! " # $ % & ' () *

+ * ,

- * + ./ ' ('

0 1

    

   

 0 2 3 4 5 & 6

- .) 0 6 (5 7 2 ' 
8 + ..
% + : &

; < = > ? @ <

A B

C D ? @ E <

JK L M N OP Q R S T U V

JK M U OP Q R S T U V

  i
g j

f
   g j d g k h fl
   m


k  

s E t u

v > D > I= E

c de 


w G H

x ? u

 fg

h m

w > ID G E

y S XY Y Y Z

[ \ ] ^ b h
l f
q
{ | ] } _~ ] `

0 4 * 5

F G > @ D H ? = > ID G

n   o
    d  p  i f c 
l f
q
k i d 
 fd p o  i

r B

W S XY Y Y Z

[ \ ] ^ _` a b c d e 
  fg

; < = > ? @ <

 9 9 9

c de 


 j  j d g k z fg

] a _} |

  i
g j

  
 k
g
 dg

 c d   d
   i
l d p
 d 


 fe
j d g d p   f c i

f
   g j d g k h fl
   m

d g k

 
d g q
pp k
g
k   i e   d  f g d p e  

e  k  


  i
l d p
 d 

f

   fg

e   l fk
 d  
e  
e i
 c  k o    pl fg d   i e   d  f g d p e   p
i m  g

pf
e    d i  j d p   f c i  d 
g   k
e
g k
g   g d e d   f  pd  e    d i i fg pd g  d
j i d c fg
j
 
i j  
 g

  i e fp
 m

 c

d

i d  c
i d  f d p
g  f f
 j q c fc

  i
     o q f c

q   k  f
m p   f c i

k
 f g

dg

fg g f
 d g k  i

dg

c   c 

o

d 
 i
i   dg k

f d pp d     c
i d  c
i d  f d p  c
 

c fg k

dg

d    g g fg
 g pfi f
k

 c
k
 f g

o   k

e  di  m
{ |

~} ^

] a _} |

^ \ ~_a `

n    d i i fg f

l


  i e p

d m

 c


d

g  i


o

d  e
    o e    d i i fg  c d  i d
f     i e p
m  c
   f  c d  i    e    d i i fg e  
  
d
l


pd 
j 
 f fg

pf



c

    k fg d 
k

     o i d g e
 e p
m

 c f f  c
  e f d

  

 z f g   o  q d 

g f g

 f g m  c
g
 f   c d  i d g e    d i i fg e  
   f g l  p l

    fg d g k d  
  fg pd 
 d g  f f
  o k d  d
 f
g  p m  c f f  c
  e f  o     
  g

k dd

       
 d g k k d  d d 
 p f

    d g k    m  c
p d   f   c d  i d g e    d i i f g e  
  
fg l  pl
  pl fg   i e p

g  

  i e   d  f g d p e   p
i  j o  q c fc

 f
g 
g   c m

  
  g

 c

  i e p

e   p
i  i d

g  i
 f d p d g d p  f j pf



q c

 c
  e f  o d p   f c i

k
 f g

 fi e pf  f   g d fl
  p  f g  i d

fg l  pl
g  i
 f d p k d  d

  j   o
g

c

 c

fg l  pl
k f  





o

k d  d m  c f f

d g k d g d p  f f fi e    d g  m

p c   c  c
d p   f c i  k f    
k fg  c f     
q fpp  o
g 
e 

g   g p d  fg o d   f g  o  c

  k
 c d  f
g
 d 
k

fg

d pd 
  oq d 
  
i j  c f  i d pp o d   f g

i d
l


fi e    d g 

o   c
   
   o  c
 l
 d pp e  
  m g  g o    g d 
p   i i  g d e e   d c    c f e   p
i
   k
 f g d g fg
 f
g  d p   f c i
e    k
 f g

dg k

f  

d g k k d  d        
    pl
 c
e   p
i j d g k  c
g  d
 c f

d  
i e    g
  g
f  e
o  i d g 
m  c
e   p
i

f  c d  fo  c
 g k
 p fg

k
 f g f d k j  c
g  o 
g g  d i   g   o g
  g fg f  fg   i d
d     d g  f d p k f

g 
m
 c
o     o  c f     
f  g c  q   k
 f g   k d p   f c i  j d g k c  q   d g d p
 c
f
 f
g  m

q fpp    k

d g  i
  o k f

g  
 c g f 
 o   k
 f g fg d p   f c i   k fl f k
d g k   g 
 j

k g d i f e    d i i fg j k
e  c    
d  c  j d g k d e e p  c
i

  d g  i
  o k f

g  e   p
i  m


 

  


 g k
   d g k fg

d k k f f g j f
q f c   

f

o   k

e
g  fl


c g f 
 j q c fc

k
 f g

fi e    d g   

e      e fg
q


l

k


c g f 


f   f f d p  

d p



dg k


  fg  m

fg

c

 f p

d g d p

fg

c

q fpp
fg

e 

 f f

d p



  g g fg
q f c

  k

 fi


  
j


    

e  di  m

o


l f
q

  m

c


k
 f g 

c

d g d p  f

o



   

c de 


 z

o

o  i  
fg o  i d  f g m

} }_

~ b  c
o  i  pd   c d  d 
k
 fl
k o   c
  g g fg  fi
  o e    d i

  i e p
m
o  c

c
g


g k

fg

k
 f g fg
c

fi e p
i
g  fg  c


e 

g  fg

d p   f c i  j  c

d p   f c i

d p   f c i

   g g fg

dg k

 

 fi
m

i
d    fg

  i e p
o g   f g  j q c fc

c
e  e  
o

i d fg

e  e  

 g

n 

d 

o

i d  o
g
 f

d g d p  f

f



d g d p  f f e   d p


  g k  m

de  
 c

c

q   pk


g fd p  q c

pf






g 

k  g

 fi e p
q d

 d 
e   e
  f
 m

o

 c f f

m

 i e    f  d g d p  f f d 
k  g  q   fi e pfo fg d    i e  f g  j q c f  c c  p k fg i       g   d pp 
 d 
 m    f f fi e    d g     g k
   d g k  c

d    i e  f g  d g k  c
pfi f d  f g   o d  i e    f 
d g d p  f m


] a \ _`
o

a ` \

} ~_ \ ~ b
d 

i    fg 

 
k

fg

c q

c

  g g fg

 fi
  q  o  pd 
l d p


` ~}] ` }

} ~ b  c
d    d p   g g fg  fi
 o  c
e    d i

k
e
g k   g l d  f     g

  d g  o d      fg  c
fi e p
i
g  d  f g    k fg   f   j  e  fi f d  f g  fg   i e fp d  f g j  e

k  o
 c
 g k
 p fg c d  k q d 
j
   m  c

o 
j q
q fpp f g  
  g   d g  o d      m
 c
   f  d  f g
od
g   c m

o 

  g  fk
 fg

n
 e p

pd 

f

d
i    g 
g
k

 c d  fo

f

 i d pp j  c
g

d pi    d g

d      g g fg  fi
 o  pd 
fg e    m

d p   f c i


f

  c
i  

e d   j  c

d    i e  f g  d 

d   g d p
q c
g i d fg   i e d  f  g 
q

g o g   f g   c d  c d l

 f g f  d g  p
  g g fg

d p   f c i
d k k
k

k f

g 

 fi
f

dg k

 

d i e p
j   e e  

dg  c
 q c  

  g g fg

q

c dl

 fi
f

q 


e  di  j  g

 

 

 c

q c  

pd 


i d
o d  

 d  
f  
 d i  
  e c f  f d 
k d g k   i e p
d p   f c i j d g k  c

  e c f  f d  f g

d p   f c i

c d l f   m

 


  p  fg

d p d 
   g   d g  o d     m

f  c
o d  
  o  c
q  m    d 

   i d pp


m m j

  c


  i
 p d 
  c

p d  fl
k f

g 
 fg   g g fg

 fi

  i
i   c 
d 
 m    i fg  g
i fppf g  e
 d  f g  e
 
  g k m


 
  
  j  

 c

 p
d 

d p   f c i
 c


p
   g

f

c d

d

 

 

 m   


 m   


 


 m  


 m 


i fg

  m k d 

fg e  

 f


 

 


q j c

 

 

 

  j  
 j   j  

e
o i d g 

o c

d  i e    f d pp

e   


k
 d k
 i  c i  
 d e fk p m

d    i e  f g  d 
g   d pq d  
d   g d p
m

f d
k l d p
m

 
d i e p
j fg

dg

 i d
 c
 d 
 c d   g
o g   f g f  i d pp
  c d g

  o     l d p
 o

e d   f  pd  d e e pf d  f g j

d g   c
 d  i e    f d pp j

j  c
d  i e    f d pp pd 
 l d p
f g
m
    o  c
d p   f c i   c d  q

q fpp    k  c f 
i
 
 q fpp c d l
  c p q

  g   d g   d g k p q

d  i e    f   g g fg  fi
 j   q

q fpp g   g

k   q    d     c

f  
 m
  
e 

g  c

  g g fg  fi
  o d p   f c i  fg

d  fi e p
 o  i j q
 

q c fc
 
g  fd pp 
e 

g   d o g   f g f  o d  
    q fg 
 i


c d e 
  fg

o  c
o i dp

 

dg k

 

k
g f f g  m

 

d g k f g  
   g   d g  o d      m
q
l
 j o     e  e  
 j c

o pp q fg k
g f f g  d 
k  g pfi f  f i  c
d  f
   d e e p j d g k c  pk  o  l f   d pp d pp o g   f g 
 c d  d  f
d    g g fg  fi
 m       d g
o g   f g  q c

 c

pfi f  k  g  
f  j    c   pk
 
 c
o   i d p k
g f  f  g  f g  
d k m


 

  





  d g k
d


 

c d

 

q  o g   f g  j q c fc

dg k

   q

d

q
q fpp d    i
 

   c p

c

    

e   f fl
m

d i
d 
 o  pd 

   

  e e  

q
q dg 

f g   fg

 g dg 

o d       m  c f q   pk

 fl d p
g     d fg
 

pfi
  

q c


f   i
g  g
    g   d g  g    d g k g  


   m

g   f fl
p f i
d g   c d 

q dg   d
 c d

 c f

d

q

  d g k

m

d  i e    f g   d  f g q
q  f

d

d   g   d g   c

 


   m

 c   c   o d  d 
  o o  g   f  g  m

 i e  f
 

  




 


dc


h
pd  f g  c fe
 

 

g f f g

  

 


  

 

 


  

 

 


  

 

 

  

 


  

 

 

pfi
  

 
d i e p

 

dg k 

 c f f

od   j dg k

m c
g


  g  f 
g 

c

 

 

  d g k

   c

pfi
  

q c


  d g k



 

 

d e e  d c     c
 

 

 

  m


  

f



 m




j dg k

 fg 
 c
pd 
  e  q
  o




 

pfi
  

  k
g  
 c
k
 fl d  fl
  o

 



 

dg k

 m

c

g k

k j
 g dg 

q fpp k  i fg d 
o  pd 

fg i fg k m
d e e  d c

fg  c
pfi f j  c
g


pd  fl
 

 o d  i e    f g   d  f g j  o f g   fg

k
d pfg q f c pfi f  j  c
o pp q fg   p
f g f
 

e

o

 

  

fg o  i d p g   f g

  g  fk
 fg pd 
l d p
  o

 

pfi

m   
 c d  f d p  o pp q   c d 
q f c


d 

  

_} ]  ~ \ b

pfi

  

 

pfi

 

 

pfi

j  

 

pfi

  

 

 

pfi

  

 

c dg

 

pfi

 

   q  od 
 c d g


d 
 c
  i e p

k
g f f g 

 i

  m  c
g  c
 d  f

d 

 fl d p
g      fo


  

 

  d 
d  i e    f d pp
 fl d p
g  m   e e  
q

  k 
 g     q  f g f  d g  p o d  
  c d g

 c   pk
f c
 d e e   d c
g

 

  i
 o  c
  f f
 d  i e    f   i e d  f  g    i d
d 
 c  
 c d  fg l  pl

e  g
g  fd p d g k
p d  f c i  m



d 
  i
 fi e p
  p
  o  c  i  

e

` ~ } ] ` } ~ b
 p fe pf d  fl
d g k
fg

e  g
g    d c
d



a ] _} |
p

dg k 

d k k f fl
  g   d g   i d

o dg

e  g
g fd pj c

 p

f g  
k m

c
g

d 
 f g f  d g  m

 g dg 

 c   

de e
d
z

j  

 d  f c i  fg k f

g  d 
 k f
  g p d   g   d g  o d     j  c   p

m  c   j q
q fpp  o 
g g    e
 fo p d  f c i

] ~\ b

fg i fg k m

 j  fg 
 c
k  g   i d  
 m

d 
 fg  fk
d  i e    f g   d  f g j d  fg


 

  


a ~ ] ` ^

\ ~ b h
i
i
 c d   dg

e pf d  fl
o d     m  c  



` \ ` } ~ ] ` ^

e  pp d g
e  g
g      o d p d  f c i

p

p

d  d i  p f

 a ~ b h
i
i
  c d 
e  g
g  fd p d g k p   d g 
p  g
d g   c
 m  c   

a ~ ] ` ^



 ` _] ~ b

 

 

dg

 j p

 c d  f j p    q

i  
 p q p

d g e  p g  i f d p m

 ` _] ~ ] ` ^

] } _ ` ~ b  c


d

` \ ` } _] ~ b

i  
 p q p  c d g

   

c dg

p

    

 

  dg

 j



m  c d  f j e  p g  i fd p   q

d g
e  g
g  f d p m

 i

e d   f  pd  p

fi e    d g 

  i i d  f g  j q c fc

 

c   pk

e   d p

  i i f   i
i     d  p
d   
i
i
  c
f d  i e    f   q  c  d 
  m  c

d 
d g d p   
   c
d  f o  i  pd   o fg 
 d p  d p  p  j d g k c d l
d q d  o    e e fg  e  l
 d g k  l
 d d fg m


` ~}] ` }

\ _\ ~ b

  fg 

 

dg k



c d

q c
g

d i
k 

 

 



   

fo

 
  f

j


  c
 q f
m

 j c


d

g 


 i  fg

c

  i i d  f g

 fg 

   g   e q d  k   g p  j d g k  c

  p f  m 
 d 
o p   c


c

c d

fg k

f

   

o 
d e e p fg  c f   p
m

_} | \ } _

\ _\ ~ b

 

 j



 c f f

\ \ }_

\ _\ ~ b

 













d g   g   d g  fg k
e
g k
g   o


m

o 

 c
g



m

 j c
g

 

 c f f




 j c
g o 

 c f f



 j

 j  c d  f j  c

g  f
  i

f

e   e    f g d p    c
pd  
p
i
g   o  c

 f
 m


fg


d 
 i
i  
  
 g
 j q c fc  i
 e o i

h m

n  k  i

  k   

f  c

d e e
g k f

c
 

 fi
   fi
m    d pp  o  c
i

d 
pf 
k

 c
g d p  f  o p   f c i 

n m m

dg k m m  q g m

] ^ ] }_

\ _\ ~ b

 

 j




fg

_` \ ] a \ \ } _

 


dg








pd 





  



j d g k j  fg 










 j

\ _\ ~ b  c f d  f
 fg   i
d p   f c i  d 
k  g  

 d g k 
    f g m

 c d  c d e e
g  fg  c
 d 
q c



i

 g dg  j c
g o 








  









  i
 pd 
j  c f f k  i fg d 
k  c

m  c
i  p fe pf d  fl

 i

 f l
 g
d  p
 d p  

f d   g   d g  j q
i d i  p fe p  c f  fi
  c

q f c    c d g fg  c
d  i e    f  m c d  
i d fg  f

m

 g dg 



o 







 

  


] ` _

\ _\ ~ b  c f d  f
  o
g fg e   d fpf  f d g d p 
  o d p   f c i  m

d g
d    p 
k o  i

  p  f g j   f  d g
 p 
p






d e e   fi d 
k m


 fe    p
d  g d      pl fg   i i d  f g  m

a \ ` \ ] 

] } _ ` ~

_} |

i   o c

  i i d  f g  m

` ^ ~ b c
g

 
d i e p
j o  

_ ] } \ ~_` a _` } \ a ] ~ b

 e

 k 
 g   c dl

 j

fg  

d c

c

  

k f

g 

 j d

 o q 






 

 



 

g 
 d  f g d g k   i i d  f g d 
 p 
p 
pd 
k m  g 
 d  f g

 

k 
 g   d

 d g     e pf f

f fg   i

g 
d   g  fg     o  i
dg

  i i d  f g

   

 

 
 

d  l
o i  pd  d  i
j  

pg

 c

d 
d p  d o
q

    

 o   i i d  f  g m


f d c d g k o  i  pd m

 c
o g   f g fg  
d 
 d 

 



     g  fk
 d  fi e p

d i e p
m



 

 







 

fg  
d 
  m

 




     
  
 

 i
dd m

          
  
   
  !" # $ %  " #  $ &  '  ( '  )* + , ,  ) .
.
g c
q   d
j c q
 d 
j  c

p
i
g    o
   fg f    e   m



i d g  fi
 f  c

c
pp

g c
q  




g
 
k p  e j d g k  c
g  
 c
d  l
  p
     pl
 c
i m



/

 

  k
g  
 c
g  i
  o  fi
  c d   c
   fg f    e   m
 d g

 e  g
g
 
k   i i d  f g o 
d c

 c

pfg
e  fg 
k d  d o g   f g  o

d 
fg d  
g k fg   k
 j fi e p fg  c d 
l
  fi
 c    c  c
p  e  c




 f k 
   c
o d    c d   c
   fg f    e    g 
o 
d c  fi
 c    c  c
fg g
 p  e m

  pl fg  c

o  i

 c
fg  fk
   j q


 c d   c
pd     i i d  f g f d   g   d g    i j d g k c
g 



 


 c f f    d g










d  f c i
 f 
 f
 j q f c
g
 d p   g k  j q c fc q
 d g 
d

 o q  d  f c i
 f 
 f
 j   d   fg o  i


 











z





fg    c
k f

g 

 m

















 

  


  c f e  fg  j f f d   k fk
d    d 

m m

; < = > ? @ <

JK L M N OP Q R S T U V

IH <

]

_^ \

 ` 
 m

` ^

 i d pp l d p
  o

w G H

C D G

? < @

w G H

< = ? @ @ < G = < E

Y S XY Y Y Z

[ \ ] ^ b c de 
  o i

 _

d g k 
       p  f g o  d o
q

   

       k   p
c
  c d    c d l
g   i d k
d g i d  c
     m

    

h m  g       fl
fg k    f g f g   k f    
k

h m

a _} | ~ b g fi e    d g  d e e   d c   d p   f c i k
 f g f d 
k  g

  c

fg

dg

d p   f c i

  g  f    o  c 

d f 
e 

 c
i      i i  g
d i e p
k
   f
k fg c d e    o

k fl fk
j   g 
 j d g k

  i fg
m

h  f  c d   o


    m       d pf 

 o g  i
        e pf  c
pf  fg   q    pf    o    c p
 d p  f
j    
d c   pf  j d g k

 c
g i

 c
   
k pf   fg   d  fg p
   
k pf  m

12 23 3 13 8

4 11 24

Split
12 23 3 13

4 11 24

Sort each sublist

3 12 13 23

8 11 24

Merge
3


 _

f  

_ ^ \ b  e pf  c
  f fg d p e   p
i
   c p
 d p  f
 j  d

\ b   pl

d c

8 11 12 13 23 24

d i e p
m

 o  f

fg  

 e f d pp  j   i d
i  
 e   p
i   o

  e   p
i


    fl
p m

_` \ b  i fg
 c
  p  f g   


 

 c
  e   p
i   

 c
 fi
    i fg
 c
  p  f g  f  d pp
k  c

 fi
 o  c
 l
 c
d k f   i
e  p g  i fd p  o
 c f 
    fl

 c
e   p
i


 
d i e p
j fg

 f

` ]  ~_~ b

fg


q

f 
e
d 
k

 m  q   
k

   fi
 c  
p g

k 


p
   d    i
 c d 

pf    o  f

k fl fk
d g k   g 


d  f j q c
g

f

 j c

d p   f c i

   fi
m

fg  

 dg

d p   f c i

   

 g 

dg   d

 c
pf  fg   q    pf   j
d c  o  f

j o   g dg 

dg k

 e d  j
d c

c d

e d    o  f

i

k fg   d  fg p
   
k



q c

 fi
j q c fc q
q fpp   
e 
  d 

pf   o

d



 g



 g d   d   d  o p
g  c

 

 m

 c
o g   f g
   fi e pf f j

  

q

d

f d e  q
  o  m  c

g
 d p d g d p  f   i
 d      g  fk
 fg

f g   fg   g   d g  o d      j q

 d fg

 c
  f fg d p e   p
i m

  m  c f f    g

d i e p
m  c

d 
i d g i  
m

d g k 
fpfg  j d g k f  f
d f i
  f
 m 


d



 o  c
  e   p
i  f  i d pp
g   c


    j q
  k fl fk

d c e   p
i

 c d  k
   f
  c
  g g fg  fi
 o  c
d p   f c i

j d

 g  fp  c
 f

d   p  f g

m
q fpp d    i
 c d   c
  g g fg

 d g
  pl
k   
o  
m

fi e p fg  c d 

  k fl f f g

o     i

e p d g d  f  g m

fg

c d

 g dg 

 fi
j g d i
p



 c
 q f
j fo

 m

m

 fg 

 j c
g

f  e pf 

 j d g k i d
 q  
    fl
 d pp  g  c

d   d  j
d c



 i
g  f g
k

d  l
j i
 fg  d g

k  g
fg

 

 fg 
q
d 
f g   fg   g   d g    m    c
 l
 d pp   g g fg


 

  


 fi
f k
   f
k  c
o pp q fg j q c fc f k
g
k o  d pp
o 

 

fo

q
pp g  q g 
   
g 
m


g 
 m 

[ \

\ `

| \

  d e e p  c

d k
 d

 

 j

  c
 q f
m

    g  f k
   i

g
 d p i
 c  k  o     p l f g 
  

] ~}\

c
  o 
 
g 
 c d c q

 

f d e  q


o  i  
i
c  k  m

\ ~

 c f f f l


 _` a

 j q c


   

    


o 

| \ \ b  c


d

g  i


o i
c  k  o 

  pl fg

 e fg k fl fk
d g k   g 
 d p   f c i  m  c

d  f
  i
 c  k f

 c d  f fl
g fg

p   o fg   d g 
 m



h m


f d  pf c  p i  

   f  fl
l
  f g j

o  c

i  

  i e p

l
  f g

o c

d


 c
 
i m
| \ \ b

  fi e pf
k
d  
  c
 
i 

 



 j



 g dg  dg k

p


 
c


 
g 

 

k
g
k o 

] ~\

 b   

c
g

  f

   

m

] ~\

 b 

c
g

  f

p

] ~\


b 

c
g

  f

m

 j 



dg k d

m

c

f

 f

d


 i i  g

 c
 
i

 


f c


 c f o  i

q
 d g 

 c d  fg    
   
g 

  d e e pf
 m  c  

  f

 p

 

 

p

c

 g

 j dg k

 
d i e p
j  c
o pp q fg 
  

 c f   pl


fg

 j

m

 c

i d g 
   
g 
  c d   d g g  
e   fg    c f o  i m

g 

 m

  fg  c f l
  f g  o  c

d  
  c
 
i



 

q fpp g   
pp  

 p

 c f  m

j  

   c


 
g 
 j  c
 i
c  k  d
g

k
k m



] ` ~_ ` b

i  
d f i
c  k

 m

 
g 

 c f f d

dc


o    pl fg

e d fg   d fg


 
g 


e  


 g  fp c  e
o pp  d  fi e p
e d  
 g

i d  f g  c d  f
d 

    pl
m

o  

p 

f  c d   o

 o 
e
d 
k p

i

 m  c f e d  
 g

d c

e    o fg

d e e p fg

q c fc

c

k
g f f g

   d pp 
  p  fg

 d pp
o c

d  i

o   c

d  
  c
 
i j f f

d    d pp d 
k  g
e d g  f g m

     g  fk
 d e e p fg  c f    c
o pp q fg 
   
g 
m
d    i
 c d 



 

fo

f d e  q
  o z m

f   q

e d g k  c

   
g 
fg   d   i i d  f g j  g  fp 

fg  c

g
 d p e d  
 g

 




m
m
m

i

m






z








z 


 

  


 c

e ddi



fg    k  
k

f

c

d  pf
  g

g  i
  o
e d g  f g 

c

l
c
d k m

d   fl
d   c
d  f  d 
m   k   c f q



  

 c f fg d g k   fg  c
fk
g  f

 

 

 

 

` ^

} _ `

 z 

] ` ^

` ~}

 

c

z 

 

 

 j

} _ \












 

 

p

q    o    i i d  f g  d 



m     f   fg

z 







 

 






  





 

 

` ^

q

z  

o

g

k
k

z 

  f k  i fg d 
k  c
z



 

z  

l d p

   



q f c

e d g  f g  d 

i dg

d e e p  c
o   i  p d o    c

 i
  f  
 f
 d g k  fi e pfo  



 j q
dg

 g o 
k

 j i
d g fg  c d 

q
c dl



 fg 
p

   

c q



z



g q



g  

q dg  

    

} _ ` b g  c


q
pp f  




c


i

d  i e    f d pp j d g k   f f


c g f 

o 

  pl fg

  p  f g j    c


 
g 


g
dp o i

d g k

o c

  m
 c f

  p  f g j

d g k  c
g d  
i e    l
 fo f     
  g
   c    c fg k    f g m   i
 fi
  c

d 
e d  d i

 
q c  

l d p
  

k 

g   g q m

   d pp g k    q c d   c




 

f  g d   f g  i
  d  f
fg





fg


    fl

 f
k

   j  

  g       f g

c d

p q m

c



c

  

o 

k
 f g m

k
g  



 

e dg k

c

L(2)=2

f  


 i

dp e ddi





 

e  o j  

q fpp

L(3)=3

j q c


 m

j   c
f c  d pd g 
k j
d



e  k  
k
fg

dg

c

 

 o c
f c 

 m



c

i fg fi  i

j  

 d g k


d

 m  c  

f 
d    

 c d 

L(4)=5



 m
q fpp  
 l
 c d 

 f 
i e  fg     g
   
 c d 





f  g d   f 
 f
 o  d g  i
  o 
 i  j  


 m

 

 o c
f c  

fg fi  i  f
k

e  g
g  fd pp j   g   d  o d   d  

  g k  g

 j

o  



L(0) = 1 L(1)=1

 q

fg k    f g

g  i
  o p
d l


m     g       d i f g f i  i  f
k

 c
g  i
  o p
d l
 

 

o c

o    k

c

    g  k
q c  
 c f p k 
g   g  f    o d i f g f i  i  f
k

i fg fi  i  f
k

 

k dd   

q fpp p
d  g

fl
g

 

 o c
f c 

q fpp   g  fk
 d o d i   
d i e p
j  c d   o  c

 c

 c f f g
m

l d p
 i   
m

 

fg k    f g



e l

 c f

de e
d

dg k

j o 

k
 fl


 

  


\ ] b

  d pp fg 

 

 j

o   i
 g dg 

j 

] ~_~ b
` ^

   c
d  f  d 
 q
  g  fk


} _ `

~}\
m

  fg

   c
fg k    f g
 c f

f 
po j q c
g
l

 fg 

p
   c d g

j q
dg

 
e j p
   d    i
 c d 

  q

q fpp  c  q

m   q j  fg 

c d c

j d  k
 f
k m


p
i i d c  pk  o 

 dg k

q c
g
l


  c
  f f d p l d p
 o

 d 
  c    f  p

o   d   f d p
 c  f 
 o

 m p
d  p  c f


o  
d i e p

 m

 c f fg
 d pf q fpp
d g



q c fc q
c dl

m  c f f g     
o  d pp l d p
  o

   f f   
q c
g

 c d   c f f d  i   

q fpp
  
fo d g k  g p fo  
f f g     
q c
g

d e e p  c
fg k    f g c e   c
 f j o  i

q dg   c q

 m 
l
c d

 m

 j q
c dl

   

 m

b
q fpp     k
 fl
 c
 f c 
    g k q
 d g  g  c
l d p
 o

    

 d pf j fi e p fg  c d  q
q d g 

  g k  c
      o  c

 d  f g


 c
 d k d f o i  pd q
c dl

 




 fg 

 c

 m

dg k

d e e pf
k  

   p



q
 pd fi

 

 

 

m  c
e   f fl
    f

fg  c
e 

k fg
c d

 

    c
fg k    f g

 

d

   j  
 l
 c d   g
 o  c
     f g
d  fl
j d g k c
g 
q   pk g  

d e    f p
 d g k fk d 
o 

 c

f d l


e  o m

dg

 

dg k c
g

c e   c
 f  g p

f q
   pk fg  p k

 

 

 e   f




 c

          fg  c

q
d e e p  c
fg k    f g c e   c
 f  

d e e pf
 o 

 

 j dg k

c
g 

dg g  

d  e d    o  c
d  f  d 
d  q
pp m

 

   f
g    g p k fk q
e   l
 c
p
i i d fg k    f g j   q
d    d pp

k

 i fg
k  c
l d p

o

q c fc i d
  c
p
i i d   
m  c f f q c  c f i
 c  k f  d pp
k

  c
q d j  c
l d p

d m

 f  c






dg k

 d  f o  c
 p k
g  d  f fo



d



l
 fo

c d

 f d o d i      g   d g  fg i d  c
i d  f  j d  c f
   

m  q  g  i


 f

dg k

  d  f


dg k

 c f

  g k f f g m

 c f e   e    f g

  

 c    c     c
q   pk  o d   d g k d  c f
   
m

; < = > ? @ <

JK M U OP Q R S T U V
[ \ ] ^ b h
l f
q
[ \

_\

d

x D @ > IG
X

<

I<

S XY Y Y Z

c de  m

dg k

dg k 
d k c de  m

fg

h m

} _` a b     fg f d i  g  c
i    d  f   i e   d  f g d p e   p
i  fg d p   f c i
fl
g



g 

 o f
i  j
d c

d  fd 
k

q f c

fl
g

 c

k
 f g m

e   p
i

f


 

  




e
i  

d p   f c i

c

f
i 



c d

c

d

fg

fg  
d  fg

 k


m

    

    fg

f

   

fi e    d g  fg

 d  
f f  o
g  c
    
e fg   i
i  
  i e p
d p   f c i j d  d g fg f fd p   d

fg   d g f fg k d  d o  o d  
   

g  
  f
l d p m
    fg

d p   f c i 

d

   d pp

k fl fk
k

fg  

f    
k

 g

q f c

dg k dk

c

de

 c

 f
g 

 

k f

 p

dg k

 fi e p

dg

 g p

    fg

q 

pd 
 j

d    i
 c d  k d  d f    
k fg d g d   d j d g k

d 

k



g  fd pp m

d p   f c i  j   c

 j  

     fg d p   f c i  fg  p k
d 

 

p
   c d g

c d  d 
e   d  f g
    fg



]



j q c fc

e   d p

    fg

j d g k 

 p

o d i fpfd 




 m

 

m  c

 d p   f c i  o 

d p   f c i  j fg 
  f g    

d 
fg  c

 
 c  f
m

d p   f c i   o
g

d e e pf d  f g m

d     
 m i  g  c
 p q

d


 dg k

d

 d k  d  f  fi
d p   f c i  d 
d    d pp o d  
  c d g  c
i  
  i e p

 i d pp fg e    j  d

j q c f  c d    i
 c d  k d  d

c dl

d k k f f g d p e   e
  f


c d

d

o

fg 

  j

k
e
g k fg

 g

c

d 
q  fi e    d g  e   e
  f
 m

\ b  c
d p   f c i

 
 g  d k k f f g d p d   d     d
j d g k c
g 
f f e    f p
      l


pd 
pf   q f c     c
g

k   d pp  d 
d k k f f g d p d   d  m

}]

\ b     fg d p   f c i

f   d p
fo  q 
p
i
g    c d  d 

 d p 
i d fg fg  c
 d i

p d  fl

e   f f g d o
     fg f   i e p

k m  c f f  o fg 

  j  fg 
fg   i
    fg d e e pf d  f g 
      g  g

dg k c
g  g dg  c
 m

 f g f
  g  q

 c d  q  f
i   c d  d 

 d p  g  c

  g k
j 
i d fg    
k  g  c
  
m




f

 f

 i i d

o c

 p

 c

j c
     c
k
   fe  f g  fg

 ~ } b

 c
g

q   

 d p   f c i  m

o  

d


    fl
p j




p
  fg

dg k  i

e fl  

f e d   f f g   c
d   d fg  
p
i
g    c d  d 
p
   c d g

 c
g f 
    fl
p

e fl  

g

q 

d

e pd g d  f g

l d p
j q c fc

 i e d

dg

p
i
g  

fg

f

c

c d

 
k
c

fg

dd m

   c f  f     d p p g      g 
k m
d p   f c i

e   d fpf
c  
g

f

c d

 o c

f  fg g

d

 c f

f

od

p  e


f 


c

 p

fg

d p   f c i

 f

c

d


o 

    fg

 i e d

od

l d p

\ a \ ~ } b


    d p  q    
    fl
p m


    f  c
 g p

q 

d p   f c i 

dg

 c

\ ]

~ } b

 fg p

 c


d p   f c i 

    fg

d p   f c i j

 
    f g

d  j

j dg k

p g


fg

c

d    i fg

q  

d
m

c d c

 c

e fl   f

 d p  f
m  c

    fg d p   f c i

d
 
k


    fl
p m

   fi
m

 o  c

 c 

m  c
k  q g  fk
f  c




 o  c
 c 

 c d  
 f
 d k k f f g d p d   d     d
f g   fg  c

fg  

 c f k

dd m

p c   c

f f e    f p



i


dd 

fg e pd 
j f

   fi
m

d e     f d 
k  g d g f
k d  d        
j  d pp
k d j q c fc f d g
 f
g  fi

 o fg 
  fg

i  k
g

 f d  pd   f d p k fl fk
d g k   g 
 d p   f c i m

e p
i
g  d  f g  o d e  f  f 

k d  d        
m

 fp o 

 g

d d fg   d

  d   j d g k  c   f f
m  c f f
 d  
 c
i
 fg e   
  i


dd 

 d g g  
k  g
fg


dd m

f  e pf fg   q    d   d   o    c p

    f  c
 g p d p   f c i

c

c

 c
g  c
q     
k   d   d  d 
i

k  
 c
 fg


    f g

o i

p
i
g  

d 
 m

 g fk

k

d  i e    f d pp

 d g k  i p  f
 
i
p  i d pp o  pd 

 c
dd

o

d g k 
d 
  c d g  c
e fl   m

 fg 
f  
 g    c
 d   d     d
m   k 
 fi e pf f p  
 c
  
i

 c f

dg

 
d c e d  m

  f     f q fk
p 
d  k
k
i d c fg
  m

g   o d i fpfd  q f c

h m

d
j d g k k
p
 fg  c

p
i
g  q f c

 fg

d e     f d g

   fi
j d g k  c
i fg fi  i

e  f  f 

  e e      c
 e
 d  f g 
 c
 i d pp
 

dg

    fg d p   f c i j   f f



l d p
m

d 
k


fg

c
de

dg

p

  fi
m


 

  


    

   

x
x

QuickSort:

partition

<x

>x

sort

split

sort

merge

MergeSort:
sort

extractMax

buildHeap

HeapSort:

Heap


de  

q   

f  
z

 fpk fg

 i i  g     fg p   f c i  m

c

c
de

  k

k

fg


l


 k




c d

c

i d fi  i

 d g

  d  
k
 f
g  p  d g k  c
g 
e
d 
k p
  d   fg  c
pd 
 
p
i
g  m  c f

  d     c
i d fi  i

 d  c
  c d g  c
i fg fi  i

f d g fi e p
i
g  d  f g k
 d fp j    c f f

 c

  i d f g  c f  q   d  d g f g e p d 
    f g d p   f  c i m
o  


 g p

p

q dg  

d 

  fi
m

c

 c
e  f  f  o
p
i
g   c d g
 m
p

` ^ ~

\
d

 i d pp
  l d p
 j d

c
de

dg

d pp q

 



k 

 c f

f

c
d e c d   c
d k k f f g d p d k l d g  d
 o
fg  
k fg   g 
  q c


d c

c d g
 o e  f  f 
l d p
  d g
e   
 
k fg

  fi
m

c
od


] _~ `

d  g k

d g q
    fg

q fpp fl
d g

] ~\ ^

o  i dg

 p

} _` a b  c

d j 


od 

c d

c d

 p

 c f i d

c

    fg



c d

  fi

 d pp  c d   c f i
d g  d  i e    f    f  p o d  


d   i
g   c d  g      fg

d p   f c i

d
k  g

  i e d  f  g

dg

d p   f c i 
q

dg

p

k  m

 fi


od
 c dg

 c f m


] _~ `



p
i
g  

f

q

g

] ~\ ^

d
k

} _` a

  p
p

 g

c


  p 

o

c

  i e d  f  g 

c d

c

d p   f c i

i d


 c

p
i
g    
   
k m

  
g
 d p e   e  
    fg
 
k

a _} | b  c
i d g g
 fg q c fc  c
d p   f c i e
 i  
  c

d p   f c i  d 
  i e d  f  g d 
k

d  d 
d pp  c
d p   f c i  k f

d  l
 m
q fpp 

 c d 

e  f g 
f  fg  e
 fd p  d 
 m

 c f k 
 g   e 
 p k
 c

e    f fpf  o     fg d p   f c i  q c  
d   f g  d 
k

 i fg
k   c
  e
 d  f g  m

q fpp  c  q

 c d  d g   i e d  f  g d 
k     fg d p   f c i

i d
d  p
d  

 p

o  d 

g 



i  

   i e d  f  g  fg  c
q      d 
m  c f f 
d pp d k f   p  d  fo    c fg

d    f j
 d  
   e    o  d g g    d
d k l d g  d
 o d g g  q p
k
d     c
e    d i i fg
pd g  d

fg

 
k j    c
i d c fg

fg

 
k j   c q

c

d p   f c i


 d   

q c fc
p
i
g       i e d 
m  c
 g p o d    c d  q
 d g
e p f f  c d   c
d p   f c i

k
 fk fg


 d   f g 

d 
k

 i fg
k  c

  p  o f    i e d  f  g  m

_~_ `


\ \

d g e    f p

a \ ` } b


g   k
   e   l
p q
   g k  j q
g

k

    fg d p   f c i

k
 f g
  o  c
o   
i d
 f

j dg

l f
q
k

i e p  m

d    d   p

d g d    d   q d  o i  k
pfg

 fg 
q
 d g g   fi d fg
q c d       o  
d  fl f d g d p   f c i
g

c   c

  i e d  f  g d 
k     fg
d   

 

 d pp
k

d p   f c i

dg k

dg

 c fg

fg e  
o c


 

  


   f g

 o d     fg d p   f c i

d d e dc o i

    

 c
        i
p
d o fg  c f  

m

   


f  c

k
g f f g  o d k
 f f g  

m

` }\ ` ]  ` ^ \ b

d c fg 
 g d p g  k
 o  c
k
 f f g  


e 

g   d   i e d  f  g i d k
fg  c

d p   f c i


m m



g 


fg

q c fc

m

 c

q 

d g c


  g  fg 


e 

g 

k q g

c

 

p
o

d g c

j 
 e
  fl
p m
dg k

c  

pp fg e  

q f c

  g  fg 
d p g  c
 f c   d g c m


\ ]

