a copy of the original project.
Sensitivity analysis and Parameter variation analysis are supported for Linear Elastic
model, Mohr-Coulomb model, Hardening Soil model, HS small model, Soft Soil model,
Soft Soil Creep model, Jointed Rock model and Modied Cam-Clay model.
5.12.1 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
The Sensitivity option is used to analyse the inuence of individual parameter variations
on the results with the purpose to evaluate the relative inuence of those parameters.
The relative inuence (sensitivity) is evaluated on the basis of a user-dened criterion; for
example the horizontal displacement of a particular node. Please note that nodes or
stress points used in these criteria can only be taken from the set of nodes and stress
points that have been selected for load-displacement curves or stress-strain curves (see
Section 8.1).
In a Sensitivity analysis the upper and lower bound values of parameters are varied
individually. If n is the number of parameters to be varied, the total number of complete
calculations is 2n + 1 (where +1 is a copy of the original project). Note that for n > 2 the
number of calculations required for a sensitivity analysis is less than the number of
calculations required for Parameter variation. Therefore, it may be efcient to rst perform
a sensitivity analysis in order to identify the parameters with the largest inuence on the
results, and then perform a parameter variation analysis with a reduced number of
parameters to be varied.
5.12.2 PARAMETER VARIATION
The Parameter variation option is used to analyse the upper and lower bounds of results
by performing complete calculations for all combinations of the upper and lower bound
values of the parameters to be varied. In this respect, a complete calculation involves all
dened calculation phases after the initial phase. If n is the number of parameters to be
varied, the total number of complete calculations is 2
n
+ 1 (where +1 is a copy of the
original project). Hence, if n is a large number, the complete analysis may take hours or
even days to perform. Some parameters will have a larger inuence on the variation of
results than others, and there may be even parameters whose inuence on the variation
of results is negligible. Therefore, it may be useful to analyse the inuence of individual
parameter variations during a Sensitivity analysis rst and then perform the Parameter
variation analysis with only those parameters that have a signicant inuence.
5.12.3 DEFINING VARIATIONS OF PARAMETERS
Both the Sensitivity and the Parameter variation option can be selected from the
Calculate submenu. To dene the variations of parameters, select the Run analysis
option in the corresponding menu. As a result, a new window appears showing an empty
list of material variations (Figure 5.35).
To dene variations of model parameters, click on the Dene button in the Material
variations group box. As a result, a new window opens with tabsheets for the different
types of material data sets, i.e. Soil and interfaces, Plates, Geogrids and Anchors. Each
REFERENCE MANUAL
Figure 5.35 Sensitivity analysis and Parameter variation window
tabsheet shows the corresponding predened material data sets. After selecting a data
set from the list of predened sets, the lower part of the window shows the corresponding
parameters with their input value.
A parameter for which a variation is considered can be selected by clicking on the
corresponding check box. The lower and upper bound values of the parameter can be
specied in the Min and Max boxes behind the original input value. The Min-value must
be smaller or equal to the input value. The Max-value must be larger or equal to the input
value. If not all of the model parameters t in the window, a scroll bar is available at the
right-hand side, which may be used to reach the model parameters below the visible
ones. After all desired parameters have been selected and their upper and lower bound
values have been specied, press the OK button to return to the Sensitivity or Parameter
variations window. The selected parameters are now listed in this window. The check box
before each parameter can be used to select whether or not to take the variation of the
parameter into account.
5.12.4 STARTING THE ANALYSIS
After all variations of parameters have been dened and the desired parameters have
been selected in the Sensitivity or Parameter variation window, the analysis can be
started by pressing the Run button. The Analysis info group box at the bottom of the
Sensitivity or Parameter variation window shows the total number of calculations that is
required, which is 2n + 1 for a Sensitivity analysis or 2
n
+ 1 for a Parameter variation
analysis, where n is the number of model parameters to be varied. The calculation
program creates copies of the original project (Project_#) inside the <Project >.P2DTS
folder for a Sensitivity analysis or the <Project >.P2DTP folder for Parameter variation.
Project_1 is always a copy of the original project with its original model parameters,
whereas Project_# (with #>2) are copies in which the material data in the data.plxmat
le is changed according to the dened material variations.
CALCULATIONS
Figure 5.36 Material parameters window
When clicking the Preview variations button in the Sensitivity analysis window or
Parameter variation window, a list of all copies with their corresponding parameter
values can be viewed. In case of the Parameter variation, this overview is also given
when selecting the option View permutations in the Parameter variation submenu of the
Calculate menu of the Calculations program.
All projects are passed on to the PLAXIS Calculation manager (see Section 5.13.3). The
Calculation manager controls the execution of the calculations and shows the status.
When all calculations have nished, the Calculation manager window will be closed and
the results can be evaluated.
5.12.5 SENSITIVITY - VIEW RESULTS
The result of a Sensitivity analysis is an overview of the relative inuence (sensitivity) of
the parameter variations. This sensitivity is evaluated on the basis of user-dened
criteria. Criteria can be based on nodal displacements, stress or strain components or
the factor of safety (if the project involves a Safety analysis). The points used for these
criteria can be selected from the set of points as dened for load-displacement curves or
stress-strain curves. These points have to be predened for the original project, before
the sensitivity analysis is started. The results of the Project_1 are used as reference
values for the calculation of the parameter sensitivity. See Chapter 6 of the Scientic
Manual for background information on the calculation of sensitivities.
To view the result of a sensitivity analysis, select the View results in the Sensitivity
submenu of the Calculate menu. When doing so, a new window appears (Figure 5.37).
The upper part of the window is used to dene the criteria on the basis of which the
sensitivity is evaluated.
REFERENCE MANUAL
Figure 5.37 Sensitivity analysis results window
To add a criterion, the following steps need to be performed:
1. Select the Calculation phase from which the results are considered.
2. Select Displacement, Stress/Strain or Factor of safety from the Criterion group box.
3. Select the desired point (node or stress point) from the Point combo box.
4. Select the desired displacement, stress or strain component from the Result combo
box.
5. Click Add to add the criterion to the list of selected criteria.
6. If necessary, select and add more criteria. Each of the dened criteria has the same
'weight'. To give a criterion a 'double weight', it should be added twice. A falsely
added criterion can be removed by selecting it from the list of selected criteria and
pressing the Remove button.
Hint: In the case when the Factor of safety criterion is selected, the user should
make sure that a failure mechanism has fully developed by viewing the
development of Msf for the whole calculation using the Curves option
(Chapter 8). If a failure mechanism has not fully developed, then the
calculation of the original phase must be repeated with a larger number of
additional steps (Section 5.5.5).
The copies of the original project (Project_#) the ones in which the material
data in the data.plxmat le is changed according to the dened material
variations are available in the <Project >.P2DTS folder.
The lower part of the window is used to show the sensitivity of all varied parameters on
the basis of the selected criteria, both in graphical form in the Graph tabsheet as in
tabulated form in the Table tabsheet. Moreover, the Parameter variation tabsheet is
available to directly select the parameters that will be taken into account in a Parameter
variation analysis.
On the Graph tabsheet the sensitivity of a parameter is indicated by the size of the
corresponding green bar. The parameters that will be taken into account in a subsequent
Parameter variation analysis can be de-selected by clicking on the corresponding bar. By
CALCULATIONS
doing so, the bar colour changes from green to red. Clicking once again will select the
corresponding parameter. The selected parameters are also shown in the Parameter
variation tabsheet. On the Table tabsheet an overview is given of the different copies of
the original project, their parameter values, the absolute results of the different criteria
and the parameter sensitivity score. On the basis of the sensitivity scores, the total
sensitivity of a particular parameter is dened as the sum of the two corresponding
parameter sensitivity scores divided by the total sum of sensitivity scores.
If it is desired to modify the upper and lower values of model parameters and to perform a
new sensitivity analysis, the New sensitivity analysis button at the bottom of the window
should be pressed. By doing so, the Sensitivity window is opened, where new upper and
lower values can be dened.
Figure 5.38 The Sensitivity analysis window showing the Parameter variation tabsheet
From the Sensitivity results window you can directly start a Parameter variation analysis
using the Parameter variation tabsheet. On this tab sheet you can select the parameters
that should be taken into account in the Parameter variation analysis, and start the
analysis by pressing the Run button. When parameters have been selected on the Graph
tabsheet ('green' bar), they will automatically have a check mark in the Parameter
variation tabsheet.
5.12.6 PARAMETER VARIATION - CALCULATE BOUNDARY VALUES
Before the results of a Parameter variation can be viewed, upper and lower values of load
multipliers, displacements and structural forces from all parameter variation results need
to be collected and stored in separate project les. This is not automatically done after
parameter variation, but you can perform this action by selecting the Calculate boundary
values option in the Parameter variation submenu of the Calculate menu. As a result, a
small window appears in which the original project is shown. To start the collection of
upper and lower values, press the Start button. The program will now create another
folder named <Project >.P2DTM, in which copies of the original project are created,
named <Project >_MIN and <Project >_MAX. In the corresponding project data
directories (<Project >_MIN.P2D and <Project >_MAX.P2D), the output les
corresponding to the last step of each calculation phase are modied such that they will
contain the minimum (maximum) values of load multipliers, the minimum (maximum)
nodal displacements and the minimum (maximum) structural forces per node of structural
elements from all parameter variation results. After this action has been nished, the
REFERENCE MANUAL
upper and lower values can be viewed and processed in a similar way as the results of a
'normal' calculation using the Output program.
5.12.7 VIEWING UPPER AND LOWER VALUES
To view the upper (maximum) or lower (minimum) values of load multipliers,
displacements, and structural forces, resulting from the parameter variation analysis,
select the Open option from the File menu. In the le requester, select the
<Project >.P2DTM directory and subsequently the <Project >_MAX.P2D or
<Project >_MIN.P2D project. Select the desired calculation phase and press the Output
button. Alternatively, the Output program can be started and the desired calculation
phase of the Minimum or Maximum project can be opened. Results can be viewed as for
any PLAXIS project. Minimum and Maximum values may be compared by opening the
Minimum and Maximum project simultaneously.
Hint: Results collected in the Minimum or Maximum project may come from
different parameter variations and may therefore show discontinuities or
present a situation that is not in equilibrium.
5.12.8 VIEWING RESULTS OF VARIATIONS
To view the results of individual parameter variations or combinations of parameter
variations, the corresponding copy of the original project (Project ) can be opened in the
Calculation window or the Output window using the same procedures as for a normal
PLAXIS project. The results of parameter variations are stored in the <Project >.P2DTS
or <Project >.P2DTP folder. In order to see which of the copies contain which parameter
variations, the Overview button in respectively the Sensitivity analysis window or the
Parameter variation window may be used (see also Section 5.12.4). In case of the
Parameter variation, this overview is also given when selecting the option View
permutations in the Parameter variation submenu of the Calculate menu of the
Calculations program.
5.12.9 DELETE RESULTS
Results from a Sensitivity analysis or Parameter variation can be removed by selecting
the Delete results option in the corresponding submenu of the Calculate menu. By doing
so, the <Project >.P2DTS folder or the <Project >.P2DTP folder respectively, including
all data in this folder, will be deleted.
5.13 STARTING A CALCULATION
When a calculation phase has been dened, its calculation can be started.
5.13.1 PREVIEWING A CONSTRUCTION STAGE
When a construction staged is fully dened, a preview of the situation is presented on the
Preview tabsheet of the Calculations window. This option is only available if the Staged
CALCULATIONS
construction option has been selected as Loading input to dene the calculation phase. It
enables a direct visual check of construction stages before the calculation process is
started.
5.13.2 SELECTING POINTS FOR CURVES
After the calculation phases have been dened and before the calculation
process is started, some points may be selected by the user for the generation of
load-displacement curves or stress paths by clicking the Select points for curves button
or by selecting this option in the Tools menu.
Nodes should be selected to plot displacements, whereas stress points should be
selected to plot stresses and strains. Selection of points is described in detail in Section
8.1.
5.13.3 EXECUTION OF THE CALCULATION PROCESS
When calculation phases have been dened and points for curves have been selected,
then the calculation process can be executed. Before starting the process, however, it is
useful to check the list of calculation phases. In principle, all calculation phases indicated
with a blue arrow () will be executed in the calculation process. By default, when
dening a calculation phase, it is automatically selected for execution. A previously
executed calculation phase is indicated by a green tick mark (
) if the calculation was

successful, otherwise it is indicated by a red cross (). To select or deselect a calculation
phase for execution, the corresponding line should be double clicked .
Alternatively, the right hand mouse button may be clicked on the corresponding line and
the option Mark calculate or Unmark calculate should be selected from the cursor menu.
Starting the calculation process
The calculation process can be started by clicking the Calculate button in the tool
bar. This button is only visible if a calculation phase is focused that is selected for
execution, as indicated by the blue arrow. Alternatively, the Current project option can be
selected from the Calculate menu. As a result, the program rst performs a check on the
ordering and consistency of the calculation phases. In addition, the rst calculation phase
to be executed is determined and all selected calculation phases in the list are
subsequently executed, provided that failure does not occur. To inform the user about the
progress of the calculation process, the active calculation phase will be focused in the list.
Multiple projects
In addition to the execution of the calculation process of the current project it is possible
to select more projects for which calculations have to be executed subsequently. This can
be done by selecting the Multiple projects option from the Calculate menu.
As a result the Calculation manager window appears (Figure 5.39). The toolbar in this
window has the following options, which are also available from the Calculation menu:
Pause This option will pause the execution of the calculation process.
After selecting the Calculate option, the execution of the
calculation process will be continued.
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Calculate This option will start the calculation process.
Stop This option will stop the whole calculation process.
Add This option will open the le requester to select another project to
add to the list.
Remove This option will remove the selected project from the list.
Remove all This option will remove all projects from the list.
The options Completed calculations, Waiting calculations and Failed calculations from
the View menu can be used to lter the projects.
Figure 5.39 Calculation manager window
5.13.4 ABORTING A CALCULATION
If, for some reason, the user decides to abort a calculation, this can be done by pressing
the Stop button in the separate window that displays information about the iteration
process of the current calculation phase.
If the Stop button is pressed, the total specied load will not be applied. In Phases list the
phase is preceded by a red cross and in the General tabsheet of the Phases window the
following message is displayed in the Log info box: Cancelled.
In addition to aborting a calculation permanently, it is also possible to abort the
calculation temporarily by clicking the Pause button. The calculation will be resumed after
clicking the Resume button.
5.13.5 OUTPUT DURING CALCULATIONS
During a 2D nite element deformation analysis, information about the calculation
process is presented in a separate window (Figure 5.40). The phase being calculated is
indicated in the Phase tabs.
Kernel information
Start time The time indicating the start of the calculation is displayed.
Memory used The memory occupied by the calculation process is displayed.
Total multipliers at the end of the previous loading step
M
dispX
,
M
dispY
Indicates the portion of the dened prescribed displacement
applied in the current phase.
M
loadA
,
M
loadB
Indicates the portion of the dened load applied in the current
CALCULATIONS
Figure 5.40 The Active tasks window.
phase.
M
weight
Indicates the total proportion of the material weights applied in a
calculation.Its value is 0 at the beginning of the calculation and
changes to 1.000, indicating that all the materials weight is
applied.
M
accel
The value of this parameter is always 0 as PLAXIS 2D does not
consider acceleration.
M
sf
This parameter is related to the Safety analysis. It is dened as
the ratio of the original strength parameters and the reduced
strength parameters at a given stage of analysis. Its value is
1.000 at the beginning of an analysis. The increment of the
strength reduction of the rst calculation step is described in
Section 5.5.5.
M
stage
It gives the completed proportion of a plastic calculation. Its
value is always 0 at the start of the calculation and it will be
1.000 at the end of a successful calculation. For other analysis
types (Consolidation and Safety) it is always 0.
P
excess,max
It represents the excess pore pressure in the mesh, expressed in
the units of stress. P
excess,max
is available in the deformation
calculation tabsheet of the Active task window for all the
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calculation types available in the Classical mode and for the
Plastic and the Safety calculation types in the Advanced mode.
P
active,max
It represents the active pore pressure in the mesh, expressed in
the units of stress. P
active,max
is available in the deformation
calculation tabsheet of the Active task window for the
Consolidation calculation types in the Advanced mode.
P
steady,max
It represents the steady state pore pressure in the mesh,
expressed in the units of stress. P
steady
is available in the ow
calculation tabsheet of the Active task window for all the
calculation types.
M
area
It indicates the proportion of the total area of soil clusters in the
geometry model that is currently active.
F
x
,
F
y
These parameters indicate the reaction forces corresponding to
the non-zero prescribed displacements.
Stiffness The Stiffness parameter gives an indication of the amount of
plasticity that occurs in the calculation. The Stiffness is dened
as:
Stiffness =
_