` ^ \ b

d c p
d o g  k
   
 e  g k    d e  fg  fg  c
d p   f c i

q c

d pp  c
  i e d  f  g 

c d l


g i d k
m  k
g f f g  o d   i e d  f  g d 
k d p   f c i j  c
d p   f c i 
 c

e
 i   d  f g

f
g
 d 
 

p
d o g  k
k f  d g 
o  i

fl
g

d   c f e  fg  m

 c

d   f g

k
e c

o d

i   
d  p
d    c f pd 
m

d g   i e d  f  g d 
k     fg

o q dk

k

 i fg
k

 c
     f  c
g  i
  o k
 f f g  i d k
  o d  m
  d fg p  c

  g g fg  fi
 o  c
d p   f c i


f   i e p

p

   
k f   

  f



d p   f c i


m m


     d g k f l
g

  g l
   c
d p   f c i

fg  

dg

j f f d    d f c 

 fl d p
g  k
 f f g



m

q fpp p
d l
 c f d  d g

  f
m

a1:a2

<
-

1 2 3
a: 9 5 6 Input

>

a1:a3

a2:a3

<
<
-

3,1,2

a2:a3
1,3,2


  c

>
3,2,1

a1:a3

<
-

>

1,2,3

<
-

>

>

2,1,3
f  


d g d p  f j q
q fpp g

k

  

1 2 3
a: 5 6 9 Output

2,3,1

 f f g  

o      fg m

 c
o pp q fg d  f o d   d    fg d   

 m

 o d fg d   

 
 c
p
g  c  o  c
p g
  e d  c

g  i
  o
k
  o  i

g
c

c
   

d g p
d o m


\ ] b

fg d   

q f c

b   f
c d  d

p
d l
 c d  c
f c  d  p
d   p

  i e p

fg d   

 o c
f c 

c d 

p
d l
 j d g k

g  i
  o p
d l
 e    f p
o  d g fg d   

q f c  c f c
f c  m
g  i
  o p
d l
  o   i
 

 o c
f c 

j c
g

 c f f  c

 o  pp q   c d  fo

j fi e p fg  c d 

pd 


f  c

  q j c

f    i d fg 
  p m
| \ \ b g   i e d  f  g d 
k     fg d p   f c i

b  g  fk
 d g     fg d p   f c i



f j


q

c
g

d g k fg 



c d  q      d 
  g g fg  fi

 p

m

j d g k   g  fk
  c

  p fg k
 f f g  

m

  k
g  
 c
g  i
  o   i e d  f  g   c f d p   f c i

i d
 fg  c
q      d 
j  c d 

  f
 d p    c
c
f c   o  c
k
 f f g  

m
i d g p
d l
 i     c
k
 f f g  

c d l

c  

dg

g  i


  pk

e 

g 
k

fg

o  c
fg e     g  f    o
o

k f

g 

k f  fg   g  i
  j

e
 i   d  f g  m

 

d c

k f

g  e
 i   d  f g j  c
d p   f c i i    e
 i  
 c
g  i
  fg d g
 
g  f d pp k f

g 
q d m  c f fi e pf
  c d   c
g  i
  o p
d l
 fg  c
k
 f f g
   p
i i d  c d   c
c
f c   o  c
 

f d  p
d   p

dg

d e e p

 



 

o 
p





 

f d  p
d  

m
e d
z  f
pk fg

 p

j

fi e p fg


 

  


    

   

 c f   i e p

  c
e    o m
 c f  d g


_` \ ]

_ \
 p

d p 

g
 d pf
k    c  q

c d c

} _` a b  c f p q
   g k

 fi
      f d p 

fi e pf
  c d  fo q

c  e


 p

m

  g  i
 od
 c dg

fg

  fi
j q
 d g g   k  f i d fg   i e d  f  g  d p g
m 
 q
  g  fk
  c

  f g

 o q c
 c
 f f e    f p
      q f c     c
 
 o   i e d  f  g  m  c

d g  q
 f
 j    g p

 g k
 l
 
   f  fl
 f   i   d g 
 m


` } _` a

} b   g  fg     d    i
  c d 
d c fg e   f d g fg 

 fg  c
 d g
o  i

d p   f c i

     fg

    fg d p   f c i


g

c

f

  fi
m

f g  q g  

o dg

p
i
g  fg

 
 d p   f m

dd m

 

g q

c

 c

dg

dd



 c

dg 


  f g

 c
  c

p
i
g    o  c
d   d
i d fg  d fg d g

o c

f c  q

d  f fk
d f  

c

g  i
  o
p
i
g  

 g k

fg

c

k

 i fg
 c
 d g  o
l


p
i
g   j  

   c
d e e   e  fd 
p  d  f g  o  c
g d p    
k
d 
k  e pf d 
  m

 

m  c

  j  c
g  c f fi e pf
  c d   c

  p fg

   fi
m

d 
p
   c d g
g 

 

  e   dd
c
dg

 fi e p

dd

  e fg

d c

c

p
i
g 

     i
 d 
f g

k
k

o dg

c d

p
i
g  fg

fo  c


p
i
g  q f c      i e d  fg f  


 d  
 c

p
i
g   d 
 l
  c
 d g



j q
dg

d   d  c d     g    c
g  i
  o      
g 
  o
d c
p
i
g  m   g  fg      


 c
o pp q fg  c 

d   d  m

 



 


 pk   c
fg f fd p fg e   m

  

d  o 
 k  q c fc c  pk  c
 
k   e   m

  


 c



   


f  c

g  f

   k j d g k

 g q c fc    m

d   d  o fg 

  m 

d p   f c i

  g       fg

  

q c  

 

 

f 
i d  d p  fi e p
j   k

e  fl
p
m

k   c f fg

q  
e  m

 m

      


f
 d p  

j q
fg  
i
g 

q fpp   g  d fg  c
 d g  o

 p
l
 m

 

f   q

 

dg

k   c f fg f fd pf fg 

 m

 c   j fo

fg  
i
g 
k j fg k f d  fg  c d  q
c d l


g

fg

   


 c

f  c
fg 


l d p

d p   f c i



j c
g

c

d 
p
   c d g  
 d p    j q

e p d 
   q f  c  c

   m  c f f k  g
  

e fg d   g g fg    d p  o  c


  q    g  q   g  d f g   c
 d g  o  m  c f  i
d g   c d  fo 
 o     c   p k
d  e   f  f  g     f g  c
g d p    
k d   d m 

c   j q



 c d   c f

 c



 k j g     c

m   k   c f j q
k
 
i
g  

c

p
i
g   o 

f

l d p
m

 i

 o
p
i
g   fg

 


d o
   e fg m

 '        !  
  
    "
  
  
      # $  
  
      #" # $  + $  
            # $    #  $
    
 
  " # $  +
 # # $ $  " # $
 # $  
.

z

c

 dd

p
i
g    o  m

   


 c
g  c
g d p e   f f g

    

f d    p


g

k  
 d 
o  p fo  c

d 
k  e pf  d 
 j  fg 
q
k  g   q d g   c
i

 e
d
 

 c
g  i
  o
p
i
g    o

 g
i  
m   k

 i fg
 c
g  i
  o
p
i
g  

p  d  f g  o

   m



 j d g k c
g o 
d c  j o i


c d

  e f
  c

g  f

j q c


   m

c


  f

c q
l
 m

   l
 q  f
 c
 d i



      


& 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

   " #   $    #   $
   ,  + 
 # $   !" # $    &
 # $        
   + +  * + , + +    "   
   +   ,' +
 # $    * +  +   ( '   
,+ + ( +   '( ,  +



 

  


 c

d 
o    g g
 
k  p  e  j

  
k
 fl
p j    c
   d p   g g fg  fi
f
  m  c
 

p q

1
a

4
e

3
r

1
s

3
v

 fi
 j

  fi
m

 fi
 j

 

  fi
 j d g k

  c   pk d 
c   c

Other data

f  

 c
pd   p  e   g  k  q g o  i

d o
q

3
v

1
s

1
s

3
r

3
v

1
s

3
r

3
v

4
e

1
s

3
r

3
v

4
e

1
a

3
v

  g  fg     m

l f   p  c f g   d g fg e pd 
    fg d p   f c i


Key

f d   d p
    fg d p   f c i m

 fi
 j 
 e


f q    m

   

  j  c
g  c
   d p   g g fg  fi
f

 c  q  d g
d i e p
 o  c
d p   f c i m

d i e p
 j     g l fg 
   
po c  q

    

q
g

k q  d k k f f g d p d   d   m

 q
l
 f

pp p
d l
f d  d g

  f
  e   l
 c f m   d c fg  j g   f
 c d 


 m

 q   p k g  
  d p
fo  c
p  e q

  g g fg  c
  c


q d m

; < = > ? @ <

JK L M N OP Q R S T U V
[ \ ] ^ b c de  m
[ ] ^ _

fg

} b
c

D @ <

D G

x D @ > IG

S XY Y Y Z

fg

h m

d    fi
q
k f    
k   g  fg     j d g
dg

o i



 c

i d fg

 c      i fg

o

  fi
d p   f c i o      fg
  g  fg    


 f
i
g    f f  g p e  d   f d p o  d l
  i d pp  d g
  o fg 

  m
dg
o i

d j  

d i fppf g j q

i d

g   q dg  

d pp  d 
d g

f

c d

k 

fg 

 


e d 

o  c
fg 

  d 
fg  c

dd

 o d i fppf g
p
i
g   m

h d k f     e   l f k
 d g f 
q d d    g k  c f     fg g  i
   g
k f f d  d  fi
m
 c
fk
d f l
  fi e p
m
k
 fi d p k f f    k f f  fg

   c f g  o    p f   d 
f g   i e  
k  o
dg d
m

fg 

  j
d c c d l fg

    e e  
 c d  q
c d l
d  
    d g

    fg

d p   f c i j   c d    g  fg     m        c

fg 

  q
 d g  fi e p     
e
d 
k p j   d   fg
d   c
p q
    k
 k f f j d g k g f c fg q f c  c
c f c
    k
 k f f m  fg 
 c
    fg d p   f c i
f   d p
j q
g  q

 c d  fo  c
g  i
  d 
d p
d k    
k q f c 
 e
    p q

  k
 k f f  j d g k

 c
g pd 
 q
    q f c 
 e
    c f c   k
 k f f  j g  i
  c d l fg  c
 d i
c f c   k
 k f f
q fpp 
i d fg    
k q f c 
 e
     c
f p q

  k
 k f f m

  


      !"
  

& 
   


 

  


   " ! 

, &

    

   

*  +( +   * , +  +    -

g e  

 e  

  
   

   


 
   
   
   

 
  
   
   
   
  

 c
  g g fg  fi
f

 

f  

 q c


j  

fg 

  fg

  fpp e  p g  i fd p fg

 

 m

f  c
g  i
  o k f f  j

 


l

d   c
 k f f g  i
 

m

d i e p
j   e e  

f   j  

c d dg

f  c
p
g  c  o  c
pf  j d g k

f

  pk

g  i
 fg

j q c


 



c d

 d 

 

  fg

q dg 
k

 

 c f
d i e p

 c f  d g
 d g

 m



c d c

 

pf 

d
g q

e 

k

fg

dg k

i  k

g  i
 l
 c
dg
o i

d   k f f
fg

m   q j q
 d g  c fg  o

 

o
c

g e d   f  pd  j fl
g d g fg 



  j q
 d g  d k f      c

g  i
  fg  fi

g
g
 d p  c f q          d g

f o      fg fg 

   l
   i
 d g
 c d  f pd 


 

g  i
 j q c


d c k f f f  l
  c
 d g
o  i
 c f  d g
j q
 d g q  f

k
 fi d p k f f   j   d  q
 d g 


p q j  c f  d g
d k   
k m

c
dg
o i

dg
o i

k f f i d c d l
m  c
l d p
 o

  i i  g d e e pf d  f g  o  c f d p   f c i

c dg

d i e p
 o h d k f     m

f  c
g  i
  o k f  fg   l d p

d c

 fg 
q
d 
k
d pfg q f c

 
  
   
  
   
  
  

 

j fg





  m

  fi
m

 \ }  } b   g  fg     d g k h d k f     d 
 g p   k o       fg  i d pp fg 

  j   d  p
d  

   pf
 c d  d  
    c d   d g

g   k
k d   i d pp fg 

  m c d  fo   q d g        d 


o

 d  fg e  fg  g  i
 

g c
q  d 
 

  i e d  f  g d 
k     fg
fg

e
fd p d 


q c


 

c dl


d g

d 
e 
  i  c     q f c   fg  g
 o  c

d    f    j


   j  

d p   f c i  j   c


pf
l

c d    g  i
 d

de    m

   c p

q
l
 j

 g fo   i p

k f   f  
k  l
   i
 d g
j  c
g f f e    f p
  k 
 
 m


 
d i e p
j   e e  

 g fo   i p

k f   f  
k

c d  

c dl
d 
 o

l
 c
dg

 l
  c f  d g
i
d g   c d  o  d g
dg

p
i
g 

o

o d pp

q f c fg

 c f



m

 

    j

fg 
 l d p

fg 
 l d p f

c d c

q c


 dp 

d i e p
j  c
e   d fpf  c d  d g
p
i
g   o

pd 
 j  

l
g

c

e   d fpf

o

 c f

c d e e
g fg

f

g   d e   p
i m

   fi
 

  g   d g    
k fg  c
d p   f c i

 g   dg

d   d q f c

dg

c

pf

q

g

  i e p
f   g k  o    
       fpp d e e p m

  
 

 d  fg e  fg  g  i
 

d

l d p
 d 

q fk c

o

fg 
 l d p

 g dg 

g k c

i d fi  i

d g k i fg fi  i

k f

g 
g   f
 fg k

k o   i

 

 m

j dg k  c

     c

pf  m  fg 

   f  d g  i
 o   i

f fg  c
 d g

 

  m

c

 c
g d p    
k pf  m



j

  

p
i
g   o  c f
 
d c g  i

f fg  c
 d g

 m
f g 
   c
f 
i  f g    c
p f g
k

pf  fg    
k   k
  c   j
 
g  fd pp  fi  pd  fg fg 
  f g      m
pf    
 c
   o  i

  
 

od   j c
g

d c

  
  

l d p
 d g k   d p
 c

  



d e e   e  fd 
p m

g f fd pp  c
pf   d 
d pp
i e  m

q
fg 
  f fg  c

o   c d l
g  i
   l
 d k f

g   d g
j f f

d   d f d e  fg 
    c
c
d k  o d pfg
k pf  m
o   i

   c p

 

 j  c
e   d fpf  c d 
c

 m  d g k  m f  

 g p

c d d



fg d pp q
  g  d 
g d 
d pp  c


 

  


    

   




'



+     !"
 & 
      " #   $
, ,     +      #     $          ,   + +   *         
  
   ,    !  " #  $ &
   
'   +    +     " # $
   +   " # $            +  (           # $
.
 +  '         +          #  $
 # $
  
 #  $ 

B
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

A
.42 .71 .10 .14 .86 .38 .59 .17 .81 .56

f  

c d  f  c
  g g fg  fi
 o   
    
 g
o c

pf   m

 c

pf   m



k
g  

c

 

f
i  d 

q fpp

__~} _

` ]  ~_~ b



f

f
i  o d pp  g fo   i p
 q

g
 
 m

 c   j c

e

k



  g l fg 

 g k
   d g k fg

fg 
  f g

d   

k  fg








f

c d

 g

 fg 

c

fg 
 
k

fg  

dg

 g

o

d pp  o  c
i

d g d p  f m

 fg 

d  g k

o d pp fg  

 
 j c

c


d

 
 j d g k

c

d   g   d g  g  i
  o f
i  e


 
 f  g p

d  g dg  m

d p   f c i

 d  f
 f
g  m

d g d p 
  o d p   f c i  m

 c

o 
c

 d 
o p d g d p  f fg l  pl


 fg 

q

c d l
g  k  g

dg

k  f g  c f   g
m   c f   g
f   d  c
  e f  d p m

l d p


q f c


  d fg

k
g

d dg k  i

 fi
m

dg k  i


l d  fd p
 c d  k
   f


l d p
 m
  

f  g fo   i j d pp  o  c

dg k  i

l d  fd p
 

k f   f   f g j   q
i d d  q
pp  d p d    d  fg p
 d g k  i

 d g
c   c 

 



l d  f d p
 c d  f g k f  d 
  c
g  i
  o
p
i
g   d   f g
k    c

k f   f   f g

 g

  m  c f  f d g k k f  d g d p  f f e   d p   k

d e   d fpf  f d g d p  f f  

d




o g   f g  c d  i d e    i
  i
 d i e p
 e d 
 g    c

d p m
c
dg k  i

i  c  fi
f  d
   c d g k p

 j d k f d  
 m     c

e
 
k  fi
f i  c
 
 m

 c

 
g  fd p  d g  f  c d  k

 i fg
  c


   f g

d p l d  fd p

 fi
o 
d c

e   d fpf  f

e   d f p f   f  d g d p 

 j p
   

o d

.86

f fg 
 
k j f i   
  i e d 
k d d fg  
d c

 f d g k k f 

   
po  o  c f

f

 c
    c fg  

 c f
i

c
i j q
q   pk
e


e
 
k   g g fg  fi
 o  c
d p   f c i

g   c

.71
.81

  
   m

g    g fo   i p k f   f  
k j d g k

e
o  i d g 
 o  c
d p   f c i


.59

       g  f k
 c  q



fo  c

.38
.42
.56

.17

 f 
i  m  c    c
   d p q      d 
f g 
  f  g  f i
q   p k

p
d  p

.14

g  i
  o f
i   c d  c d l


g

g c
q   d
j q c
g c

 o  c
e 
l f  

.10

c dl

c

o  i d pp j f f

 j p
 

k
g  

c  
 m

 d i
e   d fpf

l d  fd p
 j q c fc q fpp q   o  d g


 

  


 
 m  q
d  
k d  l
j  c
q      d 
 fi
  fg 
  
q c d  q
pf
  g  q

d 

c

l d p
 o 

f  c

e
 
k

p
i
g  

d

d i
k



f
i  fg   d  
 f




j k
g  
k

 g fo   i p

    

c  
 m   c  q
 c f g f g  o
d  c

 c f

k f   f  
k j
d c

p
i
g 

q c fc



c d d
fg  

 d fp m

k f

g  e   d fpf

 


j q c fc

 c
f
i

 fg 

q

q

d 
fg 
e 

g 
k

o c
d k 

dg k

q fpp fg 
 e 


 d fp  m

d c

d i
c d c

p
i
g    o

  i fg

d 
fg k
e
g k
g 

 c

      j fl
g

g  i


fd p c d 

o

q 

 fi


c d

e    f p

c
d k 

     i
 f

l
g 
d

 e

c
d k  m

c

f c

d c
d k j c
g

  fg j

g  i


e   d fpf
  i fg  e
f     c

   
 q f c  c f  fd 
k    fg m

q
pp    k f
k

e   p
i

fg k
e
g k
g 
fg

  fd p fg

e   d fpf

c
  m

q c fc

d c

  c

  fd p

d 
 d p p
k    g d i
k d o 
  c
 q f   i d  c
i d  f  f d g  d i
 
 g   p p f  m
e   d fpf  o
  fg

 dp

 o  fg

d fd 
k


 c
 j 

 o
d c

dg

q
q fpp fg 
 e 
 d   c
  fg

   d p g  i
  o c
d k  q


d o
 i d fg

j 

 d g d g d p

 q f  c

fe

e   d fpf

f c

  fg


 fg     i
  c
  
 j q c fc

d   fg

c d

i d g f
i  k  q

e
  q fpp q fg k  e fg  


p
i
g   o



m

e   d fpf  o  fg fg   d g  
 j   fg e d   f  pd  j f c d  d e   d fpf  o

fg    c

   

 c
e   d fpf  o
  fg

c
d k  fg

o
f  c

   
 f fl
g

 c
o pp q fg fi e    d g  o  i  pd

 

 
 

q c


      

p c   c  c f p   i
  j f f g      c d  k   

q c

f   i
 o  i m  d  f d pp

e   d fpf  o     fg

c
d k  j 





f  c
e   d fpf  o     fg

 c
   d p g  i
  o k f

g  q d   c d   c

 c f e   d fpf

k f   f   f g

o  

  g   p

h j c
g

 

dg k dk
q fpp 

d  d o g   f g

  

  j d g k f k
g  
k

q 

 g

dg k




q d g    k

 i fg

m

o

j o  d fl
g

e   d fpf

dg k

fi e    d g  o d     c d 

 

k f   f   f g m  d i
p j  c d  f  i
d g l d p

 

c
d k     pk
k f   f  
k

di  g c

d g k
 f  d pp
k

f  c



 d fp j d g k

c

f

 
 m

m


  

c

 

d  

  d  f  f 
q
g

k

d g k f  l d  fd g 



 

 



d  

 

p 

g q

d


  f g

d    c

fg

fg  i fd p

d

 


 c
d  l
o i  pd  d g k c
od  c d 


q
 d g k
 fl

 c f d 




d  

 

 





 c   j o  pd 

c dg

 l
 d pp

 
  j fl
 d    d p   g g fg  fi
 o

d   p q c d      f d g k k f  d g d p  f d l
  j   g  q q
g  q

 B

t G w u

I=

 @ D  @ w u u IG  B

; D G

< E >



  m  c f f

f f   
q f c   g k
g 
m

C D u

x ? E <

D G

? < G = <

JK M U OP Q R S T U V
[ \ ] ^ b 
  f g

 c
 fi
  fg 
   c
f
i  fg   d g  g
 o  c
pfg
k pf   f d     c d k
p
 

 m   i i fg  e

; < = > ? @ <

` ] _

W X S XY Y Y Z
 mz f g

h m

a ] _` a b

fg k f     f g  o d g fi e    d g  d p   f c i

k
 f g fg

 

d p   f c i  o 

o 

c  m

 e  fi f d  f g

 c

e   p
i  m


c g f 

 c f

f

f

di  g



o 

k
 f g 
c g f 
j  d pp
k
c

q 

i  

e  q
o p o 


d g  m

g d i f


 

  


e    d i i fg   p  f g  d 
d 
k  g d o
q

  i i  g
p
i
g   m

d 
 e f  d pp  e  fi f d  f g e   p
i   g k  c
i fg fi  i
l d  f  

  g    d fg    m


d 

e   p
i 

o c

 i
q c d

 g 


 c

k q g

fg  

k f

g 

  p  f g  d 

~}

} \ b


pd 
k

e   p
i 

o

  p  f g



      p  f g j  
   

k fl fk
d g k   g 
 j fg

c d

f

  pl


 c
d f

   

g d i f e    d i i fg e   p
i 

  i d fi  i

c


    fl
p m

k g d i f  e    d i i fg

 f
g  m


g 

c d

f

q
l
 j
d 

e   p
i  j   d g k d  k

k fl fk
d g k

p
i
g    c d  c d  d  
 f

k g d i f

  i e  
   e   p
i

e 
 c

g d 

d

f

 i d pp


g      d pp

e    d i i fg d p   f c i


c g f 

    

fg    i d pp
 d g k c  e
o pp

 o  c
  f fg d p e   p
i

fg

 fi e p
    e   p
i  m


 i   o   p  f g  o   i d pp
 e   p
i  m

 g pf
k fl fk
d g k   g 
 e   p
i  j f f g      d pp    f
g   

 g fk
  g
k
 i

e   f  f  g j   i d g k f

g   g
 m
]

\

~}

} \ b   

c

 e f d pp    e   p
i

dg q




c

  e   p
i  fg

 d p
m

 c f

f

k  g

d 

  p  f g  d 

 
k i d g  fi
 j d g k q
k  g   q d g    
e
d 
k p

  pl
 c
 d i
e   p
i m

}}

} ] } _ ` b  i fg
  p  f g   g

 i d pp
   e   p
i   

  pl
pd 
  

e   p
i  j d g k
l
g   d pp   d   fl
d  d   p  f g    c
  i e p

e   p
i m    
 d p 
k f    
 d   e k  q g d p
 g d  fl
j  d pp
k
 c

i    fi e    d g  
  f g

  e   p
i

fg

k
 f g fg

       
m  c f f  d pp
k  c

m

  p  f g



d e   p
i

 o  c
e   p
i m

f c  q






 e

c

g d i f  e    d i i fg f

g   d e e pf d p
  d pp  e  fi f d  f g e   p
i  m  c

d 
q  fi e    d g 
p
i
g    c d  d e   p
i
i    c d l
fg   k
 o 
} _ ]  ~

~}

} \ b  c f  f    i
 f i
  d p p
k  c


o   c
p d p e   p
i

 
d e e pf d p
m

 ` _]  ] `

 
  pl
k  e  fi d pp j
d c   e   p
i


 d
 c d

 c   pk
  pl
k  e  fi d pp m

\ ~ b g fi e    d g  d  e
     c

 f
g   o

n f  c d   c

   d p g  i
  o   e   p
i   
  pl
k  c   pk
d  i    d e  p g  i fd p g  i
 m

} _` a ~ b g

fi e    d g  d 
d  o d p   f c i

k
 f g

f  c

 k

 o d p   f c i  o  c d  d  
    fg  m

 c

d 
d g  i
  o fi e    d g  e   p
i  c

m i  g  c
i    fi e    d g  c d   

k  q f c

 f
g  p 
d  c fg o  d      fg  
g
 d pp d e d  
 g fg pd 
e f

 o 
 m  c f f q c d 



k f   

 

dg k

o g   f g 

k  g   q dg   g k

pf


e

k 

d  f
 o 
d i e p
fg
g
 f  

d  c m


 e


dg k 
j

 

e
o i


d   c m

i dg


g

k q g

fg  

g
f  k
 d 
 
k
d

p g



g 


d  p g

d c

 o q c fc

fg   d g 


 fi fpd 

m  c f

i  p
  p
 m  c

f  g

o o  

d f

j  j m   
d   i d  c
  d 
p      fg f p
 d  
 o  i d pp c d g
 fg


e pf d  f g m
g   i d c

dg

q c
g

d e f

 o 

d   p j    d  c
   i
 c fg  c d  f

   c f 
d   g j f f  o fg 

   

d   p m

g

  i e  
 fi fpd  f f

q

g

  i i  g i
 c  k  o i
d    fg  c

k


   fg   c d  k 

 o  fi fpd  f
q

g

q 

   fg  f     i e  
 c
f p g
    i i  g   

g 
m


` a \ ~}

o 



d g k p



~\

\ `

fl
g q  

g 
 

  c

   

f   c

 g








j c
g

dg k

 i i g


 



 c fg



 o c d d 


dg k

dg k



m  c
g



j c

o 

dg k

   fg 





fg k f


d



n   p
i

 
d i e p
 c



g 


o

j q
d c d


 
d i e p
j p
  



c d d 
 m

f d


 

   

          

o  m


 

 o 

  

fl
g

p


  
c d

dg k

o pp q fg m

dg k

   

k

 i fg
d p g
    i i  g   

g 
m

  

c

f d p g
  

g 

d
o 



g 


f

q 

 o

dg k

 
d i e p
j p
 

 c
p g
    i i  g   

g 
f

  

g 

f f g   d pq d   g f 
m

   


f d   

g 

d  

g 

         
 c

c d

fl
g q     fg  

\ b

fo  c

f d    f   p fg  
d  fg 

g 
 o

q c fc

f
f c


 

 

 


 

  


` ] _


a ] _` a

 } _ ` b  c
 fi e p
  
o  
  p  f g    c
e   p
i

d pp e    f p
  

g 
 o  i

 c f f c  e
p
  p

c

   

q   pk


 g
   fg j d g k 
d  c o  i d  c
 fg  c
  c
    fg j  

fg
 f
g  j  fg 
 c

d 
d g
e  g
g  fd p g  i
  o e    f p
  

g 
 m

g  
d k j q
q fpp k
 fl


d

    

e   p
i

d k g d i f  e    d i i fg   p  f g m

fg  

 i d pp
 e f

 m

   g     o   c f e   p
i

 c


 c d    g  fk
 fg

d

i dg

d pp e d f   o

d 

g 
f    d g fg f fd p    fg  o l d p
 j 

 e fd p

q d  

o d  c f g j q
g

k

 c f



o     fg  j   f

 q fpp   
o    m

 m
   

k 

o

f  c

i e  

g 
m

 c
fk
d q fpp
    i e  
 c
p g
    i i  g   

g 
o 
l
 e    f p
e d f  o e 

 m


d

 

 i e  

fg

 



 fg 

 c f q fpp

c

d    i fg  c d  q
d p
d k g  q

o c

q 

 c
l d p
  o

g     c
  d p  m

f g q f  c   i
 
 l d  f  g  m
] ~_~ b



f 
i e  m


] ~}

| ] ]

  

}\ ~ ] }
m

 fg 

 m

| b   e e  


i  l fg

dg q
 m

 

g k

fg



  f 
m
o i

q c fc

f

j q

 
d i e p

 pd fi

 fg 
 c

dg k

 

dg k

d k k fg

c
g

   c q

f e d    o  c



g 


 

c d c

 c

       i f c  
 

q f c
d c

   

dg k

g  f

   fg  m

o 

l
g   d pp q

 c
fk
d
dg k 

f  
  

o
f c
 

g 
f
i e  j  c
g  c
p g
    i i  g   

g 

 c

p
d l
 c
e    o d  d g

o 

k
g  
 c
p
g  c  o  c
p g
    i i  g   

g 

f g 

 
k

 d fg

c



k fk  

c




   

d p 

g k

p




q
i d g k

o 



c d c


q fpp

 c
 l
 d pp

q

  c
 m  c
d g  q
 f   c d  q
k  g  j   f  q f p p g   i d
 c

  
dg k


  
d c



   i d   c
k

g k j fl fg

g q

dg k

fg

 d g  i d pp


fo q
k  m



 c   j fo


] ~}

| ] ]

c
g

}\ ~ ^

fg  c



 

` } ] }

 fg 
 c

f e d    o  c

c

g c
 d
c

d
c

   /

 j  

 o 

   /

f e d    o  c

 

dg k

\ \ ` } _` a } | \
 g

 




 


 



 

dg k

dg k

dg g    c

  m  c  
f c



d 
g   e d   o

j q c fc f

f  

fo

   

 
 


   /
   /

 dg k

j
m

fi e p
i
g   c f   p
m

 g 
g d

d 
 q
q fpp 

c  q



q fpp    
  i
c
pe o p e  fg 
  fg

d e d  d pp
p d   d j

 



d  c



m

!  *    #   $
 *  
    #   
   $
  



 

 

#

$& 

$ 

#

$ 

 

   ,  +

- .
 

('  +

 

 

,+

,'

   ,  +  

 g p

d  dp

 c
 k

 fi e p

 o c

m

 j

 dg k

d g
d i e p
d 
 c  q g
p q m

 

fo
  

 

  m
k  g   g  q

 

 m

fo

g q



q c fc f

        
i d            




i d fi  i



 c f  d 

d g k  d
 c
 g
 c d  f l
    c
p  g


i d 

dg k

[ \ b  c
d 

  i e   fg  c



g 
m

 d g k e    f p

 i fg fg  c

 
 l d  f g  q
c d l
 c
o pp q fg   p

 o 

f  c

 o 

 f  c

c
g

 m

| b   e e  
c d

q c fc f  c
 d 
j   q
    c
 c   j fo



 

q   pk c dl

c
pd  c d d 
  o c

 m

c

 g k

 


dg k


 

  


Y: 0

4 =n

Y: 0

B D C B

    

4 =n

B D C B

X = BACDB

B 0

Y = BDCB

B 0

X: 2
3

A 0

A 0

C 0

X: 2
3

C 0

D 0

D 0

m= 5

B 0

m= 5

B 0

LCS = BCB

LCS Length Table

f  

   

 g
  i i  g  

g 

#
 $ 

#
 $ 

  
   
  
   
  ! # $   # $ & 
 #
 $   # 

  $ 
#
 $ 
.
+ ,  +   ! # 
 $
  #
  $ & 
 #
 $   # 

 $ #
 $ 
.
+,+ 
 #
 $   #
  $ #
 $ 
.
.
.
 +  '    #
 $ -

start here

with back pointers included



  

   

d i e p
m

- .
 ,, +  

 

+
-

 




 
 

(

(

 

# $ !

# $ &   

# $    

# $     

 +'  ,+ * 

   


 


+

! *
 
  
 *  , +


  #   $
 *   #  
+ (      -    !         & 
   *
#
 $ 
   +    

    # $
!  +  '
  
   +   (      
   +   (
    
.


.
+'

 

#

 ,+ ,
+
+
+

 

 
  

$& 

 
 

,+

+

 

 

 * +




   , +  * 
 ' , '(( + ,+

      # $
!
# $ &           

 

 

(
(

# $
# $

# $ &

 


 

  


 c
  g g fg  fi
 o  c

dg k



}]

} _` a } | \

 
k
c



} ] 

c d d 




\
m

dg k



q

\ b

f

g   f fl
p
 m  

g  c q


 fe

 

c d

\ `

o c

  c

 

q
g q


 

fg

pd 

 
  j

d p   f c i

f  p
d  p

dg k

f g   fg

c

  fg 
 c


d p   


  d   fg  c
g d p



d

 c f

 

q


  m




f
 d  f g  j 
 e
  fl
p m  c
d p   f c i



 

      
j d g k  



p  e  q f c

 f k  g
  fg  c
d  e  fg 
 

d l

d 
q  g

k

   

 e d 
m

q
 fe

 

dg k

 c d  d  
 j d g k

j c
g
m

 

 

i
dg  c d

 i i  g

 pp q fg  c

d  e  fg 
  j d g k    e    fg

    

c d 

q
g q

 fi fp d  p j fo

f d g k

 

d c d  d  
 q f c



d c

 

k


c
 o i

  g  fg 

 
  

q f c

g 

 
 

f g   fg



 c
p
o    m

c

j  c
g

fd  g d p i  l
fl
  c

g dp  

g 
m

 B

; < = > ? @ <

t G w u

 @ D  @ w u u IG  B

I=

C  w IG

w > @ I

? > Iv I= w

> ID G
W S XY Y Y Z

JK L M N OP Q R S T U V
[ \ ] ^ b 
  f g


| ] _`

 m  o

] } _

h m

} _ _ ] } _ ` b  c f e   p
i

fg l  pl
  c


  f g

 o k

 i fg fg



g 
o  e
o  i fg d 
 f
  o  e
 d  f g  m  c f
g
 d p  pd    o e   p
i

c

 e  fi d p

f fi e    d g  fg

  i e fp
 k
 f g o    k
 e  fi f d  f g d g k fg k d  d d 
 o  
  e  fi f d  f g m
q fpp    k
 c
e   p
i

fg

d l



f
k

fg   d g 
j q c

 c
k g d i f  e    d i i fg f  
 d 

d  f
 

 

m
  e e  
 c d  q
q f c   i  p fe p d 
 f
  o i d   f


 

d   f
q

i  p fe pf d  f g f

d
o



dg

d     fd  fl

e d 
g  c
 f

c



  g  

  i i   d  fl
 e
 d  f g m

 c f

i
dg  c d

d  l
i  p fe pf d  f g c  q
l
 q
pf
j   q
d 
g   o




d   d g
 c
  k
  o  c
i d   f
 m p  
 d pp  c d  q c
g q  g  g   d 
 i d   f
 d 

fg
i  p fe pf
k j  c

d 

   f   f g   g  c
k fi
g  f g  m

 i d   f c d 
  q  d g k    p i g  m
 

o  

i  p fe p d

dg

i d   f


l

 i d   f

 fi
 d

m  c
g  i
  o   p i g   o

dg k 


 i d   f

j dg k

c


  p

i  
 dp c
g  i
 o q  o

 

d 

    d p
g   f
 fg

 


dg k

   

d c

 

m

d

g e d f pd 

d


   fi
 

 i e  
j c   c

   d p  f i

m m g  i
  o i  p  f e p f  d  f  g     i  p  f e p  c

 q  i d   f 
 f 

q fpp

 
c d c


*
q

C
Multiplication
time = pqr

=
p

p
r
q

f  

d   f

 

 p fe pf d  f g m


 

  


  

 c d  d p c   c

dg

p
d p e d 
g  c
 f d  f g

q fpp p
d k



    

   

d l d pfk 
  p j g   d pp fg l  pl
 c

 d i
g  i
  o  e
 d  f g  m  g  fk
  c
 d 
 o z i d   f


 j


dg k

 m
i  p     
i  p    







 

 

 

 



l
g o   c f  i d pp
d i e p
j   g  fk
 d p
 d l fg   d g
d c f
l
k 
  k
 fg  c

l d p d  f g



g 
m

| ] _`

] } _

k fi
g  f g 

} _ _




] } _ `

\ b

 

q c


f

fl
g d 

g 
 o i d   f


o




k fi
g  f g

j

k

 i fg



c

dg k

 k


o

i  p fe pf d  f g  d j d  d
l d p d  f g  

  c d  i fg fi f
  c
g  i
  o  e
 d  f g  m

}] ` }

} \ b  c f

d p   f c i

k 


 c

    k
 fg q c fc   e
o  i
] _ \

g   e
o i

c

i  p fe pf  d  f g  j f     


  

 c
i  p fe pf  d  f g  m

a _} | b
   pk q  f
d e   
k  
q c fc

  g d 
p j  c
g  i
  o q d   o e d 
g  c
 f fg

  f
 d pp e    f p
e d 
g  c
 f d  f g  m  g o 

dg

e 
  f g

 g
f
i j  c
g  c

f  g p  g
q d   e d 
g  c
 f
m

f l


o   c dl

pd 
m

o  

c dl
 

f
i  j  c
g  c

d 

e pd 
 q c

     pk 
d  c
pf  q f c  c
  
 i    e d f  o e d 
g  c

 j g d i
p    d o

c

  f
i j    d o
  c

  do
 c

  c
 q f c

 c
 

g k

f
i j
  mj d g k    d o
  c

f
i  m

 c
g

q

  pk

  g  fk
 d pp  c

 c

d 
fg k
e
g k
g   c  f 
 j fo  c

d 

  



 


f
i 

  

 

f 
p d 
k    c
g  i
  o k f

g  fg d   

  g

c

d d pd g g  i




  f  p f g  o   i  p d j q

g k

 j

fo

 m

` ] _

q d 

q c fc fg    g

g e d f pd    

g  k
m

 

c d

 

j





 

m

 fg 

f

e  g
g fd p d g k

f    e  p g  i fd p j  c

e  g
g  fd p q fpp k  i fg d 
j fi e p fg  c d  o g   f g   q  l
 o d   m

 c   j  c f q fpp g  
e  d   f d p

e  o  l
  i d pp

 fg 

e e p fg

c

m

fo

 c f f 
pd 
k   d o d i    o g   f g fg   i fg d    f   d pp
k  c

  f  c

q
 e pf

f
i  j d g k  c

m  c f  
    c
o pp q fg 
   
g 

c
g

q d   o e d 
g  c
 f fg

o      j  c
g  i
  o k f

g  q d   o e d 
g  c
 f fg

   f
i m

q d    e d 
g  c
 f
 c
p
o   pf  d g k 

  e d 
g  c
 f
 c
 f c    pf  j  c
g  c
   d p f

q c


f
i j q
 
d 
q    pf    
e d 
g  c
 f
k j  g
q f c

a ] _` a

 } _ ` b  c f e   p
i j pf
  c
 k g d i f e    d i i fg e   p
i  fg

l  pl
 k

 i fg fg d        
fg  c f  d 
j d e d 
g  c
 f d  f g  m
q d g    
d  c
e   p
i
fg     e   p
i  j q c  
  p  f g   d g
  i fg
k     pl
 c
p d p e   p
i m


    g l
g f
g 

d  

c d
c

c f c
 

q
dg

   /

   /


/

q  f

f d

 
 c

  p  o i  p fe p fg i d   f


p
l
p  o e d 
g  c
 f d  f g m

 
 c
 m  c d  f j o  d g

j 

  


 c f

p
l
p q

d

 j

c   c  m

g e d 
g  c
 f f g  c

e 
  f  g j q
 d g

i d   f m

    


   

 

 fi e p

i  p fe p fg q 

 f

 g fk

i d f



 

  


 c    c
e   p
i

  f g 

c q

dg k


  

  j p
    c fg d     c
e   p
i


 g fk


 i

 
d i e p

 c d  i fg fi f


 c d  f k 
 g   q   fg  c f  d 
m
q
q fpp k   c

   f
 c d   c f e   p
i

k  q
e d 
g  c
 f

m   c f e  fg  j   i d

 fg 
q
q d g  i d   f
 q f c

 i d pp

m p c   c  c f f g   d d k fk
d j f    g    

g  
d k j d  fg d pi    d pp k g d i f e    d i i fg   p  f g   j

 c fg m
q fpp   g  fk


dg k c q

 o k

 i fg fg  c

  l d p
 o

 p
l
 fk
d  m

k fi
g  f g  j e f  c
l d p
 o



 c
  c d fg e   p
i   d g
  pl
k 
    fl
p d e e p fg

c
d i
c
i
m


i e 
k

   

 o k

 i fg fg  c
 e  fi d p 

g 
 o i  p fe pf d  f g  f  
g  e fg   q 

k  q
k
 fk
q c

   e pf  c
c d fg q c d  f

  

 c
  c d fg 

    

 

 l d p
  o

j dg k d
c

 o c
i m

 d  f
  c
e  fg  fe p
 o  e  fi d pf j
 d  
 g 
q
k
 fk
  
d

    


  

 c


g 
fg    c
e   k   
 c d  f j o   c
p d p e   p
i

j q
 c   pk   i e  

d c   

g 
 e  fi d pp m

 
  pl
k  e  fi d pp j  c
  e   p
i  i   
  pl
k  e  f

i d pp d  q
pp m

` ] _

a ] _` a

] } _ ` b
q fpp    
 c
  p  f g     c
  e   p
i  fg d  d p
j

d g k  fpk  c
 d p
fg d     i  e i d g g
 m
g  i
  o i  p fe pf d  f g  g

k
k



  

 c
o pp q fg 
    fl
o  i  pd  f g m
] ~ _ ~ b 
 l
 c d  fo

  c

f  g   c f g   i  p  f e p m   c   j

}\

d c



j c
g

 

 
k

 

fg

  

i d

dd m

 

m

 

 

 
 

  /
   f  

 c


   f d
 


f

  

/

 fg 

 

 

 

j p


 

k
g  
 c
i fg fi  i

     d g

 e  fi  i

k
   f
k

 m

   /

d i
c d

 c
 fi
  i  p fe p  c
i
  i e   fg

 fi


 fi
    i e  

m

 

d  fg d     c
e   k   

  

j d

 c
 e  fi  i
f

q
d

 c

 c
g  c


g 
  g  d fg   g p  g
i d   f j d g k    c
    f  m

   / m 

 i e  

j

m  c f  d g

d g k  c
 e  fi  i

l d p
 c d l

g

i d   f j d g k

 e pf

  g  fk
 fg

 fi
    i e  

 i e  
k

  /



  /

e 
l f   p

f d

dg k

i d   f j

m  c f  
    c
o pp q fg 
    fl
  p
o 

i fg 


/



 

 

 

/ 


o 

Ai..j
m[i,j] = min (m[i,k] + m[k+1,j] p+i-1 pj pk

Ai..k

i<=k<j

Ak+1..j

Ai Ai+1 ... Ak Ak+1 ... Aj

?


f  



g d i f n    d i i fg

  i  pd  f g m

 f g   c d  k     g l
   c f   p
fg   d e   
k  
j q c fc f fl
g
p q m  c
 g p   f e d  
f d   d g fg  c
  k
 fg q c fc     i e  
 c
l d p
 m
q fpp g

k



d 


 o p
g  c






 



dg k

 

 

  d g f
 c f g        i e   d  f  g

c d  q
c   pk
  c d fg m

l d p




 

d 

o 

g  c
e   
   o   i e   fg
p fg
q

g

d     k fg

 c

dg k  m

 

 

q

 c f   
  

g  i
  o i d   f 
 f g

c

 k
g  
 c
p
g  c  o  c
  c d fg
fg i  p fe pf
k m  c
  c d fg 
  fl fd p m

 c
g

q

 fpk

 z

 e

  i e   fg

c

  c d fg 

o

p
g  c 


 

  




i
dg  c d

 

m  c
g d p d g  q
 f

o d   c d fg

 o p
g  c


   

e 

m

g

k 

  d    d  e   f f g

j c
g

j   f g   c
 q   k  j

fg   g k   m

    

d pf  p
 d 
o p fg 
  fg  e




j  c f

 g  o i

 

  





 

q fpp

e pd fg
k pd 
 m


c d c

d
c 

g

k



}]

} _` a } | \

` ] 

\ `

d  f fk
d f   p
d l
d
p
d k    c
i fg fi  i
   
 c
l d p
 o

       *    !     ( #   $
    & 
     #   

   $
  
      #
 $         ,  +
       
    , +   *   '
  
    
     
 #
 $     
       
  * +    , , ( ,  
   # 
 $   # 

 $  ( #   $  ( # $  ( # $
  ! %  #
 $ & 
 #
 $    #
 $   .
.
.
.
 +  '    #
 $ !     ,     &     !  ( ,           +   & .

 f i
 o  c
e   
k  
f 

     


 c
dd

 c
p  e  m

 m  fg 
q
q d g  

 m      p  e o 

   

*  

 f  
k  
  d    c
d    d p 

g 
m  c
  g g fg

 m
p p p
d l
 c f  d  d g

  f 
f g   p l f g   i  j    c

f 

p  e  j d g k
d c
\ b  

d  c

l d p
 o

 d g f
 d 
d  i   

 

d  dp 

g 

 

m


pp   q c d  i  p fe pf d  f g  

  /



g  f g m

c d l
d  p
d    q  i d   f 
 j  c d  f j fo 

 
d i e p
j   e e  

   /

 

 c d 

 c

 m



 



 

  



l d p
  k

 i fg
c  q

f p d p    c f 
    fl
e   
k  
m  c
e   
k  

   g  d i

 

 
 
 

m  c f



  

 

q c

  

 

g q

   e pf  c
   
g 



g 
m    i
 c d   c
i d   f 
 d 
   
k f g d g d   d  o i d   f 


' , !
 & 
 !    &
 +  '   " # $ +,+ 
   #
 $
 
' , !
 &

' ,  ! 
 &
+'  .
.

g   f fl
p j

 
 c

f       i  p  f e p  c
   c d f g

  
 c d  q
 g p g

k

fg q c fc q
q fpp

j d g k g d pp i  p fe p  c

 
 c
 m

e
o i

 c
d    d p i  p fe pf d  f g d p   f c i



 d g i d fg  d fg d e d  d pp
p d   d

e   l f k f g  c 
 e  f i d p  e p f  m

f d o d f p
d 

fg k f d  fg q c d   c

   e pf f j  c d  f j q c d  l d p
 o


pp    c d   c

  q d   i  p fe p  c
  c d fg
d g k  c
g i  p fe p  c
  c d fg

 fi
 m

   j d g k  c d      

d   f  m    
  

 
 






 " #  $   " # $
 " #  $   " # $
 ' ,  ( ,       + 





 

  


4
158

88

48

120

2
104

84

p0

p1

A3

g  c
 

p q
 d 

d

c   c

 fi




; < = > ? @ <

q
c q

c d fg

Final order

1
2

p4
A2

d   f
 p fe pf  d  f g

 c
 g
fl
g

i
d g fg  c d  q
d 
i  p fe p fg
 m  c
 e  fi d p 

g 
f  

I=

d g
d i e p
m  c f d p   f c i

 c f
d i e p
d g k

t G w u

p3
 

A1
f  

A4

p2


s[i,j]

A2

   

A1

m[i,j]

    



fg




d i e p
m

f   f j   f q   pk
d   k fk
d

c

m

 c


   fi



 @ D  @ w u u IG  B

A4

A3



m

< u

D I

fg f fd p 
  o k fi
g  f g 


  fi


w > ID G

w G H


 

@ Iw G

? w > ID G

JK M U OP Q R S T U V
[ \ ] ^ b 
  f g
[ \

~_ \
c

S XY Y Y Z

 m d g k

 m  o

h m

 \ \ ` } ] } _ ` b
c d l
k
   f
k k g d i f  e    d i i fg d  d i
 c  k  c d  fg l  pl


  i  e

  i e   d  f g

k
 fl
k c d l


g 
  e fg d

 o d  d p
m
 e k q g

 q
l
 j  c

    fl
o  i  pd  f g   c d  q
c d l

i d g g
 m
    c
  i e   d  f g e   

k     i  e

 g  f k
  c
o  pp q fg 
    fl
fi e p
i
g  d  f g  o  c
 c d fg i d   f i  p fe pf  d  f g d p   f c i m

    
              
    
             m

 c
 d pp

i e  
 d g k 
   g   c
l d p
 o

 d pp f

 g p   g  f k
  c
     c

m

+  
       *   !    (
  
   & 
  !     &  #
 $   +,+ 
 #
 $ 
   
       
      +  
       *    !(

 & 
 +  
       *    !(
 

 &
  !    %  #
 $ &  #
 $      .
.
 +  '    #
 $ -

 

 
 

 



     m  c
fg f fd p
  
     




  

   ,  +
 ,, ( , 

( #   $  ( # $  ( # $   ' (    + 
++

 

 +'     ,




 

  


 

  
 c d   c
 d p

q f c  c

d  pf
 l
  f g





    

   

f g   
d pp g

k
k m
 c  q

f      i d
 c
  g g
  f g

 c f l
  f g


  d fg p

 p
d 
 m

o c
e  
k  

p   i  c  fi e p
 j

d g k i  
 p 
p 

i p
  c

    fl
o  i  pd  f g  c d  q
d l
e 
l f   p o   c f e   p
i m
  j q c d  f q   g q f c  c f

 c
d g  q
 f  c
  g g fg  fi
f i  c c f c
  c d g  c

g o d   j q
q fpp 

 c d  f    g g fg  fi
f  fg



 

k
g  

 c d  f j

c

fg  

 m



q 

 fi
 o  c f

d p   f c i

 g

 d p   f c i



g 

 o i d   f
  o p
g  c

c
g

q
c d l
d 

g 
 o p
g  c

   q    d g k

c
g

 g fk




g 
 j  g
 o p
g  c

c d q
dl

o 
m

m  c f f  g d  
e  d p  p q m

 c
 q f
j q
k 
p
g  c

  g g fg

 j d g k  c
 fi
f

d pp e    f p
q d   o  e pf  fg  c

dg k

c

  c
  o p
g  c

 

] _ b

 

 







g
dpj o 

 m 

  

 



fo

 j

fo

 m

b  c
e    o f fg k    f g  g

o

fg l 
 c

    q f  c  c
  g   d g   m 

m



g 

j dg k

e   
k  

    fl
p  g
d c  g
m   q

  c
o pp q fg 
   
g 
j k
g
k o 
c dl

e pd 
k c

m p
d  p  c f f   
o 

 j  c
fg k    f g

 



c e   c
 f f  c d 

 j  fg 



o  d pp

  fg

 c f q
c d l




 



 

  




 c
   pfg
q
 fi e p f g  
k  c



 




 




 


 
 i j fg

c

 g k

pfg
q

d e e pf
k  c

fg k    f g c e   c
 f j d g k fg  c
pd   pfg
q
d e e pf
k  c
o  i  pd o   c

 i
  f 
 f
 m
c

f

 c f



i  c

q  

c dg

c

k g d i f e    d i i fg l
  f g

 

 g  d l
p

c


    fl
 d pp  g d 
d   g d p p g
d i e p
j   q fpp 

 c d   c
e   
k  
f  d pp
k 
e
d 
k p

q f c  c
 d i
d   i
g   m  c
    i  e l
  f g
l d p d 

d c
g  
d   p  g 
m

\ _ ] } _ ` b

 f e    f p
  
 d fg  c
g f
  e k  q g        
 o  c

    fl
  p  f g j q c fp

e fg  c
 d i


 f
g   o  c
    i  e l
  f g

g f 
 d pp
k m
fl
g

d l
m

e   p
i

  

f  


f  c
fk
d m
 i e  

 

 c
d g  q
 f
 j  c    c d 
c

j

dg k


 g

f  l d p
m

  
     

 g  
k

d l
j c

i d fg

q f  c  c
e   
k  
f   c d  f  
   i e  
  c
 d i

g   f
  l
 d g k  l
 m   j q
q f p p

 c f d pp q fg  c
e   
k  

  fg f fd pf

l



g

 

  
  g  f k
  c
o  g   f  g

g 

  i

    i e  

d c
g  
d   p


m m  

  i e  
k j f f g
l
 
  i e  
k m

 g 
m g
q d 

  m g 


    


dg



+  
       *   !    (
  
   & 
  !  # 
 $   
   
&  +  '    # 
 $ + ,  +   !     &  #
 $   +,+ 
 #
 $ 
   
       

 
 

 
 

k   c f f

g   f
 l d p
c d 

     


, +   +  +
       +

   ,  +
 ,, ( , 


 

  


   
+  
       *    !(

 & 

+  
       *    !(
 
 &
  !    %  #
 $ &  #
 $      -

    

   

.
.
+'

 c f l
  f g
f  g p

#
 $ -

  g  fg

 i e  
k

 

  fi
m

 g 
j dg k

o  p  e  f d  i   

c

g   f fl
p j  c f f
 d  

q  

dg k



 q
l
 j fg

  i  e

 i

fg

dg

f d q d
 



c

  i e   d  f g

dl
e d 
m

k
g
k

 a ` ~ ] ` ^

i d

  fg

o   c dl
g q

d



c

 o c

 fk
  c d  fg

j f 

d g p
f d  i   

c

    fg

c d

d

d
g
l


c
  i  e

 fi e p

g

k
k m

g   g

k
k j

c


d


 c d  i     o  c
 d p
q fpp g  
g

k
k j
 c
q c  p
 d p

e pf f p

d c dc

d dg

 d p
j   fg  c
fg k

dd j  

e d f 

 d c

 

 c d    q d  k p d e e
d    

g
d   
d e f

q f
pfg
d   p 
k    l
fg  c

d   p
 fg fg pfg

i
g  
g k  
g k m  c
pfg

i
g  

e  p  g

dg k

c

g k e  fg  

 i i  g l

m
m

d g k f 

 k


 m

d

 d pp
k

c

m

e  p  g

f

  f
 q f c

d


 g l





e  p  g j q



 c f e  p  g c d 

 fi e p
e  p  g

f  

d i



fk
 j



dg k

c d


i
g  i    pf

g  f
p

fg

q 

e  p  g 

j dg k

f

i d fi d p 




o

fg 
 f   o   i
c   k fg



c  k  m

f 

fo
l
 fg 
 f 

 k




d 
g   i d pp

Convex polygon

f 

l
f


d

pd
p
k

fg

   g 
  p  q f

j 

 k


c

 c
e pd g
fg  

n  p  g  m

j q c


c

e  p  g f   f i e p
  g     g l
j q
f g  p  k
 c

m
q fpp d    i
 c d  fg k
fg  o l
  f
 f k  g
i  k  p

fl
g q  g  g d k d 
g   fk


  k fl fk


fg 
 f  d g p

 d p  

Simple polygon


fl
g

 fi e p
e  p  g f  d fk  

q
q fpp d    i
 c d  g    c l
  f

f  m

Polygon

  d p

g   f


i     o f fg

 p q
  c d g

 d p

g   f


    g  f k
 d
 i
  f  e   p
i

d pp q
k j   o   c f e   p
i

g 

fo f k 
 g        f 
po j  c d  f j fo  c
 f k
 k  g   fg 
 
   g
d g   c


e  o    q 

  g 
   fl



 c d fg i d   f i  p fe pf d  f g j   d    d pp c d  
i d  d p
 fi fp d  f f
 m

g  c
 q  k  j q
o i

 d pp
k

o c

o   i  
f g o   i d  f  g  g c d  c f g m

fg q f c d g  i
  o k
g f f g  m
e pd g
m

f f
g
 d pp

o c

  i e  

g   f


h dc
 c dg

_] ` a ] } _ ` ~ b

 f
k f

g  o   i

d c

  i e  
 g
 d p

e  d   f
j  fg 

g   f
  o  c
 d p
fg

c d c
m 

c d e 




e   p
i  j i d g

i
i  f d  f g i d
d   k fk
d m
c


g

k
k

 +'     ,

  m

i  f d  f g f g      d pp  
k
i
c  k m

( #   $  ( # $  ( # $   ' (    + 
++

j  c
pfg

i
g 

 c


/



f d

 o c

d k k f f g d p 
 f
i
g   c d   c
fg 
 f   o

fg 
 f   o  m


 /



q  k  j
l


c  k

  k fl fk
  c

c  k

c d

f g  

o d
fg

e  p  g

 g l

fg  

e  p  g

fg 
 
  

c

 f
d    

 c d    c d 
  o c   k    k fl fk
  c
fg 
 f   o

 c
e  p  g f g   d   p p
  f  g  o   f d g p
 q f  c e d f  q f 
k f   f g  f g 
 f     d g k c
g 
 c
g d i


 

  


 m

 f g   c d  k

e  p  g   g  f    o



e l

z c  k  d g k

fg k    f g   c d 
l


    

  fd g  pd  f g  o d g

   

fk
k

   fd g p
 m

  fd g  pd  f g  d 
 o fg 

  o  d g  i
  o 
d   g  m
d g
 i
  f d p   f c i

 e
d

   k
  i e   fg d   i e p
e  p  g d p  c d e
fg     fd g p
 m  c
g d g d p   f c i

 d g
d e e pf
k

  fd g p

q c  
l
f


  fd g p
m

g
c

 o  c
  fd g  pd  f g  

d 
 c
  fd g p
 j d g k fg

q c fc

c  k m

k  dp de c


l

c d c

q  l
f
 c d 

f d o

d de c

d  f k
fo  c
 q    f d g p
  c d 
d   i i  g



m

g 

d p   f c i  o    d l
  fg





dg

 
k o    d l
  fg  c
  fd g p
  o d   fd g  pd  f g m
g
g
 d p j fl
g d   g l
e  p  g j  c

d 
i d g e    f p
  fd g  pd  f g  m
f
e  g
g  fd p fg

j  c
g  i
  o  fk
 m c fc   fd g  pd  f g f  c



g od  j c
g  i



 c

d
i dg

  f
 fd  c d  d 
 
k k
e
g k fg  g  c
d e e pf d  f g m g
  f
 f g f   fi d fg
 c d    i   


e d

o   c
fg    
fg k  d q fg  c
  fd g  pd  f g j d g k   q d g    i fg fi f
 c
d i   g 

 o fg    
m  c f  
    c
o pp q fg fg 

  fg e   p
i

_` _

\ _a | }

\

 a `

} _] ` a ] } _ ` b

  f d g  p d  f g  c d  i fg fi f
  c
  i

A triangulation

fl
g  c 

k f  fg   l
  f


q
f c  o g   f g

f  
 z


q c




\ ~

 / 

` ^ \ `

/


_` ]

  fd g  pd  f g  m

 / 

 o  c

/ 
 /

d     fd 
k   fd g p
 c




\ \ ~ b g

e pd g d  f g
c fg k  c
 fi fpd  f  o   fd g  pd  f g  d g k

 c
 c
 c d fg i d   f i  p fe pf  d  f g d p   f c i
  fg d   

 m

The dual tree

j q
k
g
c

k
g  
  c
p
g  c  o  c
pfg

i
g 

\ }

fl
g d   g l
e  p  g k

 i fg
 c

 o  c
e
 fi

   o f    fd g p
 m

Another triangulation


f    
 l
 c d    c d 
o g k d i
g  d pp 
pd 
k

g  c
 d 
 o  c
 c d fg i d   f i  p fe pf  d  f g j  c
d     f d 
k fg d   

f  c

l d p d  f g  

o   c
i  p fe pf d  f g j q c

 c
p
d l
  o  c
 

   
 e  g k    c
i d   f
 j
d g k
d c
  

g  k
 o  c
 

f d     fd 
k q f c

c d c






d e  k    o d 

g 
 o q    i  
i d f
 m

f d  fi fpd     
 e  g k
g 



c

j  g fk
 d g

j d g k  g
 fk
 o  c
e  p  g  d

 

q c  
    g  k
f  c
  fd g p
  g  d fg fg  fk

m  q

   fk
k

 g l

e  p  g

  g  fk
 d    
k fg d 

j q c  
fg 
 g d p g  k
 d 
 c
g  k


 o  c
k  d p  

j d g k q c  
p
d l
    
 e  g k    c

i d fg fg  fk
  o  c
 

m 
 l
 c d 
e d   f f g fg  c
e  p  g

fg  

l
d m

fg

 c f f fpp    d 
k

  fd g p
 f
 fl d p
g   

 c
 

p q m

fg 
 g d p g  k
 o  c
 

d g k
l

  d   fg  fk

d fg d   

  
c d
l


q f c

p
d l
 j d g k

  fd g p
f d     fd 
k

l f

q f c

dg

k
 o  c
  f fg d p e  p  g j

e  o   c
k f  fg  f c
k

j f d     fd 
k q f c

d p
d o g  k
 o  c
 

m

g 
  

 c f   g g
  f g m  c
g  c
o pp q fg q   
 l d  f g  o pp q
d  fp m 
 l
 c d 
 c
d     fd 
k fg d   

c d 
fg 
 g d p g  k
 m

 fg 

d c

p
d l
 j d g k c
g 
   d g k d  k 
  p   g fg d   

 

fg 
 g d p g  k
  c
  c d g

c

   c d  g

k

g 
 fg

f j  c



 

  


root
v11
v0

A1
A2
v2

root

A11
v10

v1

A3
v3

v7 A8

A5 v
5

v6

A6

d

` ] _

k

q

g

c

 e  fi  i

  fd g  pd  f g  d g k  

       
m

 c
fg 
 g d p g  k
 m

d c

fg 
 g d p g  k

 } _ ` b

    g fk
 d g 

  p  f g m

 

j k
g





c
  

q f p p 

 c f 
p  q m

d   fi fpd  d  e    f p


l

 c
q
f c   o  c
i fg fi  i



 c d  fo q
 d g

c

 


 c
pfg

i
g 








 









c

j q c


 
 m

q
f c 

 c d  q
  d   q f c

o c



  fk
k e  p  g

 

j

k
 fl

i fg fi  i

dc
 c dg





 c d fg i d   f i  p fe pf  d  f g e   p
i m

g
g
dpj   i e  

f

dg k  j c
g

    m

 

  j fi e p fg  c d 
  g  fk
  c
  e  p  g

 c   k   o  c f  e  p  g f   c
 f k

g
o c

j d    i fg  c d   c
c   k

q
f c    fd g  pd  f g  o  c

g  f
e  p  g q fpp

q c fc q
d g

  i e  
 c f  d g  f o  d pp   c

 d d  f  d 
j q
k
g
 c
q
f c   o  c
  fl fd p

f d p
d k e 

g  fg  c
  fd g  pd  f g m  c

d   g


e

   fk
k e  p  g 

o  i  pd  f g q
g

k   k
g
d 
  o   e   p
i  o  i

q
f c    f d g  p d  f  g o    c
  e  p  g



   
 e  g k     g
  fd g p
j

fg 
 g d p g  k
    
 e  g k     g
c   k  o  c
  fd g  pd  f g m

a ] _` a

  k
 fl
d

A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11

f  


k

q

g

d g k
d c

vk

A7


vi-1

v8
v4

   

vj

A10
v9
A9

A4

    



m

i d  e p f   c f    e  p  g f g    k   f g d   f d g p
q c  
d 
f   c f   c   k j d g k q c  
 c f  k
l
 
f d g l
 


 


m

 

dg k
g

j q c


 /


qc  

  

c d

q
f c   d 

d p
d k

g q g

d k k f f g q
 c   pk   g  fk
  c
q
f c   o  c
g
q p

 c   j q
c d l
 c
o pp q fg 
    fl
  p

 m  c f   k fl fk
  c
e  p  g fg    c
  e  p  g 

i fg fi  i

 

 c f

 

fo



/ 

c d 
d   p

c

di



d


i fg



d k k
k   fd g p



 

  

i d   f i  p fe pf  d  f g d p   f c i m  c
 d i

d




c




    fl



fo

k
g f f g

 d p   f c i

dg

C D H IG










dg k
m

 
k

d e e pf
k q f c

fg

c

c d fg

 g p i fg  

c d g
 m

; < = > ? @ <

JK L M N OP Q R S T U V
[ \ ] ^ b 
  f g

\ \ ^

@ < < H t

s 

D @ I>  u

E B

w G

S XY Y Y Z

mz f g

a _} | ~ b

h m
g i d g  e  fi f d  f g d p   f c i  d 
 f
  o 
p
  f g  g

k  
i d k
m

k g d i f e    d i i fg q
 d q

 g
q d   i d
 c


p
  f g  m  d i
p j  c
 e  fi d p   p  f g


 

  


f k
   f
k fg d 
    fl
i d g g
 j d g k  c
g f   i e  
k
f

e  q
o p 
c g f 
j  

f

o
g

 fi
 m   k d q
q fpp   g  fk
 d g

p
d k 



  i  e

d p   f c i  q f c

d p
 g d  fl
k
 f g


c g f 
j  d pp
k

   

g d i f  e    d i i fg

c f c


    

c dg

k
 f
k

  g g fg

m  c f

i
 c  k  e f d pp p
d k     fi e p
 d g k o d  
 d p   f c i  j   f f g   d  e  q
o p   d  q fk
p
d e e pf d p

  pl
k

d  k g d i f e    d i i fg m



k

d p   f c i  m

d


fg

q fpp fl

d e e p f
k   d g  i
  o  d e c e   p
i  d  q
p p m
c

 e  fi d p   p  f g j  c

o
g

 i

c

i

 j q

d i e p
  o e   p
i   c d 

dg

q fpp 

dg

 c d   c f 
c g f 

l
g q c
g 

k d p   f c i  k  g   e   k  

e   l fk
o d   c
  f  f 

g  g  e  fi d p   p  f g

   d 
f
  j d 

d 
 o
g  
k fg g k fg   k d e e   fi d  f g  m


] `

^ \ ~ b

 i dg

 k
 e  l fk

d i
c  k

 o
g   k fg

c d  d  
  d 
  k
k   fg   d g k d  k   k
 pf

p
g  c

f  f l


 o f 

d




m m


d

f  e
 c d  d  
  m

   fg

 e

fg  

k d  d
 f
g  p m

f
k p
g  c

 k


 c
e
  e
  fl
 o i fg fi f fg  c
   d p  d g  f  o k d  d m

 g fk


o pp q fg

c

d i e p
m

c dd 

f
k

g c

   fg

 c

 k
q  k
d

  e e  



c d

 



 

q   pk

d 


fg k fl fk  d p

q

q dg 



g  k

   fg 

l


c

 d  c


m
   pk  
 c
o pp q fg
k p
g  c

 

d d k d d d 



 q
l
 j
k p
g  c   k
 i d g  
 c
i   

 f
g  o  i

pfi f
k   c d  d  
 d pe c d


d 
e  e  pd  j
d  

f  fg k fl fk  d p c d  d  
  j d g k

c d  d  
  d g k      fg  k f
  fg k
fg m

   i d pp q c
g

j
d c c d  d  
 f 
e 

g 
k d
k

g  k
k


e pd  fg

d c

 o f 

 k

c d d 


c

   
 e  g k fg fg d    k
q   k m
d

 

 

 



 

 

 



 



 c
g d p   c d  d  
 fg d     fg q   pk

 q j  e e  

e   d fpf f


c d

 

g
q

c


pd  fl

             
o

c d d 


i f c  c d e e
g d g d p fg i d g    fg   l
 d p g e
 f k  o  fi
m
  i e 
  f g j q c


c

d 

 

o

g  f


k f

g  p m

q dg 

o



g  p



g  k

 g

d pp  c

 c d  d  
  m

     fg

c d d 


c d  d  
  d 

g   k
k   fg i  
f  m

p
j  
 
d

dg

dg

 

 

 c f

g  k
k

dg

  fg

fg

d k ldg 
m

 c f

d e e pf d  f g  pf
k d  d

c

p

dg k

g  q p
k



o
q


dg k

f 

k

 i fg

g  k

p
 

   fg 

o

g 

 
d i e p
j   e e  
 c d  c d  d  
  d 

e
 
k  

     q f c  c
o pp q fg e   d fpf f
 m
   pk k
 f g

q c fc q   pk k 

d

  m
c dd 

n   d fpf


d  fd p

 m 

 m

 mz 

 m

 



  

g c  k
q  k

   f
 c d   c

f g  
 f
i
g   c d   c
d pe c d
 f d p   k
  o c d  d  
    
 e  g k   d g
     o   k
 fg d e e pf
k    c
  k
q   k  m   q j  c
 d i
   fg q   pk

g   k
k d  o pp q  m
d

 



  





 c   j  c

  p fg 

c d  d  
    fg q   pk

           

d  d l fg   o z c d  d  
  j

  fg  c f d p
 g d  fl
  k
m

e

k

 o p
g  c

 d l fg  o  d    fg

g  k
k

   fg

f   

g  k
k

c d d 


 c
f      
g 
 m

f

f  m

 dp 

 c

c

e

k

  c

  c

o

m  c   j q
c d l
d c f
l
k

 f
k p
g  c

l d  fd p
p
g  c

 i

 

g
 d pp j q c d  q   pk
 c

 k

p
g  c 

g  k
k

   fg

p
g  c

 k
j c

 fi
  c

f   

  k
j  c
p
g  c

e

k

p
g  c


 e
  fl

 fi
  c

o c

 o d  fg p

e   d fpf f


e

k

c d  d  
 p
g  c m

 

 

 z 

 

z 

z 

 

 

 

  

o

g  k
k


 

  


 c   j  c f q   pk 
e 

g 
 c


  f g

c d

q

d 

 d l fg  fg
e
 
k

q fpp   g  fk


 k d

e   d fpf f
  o c d  d  
      
g 


 



^ \ ~ b

f

   

g   k fg p
g  c m



o i

c



  k
j d    i fg

c d c

d
g q g m

g
f   
 c d  q
k f k g    g  f k
 f g  c

d i e p
d  l
f  q c
 c
 q
q f p p
d p

 c
   fg j  g 

g   k
k m

d

fg  
d k  o   k fg  c
c d  d  

f d i f     m

 i f c 

g o d   j  c f   k
q d  c  
g



p
g  c
g

c dl
c
e  e


 f
 d 
o pp m   e e  
 c d 

d   j q
c d k
g   k
k f d   m   q j  c

g   k
k    fg

d g k f i f c 

  i f c   
   c d  q
d k k 
e d  d  f g
q fpp 
g k

c q

    

d d d

q

i d 

q

g

 c

g   k fg j q c fc

  

 d g q
d l  fk  c f      o d i f  f

f  g k
 f d p
m

c

g  k
k

g  
d k j q
q   pk pf
 c

 k


 c d  f  d g
 g f 
p k
  k
k m

  
 c d  fg   c  c
l d  fd p
p
g  c   k
 fl
g fg  c

d i e p
d  l
g    k
q   k f d
 o d g   c
 m  c f    g      
 c

 

d   i i  g e 
j
m m

e  e
 m

 

   dg k

o dg  c
 j c
g


 j c
g q
g q

d   g


 l
 c d  fo  q 

    j c
g

q c
c
 c
 c d d 
  o c

g  k
k

e 

c d  d  
  j    c f

q c
g

i
  d
f

d q


 k
q  k

q


 

   



c q

 g l
 
p j fo g 

d e e
d  fg

 k
q  k  k fk c d 

d d e 

k  q
g q

  k
q   k f d
fg

c

g  k
k

 c d  q
i d k
  k
 c f q f c    o
d   o f i d  c fg   i
p g
   k
q   k m

 c   q
c d l
 c
o pp q fg k
g f f g m

 

^ \ b g

d   f g i
g   o   k
q   k   

c d d 
 

c d g 

 k
q  k

f d e 

o

dg  c
 m

 l
 c d  d g fg d  e 
  k fg  d g
k
   f
k d fg d   

fg q c fc  c
  k
q   k 
d 
 c
p
d l
  o  c
 

j d g k q c


 c

 k

fl
g

d  pf
 f  c  q g

fg

d p
o  d g c

i
dg 

 c
o pp q fg  
m

k
e  c fg  c
 

m  c
  k
fl
g
d  pf
 f d e 

dg k

d  f c   d g c

 c
p
g  c

i
dg 

o d  k
q  k

 m

f    f 

  k
j d g k f     
 e  g k fg  

f  c  q g

fg  c
o pp q fg  
m

a
0

  k fg

e 

 k

f

0
c
10

b
110

f  


 fi e p
m

d
111

n 

 

 k
 m

dl


c



o i

  



p
d o j p
  fg

c

fg e   c d  d  
 
pp   q c fc  d g c    d
m g 
d c fg d p
d o j q
   e    c
   
 e  g k fg
c d d 
 j d g k 
 g



}\ ^

\ `

^ _` a \ ` a } | b g 

k

 i fg

c d d 


   c
        g  fg 
 c
e   
  m

c

 i
e 

   d p p
g  c

j dg k


p


 

o

q

g q

c

c

g  k
k

e   d fpf f
  o  c

l d  f  


 

c


 m

 k
g  
 c
p
g  c

o c

k
g  

 k
q  k

k
e c

fg

c d d 
 j q

e   d fpf

 c
 

 
pd  fl
 

m  c

e
 
k g  i
  o f  g

k
k  
g   k
d 
 q f c

fl
g fg  c
o pp q fg o  i  pd

 


 c f  
    c
o pp q fg e   p
i

z 

   

dg

 o 

fg

c d  d  
  f


 

  


} _ ] 

^ \

\ ` \ ] } _ ` b

o 
d c c d d 


 c

g   k
k f    fg j

fl
g d g

d g k  c
e   d fpf f

   o      
g 

 k

o  g k fg   c d   k
m

d g k f  d pp
k d 

 c d  i fg fi f
  c

e
 
k p
g  c  o

 
d i e p
j q
   pk c d l
  i e p
i
g 
k d pp  o  c

  
d  pf
   k
q f c    d p
 fg  c

e
 
k

 fi e p
d p   f c i

g  k
k

   fg

 q d  fg l
g 
k fg  c
i fk 

m   c
q d j  c f   k
f  
k

dg k i dg  c
 d
d
k  g

] `

~

a _} | b

 

 
d i e p

q c fc c
g 
e pd 


c
 i

o

dg k

d pe c d
 j q c fc

o 

dg k

dg k

j dg k

i


 c
d p   f c i m h
 d pp  c d  q
d 
fl
g  c

fg   d  fg p

 c
p
d o p
l
p m

 d pp
k

q fpp c d l
d e   d fpf
 d p  

 e   d fpf f
 m  c
g q
  g  fg 

    fl
p  fpk fg  c
  k
 g  c
g
q

c d   g
o
q
 c d d 
 m

c
g

 c
g

c

 

o 

 c
e   
  f   i e p

k j q
g  q

    c f   k
q   k j fl
g     o 

g   c
 q d    c fg  o  c f j f  c d  q
i


 d pp
k

c
i

fg  c
d pe c d
 m  c
c d  d  


j d   m  c
g j q
de e
g k d  dg k

g  k

 i dg j

   o  p

j       j   

m

     
g 
e   d fpf f
 o   c
c d  d  
  m
d 
 fg  fpk  c
 

 e o  i

q fpp  d
q  c d  d  
 

dl fk

  fpf

d i  
  e c f  f d 
k i
 c  k  d pp
k  c



f  c
fg   f f g
c fg k

p
g  c m  c

f d l


 c
 g f

  i e 
  f g m  c

d 

 
   i e 
  f g i
 c  k  c  q
l
 m

   

  m

  
 c d   c
 e  fi d p   k
f g    g f 
m
f  fg

d pe c d


j  i e  
d e 

    

dg k


e pd 


dg k

c
 k

dg k    o 

d   c
p
o d g k  f c  c fpk 
g  o d    

fg

c

pf   o c d  d  
  m


e
d

 c f e   
   g  fp  g p  g
  e
 c d  d  
 
i d fg  m  c

  p fg  

f  c
g d p e 
 

m
 fg 

dg k

q fpp d e e
d 

d c

  i

o c

 

j f 

i

c d  d  
  q f c  c
 i d pp
  e   d fpf f
   e
o  i

d p   f c i m

d c c d d 


 i d g  d p   f  c i

   fi
j d g k q
 d g

d g
q

d c

p
i
g  fg


   f g

f fl
g

p q m



p

  d    c

p
i
g  q f c  c
 i d pp
 
fg

g f fd pp j  c
c d  d 

m h
 d pp  c d   c f k d  d        
 d g
 fp fg f fd pp fg

  fi
m  c

   fg

d
 
k

 o  c
o  p  e j  c
g  i
  o f
i  fg

c

p

  fi
d g k fg 
 

e   d fpf m   
 c d  q f c




k

d


 g
m

'      !    
 *      +   #   $ & 
     
  
   +    +    ,   + +    +  , +       +      
  ! &     *     +      
  ! &  (  
  (    (       +   ! & .
 +'  * + ,   + , + +  , +   

 

(   

 

+

 

 

 

' +' +

 c d  k f
  o   i
f
 d p  




f

 

c
 g
 g  
k

+

 

  

 

(

, 

,,+ (

,  +

(    ,   '    
  +      (    ' +' +

* +  -

 


h
 d pp  c d   c
   

      m   d e e   d c q fpp
   c  q  c d  d g  

 i d g  d p   f  c i

 i d g   

q f  c    f g  
d  f g f       m
j i
d g fg  c d 
l


 * + 

} ` \ ~ ~ b  c
f 
  f g  c d  
i d fg  f q c f  c f d p   f c i

 o d g
g   k fg  

  j do


 k


m
 

q 

 f
 d  f g  j  c

f
d   p  g

p
i
g  p
o fg  c


j d g k  c f f  c
     o  c
g d p

e 

c

 i d g 

k
g  
c

  o c d d 
 m

f d     fd 
k q f c d      
g 
e   d fpf


  d 
d pp    
k fg d


p
 

 f fpp    d 
k fg  c
o pp q fg  
m

 c
e 
 k   k
o 

i    p f d p  

 c
 e
 d  f g  g m  c

  p f

dg

fg 
 g d p g  k
c d 
d   p

z 

 g l

k

f   j  
 l
 c d   c

q 

c fpk 
g m

fg    g
 c d 
 i d g  

f
 q   pk g
l



 

  


smallest
a: 05

b: 48

c: 07

d: 17

e: 10

f: 13
smallest

12

b: 48

a: 05

d: 17

e: 10

f: 13

c: 07
smallest
22

d: 17

b: 48

12

f: 13

e: 10

a: 05

c: 07
smallest
22

b: 48

12

e: 10

a: 05

30
d: 17

f: 13

c: 07
smallest
b: 48

52
22

30

12

e: 10

a: 05

d: 17

f: 13

c: 07
Final Tree
0
0
0
0

b: 48
1

0
e: 10
001

a: 05
0000

d: 17
010

c: 07
0001


f  

 i d g  p   f  c i m

z z

1
f: 13
011

    

   


 

  


e d  c dl
dg

fg 
 g d p g  k
q f c

 g p  g
c fpk

 fg 
  c

    