D
e
When the solution is fully elastic, the Stiffness is equal to unity,

whereas at failure the stiffness approaches zero. The Stiffness is
used in determining the Global error. See Section 5.13.9 for
more details.
Time The current time within the specied time interval of the loading
input for the calculated phase, dened in the Parameters
Dyn. time The current dynamic time within the specied time interval of the
loading input for the calculated phase, dened in the Parameters
Calculation progress
A small load-displacement curve for the pre-selected nodes for curves is shown in the
Calculation progress group box. By default, the curve is shown for the rst selected node.
Curve for other pre-selected nodes is shown when the node is selected in the drop-down
menu. The presented graph may be used to roughly evaluate the progress of the
calculation.
Plastic analysis For a plastic analysis the development of the
M
stage
parameter is plotted against the displacement.
Consolidation analysis In case of a Consolidation analysis, the maximum excess pore
pressure, P
excess,max
, in case of a Consolidation analysis based
on excess pore pressure or the maximum active pore pressure,
P
active,max
, in case of a Consolidation analysis based on total
pore pressure is plotted against the logarithm of time.
Safety analysis In case of Safety analysis, the development of
M
sf
is plotted
against the displacement.
CALCULATIONS
Dynamic analysis In case of Dynamic analysis, the displacement is plotted against
the logarithm of time.
Free vibration In case of Free vibration, the displacement is plotted against the
logarithm of time.
In case of Groundwater ow (steady-state), the maximum steady
pore pressure, P
steady,max
, at steady state is plotted.
Groundwater ow (transient)
In case of Groundwater ow (transient), the maximum steady
pore pressure, P
steady,max
, is plotted against the logarithm of
time.
Iteration process of current step
Current step Indicates the number of the current calculation step.
Iteration Indicates the number of the iterations in the current calculation
step.
Global error The value of this error is an indication of the global equilibrium
error within the calculation step. As the number of iterations
increases, its value tend to decrease. For further details on this
parameter see Section 5.13.9.
Max. local error in ow The value of this error is an indication of possible entrapment of
water in saturated regions in the current calculation step. The
tolerated value is 0.05.
Relative change in saturation
The value is an indication of variation of saturation degree in
consecutive calculation steps. The tolerated value is 0.1. When
the relative change in saturation is higher than the tolerate value,
the time step is automatically decreased. When the relative
change in saturation is lower than the tolerate value, the time
step is automatically increased. Note that the values of the time
step are always in the range dened by Desired minimum and
Desired maximum parameters.
Relative change in relative permeability
The value is an indication of variation of relative permeability in
consecutive calculation steps. The tolerated value is 0.1. When
the relative change in relative permeability is higher than the
tolerate value, the time step is automatically decreased. When
the relative change in relative permeability is lower than the
tolerate value, the time step is automatically increased. Note that
the values of the time step are always in the range dened by
Desired minimum and Desired maximum parameters.
Max. step Indicates the last step number of the current calculation phase
according to the Additional steps dened in the Parameters
tabsheet in the Phases window.
REFERENCE MANUAL
Max. iterations The value of Maximum iteration steps for the calculated phase,
dened for the Iterative procedure in the Parameters tabsheet of
the Phases window.
Tolerance This value indicates the maximum global equilibrium error that is
allowed. The value of the tolerance corresponds to the value of
the Tolerated error in the settings for the iterative procedure. The
iteration process will at least continue as long as the Global error
is larger than the Tolerance. For details see Section 5.13.9.
Element The number of soil elements in the calculated phase.
Decomposition Progress of the decomposition of the phase being calculated.
Calc. time Indicates the calculation time of the current calculation step.
Plastic points in current step
Plastic stress points The total number of stress points in soil elements that are in
plastic state.
Plastic interface point The total number of stress points in interface elements that are in
plastic state.
Inaccurate This value indicates the number of plastic stress points in soil
elements and interface elements respectively, for which the local
error exceeds the tolerated error.
Tolerated This value indicates the maximum number of inaccurate stress
points in soil elements and interface elements respectively that
are allowed. The iteration process will at least continue as long
as the number of inaccurate points is larger than the tolerated
number.
Tension points A Tension point is a point that fails in tension. These points will
develop when the Tension cut-off is used in any of the material
sets in the model. This parameter indicates the total number of
points that fail in tension.
Cap/Hardening points A Cap point occurs if the Hardening Soil model, HS small model
or Soft Soil Creep model are used and the stress state in a point
is equivalent to the pre-consolidation stress, i.e. the maximum
stress level that has previously been reached (OCR 1.0). A
Hardening point occurs if the Hardening Soil model or HS small
model is used and the stress state in a point corresponds to the
maximum mobilised friction angle that has previously been
reached.
Apex points These are special plastic points where the allowable shear stress
is zero. The iterative procedure tends to become slow when the
number of plastic apex points is large. Apex points can be
avoided by selecting the Tension cut-off option in the material
datasets for soil and interfaces.
CALCULATIONS
Calculation status
The calculation status indicates what part of the calculation process is currently being
executed. The following processes are indicated:
Decomposing. . . Decomposing the global stiffness matrix.
Calculating stresses. . . Calculating the strain increments and constitutive stresses.
Writing data. . . Writing output data to disk.
Previewing of intermediate results during calculation
The Preview button in the Active tasks window enables previewing the results of the
intermediate calculation steps of the phase being calculated. The intermediate steps are
listed in the drop-down menu (Section 6.3.9) and the list is updated when the calculation
of new intermediate steps is complete.
The results of the intermediate calculation steps can be used in curves as well. When a
curve is created, the newly calculated steps can be included in the plot by using the
Regenerate button available in the Settings window (Section 8.5).
Note that when the calculation of the phase is completed, a warning will appear indicating
that the intermediate results are no longer available. A more detailed description on how
to display the results of a calculated phase is given in Section 5.13.6.
5.13.6 SELECTING CALCULATION PHASES FOR OUTPUT
After the calculation process has nished, the calculation list is updated. Calculation
phases that have been successfully nished are indicated by a green tick mark (
),
whereas phases that did not nish successfully are indicated by a red cross (). In
addition, messages from the calculations are displayed in the Log info box of the General
tabsheet.
When a calculation phase is selected that has been executed, the tool bar will show
the View results button. Clicking this button will directly display the results of the
selected phase in the Output program.
5.13.7 RESET STAGED CONSTRUCTION SETTINGS
If a calculation phase has been dened using the Staged construction option and
subsequently changes are made to previous phases these changes are not carried out
into the subsequent phases as is the case when a staged construction phase is dened
for the rst time. It is of course possible to also make these changes manually in all
subsequent staged construction phases but sometimes it is more practical to clear the
Staged construction settings and start over. It is possible to clear the staged construction
settings and set them to those of the preceeding staged construction phase by rst
selecting the corresponding phase in the list of calculation phases, click the right mouse
button and then select the option Reset staged construction from the popup menu.
Similarly the water conditions can be reset to those of the preceeding staged construction
phase by selecting the option Reset water conditions from the popup menu.
REFERENCE MANUAL
5.13.8 ADJUSTMENT TO INPUT DATA IN BETWEEN CALCULATIONS
Care should be taken with the change of input data (in the Input program) in between
calculation phases. In general, this should not be done since it causes the input to cease
to be consistent with the calculation data. In most cases there are other ways to change
data in between calculation phases instead of changing the input data itself.
Modication of geometry
When the geometry is slightly modied (small relocation of objects, slight modication of
their geometry or deleting objects) in the Input program, the program will try to regenerate
all data related to construction stages as soon as mesh regeneration is performed.
However, in the Calculations program, the user has to check the construction stages
carefully, since some settings may not have been generated properly. The calculation
process must restart from the initial phase.
If signicant changes in the geometry are made then all settings need to be redened,
since PLAXIS is not able to properly regenerate the settings automatically.
Modication of material parameters and feature properties
When changing material properties in existing data sets without changing the geometry,
then all calculation information is retained as well. In this case, clusters refer to the same
data sets, but the properties as dened in these data sets have changed. However, this
procedure is not very useful, since PLAXIS allows for a change of data sets within the
Staged construction calculation option (Section 5.8.5). Hence, it is better to create the
data sets that will be used in later calculation phases beforehand and to use the Staged
construction option to change data sets during calculations. The same applies to a
change in water pressures and a change in input values of existing loads, since the latter
is also possible using the Staged construction option (Sections 5.8 and 5.9).
5.13.9 AUTOMATIC ERROR CHECKS
During each calculation step, the PLAXIS calculation kernel performs a series of
iterations to reduce the out-of-balance errors in the solution. To terminate this iterative
procedure when the errors are acceptable, it is necessary to establish the
out-of-equilibrium errors at any stage during the iterative process automatically.
Two separate error indicators are used for this purpose, based on the measure of either
the global equilibrium error or the local error. The values of both of these indicators must
be below predetermined limits for the iterative procedure to terminate. These two error
indicators and the associated error checking procedures are described below.
Global error check
The global error checking parameter used in the PLAXIS calculation kernel is related to
the sum of the magnitudes of the out-of-balance nodal forces. The term 'out-of-balance
nodal forces' refers to the difference between the external loads and the forces that are in
equilibrium with the current stresses. To obtain this parameter, the out-of-balance loads
are non-dimensionalised as shown below:
Global error =
Out of balance nodal forces
Active loads + CSP Inactive loads
CALCULATIONS
In case of a ow calculation, the out-of-balance nodal ux will be used instead of the
out-of-balance nodal forces.
CSP is the current value of the Stiffness parameter, dened as:
Stiffness =
_

D
e
which is a measure for the amount of plasticity that occurs during the calculation. See the
Chapter 2.3 of the Material Models Manualfor more information on the stiffness
parameters. When the solution is fully elastic, the Stiffness is equal to unity, whereas at
failure the Stiffness approaches zero. In the latter case the global error will be larger for
the same out of balance force. Hence, it will take more iterations to fulll the tolerance.
This means that the solution becomes more accurate when more plasticity occurs.
Local error check
Local errors refer to the errors at each individual stress point. To understand the local
error checking procedure used in PLAXIS it is necessary to consider the stress changes
that occur at a typical stress point during the iterative process. The variation of one of the
stress components during the iteration procedure is shown in Figure 5.41.
s
t
r
e
s
s
equilibrium stress
constitutive stress
strain
A
B
Figure 5.41 Equilibrium and constitutive stresses
At the end of each iteration, two important values of stress are calculated by PLAXIS. The
rst of these, the 'equilibrium stress', is the stress calculated directly from the stiffness
matrix (e.g. point A in Figure 5.41). The second important stress, the 'constitutive stress',
is the value of stress on the material stress-strain curve at the same strain as the
equilibrium stress, i.e. point B in Figure 5.41.
The dashed line in Figure 5.41 indicates the path of the equilibrium stress. In general this
equilibrium stress path depends on the nature of the stress eld and the applied loading.
For the case of a soil element obeying the Mohr-Coulomb criterion, the local error for the
particular stress point at the end of the iteration is dened:
Local error =

e
-
c
T
max
In this equation the numerator is a norm of the difference between the equilibrium stress
tensor,
e
, and the constitutive stress tensor,
c
. This norm is dened by:
REFERENCE MANUAL
c
=
_
(
e
xx

c
xx
)
2
+
_
e
yy

c
yy
_
2
+(
e
zz

c
zz
)
2
+
_
e
xy

c
xy
_
2
+
_
e
yz

c
yz
_
2
+(
e
zx

c
zx
)
2
The denominator of the equation for the local error is the maximum value of the shear
stress as dened by the Coulomb failure criterion. In case of the Mohr-Coulomb model,
T
max
is dened as:
T
max
= max(('
3
'
1
), c cos )
When the stress point is located in an interface element the following expression is used:
Local error =
_
(
e
n