   

d g  k
   pk
k
p

k  j   q

i d pfi f   g  fk
 d  f g   o pp fg d   

 m


] _ b  g fk
 c
q 

c d d 
 j

dg k

q f c

 c
 i d pp
  e   d fpf f
 m  c
g

d g  e  fi d p   k
 

fg q c fc  c

q  c d  d  
  d 
 f pfg  d   c
i d fi  i

 c

f
k
e  c fg

c


m



k
e c

d g  e  fi d p e 

  k
 

j d g k p


dg k

q   f pfg  d   c
i d fi  i

 o  c
 

m    i
q f c    p    o
g
 d pf  c d 
 

 c f f g     
j  c
g 
g d i
 c

c d  d  
   m   q j  fg 

e   d fpf f
 f o pp q   c d 
 

 d p m 
d  

  



 q

 q f c




        j
 d g k  fg  c
 

 dg k

 c
e   f f g   o

  fo

c d l
 c
q   i d pp
 

   c
i d

 d p d g k
 

c d

  i d

    

 dg k

d g k c
g 
 c
f e   k   
j 
  p fg fg

d g
q



q f c

m  c f f fpp    d 
k fg  c
o pp q fg  
m

b
c

y
c


  

c  q

f  

 
g
 o



f

 


  

 

       
     

 


  

 

   
 

 





  

d 

 c    c
    k 
 g   fg  
d 
j fi e p fg  c d 
q

 d g
q

 i d g  p   f  c i m

c
  c d g
 m  c
   o

d 
d   c
k

e
  p
l
p  o  c
 

q
g  q

 m  c   j q
c dl



f g  g g
d  fl
m

dg k

 d g k
 

dg k



q c fc

  




  



 

  



 m

f d g  e  fi d p  

m   q f c fg

d  fi fpd  d   i
g  f d p   e  fi d p m  c
g d p  



 d  f
  c
  d 
i
g   o  c
 pd fi m
 c
d l
c
 
i

d
 c d c
 
e

o

 i d g  d p   f  c i

 g
  e
o  i m  c
  i e p

e    o  o    
  g
  o 
 g

f
 
g  fd pp  c
e   e


 i d g  d p   f  c i o  p p  q  f g k    f  g

 fg 
q f c
d c  
e j q

pfi fg d 

d   p  g
c d  d  
  m

] _ b

 i d g  d p   f  c i

e   k  
  c
 e  fi d p e 

b  c
e    o f fg k    f g

 g

 k


m

j c
g  i
  o c d d 
 m

   c
d  f  d 
j

 j

 c
 

  g  f    o d  fg p
p
d o g  k
j q c fc f  l f   p  e  fi d p m
   i
fg k    fl
p
 ddg 

k



c d d 
 m

  e e  

i d

c d q c
g

e  k  

d    i
 c d  fg

c

q
c dl

c

q fpp
 f pfg  d   c

g
q

c d d 


 g fk

 g l


dg
f fg  

   f  p o
q
  c d g

 e  fi d p  

m

d   p

 e  fi d p  

j  c

 k

e 



 k



q 

o 

c

c d d 
 j


c q

 c

c d d 


 c f



 pd fi

q f c

d





o

  f fg d p 


o

j 
e pd  fg




f

d   p

 o p q
  e   d fpf

  m  c  
g
q

f

e 
l f  

 i d g  d p   f  c i

f

dg k

h
i l

 

i d k
q f c

q dg 

c d d 
 m

p q
  p
l
p  o  c
 

m

q c  
e   d fpf f
 

e 

c
i

c d

q

dg k

q f c

 c d  d  
  
i d fg m


c d d 
 m

c d d 


dg

 g k  fg

c


 

  


e 
l f    e
 d  f g d g k 
e pd  fg

m  c
  o c
g
q

 fg 
 c
c d g
fg

 


  

 

 


  

 

 

> ID G w 

  

JK M U OP Q R S

} _ _}
q

| \ ^ _` a b

   

   

m f g

   

 

g  q d

 g

D @ I>  u

E B

   


  

   

  

dg k d

 f o 






c
  

 i d g  d p   f  c i

c q
k

i  

d i e p
 m

  

 g

o c


j   i fg fi f

 c d  d  
   e  fi d pp m 

k 
 m  c    c
g d p  

f  e  fi d p m

s = > I

 g


k

 c


 fi

f

d 


 i

  
j q c


d c

 
d 
e d f o d  fpf q c fp
 c


d 

c


p
   


dg g  

x < < = > ID G

I> t

f

 g p

d

 g

fl
g

w G H

@ w =

c d  q 

 l
pd e j c d 



o

 i d g  d p   f  c i m

dg k

f f

  k d
d

l


  c d  d 
 

i  
d
k

d  d fl
g

  d    fi




  e fg d k l d g 
j   

   o   d    

d 
fg e    m

c

di

 i

  i

d   fl f f


      /

f

 
d i e p
j  c

i f c 
p
   
  c d  d 
 
fl
g


  
j dg k
fg

d p   f c i j
 d pp
k

d   fl f

d

dg k 


/

d

dg k

c

di

g f c

 fi
 i d

 fi
 j g  

 l
pd e

d pp  c

d g k





 fo  c
f    d   g f  c

d

i d fi  i  f

  o i    d pp g  g fg 
o
 fg
c


fg d p
   
c d pp j q c

 c
p
   
 fi
 c d l


g

g  

f o 

h m

d    fi
q

   e p

d g k
g k  d  d fl
g g f c

k 



j q
g

k    fpk  c
 

 fi e p
 c
k  pfg e   p
i m
d 
fl
g

c  g  
k m

S XY Y Y Z

 g fk


 c
k  p
k

d k k fg d

m d g k

s 

@ < < H t

G w v w =

[ \ ] ^ b 
  f g


  

    k
e
g k  fg

fg k    f g j  c f
d   p q c d 

dg k

   

 

f

c
  o c
g dp 

; < = > ? @ <

q f c

    

 c

d   fl f f
 o   

d 
i d g   c
   f
 fd  c d  q
i f c  c d l
  g  fk

k

fg  
d k m

fg 
 l d p

f  

o c

  
m

q 

dg


p
 

  f

c d

 
d i e p
j q
i f c 

q d g    i d f i f
 c
   d p   f p f d  f  g  f i
o    c
o d  f p f  j f g  
d k m
  c q

k  q
 c
k  p
 c
pd 
  g  i
  o d   fl f f
  g  c

    

pf
p g d   fl f f
 j
 d  
 c
    e  c

    
d g k

e   o  i
 c f  
    c
o pp q fg 

k    d 



  

dg k

 c
k  p

d   fl f f
 m  c f    g


f j e   l fk
k

 c d  f

g   f fl
p j q
k  g  


e
d 
k 
p
   c
 q f c  c
 i d pp
  k   d  f g

k 


g   fg 
o


    
g  g  e  fi d p m 

n   p
i


f d  fi e p


k d p   f c i

c  g   fg   c
 

   m

q f c

dg

m z fg

e 
l f   p

 c
k  p
k

h m

 c d  k 
 q   m  c
fg   f f g f  c
 d i
m  fg 
q
k  g  

pf
   c d   d
d p g  fi
j p
   
p
   c


 c d  g f c
    d g k  c
k  p
f m  c
g j

d i  g d pp    c d  k  g   fg 
o

q f c  c f     j q
 c
k  p
 c
 g
 c d  g f c
    j
d g k    g m

fg d    i fg  c d   c
d   fl f f
 c d l
d pp
   
k g f c  fi
 j    c d 

d g k  o   
c





 d 
   
k fg e d  d pp
p m  c
e 
 k    k
f e 

g 
k
p q j d g k d    i


 c d   c f     fg c d  d p
d k

g
l d  fd p

c  pk   c
fg k

k  g
m  c
   e   f  c
pf 

 o  c
i    

g  p  c
k  p
k

k

 i fg
fg 
o

g 
 m

 o  c
k  p
k

d   fl f

d   fl f f
 m  c

d  d g  fi
j fg

 k
 


 

  


    

 





 

* +  ' , + !    
    #   $
    #   $ & 
   +    '  +  #   $    ,  +       + 
"  %
- (+ 
      
  !  #  $
  #(  +  $ & 
( ( +     " (+   .
.
+' " -

 f  p
d   c d   c
d p   f c i

 

 

* +' ,+

  

Input:

 

 p

d   fl f f  c d   o

 m  c
 

p q

1
2
3

3
4

4
5

5
6

6
7

7
8

Add 7:

Add 4:
1

1
2

2
3

3
4

4
5

5
6

6
7

7
8

Add 1:

  





  

f  f
 fi e p
d g k
 f
g  m  c
i        p

    +  + +  +
 * +  ' , +   +  

 

    fg  c
d   fl f f
 g f c  fi
j    c
   d p   g g fg  fi
f
 c  q  d g
d i e p
m  c
g d p    e   q   pk

   

}` \ ~~ b  

e  o

o

f  

 
g


f

  fl f  c
k  p
 m

d
k

 g

 c  q fg

c d

c

d p   f c i

f  c

  e    f p
j d g k  c
g   fg fg k    f g    c  q

 e  fi d p m

 c

e    o         

d 
k  g c
d i
fk
d

c q

f

g  
q  c j
d 

i dg



c  f

i d k

 c d   c
d p   f c i


k

 
g


c

f p d pp
e  o

d

 c d  d g   c
   p  f g  d g
  g l
 
k fg    c


k   p  f g

q f c    fg  
d  fg f      m


] _ b



 fi
 m  c
g



 c
g



d 
  o d   fl f f
  
 c
k  p
k j    
k fg  
d  fg g f c

 c

f d g  e  fi d p  c
k  p
fg q c fc

d g  e  fi d p  c
k  p
m
q

d
k  g
m



 c
d   fl f fg

 c
 q f
j q
o  i

d   fl f

d g
q

 f  c
k  p
k    m
q f c  c
 i d pp
  g f c  fi
m

 c
k  p


e pd  fg

q f c


 

  


d   fl f

 m
 pd fi

 c d   c f  f  d o
d  f p
  c
k  p
 f m
m j f  c d  g  f g 
 o
 f g

 

 c f f
 d  

 

d   fl f f
 fg

d  pf
 g f c

m  c   j

] _ b  c


k

d p   f c i

dg k

dg

o c

  g  d fg  c
 d i

fl
 d g  e  fi d p   p  f g    c
d   fl f  c
k  pfg e   p
i m

d p   f c i

o 

d p   f c i

f  e  fi d p  g

  j d g k q
e   l
 c

  p  o  

 o d   fl f f
  c d  k  g   fg 
o

q f c

  p  f g

   c
d  f  d 
j fo  c

d 

f   fl fd pp  e  fi d p m

   c
fg k    f g  
e j p
   d    i
 c d   c


k

dg

f d p   e  fi d p m

d   fl f f
  o  f
   f  p  i d pp
  c d g

c d

d   fl f f
  m

g f c
 j  fg 

  f  d g g   fg 
o

q f c

b  c
e    o f fg k    f g  g  c
g  i
  o d   fl f f
 m


l

   

m  fg 
 f k
g f f g  c
   d   fl f

j dg k

f d o
d  f p
 c
k  p
m p
d  p

g  d   fl f f
 j  c
g  c


k


 fi
 c d g

g  i
  o d   fl f f
 j fi e p fg  c d 

 d g g   c d l
d g   c
 d   fl f f
  c d    d  
o 

  c
 q f
 c

d   fl f f
 q   pk fg 
o

q f c
  g f c j f c d  d g

    

dg

d   fl f






dg 
 o

c



 m  c d  f

   

i d k
fg  

  p  f g

o 

 fi e p

d k k fg

d   fl f  j d g k l f
l
  d m  fg 
 f fg  c
 e  fi d p  c
k  p
  c
d  l
 pd fi  j f o pp q 
c d 

e  k  

dg k c
g

dg

 e  fi d p   p  f g o   c
 l
 d pp e   p
i j q
 c   pk     c
k  p

d e e
g k  c
 e  fi d p  c
k  p
o 

d   p q c d   c


k
]

} _ ` ] 

` ]

e   p
i m

~]

d p   f c i

\ b  c

 c f
o f   fg

m    fg k    f g



 fg 

  j  c f  f 

k 
 m


 

pd fd p

d  
j dg k g k 

f
i  q c fc

dg

f d o d i     e  fi f d  f g

d
g m

 c

c

f
i

f


q
f c 


 e   g k  j q c

 d g k
 d 
fg 

  m 
q d g      d
d 
l d p d p
d p d k d  e    f p
j   c d  d g d e  d   c d   d g  g p  d       d p e   g k  m c fc
q  c

k  ppd  

dg k

f
i   c   pk c
 d

p
o      d
g

 c

d   g

   fg f
g  f
 m

 c d   c f f  d pp
k   g d e  d  f  c d 
d c
 f g   e    f p
   d
e d    o d g f
i

 o d g f 
i m  c f   e  f i f d  f  g e   p
i

f
i

i  

  i  p fe p
  e f


d  f
 fg fg k     fd p e d  fg d e e pf d  f g  m

 
d i e p
j

  i d q d g     c fe   i
  
  o f
i   g d      o pfi f
k  d e d  f m
g

  g   d   j fg  c

d pp q
k    d
d g

 o d g f
i

c

 e

f
d   p  c
 d i
j    c
 c f
o f

o  d o d   f g  o  c
q
f c  d g k d o d   f g  o  c
l d p
m

  j   i f c   c fg  o
d c 
  d 
fg d  d   o  pk j q c fc    d g e d   fd pp
i e    

o 
 d fg m
 c
  g d e  d  e   p
i
c d c



 f
g 

e   d p



k

f c d  k     pl
j d g k fg o d   f f d g  n   i e p

e   p
i

k 
 g 
f   d g

d p   f c i

o  c

 f
g    p  f g  m

o d   f g d p g d e  d 

 q
l
 j  c

f d l


e   p
i m

o  c
f
i
e d 
m

  j q
 d
f d pp m    i
e  fg   c

f d g f
i

d

d  i  c

 o  c f f
i







m
     c
f
i  fg k
 
d  fg   k
  o




j dg k d k k c
i

i
d g fg

 fi e p
d g k
k
g  

c

fg  c f   k
 m

 c d  k 
 g    fg  c

i d fg fg

d  e    f p
j  c   ppfg

c

g d e d 

g  f
p m

 c f f

fpp    d 
k fg  c
 

p q m
 f
d    

 c d   c


k d p   f c i
q f c

d  

 o  pk j  fpl
 j d g k

f  e  fi d p o   c
o d   f g d p e   p
i m

 g
j  

q   pk

 l f   p

d

d

i  c

 pk

fl
g d    i
d  e    f p
j

 c
g  d
d  i  c  fpl
 d  e    f p
j d g k  c
g d  i  c   g
d  e    f p
m    f q   pk g
l


g
      d
d pf  p
p
   pk    c d       pk 
e pd 
f q f c d g
 d p l  p i
 o   g
m
  dg

d p  

q c  c


k

d i e p
 c  q g

fg

c
 
m

 c
f
i   o q
f c  j  c
g

  p
o   c
f
i
g

c

d p   f c i

o  

q


  j dg k c
g

i d g  
 e  fi d p fg  c
   d 
m  g  fk
  c



  c

 o q
f c  z  j o  d    d p l d p
 o

  c
 c d g k j fo  

c d k

g

z

p
  

k j d g k

c
g

 

q   pk  d

 o q
f c    k 
 g       q   pk


 



f g  
k  c

   pk  d
 c
f
i   o q
f c     d g k   o  d    d p l d p
 o

j

f
i 

 fg 
 c
f
i

 

f
i


 



 o q
f c  j  c
g




 

m  c f o
d   


 

  


35
40 $140

$90

30

    

   

40 $160

60
+

40
+

10

5
knapsack $30 $20 $100 $90 $160
= 6

A A B

JK L M N OP Q R S

 

[ \ ] ^ b h
l f
q

$30
$220

Greedy solution to
fractional problem.

k
p d fg  d  f  d  f g

; < = > ? @ <

$30

f  

g d e d 

Greedy solution
to 0-1 problem.

fg   k
     i
 e q f c d
 
  l
 d pp   p  f g f    fg k f d  f g

  p  f g f g    e  fi d p m

@ w v  E B

<

G I> ID G E

w G H

< v @ < E < G > w > ID G E

y S XY Y Y Z

a _} | ~ b

d

g q

fg g fg

h m

i d   g
q


  f g

    fg d p   f c i  o    c k f
 
k d g k  g k f
 
k  d e c  m
 o l
f
   g  k
 j  g g

k
d

d l


d   pp
  f g

o
k
 m

q

g

d pi       p g  
l
g

fi e    d g 

e   p
i  o  i

| ~ ] ` ^



k
   fe  f g

 fg

fg

q fpp

k f

 d e c  d 

 
i
p fi e    d g 

  g g
  f g

 

j 

 
i  m


pd  f g  c fe

 

fg 


d i e p
  o  d e c  fg

d g k  c
    o

 i e  
d fk
k

 c
k  pfg

  i e   d  f g d p  d e c  c
 

 g

 

i  

o

c


k
 f g

dg k

 d e c f

 c
pf   o d e e pf d  f g

f

 c d  q
q fpp   g  fk
 d  f

 d  
 c

d e e pf d  f g

 c
d  f  fpk fg p   o  i

_a ]

  g  fk

g  i
 d  fg f m

    o  c
e   p
i  fg
o

d g k 

    
k o    c d e

fg o  i d  f g   
i  j

d

  
m

e d f   o 
   j d  d e c f d   k q d   i  k
p  c f m

d e e pf d  f g fg  p k

 j

o c

g   f fl
p j d f d   pp
  f g

f p
i d  c
i d  f d p i  k
p o  i d g d e e pf d  f g e   p
i  m  d  f d pp j

d g  fi
  c d l
d 
  o 
   j d g k  c

f   i

d   f g

Optimal solution
to 0-1 problem.

n   p
i m


  f  g  m j m m h
d k  z m  d g k  z m 

d 
c

$260

c d c


k

20 $100

$270

Input

o

20 $100

20 $100

30
20

d
d m

 c
i  
j i dg

o

c


q c fc i  
  i e p
d p   f c i  d 
 c
g  fp m

| ~ b

  o   c dl

g   g 

k

 c
g   f g   o k f
 
k

  q
q fpp fl
d  f  l
 l f
q

d g k  g k f
 
k  d e c  fg   c
     
 j

c

m n p
d 

d k 
  f  g  m j m j d g k  z m  f g

h o  o c


fg o  i d  f g m

` _} _ ` b

   j dg k

 d fg  c f f  c d 

l
c d

 

j d 
 o

f d fg d  
pd  f g  g

   g  f    o




j  d pp
k  c

d g f

 o




 j  d pp
k  c

 m  g   c
 q d  o

 m

d 
d pp q
k  c f k
g f f g m   i
k
g f f g   o  d e c  k f d pp q

 p fe p

k
 d 
g   e
 i f 
k

d p c   c  c

k
 

 dg k



 d 
k f  fg    m

 c f m


 

  


f  
 

   

Graph

Digraph


    

f  d e c d g k  d e c
d i e p
m

` _} _ ` b g

  

dg k d 


 o

   g  f    o d g f



 o l
f
 j

 o k f  fg   l
  f 
 j  d pp
k  c

k
 m    
 c d  
po p  e 

d 
g   d pp q
k  m
c d

k f
 
k

de c 

i d  f d pp m

  

  d fg

g   f g 

dg k

 g k f
 
k

  c

de c 

d e dc 

d

d

k f

g 

k
g
k

  g g
  fl f  i d  g p
k
g
k o   g
j   i d
k
g
k

d
fl
g

c d l


c

k

 g k f
 
k  d e c 
f    c
    c

f



j q

dg k

l


c d

d
c

dg k

d

fo  c


f  c

  

 fi fpd   
  

o   c j  

f d g

 o

g   f g 

i dc

  c

d

k f

g  p m

k



dg k

 c


m

f  c

  o c

k
m  c

k

k f
 
k

de c j

  o

f i
d g fg  c d 

g d k f  d e c j  c
g  i
  o
k
   i fg     o d l
 
f  d pp
k  c

 o  c d  l
 
j

d g k  c
g  i
  o
k
   i fg fg f  d pp
k  c

d    c

 o d l
 

d c

   d pp i
d g  c
i d fi  i
c
g

k f     fg

c

 f

g d g  g k f
 
k  d e c q
    d p

g  i
  o fg  fk
g 
k
 m

o d

de c j q

 e f d pp

 g fk
  c

 c
g  i
  o
k
 m  c
g  i
  o l
  f
 f  e f d pp q  f 
g
 o
k
 f q  f 
g

d

 

 

a ]

| b

^ _a ]

  f

 

g  i
  o l
f
 m

d

 

dg k

 j dg k c
g  i


fl
g d  d e c q f c

l
f
 d g k

k
 c
g

de c

f

c

 c d 
g
 d pp

k
 m



c
g  i
  o l
f


| b




 o d  d e c j q


d 
  i
d  f   i fg d    fd p o d    d     d e c  d g k

k f  d e c  m
q fpp p
d l
 c
e    o     m

c

k


 o f  l
  f
 m

g  i


o
k


fg

de c

i d

d

pd 

d

 d k d f

fg

c

 q
l
 j  c
pd 
 d e c   c d  d  f
fg e  d   f
 e f d pp c d l
i  c o
q


d fk



fo

  j d g k  j   c
 q f
m

c
g

  g g fg  fi
  o d p   f c i  j q
q fpp    d pp
e 
  f d  d o g   f g  o   c

fl fg

dg k

c

j  c d

 c
e
o  i d g 
 g  e d  
d g k k
g 
 d e c  q fpp
d e e d 
g  m

] }| ~ ] ` ^







e d  c f

\ ~ b

 f d g




fg

k
o 

d de c


d g k d pp f 
k
 d 
k f  fg   m
de c

k f  d e c



f d 

g 

 c

 o c

 o l
f

e dc

f o d p p l
  f 
 d g k d p p  c

k
 d 
k f   f g   m

 g

k
d g k o  q c fc

  k f  d e c f  d fk  

 d e c f  d pp
k d

  p
f

f  c

dg k

fo f   g  d fg  g   fi e p
  p
 m g



 c

c d

f d e d  c   g  d fg fg d  p
d  

fo f  l
  f 
 

e 

   fi e p o   c    m  c

 i

g  i
 o
k
 j

o

 d 
k f  fg  

d   pf   g g
 
k

f fg 
g k
k  
i e c d  f


 

  


c

od 

c d

       
 m

c

 

 j d g k f

 



c d

g 

    j fg

 g d

d   pf  g k f
 
k  d e c

g d    d pp   d pp
k



j d

f

    

   d pp



g

   

fg

k dd

q c fc g

k g  
  g g
 
k  f d   pp
  f g  o o

m g

d   pf k f  d e c

f  d pp
k

o  c   m

Free Tree
f  
 

d

c d

f


d c d p
o  i

f 
po

fo
l


dg

l


Forest

o i

DAG





 j o 
 j dg k

fo  c


f d e d  c

o i

 m



m   
c d
l
 l


f

d   fl fd p e d  c  c d   

 
k
 m g  g k f
 
k  d e c f


d c

l


 c
 l

m

  g g
  fl f

f d f i
  f
 o  k f  d e c  j d g k

q
q f p p k
g
f  p d 
 m  c
  
   o i    d p p 
d  c d p
l
  f 
 e d   f  f  g  c
l
  f 
  o  c

 d e c f g   k f   f g    
  j  d p p
k  c

[ \

\ ~ \ ` } ] } _ ` ~
k f  d e c  m

  d g k p


]

\ `

dg k

| ~ ] ` ^

f   q
 c  q

_a ]

c q

| ~ b  c

d 
q    i i  g q d   o 
e 

g  fg  d e c 



  o c
d e c m


e 

g 

k f  d e c  m



m
q fpp d    i
 c d   c
l
  f 
  o 

] } _ b g

i d   f k
g
k o   

 

fo 



  c
 q f
m

 




]

\ `





 c

q
f c 

 g

k

m 

m

o


dd

   



 o e  fg 
  q c


pfg
k pf    g  d fg fg  c
l
  f
 q c fc


d c
k o i

d  fg p

k
 m

 e
 f d p  l d p 
j
m m

o 

d 
d k d 
g  

 f m
m

c

o  c

k
 c d l
q
f c    c
g

q f c
m



g
 d pp

2
1

3
1

k d 
g 



m

e  fg    

d

 c

q
f c   i d d p 

Adjacency list

i d   f d g k d k d 
g  pf  o   k f  d e c  m

 

   

Adj

1
1

Adjacency matrix
f  
 

l
f
 c d  d g



c
g




   
k fg  c
pfg
k pf 
p
i
g   m

q
i
d g fg e  d   f
   i
g  i
 q c fc f pd 
  c d g d g d pp q d p

_~} b g

k f  d e c


 
d i e p
fo 



g e  d   f
j  c f i f c 
  i
i d c fg
k
e
g k
g    g   d g  pf



 g

k g  
k
g
k j    o
g q

 f     i

 j  

q
f c  m

d


o  c
k f  d e c c d  q
f c   q
 d g    
 c
q
f c   fg  c
i d   f m
c
g



d 
fg k

k


 

  


dg


e 

g   g k f
 
k

g e d   f  pd  j q

e 

g  fg  c
 g k f
 
k
k

k f
 
k

 d g k 

m

c
di
q d c d q

e 

g 

  f
c d 
l
g

 c f  d g  d  
  i
  i e pf d  f g  m
i d  fg

k



e 

g  d  f g
k
d pfg q f c

o

de c m

c d  

d k d 
g 

c   c

q

e 

g 

 c
q   e e   f
p
 g k f
 
k

 d e c  fg

k f  d e c  j f f fi e    d g    
i
i
  c d   c

q   pd  


 o 
   d 
i d  c
i d  f d pp k f  fg   o  i

   

 d e c    fg
d   p  c
 d i

e 

g  d  f g j   q
q fpp    

d c
k
q f
m

k
 

    

 
d i e p
j   e e  
  q  f
d g d p   f c i  c d   e
 d 


 

d p  i d 

 g
dg  c
 m

g

k





d
o p q c
g

 j  fg 
 c

 

i d

k

 fg

c

d 
  c  c
 d i

k
fg 
d pf m c
g

pf   j f i d g  
  g l
g f
g    q d p k  q g  c

g  f
pfg
k pf  j  

f f   i i  g   fg  p k

 

q

g

   
 e  g k fg
k
 m

Adj

1
0

2
1

3
1

4
1

Adjacency matrix


f  
 z

m
]

4
3

Adjacency list (with crosslinks)

     d
d g k d g d k d 
g  pf  
 f


d  f

 d  
 c

f  g

g   o 
d c

g   f
 j q c
g

k d 
g  i d   f d g k d k d 
g  pf  o    d e c  m

g d k d 
g  i d   f 
 f

 c

 c f f   i i
k  l


l


d pp l
  f
 j  c

fg

m  fg 

d c

  d p g  i
  o d k d 
g 

   e d  
 d e c   c
d k d 
g  pf  
e 

g  d  f g

  d
m

pf  c d 

pf  
   k 


f

f i  
 e d 

 f
g  m

\ ~ ]  ~ b  c

d 
d g  i
  o d e e   d c
  
k o    pl fg e   p
i   g  d e c  m g
 o

 c
i    fi e    d g  d e e   d c
 f d 
k  g  c
g   f g  o   
i d  f d pp l f f fg d pp  c
l
  f

d g k
k
 o d  d e c m  c

d   g o   c f f  c d   c

  d l
  d p fi e  
d  e
 o  

       

 
g
 d pp

d o 
  g

c
de c j dg k 



d 
   d pp

i  c
d  f
   
d   g

d    c dg

g
dp de c  m

| }\ ~}

] } | ~ b   i   fl d 
 c f    d p   f c i

d 
fl
g

dg


g k
k



 g k f
 
k
k f
 
k

 o d e d c

fg

q   pk pf
  g k

de c

 d e c  j q f c

d de c
c

 g p

 c
g d p 
  p q fpp

e 

g 
k
q c fc

f  c

 p
g  c

q fpp d p     
d 

d o
q

 d e c  j   g  fk
  c
o pp q fg e   p
i m
 c
q d j
l
  c fg

 i d pp c d g
  d g k

q f c   
k
q
f c    f  c

c  
 e dc

o i

 c   
  e d  c   o  c
 d i
p
g  c   c
g

 

 g

 

 c   
  e d  c fo q
q d p o   i



d c

d  q d k  



 d fg

o c


c

 

 m  c

e dc m

d 
 f


q 

 j q
q fpp    

  
c d

  

q c fc fg k f d 
  c
   l
 

m
q fpp p


 

dg

d  f  d  fp m

 
d c l


o c
c  
 e dc  o i

 j

 m

fg

f c
 e d  c i d
c  
g

g  i
 o
k
  g

 c
 l


fg  c
o pp q fg q d m

q
q fpp

 m

d p g  c

 i d g  
 l f   d     j    c

 fg p
e 
k

    e  fg 
  d 
   f
g    
  g      
c
c  
 e d c  d g l

m  d g   

q c

   f
 c d   c
e d  c q fpp
  g      
k

f g 
l
 
m
l f   p j  c

f  fi e p
  
o  
   d 
o    i e   fg  c   
  e d  c  m
   pk  fi e p
  d  
g  i
 d  fg d pp  fi e p
e d  c    d   fg d 

j d g k

e   d   o  c
 c   
  e d  c d   fl fg d 


 

  


d c l

m

q
l
 j c

i d
i  
c dg

 d e c  m  c   j  c f    d 





f d  fi e p
   d 

k f  d g 
 
d c  o

    

   

 fi e p
e d  c  fg d  d e c   g  fk
 d   i e p


f  p
d  p fi e  d   f d p m

 c d  f i  

 f
g  m

 g
f c    f
d   p  m

  d   q f c

c

d
p d pp  o  c
i

  
l


p
d  p j  c

q f c  c f k f  d g 
m   q   g  fk


 c
 g l f f
k g
f c     o  c

g
f c    m  c
q fpp
d  k f  d g 
 o  i

m 
  g fk


 c
 g l f f
k g
f c     o  c
g
f c     o  c
g
f c    j d g k    g m h
e
d   c f  g  fp  c


d 
g  i  
 g l f f
k g
f c    p
o   l f f m  c f d p   f c i

q d l
e   e d d  fg   q d  k  o  i

o i

dg

d   fi  pd  fg d

j l f f fg  c
l
  f
 fg d g k  d 
l
 fg  
d  fg

k f  d g 


2
2

1
s

2
s

s
2

1
2

Shortest path tree

(one of many possible)

Discovered
Finished

f  
 

Undiscovered


 
d k c  
d c o  c  
 e d c  m

 c f f  c
d  f o   c

d k  c    
d  c

d p   f c i m 
  fi
q
q fpp k f      c f d g k f 

g d  d p k  d pj k
e c  
d c m

; < = > ? @ <

JK M U OP Q R S

@ < w H > 

A r B

 



I@ E >



l


~} ~\ ]

dg k

d l


< v > 



 j 
d k c 

I@ E >

x < w @ = 

XW S XY Y Y Z

[ \ ] ^ b 
  f  g   z m d g k  z mz f g
\ ] ^ }|

w G H

| b




fl
g

k f   l
 

dg k



dg

h m

c

de c

q c fc

i fg fi  i

l
f


d


d c d p

o i

g  i
 o
k
  g


d c
m

e dc

d

g

c

o i

d

 i

  


q

g



 
d k c 


d  c k f   l
  l
  f
 fg fg  
d  fg   k
  o k f  d g 
j d g k c
g 
 d g
 
k d  d g d p   f c i
o 

  i e   fg  c   
 

e dc  m

dg

fl
g

 fi
 c


f

o  g  f


 o l
f


c d c dl

g k f   l

k j   g  
 e   
 
k m  
d k  c    
d  c f g d i
k
 d  
f l f f  l
  f

d       c

g  f


d k c

 o  c f o  g  f
 m

g f fd pp d pp l
  f
 

e   c
    
 d 
  p 
k q c f
j i
d g fg  c d   c
d 

c
g

d l


d d l


 c


d c

c d 

g

f 

i d
  

di
 k
 c

j f f   p 
k  d

o d

d 
fg 
 
k m

j d    fg

      pf  j q c


 c
   f
i


f c
 q c f
j  d   pd   j


d c

j dg k

j  c
g f
  i
 pd  m

fg

c



 c
 o  c


m
q fpp d p  i d fg  d fg d   d  
   k f   l

k

d g k f e d    o  c
o  g  f
  m c
g

 j

c

 


 g q



q c
c


fg o  i d  f g j
 d  
  i
d e e pf d  f g   o 


i  l
k fg

c

q c fc c  pk   c
  p   o l
 

q c fc e  fg      c
e 
k

     o

k f  d g 
o  i

fg o d   f f  g p g

  d 

p
i
g   d 

 c
g
  

i  l
k  f  d pp
k

 f m
m  c
l
 
q c 

g p  c
  p  f 
d pp

g

k
k

o  c

d g  k
f g  g q c f
 m
fg  p k
d pp  c f

  
 c f d k k f f g d p fg o  i d  f g m


 

  


    

  

    


 !

 & 
  +  * ' 

  ,   #' $   *   +  #' $
     (  +  #' $      .
  ,   # $      # $       .  *  , + !      +  (  & 
' 
+  ' + ' + # $    +   *    "   #' $ 
  !   ,   # $    *   + & 
  ,   # $      # $
  #' $  (  +  # $  '    ' + ' + !
 & .
.
  ,   #' $ 
, .



   

 

   ,   

 

   ,  +

 

('

 

'  * +  +

'  +

 * +

' +' +


++ 

 

 

  + *   '   + +

              +  + 
   +            +
        (  +  +  +    
  ( '       * +  ' + ' +

 

 
 
 
 

 +   +

* '

a
s

c
g

b
s

s 0

a 1

1 d

1 c

s 0

Q: a, c, d

a 1

1 c

e 2

Q: c, d, e

s 0
a 1

1 d

1 d

1 c

e 2

Q: d, e, b

b 2
d

b, f, g

s 0
a 1

1 c

e 2

b 2

f 3

3 g

Q: (empty)



l

c d c

a 1

1 d

f  


e 
k

 

s 0

b 2

f 3

3 g

o c

1 c

e 2

1 d

b 2
Q: e, b

Q: b, f, g

 
d k c  
d c

e  fg 
 

a 1

1 d

1 c

e 2

s 0

d i e p
m


d c

k
g

dg

d g

d   pf

k f
 
k  d e c fg q c fc  c
    
f  c
    j d g k
l
   c
 g  k
c d  d  g f 
e d  c    c


 

  


o q

l
 
 c


k
 q

 d    
k  g   k

k  

 d pp
k d 

  m

c d c


d

i dg

  d    j d g k fg

e  
g fd p 

 f g   c d  k

o  d

fl
g

 g c

 d e c j k
e
g k fg



m

 c


 m   

o 

 g

q c


   

c


d c

 d 
 d pp
k

k
 o

 d 
 d pp
k    m

 f d g  g k f
 
k  d e c j  c
g     
k
 d pq d  
q

g

  e   l
 c d  fo

q  g  k
 c d  d 





q c d   k
 l
f
 d 
e pd 
k

 d g k  c

i d fg fg
k
  o



    

d  i     g
p
l
p d e d   fg

c




m

 d g

 



q c

 c f i   



` ]  ~ _ ~ b  c
  g g fg  fi
d g d p  f  o 

  d l
  d p d p   f c i  m  k  g
fg

e    f g
l



 f


q f
j c

d    i fg

d c

 f  fi fpd     c
  g g fg  fi
d g d p  f  o i d g  d e c

  d g k

m 
 l
 c d   c
fg f f d pf d  f g

   fi
m  c

d p i
d  f fg  c
  d l
  d p p  e m

g  i


l


 o  fi


f 
d c d p

fg g
 o  p  e f e   e    f g d p  
e
g k

q

o i




d   g   d g  d i   g   o  fi
 

c   c

c

  
m

 m  c


  e

c

q c fp

 c

p  e

 fg 

f

d

q
g
l
 l f f

  i i fg  e


d   p

g  i
  o f
 d  f g   c    c

 f
 d  

l
g fo 


 c
p   e m

i  

c

 j q
g

k 

 l
 d pp l
  f
 q
c d l

 c
  g g fg  fi

 

 







 c
d g d p  f f
 
g  fd pp  c
 d i
o  k f
 
k  d e c  m

}|

_ ~}

\ ]

| b  c
g
   d l
  d p d p   f c i

d g k f c d   c
g f
e   e
 
 g  fk
  c
e   p
i

q


d p
d k

c d l
g  d p 
d k

g m

p
d l fg

c

  i

f

d    i fg

}|

_ ~}

c
g




  f
k fg d fl
g    i j  c
g

   f
 c d   c f d p   f c i

   
  fl
p

 

  d 

fg g fg d g
q

\ ]

 d i
d p   f c i

 o  c
 d   p
j e d fg    i
 d  f  g  c
q d pp   
i fg k    
po

c

m

d e pd 

c dl


g

 o 
d  c fg d  d   p
o   
d   
m     pl
f   i f c   
 c
o pp q fg

d
m   
g 
 d   i
c d  

 c d  q
q fpp    k f  d pp
k

c d  g  g 


k
 c dl
d   k k
d p  o i d c
i d fd p   
m

dl
p o i
 

  i


 g

 i
q c


 





  i

d  p g

d  

c
di
  i j 

c d l
g 

d p
d k

g m

 i


k f

g 

c
g

k   

d pp k    

d  d  m

f k
   f
k 
    fl
p m

g e d f pd  j q c
g  
g 
 d g
q

  i j


d  c m  c f f  c

g
 d p fk
d
c fg k k
e  c    
d  c m

a _} | b

d i
q

d

fl
g

dg

k f
 
k

de c

m

 c

q    o   g k f
 
k  d e c      c

  p fg        
fi e  
k  g  c
 d e c

f k f

g   m

 

o  

d  fpfd 

dd  m

j  d i
d g  


o 

q

i d fg  d fg

  p  o 
d c

o 
q
d p     
e 
k

    e  fg 
  j e  fg  fg d     c
l
 

l

m

q fpp d p 

d     fd 
q  g  i
  q f c

q
   k f   l
 d l
 

 m

q
   
d    g 
 fg

   
d    g 
 fg

 

d c

l

m

 c


i
dg 

 m 

 c d  k f   l

k
d 

d fl
g

m c
g

d g k q c
g q
d 
g f c
k e   
  fg d l
 

 

 

q f c  c
k f  d g 

o i

 m  c
d p   f  c i

f  c  q g

 fg k  
 d  

       
m
q fpp k f      c f  

       
o   c


p q m

q c f

 c
e   e  
 o  c
 fi
  d i e  q fpp

e pd fg
k pd 
 m   

g     g o 
 c
k f   l
  fi


p q m  q f c 

l


  g   g f c
k e   
  fg j d g k pd  i
d g 

 ! & 
  +  * ' 

  ,   #' $   *   + (  +  #' $    , .

 

 

 (    
   ,   

    





 

  


  +     +  * ' 
  !   ,   #' $    *   + &


    !' & -

    

   

.

 

     !' & 
  ,   #' $      #' $       +    +   *    "   !' &  
  !   ,   # $    *   + & 
(  +  # $  '

    ! & .
  ,   #' $ 
,  #' $       + 

2/5

6/9

3/4

7/8


7/..

 fi
 o

6/9

g
3/4

f  


 f

d 
  k q d    d g d p

    fl
p
 f

return g
return f
return a
f

1/10

e c

f   
d  c

m

k
g
k

c d q
dg

7/8



m

 c f f   i
q c d  c d  k
  

d g d p  f j
 d  
 c

    fl
g d   
 o  c
d p   f c i

3/4

DFS(d)
DFS(e) b
return e 2/5
return f

6/..

12/13

f g    k g   f g  o

2/5

c
3/4

` ]  ~ _ ~ b  c
  g g fg

a
1/..

11/14

 '

* '

DFS(f)
DFS(g)

2/5

a
1/10

+  +    +

3/..

1/..

2/..

+ *
  +




 

1/..

 

return c
return b

  + *   '   + +

   +  (  +  +  +     (     + 
       

 

DFS(a)
DFS(b)
DFS(c)

 

 '   + +  + +

 + + * * + +


 '

 

 

 ' 
    

 



c

 d pp

c

 




f

d k k

 e

i d k

d   p

 g 

 c
f   g g fg

q
d g 

c d 
d c l



    fl
 d pp m


 e  
k  

o 

 fi
 m

d c

l

m

g   fg  c

 d g
e   
 
k fg



dg

 

 fi
 e
g  fg

d g d p

d c

 c

    fl

 

 





   fi
m  c    c
   d p  fi





 g

 d pp j

 
k fg  c
e   
k  
f

   fi
m 
 l
 c d 
d c l
 
f l f f
k
d   p  g 
fg  c

d  c j d g k c
g 

fg k fl fk  d pp d g k

d p   f c i  j   f f g     
c

j
 d  
 c


d d c 
d c

f    
 l
 c d  fo q
f g  
 c
 fi
 e
g  fg  c

    fl
 d pp j  c
i d fg

  g  fg

c dg

    
  c fg  m    i d pp j 
   
g 



 

\ \

  


 fi fp d  d g d p  f c  p k  fo q
  g  f k


~}

} \ b

    

 o   g k f
 
k  d e c  m

 g d    d pp fi e  
 d  

       
d    d pp d   pp
  f g  o  

 j   d o 
  

 g  c
       
 o  c
 d e c m  c f f     c

    f g  

j q c

 c

k


e   
  fg

l


q
 d pp

k
 o c
de c
]

   

 \ ^ a \ ~ b 


 

 

o    i
g
f c  

 d g
 p d   f
k d  o  pp q 
 q c


f d

  k f
 
k

 d  f
 q c
g

de c  c
 c


g   g

  d  fp

e  e
 dg 
  o

fg

c


m

 c   j d


po p  e f   g  f k

k  
d d 
k
 m



] ^

\ ^ a \ ~ b

~~ \ ^ a \ ~ b





 q c


 q c


f d e   e
 k
 
g k
g   o
dg k

c

k
i d 
q

g
 f g   k f   p  

 p d   fo

fg  c
 

m

d 
g   d g 
       k
 
g k
g    o  g
d g   c
 fg o d   j

k f

g   

  o  c
o  
   m

c

k
 o d

 

d g d p fg  c
l d p
  o   p    o  c

l
  f
 d g k
    g  fk
 fg  c
 fi
  d i e  m  c f f p
o d  d g

  f
m
f c  g k f
 
k  d e c  j  c

d 
  i
fi e    d g  k f

g 
 fg  c
       
 o  c



f   j  c

f 
d pp

d

d pp  d pp
k

g  k f  fg   f g

q

g

  g l
g  f g m

~}]

~}

\ ] b

n d 
g  c
 f

q  l
f



c q g

} \ b  c

f d p  d g f
       
   c
 fi
  d i e  m

  d   c
 

   c
 i  
j f  d g

f d k
 
g k
g   o
f d g

f  g 
pd 
k  

fo d g k  g p fo

j dg k dg

f
2/5

 

   

   

  m

dg k

   

 

 

o 

d 
k f   f g  m

e
12/13

g
7/8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14


; < = > ? @ <

JK L M N OP Q R S

 

B
X

D v D D

f  


I= w 

n d 
g  c
 f

x D @ >

w G H

S XY Y Y Z

[ \ ] ^ b 
   m  z mz  f g

 

m

dg

g 

h  c f f 
o
 
k

  m

B
C

 

11/14
C

6/9

 

3/4

   

   

   

fo d g k  g p fo

1/10

fl
g d k f  d e c

fo d g k  g p fo

dg 
  o

g e d   f  pd  j  c
o pp q fg d 

d     
 l
m

i i d 

c d c


 m

k
 m   j   g l
g  f g j  c



 
k
 m  d g   

q c g  
_ \

o q d k d g k d 

h m

i i d m

x > @ D G

C D u

v D G < G > E

 dg k dg


 

  


\ ~ b  c
 fi
  d i e  fl
g
  k f  d e c m

 
d i e p
j   e e  

k

 i fg
q c
 c
  c
 d e c

d pp q
 

  

    

   

k

 i fg
d g  i
  o  c fg  d    d  d e c

d 
fl
g

d de c

  k f  d e c m

 

 g

 

dg

  g  d fg  d g   p
 l

d  fp m
k   c f q f c  c
c
pe  o  c

o pp q fg q  p
i i d  m

\ ] b


fl
g

 

 

  m m

q f c fg

c d c

q d  g   q c f

 j d g k  g fk
 d g
k

 o 
 o

  

 m

o  c

k
f d

e    o o pp q 

j

f d

 j fi e p fg  c d 



c d dg

q   fi
fg 
 l d p d 

  c
 q f

 q   pk

o

o i

j dg k

d  pf
 g f c

e d 
g  c
 f

   d   g f c

 f i
m

k f   f g  m c
g

d 

c



k
 j fi e p fg  c d 

 o 
 o 

  d  

q
q

e   
  fg
q d d
k

i    c d l
d p  g f c
k
o 

 dg k dg

k f
  p

k

g k
g 

 m  c d  d   p
fo d g k  g p

 o 
 c d  d d 
k
m



m 
 d  
 c
f g 
 l d p  d 
k f   f g  j

\ ] b  g  fk
 d k f  d e c
c

 q
g q

k
 j c

k

k

o 



d 

o  d o q dk

fg 
 l d p f   g  d fg
k


 j  g fk
 d g

 m



j o q dk j dg k

p
i i d m

o  c f
k
f d  

j o  q d  k j       
k
j  c
g

d 
k
c
g

d k f  d e c

o c


k
 o i

f d





c  q

d 

k



j c
g

f

dg

dg 
 

o

j dg k

o pp q fg  

q

 d   p
m

 c
  g   d e   f fl
m   e e  
 c

d 
g  d 
k
 m   c
p
i i d d  l
j

d c

 o  c

i d fg fg  e
  o
k
 j  

j o  q d  k j d g k      d pp c d l
 c
e   e
 

c

o i

l
f


q f c

c f c
 g f c fg

 fi
 

l
f


q f c

p q


g f c fg

c d
 fi
m

 c   d p g d g e d  c j g f c  fi
 k
 
d 
i  g    g f d pp j fi e p fg  c

 d g
g    p
m
\

] \ b   d 
k
 i
d g  g    p
 m       c   pk g   fg o
  c d   c

f   i
 fi e p


pd  f g  c fe
q

g

c

 o d 
k
 d g k c

 o   p
 m

 

i d  g p c d l
d  fg p
d 
k
j d g k  c

i d d g q c

o  i

 
d i e p
j d

 g
 e  d g
e  g
g fd p

g  i
  o  fi e p
  p
 fg  c
 d e c m

_ \

 fi fpd   c
 
i

}\ ^

_

d e e pf
    g k f
 
k  d e c  j d g k f g   c d  k   e   l
m


| b

i dg

d e e pf d  f g  q c


d


 f


o

d 



c


f  o 
g  d pp
k d

d
e 

k
g 

e
o i
k j d g k

  g       f g   c d l
   fpk  c
  
 c

p
   f d p q f fg q c fp
 
f d

j

d 

o  c  

i   e 

k

fg   d pp  c
q fg k  q   m

g


 c


o d

f d pfg
d    k
 fg  o  c
l
  f
  o  c

de e
d
o 

d 


m m

 fg d

j  c
g f c  fi
 o

 c

c d  o 
d c

d  j fl
g

 m   c
e 
l f   p
i i d j

f 
d 
  c d g  c
g f c  fi
 o

 j dg k q c
g

d c l


m  c   j f
d    fe e
k

f g f c
k q
d k k f    c
o  g   o d pfg
k pf  m  c
g d p

pfg
k pf    k
 q fpp
 c
g d p   e  p f d p   k
 m  c f f fl
g
p q m

         

 ( 

 


fg

i   
  i e p

k

  
      e    c
l
  f
 fg 
l
 
  k
  o g f c fg  fi
m   k   c f q
  g


 d  f
fg

    i e  
d   e  p f d p   k
 fg f d    d pp l

o 
l

k


fg  c
  k
 fg m   
 c d  fg
g
 d p j  c

i d
i d g p
d p

  e  p f d p   k
  o  d fl
g

k q g 

   j     dg k 

g
dp d

 i
dg  c d d

 
d i e p
j fo  c


fg  m

k



  d fg

  g    d fg   m

  
o 
   fpk  c

  g k

fg q c fc l
  f
 d 
 d   d g k  c

k


o 
d

    k
 fg

! & 
+   * !'  
&   ,   #' $ 
 + ,   +
,  +   * !'  
&

*  + -

 
 

   ,  +
  + (  ,   + , 


 

  


  !   ,   #' $  
+'  -

    

   

*   + &   (     !' & 

 

  (     !' & 
  ,   #' $        +   * !   "   !' & &
  !   ,   # $    *   + &   (     ! & "(( +  '   * +      .


 +     ,   +


 '

+ *
  +

 

 

 

   * 

 '

  ,

 c f f  e f d p
d i e p
 o
c
d i
d  c
d f

'

 f  
k fg d e e pf d  f g  m 
 l
 c d   c
       
f
 
g  fd pp

 e   
k  
j   q
 g p fg  p k
 c

p
i
g    o

 c d d
g

k
k

o   c f d e e pf d  f g m


dg

d i e p

k 
  fg m

q

 g fk


c

e 

g 
k

  i  
d k pf    c
e 

k
g 


i   g fg m
k     k
e  c    
d  c
q

 d k f

g  g d p   k
 fg m

fg

fg

 c
  k
 fg

o 

n o
 

q c fc

fg d k f

g    k
 o   i

  i  
d k 

c
e    g

 c
 g
fl
g fg

pants

o
c

h j dg k 

 q
l
   c   k
 fg  d 
p
f fi d 
j fl
g  c
e 

k
g 

  g    d fg   m  q f c k
e  c    
d  c j  c
  g g fg  fi
 o   e  p f d p     f

shorts

 k


c f  p  c
 fg

socks

1/10 shorts

shirt

11/14

shoes

2/9 pants

tie

12/13

m

socks

15/16

shirt
belt
tie

7/8 shoes

belt

3/6

4/5 jacket

jacket

Final order: socks, shirt, tie, shorts, pants, shoes, belt, jacket


} ` a

` \ ` } ~ b 


q

f  


 g fk


  e  p f d p     m

l


fi e    d g 

  g g
  fl f

e   p
i

q f c

k f  d e c  m

c
g k f  d e c  d 
 
k fg   i i  g f d  f g d g k   d g  e    d  f g g
q    j e
 e p
q d g    g  q
c d c


g
q   

d

  i e p

fg

c

d g   c
 p  d  f g fg  c
k f  d e c m


 j

d g 
d c

od 

q

q fpp   pl

 

 g g

k m

l
d m

 c


d

 f
d 

dg

p  d  f g

f f e    f p




d c

 fo o  
l
 e d f  o l
  f 
 j

 c d  k

 i fg
 q c
 c
 d k f  d e c f     g p   g g
 
k m

g
 d pf d  f g

 o  c f

e   p
i j  o

 o  c  

l
  f
  o  c
k f  d e c fg     
    c

o  i d pp j q

c d o i

d g k l f
l
d m

q   pk pf
  q  f
d g d p   f c i
g


g 

k f  d e c f

o

  i e   fg

k f  d e c m

c

e d f pd  j q

e d   f f g

  
   c   p k
d  p d 
d  e    f p
j d g k   f p p c d l
 c f  e   e
  m

c d  q 
 

l
f


c

 c d   c
fg k  
k    d e c  o
d c   
 f     g p

dg k

d

 c d  i    d p 
d c d fpf


f d g

fo

dg k

 fl d p
g 

pd  f g m


d c

dg k

 

l f

 c f
 fl d p
g 


pd  f g e d   f f g   c
l
  f
 fg  
 fl d p
g 
 pd  
  o i    d pp 
d c d p
l
  f
 j d g k  c


d
c
 g  i e  g
g  m

 l
 c d  fo q
i

 c
l
  f 
 fg
d  c     g   i e  g
g  fg   d  fg p

 fg  q 

 e
l
f




 fo d g k

 g p

fo  c


d

l
f


dg k

 j dg k
 c

c d


 



  


j c
g

c

 d g   

q c


  p fg

k f  d e c j  d pp
k

c

    

j f g

  d  fp

   

d   pf m



c
a,b,c

a
d
f

d,e

e
g

f,g,h,i

Digraph and Strong Components



 c

d p   f c i

   k
g  

c d

q

f  


q fpp e 

g 

g f c  i d 
 m

Component DAG

  g  i e  g
g  m

f

dg

d p   f c i

 f d i d fg p  fi e p
d g k

k
 f g
 

k 
di

d g k

 f
g  j   f f  

dg

d p   f c i

 p
l
  c d  f f l


k f   p  
l
g 

c  q f q    m
q fpp fl
  i
 o  c
fg   f f g  c d  p
d k     c
d p   f c i j
  q fpp g   e   l
 c
d p   f c i

} ` a

` \ ` } ~ ] ` ^

    
  g
  o  i d pp m 

b 

o  d o i dp e  o m

q d  o i   fl d  f g j   g  fk
  c

o c

k f  d e c

c q g

fg  c
o pp q fg  
p
o  m  k
g f f g  o

 j q c
g  
g 
 d  g  i e  g
g  j
l


l


c

fg

 c
  i e  g
g  f 
d c d p
j    c

 i e  g
g  c dl


g

fg  c
 d i
 

 o  c

d  

o c

l f f
k m
 o 
 m

 o 
 m

k 
 g   
 i fg d 
 g  fp d pp  c
l
  f
 fg

 c   d pp  c
l
  f
 fg

d  g


 l
 c d  fg  c
 

d c

 f d pq d    
o  d g




 c


  e e  
c d  

d pq d 
f  d q d  

g
q

 g q

c  i   i

o 

c

c

d

  i e  g
g  k f  d e c

 g

 q j  g

i  i
g  m

fg  c f 
l
 
k

 c


k 

f

l


g   d

 i e  g
g  j dg k

c

c

d c
d p 

c d

d g  q
 f g  m

 k
 c

  c

  g c

 c d  f f

p
d l


fg

q f c fg


l


e  

c
i

f   d  
k

l f f   c

 

e   p
i

q

 i e  
k

  k
 g   d o
 d  f q   pk fg

d

  fg  

 

  pl
m

d g   i d p   e  p f d p   k
 fg  m

l
 
    d    c

d  c o  i j 
p
   c
g


 c


c

  e  p f d p j  c
g
fg

c

di

d l


   d    q f c fg d fl
g     g   i e  g
g  j

 i e  g
g  d g k

c

e    f p


d c



m

q f c

c

fg   f f g

i d

p
d

  
c

fg  

 

j g    g p k 
 f l f f f    i e  g
g  q f c

  i e  g
g   d  q
pp m

 c d  fo q

  i e  g
g   d     k fg  

  i
  c
  
o 
g f c fg m

 
d i e p
j fg

q
l
 j

 d  
  c
   i e  g
g   q   pk c d l
d p
d k c d l


g

c
 g

 c f f  fk f  p   j
 d  

 

  e  p f d p   k
  o  c
  i e  g
g   

j
d c 
d  c  d g g  

 c f

c

 

m 

c

 f d g
k
fg  c
  i e  g
g  k f  d e c j  c
g


f d g fg o   i d p    f  d  f g m p
d  p  g 
 c

q c
g

d     k fg    c f 
l
 
  e  p f d p   k
  o  c
  i e  g
g  k f  d e c m

f i    l f f
l

o q

d k ldg 
m
 c d  f  c

 e e  

 j  
l
  fi
  g

k d g
q

d l d fpd p
l
 

fg

 i e  g
g  j dg k

 g  c
  i e  g
g  k f  d e c m  c d  f j 

 i


    g d 
p j  c
d g  q
 f
 m

q   pk g

k
  

  i e  g
g  f   

 g o    g d 
p

g
g
 d p j i d g     g   i e  g
g   i d d e e
d  fg  c
 d i

 f c  o   d    g 

d i e p
m

 i e  g
g  i   de e
d
 g

  pk

l f f fg

p
d   

 g

p q

dg k

  i e  g
g   fg

 f c  j


j  


l


fg     c
   i e  g
g   j

l f f
k
d  pf
 fg  c

d  c m

 i
c q

 k


c

d 
l
 
  e  p f d p   k
 j  c
g

 c


 j 

c d

q
q   pk c dl

f c f 
dg

d


 

  


1/8

9/12

13/18

    

1/18

b
h

4/7

2/3

2/13

14/17

14/17

10/11

c
g

3/4

15/16

5/6

d p   f c i

o    i e   fg     g

p   pf
m

e pd 
 m
o c

 c

\ ~

c d

c fg k

c d

e 

g 

c

g


 d pp
fg

 d pp
f

7/10

8/9

q
l
 j q
k  g   g q

  i e  g
g  d p   f c i

c

g

d

q c d c

  i e  g
g  e   p
i
f  c d  q
 d g

e   e
  j q f c   

 c f

 f


o


d p   f c i

k f   p
 





c

e p  i
 

 g k
dg k

g k

d    d pp

o  c

fl
g

dg

d k d 
g 

d p   f c i

q c

 c f

  i e p


 f  c
k f  d e c q f c  c
 d i
l
 

 d 

k f
  f g m

  fi
m 

f

d p   f c i j d g k


l

k

 g

 
g  fd pp

a _} | b

 g o    g d 
p

6/11

 i e  g
g 
fg

c


dg

  k
 fg

  i e   fg

c

p
d   m

q c d 

 i e  g
g  m

c

15/16

 q  k
e c  
d c
 m

 o
 d pp j q
d 
  fg     pl
 c
    g

f

l
f


 i e  g
g 
| \

f  
z 

5/12

   

pf  o 


 d  

d p   f c i

e  o m

f

dl  fk 

q    m

q fpp

f   
 d pp  c d 

   fg q c fc d pp
k
 c d l

 j f f e    f p
    i e  


fg

p p p
d l
 c f  d  d g

  f 
m


 l
 c d   c
    g p   g g
 
k   i e  g
g   d 
g   d
 
k 
l
  f g d p p  c
k f  d e c 

k
 m

dg k

d 
i    d pp 
d c d p
fg

c d g
 f  c d   c

c

l
f


k
 
d  fg

o

 i e  g
g 

d     k fg

  k
  o g f c

d g k d pp  e
 d 
fg



 fi
 m

 c
f

 j  c
g 
  d fg p  c f f   fpp   
fg 

f   i e p

p
g f c

 fi


fg

pp  c
 
e   o  c

  fi
m


l

k m
d

 c

 m  c
g

d p   f c i

  k
 fg
l f f

c

f

g  k


d 
 f

d 


o

 k


fg

  fi e p
i
g  j

 


f  c
d p   f c i m

m pp  c d 
f


  


 

   ( ! & 
' 
 ! &
   ( '          *    +   #' $    +   *  +   +  '   ( '  +    +  +   + ! &
 +  +      , , +   +   
    * +  +     +    
!   '         &    +   +         +     #' $  ' 
 ! & '      *      +     *


 ++      (  +  

} ` \ ~ ~ b c l f f l
  f
 fg k
 
d  fg   k
  o g f c  fi


 f k f   p      fo  c


p
i
g   o   i d pp m

c  
 c

l
  d p k f  d e c

i d fg fg 
g  f   l f f  c
    g   i e  g
g   fg d 
l
 
  e  p f d p   k
 m  c
e   p
i


f   i
fg   f f g j  c   c m h
 d pp  c d   c

f c  q


 

  


2/13

3/4

5/12

15/16

6/11

14/17

g
6

i
h

Reversal with new vertex order



f  
z 

j g f c  fi
      fg 
l
 

 k


f  c

 g

q f c

c

Final DFS with components

    g  i e  g
g   p   f c i

    k
  c
l
  f
    c d   c f f   
m h
 d pp o  i


8/9

Initial DFS

7/10

a
b

f
i

   

1/18

b
c

    

 c
  e  p f d p     fg d p   f c i j  c d  fg

  e  p  f  d p   k
  f m
m j  c
   l
 

c f c
  g f c

 fi
 m

  j fo q

q dg 
k



fg  c
  e  p f d p

l f f  c

  i e  g
g   fg


l
 
  e  p f d p   k
 j  c f  
    c d  q
 c   pk l f f  c
l
  f
 fg fg  
d  fg   k
  o
g f c

 fi
j   d   fg q f c  c
p q
  g f c fg  fi
m  c f f d   k   d   fg fk
d j   f    g 

    c d  f  k 
 g  q   m  c

d   g f   c d   c

d 
i d g l
  f 
 f g
d  c     g   i e  g
g  j
dg k c



d pp c d l
k f

g  g f c

 g

c

p
o   c

 fi
 m

p q
  g f c

 
d i e p
j fg  c
 

 fi

 o   f

d c f
l
k

d  l
 
 l
 c d  fg  c

l


j dg k

f      g

  i e  g
g  f    j g   pd   j fg   e  p f d p   k
 m
 f 
i e  fg   fl
 e
 c
g f c

pd 
k

 fi
 m



c

o q

fg o     d  f g

 g fk
 c

  e  p f d p   k


o c

d   c f e  fg  m     c

f   i
 c fg   g   f
d   

fg

 i e  g
g  de c m

d c
g

 i e  g
g  j c
g

o d   f f e    f p



c


d

e l
c

o  p p  q f g    q
q  g   m

\ ] b  g  fk
 d k f  d e c
i d fi  i

g f c

  g q c fc

 c d

g  g m

 fi
 o d pp  c
l
  f
 fg

c

d
p
d c

 i e  g
g  j dg k

  i e  g
g  q f c  c

     c

fg

k
 
d  fg

  k
 m  c
g  c f   k
 f d   e  p f d p   k
 o   c
  i e  g
g  k f  d e c m

 
d i e p
j fg  c
e 
l f    
j  c
i d fi  i g f c  fi
 o 
d c



j 

o  

 

j dg k



o  

m  c
 k


  k
 o   c
  i e  g
g  k f  d e c m
 c
e   p
i


  

f  c d   c f f g   q c d  q

q dg 
k m

q dg 
k



 i e  g
g  d

d 
l


o  

f d l d pfk   e  p f d p

  e  p f d p   k
 o 

 c
  i e  g
g  k f  d e c m   j  c
g d p   f f   
l
 
 c
k f  d e c m  c f k 
 g   c d g
 c

  i e  g
g   d e c j   f 
l
 
  c
  e  p f d p   k
 j d  k
 f
k m

; < = > ? @ <

IG Iu

? u

x v w G G IG

@ I>  u
JK M U OP Q R S

 

XY S XY Y Y Z

[ \ ] ^ b c d e    fg

h m

@ < < E

w G H

@ ? E

w 

s 


 

  


_` _

] ` ` _` a

\ \ ~ b

  i i  g e   p
i

    

   

fg   i i  g f d  f g  g
q    d g k  f   f k
 f g

f  c d   o   g g
  fg  
 c
 d 
  o g  k
   i i  g f d  f g  f
    f   f   i e  g
g    d
g
q    o i fg fi d p    d p p
g  c

q c

p
g  c f  c
  i

 o  c
p
g  c   o   g g
  fg q f
  m

d    i
 c d   c
g
 q   f  g k f
 
k m   i fg fi f
 c
p
g  c  o  c
  g g
  fg g
 q   j
f g
l
 e d    c d l
d g   p
  fg 
q
   pk 
d d g   p
q f c    k
    fg   g g
  fl f
d g k k
 
d 
 c
   d p p
g  c  m  fg 
 c

  p fg   g g
  f g  d e c f   g g
 
k j  g k f
 
k j

d g k d   pf j f f d
 c

  i e   d  f g d p e   p
i

 
o  i d pp j fl
g
 
 o
k

o

 d pp
k

c

 c d  d g  i
 f q
f c        j


 e d g g fg  


c
 i

 e d g g fg

k f  fg   j  c
g



c

 

 c
 

p q

e   p
i
j d


 


  

i d

l d p
j  

g  

f



 


 e d g g fg



o

 g f 
j  

f f



i fg fi  i
c d

q
f c  m

fo

d pp  c

  

k

} \ _` \

 c

d
m

 g

od 

fg 

  fg

c

di




7
d

4
g

f  
z 

_` _

d g

 
 l d  f g
o

k

f  c d  g    g p

q
f c  

10

b
8

de e
d

d
2

\ \ ~ b

fg fi  i

f  c d  

fg  c
i fg fi  i

  

q d

fg   d ppd  f g m

 m

 c



 c f

  c

  g   d  f g f z d   c  q g

g
dpj c

f
1
Cost = 22

 e d g g fg  

 m

i  g  e  p

fg   d ppd  f g
g

q d  
 f
k

d  e d g g fg  


l
k

d i e p
f

pf

d c

 c
p
o  m

 o k

 i fg fg
d

d  g

 fi
j d g k

g 

e  e  

c q g

 g


o

fg

c



 c


 



      e
g fg

c dg

p q m

 d
m



d 

 i

 f
d    

 c d   c
     o d g
 


 q
l
 j fo  

c

fg    k  
d g
q

 m

 f g  q

d

c

dg
p
o j

c d

d pp

o   c f

fg   d ppd  f g d   c

e    f p
    g g
 

z m  c f f
 
  c d g  c

  m

p q
      fg 
   g g
  f g

d pp q
k d k k f f g d p g  k


q d 

 pd q      g g
 

m m m   f f

   pk d    d pp 
k  
 c
f   g g
  f g

d  dp   o o 

e   p
i

o d   i e d g q d g 
k     g g
  d   pp
  f g

 o  c
  c
 o   e  fg   f 


  o g  k
 j d    i fg  c d   

1
Cost = 22

k f  d g 
 m

 g


g 
 j q c  
k f  d g 
 
d c
 c

l
e  fg   q f c

dg

c d

  pfk
d g

e
7

l
g i
g   e e  
k

  g g
  f g  m

 e d g g f g  

 d 
d    d p p i
g  f  g
k f g  c
 m m p
d p   k
m

o   fg   d ppd  f g   c d 

k
p
g  c  d 
  

10

    i d g g
 j q c fc f  p
d  p

fg 
 i
k fd 
e  fg  o 
 g fk


d

 e d g g fg  

j

 e d g g fg  

  c
i fk k p
d g k  f c  d 
i fg fi  i

  i
  i e d g f
 k f   l

k  c d   c

g
q

q 

 o fg   d ppd  f g  d g e  fl d 
fg 
 g d p e c  g
  
i j 

c

k  c

k
  i

c

 e  g  f p
o  c d g k pfg d pp 
p
e c  g
  g g
  f g  m

c
i

fg

e
7

1
Cost = 33


fg

c d

q
f c  

q fpp
k f  fg    c f f d  d  c
    p
o d   j q c fc q
q fpp g   e   l
 m

p p 

p d 
 m 

10

 c  q   c 

 e d g g fg  

 o   c
 d i
 d e c j q c

 c
 c d k
k 
  d g p


d g k c
 c
 q 

  fg  fk
g 

d   pf

  g
d  fl
 q
k
g
 c
     o d

fg k f d 
 c

k
 fg  c
 e d g g fg  

m  c
 g
 g  c
p
o f g   d i fg fi  i

di

o  c   m

f d g

 o
k
 fg  c
 e d g g fg  

i fg fi  i

 j i d

 

 

de c

 c d    g g
   d pp  c
l
  f
  
 c
 m    i fg  c d 
d c
k


f

d   g g
 
k j  g k f
 
k

 d pp
k



q

g

d fl
g

 f  d pp
k


 

  


MST

    

   

SMT

Steiner point
1

Cost = 3
f  
z z

c

 fi e p


k

Cost = 2 sqrt(2) = 2.83

  


d p   f c i

o 
 

d g k fg o d   f  n c d  k m



 
fg

fg fi  i

o  c   m g



m

fg 

  fg o d   f  c d  d p c   c  c

f d

 d  q
q fpp 


p q  j  c



c
q d j c
 

  q c
 c
  c
e c  g
  i e d g q d  
 f
k    

 

\ ` \ _

 

  i e   fg
  p  f g

| b
q fpp e 

g  q 

i fg fi  i

e
d
k

 e  f g 

d

i d
d

c  f
j c


l f
q

d c

 e d g g fg


p
  fg

d
m



m

c

h
 d pp  c d 

c
d e


 

 g i d

 c f

   


c  f
m

f i  c c d  k
 j

 f g i d f g   g g
  f  g  m

   d p  d g k

g
 d pp

fi e    d g  c d  d  
 f  f

g
l


d p   f c i  

e   p
i

d p   k
f  d  c
 d i f      g  c
e  fg  d 

p  d pp

o 

k


o 

n  fi

f

 d p   f c i   o 

 g

c d

 e  fi d p c  f


d p   f c i  f  c d 

e 

g  fg

c


 fpk 

di  g
 g 

d
d pp

c

d p   f c i  j p
  

  i
d  f o d    d    o

 

 m  c
d 
d pp  f

d    e   l
m

\ ] b


 c


f   d  g f 
e d  c
q

g

o

 

q f c

k k fg

dg

l
  f
 c d 
d   p

k



d o




k
 m

d g q  l
f
  o d o



m


d


 g f 

  p
m

 
d fg

k

 g

 c f

  p

   
 d o

 

m





dg

 g k f
 
k j   g g
 
k

de c

q c  

k


c dl

g  i
f
k

q c fc i d
e   f fl
j g
d  fl
 
   m  c
fg   f f g
c fg k  c


k

 fi e p
j q
i d fg  d fg d   
  o
k


 g
d  d  fi
j  g  fp
 o
k
 fg

  m
d c d  d g
k


  m   
 c d  fo

e
d 
k p
{ | \ `

_~ ] `

\ ^ a \

~]



fg

 g fk
 c

 
 c
  m

  p

fg



fo


f d   



f l fd p
m

d p   f c i

g
dg

 e
d


fl
g d   
  o
k


 
g 

  j dg

k

 i fg fg q c
 c




 m

 

k
c d

dg

k

    f    d e d   f f g

  c
   fo  g

g k e  fg  f fg

j q
 d c d  d    

 f g   c d  k   

q c 
 e
  fg

c

f

 fo

 d g   fpp


g k
k   o  i

 c
 
 f d p f  

c fg k

d  
  o c
l
f


   m

g
f 

k

fo g 
k

    d 
fi e    d g     c f e   p
i m

o q
c d l
  i e  
k d e d   fd p
  j d g k q
q f c   g  q
fg k  

f


k
   c
   
g   e d g g f g  

m

 o  c
l
  f 
 f g    q  k f   f g    
  m g
k


d g k  c
  c
 f fg

 

f l fd p
f  d g g     g  d fg d   p
m

d k k fg d g

f  d o
  g   m

 f d  d o
c  f
  d k k    c d 

q
f c  

d p   f c i  f

j q c fc q fpp fg f fd pp

i e  j d g k q
q fpp d k k
k


 d p  c

  m
 d  c d  d   


 c
 q  k  j c
c  f


q c fc
k
 d g
d k k
k c d  k 

 



 e
  fg

   f

e    f p

d g k fk d 
m
g

k

i fg fi  i

o

f

q
f c 

 c

g   f f g  d   c d   fg 

c

pf c 
 

k

     fg

pf c 

k

i d

   j fo d i  g
g  

 g f 

d pp
k

fo

c


d pp  c

k
  c d       d 
 e
  fg

     fg

d p   f c i  f  c
o pp q fg m

 

f

g d dp


 
g  fd pp

c  f
m

 c

d  c d q
dg

     fg
d

c

k  e pf d 

   j f c d   c


k

q
f c    m

   k  g   fg k  
d   p
j  c
g

i d fg

c
 
i

q c fc

d pq d  d  i
g 

k  fl


 c

d k k fg  c


 

  


i fg fi  i

\ ] b



c

k
 m



  c d 
e




 f

 o  

j d g k p
 

 m

d pf c 
k
     fg

 c f    m

   

 c
g

c

k

d    i
 c d  d pp  c

k
q
f c   d 
k f  fg   m

dg



 m
q fpp k
 fl
d   g   d k f  f g m

 f m
m d   
  o   i

   j p
  



 q fpp  fi e pfo  c
e    o  
o 

m   f   d 
k fg   i e p


g
 d pf j


d   g g
 
k j  g k f
 
k  d e c q f c 
d p l d p
k q
f c    g

   

d p   f  c i  m

d l fd p
  
  o

dg

q
f c 
k
 c d      
 d    q c fc 
 e
  

   c d  f  d g
d e e pf
k     c

    

  g  d fg  

 c
g

q

d

k  g
m

  e e  

c d g 



  g  d fg 

9
u

7
x

f  
z 

c

k



 

 c
   j d g k  fg 
d g



j  c    
d  fg

 f g   fg

d  e d g g fg  

j  d pp f

 fg



i i d m
  p
m

 

c

   d p  d p   f  c i

 e e   f
 fk
  o


i  l fg 

m 


 

f f d k k
k



  j q
c dl



q d dg

 q

 






m

 c  

fg fg  
d 
di  g c

o f k 
 j  c
g

  g  fk
  c
g

k
fg   k
 m   
 c d  d   c f d p   f c i
o 
   g  c
l
  f
 m   c
d p   f c i

o  c
g

k
k 
 g   fg k  
d   p





  m

q    d  
i e  fg   d k k
k
    c

fg   k
  o q
f c  pf c 
 
k
     m
 
g  
 o
k
 j c
g

d
 g

g  i
  o  fi
 j  c

i   

m
c dl

 f pf c 
 
k
     fg

a _} | b

dg k

l
g

c d  
 c
  m

  m  c f   g   d k f    c
d    i e  f g  c d 
~  ]  ~

 fg 


 d  
 c
   
 e
  


 fg 

T = T - (x,y) + (u,v)

  p
i          c
   d g

d  p
d    g
  c

k

 c

k

T + (u,v)

k k

 c f
k
f e d  
k
 g  j c

k
 o

l
 j dg k

q

q fpp fg k  
d

  g  fg 
 j  c
 

  o  c f o 
  d 
i

k  
 c
 j

 g  fp q
c d l
d  fg p
 

  g  d fg fg d pp  c
l
  f
 m

 l
 c d   c f    d 

   d p  d p   f  c i



p
d k   

d    
  d p   f c i m c

 g fk
 c

k



 c d



   d k k g
 j d g k   e e  
 c d   c f
k
k 
 g   fg k  
d   p
fg

k
g  
c


o c
o 


l

k
     fg  c
   f g   fg

 c d    g  d fg  l
 

m  g  fk
  c
   

j d g k    c f    
 e
  

j d g k 

 

   m

 f  c
pf c 
k

d       c
   
 d  
d g pf c 

k
q   pk c d l


g   g  fk

k
d  pf
  c
d p   f c i  m
 c   j c

 
 c

 g p   f

 
d 
d   p
fg
q fpp  d
  


o

i i d j 

e d o c

 f  d o
m

d p   f c i

m
  pk e
o i

i  c  fi
m

f c  q
d



k

 q c
c


c

d k k f f g

o dg

  g    d e c fg k  
k  c

k
  o

q d g  d o d   
   c d  
pp   q c
 c


dg k

d 
fg

k

q fpp

j    c f
c

di


 

  


 c f

dg

 g f g


k  g

\ ] }\

\ }

\ }

 b

_` ^

` _ `

k dd

  

q c fc

q

c dl

g  

   k f
k 

 d pp
k

fg k k d  d        
m  c f k d  d        
  e e      c 

 e
 d  f g 


d 
d 
   g  d fg fg d  fg p
f
i

b

 b


k f   f g 

fg   d   i i  g 
 m

  d 
g   
 e  g  f p
o  g  q fg c  q  c f k d  d        
q    

c d e    fg
i d  
f d  d
dg

pd  

e
o i
k

fg

p

     e   e  
 f   
   g  q

  fi
j  g




 o  f

 f
fg 

  fg j
 d  
f  d g d    d pp e
o  i

 p

fg

  fi
m

 c

 g f g

d 

g 
o

 q
l
 q
q fpp g    fg    c f c

m

p

fg k

k dd

c



'

q fpp

l
f

dg

fg

d c



o

 c

, !  !
 &
 & 
"  .    !+   * ' 
&   +   +
+  !' &     
  +       +  + *      +   * ! !'
 &      * +     +  ,    & 
  !    
+  !' &      
+  !  & & 
"   !'
 &   "      !'
 & .
.
+' " -

10

b
8




dg

 
k

d

d
2

2
c

 

5
c

` ]  ~_~ b

q

p g k 


f  
z


 l
 c d  f  d


 fg 

  

 



p

 +     + +    + + 

5
4
c

8
c
2
c

8
2
c

2
4

e
6

7
c

5
c

10

9
8

e
7

9
8

10

9
c

   d p  p   f  c i m

c



7
c

   d p  d p   f  c i

c
g  i
 o
k
 m

10

9
8

 '

 

e
9

6,7,8

   , , "  + ( 
 + + +   +*  + +

 

9
8

c
9

7
c

10

10

d  fi e p
pf   o

f

  fi
f o d  
g   c o  f   

d g
d i e p
d 
 c  q g
p q m

  

 e
 d  f g  i  c o d  
  c d g

 

   d p  d p   f  c i j  c
l
  f 
  o  c
 d e c q f p p
 c

p
i
g    
   
k f g  c

  j

k
 m  c
d p   f c i

h m

 c d 
d c  o  c

 e
 d  f g 

   d p  d p   f  c i m 

dg k




d g k  c

   g  d fg fg

c

   

fg k  c

  c d    g  d fg  d fl
g f
i


 c

   g  d fg fg

    

d

de c

    d p j p


f   g g
 
k j q

c
g  i
  o l
f
 d g k
i d

d i
c d

  fi
       c

k
 m  c
o  p  e f f
 d 
k

  

 m

 fi
 j d g k


 

  


d c

f
 d  f g

  g g fg

fg l  pl
 d   g   d g  g  i
  o d  
 


 f
i  m  c  
d c d  
  f

  pp
  f g  o

 fi
f  c

pd 
 c d g

JK L M N OP Q R S

 

 @ Iu

~

w G H

 d p   f c i

   d p  d p   f  c i

    g g fg  fi
f
 
g  fd pp
q  
d   g  o     k fg n  fi
    pl
d e   p
i


f



 

h m  d   l d  d p   f  c i

a _} | b n  fi

k f
  o   i

n  fi

w @ ?

c

 g f g

s 

k dd   

 g

 m  c   c
 dp

f

d  i e    f d pp g 

D @ I>  u

D @

 d p   f c i

f g   k
   f
k

f d g   c
 

k d p   f c i
 g p fg c  q

c
di
d


h m
o  i fg fi  i  e d g g fg  

 m

f 
p
    c
g

   d p  d p   f  c i j

k f

g  q d



  pl
 c

   d k k d 
d  c  
e m



 p

 m  c

d

 d p   f c i m  c
   f    c  q  c d   c

f i  
 c d g  g
q d

d g fi e    d g  p
   g   p
d  g
p   l


fg

fg

d p   f c i

i  c pf
d g   c
 

k

k
 f g  j d g k  c

  g k

d p   f c i j  d pp
k

f  c d 

f    d   d p   f  c i j

 c d  q
q fpp    k o   d   i e p

p k f

g  e   p
i j  c   
  e d  c  m  c   j g    g p f n  fi
d

p

 m

p

fg k

  m  fg 


 p

   

W X S XY Y Y Z

[ \ ] ^ b c d e    fg
_

 o c

j q c fc

j q
   pk q  f
 c f i  
 fi e p d 

; < = > ? @ <

 i



   fi
j o  d    d p  o

    

di

 

e   p
i j f f d p 

c

di
q d



  pl
d

k f

g 

e   p
i m  c d 
l
  c d  i
d g  

\ \ ` }
c
i

] ~ }
 g

a
 g

]
fg  

}\ \ b
c

   d p  d p   f  c i

 e d g g fg

 

j  d fg

q  
k   k
 fg  c

k
 j d g k fg 
  fg
d

g
l




fg    k  

  p
m

g   f fl
p

   d p  q    i
 f g    e p f  f g  q   

  
 c
 j  g  f p d p p  c
l
  f 
 d 
f g  c
 d i



m
g   g   d   j n  fi

 d p   f c i

 fpk   c
 

 e d k k fg p
d l
  g
d  d  fi
   c
   
g 

 

m
  d   q f c d     l
 

o  i  d  fg p
 

fg

 f  d g

l
 
 m  d g  fi
j  c
  
  o
k


   d p  f  o   i
k d o  
   m
p    

d k k

d  fg p
l
 

d  d p
d o

   c
 

m  c
e   
  f fpp    d 
k fg  c
o pp q fg  
m

12

12

10

10
6
r

11
4

 

j q

c dl

 

f  
z

o c

de c

c fc
k
c   pk q
d k k g

f  d o
  d k k  c
m

f d k k
k

 c
l
f
  o

n  fi


 l
 c d  fo q
  g  f k
  c

  o l
  f 



3
u

dg k

 p   f c i m

c

 c

 

   
g  p e d    o  c
 

j d g k f    i e p
i
g 
 
g 




i i d o i

o 

k



e


g  c
 
j  c f f  c

k
 o q
f c    fg   l
 

j dg k

c

  c d g
 m

 c f

  m

 c
e 
l f   p
   

pp    c d  f

m  c
g

  
c d  i

k
 c d  
k

c

  
o 
d 
g  p g
      fg f j d g k   c
   c d  q

g        fg  c
   d 
m
 f
d    

j  c d   c


  f g  fg  c

 f
g  fi e p
i
g  d  f g  o n  fi
c q

   e k d 
 c
  
 f
g  p j d g k c  q

 d p   f c i

f

  k

 i fg
 c
pf c 
k
 f p m   k   c f j q


 

  


q fpp i d
 
 o d
fg

q f c d

   

h
 d pp  c d   c f f  c
k d  d        

 
k

f d     fd 
k

l d p
m  c
e  f  f 

  e e      c 

 e
 d  f g  m


 


b

g 



 
  b 




k dd   
m

d e     m  c f f d k d  d        
 c d     
 d 
  o f
i  j q c


d c f
i

    

     

e  f  f

  




dg

q f c  c

l d p

  d    c
f
i



b

fg
m

q f c  c
i fg fi  i

 
d 
 c
l d p
 o

fi e p
i
g 
k   fg

c

pp  o  c
d  l
 e
 d  f g   d g
e
o  i
k fg

l d p
fg


l d p
 

di
c
de

p

k dd   

  fi
j q c


m
 
k

fg

c
de   m

f  c
g  i
  o f
i 

fg  c
c
d e m
c d k 

q

 

fg

k
 c d   c

 c
e   p
i

c

e  f  f




   

i f c   c fg

   j  fg 
 c f f q c d  q
d 

i  l fg q f c

f  c d  q c
g d l
 

f i  l
k o  i

c d  q
c   pk

d c


e

 
c

 o  c
d p   f c i m

 g
 fk
 o  c
      c
  c
 j  c f 
  p 

fg d   i e pf d 
k 

g 
 o  e k d 
 m
 c

f d i  c i  

p
d g    p  f g j d g k  c f f q c d  i d
 n  fi

d c

l


l d p




fg

 j q c fc

d p     
fg
fg

  

 

g   e d    o  c

 
g 

 e d g g fg

c

g k l


 o  c f
k
fg

m
q fpp d p  g

k   g  q

 

 d p   f c i m  c
    l
 

 d p   f c i
d  fd 



dg

 g f
m
q f c

l


o  c

f g  
k
o  i

d 
g   m
k   c f   p  fg  c
l
  f
 fg


f n  fi



 q

f  c
q
f c   o  c
pf c 
 
k
 fg o  i


   j  c
g q

 f 
l d p
 

d g k q c fc


fg

 

 d l


q c fc l
  f
 d 
fg

pd  m

 

  d g
d g l
 
fg  m

  

 

d

   !