c
n
)
2
+(
e
c
)
2
c
i

c
n
tan
i
where
n
and represent the normal and shear stresses respectively in the interface. To
quantify the local accuracy, the concept of inaccurate plastic points is used. A plastic
point is dened to be inaccurate if the local error exceeds the value of the user specied
tolerated error (see Section 5.4).
Termination of iterations
For PLAXIS to terminate the iterations in the current load step, all of the following three
error checks must be satised. For further details of these error-checking procedures,
see Vermeer & van Langen (1989).
Global error Tolerated error
No. of inaccurate soil points 3 +
No. of plastic soil points
10
No. of inaccurate interface points 3 +
No. of plastic interface points
10
OUTPUT PROGRAM - GENERAL OVERVIEW
6 OUTPUT PROGRAM - GENERAL OVERVIEW
This icon represents the Output program. The main output quantities of a nite
element calculation are the displacements and the stresses. In addition, when a
nite element model involves structural elements, the structural forces in these elements
are calculated. An extensive range of facilities exists within the PLAXIS 2D Output
program to display the results of a nite element analysis. This chapter gives a
description of the features available in the program.
If the Output program is activated by running its executable le or by clicking the Output
program button in the Calculations program, the user has to select the model and the
appropriate calculation phase or step number for which the results are to be viewed
(Figure 6.1). More options on how to activate the Output are given in Section 6.3.1.
Figure 6.1 File requester of Output program
When a particular project is selected, the le requester displays the corresponding list of
calculation phases from which a further selection should be made. If it is desired to select
an intermediate calculation step, then a single mouse click should be given on the plus
icon (+) at the left of the desired phase. As a result, the calculation list expands a list with
all available step numbers for this phase, from which the desired step number can be
selected.
Hint: Please note that the number of the individual steps available depends on the
value assigned to Max steps saved in the Parameters tabsheet of the
Phases window.
Once an output step of a particular project has been opened, the combo box in the
toolbar will contain a list of available output steps, indicated by the step number and
corresponding phase number.
REFERENCE MANUAL
6.1 LAYOUT OF THE OUTPUT PROGRAM
The layout of the Output program is shown in Figure 6.2:
Figure 6.2 Main window of the Output program
Title bar
The title bar gives information about the project name, the step number and the type of
information/results displayed.
Menu bar
The menu bar contains all output items and operations facilities of the Output program
(Section 6.2).
Toolbars
Buttons for different features in the Output program are located above and at the left side
of the plot area. A hint about the function of each tool is given as the cursor is located on
it.
Plot area
The calculation results are displayed in the Plot area. The results can be displayed in
graphical or tabular form. More information on how to handle the plot is given in Section
6.4.
Status bar
The status bar displays the locations of the cursor and the viewpoint and a hint about the
object in the model and their element numbers.
The menu bar contains drop-down menus covering the options available in the Output
program. The main results from a nite element calculation are deformations and
stresses. Hence, these two aspects form the major part of the Output menu. When
displaying a basic 2D geometry model, the menu consists of the File, View, Project,
Geometry, Mesh, Deformations, Stresses, Tools, Window and Help menus. Note that the
availability of the menus in the bar depends on the type of data that is presented on the
output form.
6.2.1 FILE MENU
Open project To open the output of an existing project.
Close active project To close all forms of the active project.
Close all projects To close all forms of all opened projects.
Work directory Set the default directory where PLAXIS 2D project les are
stored.
Export to le To export the information displayed, depending on the
information type, to a text le (for results in tables) or image le
(for plot).
Report generator To generate a report of the project.
Create animation Create an animation from selected output steps. The Create
animation window is presented.
Print To print the active output on a selected printer.
(List of recent projects) A list of the ve most recent projects.
Exit To leave the output program.
6.2.2 VIEW MENU
Zoom out To restore to view before the most recent zoom action.
Reset view To restore the original plot.
Save view To save the current view (image or table). The saved views can
be included in a report of the project.
Show saved views To open or delete saved views.
Scale To modify the scale factor of the presented quantity.
Legend settings To modify the range of values of the presented quantity in
contour line plots and plots with shadings.
Scan line To change the scan line for displaying contour line labels. After
selection, the scan line must be drawn using the mouse. Press
the left mouse button at one end of the line; hold the mouse
button down and move the mouse to the other end. A contour
line label will appear at every intersection of the scan line with a
contour line.
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Use result smoothing To reduce the numerical noise resulting from the extrapolation of
the results obtained in stress points (e.g. stress, force) to nodes.
This option is available for plots and tables. Note that the option
is by default selected in plot presentation of the results.
Rulers To toggle the display of the rulers along the active plot.
Title To toggle the display of the title of the active plot in the caption.
Legend To toggle the display of the legend of contours or shadings.
Axes To toggle the display of the global x- and y-axes in the active plot
(displayed in the lower right corner).
Local axes To toggle the display of the local 1- and 2-axes of the structures.
This option is only available when viewing structures.
Settings To set various graphical attributes, such as object and
background colours, symbol size, font size and diffuse shading.
Move cross section forward
To move the created cross section through the model enabling a
visual display of the results in the model. This option is available
in the Cross section view.
Move cross section backward
To move the created cross section through the model enabling a
visual display of the results in the model. This option is available
in the Cross section view.
Arrows To display the results as arrows.
Contour lines To display the results as contour lines.
Shadings To display the results as shadings.
Node labels To display the results at nodes.
Stress point labels To display the results at stress points.
Deformation plane To display the deformed shape of cross sections, geogrids or
plates.
Distribution plane To project the results perpendicularly to the plane creating a
distribution plane for cross sections and plates.
Deformation To display the deformed shape for beams, embedded piles and
anchors.
Distribution To project the results perpendicularly to the structure, creating a
distribution line for beams, embedded piles and anchors.
Principal directions To display the principal directions in each stress point of the soil
element.
Center principal directions
To display the principal directions of stresses and strains at the
center of each soil element.
Coloured principal directions
To display the principal directions in each stress point of the soil
element. Colours are used to distinguish the principal directions.
Coloured center principal directions
To display the principal directions of stresses and strains at the
center of each soil element. Colours are used to distinguish the
principal directions.
6.2.3 PROJECT MENU
Input nodes View the table of the geometry input points.
Node xities View the table of the node xities.
Load information View the table of the active loads and bending moments in the
current step.
Water load information View the table of the external water loads on the geometry
boundaries in the current step.
Prescribed displacement information
View the table of the prescribed displacements in the current
step.
Virtual interface thickness
View the table of the virtual interface thickness.
Applied volume strain View the table of the volume strain resulting at the end of the
calculation phase.
Volume information View the boundaries of the soil volume, the total volume of soil
and the volume of each cluster in the project.
Material information (all load cases)
View the material data of all load cases.
Material information (current load case)
View the material data of the current load case.
General information View the general project information.
Calculation information View the calculation information of the presented step.
Calculation info per phase
View the calculation information for each calculation phase.
Calculation info per step
View the calculation information for each calculation step.
Step info View the step information of the presented step.
Structures per phase View the active structures per calculation phase.
6.2.4 GEOMETRY MENU
Phreatic level Toggle the display of the phreatic level in the model. For phases
calculated in the Classical and Flow modes, the phreatic level
indicates the level of zero steady state water pressure. For
phases calculated in the Advanced mode, the phreatic level
indicates the level of the zero active water pressure.
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Loads Toggle the display of the external loads in the model.
Fixities Toggle the display of the xities in the model.
Toggle the display of the prescribed displacements in the model.
Filter Filter the nodes displayed in the model according to a dened
criteria.
6.2.5 MESH MENU
Quality View the quality of the elements in the mesh dened as inner
circle divided by the outer circle of the soil element where an
equal sided triangle is normalized at 1.0. The displayed mesh
elements in the model vary according to the quality value
selected as the yellow bar is dragged through the legend.
Quality table View the table of the quality of the soil elements according to
different criteria.
Area View the distribution of the area of the soil elements.
Area table View the table of the distribution of the area of the soil elements.
Connectivity plot View the connectivity plot (Section 7.1).
Cluster borders Toggle the display of the cluster borders in the model.
Element contours Toggle the display of the element contours in the model.
Element deformation contours
Toggle the display of the deformed element contours in the
model.
Materials Toggle the display of the materials in the model.
Element numbers Toggle the display of the soil element numbers.
Material set numbers Toggle the display of the material set numbers in the soil
elements.
Structure material set numbers
Toggle the display of the material set numbers of the structural
elements.
Group numbering Toggle the display of the group numbers. Groups are created
according to the material sets and the assigned design
approaches.
Cluster numbers Toggle the display of the cluster numbers in the soil elements.
Node numbers Toggle the display of the nodes in the model.
Input Nodes To display the input geometry points in the model.
Stress point numbers Toggle the display of the stress points in the model.
Node numbers Toggle the display of the node numbers. Only possible when
nodes are displayed.
Stress point numbers Toggle the display of the stress point numbers. Only possible
when stress points are displayed.
Selection labels Toggle the display of the labels of the selected nodes or stress
points.
6.2.6 DEFORMATIONS MENU
The Deformations menu contains various options to visualise the deformations
(displacements, strains), the velocities and the accelerations (in the case of a dynamic
analysis) in the nite element model (Section 7.2). These quantities can be viewed for the
whole analysis (total values), for the last phase (phase values) or for the last calculation
step (incremental values). In principle, displacements are contained in the nodes of the
nite element mesh, so displacement related output is presented on the basis of the
nodes, whereas strains are usually presented in integration points (stress points).
6.2.7 STRESSES MENU
The Stresses menu contains various options to visualise the stress state and other state
parameters in the nite element model (Section 7.3). Stresses are contained in the
integration points of the nite elements mesh, so stress related output is presented on the
basis of the integration points (stress points).
6.2.8 FORCES MENU
The Forces menu contains various options to visualise the resulting forces in structural
elements (Section 7.4).
6.2.9 TOOLS MENU
Copy To copy the active output to the Windows clipboard .
Select points for curves To enable selection of nodes and stress points to be considered
in curves. All the nodes and stress points in the project are
displayed enabling selection by clicking on them. The Select
points window is activated, where the location of interest can be
dened and the appropriate nodes or stress points can be
selected form the list.
Mesh point selection To activate the Mesh selection window. This option is active
when the Select points for curves has been previously selected
and the Select points window is closed.
Curves manager To activate the Curves manager (Chapter 8).
Table To open a new form with a table of numerical values of the
presented quantity.
Cross section To select a user-dened cross section with a distribution of the
presented quantity. The cross section must be selected by the
mouse or by dening two points. Press the left mouse button at
one end of the cross section; hold the mouse button down and
move the mouse to the other end of the line. The cross section is
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presented on a new form.
Forces view To open a new form with the possibility to visualise contact
stresses and resulting forces on an arbitrary conguration of
elements.
Structural forces in volumes
To compute the forces in a structure which is modeled using soil
with the material properties of the structure (e.g. concrete), after
the calculation has already been nished. More information on
the usage of this option is given in Section 7.4.8.
Cross section curves To display a plot of the results along the cross sections. The
values in the x-axis in the plot are the distances of the points
from the rst point in the cross section.
Hint box To display a hint box with information in individual nodes or
stress points (if nodes or stress points are displayed).
Cross section points To display the points dening the cross section. These points are
displayed as greyed out in the Cross section points window.
Their location can not be modied. This option is valid only when
the Cross section view is active.
Distance measurement To measure the distance between two nodes in the model. This
option is valid in the Model view only when nodes and/or stress
points are displayed in the plot.
6.2.10 WINDOW MENU
Project manager To view the projects and forms currently displayed in Output.
Duplicate model view To duplicate the active view.
Close window To close the active output form.
Cascade To cascade the displayed output forms.
Tile horizontally To tile horizontally the displayed output forms.
Tile vertically To tile vertically the displayed output forms.
(List of recent views) A list of the output forms.
6.2.11 HELP MENU
Instruction movies To reach the PLAXIS TV website where instruction movies are
displayed.
6.3 TOOLS IN THE OUTPUT PROGRAM
Besides displaying the calculation results, the Output program provides tools to handle
the view and enable a better examination of the results. The buttons are grouped in the
toolbar below the menu bar and in the side tool bar. The tools and their functionality is
described in the following sections.
6.3.1 ACCESSING THE OUTPUT PROGRAM
All the results are displayed in the Output program. There are different ways to access
the Output program. Besides the option of activating the program as described at the
beginning of this chapter, the results can be displayed before or after the calculation of
the phases is completed.
The results that can be displayed before calculating the phases are:
The generated mesh The generated mesh is automatically displayed in the Output
program as it is generated in the Input program.
Pore pressures The generated pore pressures can be displayed when they are
generated according to the phreatic level.
Connectivity plot The Connectivity plot displays the distribution of the nite
elements in the mesh and the nodes and stress points available.
The Connectivity plot is displayed when the Select point for
curves button is selected in the Calculations program. A more
detailed description is given in Section 7.1.
Hint: Note that the groundwater calculations are performed when the phase is
calculated. As a result, the pore pressure distribution is available only after
the phase is calculated.
The calculation results of a project are displayed in the Output program by selecting a
calculated phase in the Phases explorer and clicking the View calculation results button
in the Calculation program.
While the Output program is already active, the results of other projects
can be accessed either by clicking the Open project button or by selecting the
corresponding option in the File menu (Section 6.2.1).
6.3.2 EXPORTING OUTPUT DATA
The PLAXIS 2D Output program enables exporting the displayed results such as plots or
values. This is possible by clicking the corresponding button in the toolbar.
Copy to clipboard
Data as displayed in output forms may be exported to other programs using
the Windows clipboard function. When clicking on the Copy to clipboard button, the
Copy window appears in which selections can be made of the various plot components
that are to be included in the copy (Figure 6.3).
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Figure 6.3 Copy window
Print
Hardcopies of graphs and tables can be produced by sending the output to
an external printer. When the Print button is clicked or the corresponding option is
selected in the File menu, the Print window appears, in which various plot components
that are to be included in the hardcopy can be selected (Figure 6.4).
Figure 6.4 Print window
When pressing the Setup button, the standard printer setup window is presented in which
specic printer settings can be changed. When the Print button is clicked, the plot is send
to the printer. This process is fully carried out by the Windows
operating system.
Hint: When the Copy to clipboard option or the Print option is used on a plot that
shows a zoomed part of the model, only the part that is currently visible will
be exported to the clipboard or the printer.
Export
Data in output forms may be exported to les. When the Export to le button is
clicked, the Export window appears. Note that a text scaling factor can be dened.
Instead of the PLAXIS logo in the frame, it is also possible to insert a company logo. This
logo has to be provided as a bitmap and can be selected in the Print window after
clicking on the logo.
Figure 6.5 Export window
6.3.3 CURVES MANAGER
Clicking the Curves manager button activates the Curves manager window where
curves can be generated to evaluate the results at specied locations in the model.
Selection of points of interest and the generation of curves is described in detail in
Chapter 8.
6.3.4 STORE THE VIEW FOR REPORTS
The views in the Output program can be saved to be used when reports
are generated by clicking on the Store the view for reports button. The Save view
window pops up as the button is clicked. Description can be given to the view in the Save
view window (Figure 6.6) which can be benecial when the report is generated. Report
generation is described in detail in Section 6.6.
Figure 6.6 Save view window
6.3.5 ZOOMING THE PLOT
It is possible to zoom in and out in the view of the plots by scrolling the mouse wheel.
Other options for zooming are available by clicking the corresponding buttons in the
toolbar.
As this feature is selected, the mouse can be dragged on the model to dene a local
zooming rectangle. In the window, only the results in the dened rectangle will be
displayed.
Clicking the Zoom out button or selecting the corresponding option in the
View menu (Section 6.2.2) restores the view of before the most recent zoom action.
Clicking the Reset view or selecting the corresponding
option in the View menu (Section 6.2.2) button enables restoring the original plot.
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6.3.6 RELOCATION OF THE PLOT
The plot can be moved using the mouse.
When this button is clicked, the plot will be relocated (moved) by clicking
on the plot area and dragging it while keeping the left mouse button pressed.
6.3.7 SCALING THE DISPLAYED RESULTS
Whenever the results are indicated by length entities such as Arrows, Distribution,
Axis, etc. (Section 6.3.10), the Scale factor button can be used to receive a better
overview. When the button is clicked or the corresponding option in the View menu is
selected, a window pops up (Figure 6.7) where the factor can be dened. Note that this
option is also available in the right mouse click pop-up menu.
Figure 6.7 Scale factor window
Hint: The default value of the Scale factor depends on the size of the model.
The Scale factor may be used to increase or reduce the displayed (virtual)
thickness of interfaces in the Connectivity plot.
6.3.8 TABLES
The tabular form of the results given in the plot can be obtained by clicking on the
Table button or by selecting the corresponding option in the menu. Note that this
option is also available in the right mouse click pop-up menu.
Hint: The table of displacements may be used to view the global node numbers
and corresponding coordinates of individual elements.
Displaying of tables
By default, a table is presented in ascending order according to the global element
number and local node or stress point. However, a different ordering may be obtained by
clicking on the small triangle in the column header of the desired quantity on which the
ordering should be based. Another click on the same column header changes the
ordering from ascending to descending.
The options available in the right click pop-up menu are:
Select for curves To select the right clicked point in the table to be considered in
curves.
Align To align the text in the selected part of the table.
Decimal To display data in decimal representation.
Scientic To display data in scientic representation.
Decimal digits To dene the number of decimal digits displayed.
View factor To dene a factor to the values in the table.
Copy To copy the selected values in the table.
Find value To nd a value in the table.
Find soil element To nd a soil element with a specied ID in the table when the
results are displayed for soil elements.
Find structural element To nd a structural element with a specied ID in the table when
the results are displayed for structures.
Filter To lter the results in the table.
Hint: The values in the tables contain the most accurate information, whereas
information in plots can be inuenced or be less accurate due to smoothing
or extrapolation of information from stress points to nodes.
6.3.9 SELECTION OF RESULTS
As the type of result is selected from the Deformations, Stresses or Structures menu, the
results are displayed either in plots or tables according to the selection made.
While the Output program is running, other steps of the project can be selected from the
drop-down list in the toolbar. The button in front of the drop-down menu can be used to
toggle between the end results of phases, or individual output steps:
A list of the calculation phases and their nal calculation steps is given. The results
at the end of the nal calculation steps can be shown for each phase.
A list the saved calculation steps and the calculation phase they belong to is given.
The results of each calculation step can be shown.
In addition to the drop-down menu, the spinner at the right of the drop-down list or using
the <Ctrl-Up> and <Ctrl-Down> keys will select the end results of the previous or next
calculation step or calculation phase.
6.3.10 DISPLAY TYPE OF RESULTS
The plot type options are located at the right of the drop-down menu:
The results are displayed as contours.
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The results are displayed as shadings.
The results for Displacements can be displayed as arrows. Scaling of the results is
possible.
The results are displayed at each stress point of the soil elements. The length of
each line represents the magnitude of the principal quantity (stress or strain) and the
direction indicates the principal direction. Positive direction is indicated by arrows.
Scaling of the results is possible.
The average results are displayed at the center of each soil element. The length of
each line represents the magnitude of the principal quantity (stress or strain) and the
direction indicates the principal direction. Positive direction is indicated by arrows.
Scaling of the results is possible.
The results are displayed in different colours at each stress point of the soil
elements. The length of each line represents the magnitude of the principal quantity
(stress or strain) and the direction indicates the principal direction. Positive direction
is indicated by arrows. Scaling of the results is possible.
The average results are displayed in different colours at the center of each soil
element. The length of each line represents the magnitude of the principal quantity
(stress or strain) and the direction indicates the principal direction. Positive direction
is indicated by arrows. Scaling of the results is possible.
The deformed shape of cross sections, plates, geogrids or interfaces is displayed.
The relative deformation is indicated by arrows. Scaling of the results is possible.
The distributions of the results in cross sections, plates, geogrids or interfaces is
displayed. Scaling of the results is possible.
The wireframe distributions of the results in cross sections, plates, geogrids or
interfaces is displayed. Scaling of the results is possible.
The distribution of the maximum and the minimum values of the resulting forces in
plates, geogrids and node-to-node anchors up to the current calculation step is
displayed. Scaling of the results is possible.
The wireframe distribution of the maximum and the minimum values of the resulting
forces in plates, geogrids and node-to-node anchors up to the current calculation
step is displayed. Scaling of the results is possible.
The Plastic points option shows the stress points that are in a plastic state,
displayed in a plot of the undeformed geometry (Section 7.3.8). Scaling of the
results is possible. When scaling is used, it is possible to pull the interfaces out of
the plates, however the stress points will remain at their physical locations.
The availability of the display type buttons in the toolbar can be toggled on/off by
selecting the corresponding options in the View menu.
6.3.11 SELECT STRUCTURES
By default, all the active structures and interfaces in the selected phase are displayed in
the plot. The disabled structures can be displayed by selecting the corresponding option
in the Geometry menu.
Output for structures and interfaces can be obtained by clicking the Select
structures button and then double clicking the desired object in the 2D model. As a
result, a new form is opened on which the selected object appears. At the same time the
menu changes to provide the particular type of output for the selected object.
Another option of selecting structural elements in the output is by clicking on the
Select structures in a rectangle and drawing a rectangle in the model. As a result,
the structures in the rectangle will be selected.
To clear the selection, press <Esc>. Only structural elements of the same type can be
selected at the same time. For example, if a geogrid is selected, only other geogrids can
be added to the selection and no plates.
6.3.12 PARTIAL GEOMETRY
To enable the inspection of certain internal parts of the geometry (for example individual
layers or volume clusters) it is possible to make other parts of the geometry invisible in
the Model explorer by clicking the button in front of them (Figure 6.8).
Figure 6.8 Model explorer in Output
Visible model components are indicated by an open eye, whereas invisible ones are
indicated by a closed eye. By clicking on the button, the view of the components
(individual and/or groups) can be toggled from being visible to being invisible and vice
versa. A group is expanded by clicking on the + sign in front of the group. Clusters that
have been set inactive in the framework of staged construction are always invisible and
cannot be made visible.
Hint: The cluster numbers are activated by selecting the Cluster numbers option in
the Mesh menu.
The information in the Model explorer can be narrowed according to the ltering criteria
specied at the corresponding cell.
The Model explorer can be fully expanded by selecting the Expand all in menu displayed
when the Model explorer is right-clicked. The displaying menu provides the option
Collapse all that reverts the effect of the Expand all option.
The Show all option will make all the object active in the selected phase visible. The Hide
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all will revert the action.The Invert selection option will toggle all visible elements invisible
and all invisible elements visible. The Deselect all button will set all elements to invisible.
On pressing the Close button the Partial geometry window is closed without further
changes.
Apart from the Model explorer, individual volume elements or entire clusters of volume
elements can be made invisible by holding down the <Ctrl> key, the <Shift> key or both
keys at the same time, respectively, while clicking on an element in the 2D model. These
elements can be visible again by clicking the corresponding check boxes in the Model
explorer.
Clicking the Hide soil button in the side bar menu enables hiding parts of the soil.
To hide soil elements, click the Hide soil button rst and hold the <Ctrl> key pressed
while clicking on the soil elements. To hide soil clusters, click the Hide soil button rst
and hold the <Shift> key pressed while clicking on the soil clusters.
Clicking on the Hide soil in the rectangle button enables hiding the soil
in the rectangle drawn in the model. The drawing order of the rectangle effects the
resulting hidden soil elements.
To hide only the soil elements that fall completely in the dened rectangle, rst click the
Hide soil in the rectangle button. In the model, click at the point dening the upper left
corner of the rectangle, drag the mouse to the point dening the lower right corner of the
rectangle and click again.
To hide all the soil elements that are intersected by the dened rectangle, rst click the
Hide soil in the rectangle button. In the model, click at the point dening the lower right
corner of the rectangle, drag the mouse to the point dening the upper left corner of the
rectangle and click again.
6.3.13 VIEWING RESULTS IN CROSS SECTIONS
To gain insight in the distribution of a certain quantity in the soil it is often useful to view
the distribution of that quantity in a particular cross section of the model. This option is
available in PLAXIS for all types of stresses and displacements in soil elements.
A cross section can be dened by clicking the Cross section button in the side
button bar or by selecting the Cross section option in the View menu. Note that this
option is also available in the right mouse click pop-up menu. Upon selection of this
option, the Cross section points window pops up in which the two cross section
coordinates can be dened.
After the cross section has been selected, a new form is opened in which the distribution
of a quantity is presented on the indicated cross section. At the same time, the menu
changes to allow for the selection of all other quantities that may be viewed on the
indicated cross section.
Hint: The distribution of quantities in cross sections is obtained from interpolation
of nodal data, and may be less accurate than data presented in the 2D
model.
Multiple cross sections may be drawn in the same geometry. Each cross section will
appear in a different output form. To identify different cross sections, the end points of a
cross section are indicated with characters in alphabetical order. The points dening the
cross section can be viewed by selecting the Cross section points option in the Tools
menu.
In addition to the output quantities that are available for the 2D model, a cross section
allows for the display of cross section stresses, i.e. effective normal stresses '
N
, total
normal stresses
N
, vertical shear stresses
s
and horizontal shear stresses
t
.
Hint: It is possible to move a cross section in the direction of its normal while the
presentation of results is updated for the new location of the cross section.
Using the <Ctrl> and <Ctrl-+> keys will move the cross section 1/100
times the diagonal of the geometry model.
Using the <Ctrl-Shift> and <Ctrl-Shift-+> will move the cross section
1/1000 times the diagonal of the geometry model.
6.3.14 PLOT ANNOTATIONS
PLAXIS 2D enables addition of user-dened information to the output plots. The buttons
in the side toolbar provide different annotation options.
Label annotations in plots
PLAXIS 2D enables adding labels as annotations in plots. To add a label annotation to a
plot:
Click the Add label-annotation button in the side toolbar.
Double click the location on the plot where the label is to be located. The Annotation
window for the label pops up (Figure 6.9).
Dene the type by selecting the corresponding option in the Caption type drop down
menu. The options available for the Caption type are:
User dened To enter a label dened by the user.
Node ID To display the ID of the double clicked node.
Result value To display the result (i.e. the displacement, groundwater
head or other result, depending on the selected Output plot)
at the double clicked node.
Hint: The information available for the annotation depends on whether a node is
double clicked or not. When a node is double clicked, besides User-dened
text, information such as the node ID, result value at the node, the type of
element to which the node corresponds and the number of that element is
provided. If a random location is double clicked in the plot the only option
available for the Caption type, is User-dened.
If the User-dened option is selected, specify the label in the Caption type cell.
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Figure 6.9 Annotation window for labels
If either the ID or the Result value is selected from the Caption drop down menu, in
the Context box, select the element type to which the node belongs in the Element
type drop down menu. Depending on the model, the options might be Soil-element
or Structural-element.
A node can be shared by multiple elements. To specify the element of interest select
the corresponding option from the Element ID drop down menu in the Context box.
Note that the Context box is only available if an annotation is assigned to a node (a
node is double clicked).
Select one of the options available for the Scope box to prevent undesired display of
the annotation in the plot. The dened annotations can be relevant for the whole
project (Project option), only the current phase (Phase option) or only the current
calculation step (Step).
To limit the display of the annotation to the current view select the corresponding
checkbox in the window. Note that if this option is selected, the current view should
be saved to preserve the dened annotation.
Line annotations in plots
PLAXIS 2D enables adding lines or arrows as annotations in plots. To add a line
annotation to a plot:
Click the Add line-annotation button in the side toolbar.
Dene the start and the end points of the line by clicking on the plot. When the end
point is dened the Annotation window for lines pops up (Figure 6.9).
Use the Style options available in the drop down menus for the start and end point
of the line and for the line itself to modify the style of the line.
Specify the thickness of the line and the arrows in the corresponding cell.
Select one of the options available for the Scope to prevent undesired display of the
annotation in the plot. The dened annotations can be relevant for the whole project
(Project option), only the current phase (Phase option) or only the current
calculation step (Step).
To limit the display of the annotation to the current view select the corresponding
checkbox in the window. Note that if this option is selected, the current view should
be saved to preserve the dened annotation.
The Delete button is only available when editing the annotations (see below).
Figure 6.10 Annotation window for editing
Measurement annotations in plots
PLAXIS 2D enables adding measurement annotations in plots displaying the distance
between two locations in the model. To add a measurement annotation to a plot:
Click the Add measurement-annotation button in the side toolbar.
Dene the start and the end points of the line by clicking on the plot. The distance
between the specied locations is displayed in the model.
Editing annotations
To modify or remove an annotation from the plot:
Click the Edit annotation button in the side toolbar.
Click the annotation to be modied. The Annotation window will appear displaying
the modication options depending on the clicked annotation. Note that a new
button (Delete) is available in the window, enabling the removal of the annotation
(Figure 6.10).
6.3.15 MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS
Distance measurement
The distance between two nodes in the model can be measured by either clicking
on the Distance measurement button or by selecting the Distance measurement
option in the Tools menu and by subsequently selecting the nodes in the model. The
Distance information window pops up displaying the information about the distance
(Figure 6.11).
The distance can be given according to the original node position or in deformed shape
(i.e. using shifted node positions according to their displacements).
A description of the information available in the table is given as follows:
REFERENCE MANUAL
Figure 6.11 Distance information
Coordinates The Original and Deformed coordinates for the rst node/stress
point and the second node/stress point.
x The Original and Deformed x-component of the distance
between the points.
y The Original and Deformed y-component of the distance
between the points.
Distance The Original (v) and Deformed (v') distance between the points.
Orientation The original and after deformation angle between the line drawn
between the selected nodes/stress points with respect to the
x-axis.
Elongation Increase of the distance between the selected points before and
after deformation without considering the rotation of the line
between the two points.
|u| The change in the distance between the selected points before
and after deformation.
|u|
perpendicular
The deformation in the direction perpendicular to the original line
between the selected points.
Rotation The angle between the original line and the deformed line
between the points. The sign of the rotation is determined using
the right-hand rule (clockwise rotation is negative,
counter-clockwise is positive).
Tilt The ratio of the deformation in the direction perpendicular to the
line between the selected points (|u|
perpendicular
) to the original
distance between the selected points. Tilt is given both as ratio
and percentage.
Draw scanline
P1
P2
P'1
P'2
v
=
P2
- P1
v
'=
P
'2
-
P
'1
u
=
v
'-
v
Rotation
x
x
orientation
orientation
Elongation
|u|
perpendicular
Figure 6.12 Deformation measurement
Hint: The computation of the Elongation depends on the type of calculation. If an
Updated mesh analysis is performed, Elongation is simply the difference in
length between the old and new vectors. Otherwise it is the projection of the
deformation vector onto the original vector.
When the Contour lines option is selected , a distribution of the values can be
displayed by clicking on the Draw scanline button in the side toolbar and drawing a
line on the regions of interest. Note that this option is also available in the right mouse
click pop-up menu.
Hint box with node or stress point data
When nodes or stress points are displayed in the model using the corresponding
option in the Tools menu, it is possible to view data of these points in a hint box.
This can be done by clicking on the corresponding button in the side bar menu. If this
option is active and the mouse is moved over a node, the hint box shows the global node
number, the node coordinates and the current displacement components.
If the Hint box option is active and the mouse is moved over a stress point, the hint box
shows the global stress point number, the current Young's modulus E, the current
cohesion c, the current over-consolidation ratio OCR, the current principal stresses and a
sketch of Coulomb's envelope and Mohr's circles for that stress point.
Selecting nodes or stress points for curves
Nodes and stress points can be selected in the Output program by clicking
the Select nodes and stress points button in the side toolbar. Make sure the Nodes
and/or Stress points option has been selected in the Mesh menu. Nodes are generally
used to draw displacements whereas stress points are generally used to draw stresses or
strains.
Note that for the nodes and stress points selected after the calculation process
information is only valid for the saved calculation steps. For a more detailed description
see Section 8.1.
REFERENCE MANUAL
Interactive ruler
The result value at a specic location in a structure or cross section can be
displayed by clicking the Interactive ruler button in the side toolbar and by moving
the cursor to the point of interest. The current value (corresponding to the point on the
cross section line), a minimum value (based on the minimum value in the distribution),
and a maximum value (based on the maximum value in the distribution) are shown along
the ruler. The Interactive ruler is available in the Structure and Cross section views.
6.4 DISPLAY AREA
The distribution of the results in the model is shown in the display area.
Figure 6.13 Display area
The presence of the legend, title bar, and axes in the draw area is arranged using the
options in the View menu (Section 6.2.2).
Hint: The icon in the title bar indicates the view in which the results are displayed.
A more detailed description on Views is given in Section 6.5.
6.4.1 LEGEND
The Legend is available for the display options where a variation in colour describes the
variation in the displayed result values. It is activated by selecting the corresponding
option in the View menu. When the Legend is double clicked, a window pops up, where
the scaling and the colouring can be dened (Figure 6.14). Note that this option is also
available in the right mouse click pop-up menu.
The distribution of values in the legend can be locked by clicking the Lock the
legend button. When the legend is locked, the value distribution will not change as
the <Ctrl>+<+> or <Ctrl>+<-> keys are used to move the cross section through the model.
Figure 6.14 Legend settings window
6.4.2 MODIFYING THE DISPLAY SETTINGS
The view settings can be dened in the Settings window, that is activated when the
corresponding option in the View menu is selected. Note that this option is also available
in the right mouse click pop-up menu.
The visualization settings can be dened in the Visualization tabsheet of the Settings
window (Figure 6.15).
Symbol size To modify the size of the symbols in the display for nodes,
forces, etc.
Diffuse shading To make the appearance of the 3D model even more realistic,
the Diffuse shading option may be used. Using this option,
object surfaces that have the same colour by denition (such as
soil elements with the same material data set) appear 'brighter'
or 'darker', depending on their orientation with respect to the
viewer. Object surfaces appear most bright when the normal to
the surface points in the direction of the viewer. The surfaces
become darker the more the normal deviates from this direction.
The contrast can be set to the desired magnitude using the slide
bar.
Anti aliasing To select a convenient anti aliasing method from the options
available in the drop-down menu.
Rendering method To select a convenient rendering method from the options
available in the drop-down menu.
Display Toggle the display of the Cluster borders.
The displaying colours can be arranged in the Colours tabsheet of the Settings window
(Figure 6.16).
REFERENCE MANUAL
Figure 6.15 Visualization tabsheet of the Settings window
Figure 6.16 Colours tabsheet of the Settings window
The function of the left and the middle mouse buttons can be dened in the Manipulation
tabsheet of the Settings window (Figure 6.17).
Figure 6.17 Manipulation tabsheet of the Settings window
The display of particular results can be toggled on/off in the Results tabsheet of the
Settings window (Figure 6.18).
Figure 6.18 Results tabsheet of the Settings window
6.5 VIEWS IN OUTPUT
In the Output program the results are displayed in different views. The view type is
indicated by the corresponding icon in the title bar (Figure 6.13). The available views are:
6.5.1 MODEL VIEW
In the Model view
the results are displayed in the whole model. This is the default display of results.
6.5.2 STRUCTURES VIEW
When a structure (or multiple structures) is selected
and double clicked, the variation of the result is displayed in the Structures view.
6.5.3 CROSS SECTION VIEW
In the Cross section the results in the dened cross section are displayed. A cross
section can be moved perpendicular to the cross section using the <Ctrl-[ > and
<Ctrl-] > keys. Simultaneously pressing the <Shift> key moves in small steps.
6.5.4 FORCES VIEW
The Forces view enables a view of the mesh with contact stresses and (resulting)
forces on the boundaries of the visible active parts of the mesh. This option can be
selected from the Tools menu.
For stresses:
Water load Only external water pressures and pore pressures are shown
Normal stress Only effective normal stresses are shown
Shear stress Only shear stresses are shown
Total stress Effective normal stresses (red) as well as external water
pressures and pore pressures (blue) are shown
It can be selected whether external loads and resulting forces from prescribed
displacements are taken into account. It can be selected whether resulting forces from
water loads, effective soil stresses, forces from structures, gravity forces, external loads
and forces from prescribed displacements are taken into account.
The Partial geometry option can be used to make parts of the mesh invisible, if
necessary. In this way, all stresses and forces on sub-structures can be visualized.
The Table option may be used to view the actual values of stresses and forces. The table
of forces also shows the resulting force below the table, both as an actual value and as a
percentage of the total applied forces. The latter can be used to evaluate if there is a
signicant unbalance of the (sub-)structure. If necessary, the calculation may be
repeated using a smaller tolerated error or a ner mesh.
REFERENCE MANUAL
6.6 REPORT GENERATION
To document project input data and computational results, a Report Generator
facility is available in the PLAXIS Output program. The Report generator option can
be selected from the File menu. The data les for the report are generated in the
following eight steps.
Step 1: The report can be generated in a group of les or all the information can be
combined in a single le (a RTF, PDF or HTML document). The directory where the
report is stored should be dened (Figure 6.19).
Figure 6.19 Report generator - Setup
Step 2: Select the phases for which results will be included in the report (Figure 6.20).
Figure 6.20 Report generator - Phases
Step 3: Select general information sets to be included in the report. Note that the
selection can be saved as a new set besides All and None sets (Figure 6.21).
Figure 6.21 Report generator - General information
Step 4: Select model view sets to be displayed in the report. Note that the selection can
be saved as a new set besides All and None sets (Figure 6.22).
Figure 6.22 Report generator - Model
Step 5: Select structure view sets to be displayed in the report are selected. Note that the
selection can be saved as a new set besides All and None sets (Figure 6.23).
Figure 6.23 Report generator - Structures
Step 6: Select saved views to be included in the report (Figure 6.24). For more details on
saved views, see Section 6.3.4.
Figure 6.24 Report generator - Saved views
REFERENCE MANUAL
Step 7: Select generated charts to be included in the report (Figure 6.25).
Figure 6.25 Report generator - Charts
Step 8: A summary of the number of rows and the number of gures in the report is given
(Figure 6.26). The report is created as the Export button is clicked. A progress bar
appears displaying the number of the remaining rows and images.
Figure 6.26 Report generator - Results
6.6.1 CONFIGURATION OF THE DOCUMENT
When the RTF, PDF or HTML document option is selected in the rst step, after
completing the steps required to generate the report another window pops up (Figure
6.27) where the document type, name, the storage location and the display properties
such as page setup (for RTF and PDF documents), the table conguration and the type
and size of the used font can be dened.
Figure 6.27 Document properties
6.7 CREATING ANIMATIONS
The Create animation option is available in the View menu. If the option is
selected, the Create animation window appears (see Figure 6.28). The phases and
calculation steps to be included in the animations can be selected. After selecting the
phase(s), click OK to start the process. The progress of this process is indicated in a
separate window.
If a large number of steps is to be included in the animation, the process may take some
minutes after which the animation is presented. The result is stored in an animation le
(*.AVI) in the project data directory.
Figure 6.28 Selection of phases from Create animation window
REFERENCE MANUAL
RESULTS AVAILABLE IN OUTPUT PROGRAM
7 RESULTS AVAILABLE IN OUTPUT PROGRAM
7.1 CONNECTIVITY PLOT
A Connectivity plot is a plot of the mesh in which the element connections are clearly
visualised. It is the result of the meshing process. It is available only in the representation
of spatial variation of the results. This plot is particularly of interest when interface
elements are included in the mesh. Interface elements are composed of pairs of nodes in
which the nodes in a pair have the same coordinates. In the Connectivity plot however,
the nodes in a pair are drawn with a certain distance in between so that it is made clear
how nodes are connected to adjacent elements. This option is available from the Mesh
menu.
In the Connectivity plot it can, for example, be seen that when an interface is present
between two soil elements, that the soil elements do not have common nodes and that
the connection is formed by the interface. In a situation where interfaces are placed
along both sides of a plate (Positive interface and Negative interface), the plate and the
adjacent soil elements do not have nodes in common. The connection between the plate
and the soil is formed by the interface. An example of Connectivity plot is given in Figure
7.1.
Figure 7.1 Example of the Connectivity plot
7.2 DEFORMATIONS
The Deformations menu contains various options to visualise the displacements and
strains in the nite element model. By default, the displayed quantities are scaled
automatically by a factor (1, 2 or 5) 10
n
to give a diagram that may be read conveniently.
The scale factor may be changed by clicking the Scale factor button in the toolbar
or by selecting the Scale option from the View menu. The scale factor for strains
refers to a reference value of strain that is drawn as a certain percentage of the geometry
dimensions. To be able to compare plots of different calculation phases or different
projects, the scale factors in the different plots must be made equal.
7.2.1 DEFORMED MESH
The Deformed mesh is a plot of the nite element model in the deformed shape. By
default, the deformations are scaled up to give a plot that may be read conveniently. If it
is desired to view the deformations on the true scale (i.e. the geometry scale), then the
Scale option (Section 6.3.7) may be used. The deformed mesh plot may be selected from
REFERENCE MANUAL
the Deformations menu.
7.2.2 TOTAL DISPLACEMENTS
The Total displacements option contains the different components of the accumulated
displacements at the end of the current calculation step, displayed on a plot of the
geometry. This option may be selected from the Deformations menu. A further selection
can be made among the total displacement vectors, |u|, and the individual total
displacement components, u
x
and u
y
. The total displacements may be presented as
Arrows, Contour Lines or Shadings by clicking the appropriate button in the toolbar
(Section 6.3.10).
7.2.3 PHASE DISPLACEMENTS
The Phase Displacements option contains the different components of the accumulated
displacement increments in the whole calculation phase as calculated at the end of the
current calculation step, displayed on a plot of the geometry. In other words, the phase
displacements are the differential displacements between the end of the current
calculation phase and the end of the previous calculation phase. This option may be
selected from the Deformations menu.
A further selection can be made among the phase displacement vectors, |Pu|, and the
individual phase displacement components, Pu
x
and Pu
y
. The phase displacements
may be presented as Arrows, Contour lines or Shadings by clicking the appropriate
button in the toolbar (Section 6.3.10).
7.2.4 SUM PHASE DISPLACEMENTS
In Staged construction calculations elements that are switched from inactive to active are,
by default, pre-deformed such that the displacement eld across the boundary between
the new elements and the existing elements is continuous. However, in some
applications, such as the staged construction of dams and embankments, this will lead to
the undesired situation that the top of the embankment shows the largest settlements
(Figure 7.2a) and is lower than what has been designed, because of the accumulated
settlements of the different construction layers. When the Sum phase displacements
option is selected, the pre-deformation of newly activated elements is avoided, so they
will have zero initial displacements (except for the nodes where these new elements
connect to existing elements). In this way, the settlement of the last construction layer will
be limited and the largest settlement will most likely occur in the middle of the
embankment, as expected. When plotting the settlements in a vertical cross section
through the embankment, the results are somewhat discontinuous, but the overall
settlement prole is more realistic than without choosing this option (Figure 7.2b). The
more construction layers are used, the smoother the settlement prole is (Figure 7.2c).
7.2.5 INCREMENTAL DISPLACEMENTS
The Incremental displacements option contains the different components of the
displacement increments as calculated for the current calculation step, displayed on a
plot of the geometry. This option may be selected from the Deformations menu. A further
selection can be made among the displacement increment vectors, |u|, and the
a. b. c.
Figure 7.2 Settlement prole of an embankment on a stiff foundation layer: a. Phase displacement
results; b. Sum phase displacements results (5 construction layers); c. Sum phase
displacements results (10 construction layers)
individual incremental displacement components, u
x
and u
y
. The displacement
increments may be presented as Arrows, Contour lines or Shadings by clicking the
appropriate button in the toolbar (Section 6.3.10). The contours of displacement
increment are particularly useful for the observation of localisation of deformations within
the soil when failure occurs.
7.2.6 EXTREME TOTAL DISPLACEMENTS
The Extreme total displacements option contains the different components of the extreme
values of the total displacements in the model, displayed on a plot of the geometry. This
option may be selected from the Deformations menu. A further selection can be made
among the maximum and the minimum of the total displacement components (u
x,min
,
u
x,max
, u
y,min
, u
y,max
) and the maximum overall value (|u|
max
). The extreme total
displacements may be presented as Contour lines or Shadings by clicking the
appropriate button in the toolbar (Section 6.3.10).
7.2.7 VELOCITIES
The option Velocities contains the different components of the velocities at the end of the
current calculation step, displayed on a plot of the geometry. This option may be selected
from the Deformations menu. A further selection can be made among the velocity
vectors, |v|, the individual velocity components, v
x
and v
y
, as well as the extreme values
of the total velocities in the calculation phase. The velocities may be presented as
Arrows, Contour lines or Shadings by clicking the appropriate button in the toolbar
(Section 6.3.10).
7.2.8 ACCELERATIONS
The option Accelerations contains the different components of the accelerations at the
end of the current calculation step, displayed on a plot of the geometry. This option may
be selected from the Deformations menu. A further selection can be made among the
acceleration vectors, |a|, the individual acceleration components, a
x
and a
y
, as well as
the extreme values of the total accelerations in the calculation phase. The accelerations
may be presented as Arrows, Contour lines or Shadings by clicking the appropriate
button in the toolbar (Section 6.3.10).
REFERENCE MANUAL
7.2.9 ACCELERATIONS IN 'G'
The option Accelerations in 'g' contains the different components of the accelerations at
the end of the current calculation step, displayed on a plot of the geometry as multiples of
the gravity acceleration. This option may be selected from the Deformations menu. A
further selection can be made among the acceleration vectors, |a('g' )|, the individual
acceleration components, a
x
('g' ) and a
y
('g' ), as well as the extreme values of the total
accelerations in the calculation phase. The accelerations may be presented as Arrows,
Contour lines or Shadings by clicking the appropriate button in the toolbar (Section
6.3.10).
7.2.10 TOTAL CARTESIAN STRAINS
The Total cartesian strains option contains the different components of the accumulated
strains at the end of the current calculation step, displayed in a plot of the geometry. This
option may be selected from the Deformations menu. A further selection can be made
among the three or four individual Cartesian strain components
xx
,
yy
,
zz
(for
axisymmetric models only) and
xy
. In case of a plain strain model,
zz
will be zero. In
case of an axisymmetric model, the value of the strain in this direction can be calculated
as
zz
= u
z
/z = u
x
/R = u
x
/x. The individual strain components may be presented as
Contour lines or Shadings by clicking the appropriate button in the toolbar (Section
6.3.10).
7.2.11 PHASE CARTESIAN STRAINS
The Phase cartesian strains option contains the different components of the accumulated
strain increments in the whole calculation phase as calculated at the end of the current
calculation step, displayed in a plot of the geometry. This option may be selected from the
Deformations menu. A further selection can be made among the three or four individual
Cartesian strain components P
xx
, P
yy
, P
zz
(for axisymmetric models only) and P
xy
.
In case of a plain strain model, P
zz
will be zero. In case of an axisymmetric model, the
value of the strain in this direction can be calculated as
P
zz
= Pu
z
/z = Pu
x
/R = Pu
x
/x.
The individual strain components may be presented as Contour lines or Shadings by
clicking the appropriate button in the toolbar (Section 6.3.10).
7.2.12 INCREMENTAL CARTESIAN STRAINS
The Incremental cartesian strains option contains the different components of the strain
increments as calculated for the current calculation step, displayed in a plot of the
can be made among the three or four individual Cartesian strain components
xx
,
yy
,
zz
(for axisymmetric models only) and
xy
. In case of a plain strain model,
zz
will
be zero. In case of an axisymmetric model, the value of the strain in this direction can be
calculated as
zz
= u
z
/z = u
x
/R = u
x
/x.
The individual strain components may be presented as Contour lines or Shadings by
clicking the appropriate button in the toolbar (Section 6.3.10).
7.2.13 TOTAL STRAINS
The Total strains option contains various strain measures based on the accumulated
strains in the geometry at the end of the current calculation step, displayed in a plot of the
can be made among the principal strain directions, the individual principal strain
components
1
,
2
,
3
(for axisymmetric models only), (
1
+
3
)/2, (
1
-
3
)/2, the angle,
the volumetric strain
v
, the deviatoric strain
s
and the void ratio e.
Note that the principal strain components are arranged in algebraic order:
1
>
2
>
3
Hence,
1
is the largest compressive principal strain and
3
is the smallest
compressive principal strain.
The volumetric strain is calculated as:
In normal calculations:
v
=
xx
+
yy
+
zz
In Updated mesh calculations:
v
=
xx
+
yy
+
zz
+
xx
yy
+
xx
zz
+
yy
zz
+
xx
yy
zz
The deviatoric strain is calculated as:
s
=
2
3
__
xx