 & 
   +   * !'  
& 
      ,     
 + #' $            ,   #' $   *   + .
 + # $               
(  +  # $    ,    +
 ' +' + ! &   ( '   +     +   
 *  , + !       (  ! & & 
  '    ,  , ,  +     +  

'   +      
 ! &    +   +    * ,  *  +   +   +
   +   * !    "   #' $ & 
  ! !   ,   # $    *   + &   ! !'
 & %  + # $ & & 
 + # $   !'
 &    +  ,  *  +  +   + '    
  +   +   +  + !
 + # $ & (  +  # $  ' .
.
  ,   #' $ 
, .
# * + (  +  (     +    +    +  * +
        +   +    + +     +     $

 c
o pp q fg  
fpp    d 
 n  fi

 d p   f c i m  c
d    q   g
k
 fg k f d 
 c
e 
k

   

e  fg 
  j d g k  c
g  i
 f pd
p fg
d c l
 

  d g d p
n  fi
o i

c

e  f  f

f  c

l d p
m

 d p   f c i j q
d     g  o   c
 fi
 e
g   g


m

 d


fg  fk
g 
k
j q
 e
g k e  
g  fd pp

d c

l


d  f f
  d  
k

p

   
  d    c f l
 
o  i

p

   fi
k
 
d  fg  c

 o  c
g
f c   fg l
 
m

c



m

 
d c


 

  


Q: 4,8,?,?,?,?
10
4
?
6
8 7
9
5 ?
?
9
2
2
8
?
1

Q: <empty>
10
4

8
9

Q: 2,5
10

Q: 8,8,10,?,?
10
10
6
8 7
9
5 ?
8
9
2
2
8
?
1

9
2

Q: 2,2,5
10
4

8
9

2
2

 fi
f

p

f  
z


 p

n  fi

7
5

2
2

 c   c

   

Q: 1,2,10,?
10
10
6
8 7
9
5 ?
2
9
2
2
1
1
1

    

1


 p   f c i m

   fi
m  c
  c
  
e   o  c
 e k d 
d 
  g   d g 

 fi
m    c
 l
 d pp   g g fg  fi
f

p

 ]

~

fg

f




 

p

d  i e    f d pp g 




  p

 


d
 c dg



 p

j 

 c f f

p

a _} | b
c dl


g

  m  c f f

q  q d  

   d p  d g k n  f i

 d p   f c i   o    pl fg  c

pf
  i e p

 l
 fpp     g  fk

 d g   c
 d p   f c i m  c f

 d   l d  d p   f  c i m

 f d    d pp  c

 pk
  o c
c 

d p   f c i  fg l
g 
k

 j q
pp
o 
 c
     i e  
   m  c

d   g o     k fg  c f d p   f c i

 

   d p  d p   f  c i m

 c 

d p   f c i  j f f  c

d  f
    fi e p
i
g   g
n  fi

e   p
i m   j f i d 

i

 g
f  d pp
k

 f   g g
 
k j 

d   p  c
 d i
d 

 


 p


 fg 

p

 d p   f c i  j q c fc

d k k

k
  g

d

d e d  d pp
p   i e  
 m  g pf

d  f i
j  d   l d  d p   f  c i

f  c d   o  c

   d p  d g k

d k k  d q c  p



o

k
 d pp d   g 
   c

  m
 d   l d  d p   f  c i

f  fi fpd   

d   pp
  f g  o k f   g g
 
k
f f 
po fg

d  g
l


   d p  d p   f  c i j f g  c

g 
 c d  f  q    i d f g  d f g f g



 m

    d pp
d c

 

d

  i e  g
g  m h
 d pp  c d  q f c   d
 o

g f fd pp j
d c l
 

   d p  d p   f  c i j q
d k k

 c
pf c 
  q
f c 
k
 c d    g g
    q  k f

g    i e  g
g    
 c
 m   e   l

d p   f c i

 
 j q
d 
k

o   i

c

 

i i d   c d   c
pf c 
    c

   d p 

k
q fpp

 d k k  c

  m
g o d   j d  p 
 fg  e
  f g  o  c
e    o 
l
d p  c d   c
c
d e
 
k
p
d l fg
d pq d   d o
m  c f  
   d i  
e d  d pp
p q d     q
 c
pf c 
 
k
 c d  
 o  i
q c

m

d

c d   c

dg

c

  m

  i e  g
g  f

d c   i e  g
g  k

 i fg


f g  f k
 c
  i e  g
g        f k
 c
  i e  g
g   q
k  g   d 


k

 c

 i e  g
g  m

  
c d  q 

  i e  g
g   i f c 


p
   c
 d i

k
 c f e   
  m   c
d  l
 
 l d  f g j d pp  o  c


k
 d 
 d o
j  


 

  


q
i d d k k c
i
q fpp

f k
g  fo  c
g
q

d pp d   g 
   c



i

k  
 c
 fg  

d  fg p

 o  d   l d  d p   f  c i

d e e p

 

c

k
 o

'

j 

 g  fp  g p  g
  i e  g
g  
i d fg  m

f fl
g
p q m

   

 o
k
 fg  c

  m  d 
  p j i d g   i e  g
g  

 i e  g
g  m
c
g

  i e  g
g   m  c f e   
  f 
e
d 
k

o d f p c f c p
l
p k
   fe  f g

    

  

 



!  !
 &
 & 
   ,  + +  *  +  +   +      (  +  "  .   " *  ,   +   +     * +

 
   !+   *    (   +    & 
     * + ,   *  +   +   + !'
 &    * '                  '
 .   "
!'  , +        ,  +    * +  + & .
 ( ( ,
      ( *   !
" &
     ( '  +  * +  +     (   +    .  *  , + ! * +  +   +       +    (   +    & +' "    +  '      ,
 +   + 
  

 c

d 
d g  i
  o  g  e
 f
k

k
 d fp fg

 d   l d  d p   f  c i j q c f  c q
q f p p g    e
p p   

fg k
 d fp j

e    g  
 c d   c
 d g
  pl
k fg
d e e p

 j    g p   d l
  fg  c

k
  o

  fi
 c    c

  i e  
c
 i e  g
g  m

f   j q
i d

d c

  

q fpp

   
 e  g k   d 
e d  d 
  i e  g
g  m
pd
p
d c l
 
q f c f    i e  g
g  g  i
 d  e d  
 o  c f e   
  m f c  c

pd
p f f
d    k

 i fg
q c fc
k
 
q

g
 fg 
 c
f
g k e  fg   c d l
k f

g  p d
p  m

 c
g

q

dg

dl


d c

 i e  g
g 

  i e  g
g  d d fg  

k

 i fg
 c
pf c 
 
k
 c d  p
d l
  c
  i e  g
g  m  g o d   j q f c d pf  p
i  
 p
l
 g
  j
q
 d g k  d pp  c f q f c    c d l fg   e
o  i

q  
e d d 

  m   c
d p   f  c i

f fpp    d 
k

fg  c
 

p q m

13

b
1

10

h
3

d
2

14

15
13

h
1

4
10

h
2

14

15

` ]  ~_~ b

q

k  fg

 fi
m

 c

d

g
l


 j
d c

f  
z


  f g
i  

c dg

f
 d  f g
f

c q
p

 o
i dg

15

c

4
10

11

12
e

13

h
3

8
a

14

2
a

15

11

12
h

 d   l d  p   f  c i m

p  g k 
  d   l d  d p   f  c i


2
c

1
h

11

12
h

h
3

a
3

14

10

1
i

11

12
e

13

d

  


f
 d  f g 

f
 d  f g 


l
c d
d 

k  q c fp

d

g

k
k m

p  e 


 f
k
 



dg
fg

g
d p

q c j p


d c

f
 d  f g fg l  pl


e
o i
k

fg

 pd fi

k
g  

c

c d

c


g  i


o


 

  


 i e  g
g 

d  i
d
m

d c

o c

    

  i e  g
g   j q fpp i

q f c

d

  i e  g
g  m o
 q d  k   c
g  i
  o 
i d fg fg   i e  g
g      pk
d p q
i

 
 c
  j   g
l
 c f c
  c d g

fo  c

i

fg

e d f   m

p
d    g
  c

d

 fi
f



c dg

j 

dg

d pp

g  i
 o

 i e  g
g  j

  fi
j  g  fp  g p  g
  i e  g
g  
i d fg  m  c   j  c
   d p   g g fg

   fi
m d fg j  fg 


 p

q

 fo  c

 c   j c

  i e  g
g   k
 
d 
 d  p
d   c d po q f c
d  c f
 d  f g m  fg 
q
  d   q f c
 c f  d g c d e e
g d  i    p

   

q  f
 c f i  
    fg   p

f

d

 g g

k j


f

d  i e    f d pp

g 

pd 


  m  c   d pp  c 

d p   f c i  c d l

p

 c
 d i
d  i e    f   g g fg  fi
m

; < = > ? @ <

A  B

JK L M N OP Q R S

 


W

<

I<

D @

>  <

IH > < @ u

S XY Y Y Z

\ ` \ ]  [ \ ]  ~ b h
 d pp  c d      l
 d pp  d p fg
c

   p  
k

fg  p k
k
de c

] } \ _] 

fg

f  


k
 f g fg


pd 
k



dg k

d g d p fg

 c f

 f
g 

  

f  

e  l fk

d p   f c i  m

    fg j k g d i f e    d i i fg j 

k

 g k
   d g k fg

od c

i d fg

o

 e f c dl

d p   f c i  j d g k

f

 g

d p   f c i  m

} b

 pd   d   f g i
g   m
 i
o c

 


d 
 g p


 e  g  f p
o  i d 
 fd p  c d  c d 

g

l

k

fg

pd     g

 q
l
 f f d pq d  d   k fk
d   

 c

  
 d
 
 fg  f c  fg  

 e f q
c dl
 l

k m


p
l d g  c d e 
    
d k m



c
pd  q

e d

fg

 c
p
   
 
  f  g  o    c

 c
 g p i d 
 fd p  c d  q d  g     l

k

fg

q d  c
i d 
fd p

 g   g       f l
f g k    f  g d g k  d   l d  d p   f  c i m


| \ ] }

| \ \ } b h
 d pp  c d   c

di

f

 p 
k   j  p 
k g  
 j  

g  
 o   g  d g k d   m  
 c f  c

   q  f
k  q g  c fg  pf

}] ` }

] ~ b

m m j   i i d  f  g     c


g 
 j dg k i d
d o
q

` _} _ ` ~ b

d

 o  c
i d   
   
g 
 p f

 

d

d pp q
k

c



o

j c

 

d
  c
 
i


 
d i e p
j q c d  f d     g   i e  g
g    d i fg fi  i

 

o  
 
 p

m

 e d g g fg  

m 
  

  g  
q c
 c
  c
  g 
e  f k
g
k o   d e c    k f  d e c  j q
f c 
k    g q
f c 
k m
] ~_

\ ] ~ b   c

| } ^ \ ~

d  j d  

q f c

_ } _ ` ~

 f g   g

] a _} | ~ b

fg e          
j  c

l
f
 c d 

 
d c

  e  

 f
o k
   fe  f g  o  c
d p   f c i

dg k


k
 j dg k c

 

d p   f c i

 e
 fo

p
i i d m

 c
fg e   d g k

d  i e    f   g g fg

 fi
m

p 

dg

d i e

q  f

k q g

o  pp e 
 k    k
f p
  fi e    d g   c d g   i
 c fg  c d 

i d
 
g 
     m    k  g   
p

 g  c f m

 f fi e    d g   c d    c d l
d g fg  fi d 

q   fg g  q p
k
 o  c
d p   f c i m
o
  

k 

p 

k   fg

dg

d

f

 c f j  c
g
c

l
  c fg

di m

d i e p
q f c      g   p fg

f g   
d pp

 g

p  j o 
d c

   c
d  c

 
d p   f c i j

   c
d  c

 m

 

q
pp  c d   
c d  

i   f d  f g

o c

fi e    d g  m c d  f fi e    d g  f  c d     g k
   d g k

k  g  g

k



q  

f     g


 o c

d p   f c i

c q

dg

 c
d p   f c i

q   

fg 
 g d pp j  fg 
 c f f q c d    q fpp g

k   d g  q
 
  f g  d     c
d p   f c i m

~ b

` ]  ~ _ ~ b   i i d  f g  j d  i e    f  j 
   
g 
 m

e


 f
   pl fg d   i i d  f g   
   
g 
j   d g d p fg d g

d  p
d    g

d p   f c i


  f g

c d 

   g g fg  fi
m

} _` a b
] ~_

} _` a b h
l f
q

c

d f

    fg

d p   f c i  o  i

  f      m p  
 d pp  c d  fl
g d pf   o
fg

   fi
m

 

g  i
 j c




   j

c

de    j

 i d pp
   d g
o  g k


 

  


} _` a

 p

` } _` a ~ } b

[ ] ^ _

~ } b

fg

 

e

k
` ] _

 

dg  

   fi
m

fg

\} }b

  i e d  f  g  d 
 
k j  
k
 f f g

fg 

  fg  c
 d g



 

dg

c q
k

   

dg g     od
 c dg



 q   m

 

fg

   d g     fg 

   c d  c d l


g  
g fg  

 

dg

` ^ ~ b    i fg

  fi
m  g k
   d g k c  q

    

 c d   c f  d g

 
k

  fi
m

k f f  fg  c
 d g
  



 

fg 

  fg

c

  fi
m

 

g  i
   g fo   i p k f   f  
k

 l
   i
 d g
fg

 

 fi
m

a ] _` a b
 l

k

d p   f c i  o 



g 
       
k  j c d fg

i d   f i  p fe pf  d  f g d g k i fg fi  i q
f c    f d g  p d  f g    c  

       
k  m
d p 
e 

g 
k

g d e d   g

fg l  pl
   g       fg
 fpk fg  c fg  fg

\ \ ^

d c  i
q   m  c

d
 i i  g

 d p
fg

  
 m

h
 d pp  c d 

i d g g
 j   i
i  f d  f g  d g

 
k



d  e k q g i dg g
 m

a _} | ~ b
 l

k

d   i  e

 d  m p  j d pp  c

 

 i d g   k fg j d   fl f  c
k  pfg j d g k o d   f g d p g d e

d p   f c i  q
 d q

d 
d p 
d i e p
  o 

k d p   f c i  m



k

d p   f  c i  d 

g
 d p p l
  f i e p
    i d
 c

   c  f 
d 
d  c   d
 m  c
i d f g
f  
f e   l fg  c
f    
  g
  m

] a _} | ~ b

d g

k f     fg

de c

dg k

k f  d e c

pf   d g k d k d 
g  i d   f
 m
c d l
d p  e 

g 
k

b  dl


de c


d k c 

o

    fg

d e e pf
k



 i e   fg  c

k
q
f c   fg

fg

fg  
d k

b  dl



 g e  

k

c  


h
 d pp  c d   c f f  fi fpd   

fg

d  j q

e dc  o i

 fg p

 

  



m
fg

 j  

dg

k f  d e c

q f c   

  fi
m

de c

 k
 m

l
f



e 

g  d  f g  j d k d 
g 

d g  i
  o d p   f c i  m

fg

k
e c 

 k
 m

 
o p o  i dg

e   p
i  fg

 

o 

 fi
m


\

\ }\

} _ ` b


 i fg

q c
c


de c

 

k f  d e c

c d

  p
m

d g d 
k
m

 a _

] 

} b    c
l
f
  o d

fg   e  p f d p   k
 m 
  f
 g f c

f g 
l
 
  e  p  f  d p   k
 m


` ` \


}\ ^

` \ ` } ~ b  
d

  

f d   g g
 
k

} ` a

` \ ` } ~ b  
d

 i e  
 c
i fg fi  i

d p   f c i   c d 

 g

fg

fg  

f 

fg  

f 

c d 
l

k

 e d g g fg


de c

k f  d e c

 c f q d   c
q
f k d p   f c i

 g g

k

 d c

 i e  g
g  m

  i e  g
g  m



 p

    g p

 o d q
f c 
k

   fi

 g g

k

 i e  g
g  m

 c
k f  d e c
k
 m
de c m

e 

g 
k

   d p  j n  f i

 j dg k

c 

 d   l d 

d p   f c i  m

~ ~_ \

\ ~} _ ` ~ b

   c   pk
e
  d 
  f g

d fl
g fg e   j  c  q fg fg 
 i
k fd 

  p  m
    p
d  g  c
i

d pp m

o c
o i

q    c    c   i
d p   f c i

pp e f  c
d p   f c i

d dg k  i j
d 

 g

q dg 

    i
i  
  i e p
d p   f  c i  
m m  c d f g i d   f i  p  f e p f  d  f  g 

i d  g p d      k   g
f
 d  f g m
d  d e e
d  fg

   c   pk d p 
e
  d 
 f
  o  c    d g  q
 e   p
i 

 c
e  d   f
e   p
i   m p c   c

i d 
 f
d p   o  c   c  m

c

d g  q
  d 
 c    j   i
 o  c
e   p
i 

 g  q    d     f e e f g d e   p
i

  
  fg

dg

dg q


f o   k  g  

 c
d g  q
  f c  d q d m
 c

  c
 e   p
i  q fpp fg l  pl
fl fg e    o j   pl fg   i i d  f g    
   
g 
 j k
 f g fg

d g k d g d p fg d p   f c i  m  c


 o 
  f g   c d  fg l  pl
d l

 g k
dg k
c


c

  p  f g 


  f g     d pp



d 
i  c i  
 g e 
k f  d p
m
 fi e p
i  k f  d  f g  

d pp  c

fg l  pl
d

c  i
q  

e   p
i 

 pf c  i  k f  d  f g



 

d  d  p
d   d    e p

d c  i
q   e   p
i j  
  
 
fg  p k fg
d e   p
i

c

e d f

e   p
i   m

c d q
c dl
q  
k

 g m


 

  


fg d pp j

   d pp

c d l
d  p
d    g

   d pp  c
pd    c d pp
g fg e   p
i m

    

   

 g 
 e 
 f o

   d g g     pl
 c f e   p
i m    d  p
d  
  
  
d k f j  fg 
  i
 fi
  c
e   p
i
g   d  c d pp
g fg d 
c q

 c f g f  f  j d g k  c

i d
d l
  f i e p
  p   f  g m

f

o   dg g   

    pl
 c
e   p
i j o

p o

  q  f
k  q g    q fpk fk
d     
 l d  f g  m

  i f c 

   i
e d   f d p  
k f fo    f k
d f   k m
c
g


f   i
    d k fg j

 
d i e p
j fo d e   p
i

n  fi

 d p   f c i m 

  i
 c fg
q c


g k

  fl
i  
 
k f o 

fg  f c 

c dg o 

     p k      e  c d      o     c
d   c

 m

fg 
ppf
g  d     c

 i
d e e  d c

i
i   f d  f g

fg l  pl
  e d g g fg  

 j   q fpp g  
 d g  
k f o  q  f fg k  q g

i d c
i d fd p   

f g    
o p j  

o c

 q
l
 j fo    d g  d

e d   f  pd  e   p
i j  

i d
   i
e d   fd p  
k f

k
e
g k fg

 g

d   

c q

i  c

    
 l d  f g fg k f d 
 d        g k
   d g k fg  o  c
e   p
i  m

; < = > ? @ <

A  B

JK L M N OP Q R S

 

fk 
i



S XY Y Y Z

d i m   p
   
  k d m

; < = > ? @ <

JK M U OP Q R S



JK L M N OP Q R S



[ \ ] ^ b c d e   fg

I<

 o c
i fk 
i

E > @ w

s 



g

di

d g k k f     f g

D @ I>  u

 o  c
e    d i i fg e  
  m

 w >  E

x  D @ > < E >

D @

S XY Y Y Z

h m

] } | ~ b  g  fk
  c
e   p
i

d p
d k
o i

<

W S XY Y Y Z

; < = > ? @ <

| }\ ~}

IH > < @ u

  k d  p
   
q d  d 
l f
q

 w u

IH > < @ u

c d


d k c 

d  fg p
    
l
 

 o   i e   fg  c   
  e d  c  fg d k f
 
k  d e c m
c d l


d c

f

dg

d p   f c i

  e e  
 c d   c
 d e c c d 
k
q
f c   j d g k q
q f c  
 fg p
    
l
 

o  g k fg

c  


e dc 

  d pp   c
 l
  f
 j d    i fg  c d   c
 d e c c d  g 
k
q
f c   m
 i e  
c
c  
 e dc  o i

  d pp   c
 l
  f
 fg  c
 d e c m

  c
q d j  c

d 
  c
 o  i  pd  f g   o  c
 c   
  e d  c e   p
i m g
i d q d g      c

c  
 e d c
q

g

d  fg p
e d f  o l
  f
 m
   d p   f c i  o   c f e   p
i

 o  c
 fg p
    
d p   f c i
dg

  pl
k fg

f
 d  fg

c
dg e  

d  fg p
    

d 
l d fd g 

 c d  q
q fpp e 

g  m  c

f d p  d  fg p
 fg e   p
i j q c fc
k f  d e c m  i e   fg d pp e d f   c   
  e d  c   d g

d p   f c i

 l
 d pp l
  f
 j    c


d

  pl
k

  c
 p d p i
 c  k   c d 

d
od
 m
 c fg  o  c
l
  f
 d   f f
 j d g k  c
q
f c   
e 

g   c
     o   d l
pfg o  i
d g   c
 g  g
f 
g 
k
  d g
e 

g  j q
k
g
c

c


q

g

e dc o i
 c



m 



 c   c   o d c d l fg fg g f
     m c
g

 o d e d c
q 

l
f
 j


e   p
i

f   k

 i fg
 c
k f  d g 
o  i



 o
k
q
f c   d p g  c
e d  c m

 

 c
p
g  c

  g  fk
 fg e d  c  o 
k
 o  i

k
q
f c  


c
 i

dg k

 dg k

f

d  o pp q  m

d k f  fg  f c
k

c
  
l


 g
 f  

k
q
f c   d 

d

o c


l
 l


g

p
g  c

  f  
po m

fl
g

i fg fi  i

k f
 
k

de c

q f c

 m  c
e   p
i

fg  c
 d e c m

 f e    f p
  c d l
 d e c  q f c g
d  fl

k
 j   fg   k
 o   c
 c   
  e d  c  
q
pp
k
g
k j q
g

k



d k k  c

 f
i
g   c d   c


g 

  p
 q c  
   d p     f g
d  fl


 

  


  c
 q f

 

i d
c
e dc


 k f    
  c


k
   g 

 d pp
k

j q c f  c



q fpp   
 

c

 i e   fg  c


d c

fg g f
p

d

 o   i e   fg  c

d  dp e dc

q fpp

| }\ ~}

] }| ~ ] ` ^

 

fg

c

o c


d


[ \ ]

q fpp k f    

i fg fi  i

 

d p   f c i

d p   f c i m

q c fc

 
 dp 

c

g f fd pp



d

d p   f c i j



d c

l

m


d k c  
d c j o 

c  



e dc
dg k

f    d   d p   f  c i

  m

  i e p

p

  

o

 o   i

 o pp q fg  c

 

 

dg

 g fk
 d g
k
o i
 i e  
k

 
g 

  m 
 

d l


 

q f c

q fpp

c



g f fd pp j q

l d p
 d 


 

 

g q
m

o

 c

o 
d c l



f c  q 
pd d  f g q    m

dg

 e  fi  i

 

 d fg  c f e d  c



l d p
j  c
g



e  c

c  
 c dg

 c f g   f g f   i i  g   i d g  e  fi f d  f g d p   f c i  m



c   pk

 

 c f j l d p
q fpp d pq d 

g e d   f   p d  j fo   k f   l
 d e d  c o   i

  m

  fi d 
  g

m



 c d       p  f g f g  
 
d c
k

  g

k   e k d

i d fg  d fg d g

l d p
   g l

   c
  
 c   
  k f  d g 
 m

f d pf  p
 p 
    c
 e  fi  i m
c
g

f  

 g    g o  

g   f fl
p



k f  d g 
o  i

d pp  c
  c



  g j d g k 

 i  
d g k i  
l
  f
 j f d  
i e      e k d 

g   f fl
p j fo  

 d
f m

 

k f

g  m

 c
e   
  q c fc d g
  fi d 
f  e k d 
k f  d pp
k

p
g  c

c
  

 fg

e  fg   d     c
    
m

l
 
j  d pp  c f

 c

 

fg  c
 d e c j  g  fp d pp  c

q
f c 

d  fi e p


k

k f  d g 
o  i

] } _ ` b  c
d f   

c  
 e dc

c dg

e dc  j 

 j

 c

p
g  c

g 

d   p
 m

d g l
 
j q
q fpp   g        c

l
  d p  o  c
 c   
 

  o c
c  
 e d c o 
d c
c

 c

d 
g  g
d  fl

k
q
f c   m

d o d f p  fi e p


g  f g m

e 
k

    e  fg 
  d  q d  k  o  i
e dc 

  pfg o 
l
  c    c

d
e 

g  m

d i
 c


q
q fpp c d l
d e  fg 



l


c  

   

o   g k f g  c   
  e d  c  d    i f g g
d  f l
q
f c 

g
d  fl
q
f c    p


    

q c  
q
f c  f


  m

dg k

g q

d g k o pp q fg f q f c

 m   e e  
 c d  q
c d l
d p
d k

c d c


c

k



f







 

o  c f e d  c f
 
  c d g  c

f  fg e d  c  o p
g  c

d p  
i
i
  c d   c
 c   
  q d d 

 d e dc

d e dc
 q

o i



o
o

j q
c   pk

 c
    
f  c    c

 e k d  fg  c
e 
k

    e  fg 
 m

  




+ ,   !'
 & 
  !  #' $   ! '
 & %  #  $ & 
 #  $   #' $   ! '
 & (  +  # $  ' .


l
c d q c
g
l
 q



p
g  c m

  

  

 c

o 

 
m

 
 
 

 * + ( * *  ' * ' *  + 

+
* +   + 
 + *   +   *  ' * '

  d g f
l d p
j  c

f d pq d 
l fk
g 
 o d e d  c  o  c d 
o

 

  

j c
g

o   c
 
pd d  f g   d g g   c d g
f 

l d p
m
 f g   c d  k   

 c d  fo q
e
 o   i

 

l d p
 q fpp
l
g   d pp

  

 


e
d 
k p  l
 d pp
k
  o  c
 d e c j  c

 g l

 c
g dp 

d g  c   
  e d  c d p   f c i f   e
o  i

k f  d g 
l d p
o  i

m  c

 p
l
 g
   o

 c
 e k d 
 fg d  k f f   i d g g
 j    c
  g l

g 

f d  o d   d  e    f p
m

 _


~ } ] ~

 pd fi

a _} | b

d  f g  m

q

q


 c



f    d   d p   f  c i

f    d   d p   f  c i


  


dg k q



g q


dg



 



 

  


pd

 j o  q c fc q

j c

i e  
 j d g k

    d k k   m

dd o l


  fg k f d 
 c d 

m

g f fd pp

  p   m

fi e p
i
g 
k   fg d g

 c
g   f g  o e
o  i fg 
e
d 
k

m g
 g
q

p
  l
  f
 o  i

 c
  
k f  d g 
j  c d  f

 d g k d pp   c
   

f d 
k  g

 e
 d 
 i d fg  d fg fg d   
  o l
  f
 j


g f fd pp d pp l
  f
 d 
q c f
j


 

  


q

k  q

p
  q c fc l
 

 m

  i
 fg m

    d k k g
   

d i  g c
l
f
  o

 
d c

l


fg

 

j q

c dl

 c


k  c fg   k  f    d
 c
l
 
o  q c fc

 g e  

k

l


    

 c d  f  p 
     
  fi d 
  

 i e  
k

 

   


f q c


k f  d g 

  fi d 

f i fg fi  i j  c d  f j  d
 c

d 
 q
q fpp    fo q c  c f f  c

e  e
 c  f
m
g  k
  e
o i

m m

d p   f c i j d p c   c
e  f  f

 

c

l d p
 o
d c

d c
de j q


j

 g

l


d k f

g 
l d p
f  
k



  fg


   fg d  

 c f 
p
  f g
 f
g  p j q
   
 c
l
  f
  o

d c
de j q c


e  f  f

f  p  d  f g fg  c
e  f  f

dg

e
o i




c

 o  f

  
c

c

m

fg

 fi fpd  f q f c

n  fi

p  
 d pp  c d  fo q
fi e p
i
g   c



 e
 d  f g 

d c

  m

f

p


j

 
  j


  fi
m

d c

l


dg k

g q 




m m c d  d      
o

g 
p f g    c
e  f   f  


g    j

d g k
d c
g   fg  c
e  f  f 


g q 

q c fc l
 
f 
e 

g   m

 f fi e    d g  q c
g

fi e p
i
g  fg  c
e  f  f 

 c d   c f      
o

g 
fg o  i d  f g f  e k d 
k m


f

f    d   d p   f  c i m   
 c

i d  d p
 f i f p d  f    n  f i

 d p   f  c i  m

  

 

       !

 & 
   +   * !'  
& 
      ,     
 #' $            ,   #' $   *   + (  +  #' $    , .
 # $    
' ,    , ' +' +  *  , ,  +   +   *  , + !  
  (  ! & & 
  '    ,  , ,  +     +  (    +   + 
'        

 ! &    + , +    ,   +     
   +   * !    "   #' $ & 
  !  #' $   ! '
 & %  #  $ & 
   + ,   ! '
 &
 #  $   #' $   ! '
 &
+   +   +
 + ! 

 # $ & (  +  # $  ' .
.
  ,   #' $ 
, .
# * + (  +  (     +    +    +      +   +   *    +   (   *   + + $

   f
 c d   c
  p  fg f g   
d pp  
k  c
d p   f c i j   f c d 

g
c

  g g
  f g

 c f d g k n  fi


c

  

d p   f c i

e    o d pf  p
 p
d 
 m

 

f  c

k f  d g 
l d p

d   f g
k




 i fg d 
 m

 fg 

c d

g

 c f f d

d k k
k 

d c

g k

o c

 g 

g 

\ ] b c
g

d l


d p   f c i j d pp l
  f


 

p



fg  p k
k   i d

 fi fpd  f
q

g

 m

f    d   d p   f  c i j

m   

c d

c d

 

 o  c
o pp q fg p
i i d j q c fc

 f m
m   p  
k p d   j

f d k k
k  

o c

l


 k
g  
 c
p
g  c  o  c
  
 c   
  e d  c o  i

 

  

m

  

f    d  

 q c
g c

d
 c d  g 

f  c
  
 c   
  k f  d g 
o  i

d 
fg

 
 m


d 

   
  p fl
  c
g d p   
k f  d g 
 j q
g

k    c  q

d p   f c i
d l


 
g


 d p   f c i j  c
  g g fg  fi
f  c
 d i
j g d i
p

} ` \ ~ ~ b h
 d pp  c d 

d g k p




q f c

j c
g

d pp k f  d g 

  fi d 
 d 


 

  


7
s

3 2

4 5

5
1

2
6

3 2

4 5

3 2

4 5

3 2

4 5

f    d   p   f  c i m

 q fpp  fi e pfo  c
e    o   g 
e   d pp fo q
d    i
 c d  d pp  c

k
q
f c   d 

  e e  
 c
 g d
l


p
 



c dg




fg 
  f g  o

 c d  d    i
e  fg 

j c   q

  

   

o  q c fc

c dl

dg k

  

  

m

i     i e

pred[u]

d 
c d


pd d  f g

  

 c  
 q



f  
 






q c
g

f q d 

 fg 

l f pd 
k

q   pk c dl


g

D @ <







c

dg k

k

d
g

dg k
 

  

q
c dl

     m

 

c dl



  

 fg 

 c f  m

c

   j

c

m

  

f g      
  j    c




d k k
k 

x  D @ > < E >

  
j fg

 

d e e pf
k

    m

dg g  
c
di
m

d 
 o e   f fl
q
f c  j q
c d l

   

d k k
k 

q d c


 fg 
q

d e e
d     i
q c

d p g  c
 c   
  e d  c o  i



   

   g  

  

j

  g   d k f  f g      d    i e  f g  c d 

 w >  E B

w @ E  w 



m 
d 

f g
l


f    d   p   f  c i m

d k k
k j q
q   pk

  

 

 f  d  f g    e  f   

 c f j d pp e  f  l
  f
  d  fo

dg k c  

; < = > ? @ <



c

y
d[y] > d[u]

f    
  j d g k c e   c
 f j

f  c
g
 l
 

   o

 
g
 o

m c

q c fc

 
 l
 c d   fg 

 d
i e   d k k d

shorter path from

s to u?

 d g k d pp   

g 
k
 o pp q fg

 c  

d k k
k

 g fk


   m   
 c d  f i d
 c d  

l


f    d   d p   f  c i

fg  c

  m

 m      
 l d  f g  d    
pd d  f g j

m  g fk
 c

c  
 e d c o i

d    i
e  fg   c f e d  c
e dc j q c


JK M U OP Q R S

e   f fl
 c

g
 d p  d 
 o g  g g
d  fl

k
 f e 

g 
k

d

2
2

f  
z

4 5

2
2

3 2

4 5

10

3 2
2

   

    

Y S XY Y Y Z

< u

w G



D @ H

w G H

D t H


 

  


[ \ ] ^ b 
  f g

\  ] `

 mz d g k  m f g

    

   

h m

a _} | b
dq

c d

f    d   d p   f  c i

 d g   pl
 c
 fg p
    
 c   
 

e d  c e   p
i j  g k
  c
d    i e  f g  c d   c

k
q
f c   d 
g  g g
d  fl
m
d p   d q

c d

 c   
  e d  c  d 
 g k
g
k fo   c d l
  p
  o    d p g
d  fl
    m c d  fo   c d l
g
d  fl


k
q
f c   j   g  g
d  fl
      p


 c d pp e 

g   c

ppi d g

  pl
  c f e   p
i m  c f d p   f c i f  p q
  c d 
g

   l
  f g

q

q fpp d    i
 c d   c


d
g 

  k d p   f c i j q c fc

f    d   d p   f  c i j   g g f g f g
g
d  fl

 

  p
 m

 c

 g

  fi
m

e 

g 
k

h
 d pp  c d  q
d 
fl
g d  d e c
d p   f c i j  c


ppi d g

 q f c g  i
 f
k
q
f c   j


  k d p   f c i

f d 
k

 g

e
o  i fg 
e
d 
k

f    d  


pd d  f g  m

m

h
 d pp

f

 c d  
pd d  f g  e k d 
  c   
  e d  c fg o  i d  f g d p g d  fg p

k
m

 q d  k
   f
k fg   

k f     f g

 c
fk
d  o   d g f fg

c

o




pd d  f g 


pd d  f g
q  

f

f    d   d p   f  c i m 
fg

c

d e e pf
k

q c
g

d p   f c i




k
d pfg

dg

q f c

f    d   d p   f  c i

e    f p

i d g g
 j g d i
p

k
j f

g

k

de c 

q f c

 fi e p d e e pf
 d 
pd d  f g  

g
l


g
d  fl

fg

q d d
k

 g

fg  
d  fg

 k



pd
k

k

d d fg m

q
f c   m

o

 c f

k f  d g 
m

f

g 

k 
 g 

g 
d k j c



i


ppi d g

k
f g  c
 d e c j d g k 
e
d
   c f 

+ , ,        !

 & 
   +   * !'  
& 
 #' $          (  +  #' $    , .
 # $     
  
   +   * !'
 &  
 + ,   !'
 & .
.