v
3
_
2
+
_
yy

v
3
_
2
+
_
zz

v
3
_
2
+
1
2
_
2
xy
+
2
yz
+
2
zx
_
_
The void ratio is calculated as:
e = e
0
+ (1 + e
0
)
v
7.2.14 PHASE STRAINS
The Phase strains option contains various strain measures based on the accumulated
strain increments in the whole calculation phase as calculated at the end of the current
calculation step, displayed in a plot of the geometry. This option may be selected from the
Deformations menu. A further selection can be made among the volumetric strain (P
v
)
and the deviatoric strain (P
s
).
7.2.15 INCREMENTAL STRAINS
The Incremental strains option contains various strain measures based on the strain
increments as calculated for the current calculation step, displayed in a plot of the
can be made among the volumetric strain (
v
) and the deviatoric strain (
s
).
REFERENCE MANUAL
7.3 STRESSES
Various options are available to visualize the stress state in the nite element model.
Hint: By default, the stresses developed in non-porous materials are not displayed
in the plot. To display them select the Show stress for nonporous material
option in the Results tabsheet of the Settings window (Section 6.4.2).
7.3.1 CARTESIAN EFFECTIVE STRESSES
The Cartesian effective stresses are different components of the effective stress tensor
(i.e. the stresses in the soil skeleton). A further selection can be made among the three
individual Cartesian stress components '
xx
, '
yy
, '
zz
(for axisymmetric models only),
and
xy
.
Figure 7.3 shows the sign convention adopted for Cartesian stresses. Note that pressure
is considered to be negative.
y
z
x
xx
xy
xz
yy
yx
yz
zz
zx
zy
Figure 7.3 Sign convention for stresses
7.3.2 CARTESIAN TOTAL STRESSES
The Cartesian total stresses are different components of the total stress tensor (i.e.
effective stresses + pore pressures). A further selection can be made among the three
individual Cartesian stress components
xx
,
yy
,
zz
(for axisymmetric models only), and
xy
. The latter quantity is equal to the corresponding one in the Cartesian effective stress
option, but are repeated here for convenience (Section 7.3.1). The individual stress
components may be presented as Contour lines or Shadings by clicking the appropriate
button in the toolbar.
7.3.3 PRINCIPAL EFFECTIVE STRESSES
The Principal effective stresses are various stress measures based on the effective
stresses ' (i.e. the stresses in the soil skeleton). A further selection can be made among
the effective principal stresses, the individual principal effective stress components '
1
,
'
2
, '
3
, ('
1
+ '
3
)/2, the principal stress directions, the mean effective stress p', the
deviatoric stress q, the relative shear stress
rel
and the mobilised shear strength
mob
.
Note that the effective stress components are arranged in algebraic order:
'
1
'
2
'
3
Hence, '
1
is the largest compressive (or smallest tension) principal stress and '
3
is the
smallest compressive (or largest tension) principal stress.
The Mobilised shear strength
mob
is the maximum value of shear stress (i.e. the radius
of the Mohr stress circle or half the maximum principal stress difference).
The Relative shear stress
rel
gives an indication of the proximity of the stress point to the
failure envelope, and is dened as:
rel
=

mob
max
where
max
is the maximum value of shear stress for the case where the Mohr's circle is
expanded to touch the Coulomb failure envelope while keeping the center of Mohr's circle
constant.
max
=
1
' +
3
'
2
sin + c cos
Hint: Particularly when the soil strength has been dened by means of effective
strength parameters (c', ') it is useful to plot the mobilised shear strength
mob
in a vertical cross section and to check this against a known shear
strength prole.
When using the Hoek-Brown model to describe the behaviour of a rock section, the
denition of the maximum shear stress
max
is slightly modied. Starting from the
Hoek-Brown failure criterion:
f
HB
= '
1
'
3
+ f ('
3
) = 0 (7.1)
the maximum shear stress is dened by :
max
=
1
2
f ('
3
) where f ('
3
) =
ci
_
m
b
'
3
ci
+ s
_
a
(7.2)
The relative shear stress is correspondingly dened by:
rel
=

mob
max
=
|'
1
'
3
|
f ('
3
)
(7.3)
The principal stress directions are dened by:
=
1
2
arctan (
2
xy
yy

xx
) (90
90
) (7.4)
For = 0, the major principal stress is vertical and the minor principal stress is horizontal.
In this case, the cartesian shear stress is zero (for example initial stress generated by the
K0 procedure). This situation corresponds to an active stress state.
A passive stress state is equivalent to = +90
or = -90
. Zones of positive stress may

REFERENCE MANUAL
show a jump from = +90
to = -90
and as a result discontinuous colour shadings are

displayed.
A positive value of cartesian shear stress will lead to a clockwise rotation of the principal
stress direction ( > 0), whereas a negative cartesian shear stress will rotate the
principal stress counter-clockwise ( < 0). The plot of principal stress directions is only
available in PLAXIS 2D. A graphical description of the principal stress directions is shown
in Figure 7.4.
= 0
= 90
or +90
= 45
= 45
Figure 7.4 Example of principal stress directions

7.3.4 PRINCIPAL TOTAL STRESSES
The Principal total stresses are various stress measures based on the total stresses
(i.e. effective stresses + pore pressures). A further selection can be made among the
principal total stress directions, the individual principal total stress components
1
,
2
,
3
,
(
1
+
3
)/2, (
1
3
)/2, the principal stress directions, the mean total stress p, the
deviatoric stress q, the relative shear stress
rel
and the mobilised shear strength
mob
.
The latter three quantities are equal to the corresponding ones in the Principal effective
stress option, but are repeated here for convenience (Section 7.3.3).
Note that the total stress components are arranged in algebraic order:
1

2

3
Hence,
1
is the largest compressive (or the smallest tension) principal stress and
3
is
the smallest compressive (or the largest tension) principal stress.
7.3.5 STATE PARAMETERS
The State parameters are various additional quantities that relate to the state of the
material in the current calculation step, taking into account the stress history. A further
selection can be made among the Permeability
actual
, the User-Dened parameters (for
user-dened soil models; see Material Models Manual), the actual permeability, the strain
histories
xx

v
,
yy

v
,
xy
, the secant shear modulus G
s
, the ratio between the
actual shear modulus and the unloading reloading stiffness G/G
ur
, the equivalent
isotropic stress p
eq
, the isotropic pre-consolidation stress p
p
, the isotropic
over-consolidation ratio OCR, the hardening parameter
p
, the actual stiffness E
ur
for
unloading and reloading, the actual Young's modulus E and the actual cohesion c,
depending on the soil models being used.
The actual permeability: The actual permeability (Permeability
actual ,x
,
Permeability
actual ,y
) is the relative permeability times the saturated permeability. This
value depends on the degree of saturation according to the Van Genuchten (or other)
relationship as dened in the ow parameters of the material set. This parameter is only
available in calculations performed in the Advanced mode.
The strain history: The strain histories
xx

v
,
yy

v
,
zz

v
(for axisymmetric
models only), and
xy
are only available in the HS small model.
The secant shear modulus G
s
: The secant shear modulus G
s
is only available in the
Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness. This option may be used to check the
actual secant shear modulus used in the current calculation step. More information about
this parameter can be found in Section 7.1 of the Material Models Manual.
The ratio between the actual shear modulus and the unloading reloading stiffness
G/G
ur
: The ratio between the actual shear modulus G and the unloading reloading
stiffness G
ur
is only available in the Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness.
The equivalent isotropic stress p
eq
: The equivalent isotropic stress p
eq
is only
available in the Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness,
Soft Soil model, Soft Soil Creep model and Modied Cam-Clay model. The equivalent
isotropic stress is dened as the intersection point between the stress contour (with
similar shape as the yield contour) through the current stress point and the isotropic
stress axis. Depending on the type of model being used it is dened as:
p
eq
=
_
p
2
+

q
2
2
for the Hardening Soil model and HS small
model
p
eq
= p'
q
2
M
2
(p' c cot )
for the Soft Soil model, Soft Soil Creep model
and Modied Cam-Clay model. For the Modied
Cam-Clay model, the cohesion c is dened as 0
kN/m
2
.
p
eq
=
q
exp(
q
Mp
)
for the Sekiguchi-Ohta model
The isotropic pre-consolidation stress p
p
: The isotropic pre-consolidation stress p
p
is
only available in the Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with small-strain
stiffness, Soft Soil model, Soft Soil Creep model, Modied Cam-Clay model and
Sekiguchi-Ohta model. The isotropic pre-consolidation stress represents the maximum
equivalent isotropic stress level that a stress point has experienced up to the current load
step.
The isotropic over-consolidation ratio OCR: The isotropic over-consolidation ratio
REFERENCE MANUAL
OCR is only available in the Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with
small-strain stiffness, Soft Soil model, Soft Soil Creep model, Modied Cam-Clay model
and Sekiguchi-Ohta model. The isotropic over-consolidation ratio is the ratio between the
isotropic pre-consolidation stress p
p
and the equivalent isotropic stress p
eq
.
The hardening parameter
p
: The hardening parameter
p
is only available for the
Hardening Soil model and Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness. This option
may be used to check the actual hardening during the current calculation step.
The actual Young's modulus E: The actual Young's modulus E is the unconstrained
elastic stiffness modulus as used during the current calculation step. This option is only
available in the Linear Elastic model and Mohr-Coulomb model.
When the Linear Elastic model or the Mohr-Coulomb model is utilised with an increasing
stiffness with depth (E
increment
> 0), this option may be used to check the actual stiffness
prole used in the calculation. Note that in the Linear Elastic model and the
Mohr-Coulomb model the stiffness is NOT stress-dependent.
The actual stiffness E
ur
for unloading and reloading: The actual Young's modulus
E
ur
for unloading and reloading is the unconstrained elastic stiffness modulus as used
during the current calculation step. This option is only available in the Hardening Soil
model, Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness, Soft Soil model, Soft Soil Creep
model, Modied Cam-Clay model and Sekiguchi-Ohta model.
The stiffness E
ur
depends on the stress level. In models with stress-dependency of
stress, the actual stiffness E
ur
is calculated on the basis of the stresses at the beginning
of the current step. The option may be used to check the actual stress-dependent
stiffness used in the current calculation step.
The actual cohesion c: The actual cohesion c is the cohesive strength as used during
the current calculation step. This option is only available in the Mohr-Coulomb model,
Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness, Soft Soil model
and Soft Soil Creep model.
When the Mohr-Coulomb model, Hardening Soil model or the Hardening Soil model with
small-strain stiffness is utilised with an increasing cohesive strength with depth
(c
increment
> 0), this option may be used to check the actual cohesive strength prole
used in the calculation.
7.3.6 PORE PRESSURES
The Pore pressures are quantities that relate to the stress in the pores of the material.
The pores of soil are usually lled with water; therefore pore pressures can generally be
interpreted as water pressures inside the soil material, but they are not limited to that. A
further selection can be made among Groundwater head, active pore pressures p
active
,
excess pore pressures p
excess
, , minimum excess pore pressures p
excess,min
, steady-state
pore pressures p
steady
and Suction. Note that compression is considered to be negative.
Although pore pressures do not have principal directions, the Principal directions
presentation can be useful to view pore pressures inside the model. In that case the
colour of the lines represents the magnitude of the pore pressure and the directions
coincide with the x-, y- and z-axis.
Groundwater head: The groundwater head is an alternative quantity of the active pore
pressure. The Groundwater head is dened as:
h = y
p
w
w
where y is the vertical coordinate, p
w
is the active pore pressure and
w
is the unit weight
of water. The groundwater head can only be presented as Contour lines, Shadings or Iso
surfaces.
Active pore pressures p
active
: The active pore pressures, p
active
, are the total water
pressures p
w
(i.e. steady-state pore pressures + excess pore pressures) at the end of the
current calculation step, taking into account positive pore stresses in the unsaturated
zone above the phreatic level, displayed in a plot of the undeformed geometry. In fact,
positive pore stresses are dened as effective degree-of-saturation times suction (s
r ,eff
*
suction).
Excess pore pressures p
excess
: Excess pore pressures, p
excess
, are the extra pore
pressures due to loading or unloading of undrained clusters (Undrained (A) or Undrained
(B)), or the extra pore pressures resulting from a consolidation analysis based on excess
pore pressure.
Extreme excess pore pressures p
excess,min
, p
excess,max
: Extreme excess pore
pressures are the maximum and minimum values of extra pore pressures due to loading
or unloading of undrained clusters (Undrained (A) or Undrained (B)), or the extra pore
pressures resulting from a dynamic analysis.
Steady-state pore pressures p
steady
: The steady-state pore pressures, p
steady
, are the
pore pressures as generated on the basis of the water conditions of the individual
clusters, taking into account positive pore stresses in the unsaturated zone above the
phreatic level. The input for the steady-state pore pressure generation is described in
Section 5.9.
Change in pore pressures per phase P
phase
: The change in pressures per phase,
P
phase
, is the change in pore pressures in the selected phase resulting from a
consolidation analysis based on total pore pressure. For situations in which the phreatic
surface does not change, P
phase
is supposed to represent the excess pore pressures.
Suction: Positive pore stresses in the unsaturated zone above the phreatic level can be
displayed as the Suction option is selected. Note that only a part of the suction
contributes to the active pore pressure, namely s
r ,eff
* suction.
7.3.7 GROUNDWATER FLOW
When a groundwater ow calculation has been performed to generate the pore pressure
distribution, then the specic discharges at the element stress points are available in the
Output program in addition to the pore pressure distribution. The specic discharges can
be viewed by selecting the Groundwater Flow option from the Stresses menu. A further
selection can be made among the ow resulting from the Consolidation based on excess
pore pressure, (|q
EPP
|, q
EPP,x
, q
EPP,y
) and the groundwater ow, (|q|, q
x
, q
y
).
The ow eld may be viewed as Arrows, Contour lines or Shadings by selecting the
appropriate option from the presentation box in the tool bar. When the specic discharges
are presented as arrows, then the length of the arrow indicates the magnitude of the
specic discharge whereas the arrow direction indicates the ow direction.
REFERENCE MANUAL
Saturation
The PlaxFlow module within PLAXIS may be used to calculate a pore pressure
distribution for conned as well as for unconned ow problems. The determination of the
position of the free phreatic surface and the associated length of the seepage surface is
one of the main objectives of an unconned groundwater ow calculation. In this case a
relationship is used between the pore pressure and the degree of saturation. Both
quantities are calculated in a groundwater ow calculation and are made available in the
Output program.
The degree of saturation is only relevant in the Flow and Advanced modes. The degree
of saturation is generally 100% below the phreatic level and it reduces to the residual
saturation within a nite zone above the phreatic level. Note that the residual saturation
value is equal to zero in Classical mode. The saturation can only be presented as
Contour lines or Shadings.
Effective saturation (Saturation
eff
)
The effective saturation is used as the Bishop coefcient in the denition of Bishop stress
and also to calculate the weight of soil in the advanced mode. The effective saturation is
not relevant in the classical mode. The effective saturation can only be presented as
Contour Lines or Shadings
Relative permeability (Permeability
rel
)
The relative permeability can be visualised by selecting the Permeability
rel
option. The
relative permeability can only be presented as Contour Lines or Shadings.
7.3.8 PLASTIC POINTS
The Plastic points option shows the stress points that are in a plastic state,
displayed in a plot of the undeformed geometry. Plastic points can be shown in the
2D mesh or in the elements around a cross section. The plastic stress points are
indicated by small symbols that can have different shapes and colours, depending on the
type of plasticity that has occurred:
A red cube (Failure point) indicates that the stresses lie on the surface of the failure
envelope.
A white cube (Tension cut-off point) indicates that the tension cut-off criterion was
applied.
A blue upside-down pyramid (Cap point) represents a state of normal consolidation
(primary compression) where the preconsolidation stress is equivalent to the actual
stress state. The latter type of plastic points only occurs if the Hardening Soil model,
the Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness, the Soft Soil model, Soft Soil
Creep model or Modied Cam-Clay model is used.
A brown diamond (Cap+Hardening point) represents points that are on the shear
hardening and cap hardening envelope. Such plastic points can only occur in the
Hardening Soil model or the HS small model.
A green pyramid (Hardening point) represents points on the shear hardening
envelope. Such plastic points can only occur in the Hardening Soil model or the HS
small model.
The failure points are particularly useful to check whether the size of the mesh is
sufcient. If the zone of plasticity reaches a mesh boundary (excluding the centre-line in
a symmetric model) then this suggests that the size of the mesh may be too small. In this
case the calculation should be repeated with a larger model.
Figure 7.5 Plastic points window
When Plastic points is selected in the Stresses menu the Plastic points dialog is shown
(Figure 7.5). Here the user can select which types of plastic points are displayed. When
the Stress points option is selected, all other stress points are indicated by a purple
diamond shape (). For details of the use of advanced soil models, the user is referred to
the Material Models Manual.
By default both accurate and inaccurate plastic points are displayed in the model. Only
the inaccurate plastic points are displayed as the corresponding check box is selected in
the Plastic points window. Inaccurate plastic points are points where the local error is
larger then the tolerated error (Section 5.13.9).
Hint: The Plastic point history option in the Stresses menu enables displaying in
the model all the plastic points (depending on the specied criteria, Failure,
Tension cut-off, etc.) generated up to the current calculation phase.
7.3.9 FIXED END ANCHORS
When Fixed end anchors is selected in the Stresses menu a table appears displaying the
xed end anchors available in the model, their location, the resulting axial force, the
rotation angle and the equivalent length.
7.3.10 NODE TO NODE ANCHORS
When Node to node anchors is selected in the Stresses menu a table appears displaying
the node to node anchors available in the model, the location of the nodes and the
resulting axial forces.
REFERENCE MANUAL
7.3.11 WELLS
When Wells is selected in the Stresses menu a table appears displaying the wells
available in the model, the nodes representing the well and their location, the discharge
of the well and the dened minimum groundwater head.
7.3.12 DRAINS
When Drains is selected in the Stresses menu a table appears displaying the drains
available in the model, the nodes representing the drain and their location, the total
discharge and the dened groundwater head of the drain.
7.4 STRUCTURES AND INTERFACES
By default, structures (i.e. anchors, geogrids and plates) and interfaces are displayed in
the geometry. Otherwise, these objects may be displayed by selecting the Structures or
Interfaces option from the Geometry menu.
Output for structures and interfaces can be obtained by clicking the Select
structures button and then double clicking the desired object in the 2D model. As a
result, a new form is opened on which the selected object appears. At the same time the
menu changes to provide the particular type of output for the selected object.
All objects of the same type with the same local coordinate system are automatically
selected. When multiple objects or multiple groups of objects of the same type need to
be selected, the <Shift> key should be used while selecting the objects. The last object to
be included in the plot should then be double clicked. When all objects of the same type
are to be selected, select one of the objects while pressing <Ctrl-A> simultaneously. If it
is desired to select one or more individual elements from a group, the <Ctrl> key should
be used while selecting the desired element.
Another option of selecting structural elements in the output is by clicking the Drag
a window to select structures button and drawing a rectangle in the model. As a
results, the structures in the rectangle will be selected.
7.4.1 DEFORMATION IN STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
The deformation options for the structural elements are given in the Deformations menu.
The user may select the Total displacements, the Phase displacements or the
Incremental displacements (Section 7.2). For each item a further selection can be made
among the displacement vectors |u|, and the individual total displacement components,
u
x
and u
y
.
The deformation options in the direction of local axis of the structures are available as
well. The user may select the Total local displacements, the Phase local displacements
or the Incremental local displacements. For each item a further selection can be made
among the individual displacement components u
1
and u
2
.
7.4.2 RESULTING FORCES IN PLATES
When a plate is displayed, the options Axial Forces N, Shear Forces Q and Bending
Moment M are available from the Forces menu. For axisymmetric models the Forces
Hint: The Rotation option is available for Plates displaying the total rotation
(Rotation) and the phase rotation (Rotation) of the selected plates with
respect to the global axes.
menu also includes the forces in the out-of-plane direction (Hoop Forces N
z
). Hoop
forces are expressed in unit of force per unit of length. The values are constant over the
circumference. Integration of the hoop forces over the in-plane length of the plate will give
the total hoop force. All of these forces represent the actual forces at the end of the
calculation step.
In addition to the actual forces, PLAXIS keeps track of the historical maximum
and minimum forces in all subsequent calculation phases. These maximum and
minimum values up to the current calculation step may be viewed after clicking the
Distribution envelope button in the top toolbar.
Note that axial forces or hoop forces are positive when they generate tensile stresses, as
indicated in Figure 7.6.
Figure 7.6 Sign convention for axial forces and hoop forces in plates
If a circular tunnel (bored tunnel) is modelled and a contraction is applied to the tunnel
lining, then the Total Realised Contraction and the Realised Contraction Increment are
displayed in the plot title.
7.4.3 RESULTING FORCES IN GEOGRIDS
When a geogrid is displayed, the option Axial force is available. Forces in geogrids are
always positive (tension). Compressive forces are not allowed in these elements.
7.4.4 RESULTING FORCES IN EMBEDDED PILE ROWS
When an embedded pile row is displayed, the options Axial force N, Shear force Q,
Bending moment M, Skin force T
skin
(in axial pile direction) the lateral force T
2
, the
maximum shear stress T
max
and the relative shear stress T
rel
are available from the
Forces menu. The latter four options relate to the pile-soil interaction (see below).
Hint: The Axes option from the View menu may be used to display the pile's local
system of axes.
REFERENCE MANUAL
The pile-soil interaction forces are obtained from the special interface that is
automatically applied between the embedded beam elements and the surrounding soil
volume elements. The Skin force T
skin
, expressed in the unit of force per unit of pile
length per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction, is the force related to the relative
displacement in the pile's rst direction (axial direction). This force is limited by the skin
resistance as dened in the embedded pile row material data set (Section 4.6).
The interaction force T
2
relates to the relative displacement perpendicular to the pile in
the pile's second direction. These quantities are expressed in the unit of force per unit of
pile length per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction.
The maximum shear stress T
max
is the limit dened for the material dataset. The relative
shear stress T
rel
gives an indication of the proximity of the stress point to the failure
envelope.
The pile foot force F
foot
, expressed in the unit of force per unit of width in the out-of-plane
direction, is obtained from the relative displacement in the axial pile direction between the
foot or tip of the pile and the surrounding soil. The foot force is shown in the plot of the
Axial force N. The foot force is limited by the base resistance as dened in the embedded
pile row material data set (Section 4.6).
7.4.5 ANCHORS
Output for anchors (xed-end anchors as well as node-to-node anchors) involves only
the anchor force expressed in the unit of force on the anchor (on the nodes in
node-to-node anchor). The anchor force appears in a table after double clicking the
anchor in the model. The program displays the values of the historical maximum and
minimum forces in all subsequent calculation phases in node-to-node anchors.
7.4.6 INTERFACES
Interface elements are formed by node pairs, i.e. two nodes at each node position: one
at the 'soil' side and one at the 'structure' side or the other 'soil' side. Interfaces can be
visualised by activating the corresponding option in the Geometry menu. Output for
interfaces can be obtained by double clicking on the interface elements in the 2Dmodel.
The output for interfaces comprises deformations and stresses.
When an interface is displayed, the options Effective '
N
, Total
N
, Shear , Relative
Shear
rel
, active pore pressure p
active
, steady-state pore pressure p
steady
, excess pore
pressure p
excess
and Groundwater head are available from the Interface stresses menu.
The effective normal stress is the effective stress perpendicular to the interface. Note that
pressure is considered to be negative. The relative shear stress
rel
gives an indication of
the proximity of the stress point to the failure envelope, and is dened as:
rel
=