 

\  ] `

f  
 

^ b

After 3rd relaxation

phase

  k p   f c i m

pf
   c fg  o  c

ppi d g

 k d d   o

l


  p
    d g d

o   c   
  e d  c  j fg  c

g 
 c d   c   
  e d  c fg o  i d  f g f e   e d d 
k 

g  fd pp

d p g
d c  c   
  e d  c fg  c
 d e c m  g  fk
 d g  c   
  e d  c o  i

After 2nd relaxation

phase


ppi d g

-6

After 1st relaxation

phase


8
8

-6

Initial configuration

}` \ ~~

-6

d g k q c f q    m

8
8

8
-6

 fi
 m  c
fg 

  fg 
  f g f c  q

p 

   g g fg  fi
f e 
   l f   j  fg 
 c

d 
q  i d fg g
 
k p  e  j  g
f
 d 
k

        ,   

 +( +     + 
 +, ,  +* + +

 

    fi
 d g k  c
  c
 f
 d 
k

 

 c

 k

    f i

 m


fg

d    d p p   g  d f g  d f   o   k
 c d   c
  o    c f  m  c
 f     m



c d

q c


q f
j q
g  q

dg k

 fg 

d c  
 e dc

 j dg k c
g 
c

e dc

  i
 c
 l


q fpp g
l
 l f f  c

  g  f    o d  i   

di


k
 m


 

  


  

 fg 
 c f f d  c   
  e d  c q
c d l

  

d


c d

fg k    f g

 g

do

m

c

g
 d p j e  f      c

  



c

e d

 c d 


l



o c

do




o 





p  e





  

e d  

  

  q

c dl

m
  

 c

 d  f


e    o f

  

 c
p  e j q
c d l
k  g
d 
pd d  f g  g  c

k


k
 m  c   do
 c

 m

    


   

 c e d    c    c  c
p  e j  c
fg k    f g c e   c
 f 
pp    c d 

 c e d    c    c

d  f g  d p g d pp  c

   



c d

f g f  f d p f d  f  g

c

 c
  
 c   
  e d  c     o  i

  

 m o
 c

 fg 
q
k  
pd



    

c e d q
c dl

  
h
 d pp o  i

   




f    d   d p   f  c i





  

c d

  







  

  i e p
 fg  c
fg k    f g e    o m
g  i i d j do


e d
 c   c

c




  

f g
l
 p
   c d g


pd d  f g  c


f   d e d  c  c d  q f g
 
 f  l d p
 m  c   j

 c   
  e d  c  

 o   i



  



 fg 

d c  fi
q
k  d

 c
o  p  e j d pp l
  f
  c d  d 

k
 dq d

 c
    
c d l
 c
   
  k f   d g 
l d p 
    
k f g

     f
 d  f g  o  c
o  p  e j d pp l
  f


  

f fg o d  
 d p  

  m

j

d p g  c

 c   j do


c d l
 c
   
  k f  d g 
l d p
    
k fg

 m



] _ ~

| }\ ~}

] } | ~ b
  g  fk
  c

g
 d pf d  f g  o  c
 c   
  e d  c e   p
i j     i

e   fg  c   
  e d  c 
q

g

k

q
f c   m



j f

d pp e d f   o l
  f
 m
dg

k

h
 d pp  c d   c
  o d e d  c f  c
  i
q  l
f




 f  c

 g fk


l
f


fg

c

     o  c
i fg fi  i

e   p
i

q
f c 
k

o

k

 i fg fg

k f
 
k

de c m

 m  c f  d p   f  c i


   c f

dc


c

i  

 f
g  o   e d  



c

 d l fg  f

  i i  g i d   f

 i i  g

  e dc

g      f
k

c d c

fg e  

f

dg

dg k



i d   f

o c

k f  d e c

c

o
k

fo


  fg
c


/

fo  c


q  g  k
 j d g k

f g 

c
g 

 c
     o
  fg o  i

c



 

q f c

fo

m


q

g

e dc

q

g

 

fo

k
j fg   f fl
p

d pp e d f 

 d p   f c i j  d pp
k

d

d k d 
g 

dg

pf  

c

 
 


d k d 
g 
d

q fpp 
 f

o


d

i  

  d
j

q fpp
i e p

j dg k

d
k

d g k   p i g 

i d   f j

g
 d pp

f i d   f d 
k j q

 

 g

c

d q

k

o
m

dg k

dg k

 




 

i
dg  c d c


k f
      f fg g f
m

dg l


q
f c   j q c fc

c  



d p   f c i




de c

 c
i m
q fpp d pp q

k
g  
l
f
 d c
 c d g

k
g  
 c

g   fg   q

q

g

k f  d g 


/

/


d k f
 
k

f 
e 

g 
k

p c   c

q
f c   fg  c
k f  d e c m
p


fg 
 l
 


d 

j 

] } b  c

 

pf  m

d pp  c

c

m

g   d  f g j   fg

   d pp k  m

c

q fpp e 

g 

d k d 
g 

 d e c  j     fg

   c d l
d g g
d  fl
      p
 m

f d 
k  g

d p   f c i j q
q fpp d    i

c dg

 o
k
q
f c   d p g  c
e d  c m  c

c d l
g
d  fl
   
k
 j   q
q fpp g   d pp q



 j  c
g  c
q
f c   o  c f
k
f k
g  
k


o

 c

d g

f

g 

k f
 

o  
  fg

pfg



q

g
 f  c d 

   c   pk
 j  fg 
q
c d l
g  k f  d g 
    d l
p m   

 c d  fg k f  d e c  f f e    f p
  c d l

po p  e
k
 j d g k  


 i d
g
 d pp
g  g
  m

  d g g  
g
d  f l
  f g 
 c

d 
g  g
d  f l
      p
  j d g  k f o f  f  e   f  f l
j  c
g

c


f g  e  fg  fg   fg f d  e d    o d g  c   
  e d  c m
 c
   e   q fpp

  o i

dg

k f  d g 
i d   f

 /

q c


 /



 

j c
c  
 e dc

   m h
  l
 f g  c
 c   
  e d  c  q f p p d p  
d g f   
m   c
p e   k   c f  j

l



 

  


q
q fpp d p    i e  
d g d  fpf d  i d   f
f   i
q c


 

m

 c
l d p
 o

   m

d p g  c
 c   
  e d  c o  i

q f  c    e d   f g  c    c d g   c
 l
  f 
 j  c
g

 

{

] ~| ] 

a _} | b  c

j q c
c


dg


d c

p k 
d pf
k

e dc

 

   

q fpp
d l
 
 c d 

  d l
p k f
  p o  i
m
q f p p 



q fpp

  

d g  c   
  e d  c fg

   fi
m

k d 
 d     c

d  p   m d   c d p p

k

 i fg
o 
d c e d f  o l
  f


c d  c
d i

c g f 
  pk
 
k

 c   
  e d  c  q f c  g p i fg   l d  fd  f g  m  c

 c

g f   o  c
d p   f c i

 

     

p k d   c d pp d p   f c i

q d  fg 

 
k fg  c
q
d
 
  f g  o 
d c d fpf

pd 
  c d g   fg  c

l d p
 f q fpp
e    f p
  
  g
 ^

o  c
 c   
  e d  c

    

p k d   c d pp d p   f c i



  g  fg

dg k

 i e  



  fi
m

f fg g k fg d  p
l
 o  i  pd  f g o   c
 c   
  e d  c   e   p
i m

 

  o  c f e d  c m   
 c d  d e d  c   g  f  fg  o d  fg p

k
c d  g  fg 
 i
k fd 
l
  f
 m

] } _ ` b



 
/

g

l
f
  g c
e d c

q



d

c d c

c

c  


d 
c  
g o i

g  c
 q  k  j q
 g fk
 d e d c o i

l
f


e dc

c



o i










 c

d

c

c d

dg

di  g

fg d g   k
 m
o

  



m  c
e dc

fg 
 i
k fd 

   q c fc
f c
   g  f    o  c
 fg p

k


f  l f  f     i
f g 
 i
k f d 
l
  f 
 d p  g   c
q d j    c

f g 
 i
k f d 
 d g
o i

f o

  l f f d g

 
 o c


l
f
 j d g k 

 
d i e p
j fg  c
k f  d e c  c  q g fg  c
o pp q fg  
j g   f
c  q

c d g
 d 

 

j  

 g p
 c  
g
k  

 c
l d p

l d  f
 m

(0)

d3,2 = INF (no path)

(k-1)

dij

1
(1)

d3,2 = 12 (3,1,2)

8
2

(2)

Vertices 1 through k-1

d3,2 = 12 (3,1,2)

(3)

d3,2 = 12 (3,1,2)

(4)

d3,2 = 7

(k-1)

(k-1)

dik

dkj

(3,1,4,2)
k

 ^

{

] ~| ] 

f  
 

^ ] } \ [ \ b

e  
k  c
e 
l f   i d   f
i f c 
 o  i




}

  

p k d   c d pp

k 

q

 c




 i e  

  i  pd  f g m

 
/

d    i fg



 

}| a |

q f
j 

q

c dl

d p
d k

 i

d 
q  d  f  d 
 j k
e
g k fg  g  c
q d   c d  q

j d    i fg  c d   c
fg 
 i
k fd 
l
  f


q

] } ] b  c
g c
c  
 e d c o i

  m

c  
 e dc

d 
c  
g

o i

fg 
 i
k fd 

 
  g p fg 
 i
k fd 
l


  
/

f    
 l
 c d  d  c   
  e d  c k 
 g   e d    c    c  c
 d i
l
 

dg

 


d g k c
g 
 c
p
g  c  o  c
 c   
  e d  c f 

d i

c d

q

e d

c   c

d   p

 c

d 
g  g
d  f l
      p
 f 
f g  
k c

m
o i

c d

}| a |


q

 l


f


l


  k
 o   c
 l
 d pp e d  c

o i
l
  f 




j dg k

 g p fg





 

 c

d    i e  f g



c d

j dg k c
g

d   c    d  e    f p
q
 c   p k  d
 c

c
c  
 e dc o i



 g 
m

 c d  f j q
 o  i

  m

 fg 
 o  c



j  c
p
g  c  o  c
e d  c f

  


e dc   



  
/


 

  


 c f  
    c
o pp q fg 
    fl
  p
 c


/

   pk q  f

 
/

 c
g d p d g  q
 f

i fg

d 

  
/

  


d 
    fl
e    d i



 
/

 i e  

d  d p
j d g k p  fg  c
l d p
  e

c dl

d p 

fg  p k
k

q fpp k f      c
i

i fk l


  
/

pd 
 m

 

d  fg 
 i
k fd 
l
  f
 m

j    c f q fpp

c
i m

e   c f f fl
p  p q


l

d p   f c i

c d

q

   g g fg

k
p

k

 fi
f

c
g dp c  
 e dc  m

  

d pp 
o

g 




m

 c

c

 
 



 

 
k
 

  e
    fe 

fg

c

c

di

i f c 

c d c

 l
 q  f 
g
 l
 q  f 
g

dg k

c
g

l d p
 d 

 
k

pd 



 
k j c


 dp 

c

     fg

q

e c d
m
dg k

 c
f    f f g d p l d p 
 m

d p   f c i

 k
m

d p   f c i m  fg 

c
g

       ,     + 

o c

dg k

 

 + *  + ( * ,+ *

 + ( *  *  ' * 

fg

 l
 q  f 
g

 

 

e d 

  

'  +   + +  + 
      
    

 

l d p


   ,  +

 

  f
 c d   c f k 
 g   d
   c
   
  g
 
i d

d 


f  c
  i e p

d p   f c i m

o 
  d   fg

 ,  

   *  , , !    
    #  
  $ & 
     #  

  $
  
   
  
   
 #
 $ 
#
 $
   #
 $   ' , ,
.
.
  
  
  
  
  
  
  ! # 
 $   #
 $ & %  # 
 $ & 
 # 
 $   # 
 $   #
 $
   #
 $  
.
+' 
.
c

p
d  p

g  
d k j q
  i e  
f     fg  c
l d p


d q
g

k

e  fg 
  j

 

o 

 c f d pp q  d pp e    f p
l
  f


 c
 d i
l d p
i d


l d p d 
k i d g  fi
 m
fg

 

n o  i  pd  f g  o    i e   fg

   

 
/

/

    

p
o


d

m

dg

 c
k d g
 f  c d 

 g fk


  p i g

f

f

q c fc

g   f


dg

c q g

d i e p
f  c  q g

fg

c

o pp q fg  
m



}]

} _` a

e dc m

| }\ ~}

] }| ~ b  c

d g fg 
 i
k fd 
l
 

j q



fg 
 i
k fd 
l
 
j  c
g

 

i fk l


m

o f f

j  c
g

 

 



 

dg

 
k



 

c  
 e dc o i

f     c

k

d 

 

  j q

d g k  c
 c   
   e d  c o   i  
   

 

 
 

g dp

  g   p

 m  c
 q f 
j q

    f l
p

 * ! 
 & 
  !   # 
 $    ' , , &
 '  ( '  ! 
 &
+,+ 

  * ! 
   #
 $ &

c

  e d
 c   c

o  c
 c   
  e d  c k 
 g   e d    c    c d g

  g k c

 c
 c   
  e d  c

  i e  
 c
 c   
  e d  c o   i

e  fg 
 


f   c
f k
d j q c
g
l
 q
k f    l
  c d   c
 c   
  e d  c o   i

( * 

     m   


  , + +  +

( *  + *  ' *  
(    ( *        


 

  


0
?
4
?

(0)

d =

8
0
?
2

?
1
0
9

1
?
?
0

2
9

? = infinity

1
3

8
2

4
9

8
0
12
2

?
1
0
9

1
?
5
0

0
5
4
7

8
0
12
2

9
1
0
3

1
6
5
0

12

d =
2

0
?
4
?

(1)

4
5

0
?
4
?

(2)

d =

2
12

8
0
12
2

9
1
0
3

1
?
5
0

7 4

6
5

9
3

(3)

d =

8
2
12

1
3

7 4

(4)

d =

6
5

0
5
4
7

3
0
7
2

4
1
0
3

1
6
5
0

   

    

f  
 z

p k d   c d pp

d i e p
m 
q p  e k d 

g   f
 d 
 f  p
k m


 

  


 * !   # 
 $

&

    

(    ( *   

 

   

   

; < = > ? @ <

r A B

JK L M N OP Q R S



  C D u v < > < G < E E B

\

o 
d

_}

? w

< E

w G H

X X S XY Y Y Z

[ \ ] ^ b c d e  z j  e  c    c 
  f g


; w G

z m m

| \ b   c f e  fg   o  c

i
 
 q
c d l


g  fpk fg  e   

  pl fg

d p   f c i f e   p
i  m

pf  p

 


fk
d

c   pk
 
k
  


o c q



 e
o pp

d      pl fg

k fl fk
d g k   g 
 j

i f c 


p
l d g 

d k d 
g  pf  j d k d 
g 

q c
g

c

d  o f 

e 

g 
k

q f c

e   p
i

 

e   p
i m

c d       o k
 f g

g q

c dl

e d  d k f i

 j 

k j k g d i f  e    d i i fg  j q c d       o k d  d

 

 j c
d e  j  d e c  

dg k

q c d  
e 

g  d  f g 

q   pk



i d   f
  j q c d  f  c
  g g fg  fi
 o    d p   f c i m

pp  o  c f f g
fo f c
pe    k f   l
 d g d  
e  d p
 f
g  d p   f c i     pl
   e   p
i m
 c


  f g

dg k

g   c fg

 f
g  p



c d

o
g



i  


m m

d  f


q   m

fg

e d f

p c   c

f

  

c d

c dl

dg

  f
k

  pl

l


f

fg

  j

    

g
l
 
 i fg d 
 m c
g   d g d p
f    g g fg  fi
j   
d pf

 c d  f f   g g fg fg
e  g
g  fd p  fi
j e
 c d e 
o c

c

 i d pp e   p
i  
d   g d p

    c

d p p p d 
d e e p f  d  f  g   c d    q d g      p l

m m

       d p   f c i


d c

g k

 

d p   f c i

  q c


j   

j   

j

 

j

  q  

 c

q d  
d     
  fg g k fg
 f
g    p  f g   

i dg

  i fg d    fd p e   p
i  j    c

q d  d p  d   q fg pf   o e   p
i  o  q c fc  c



i
k


g 

g q g

 i
 g g q g

 f
g 

d p   f c i f   p  f g  m

e d  d k f i

c d  q   pk

p
d k



n
 e p

dg

d   p  f g





c


q  g k


q c
c


c


e   p
i  j   e
 c d e 

q d
 i

e    o  c d   c

e   p
i  d 
fg c

g  p c d  k     pl
d g k g  d p   f c i f   p  f g 
f   c d 
  g  g k

e  g
g  fd p  fi
m

d

c

q


fg 
 
pd 
k

g k

o c

c
g

 

  pk

fg

  pl

 
c

 n

 c f

d
d

c d

d pp  o  c
i

 o  n   i e p

g
  j d g k
n


i d  d p


g 

fg


d
k

k f   l


fo  

q d i d k
m

  pk

  pl

e  p g  i fd p  fi
m

e    f p

d k fd p k
e d  

o i

q c d

q

c dl

d p   f c i

o 

f m

g 
d k

q

 f
g  p m  c

  f g f c  q


] _` a

o i

}| \

q fpp

  k   c f

  fg

fg

c dk

e   p
i 

e  p g  i fd p  fi
j

d l
 f
 

e   p
i  fg

g



o c


o c
i

 c f k f   l


q fpp
   k fg  c f   g 
e   l
  c
g
 o
q
f

dg

 g

 c
f
   e
g

c d g
m  c
 d p f g  p g
   e   l
 c d  d e   p
i
dg

dg

c

g   f g

  i e  
   f
g 

f

p
   
 m
c

i e c d  f q fpp

  pl
k
 f
g  p

k  fg

e 

g  fg

c q

c d

d 

e   p
i

  pl
k

\ ~ b
g

k   i
q d   
e d  d 
 c
 pd    o
 f
g  p   pl d p
e   p
i 

fg
 f
g  p

  pl d p

e   p
i  m

q fpp k 

 c f

  g  fk
 fg

e   p
i 

c d

dg

  pl
k fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
m
c
g

k
 f g fg

 g 
e  m

d p   f c i  f

c dl

i f  fg k
 d fp m

i d k

 

c d
o

q
l
 j c
d

g
c

e    f p

od 

c d

o 
dg

 



fg 
ppf
g 

dc


  l
   c
  p
 fg

dg

  pk

l d  f  

pp fg

dg

 o e   l fg  c d    i
 c fg  d g g  
k  g

 f
g  p i   

c d g k p
k i  c i  
 d 
o pp j  fg 
q
k  g   q d g  p
d l
d g
 i
 g


fg o  i d p q f c

e  di i


 g 
d   g d p
q d

dg k

 pd fi

p  e c  p



 c d  q   pk d pp q

c dl
dg

 f
g    p  f g

q c
g  g
k 
 g   
d pp
f  m

c d l
i
d   
k  c
  g g fg  fi
 o d p   f c i    fg q      d 
  i e p
f j d  d o g   f g
o

j c

 f

o c

fg e   m

c dl

k
g
k

fg e    f
l d  f   p o 

k f

g  e   p
i  j  


 

  


c

  i

dg

pfg

f  c

g  i
  o f 

m 

 


   c d  f

d
 


e 

g 

 g d

 g d  
e  d p

g   d  f g

fg
 f
g  m

 

c

   

fg e     fg

d 
d   g d p
 f
g 
g   k fg j q
d    i
 c d   c

f

g     i
 f g f  d g  p  c   
 q d  o e   l f k fg  c
 d i
fg o   i d  f g m
q  f
g  i
  fg

    

       

 

dc


 
d i e p
j      pk

c dg

fg d  j    c d  q   pk

   pk k
   f
 d e c  fg   i
c f c p fg
 f
g  q d j   c

d

pf  fg d pp  o f    p
 j    c f q   pk d p 
 g d  
e  d p
m
q fpp d    i
 c d  g  i
 
d

e 

k

fg

fg d      i
c f c
 d 
d g k  d e c  d 

e 
 
k

  fg
f c
 d k d 
g 

i d   f
   d k d 
g  pf   m




q fpp    d pp
c d

f f


f

 p
d   c d 

g  i
 f fg e     
d  f c i
 f  d g

 e
 d  f g   g g  i
   d g

fg 

 

e
o i
k

e
o  i
k fg

d   e e  
k

 f
g  p m

  g   d g   fi
m



 i

 d ppfg

c dl

g q

c
i

d p 


d p

d i
k

j

c d

 g j q
c   pk
i  

 d 
o p d g k d    i
 c d  d  f c i
 f  e
 d  f g  
 f
d  p
d   d  i  c  fi
d   c

d 
f 
 o e 
 f f g fg  c
g  i
 
fg    
k m
 e

 g  fp g  q

  g g fg

d pp  c

 fi


d

f

d p   f c i  q

  g k
k
dg

d l

d p   f c i

fg k
e
g k
g   o

e   p
i

 fi
d p   f c i

 c d    pl
 f m

  i
o g   f g   c d 

k 

e  p g  i fd p   c

d

g  

p 

fg

 fi

c d k

c

d p   f c i

 q c


q  d 



 g dg 

 c d  f

d

 p

p 

pf
e  p g  i fd p d 
g   m

  j
d 

f d g

 d
  g k
k

d g k d g fg 



d l

 

dg k

fg e      c
e   p
i j    c

j fi e p fg  c d   c
  g g fg  fi
q   pk

 c
f

 i

m  c
fi e    d g   c fg f  c d   c

e  g
g  i   
d

  g g fg

 i d pp l d p
  o
_~_ `

  dg  c


 fi

f




 q c fc f

   

 f 
  d fg p

k f    

e 


 f
g 

fg
 f
g  m

f  g   
m g

d p   f c i

  g
 c
p
  j fo d g

d p   f c i

 j  c
g f f 
  d fg p g  
 f
g  j

e  o  l


\ ~ b
d g  o  c
e   p
i   c d  q
c d l
k f    
k fg l  pl
 o  g
o   i

g k

c

q fpp

c  
 e dc j g k


d



 c
i fg fi  i

     e d g g fg

k
 f f g

 

g 

e   p
i  m

e   p
i

f

 d pp
k

    i d  c fg  o  c f d    

q fpp e c  d 
i d g  e  fi f d  f g e   p
i  fg 
 i   o k
 f f g

j k 




j g k

 c
i fg fi  i

   d  c
 
c g f d p 
d   g  j i     n   i e p

e   p
i   c d  q
q fpp

e c d
k

   e   f d  fi e p

i fg fi  i

q
f c    fd g  pd  f g m

f

q c fc fg e    d  d e c  o  f

  g  f g q   
 c d g e  p g  i f d p  f i

m m 

c d
 f
j

 fo  c

f d e  p g  i f d p

o     
j  d fg  c d  d pp e  p g  i fd p  fi
d p   f c i  d 

fg e  

q c  

e  e


c

pf
e  p g  i fd p   c

  c f d e  p g  i fd p

  fi
m

 
 f d pp q
k   c   

d e  p g  i fd p fg

 g 


c dl

 fg

  m   i
o g   f g   c d  k 

d i e p
j   e e  
  c d l
d g
  g  fg

c d



g

 i

f  d fk  

c dl

 e d g g fg  

k
 f f g e   p
i

i f c 

fo f 

d p
j 
 j d  
e 


   m

e   p
i  m

fl
g d q
f c 
k  d e c

 
d i e p
j  c

 d g k d g fg 



 c d l
d  e d g g fg  

q c  
q
f c  f d  i     

 c f i d 

i

pf
d p
  fg 

  fg o  i  pd  f g  o  c
e   p
i m

 k 
 g   d  o   c
q
f c 

 o  c
i fg fi  i  e d g g fg  

j d g k f k 
 g  
l
g d  o   c

k
  o  c
 e d g g fg  

 c d 
d c f
l
  c f q
f c  m

 f
g  p m

 q
l
 j     q fpp
   c  q

o q
c q

 c d   c
 fi e p
k
 f f g

i  

g
 d p  e  fi f d  f g e   p
i


] ` a ] a \

[ \

a ` _} _ `


  d fg p

 c d  
  d fg e   p
i 
  pl
k

e   p
i

 d g g  
  pl
k
 f
g  p j  c
g

\ ~ b 
 l
 c d  d k
 f f g e   p
i

pd g  d

  g f f g e   p
i m
   pk k
g
d pd g  d





 

dg

fg 



dg

g  k
k

d  d fg d 

d p 
 c   c   o d  d

 c d  d
   o q
f c  d  i    

 c f 
   g  f    o e d f  j  c
  
p
i
g  f d  d e c
d    fg  o pp q
k

c

 d g g  
  pl
k
 f
g  p
f c
 m


m m  c

d k d 
g 

i d   f
g   k
k

g  i
 m     f i d 

i

d

dg


 

  


e 
  fg

g

de c

d d

k q g  i
c q

c
g

e 

g 
k

   fg j    l f   p

q f c

dg

d 
e 

d g pd g  d
j q
d g

   fg f fg  c
pd g  d
m
i
i
  c fe



fg e      fg

q
 d  c d   c
d p   f c i
fl
g

 c d  f 
e 

g 
k

d  fp

fg

   

  i e  
 f

fg   d    fg  o f  m


j c

d p   f c i

q   pk d g q


 c d  d  e d g g fg  

 o q
f c  d  i     j d g k

fi e p fg  c d 

d g  c fg

    

fg

d

g 

 c
fg e   d g k   c
 q f
f

c


  f g

o c q

 



  c
 q f
m



  

fo  

g c
 d

 c
fg e   m

c d  k f f   k

 i fg
q c
 c
 d fl
g

 
d i e p
j fg  c
 d 
 o  c

 

e  p g  i fd p  fi
m

 

c

pd g  d

de c

d p   f c i j d g k 

q c
 c
  c
g d p  e  fi d p q
f c  f d  i   

j q
dg

k

 i fg

fg 
 g d pp j   g

   d p 

o   q
d  
e  j d g k   c
 q f

q


  m

` _} _ ` b

g



e  p g  i fd p  fi
m

c



 o d pp pd g  d
 o  q c fc

 g   f fl
p j  c f    
 e  g k 



i
i
  c fe

dg



k

fg

 c

  o d pp k
 f f g  e   p
i   c d 

 d g
  p l
k f g e  p g  i f d p  f i
m
  
 c d  pd g  d
 d 

   o    fg  j d g k
c q

 c d  f k
g
k fg 
 i   o c  q
 fg 
q
 d g


f d 
  o pd g  d
 m n

f k
g
k

fg


i  o


  o pd g  d


c d  k f f   k

 i fg
i
i
  c fe f  d pp
k d 

  i e  
i fg fi  i

 e d g g fg  

 fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
j q
c d l

 

n m


f d c d  k
  g
j  c   c m


c d  k f f   i e   d  f g d pp   
  g f
k i
i
  c fe fg  c
pd g  d
m

fl
g

d de c

 

 c d  d  fi e p
e d  c  o p
g  c d  p
d   

 d g k fg 

  c  q q   pk  


  g f




q c
 c
 f f fg  c
pd g  d

  i f c    
d  c fg  c
 d e c o  d  fi e p
e d  c  j  g  fp g k fg  g
 o p
g  c d  p
d  
  g k  g
 c
g    d g d  
e  d g k 
 i fg d 
m
 fi

d  c fg


 e
 f d pp fo

 g
g q  c
dg q
 m
g

q c d  o pp q  j q

q

g

c

i 

q fpp



f pd 
j pf

g o d   j q
q fpp  c  q
fg    k   fg

pd g  d

dg k

 q
l
 j fo g    c
g   i d  e
g k

 j d g k g   c

c d

e d  c
f    m   f

d p   o
n

 

f  n   i e p

m

g  i
  o pd 
 m

k
 f f g

e   p
i 

q fpp  i e

d 

dg k

o c

j   o     e  e  
 c
i
dg c

 d i
 c fg  m 
o 
fl fg d pp  c

c g f d p k
g f f g  j p
    d d f d    q c d   c

g
 d p
 pd  
 p  pf
d  d g fg   f fl
p
l
p m

b  c f

f  c




 o d pp k
 f f g

e   p
i   c d   d g

g
 d pp 
o
    c

e   p
i  d 
fg

d

fg

 

 f
g  p   pl d p

e  p g  i fd p  fi
m

q fpp

m  p c   c  c f

i d
d g
d
 d  f  g f g i d g  d 
 m

b  c f f  c

  o d pp k
 f f g e   p
i   c d   d g

fl
d

k
g f f g

 o  c f 
p  q m

 c f

 pd     g  d fg  n

fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
m 
q fpp
d

d  
 m

 c   j f   g  d fg  d

g  i
  o
d  e   p
i  j   f d p    g  d fg  d g  i
  o e   p
i   c d  d 

pf
l
k  

l



i

c dk

i
dg 




  pl
m

c
 g 
e  o i

|

] ^ b

 c


i

 n

k 


i
dg

g  g k

 i fg f  f e  p g  i fd p  fi

g   e  p g  i fd p m

c

 c
e
  e
  fl
 o l
 f  d  f g m

g  e f
 o f  g d i
j    d  c d  e   p
i

f  n c d  k k 
 i
d g  c d  f f c d  k

    pl
m h d  c
 f i
d g   c d  fo q
   p k   pl
 c f e   p
i
   pk   pl
 n

 f fg d pp

m    f f f i  
fg   f fl
 
e pd fg

fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
j  c
g q

e   p
i  fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
m   
 c d  o  d e   p
i


 n c dk j

f k 
 g   c d l
 
fg  c
 pd    n m  fg 
f f q fk
p
pf
l
k  c d  d pp  n e   p
i  d 

g     pl d p
fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
j f f q fk
p
pf
l
k  c d  g   n c d  k e   p
i

f   pl d p

fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
m



 n

\ } \ b


 n

e   p
i

f  n   i e p

fo    f f fg

 n c dk m

 n j dg k

  f f  n c d  k m  c d  f j


 

  


 c
 

p q

fpp    d 
  g
q d  c d   c

  n j  n j  n c d  k j d g k

p  m
 d

 d  
q
k  g   g  q

    

   

 n   i e p

 n 

q c
 c
 d pp  o  c

  i e p
f  pd  
 d 

k f  fg     q c
 c
  c
d 
d pp   pl d p
fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
m  c

d 
  i
e   p
i  fg  c

 
 c d  q
q fpp g  
d 
fk
g fd p  e



k f     m

g
f

f f g   g  q g  
fg n m  c
  c
 f  
g

 c f e   p
i

g q

  j q c fc d   q c
 c
 q   d e c 

d 
g d i fg  o  c
f l
  f
 m

 

d 
fl
g

d   p
d g o  i  pd q f c

q c
 c
  c
o  i  pd f   

  i d
k f    
k

fg d g

 f g  q g

  o d p
m

 c d   c f e   p
i

 d g  f
 

 c f e   p
i

d k ldg 
k   
 g

f fg

 

j q c fc d g k  o 

 n j  

dg k
 dg k   q dg  

f
 g k

 c
   e
 o  c f     
j

  i e p
f  c
  m

QBF
Harder

NP-Hard
No Ham. Cycle
Knapsack
Hamiltonian Cycle
Satisfiability

NPC
NP

Graph Isomorphism?

MST
Strong connectivity

Easy

One way that things might be.



 ` _] 

_ \

f  
 

 \ _

       
 o n j  n j d g k 
pd 
k   i e p
f  pd  
 m

] } _ `

] ` ^

\ } _

] } \ ~ b 
o 
 d p fg d     c
 pd    o  n   i e p


e   p
i  j f f fi e    d g    fg    k  
 c
g   f g  o d l
 f  d  f g

  g f f g

d 

e   p
i   c d  i d

l




  pl
j    c

d p   f c i m
d g

c dl
c

e  e


pd g  d

 c d  f f

q c
 c
 d    fg f fg  c
pd g  d
m

 g  fk
  c
o pp q fg e   p
i j  d pp
k
de c

c dk

   m

c

fl
g

dg

 g k f
 
k

 j k 
  c d l
d   p
 c d  l f f 
l
 l
 

d   p  g 
m  c

f d  fi fpd  e   p
i

 g k f
 
k  d e c  j d g k  c

f d p  d l
  f g q c fc d   q c
 c
  c

f d e d  c  c d  l f f  d pp
l
  f 
 m
 d g k
   f
 c f  e   p
i

d  d pd g  d

  g f f g e   p
i j q c

 c
pd g  d

f

 

  

 c d d

q c

  k
g  
 d g
g   k fg  o d  d e c


i  c

c dk
 j dg k

 c

f g 

d i e p
j  c
 

p q


d i fp  g fd g   p

 d  d    fg m  c

g q g

 c

f fg

d   p

 c
  p
f

 g 
m

 

 c   j
l
g

c   c





q
g q

 o g 
 f
g  q d  

 c d  d fl
g  d e c

m  c f f   i
e f

 o fg o  i d  f g q c fc d pp q 

    l
 fo  c d  d fl
g    fg f fg d p d g  d
m

 
o  i d pp j fl
g
q c fc fl
g

d pd g  d

d g k d    fg

 c f 
  f  d 
d  c
pe m

j d g k fl
g

 d pp
k  c

f g   fg




d p
d p   p
d g k  c d  f l f f 

d i fp  g fd g   p
e   p
i j  c

f d l

 f
g  q d  

m  c
fl
g   p
f  d pp
k d

d i fp  g fd g d g k  g
q c fc f g   m

fg  e
   c
 d e c j d g k c
  c d   c f f fg k

k

d pp  c
l
  f
  o  c
 d e c



i 

o   c f e   p
i m

d i fp  g fd g   p
m  c
g f q   pk
d l

d  i d 


 o    i
 g
    g l fg 
   o  c f m  c
q   pk  fi e p  d

  pk c
g

d i fp  g fd g   p
e   p
i

e  p g  i fd p  fi
d p   f c i

 c  q  q   d e c  j  g
q c fc f

 q
l
 j  e e  
c d  d d e c k fk c dl
d

c
g

j d

j  d g l
 fo  c d 

 c

f g   c fg   l
 fo m

f d g

d p   f c i

f fg  c
pd g  d

  fg


 

  


Nonhamiltonian


  

c d

g  

d pp pd g  d


f  


c dl

  g  fk
  c
o pp q fg pd g  d


  e e  

c d

 o c
 g f 

 

o

e  e


c d

  

 c d  d  g f 

 

  

 c d g

f fg

c

d

d

c

c

 i
q c


 c d  f

   c f q   pk g  

 

d i e p
j

d i fp  g fd g   p

  m c d  fg o  i d  f g q   pk   i
 g
fl
 

pd g  d

fl



 f fg k

k fg  c
pd g  d
  c
   pk fl
  d g
d i e p

    l
 fo  c d 

  pk

l
 fo m

d i fp  g fd g   p

d i fp  g f d g   p
j d g k q
   p k l
 fo  c d  f f d


  f  d 



fl
d g   c
   p
 c d  f  
  p

d i fp  g fd g   p
m

 

d de c

 c d  q   pk d pp q

   

Hamiltonian

c

    

 



  g l fg 

 

c d

 c f

f

d i fp  g fd g   p
j   q c d 
c

  g

 c

  pk

d i fp  g fd g j    c f k 
 g   i
d g  c d   c

f g   d g   c


d i fp  g fd g m

 c

  pk



d  d pp
 f
g  j  fg 
 c

d 



pf 
l


 c


  p

 o p
g  c

e    f p
  p
 fg
g
 d p m  c   j f f

c d  k   fi d fg
 c d    i
 g
   pk fl
    i
fg o  i d  f g  c d  q   pk d pp q    
 f
g  p
  g l fg 
   
pl
  c d  d fl
g  d e c f fg  c
pd g  d
m
| \

] ~ ~

` _} _ ` b

g

 n



c


  o d pp pd g  d
  c d 

dg

l
 f
k

e  p g  i fd p

 fi
d p   f c i m
c f  c

  d pp
k
f  f e  p g  i fd p  fi




 n
m

dc
 c dg

 c f 
o
 
k

 c d   d g i d

 
 m  d  f d pp j   c
 o 
  f  d 
j d g k  c
g
dl  fk
k

fg    k   fg





 c
  f fg d p 
 i

d e  di

  g g fg

 g

 n   k o 
d

g  g k

 i fg

d   i e  
    pk g  g k

 i fg f  f d pp 
   c
l d p

l
 fo  c d   c
   fg f fg  c
p d g  d
fg

g  g k

 i fg f i

c

m

q   pk

l

k

e  p g  i fd p  fi
m
c d l

fg

  

 g

  i e p
f

c
    o i d p pd g  d
c
  m
f
n j  n

f d 
  o p d g  d
 d 
k  g   i
  i e p
f i
d   
 c
  i e p
f  o l
 f

 d  f g  m 
 l
 c d  n
c
g q
dg

 n m

g   c
 q   k  j fo q
 d g   pl
d e   p
i

fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
j


  d fg p l
 fo i
i
  c fe fg e  p g  i f d p  fi
m 
 
o   i d pp j q
k  g  
l
g

g

k   

d 
  f  d 
    pl
 c
e   p
i j q
 d g   pl
f fg e  p g  i f d p  fi
d g q d  m


 q
l
 f f g   g  q g q c
 c
 n

 m

 n m

 

i   g 
d   g d p
   c fg  c d   c f  c   pk

g   c
 q   k  j   
fg d p
  l
 fo  c d    c d l
d    
    p  f g k 
 g   c
pe  

fg g k fg  c
d    d p   p  f g l


i  c m
  
e
  
pf
l
 c d  n

 n j   g   g
c d

d e    o  o  c f m 
  fi
q
q fpp k
g
 c
g   f g   o  n c d  k d g k  n   i e p

m

; < = > ? @ <

JK M U OP Q R S

  C D u v < > < G < E E B

r r B



S XY Y Y Z

< H ? = > ID G E


 

  


[ \ ] ^ b c de  z j c   c

] b


  f g

    

   

z m m

d    fi
q
fg    k  
k d g  i
  o   g 
e   j  g  c
q d   k
g fg  n   i e p

g
  m

g e d   f  pd  j  c
o pp q fg   g 
e   d 
fi e    d g  m

_~_ `

\ ~ b d 

e   p
i  d 

e   p
i  o  q c fc

e 

k

d  k
 f f g

c

dg q


e   p
i  j d g k

f
f c


c
g 

dg


  g f f g e   p
i  j d    i fg  c d   c
fg e   c d 

g
fg e    d     fg  m

b f

c

pd 

\ } _

 