max
where
max
is the maximum value of shear stress according to the Coulomb failure
envelope for the current value of the effective normal stress.
7.4.7 RESULTS IN HINGES AND ROTATION SPRINGS
The resulting bending moment in a rotation spring can be viewed in the window
appearing as the plate connection where it is assigned is double clicked (Figure 7.7).
Note that the properties assigned to the rotation spring are displayed as well.
Figure 7.7 Resulting bending moment in a rotation spring
7.4.8 STRUCTURAL FORCES IN VOLUMES
The Structural forces in volumes feature is available in the toolbar or as an option
in the Tools menu in the Output program (Section 6.2.9). Using this feature, it is
possible to visualise structural forces (bending moments M, shear forces Q and axial
forces N) in a regular structure (rectangular or tapered) that is composed of volume
elements in which only stresses have been calculated. In this way it is possible, for
example, to display the structural forces in a diaphragm wall that is composed of volume
elements with an assigned data set with concrete properties.
Hint: Note that the structural forces are calculated by integrating the results in the
stress points along the region perpendicular to the cross section line.
Structures such as culverts can be considered as an assembly of regular
substructures. Special care is required when the structural forces in the
region of connection of the subparts are evaluated.
Creating a cross section line
When selecting the Structural forces in volumes option, a cross section line should be
drawn in longitudinal direction through the centre of the area that forms the structure.
When the feature is selected the Draw a centerline button in the side toolbar
is automatically selected and the Centerline points window pops up. The cross
section line may consist of several line sections. The points dening the segments
composing the centerline can be dened either by directly clicking on the model or by
REFERENCE MANUAL
dening the coordinates of the location in the Centerline points window. The process of
centerline denition can be quited by either clicking the OK button in the Centerline
points window or by right clicking and selecting the Finish option in the appearing menu.
The structural forces are then computed on-the-y and visualised along the created line.
At the drawn cross section line, the selected structural force is calculated on the basis of
the integral of the stresses perpendicular to the cross section line. The extent of the area
that is used to integrate the stresses is limited by a radius. The default radius, for each
point of the cross section, is dened by the elements that contain the same material data
set as the element in which the cross section point is drawn. However, this radius may be
redened by the user (see below).
Changing the extent of the stress range
The range of the stress to be taken into account can be modied by specifying the radius
of the extension from the centerline. The initial radius is determined by the distance,
across the cross section line (centerline), to the nearest cluster which has a different
material assigned.
When the Edit radii button is clicked in the side toolbar, the extent of
the stress range is indicated in the plot by a transparent green colour (Figure 7.9).
Figure 7.8 Figure displaying the structural force in volume and the default radii
It is possible to modify the stress range by clicking on the highlightened area and
dragging this area by the mouse (Figure 7.9).
Figure 7.9 Figure displaying the structural force in volume and the modied radii
Note that the dragging location affects the way how the radii are modied. If the area is
dragged near the start or near the end of the centerline, only the radius for that location
(start radius or end radius) will be modied. This option may be used for tapered
structures. However if the dragging location is approximately in the middle of both ends of
the centerline, both radii will be modied.
Additionally, if the segment is double-clicked, a dialog will be opened in which the radii
can be specied precisely (Figure 7.10).
Figure 7.10 Edit radii window
The dened cross section lines (centerlines) can be removed from the plot by right
clicking on the plot and by selecting the Clear all option appearing when the Lines option
is pointed in the appearing menu.
Hint: The Create animation feature can be used to view the evolution of the
structural forces in volumes in calculation phases.
REFERENCE MANUAL
CURVES
8 CURVES
The development of quantities over multiple calculation steps at a specied location in
the model can be viewed using the Curve manager facility. This facility allows for the
generation of load-displacement curves, force-displacement curves, stress-paths, strain
paths, stress-strain curves and time-related curves.
8.1 SELECTING POINTS FOR CURVES
The location in the model where the variation of results through calculation steps is to be
analyzed is specied by selecting nodes or stress points in the model. The selection of
points should be done preferably before but may also be done after calculating the
project.
In order to specify points to be considered in curves, the Select points for curves
option should be selected. This option is available as a button in the toolbar of the
Calculations program and as an option in the Tools menu of the Calculations program.
Selecting this option will open the Output program displaying the Connectivity plot and
the Select points window.
Nodes and stress points can be selected in the Output program either by clicking the
Select points for curves button in the side toolbar or by selecting the corresponding option
in the Tools menu. More information on selecting procedure is given in Section 8.1.1.
It is important to consider the differences in selecting the points before or after starting
the calculation process. A more detailed description is given in Section 8.1.2 and Section
8.1.3.
8.1.1 MESH POINT SELECTION
Nodes and stress points can directly be selected by clicking them in the 2Dmodel. Make
sure that the Nodes and/or Stress points option has been selected in the Mesh menu.
The amount of visible nodes and stress points can be decreased using the Partial
geometry option in the Geometry menu or by clicking the Hide soil button in the
side toolbar.
In the Select points window (Figure 8.2), the coordinates of the location of interest can be
specied. The program lists the number of the nearest node and stress points at the
lower part of the window when the Search closest button is clicked. The nodes and
stress points can be selected by dening their ID as well. The displayed nodes or stress
points are selected as the corresponding button at the right of the cell is checked. The
selections are listed in the upper part of the window.
Selected nodes can be deselected by selecting the point in the list and pressing Delete or
by clicking the point in the model.
Hint: When the Select points for curves option is selected but the Select points
window is closed, it can be displayed by selecting the Mesh point selection
option in the Tools menu.
REFERENCE MANUAL
Figure 8.1 Select points window
If the nite element mesh is regenerated (after being rened or modied), the position of
nodes and stress points will change. As a result, previously selected nodes and stress
points may appear in completely different positions. Therefore nodes and stress points
should be reselected after regeneration of the mesh.
8.1.2 PRE-CALCULATION POINTS
After the calculation phases have been dened and before the calculation process is
started, some points may be selected by the user for the generation of load-displacement
curves or stress paths. During the calculation, information for these selected points for all
the calculation steps is stored in a separate le. The precalculation points provide more
detailed curves.
Hint: Pre-calculation points provide detailed information related to stress and strain
at those points. However information about structural forces and state
parameters is not provided.
8.1.3 POST-CALCULATION POINTS
When the calculations are started without the selection of nodes and stress points for
curves, the user will be prompted to select such points. The user can then decide to
select points or, alternatively, to start the calculations without pre-selected points. In this
CURVES
case, it is still possible to generate load-displacement curves or stress-strain curves after
the calculation, but such curves may be less detailed.
When a node or stress point is selected after calculating the project, only the information
for the saved calculation steps is available. For more detailed curves the value of the Max
number of steps stored should be increased.
The information available for selected points (nodes or stress point) depends on the view
in which they have been selected in the Output program.
The points selected in the Model view, can be used to generate curves related to
displacements, stresses, strains and state parameters in soil elements. The Model
view is the default view in the Output program.
The points selected in the Structure view, can be used to generate curves related
to resulting structural forces. The points should be selected after selecting the
structure rst (Section 6.3.11). The Structure view is displayed when structures are
selected and double clicked.
Hint: The type of the active view is indicated by the corresponding icon under the
plot.
8.2 GENERATING CURVES
To generate curves, the Curves manager option should be selected from the Tools
menu or the corresponding button in the toolbar should be clicked. As a result, the
Curves manager window appears with three tabsheets named Charts, Curve points and
Select points.
The Charts tabsheet contains the saved charts that were previously generated for the
current project. The Curve points tabsheet gives an overview of the nodes and stress
points that were selected for the generation of curves, with an indication of their
coordinates. The list includes the points selected before the calculation (pre-calc) as well
as the points selected after the calculation (post-calc) (Figure 8.2). For points that are
part of a structure further information is given in the list about the type of structure and
the corresponding structure element number.The Select points window is described in
Section 8.1.1
As a next step to generate curves, the New button should be pressed while the Charts
tabsheet is active. As a result, the Curve generation window appears, as presented in
Figure 8.3.
Two similar groups with various items are shown, one for the x-axis and one for the
y-axis of the curve. The x-axis corresponds to the horizontal axis and the y-axis
corresponds to the vertical axis. For each axis, a combination of selections should be
made to dene which quantity is plotted on that axis. First, for each axis a selection
should be made whether the data to be shown is related to the general project (Project )
or a particular selected node or stress point. The tree in the Curve generation window will
then show all quantities which are available depending for this type of data. The tree can
be expanded by clicking the + sign in front of a group. The Invert sign option may be
REFERENCE MANUAL
Figure 8.2 Select points window
selected to multiply all values of the x-quantity or the y-quantity by -1. When both
quantities have been dened and the OK button is pressed, the curve is generated and
presented in a chart window.
The combination of the step-dependent values of the x-quantity and the y-quantity forms
the points of the curve to be plotted. The number of curve points corresponds to the
available calculation step numbers plus one. The rst curve point (corresponding to step
0) is numbered as 1.
Figure 8.3 Curve generation window
Hint: When curves are generated from points selected after the calculation, only
information of saved steps can be considered. The number of the saved
steps for each calculation phase is dened by the Maximum number of steps
stored option in the Parameters tabsheet of the Phases window (Section
5.7).
All the calculation results are available for the pre-selected points.
CURVES
8.2.1 LOAD-DISPLACEMENT CURVES
Load-displacement curves can be used to visualise the relationship between the applied
loading and the resulting displacement of a certain point in the geometry. In general, the
x-axis relates to the displacement of a particular node (Deformations), and the y-axis
contains data relating to load level. The latter is related with the value of Mstage in the
following way: Applied load = Total load applied in previous phase + Mstage (Total
load applied in current phase - Total load applied in previous phase). Also other types of
curves can be generated.
The selection of Displacement must be completed with the selection of a node in the
drop-down menu and the selection of a displacement component in the Deformations
subtree. The type of displacement can be either the length of the displacement vector
(|u|) or one of the individual displacement components (u
x
, u
y
or u
z
). The displacements
are expressed in the unit of length, as specied in the Project properties window of the
Input program.
To dene a multiplier on the y-axis, rst the Project option should be selected as the
activation of a load system is not related to a particular point in the geometry. The
selection must be completed with the selection of the desired load system, represented
by the corresponding multiplier in the Multiplier subtree. Note that the 'load' is not
expressed in units of stress or force but in a multiplier value without unit. To obtain the
actual load, the presented value should be multiplied by the input load as specied by
means of staged construction.
Another quantity that can be presented in a curve is the Pore pressure. This quantity is
available for selected nodes as well as stress points. In the Pore pressures subtree of the
Stresses tree p
active
, p
steady
or p
excess
can be selected. Pore pressures are expressed in
the unit of stress.
When non-zero prescribed displacements are activated in a calculation, the reaction
forces against the prescribed displacements in the x- and y-direction are calculated and
stored as output parameters. These force components can also be used in the
load-displacement curves by selecting the option Project and then selecting one of the
forces in the Forces subtree.In plain strain models the Force is expressed in the units of
width in the out-of-plane direction. In axisymmetric models the Force is expressed in the
unit of force per radian. Hence, to calculate the total reaction force under a circular
footing that is simulated by means of prescribed displacements, the F
y
value should be
multiplied by 2.
8.2.2 FORCE-DISPLACEMENT CURVES
Force-displacement curves can be used to visualise the relationship between the
development of a structural force quantity and a displacement component of a certain
point in the geometry. A structural force quantity can only be selected for nodes being
selected after the calculation. In general, the x-axis relates to the displacement of a
particular node (Displacement ), and the y-axis relates to the corresponding structural
force of a node of a structural element.
To dene a displacement on the x-axis, rst the desired node should be selected. The
selection must be completed with the selection of the type of displacement. This
displacement can be either the length of the displacement vector (|u|) or one of the
individual displacement components (u
x
, u
y
or u
z
). The displacements are expressed in
REFERENCE MANUAL
the unit of length, as specied in the General settings window of the Input program.
To dene a structural force on the y-axis, rst the desired node of the structural element
should be selected. The selection of Structural force must be completed with the
selection of type of force. Depending on the type of structural element, a selection can be
made among axial forces N, shear forces Q or bending moments M. In case of
interfaces, a selection can be made among the interface stresses (Section 7.4).
8.2.3 DISPLACEMENT-TIME OR FORCE-TIME CURVES
Displacement-time or force-time curves can be useful to interpret the results of
calculations in which the time-dependent behaviour of the soil plays an important role
(e.g. consolidation and creep). In this case, the Time option is generally selected for the
x-axis, and the y-axis contains data for a displacement component or structural force
quantity of a particular node. The selection of Time requires the Project option to be
selected. Time is expressed in the unit of time, as specied in the Project properties
window of the Input program.
Instead of selecting time for the horizontal axis, it is also possible to select the calculation
step number (Step). This may also give useful curves for time independent calculations.
When interpreting such a curve it should be noted that during the calculation the step size
might change as a result of the automatic load stepping procedures.
8.2.4 STRESS AND STRAIN DIAGRAMS
Stress and strain diagrams can be used to visualise the development of stresses (stress
paths) or strains (strain paths) or the stress-strain behaviour of the soil in a particular
stress point. These types of curves are useful to analyse the local behaviour of the soil.
Stress-strain diagrams represent the idealised behaviour of the soil according to the
selected soil model. Since soil behaviour is stress-dependent and soil models do not take
all aspects of stress-dependency into account, stress paths are useful to validate
previously selected model parameters.
First a stress point should be selected before the desired quantity can be selected in the
Stress or Strain tree. The selection must be completed with the selection of the type of
stress or strain. As a stress quantity all scalar quantities available in the Stresses menu
can be selected (Section 7.3). However, the State parameters option is only available for
stress points selected after the calculation Section 8.1.3). As a strain quantity all scalar
strain quantities available in the Deformations menu can be selected (Section 7.2).
See the Scientic Manual for a denition of the stress and strain components. The phrase
'in absolute sense' in the description of the principal components is added because, in
general, the normal stress and strain components are negative (compression is negative).
Stress components are expressed in the units of stress; strains are dimensionless. A
denition of the stress and strain components is given in the Material Models Manual.
8.2.5 CURVES IN DYNAMIC CALCULATIONS
The Curve generation window differs when dynamic calculations are executed in the
project. The normal tabsheet is similar to the tabsheet when no dynamic calculations are
performed. However the Dynamic time option is available in the tree when Project is
selected in the axis parameter drop down menu. When a point is selected, the Velocities,
CURVES
Accelerations and Acceleration ('g') options are available under Deformation (Figure 8.4).
Figure 8.4 Options available in Normal tabsheet for dynamic calculations
The PSA spectrum may be generated in the corresponding tabsheet (Figure 8.5) by
dening the values of damping ratio (Zeta) and the maximum time period (End time).
Figure 8.5 Pseudo-spectral acceleration response spectrum generation
The Amplication tabsheet enables obtaining the plot which shows the ratio of the
acceleration response of any point (Top) to the acceleration response of another point
(Bottom) which is preferably the point where input load is applied (Figure 8.6). This gives
the magnication of the response at one point with respect to given excitation.
Transformation of curves from time to frequency domain
Once a time curve has been generated, it is possible to transform this curve into a
frequency spectrum using the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). This can be done in the
Chart tabsheet of the Settings window (Figure 8.7).
For curves created in the Normal and Amplications tabsheets of the Curve generation
window, you can select the option Use frequency representation (spectrum) and one of
the three types of spectrum (Standard frequency (Hz), Angular frequency (rad/s) or Wave
period(s)). Upon clicking on OK button the existing time curve will be transformed into a
spectrum. The original curve can be reconstructed by selecting again in the Chart
REFERENCE MANUAL
Figure 8.6 Amplication spectrum generation
tabsheet by de-selecting the frequency representation.
Figure 8.7 Fast Fourier Transform
For the curves created in the PSA tabsheet of the Curve generation window, the
Displacement response factor can be selected (Figure 8.8), to display the variation of
displacement with frequency.
Hint: The Settings window is displayed by right clicking the chart and selecting the
corresponding option in the appearing menu or by selecting the option in the
Format menu.
CURVES
Figure 8.8 Displacement response factor option available for PSA curves
8.3 FORMATTING CURVES
Once a curve has been generated, a new chart window is opened in which the generated
curve is presented. The quantities used to generate the curve are plotted along the x-
and y-axis. By default, a legend is presented at the right hand side of the chart. For all
curves in a chart, the legend contains the Curve title, which is automatically generated
with the curve. An example of the curves in Output program is given in Figure 8.9.
Figure 8.9 Curves in Output program
REFERENCE MANUAL
8.3.1 MENUS FOR CURVES
The menus in menu bar when curves are displayed vary slightly from the ones in the
Output nu bar when curves are displayed vary slightly from the ones in the Output
program. A description of the menus and the options available in them is given as follows.
File menu
The File menu is basically the same with the one available in the Output program. For a
more detailed description see Section 6.2.1.
Edit menu
Note that Edit menu is only available when the curves are displayed. The options
available can be used to include curves in the current chart. These options are:
Copy To export the chart to other programs using the Windows
clipboard function. This feature is described in detail in Section
6.3.2.
Add curve from current project
To add a new curve to the active chart from the current project.
Add curve from another project
To add a new curve to the active chart from another project.
Add curve from clipboard
To add a new curve to the active chart from clipboard.
Hint: The added curves are redened using the data from either the current
project, another project or clipboard. It is not possible to mount a generated
curve to the current chart.
It is possible to add a curve to the active chart using the Add curve option in
the corresponding option in the right mouse click pop-up menu.
View menu
The display of the results in the window is arranged using the options available in the
View menu. These options are:
Reset view To reset a zoomed view.
Hint: For a more detailed view of particular regions in curves, press the left mouse
button at a corner of the zoom area; hold the mouse button down and move
the mouse to the opposite corner of the zoom area; then release the button.
The program will zoom into the selected area. The zoom option may be used
repetitively.
The zoomed view can be reset by clicking the corresponding button in the
toolbar as well.
CURVES
Table To display the data series in a table. More information on tables
is given in the Section 6.3.8.
Legend To toggle the display of the legend in the chart.
Legend in chart To locate the legend in the chart.
Value indication To toggle the display of information about the points in the curves
when the mouse pointer is located on them.
Format menu
The Format menu contains the Settings option, selecting which displays the
corresponding window where the layout of the chart and curves can be modied.
Window and Help menus
These menus contain the same options as dened in Sections 6.2.10 and 6.2.11.
8.3.2 EDITING CURVE DATA IN TABLE
In contrast to the general Output program, the Curves part allows for editing of the table
by the user using the options in the menu appearing as the table is right clicked.
Delete rows To delete selected rows in the table.
Update chart To update chart according to the modications made in the table.
Align To align the text in the selected part of the table.
Decimal To display data in decimal representation.
Scientic To display data in scientic representation.
Decimal digits To dene the number of decimal digits displayed.
View factor To dene a factor to the values in the table.
Copy To copy the selected values in the table.
Find value To nd a value in the table.
Filter To lter the results in the table.
Editing load-displacement curves is often needed when gravity loading is used to
generate the initial stresses for a project. As an example of the procedures involved,
consider the embankment project indicated in Figure 8.10.
In this example project soil is to be added to an existing embankment to increase its
height. The purpose of this example analysis is to calculate the displacement of point A
as the embankment is raised. One approach to this problem is to generate a mesh for the
nal embankment and then deactivate the clusters corresponding to the additional soil
layer by using the Initial geometry conguration item of the Input program.
An alternative procedure would be to generate the initial stresses for the project, i.e. the
stresses for the case where the original embankment has been constructed but the new
material has not yet been placed. This should be done using the gravity loading
procedure. In this procedure the soil self-weight is applied by increasing Mweight from
zero to 1.0 in a Plastic calculation using Total multipliers as Loading input.
REFERENCE MANUAL
Figure 8.10 Raising an embankment
The settlement behaviour of point A when gravity loading is applied is shown by the initial
horizontal line in Figure 8.11a. This line will, in general, consist of several plastic
calculation steps, all with the same value of Marea.
To model the behaviour of the soil structure as a whole as the additional material is
placed, then the cluster of the additional material should be activated using a staged
construction calculation. At the start of this staged construction calculation, all
displacements should be reset to zero by the user. This removes the effect of the
physically meaningless displacements that occur during gravity loading.
a. Before editing b. After editing
Figure 8.11 Load-displacement curves of the embankment project.
The load-displacement curve obtained at the end of the complete calculation for point A
is shown in Figure 8.11a. To display the settlement behaviour without the initial gravity
loading response it is necessary to edit the corresponding load-displacement data. The
unwanted initial portion, with the exception of point 1, should be deleted. The
displacement value for point 1 should then be set to zero. The resulting curve is shown in
Figure 8.11b.
CURVES
As an alternative to the above editing procedure, the gravity loading phase can be
excluded from the list of calculation phases that are included in the curve (Section 8.4).
8.3.3 VALUE INDICATION
If the Value indication option in the View menu is active and the mouse is moved over a
data point in a curve, the hint box shows the precise value of the x- and y-quantities at
that point. In addition, it shows the curve point number and the step and phase numbers
corresponding with that curve point.
8.4 FORMATTING OPTIONS
The layout and presentation of charts can be modied by clicking the Settings
button available in the toolbar or by selecting the corresponding option in the
Format menu. Alternatively, the Settings option can be selected from the Format menu of
the right mouse button menu. As a result, the Settings window will appear. Distinction is
made between the chart settings displayed on the rst tabsheet and the curve settings
displayed on a separate tabsheet for each curve. The options available in the Chart
tabsheet can be used to customize the frame and axes of the chart (Section 8.4.1). The
options available in the tabsheets of the curves can be used to customize the plot
(Section 8.4.2).
If the correct settings are dened, the OK button may be pressed to activate the settings
and to close the window. Alternatively, the Apply button may be pressed to activate the
settings, keeping the Settings window active. The changes to the settings can be ignored
by pressing the Cancel button.
8.4.1 CHART SETTINGS
The Settings window contains a tabsheet with options to customise the layout and
presentations of the chart (see Figure 8.12).
Titles By default, a title is given to the x-axis and the y-axis, based on
the quantity that is selected for the curve generation. However,
this title may be changed in the Title edit boxes of the
corresponding axis group. In addition, a title may be given to the
full chart, which can be entered in the Chart name edit box. This
title should not be confused with the Curve title as described in
above.
Scaling of x- and y-axis By default, the range of values indicated on the x- and y-axis is
scaled automatically, but the user can select the Manual option
and enter the desired range in the Minimum and Maximum edit
boxes. As a result, data outside this range will not appear in the
plot. In addition, it is possible to plot the x- and/or y-axis on a
logarithmic scale using the Logarithmic check box. The use of a
logarithmic scale is only valid if the full range of values along an
axis is strictly positive.
Grid Grid lines can be added to the plot by selecting items Horizontal
grid or Vertical grid. The grid lines may be customised by means
REFERENCE MANUAL
Figure 8.12 Chart settings tabsheet
of the Style and Colour options.
Orthonormal axes The option Orthonormal axes can be used to ensure that the
scale used for the x-axis and the y-axis is the same. This option
is particularly useful when values of similar quantities are plotted
on the x-axis and y-axis, for example when making diagrams of
different displacement components.
Exchange axes The option Exchange axes can be used to interchange the
x-axis and the y-axis and their corresponding quantities. As a
result of this setting, the x-axis will become the vertical axis and
the y-axis will become the horizontal axis.
Flip horizontal or vertical
Selecting the option Flip horizontal or Flip vertical will
respectively reverse the horizontal or the vertical axis.
8.4.2 CURVE SETTINGS
The Settings window contains for each of the curves in the current chart a tabsheet with
the same options (Figure 8.13).
Title A default title is given to any curve during its generation. This
title may be changed in the Curve title edit box. When a legend
is presented for the active chart in the main window, the Curve
title appears in the legend.
Show curve When multiple curves are present within one chart, it may be
useful to hide temporarily one or more curves to focus attention
on the others. The Show curve option may be deselected for this
CURVES
Figure 8.13 Curve settings tabsheet
purpose.
Phases The Phases button may be used to select for which calculation
phases the curve has to be generated. This option is useful
when not all calculation phases should be included in the curve.
Fitting To draw a smooth curve, the user can select the Fitting item.
When doing so, the type of tting can be selected from the Type
combo box. The Spline tting generally gives the most
satisfactory results, but, as an alternative, a curve can be tted to
a polynomial using the least squares method.
Line and marker presentation
Various options are available to customise the appearance of the
curve lines and markers.
Arrow buttons The arrow buttons can be used to change the order of the curves
in the legend.
Regenerate The Regenerate button may be used to regenerate a previously
generated curve to comply with new data (Section 8.5).
Add curve The Add curve button may be used to add new curves to the
current chart (Section 8.6).
Delete When multiple curves are present within one chart, the Delete
button may be used to erase a curve.
REFERENCE MANUAL
8.5 REGENERATION OF CURVES
If, for any reason, a calculation process is repeated or extended with new calculation
phases, it is generally desirable to update existing curves to comply with the new data.
This can be done by means of the Regenerate facility. This facility is available in the
Settings tabsheet (Figure 8.12), which can be opened by selecting the Settings option
from the Format menu. When clicking on the Regenerate button, the Curve generation
window appears, showing the existing setting for x- and y-axis. Pressing the OK button
is sufcient to regenerate the curve to include the new data. Another OK closes the
Settings window and displays the newly generated curve.
When multiple curves are used in one chart, the Regenerate facility should be used for
each curve individually. The Regenerate facility may also be used to change the quantity
that is plotted on the x- or y-axis.
8.6 MULTIPLE CURVES IN ONE CHART
It is often useful to compare similar curves for different points in a geometry, or even in
different geometries or projects. Therefore PLAXIS allows for the generation of more
than one curve in the same chart. Once a single curve has been generated, the Add
curve options in the Edit menu can be used to generate a new curve in the current chart.
As an alternative, the Add curve option from the Settings window or from the right mouse
button menu can be used. Distinction is made between a new curve from the current
project, a new curve from another project or curves available on the clipboard.
The Add curve procedure is similar to the generation of a new curve (Section 8.2).
However, when it comes to the actual generation of the curve, the program imposes
some restrictions on the selection of data to be presented on the x- and the y-axis. This
is to ensure that the new data are consistent with the data of the existing curve.
When the Add curve option is used, the current chart is modied. In order to preserve the
current chart, a copy of it can be created by selecting it rst in the list and then by clicking
the Copy button in the Curves manager window.
REFERENCES
9 REFERENCES
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sheet-pile behaviour in two dimensional deformation analysis. Proc. 2nd European
Specialty Conference on Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering, 559572.
[2] Bathe, K.J. (1982). Finite element analysis in engineering analysis. Prentice-Hall,
New Jersey.
[3] Bathe, K.J. (1996). Finite Element Procedures. Prentice Hall.
[4] Bauduin, C., Vos, M.D., Simpson, B. (2000). Some considerations on the use of nite
element methods in ultimate limit state design. In LSC 2000: International workshop
on Limit State Design in Geotechnical Engineering. Melbourne, Australia.
[5] Benz, T., Schwab, R., Vermeer, P.A., Kauther, R.A. (2007). A Hoek-Brown criterion
with intrinsic material strength factorization. Int. J. of Rock Mechanics and Mining
Sci., 45(2), 210222.
[6] Bolton, M.D. (1986). The strength and dilatancy of sands. Geotechnique, 36(1),
6578.
[7] Brinkgreve, R.B.J., Bakker, H.L. (1991). Non-linear nite element analysis of safety
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Cairns, Australia, 11171122.
[8] Brinkgreve, R.B.J., Kappert, M.H., Bonnier, P.G. (2007). Hysteretic damping in
small-strain stiffness model.
[9] Burd, H.J., Houlsby, G.T. (1989). Numerical modelling of reinforced unpaved roads.
Proc. 3rd Int. Symp. on Numerical Models in Geomechanics, 699706.
[10] Das, B.M. (1995). Fundamentals of soil dynamics. Elsevier.
[11] de Borst, R., Vermeer, P.A. (1984). Possibilities and limitations of nite elements for
limit analysis. Geotechnique, 34(20), 199210.
[12] Galavi, V. (2010). Groundwater ow, fully coupled ow deformation and undrained
analyses in PLAXIS 2D and 3D. Technical report, Plaxis BV.
[13] Goodman, R.E., Taylor, R.L., Brekke, T.L. (1968). A model for mechanics of jointed
rock. Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, 94, 1943.
[14] Hird, C.C., Kwok, C.M. (1989). Finite element studies of interface behaviour in
reinforced embankments on soft grounds. Computers and Geotechnics, 8, 111131.
[15] Nagtegaal, J.C., Parks, D.M., Rice, J.R. (1974). On numerically accurate nite
element solutions in the fully plastic range. Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engng., 4,
153177.
[16] Owen, D.R.J., Hinton, E. (1982). Finite Elements in Plasticity. Pineridge Press
Limited, Swansea.
[17] Rheinholdt, W.C., Riks, E. (1986). Solution techniques for non-linear nite element
equations. In A.K. Noor, W.D. Pilkey (eds.), State-of-the-art Surveys on Finite
Element Techniques, chapter 7.
[18] Rowe, R.K., Ho, S.K. (1988). Application of nite element techniques to the analysis
REFERENCE MANUAL
of reinforced soil walls. In P.M. Jarett, A. McGown (eds.), The Application of
Polymeric Reinforcement in Soil Retaining Structures. 541553.
[19] Schank, O., Grtner, K. (2006). On fast factorization pivoting methods for symmetric
indenite systems. Electronic Transactions on Numerical Analysis, 23, 158179.
[20] Schank, O., Wchter, A., Hagemann, M. (2007). Matchingbased preprocessing
algorithms to the solution of saddlepoint problems in largescale nonconvex
interiorpoint optimization. Computational Optimization and Applications, 36 (2-3),
321341.
[21] Schikora, K., Fink, T. (1982). Berechnungsmethoden moderner bergmnnischer
bauweisen beim u-bahn-bau. Bauingenieur, 57, 193198.
[22] Sloan, S.W. (1981). Numerical analysis of incompressible and plastic solids using
nite elements. Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, U.K.
[23] Sloan, S.W., Randolph, M.F. (1982). Numerical prediction of collapse loads using
nite element methods. Int. J. Num. Analyt. Meth. in Geomech., 6, 4776.
[24] Sluis, J. (2012). Validation of embedded pile row in plaxis 2d.
[25] Smith, I.M. (1982). Programming the nite element method with application to
geomechanics. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester.
[26] Song, E.X. (1990). Elasto-plastic consolidation under steady and cyclic loads. Ph.D.
thesis, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands.
[27] van Langen, H. (1991). Numerical analysis of soil structure interaction. Ph.D. thesis,
Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands.
[28] van Langen, H., Vermeer, P.A. (1990). Automatic step size correction for
non-associated plasticity problems. Int. J. Num. Meth. Eng., 29, 579598.
[29] van Langen, H., Vermeer, P.A. (1991). Interface elements for singular plasticity
points. Int. J. Num. Analyt. Meth. in Geomech., 15, 301315.
[30] Vermeer, P.A., van Langen, H. (1989). Soil collapse computations with nite
elements. In Ingenieur-Archive 59. 221236.
[31] Vermeer, P.A., Verruijt, A. (1981). An accuracy condition for consolidation by nite
elements. Int. J. for Num. Anal. Met. in Geom., 5, 114.
[32] Zienkiewicz, O.C. (1977). The Finite Element Method. McGraw-Hill, London.
INDEX
INDEX
A
Accelerations 261
g 262
Anchor
xed-end anchor 40
node-to-node anchor 40
prestressing 182
properties 135
Arc-length control 151
Automatic
error checks 226
mesh generation 60
step size 157
Avoid predeforming 260
B
Boundary conditions
adjustments during calculation 226
displacements 50
groundwater head 195
submerged boundaries 154
C
Calculation
abort 220
Advanced mode 150
automatic step size 157
manager 219
mode 140
phase 143
plastic 149
staged construction 125
type
Consolidation 149
Dynamic 153
Gravity 147
153
Groundwater ow (transient) 154
K0 procedure 146
Plastic 149
Plastic nil-step 148
Safety 150
Calculation steps
max steps saved 174
Calculations
Mode
Advanced 142
Classical 141
Flow 142
CamClay 68
Cavitation cut-off 168
Clipboard
output 235
Cluster 243
Command
line 25
Connectivity plot 60
Contraction 183
Coordinate
x-coordinate 24
y-coordinate 24
Copy to clipboard
Input 26
Output 237
Coulomb point 148
Create animation 231
Cross section 236
output 244
Curve
generation 281
regeneration 294
settings 291
Curves manager 239
D
Damping
Rayleigh 71
Deformations 259
Displacement
incremental 261
phase 260
prescribed 50
reset 174
total 260
Distributed load 52
Drained behaviour 69
Drains 47
Dynamic analysis 153
E
Element
Embedded pile 34
plate 31
REFERENCE MANUAL
soil 18
Embedded pile
element 34
Embedded pile row 32
Error
equilibrium 162
global error 222, 226
local error 226
tolerated 162
Excess pore pressure 186
Export
Output 238
Extrapolation 166
F
Flip
horizontal 292
vertical 292
Force
anchor 134
prestressing 182
unit of 209
G
Generation
mesh 60
Geogrids 36
Geometry
line 29
Global coarseness 61
Global error 222, 226
Gravity
loading 208
Gravity loading 146
Groundwater 186
Groundwater ow
steady-state 153
transient 154
H
Hardening Soil model 68
Hardening Soil model with small-strain
stiffness 68
Hinges 46
I
Ignore undrained behaviour 174
Incremental multiplier 169, 170, 172
Initial stress 146
Input
bending moment 54
Interface
output 272
real interface thickness 101
strength 98
virtual thickness 98
Interface element 37
Interface permeability 101
J
Jointed Rock 68
K
K0 procedure 146
L
Line
geometry line 29
scan line 231
Load advancement 157
number of steps 157
ultimate level 157
Load multiplier 178
incremental 165
total 206
Load stepping 157
Load-displacement 283
curves 283
Local coarseness 61
M
Maccel 208
Manual
input 25
Marea 176
Material
model 67
type 69
Material data sets
anchors 133
embedded piles 128
geogrids 126
plates 121
Maximum iterations 163
Mdisp 51, 179
MdispX 207
MdispY 207
Mesh
generation 60
Mesh generation 60
INDEX
MloadA 52, 53, 54, 178
MloadB 52, 53, 54, 178
Mobilised shear strength 265
Model
axisymmetric 16
plane strain 16
Model see Material model 16
Mohr-Coulomb 151
Msf 151
Mstage 171
Mweight 123
N
Nodes 234
Input 234
O
Output
layout 230
menu bar 230
plot area 230
status bar 230
title bar 230
toolbar 230
Over-relaxation 163
P
Phases
selection for output 225
Phreatic level 188
Plastic nil-step 154
Plastic point
Coulomb point 148
inaccurate 228
Plate
element 31
Plates 30
Point
geometry point 29
points for curves 140
Point loads 53
Pore pressure 69
active 186
excess 154
Precipitation 192
Print
Output 238
output 231
R
Radius 43
Real interface thickness 101
Rene
around point 62
cluster 62
global 61
line 62
Relative shear stress 265
Report
Generation 254
Store view 239
Report generation 254
Report generator 231
Reset displacements 174
Rotation 25
Rotation springs 46
S
Safety 145, 150
Scaling 240
Scan line 231
Seepage surface 197
Sign convention 273
Soft Soil Creep model 267
Soft Soil model 68
Soil
dilatancy angle 97
friction angle 99
material properties 60
saturated weight 69
undrained behaviour 69
unsaturated weight 70
Soil elements 18
Spline tting 293
Staged construction 158
Standard setting 161
Strains
incremental Cartesian 262
phase Cartesian 262
total Cartesian strains 262
Stress
effective 186
inaccurate 227
Stress point 17
Stresses
Cartesian effective 264
Cartesian total 264
principal effective 264
REFERENCE MANUAL
principal total 266
Structures
output 272
T
Tables
output 240
Time
unit of 171
Tolerated error 151
Total multiplier 206
Tunnel
centre point 43
designer 41
reference point 41, 46
U
Undo 26
Undrained behaviour 69
V
Velocities 261
Void ratio 71
Volume strain 181
W
Water
conditions 186
Water boundary conditions
closed 191
free 197
inltration 199
inow 199
outow 199
Water pressure
generation 203
Weight
saturated weight 69
soil weight 70
unsaturated weight 70
Wells 48
Window
calculations 143
generation 146
input 41
X
x-coordinate 24
Y
y-coordinate 24
Z
Zoom
zoom in 26
zoom out 26
APPENDIX A - POSSIBILITIES AND LIMITATIONS OF PLAXIS 2D
As many changes have been done as of the release of PLAXIS 2D 2010 compared to
earlier versions, the features available from PLAXIS 2D 2010 are described here. The
main features are the use of Bishop's stress in Advanced mode (to describe partially
saturated behaviour of soils) and a change in the use of water conditions.
In the following sections these features are investigated.
A.1 CLASSICAL MODE
This mode is similar to PLAXIS 2D version 9.0 and earlier. The following features are the
same for all types of calculation:
Stress Use of Terzaghi's stress.
Soil weight The soil weight is dened by the unsaturated soil weight
unsat
above the phreatic level and by the saturated soil weight
sat
below the phreatic level.
Saturation The value of saturation is always equal to 1 below the phreatic
level and equal to 0 above the phreatic level. However, this is
just for the visualisation and is not used in the calculations. For
unsaturated soil models, suction is always equal to 0 and the
degree of saturation is always equal to 1.
Groundwater ow Features are unsaturated ow (steady-state as well as transient),
a change of permeability with deformation and a change of
elastic storage with stress (in stress dependent models). The
last two features are new features as of PLAXIS 2D 2010.
K
0
-procedure
Features of the K
0
-procedure are:
Phreatic level Should be horizontal
Soil layers Should be horizontal. Tunnels and vertical clusters in which one
of them is deactivated are not allowed.
Plastic analysis
Features of the Plastic analysis are:
Drainage behaviour The bulk modulus of water is calculated according to the elastic
stiffness of soil (Undrained (A) and Undrained (B)). For all soil
below and above the phreatic level in which the drainage type is
dened as Drained or Non-porous (or dry cluster) or when a
cluster has just been activated, a zero bulk modulus of water is
considered (K
w
= 0). The Undrained behaviour can be ignored
by selecting the corresponding option.
Groundwater ow Both steady-state and transient groundwater ow calculations
can be used. If the type of groundwater ow calculation is
REFERENCE MANUAL
transient, for each step of ow, deformation is calculated. If there
is any mechanical load (for example, a load or activation or
deactivation of a cluster) only the last step of the groundwater
ow calculation is utilised.
Updated mesh Available.
Available.
Consolidation analysis
Features of the Consolidation analysis are:
stiffness of soil (Undrained (A), Undrained (B) and Drained). For
all soil below and above the phreatic level in which the drainage
type is dened as Non-porous (or dry cluster), a zero bulk
modulus of water is considered (K
w
= 0). In case a cluster has
just been activated (below and above the phreatic level), a very
small bulk modulus of water is assumed (K
w
= 10
8
K
w
).
Groundwater ow Both steady-state and transient groundwater ow calculations
can be used. If the type of groundwater ow calculation is
transient, for each step of ow, deformation is calculated. If there
is any mechanical load (for example, a load or activation or
deactivation of a cluster) only the last step of the groundwater
ow calculation is utilised.
Available.
Boundary conditions for ow
The available options are closed or interface.
Safety
Features of the Safety are:
stiffness of soil and type of drainage. If the Drainage type is set to Undrained (A) or
Undrained (B) the bulk modulus of water is taken into account. Otherwise, the bulk
modulus of water will be set to zero (K
w
= 0). If the option Ignore undrained
behaviour is used the bulk modulus of water will be set to zero for all soil (K
w
= 0).
Groundwater ow It is not possible to perform a groundwater ow calculation during a
Safety analysis.
Updated water pressures Available.
Dynamic analysis
Features of the Dynamic analysis are:
stiffness of soil and type of drainage. If the Drainage type is set to Undrained (A) or
Undrained (B) the bulk modulus of water is taken into account. Otherwise, the bulk
modulus of water will be set to zero (K
w
= 0). If the option Ignore undrained
behaviour is used then the bulk modulus of water will be set to zero for all soil
(K
w
= 0).
Groundwater ow It is not possible to perform a groundwater ow calculation during a
dynamic analysis.
Updated mesh Not available.
Updated water pressures Not available.
Free vibration analysis
Features of the Free vibration analysis are:
General Only available after the Plastic or Consolidation types of
calculation.
stiffness of soil and type of drainage. If the Drainage type is set
to Undrained (A) or Undrained (B) the bulk modulus of water is
taken into account. Otherwise, the bulk modulus of water will be
set to zero (K
w
= 0). If the option Ignore undrained behaviour is
used then the bulk modulus of water will be set to zero for all soil
(K
w
= 0).
Groundwater ow It is not possible to perform a groundwater ow calculation during
a Free vibration analysis.
Not available.
REFERENCE MANUAL
T
a
b
l
e
A
.
1
B
u
l
k
m
o
d
u
l
u
s
o
f
w
a
t
e
r
i
n
c
l
a
s
s
i
c
a
l
m
o
d
e
T
y
p
e
o
f
m
a
t
e
r
i
a
l
P
l
a
s
t
i
c
(
d
r
a
i
n
e
d
)
P
l
a
s
t
i
c
(
u
n
d
r
a
i
n
e
d
)
C
o
n
s
o
l
i
d
a
t
i
o
n
P
h
i
/
c
r
e
d
u
c
t
i
o
n
o
r
d
y
n
a
m
i
c
s
(
d
r
a
i
n
e
d
)
P
h
i
/
c
-
r
e
d
u
c
t
i
o
n
o
r
d
y
n
a
m
i
c
s
(
u
n
d
r
a
i
n
e
d
)
U
n
d
r
a
i
n
e
d
(
b
e
l
o
w
a
n
d
a
b
o
v
e
p
h
r
e
a
t
i
c
l
e
v
e
l
)
K
w
=
0
K
w
n
=
2
G
3
_
1
+
u
1
1
+
_
K
w
n
=
2
G
3
_
1
+
u
1
1
+
_
K
w
=
0
K
w
n
=
2
G
3
_
1
+
u
1
1
+
_
D
r
a
i
n
e
d
(
b
e
l
o
w
a
n
d
a
b
o
v
e
p
h
r
e
a
t
i
c
l
e
v
e
l
)
K
w
=
0
K
w
=
0
K
w
n
=
2
G
3
_
1
+
u
1
1
+
_
K
w
=
0
K
w
=
0
C
l
u
s
t
e
r
j
u
s
t
b
e
e
n
a
c
t
i
v
a
t
e
d
(
b
e
l
o
w
a
n
d
a
b
o
v
e
p
h
r
e
a
t
i
c
l
e
v
e
l
)
K
w
=
0
K
w
=
0
K
w
n
=
2
G
3
_
1
+
u
1
1
+
1
0
8
N
o
t
r
e
l
e
v
a
n
t
N
o
t
r
e
l
e
v
a
n
t
N
o
n
-
p
o
r
o
u
s
o
r
d
r
y
c
l
u
s
t
e
r
K
w
=
0
K
w
=
0
K
w
=
0
K
w
=
0
K
w
=
0
A.2 ADVANCED MODE
In this mode unsaturated soil modelling is available. This mode is new as of PLAXIS 2D
2010. The following features are the same for all types of calculation:
Stress Use of Bishop's stress.
Soil weight The weight of the soil is calculated by the following formulation:
= (1 S
e
)
unsat
+ S
e
sat
where S
e
is the effective saturation.
Saturation The degree of saturation is calculated according to the SWCC
dened.
Groundwater ow Only unsaturated ow (steady-state only) is available.
K
0
-procedure
Features of the K
0
-procedure are:
Phreatic level Should be horizontal
Soil layers Should be horizontal. Tunnels and vertical clusters in which one
of them is deactivated are not allowed.
Plastic analysis
Note that this type of calculation is suction dependent and even for a linear-elastic
material it needs more calculation steps compare to the same type of calculation in the
classical mode. Features of the Plastic analysis are:
below the phreatic level, the bulk modulus of saturated soil is
considered. For soil above the phreatic level, the bulk modulus of
water is reduced based on the degree of saturation. For soil in
which the drainage type is dened as Drained or Non-porous (or
dry cluster) or when a cluster has just been activated, a zero bulk
w
= 0). The Undrained
behaviour can be ignored by selecting the corresponding option.
Groundwater ow Only a steady-state groundwater ow calculation can be
performed.
Available.
Consolidation analysis
Features of the Consolidation analysis are:
stiffness of soil (Undrained (A), Undrained (B) and Drained). For
all soil below and above the phreatic level in which the drainage
REFERENCE MANUAL
type is dened as Non-porous (or dry cluster), a zero bulk
w
just been activated (below and above the phreatic level), a very
small bulk modulus of water is assumed (K
w
= 10
8
K
w
).
a consolidation analysis based on total pore pressure.
Update water pressures Not available.
Boundary conditions for ow
The following boundary conditions are available: closed,
interface, seepage (constant or time dependent), head (constant
or time dependent), prescribed boundary ux/inltration
(constant or time dependent), a well and a drain. In addition, an
internal prescribed ux can be added, which is needed for
numerical modelling of vacuum consolidation.
Time dependent boundary conditions for ow
The following options are available: linear, harmonic and input by
a table.
Safety
Features of the Safety are:
w
= 0). If the option Ignore
undrained behaviour is used the bulk modulus of water will be
set to zero for all soil (K
w
= 0).
a Safety analysis.
Updated mesh Available
Available
Dynamic analysis
Features of the Dynamic analysis are:
w
= 0). If the option Ignore
w
= 0).
a dynamic analysis.
Not available.
Free vibration analysis
Features of the Free vibration analysis are:
General : Only available after a plastic or consolidation types of
calculation.
w
= 0).If the option Ignore
w
= 0).
a dynamic analysis.
Not available.
REFERENCE MANUAL
T
a
b
l
e
A
.
2
B
u
l
k
m
o
d
u
l
u
s
o
f
w
a
t
e
r
i
n
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
m
o
d
e
T
y
p
e
o
f
m
a
t
e
r
i
a
l
P
l
a
s
t
i
c
(
d
r
a
i
n
e
d
)
P
l
a
s
t
i
c
(
u
n
d
r
a
i
n
e
d
)
C
o
n
s
o
l
i
d
a
t
i
o
n
S
a
f
e
t
y
o
r
d
y
n
a
m
i
c
s
(
d
r
a
i
n
e
d
)
S
a
f
e
t
y
o
r
d
y
n
a
m
i
c
s
(
u
n
d
r
a
i
n
e
d
)
U
n
d
r
a
i
n
e
d
(
p
w
0
)
K
w
=
0
K
s
a
t
w n
=
2
G
3
_
1
+
u
1
1
+
_
K
s
a
t
w n
=
2
G
3
_
1
+
u
1
1
+
_
K
w
=
0
K
s
a
t
w n
=
2
G
3
_
1
+
u
1
1
+
_
U
n
d
r
a
i
n
e
d
(
p
w
>
0
)
K
w
=
0
K
u
n
s
a
t
w
=
K
s
a
t
w
K
a
i
r
S
K
a
i
r
+
(
1
S
)
K
s
a
t
w
K
s
a
t
w n
=
2
G
3
_
1
+
u
1
1
+
_
K
w
=
0
K
u
n
s
a
t
w
=
K
s
a
t
w
K
a
i
r
S
K
a
i
r
+
(
1
S
)
K
s
a
t
w
D
r
a
i
n
e
d
(
p
w
0
)
K
w
=
0
K
w
=
0
K
s
a
t
w n
=
2
G
3
_
1
+
u
1
1
+
_
K
w
=
0
K
w
=
0
D
r
a
i
n
e
d
(
p
w
>
0
)
K
w
=
0
K
w
=
0
K
s
a
t
w n
=
2
G
3
_
1
+
u
1
1
+
_
K
w
=
0
K
w
=
0
C
l
u
s
t
e
r
j
u
s
t
b
e
e
n
a
c
t
i
v
a
t
e
d
K
w
=
0
K
w
=
0
K
w
=
K
s
a
t
w
1
0
8
N
o
t
r
e
l
e
v
a
n
t
N
o
t
r
e
l
e
v
a
n
t
N
o
n
-
p
o
r
o
u
s
o
r
d
r
y
c
l
u
s
t
e
r
K
w
=
0
K
w
=
0
K
w
=
0
K
w
=
0
K
w
=
0
A.3 FLOW MODE
In this mode pure groundwater ow calculations are available. Note that the bulk modulus
of water is automatically calculated according to the elastic stiffness. This leads to a
consistent elastic storage in the coupled ow deformation analysis and groundwater ow
analysis. Since in the ow mode stresses are zero, constitutive models in which elasticity
is stress dependent should not be used.
Steady-state ow
Features of the steady-state ow are:
Drainage behaviour: a groundwater ow calculation is only possible for activated
clusters with a soil material of which the Drainage type has been set to Undrained
(A), Undrained (B) or Drained. In case a Non-porous material has been used or the
cluster has been set to Cluster dry, a zero bulk modulus of water is considered
(K
w
= 0), meaning that there is no ow in such clusters.
Updated mesh: this feature is not available.
Updated water pressures: this feature is not available.
Boundary conditions for ow: the following boundary conditions are available:
closed, interface, seepage, head, prescribed boundary ux (inltration), a well and a
drain.
Time dependent boundary conditions for ow: this feature is not available.
Transient ow
Features of the transient ow are:
Drainage behaviour: the bulk modulus of water is calculated according to the elastic
stiffness of soil (Undrained (A), Undrained (B) and Drained). For all soil below and
above the phreatic level in which the drainage type is dened as Non-porous (or dry
cluster), a zero bulk modulus of water is considered (K
w
just been activated (below and above the phreatic level), a very small bulk modulus
of water is assumed (K
w
= 10
8
K
w
).
Updated mesh: this feature is not available.
Update water pressures: this feature is not available.
Boundary conditions for ow: the following boundary conditions are available:
closed, interface, seepage (constant or time dependent), head (constant or time
dependent), prescribed boundary ux/inltration (constant or time dependent), a
well and a drain.
Time dependent boundary conditions for ow: the following options are available:
linear, harmonic and input by a table.
REFERENCE MANUAL
Table A.3 Bulk modulus of water in ow mode
Type of
material
Steady-state Transient
Undrained
(p
w
0)
K
sat
w
n
=
2 G
3
_
1 +
u
1 2
u
1 +
1 2
_
K
sat
w
n
=
2 G
3
_
1 +
u
1 2
u
1 +
1 2
_
Undrained
(p
w
> 0)
K
sat
w
n
=
2 G
3
_
1 +
u
1 2
u
1 +
1 2
_
K
sat
w
n
=
2 G
3
_
1 +
u
1 2
u
1 +
1 2
_
Drained
(p
w
0)
K
sat
w
n
=
2 G
3
_
1 +
u
1 2
u
1 +
1 2
_
K
sat
w
n
=
2 G
3
_
1 +
u
1 2
u
1 +
1 2
_
Drained
(p
w
> 0)
K
sat
w
n
=
2 G
3
_
1 +
u
1 2
u
1 +
1 2
_
K
sat
w
n
=
2 G
3
_
1 +
u
1 2
u
1 +
1 2
_
Cluster just
been activated
K
sat
w
n
=
2 G
3
_
1 +
u
1 2
u
1 +
1 2
_
K
w
= K
sat
w
10
8
Non-porous or
dry cluster
K
w
= 0 K
w
= 0
A.4 OVERVIEW
REFERENCE MANUAL
T
a
b
l
e
A
.
4
O
v
e
r
v
i
e
w
p
f
t
h
e
p
o
s
s
i
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
s
t
o
d
e
n
e
w
a
t
e
r
c
o
n
d
i
t
i
o
n
s
C
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
i
o
n
C
l
a
s
s
i
c
a
l
m
o
d
e
A
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
m
o
d
e
S
t
e
a
d
y
-
s
t
a
t
e
T
r
a
n
s
i
e
n
t
P
h
r
e
a
t
i
c
l
e
v
e
l
P
r
e
v
i
o
u
s
p
h
a
s
e
S
t
e
a
d
y
-
s
t
a
t
e
T
r
a
n
s
i
e
n
t
P
h
r
e
a
t
i
c
l
e
v
e
l
P
r
e
v
i
o
u
s
p
h
a
s
e
K
0
-
p
r
o
c
e
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REFERENCE MANUAL
APPENDIX B - PROGRAM AND DATA FILE STRUCTURE
B.1 PROGRAM STRUCTURE
The full PLAXIS 2D program consists of various sub-programs, modules and other les
which are copied to various directories during the installation procedure (Section 4 in the
General information part). The most important les are located in the PLAXIS 2D
program directory. Some of these folders, les and their functions are listed below.
B.1.1 FOLDERS
Manuals The pdf version of the manuals
Markers Resources used by SendMaterial
Tools Tools for expert users
B.1.2 EXECUTABLES
batch.exe Calculations program (Chapter 5)
CodemeterChecker.exe Plaxis codemeter license update
geo.exe Input program (pre-processor) (Chapter 3)
k02d.exe K0 procedure analysis
mdbtomat.exe Convert of old material databases to the new one
PackProject.exe Pack project
plasw.exe Deformation analysis program (plastic calculation, consolidation,
updated mesh)
Plaxis2DInput.exe Input program (pre-processor)
plaxout.exe Output program (post-processor) (Chapter 6)
plxmshw.exe Mesh generator
ReportGenerator.exe Report generation module
sensiana.exe Sensitivity analysis module
VirtuaLab.exe SoilTest module
vlabc_2d.exe SoilTest kernel
B.1.3 DLL FILES
CMUserMsgUs.dll Display a friendly error message in case of CodeMeter issues
fspline.dll Spline functions for retention curve
KernelLog32.dll Internal communication mechanism (32-bit)
plxzip.dll Unpack old zipped projects
timecons.dll Estimate the rst minimum and maximum time steps for
consolidation
REFERENCE MANUAL
B.2 PROJECT DATA FILES
The main le used to store information for a PLAXIS project has a structured format and
is named <project>.P2D, where <project> is the project title. Besides this le, additional
data is stored in multiple les in the sub-directory <project>.P2DAT. The les in this
directory may include:
d##.log Contains deformation calculation progress logs
f##.log Contains ow calculation progress logs
data.### The les having the extension '###' are created by the
calculation kernel. The '###' is the step number; it is at least 3
digits but can be longer when there are 1000 or more steps.
1)
data.anaini Conguration of the sensitivity analysis
data.c## Contains data for curve generation.
2)
data.d## Debug calculation logs generated by the kernel during the
calculation.
2)
EMF Files Preview of the dened phases
plaxmesh.err Error message le
data.gpv Previews of the generated curves
data.gxl Information about the generated curves
data.his Information about the nodes selected for curve generation
data.sis Information about the stress points selected for curve generation
data.inp Contains project model data.
data.l## Staged construction settings
2)
data.m## File containing information about the materials in the model
MSH Files Project model data. It is generated only once; directly after
generating the mesh. It contains all data concerning the mesh.
plaxis.msi Mesh generator input le
plaxis.mso Mesh generator output les
data.nsl Information about the selected nodes and stress points (after
Calculation)
data.opi The information of project phases for output
data.p2d Main project le
data.plxmat Contains all material sets and parameters
PLXML Files The PLXML le format is essentially a limited binary
representation of XML, tweaked for the needs of the Hierarchic
Storages
S## Files Files containing all the monitored values for the integration points
data.log Log le of the project
data.W## The les having the extension 'W##' contain the current
groundwater conditions. The '##' stands for the phase number in
which the groundwater condition is rst created. A project always
has a 'W00' le for the initial conditions.
1)
Three digit deformation calculation step number (001, 002, . . . ). Above 999 gives an
additional digit in the le extension.
2)
Two digit calculation phase number (01, 02, . . . ). Above 99 gives an additional digit in
the le extension.
To create a copy of a PLAXIS project under a different name or in a different directory, it
is recommended to open the project in the Input program and to save it under a different
name using the Save as option in the File menu. In this way the required le and data
structure is properly created.
During the creation of a project, before the project is explicitly saved under a specic
name, intermediately generated information is stored in the TEMP directory as specied
in the Windows
operating system using the project name XXOEGXX. The TEMP

directory also contains some backup les (GEO.# where # is a number) as used for the
repetitive undo option (Section 3.3). The structure of the GEO.# les is the same as the
PLAXIS project les. Hence, these les may also be used to 'repair' a project of which,
for any reason, the project le was damaged. This can be done by copying the most
recent backup le to <project>.P2D in the PLAXIS work directory.
REFERENCE MANUAL
APPENDIX C - SHORTCUTS OUTPUT PROGRAM
APPENDIX C - SHORTCUTS OUTPUT PROGRAM
Table C.1 Keyboard shortcuts
Key Action View
<Ctrl - A> Select all structures of selected type Model, Structure, Cross section
<Ctrl - C> Copy All
<Ctrl - D> Display prescribed displacements All
<Ctrl - E> Export to le All
<Ctrl - F> Display xities All
<Ctrl - H> Display phreatic level All
<Ctrl - I> Stress points All
<Ctrl - L> Display loads All
<Ctrl - M> Materials All
<Ctrl - N> Nodes All
<Ctrl - O> Open project All
<Ctrl - P> Print All
<Ctrl - R> Reset view All
<Ctrl - S> Save view All
<Ctrl - T> Table All
<Ctrl - F4> Close window All
<Ctrl - 0> Connectivity plot All
<Ctrl - 1> Deformed mesh All
<Ctrl - 2> Total displacements All
<Ctrl - 3> Incremental displacements All
<Ctrl - 4> Total strains All
<Ctrl - 5> Incremental strains All
<Ctrl - 6> Plastic points All
<Ctrl - 7> Pore pressures All
<Ctrl - => Move Cross section forward 1/100 of the model size Cross section
<Ctrl - -> Move Cross section backward 1/100 of the model size Cross section
<Ctrl - Alt - C> Change soil colour intensity Model, Cross section
<Ctrl - Shift - A> Show all soil elements Model
<Ctrl - Shift - M> Create animation Model, Cross section, Structure
<Ctrl - Shift - N> Hide all soil elements Model
<Ctrl - Shift - Enter> Goes to structure view with selected materials Model, Structure, Cross section
<Ctrl - Shift - +> Move Cross section 1/1000 of the model size Cross section
<Ctrl - Shift - -> Move Cross section 1/1000 of the model size Cross section
<Escape> Clear selected structures Model, Cross section, Structure
<F1> Manuals All
<F2> Curves manager All
<F10> Settings All
Table C.2 Table shortcuts
Key Action
<Ctrl - A> Select all
<Ctrl - F> Find value
<Ctrl - M> Jump to maximum value in column
<Ctrl - N> Jump to minimum value in column
REFERENCE MANUAL
Table C.3 Mouse shortcuts
Key Action View
Wheel move Zoom in/out. All
Move with left mouse button down Move model. All - Beware not to start over a structure.
Press Select structures - Click on
structure
Select small group the structure
belongs to.
Model, Cross section, Structure - Resets current

selection.
Press Select structures - <Shift> -
Click on structure
Toggles selection of small group the
structure belongs to.
Model, Cross section, Structure - Selection of other

structure type will be cleared.
Press Select structures - <Ctrl> - Click
on structure
Toggles selection of structure. Model, Cross section, Structure - Selection of other
Press Select structures - <Alt> - Click
on structure
Toggles selection of large group the
structure belongs to.
Model, Cross section, Structure - Selection of other

Press Hide soil - <Ctrl> - Click on soil Hides soil element. Model, Forces - Wont work if structure is selected.
Press Hide soil - <Ctrl + Shift> - Click
on soil
Hides soil cluster. Model, Forces - Wont work if structure is selected.

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PLAXIS 2D

in the x-y-plane. Gravity is

: Modied compression index [-]

: Modied swelling index [-]

: Modied compression index [-]

: Modied swelling index [-]

: Modied creep index [-]

: Secondary compression index [-]

: Stress level at which dilatancy is fully suppressed [

: Modied compression index [-]

: Modied swelling index [-]

: Modied compression index [-]

: Modied swelling index [-]

: Coefcient of secondary compression [-]

: Secondary compression index [-]

The POP-value will result in a stress-dependent K

. Once the calculation has nished, the

, due to lateral displacements. These

Using very low or very high K

F Input value of the load, as dened in the Input program

) if the calculation was

When the solution is fully elastic, the Stiffness is equal to unity,

. Zones of positive stress may

and as a result discontinuous colour shadings are

Figure 7.4 Example of principal stress directions

312 Reference Manual | PLAXIS 2D 2012

operating system using the project name XXOEGXX. The TEMP

Model, Cross section, Structure - Resets current

Model, Cross section, Structure - Selection of other

Model, Cross section, Structure - Selection of other

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