] } \ b f d e f


 

d  d    fg m

 c d d
  o   d i   

 

e   p
i  q c fc

d i fp  g fd g   p

dg

 o
l fk
g 

 c d  d pp q     

n   

  pl
k

fg

e  p g  i fd p  fi
j

f g   g  q g

  g l fg 

d g k  e

k

fg

 o 

g   

e  p g  i fd p  fi
 c d  d    fg

 
d i e p
j   e e  
 c d   c
pd g  d
f  c

  o

 i
 g

de c

f

 o l
f


fg

 c f

d p g

pd g  d
j q

i d   f   k

 i fg
 c d   c f f d p
f fi d 
  p
fg

c

 
 c
 pd    o d pp pd g  d
  c d   d g

 fg 

e 




g 

d k d 
g 
b f k
g
k

o d

c d

  g  f  fg

d pp pd g  d
 fg

l
 f
k fg

g  k
k


  f  d 

c d

d

 n   i e p


n m

de c  m

[ \ ^

c d d

 
d i e p

f fg d fl
g pd g  d
m

g  m

c   c   o d  pd g  d

 

 o d pp k
 f f g

 i
 g dg 
fg

 
d i e p

  

dg

  pl
k

e  p g  i fd p  fi
j   q
c d l
n

d 

c d  k e   p
i      pl
j   c

fg

f
d 



c

d 


c

 n m

fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
m   

q
l
 j  n

d i fp  g fd g
  e e p

 m  c

o 
 

e  p g  i fd p  fi
j  c

 n m

  p
m

  pk

dg


  d fg p

d p  

i    c d l
  i

} _ ` ~ b  c
 pd    o  n   i e p

e   p
i    g  f    o d 
  o k
 f f g e   p
i  pd g  d
 
 


o c

pd 

 n  c d

e  p g  i fd p  fi
  p  f g o 
l
g

g 

 g

g q 

c q



  pl

 f
g  p j  

d  fg p
 n   i e p

e   p
i j  c
g

q   pk
  pl d p
fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
m  
  d pf c

l


fo  c


q


e   p
i

fg

 n

 c f j q
g

k   fg    k  
 c
  g 
e   o

d 
k    f g m

o 

k f     fg


k    f g  j p
        g  fk
  c
o pp q fg 
  f g m

d 
q  e   p
i  j
  pl
e   p
i
 fi
m

q

dg k

  g q

fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
m

q   pk  

k   c f

  e e  
c d c


        g p
pf
l
d  p
d     c d  f f fi e    f p
 

  q dg   e l
c d

q dg   c q




n 

 d g g  
  pl
k fg e  p g  i fd p

c d




n 



n 

  k   c f j q
   pk e   l
 c
  g   d e   f fl
j

g  c
 q  k  j  c q
f d g
c d


q
fg

d p   f c i

c d

 c d    pl


n 

f g     pl d p
fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
j q
q fpp   e e  
 c d   c


fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
j d g k  c
g

k
 fl
d   g   d k f  f g  c  q fg

 d g
  pl
k fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
m

k  q
k   c f

  e e  
 c d  q
c d l
d       fg
 c d   d g   pl
d g fg   d g 
 o e   p
i

e  p g  i fd p  fi
m  c
g

  pl
e   p
i

d pp q
g

k



k  f    c  q

fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
m  c   q
c d l

c d q
dg


k  
k

fi e    d g    g  
c

 c d   c f   e e  
k       fg
f 
d pp d

pf
l
  c d 

e   p
i

 

 
 c f       fg
 

  e   p
i

m
g q

 f

      g p

 d g g  
  pl
k fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
j  c   q
d 

 
g  fd pp e   l fg  c d   c

      fg
 d g g  
f  j fi e p fg  c d 

 d g g  
  pl
k fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
m 
  
 c d 

   g k
   d g k  c f  j  c f   c
d  f 
c f g k d p p 
k    f  g  m


 



  


\ b

 ]

__} ] ` ^

 c
o pp q fg e   p
i
 c
e   p
i



_

\ b

   

     g  fk
 d g
d i e p
  i d
 c f  p
d 
 m

f q
pp g  q g  
 n   i e p

j d g k c
g 
f f     g p
pf
l
k  c d 

 d g g  
  pl
k fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
m

 _` a


    

  p  

b

j  c

 j  d g
d  c  o f  l
  f 

p d
p
k q f c  g
 o z k f

g 

fl
g d  d e c

c d  g  q  d k d 
g  l
f
 c d l
c
 d i
pd
p m

 p  fg d  f
 fg l d  f   e d   f f g fg e   p
i  j q c

 c

f d   g    d fg   c d  q  
  
dg g  

d   f g
k



c

  f fg d p d e e pf d  f g q c fc

di




q d  fg

o c

i de

 c   p k
  p 
k q f c k f

g    p   m


  p   j d g k

c


f  

e d   f f g m

k  d q fg m

 c

 q 


i

  p  fg

   g   f
  c d   c d 

 i


 i i  g  k


o i

c

 f q
pp g  q g  c d  e pd g d   d e c   d g
  p 
k q f c

d e  p g  i fd p  fi
d p   f c i

o   c f m

  

k

 i fg fg q c
 c


  p   d 
e    f p

l
g o  e pd g d   d e c   

i   
c d  k d g k  c

f g  g  q g e  p g  i fd p
 fi

d p   f c i m

c

 

p q

q

fl
q 

de c  m

g

q c fc

dg

  p 
k

q f c

  p   j d g k  g
 c d   d g g   m

3-colorable

f  


 c

z  p

e   p
i

  pl d p

fg

de c

l
f



_


 c

 pf 

j q
d




q fpp e pd

e  p g  i fd p  fi
m








Clique cover (size = 3)

Not 3-colorable

  p

o

e   p
i

     e   p
i

j q c fc

j  g fk


c d  d  
  o l
f


q

c

  l
 e   p
i


 



 fo o  
l


d e e pf d  f g   o  p  
 fg m

f f e    f p
   p  
 d pp  c
l
  f
 fg  

  e e  
c d  

e   p
i j  

  pl
 c

l

  fpp  d g g   g k d e  p g  i fd p  fi
d p   f c i

 l e   p
i

e   dg




n m

do
 d

k

q

g

z  p

  g q

  l




n 

n 

z  p

n 

  k   c f j   d    i
 c d    c d l
d  
    d       fg

q

dg   e l
c d

q

g

c

c d

e   l fg  c
  g   d e   f fl

  l

d g fg 



 c d  z  p f  n   i e p

j

  o

p  c d   c

f   i
  g g
  f g

n 




q 

q c
c


q c fp
 o o  f p
 
   j  

o   c
 l e   p
i m

d g k  c
z  p e   p
i m  c   j   q d g     c  q

q c fc   q fpp  c  q

e d f  o

  e  m

 l f pf
p   g   c d l
d e  p g  i fd p  fi
  p  f g
d g k c
g 

e
  
pf
l
 c d  z  p

fl
g

f d   i e p

 d e c m

g  k
 fo  c
d 
 fi fp d 
g   c  
 p  

k fg  c
 d i
   e m
q d g    g  q

q dg  

g  


 j d g k  c d 
d c   f d  pf 
 o  m

d  f
 fg

 e


 d g k d g fg 

  j  d g q
g k    
   o l
  f


fl
g d  d e c

c d

    g p

o pp q fg e   p
i m

o i  d

m  c d  f j  c
   d e c fg k  
k

 b

j  c

c

z   p  fg d g k pf 
 l
 m

j  c f       fg

   g    
fo

    

m

fl
g d  d e c

 dg k

 c d  d  pf 
  l
  o  f
 d g k o d p
  c
 q f
j

 


 

  


dg k

o   c
 i  
j  c f

      fg

 g 

fg

e  p g  i fd p  fi
m

      fg
    pl
 c
q
pp g  q g c d  k z  p e   p
i

q

dg

q

 

 c f

   

d pp

k

q d g    q  f
d e  p g  i fd p  fi

    

      fg
o  z  p j d g k  c f       fg
f d pp q
k    d pp  c
      fg

 o  dg

 d g k d g fg 

  m

de c
  c

e   p
i  fg l  pl
e d   f f g fg  c

 c d  fg  g
e   p
i

di
  e

fg

l
f


 e

fg  

  e  m

 c

 g p

k f

g 

c


f

 c
g  i
  o  pf 
 f  e
 f
k d  e d    o  c
fg e   d g k fg  c
  c
  c

g  i
  o   p   pd  
 f
k d  z m



    

g  c
 pf 
  l
 e   p
i j o  q  l
  f
  
fg  c

c
i  
d k d 
g  
d c

 c
 d i
  p     e j  c

 c
 m

i   g  

c

z   p  fg e   p
i j o  q  l
  f


d k d 
g  m

 i

g 
j c

e   p
i  d 

d pi     c
 d i
j    c

 f
i
g  d k d 
g 
g  g d k d 
g  f
d   p 
l
 
k m




 pd fi

c d q

dg

c

z   p  fg e   p
i



c

 pf 

  l
 e   p
i

d  o pp q  m

 o  q c fc q
q d g    k

 i fg
f  z   p  d fpf j    e    c
e d f 

fl
g d  d e c

 k
g  
  c
  i e p
i
g   o  m
 d g  c
g o

k  c
e d f 

z  q c


z  fg   d       fg
o   pf 

  l
 m  c f f fpp    d 
k fg  c
 

p q m

Coverable by 3 cliques

3-colorable

] _ b

f  


Not coverable

pf 
  l
  fg  c
  i e p
i
g  m

Not 3-colorable

 f z   p  d p
fo d g k  g p fo f    i e p
i
g   c d  d  pf 
  l
  o  f
z m

de c

g  c
 q  k  j




 c f

f

 pf 

 




 fg 

    p 

o 

 j  fg 
fo

d k d 
g  l
f


c

dg k

c 

  p 

d

dg g   c dl
c

pd 
 m

k f  fg   l
  f


 d i
  p   q c fc

 pd fi



  m



j c
g


c d

 j c
g

fg

fi e pf
  c d 

e d f  o k f  fg   l
  f
 fg

fl
 c

 j  f g 
f o k f   f g   l
  f 


   fg 
 c
d 
fg d   i i  g  pf 
 j fi e p fg

g 
j q  l
  f
 q f c  c
 d i
  p  d 
g   d k d 
g  m

} _ ` b

g q

d

d l
j q

 g l

k

dg

 c f

fg   d g 



fg   d g 
 o  c
pf 
 l
 e   p
i
\

l

fg   f f g

o


k   fg

 g

e   p
i



dg  c


 c
 
 o d       fg
 d pp j d g k e pd 
f  g i  
o  i d p o   fg m    f
 c d  fg  c

d i e p

z 

m
d  
   c d   c f f d p
d p   p  fg o 

d 
  c fg

 ` _] } _ \ \ ^
c   c

 o  f

  m  c  
l


dg k

c d

l


p


  d 
d k d 
g  fg  m
   e e  
 c d  d  pf 
  l
  o  f
z j k
g  
k        m   

    z

l
f
  o

z   p  d p
j  c
g



z  p f

` _} _ ` b
 d
 pd g  d

 c

 c d  o  d pp

o c

 c d  d p d g  d
 f m
m
q  f 
g




z   p  fg

e   p
i

 

fg  

dg

 fl d p
g 

z m

k
 f f g

e   p
i 

f  


 fo  c

f d e  p g  i f d p  fi
  i e   d p
o  g   f g

fo d g k  g p fo

 

 

g  c
e 
l f  
d i e p
q
 c  q
k  c d 
z  p

l


 

  


 

e d f pd  q
c dl

 f m
m e  p g  i f d p   f i

m m



z m

  
 c d  f f
d 

f e   d g k



    

  i e p
i
g  d  d e c

  f g  c
d k d 
g  i d   f  m  c  

   

fg

f   i e   d p
fg

e  p g  i fd p  fi
m
g   f fl
p j  d fg  c d 
f

m

 c f

f

 fi
  i e   d fpf j
fg

q c fc

g  c dk


 fg 

  pl d p
fg

dg
 
k  c q

fo

f   pl d p
fg

 

      fg

fg

c dg

o 

 n   i e p

g
  f
d   p

f g   pf
p  
  pl d p
fg

e  p g  i f d p  f i
m

dg k

c
g

 m

\ ] b

dg k




c
g

 




 m

c

 c


d g

dg k

c
g

 

f  c d  fo  q  o  g   f g 

   
  


c


i


k    f g

dg k


   f   i e   d p
fg

 c
f   i e   f f g

d e e pf
k




g 
 o e  p g  i fd p

 g l

m

   d pp c d l

e  p g  i fd p  fi
j  c
g

g
fi e    d g  o d   d    
k   f fpf f  c d  f f   d g  f fl
m



 c   j fg

q c


 

f d p 

e  p g  i fd p  fi

k    f g 

 c d  e   p
i  d 
d  c d  k     pl
d  g  q g

 c   j  c f f c  q

\ ] b

\ ] b



 

e  p g  i fd p  fi
j  c
g

  pk

 

f g     pl d p
fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
j d g k c
g 
 c

k    f g f

  fl
p

i
dg  c d

j  
 fl d p
g  p q c
 c


e  p g  i fd p  fi

 c f f  
k

 fl d p
g     d fg

f

 g
l fk
g 
c d 

g   pf
p  

 

k

 i fg
q c
 c


 c
q d

d 

k f   p e   p
i  m

g  c
 q  k 

  d 

  i e   d p
fg

e  p g  i fd p  fi
d  q
pp m
i    c
     
c

e  p g  i fd p  fi
j  c
g
 c   pk
g  
k

i

c d

  d g o  i d  f g

 c
k f  fg   f g f    p
j   e
 e p
 d fg   c
     
 fg   i e p
f  c
   c   pk
d q d 

 o  c f m



\ } \ ` \ ~ ~ b  c

 n j o  q c fc
dg k




o

f f g  q g

  g l
 
p j fo d g

 g

 n   i e p


 c d  fo d g

e   p
i 

 g

d

d pp e   p
i 

f   pl d p
fg

f g     pl d p
fg

fg

c

  i e p
f

e  p g  i fd p  fi
j  c
g

e  p g  i fd p  fi
j  c
g

g  g

d
m

c

pd 

d pp d 
j

 c f f i d k

i d  c
i d  f  d pp o   i d p   fg  c
g   f g  o e  p g  i f d p  fi

k    f g  m

` _} _ ` b

pd g  d

f

fo


` _} _ ` b
d p
 g d  fl

pd g  d

d g k

f

   d pp

fo

d  f


q d 

o  d pp



 n

 

 n j dg k

c q

c d

f  n c d  k m

e   p
i

f

 n   i e p


f



 

  d g  f fl f m


\ ] b

 c

f  n   i e p

fo



 


d g

 




f

dg k
o   i
g q g

c d

d pp



 

 n c d  k  d g k c
g 
  d g  f fl f

 n   i e p

pd g  d

d






k   f p



f 
k   f p
 

 fg 

j fi e p fg  c d 

f

 n   i e p




dg k

c
g 

f  n c d  k m

 c f fl
   d q d   e   l
 c d  e   p
i  d 
 n   i e p

j  g 
q
g  q

 c d   g
e   p
i

f  n   i e p

m  g o    g d 
p j f d e e
d    
d pi    fi e    f p
  e   l
 c d   g
e   p
i
f  n   i e p

j
 d  
 c
k
g f f g  d   c d  q
c d l
 
d p
  
k  

 n

   c f e   p
i m  c

d 
fg g f
p i d g   c

 c f

q fpp  d p d     c f g
  fi
q f c

e   p
i

 d pp
k  

e   p
i  j   c  q

e   p
i

fg

dg q

l
 c  e
 k 

    c
 
i m    c  q
k  c d   c

f   g

 c    o    p
d g  d  f d fpf   c d  f  n   i e p

m   e   l
d 
  g k


 

  


e   p
i

f  n   i e p

j d pp q
g

k

f f 
k   f p
 
 n

  j dg k c
g

e   p
i       e   p
i m



k  f    c  q

 c q

 c d     e   p
i

c d q
dg


k  

 o pp q   c d     e   p
i

    

f fg

 n

   

d g k

c
g 

 
g
 d pp   i
g  q g

f
 fl d p
g     

q f c 
 e
 

    pl d fpf fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
 m  c f f fpp    d 
k fg  c
 

p q m

Your problem
Your reduction
Known NPC
SAT
NPC

SAT

NP

NP
P

; < = > ? @ <

JK L M N OP Q R S



[ \ ] ^ b


  f g

B
X

Proving a problem is NP-hard



f  


C D D

NP

Proving a problem is in NP


NPC

NPC

   
o  n

 < D @ < u

Resulting structure

d g k 
k    f g  m

>  < @

w G H

< H ? = > ID G E

S XY Y Y Z

z m m  c

k    f  g

fl
g

c

f  fi fpd  j   g    c
 d i
d   c

k    f g

fl
g

fg  c

 m
[ \

od q

fg    k  
k

o pp q fg   e f 

k
g f f g 

 o  n   i e p

g
  m

h
 d pp  c d 

q

i
g  f g
k

c

b f  c

  o k
 f f g e   p
i    pd g  d
   c d  d 
  pl d p
fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
m

c

b f  c

  o k
 f f g e   p
i    pd g  d
   c d   d g

 ` _]  \ ^
 f g

} _ ` b

 c c d 




i
d g   c d   c

f d e  p g  i fd p  fi
  i e   d p
o g 

 

fo d g k  g p fo

 c d  fo q
c d k d       fg
    pl



 

i  
fg   f fl
   c fg d     c f j f

fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
m

] ^ b

f  n c d  k fo o   d pp

 fi
j q
   pk   pl
d pp  n



fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
j  c
g q
   pk  
f     pl

n  p g  i f d p 
k    f g  d 
  d g  f fl
j  c d  f j fo



l
 f
k fg e  p g  i f d p  fi
j

\ } \ b

 n j

dg k

m  c   j fo q
   p k   pl

j c
g


fg e  p g  i fd p

e   p
i  fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
m

f  n   i e p

fo   

 n

dg k

 c
fi e    d g 
 o  n   i e p

e   p
i   c   pk g  q

 

f  n c d  k m

 p
d  m

o d g  n   i e p

e   p
i 

d g k
g
 d pp d g  n c d  k e   p
i  f   pl d p
fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
j  c
g
l
  n   i e p


e   p
i
fo q

dg

d g k

fg

e l

od 
l

c d

dg

e   p
i

fg

 n  f d p 

 n   i e p

e   p
i

  pl
k fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
j  c
g
l


  pl d p
fg

d g k

g
 d pp

 n   i e p

e   p
i

e  p g  i fd p  fi
m
dg

e   p
i

fg

 g l
 
p j
 n 

dg g  

d g k
g
 d pp
l
  n c d  k

e   p
i   d g g  
  pl
k fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
m  c   d pp  n   i e p

e   p
i  d 

 fl d p
g 
   g
d g   c
 fg  c d   c

g


d p
 g d  fl
q d    c  q

\ ] b

d 

f c
 d pp   pl d p
fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
j   g  g
d 
 m
 c d  d e   p
i

f  n   i e p

f    
  d g  f fl f  o

f  n   i e p

fo


 

  


  



 

 c

e

~

 

o    i
 n   i e p

pd g  d

 n   i e p

e   p
i

 
 c f p
i i d j q

    d    c
d pp   ppfg m  
e c
g

c
 
i

f  f

q c  c
  d

f

f
fg 
k  
k    n   i e p

e   p
i

 c f   k
 fg i fg k m

| \ \ b  g o    g d 
p j  

  i e pf d 
k  

d e   p
i

e   p
i

d pp  n

   

dg k

e   p
i

    



 i

  

e   l
j   q
p p  

fg

 n j f i    c d l

d
k


m m

fg


 j d

i     d  fo

dg

c
o i j

c dl

  n   i e p




d e   p
i

f 
k m

fl
d  f
o fg   f fl

  

d  i
g  d 

e dc j d

 f
g  l
 f  d  f g

f   

k 
 c


e d   f f g j d g

e  
k  
m

 c   l f   d pp

 c d     j q c



 c

d   f g i
g  j
  m

   f   i

dg k


m m  c

  o 
   i    p p  c
g d e  d  j    c
e d  c i   

  p   d g k g  q  d k d 
g  l
  f
  d g c d l
 c

d e   p
i

f fg  n j  c

  f  d 
  g  f    o fl fg  j d g k

l f f
l
 l
 
j     i d  
d  i   
 d i
  p   m



i f c 
f  m

e   p
i   d g

e  e
 c d  

g

k

  c  q
k c d   c

g  c  q fg  c d    c

 c
l
 f  d  f g fg l  pl
 
  fg  c d     c  p k  m
g

g
dpj dg




dg

k
   f
k

c    fg




 o 
 j q c fc

fg

 g

k
   f
k d  c    fg  c
l d p
  o   i
  p
d g l d  fd p
 m  fi fpd  p j  c
e   e
 
  g

k    d  fo j  d g
k
   f
k

d  d   p
d g o  i  pd m  
e c
g

dg

  q d  p  fg o   c


g
 d p e    f p
e   e
  c
   pk j  fg 
 c f  c   pk 
e 

g   c
 e   p
i
    pl
m

fg  n


d   g
k  c d    i e  
  q c fc 
e 

g   c
i   
g
 d p  e
 o   i e   d  f g d p

k
l f
 g  q g    pk
 o   p
d g

    c d 

o i  pd  m

k
   f
k

o dg

g  f
p

e   p
i

fg

q



 i   o   p
d g

c dk



 f   f  j d g k

  pl
j f q   pk

 g

fg

c
g 

fg


i 

q c fc

f d g

d   f g i
g   o   p
d g l d p
   

o d p
j 
  d g k       pk
d g   p
d g o  i  pd m  c f
 
    c
o pp q fg e   p
i j  d pp
k  c

fl
g

d   p
d g o  i  pd j f  c

  i
q d   d   f g

 c

m
l d p
 
 j   

o d p
  

 c
l d  fd p
  o  c
o  i  pd j    c d   c
o  i  pd
l d p d 
     

  p
d g o  i  pd f d p f d p o  i  pd q c fc   g  f    o l d  fd p


i
d g fg  c
 o

q

d

 c d  f f



fo  c


 dg k

f d q d



d   f g



 c

j

d g k  c
p f d p  e
 d  f g 

m

l d p


fl
g d   p
d g o  i  pd j

  

 

  c  c d   c
g d p 
  p f  m    e e  
k    c
 d 
q c

g  i d  
 c  q

c

l d  fd p


  d   f g     c

l d p 
  c

  p  f  d p q d   m


 
d i e p
j


f  d  f d p
j  c
d   f g i
g 






 j













 j




 g c
 c
 c dg k j







f g    d  f d p
m  
 l
 c d   c
pd   q   pd  
 fi e p  c d   g
 o

dg k

i  


d g k  c
  c
 i   
o d p
m  c f fi e pf
  c d  g
f c
  o  c
   pd  
 fg l  pl fg
fg  c
   q   pd  
  d g
 d  f
k j  


~

| \ \ b  

f  n

 d g g  

    d  fo  c
i

dg k

f  c
 m

  i e p

m

q fpp g   e   l
 c f  c
 
i m  c
e    o q   pk  d
d    d d o pp p
   
g      g  fg  c

q

     o d     g k  g    fg i d c fg
  m
l
  f g

 o  c
 d  f d fpf e   p
i

g o d   j f    g      c d  d
l
g i  

   f 
k

f  n   i e p

m

f d l d  fd p
  f  g
d  f g


 

  


 

o  i  pd f fg

q c


d c


f fg z 
d p
m

z 

o i m

 




f  c
e   p
i

 fo f f  c
  p
d g d g k

 pd  
f  c
  p
d g    o
d   p z pf
 d p m

    

   

 o pd  


 
d i e p




 o k

 i fg fg q c
 c
 d o  i  pd fg z 

    g      c d  f  f  e    f p
  i  k f o  c
e    o  o     c
 
i

f  d  f

 c q

c d z  

f d p   n   i e p

m
 dg

d fk
j g  

 c d  fo q


e pd 

c

fg

z  

q f c

 j c
g

l
  c fg

c d g
 m

o d

  p
d g o  i  pd f fl
g fg    j  c
g f f e    f p
  k

 i fg
f   d  f d fpf fg e  p g  i fd p
 fi
m      g      c d   c
e   p
i
d

k f
 
k

 d e c m

 f
g  d p   f c i



\ } \ ` \ ~ ~

 c   j
l
g

dg


k  
k



i fg p



  i e   fg  c
    g

 i d pp c d g

dg

c

  i e  g
g   fg

k f

g 

q

g

dg

dg k g  g
m

~ b  q

c d q
g q

c d z  

f  n   i e p

j q
 d g  
 c f o d    

e   l
 c d    c
 e   p
i  d 
 n   i e p

m
q fpp   d   q f c  c
fg k
e
g k
g  
 e   p
i m

` ^ \

\ ` ^ \ ` }

  g  d fg


  b

\ }

 


fl
g

o

dg

 g k f
 
k

l
f


 c

de c

c d

g 

q 

dg k

l
f


fg

dg

fg 



d

k 


d k d 
g 



 g

dg  c
 m

 
d i e p
j  c
 d e c  c  q g fg  c
 

p q

g  k


 o  f

 c

fg k
e
g k
g 




c d  d g fg k
e
g k
g  
  c  q g q f c  c d k
k

e   p
i

d  f


q c
g

c


f

 i

 

 o 
p
  f g

e   p
i j    c

d 
i    d p 
   f  f g  e d f   c d   d g g     c

p
 
k m   
d i e p
j d
  i e d g e d   q c

d g
i e p 

d g k c f 
c
 f i i
k f d 
  e
 l f     d g g     c
f g l f 
k m

  

 c d  fo d  d e c

c d dg

f  


g k
e
g k
g  
 m

fg k
e
g k
g  


 o  f

j c
g

 i d pp
  f
 m    c
   
 e  g k fg  e  fi f d  f g e   p
i
o c

pd 
   f

e   p
i

fg

de c m

q dg  

 o   i e   fg  c

c q

o
g

c

l
f


fg k
e
g k
g  
 q f c

 c d   c
e   p
i

f c d  k

f c d  d g

c d l
q
f c   j  

c

fg k
e
g k
g 


  o d pp

q   pk
  g k d g fg k
e
g k
g  

q

i f c   d p

pd 
     d p q
f c  m

d    c

 q
l
 j  fg 
q

    pl
j q
q fpp   g  fk
  c
 fi e p
  l
  f g

o c

e   p
i m


] _ b

 f  n   i e p

m

 c
e    o fg l  pl
 q  e d    m
c

l
f
  o

f   j q
g

k    c  q

m
 fi e p l
 fo  c d  o  
d  c

c d

 n m  c

  f  d 
  g  f    o

e d f  o l
 

j  c

f g 
k

q

g  c
i m p
d  p  c f  d g
k  g
fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
j d g fg  e
  f g  o  c
d k d 
g 
i d   f m

  g k p j q
g

k

 
  d pf c

g  q g  n   i e p

e   p
i



o g   f g

c d

d   p
d g o  i  pd fg
c d i de 

fg  

 f  n c d  k j q c fc

dg

k  g
 c  q fg  c d    i

 z    f  e  p g  i f d p  f i

k   f p
 
z 

o  i m
q f c

d fg e   o   c

 g k

 j  c d  f j z  

d e  p g  i fd p  fi
  i e   d p

e   p
i j d  d e c

 d g k fg 

  m  c d  f j


 

  


 



 j  c c d 

  pl
 c
fg k
e
g k
g  
 e   p
i

 c
g q
q   pk
d p
    pl
z  

   

 c d  d g fg k
e
g k
g  
  o  f
 m  c f

f  d  f d p
fo d g k  g p fo

q fpp i
d g  c d  fo q
 d g

    

 d g k  fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
j

o 

fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
m

g fi e    d g  d  e
    
k    f g  f  c d  q
k  g   d  
i e      pl
 c
 d  f d fpf e   p
i m
h
i
i


 f  n   i e p

j d g k

 c
o g   f g



i    e
d

c


 c
 fi fpd 
p
i
g    o  c

f g   pf
p  

q f c    g  q p
k

dg

o q c
c


 d  f d p
e   p
i



e  p g  i f d p  f i
  p   f  g m
f  d  f d p
m

   
 e  g k fg

 c

fk
d

f

p
i
g    o  c

fg k
e
g k
g  
 e   p
i m
{ | ] } _~ }

~\ \

}\ ^

b c fc l d  fd p
 d 
 
d   f g
k  c
l d p
  
j  
 fl d p
g  p j q c fc pf
 d p

q fpp
  
d g k q c fc q fpp
o d p
m

[ \

b c fc l
  f
 q fpp
e pd 
k fg

_ \ \ ` } ~ b

[ \ ~}_

d c

 pd  
i      g  d fg

i      g  d fg d  p
d  

d  p
d    g
  
l d p
k pf
 d p m

l
f
 m

} _ ` ~ b
b



f 
p
 
k  
fg



f d   f g
k   
j  c
g

q d g  d o g   f g

i   
o d p
j d g k l f
l
  d m

j dg k

f d g
f c    o

j q c fc fl
g d g z 

j c
g

  p
d g o  i  pd

 d g g  
fg

j   g l
   f fg   d e d f 

  c  c d   c
d  l

p
i
g   d 
  d g  pd 
k e   e
 p m      d 
q fpp
     g
d c pf
 d p
fg   d l
 
m  c
l
  f
 q fpp
fg
  
pf
 d p o  i

 dp 

d c

dg k g  g
o i
c

pd  
m  

e

       fg
o  i

d c

c



 o c 

j  g
o 
d c


p
  fg

d l


 pd  
m 
p
  fg d

d k k



fg k
e
g k
g  
       fg

       fg
o  i


p
  fg





o c


k    f g

d c


  

 

 
 


 

d pf
 d p d g k f    i e p
i
g   
  
j q
q fpp e  

f

fl
g

p q m

 c

fg e   f

  p
d g

o i  pd

 

    

 

c d

d

 pd fi




 
   














      

      

   


 
 


 




 

 





 

"

 

dg

  

 

    

     



   

fg

 

 


   

 
 
   

  






 g
pd  

 pd  
 p  
 q f c
k
 m

q fpp 



p
  fg q  pf
 d p o  i

 d g k fg 

  m

j d g k  c
   e   f d  d e c

 


p
   g
  

pf
 d p d g k f    i e p
i
g  m

o  i d p k
   fe  f g

z 

  i
  c
 j q
q fpp   g g
  d pp  c
l
  f
 fg

d g
k

q

g

q fpp    
 e  g k

c
g  i
  o pd  
 j  o 
c

pf
 d p o  i

 

e

 i
pd  

pd  
 j c
g

 c d 
d   p z  l
  f
 m

e    d i i fg

  f

c d




d

 d

f  d  f d p
fo d g k  g p fo

d dg

fl
g

d g 
d   g d p

g   k fg  o

d k d 
g 

i d   f  fg

 c d  d g fg k
e
g k
g  
  o  f
 m

j f f

e  p g  i fd p  fi
m


 



  


\ b   e e  
 c d  q
d 
fl
g  c
z 


 c

k    f g




o i  pd




x2

f  


z  




}` \ ~~
o


x2

x2

x2

x2

x3

x3

x3

x3

x3

x1


 m

x3

x2

x2

x1

x2

x3

Correctness (x1=x2=1, x3=0)

 h
k    f g o  

  
d i e p
j  c
o  i  pd f  d  f
k

x1




c




d   f g i
g 

 j

pd  pd  


d




 j dg k

m

 m   




 j c

 g k

pf
 d p  o

 pd  
f  j d g k  c
 c f k pf
 d p  o  c
 c f k  pd  
f  m 
 l
 c d  
p
  fg

 c
   
 e  g k fg l
  f
 o  i
\




x1

 c d   c f fi e pf
  c d   c
   pf
 d p  o  c
   d g k

x1



c

 g k

x3

The reduction


x1

x1

   

e   k  
  c
 d e c  c  q g fg  c
o pp q fg  
d g k 
 

x1

    

b
 pd fi

c d

f  d  f d p
j  c
g

d c

o c

f  d  f d p
fo d g k  g p fo

pd  
  o

k
g  
 c
   
 e  g k fg l
  f
 o  i


d  
q
d
l
f
 o i

 c
 p  
  j q

 d g fg k
e
g k
g  
  o  f

d c

 c d  d g fg k
e
g k
g  
  o  f

i    c d l
d  p
d    g
  
pf
 d p m

 o  c
 pd  
 p  
   g
o  i

d c



 p  
  m

d c  p  
 j  c

d 
g  fg 
  p  

k

q

g  c
i j d g k

 d  
q
 d g g   
 d l d  fd p
d g k f    i e p
i
g      c
  
j  c

 d g
g 
k
 o


c
o i



 g l
 
p j fo
o i

d c

q

g

c
l
f
  o

 c d  d g fg k
e
g k
g  
 

pd  

 p  
 j
 d  

 c
 d i
 p  
 
 d  

c


 d pp  o  c

pf
 d p  

 m



q  l
  f
 pd
p
k

m  c   j

 o  f

d

f d g fg k
e
g k
g  
  o  f

d 
d pp fg 
   g g
 
k  m

fg  c
 d i
 p  
 m

f    
 l
 c d  q
i    
p
  d l
 

 p  
  j d g k

q

d g g   d
q 

l
f
 o i

 g  fk
  c
d   f g i
g  fg q c fc

 c f d   f g i
g  f p f d pp



dg k

c


  g  f 
g  j
 d  
q

q

dg g   c dl

fg d pp  c
  d g o  i d  f g  p
d  p   g  fg

e  p g  i fd p  fi
m  c f   i e p

  c
 n   i e p

g
  e    o m

 l
 c d     
k    f g

k fk g   d 
i e  

p   
 l
 c d   c

k    f g

c d k

  pl
 c

g   d    i
 c d   c
o  i  pd q d   d  f d p
j g   k fk





 m

 c f

 g q g
fg  

dg

f

d 

d p   f c i   m

  i e   fg

c


 c fg 

g  
d k  c

k    f g

 fl d p
g  fg e    

e   p
i

g   

  pl
 c

q

d i
q
g
q

q   pk

 fi e p


 f



q c fc

 c
fg e   o  i

 c
  c
 e   p
i j q c fp
e 

 l fg

l d  fd p
  

e  g
g  fd p  fi

JK M U OP Q R S



C I

? <

< @ > < 

C D

< @

w G H

D u

IG w > IG

x < >

z m  m  c
k  i f g d  f g 
 e    o f  g   f l
g f g    
 m

c

 c
  f f d p
p
i
g    
d c

W S XY Y Y Z

[ \ ] ^ b c d e  z  e  c    c

 g
e   p
i

e   p
i m

; < = > ? @ <

z   m

 o  c
  p  f g  
f c
 e   p
i m 
k fk


 

[ \

  


d    fi
q
d l
d 
k    f g o  i



fg k
e
g k
g  
 fg

c d c q
q

dg

 c  q fg

q c
g

dg

 d  f d fpf  o   p
d g o  i  pd  fg z 

 d e c   m   k d q
fl
d o
q

 c d  d e   p
i

l
 fo

z  

c d  i
g q g

e  p g  i fd p  fi
o g   f g

fg

c

pd g  d
 j d g k

 n   i e p

e   p
i
c d  d g o i  d g

dg

   

o i 

i  

d i e p
  o 
k    f g  m

f  n   i e p

q
g

k    c  q

fg e   f

    

    c d   c
e   p
i

  c d  c


k  
k

e   p
i



f fg  n

f

fg  

dg

 f m
m

 n c dk j

 c f e   p
i

fg e   o   g
e   p
i

h
 d pp

 c


f d

 fl d p
g  fg e  

o   c
  c
 e   p
i  m

] ~

_

[ \ ^



fg 



} _ ` ~ b
  g  fk
   i
 p 
p 
pd 
k  n   i e p

e   p
i  g
 m

b

j k 

m

 c

c dl

 


f

fl
g

o

dg

 g k f
 
k

l
f


 c

de c

c d  o 
d c

 dg k

k f  fg  

dg

 c d l
d  l
 
  
 q c  
fg k  
k    d e c f

 c
 q  k  j k 


  i e p

m
 \ } \

 c



_` ] } _` a

b

c d

  f

fl
g

k

dg

  b

\ }

 c

c d
l


 c

 g 

 g o 

k f    
k

fg

c

dg

fg d g  g k f
 
k  d e c

fg

c d d

 g k f
 
k

l




fg

p
d    g

de c

 pf 

   f

dg k

dg

 f d   
  o l
  f


g k e  fg 

fg

fg 



 c

 c dl
d l


j k 


fl
g

    e   p
i

d de c

f
f c
 fg

d de c

 f d   
  o l
  f


  f d k d 
g   

 i
l


 d g k d g fg 



fg

j k 


c d

q



d  pf
 p
   
m  c

 c
 pf 
  l
 e   p
i

fg

c
de c

c d l
d k  i fg d  fg 
  o  f



l




  l
  o  f

q f c

 pf 
e   p
i

c

 pf 
  l




  g k



   e d   f f g  c
l
  f
 fg  

 

e   p
i

d  fg p
 pf 
 o  f

j dg k

   e  j
d c  o q c fc f d  pf 
m

c d l
k f    
k  c
o d     c d   pf 
 d 
 o fg 

  fg d e e pf d  f g  k
d pfg q f c  p  
 fg m
 c

l


l


e   p
i

d  f
 fg

 i e  
g
q   d g k d e  d i

 c
 e d 
 o fg   d ppfg  c
e    d i
 g


d pp  c

  i e  
  o  i fg d

l d  f   
 l f fg

d e e pf d  f g  m

 
d i e p
j  

c dl

 c d  c
   c
fg 
 f  o  c
  i i  g f d  f g pfg  m    d l

 g

l


l


  i e  
 fg

l
 m

 i

 c
g
q   j f   
   fg   d pp f

c


 i fg d  fg 
 f  
o p fg o d  fpf p  d  f g e   p
i  m

g  k


d pp  c

pfg   d g



k m

 
d i e p
j   e e  
q
q d g    
p
 

q c

  e pd 
d 
  o 
  d  f g    c  c d 
l
 c   
fg  c
 f f q f c fg  i fg  
  o  c

g
d 
  
  d  f g m
 
d 

 i fg  
  o
d c   c
 m

d  d e c fg q c f  c  q  p  d  f g  d 
d k d 
g  fo  c

i fg fi  i

 f
k k  i fg d  fg 
 q fpp
d i fg fi  i

  c  c d 
l
   c
 p  d  f g f 
d c d p
q f c fg  i fg  
 o  i

 g
 o  c

 f
 m

   e   p
i f  l f   p  p 
p 
pd 
k    c
fg k
e
g k
g  
 e   p
i

 c

d de c

 k 
 f c d l
d  l
 
  
  c d  f   i e p

p  m

c d c
l


  l
 e   p
i

f 
pd 
k m

d 
q f c fg


  o p  d  f g 

  

fl
g

 f g    f
d   p
d 

 q
l
 j  c
o pp q fg p
i i d i d
  c f   g g
  f g

 p
d  d  q
pp m

\ ] b

fl
g

d g  g k f
 
k

de c

f

f d  pf 
 o  f

f d g fg k
e
g k
g  
  o  f

  

f d l
 

 q f c

l
f
 d g k

d  


 o  f

ff
fff

m  c
o pp q fg d 

 fl d p
g 

 m

o   c
  i e p
i
g  j

  l
  o  f

o 

 m

 

o 

 m

_ 

__  b

c d

o




f d  pf 
o 

 j c
g o 
d c

f g   d g
k
 o

 j fi e p fg  c d  




f d g
k
 o

 fi e p fg

f d g fg k
e
g k
g  
 o 

 m


 

  


f  


__ 

___  b

  

c d

_  b

 m 

fg



l
 m

 j c
g o 
d c

 

f

d p   f c i

f g   d g

j fi e p fg

 m

o 

d l


l
 o 

 j c
g o  dg

c


 j fi e p fg  c d  

fg

f g 


k

f d  pf 

 m

o    pl fg d g  g
 o  c

e   p
i  j q
   pk
d  fp   d g  pd 

o  c
 c
 m

g e d   f  pd  j q
c d l
 c
o pp q fg m

   f  n   i e p

m

 f  d 

fg k
e
g k
g  
 o 

f d g fg k
e
g k
g  
 o 

d p   f c i

| \ \ b


g k
e
g k
g  
 j dg k

 j fi e p fg  c d   c

f d g
k

 c   j fo q
c d k d g
f fg   d g

f d g

f d

fg

of size n-k
iff V-V is a VC
in G

 j fi e p fg  c d 
l

k
fg  f fg  fk
g    d l
 
fg   

k
o

___ 

pf 
j

   

V is CLIQUE of size k iff V is an IS of size k

in the complement of G
in G


    

q

b  c

dg


  f  d 

d  fp

  g  f    o  c

l
 fo

fg

l
f


e  p g  i fd p  fi
 c d 

fg

c

 pf 
m

 c




fg

c




d

e   p
i



fl
g

d pp e d f   o l
  f


d k d 
g  m

b

q dg 



c q

c d

fl
g

dg

 i e  dg 

k  g   g q

    i e  
f  m

fl
g

q c
c


 dg k  j 
 

fg   d g 

o

   e   p
i

 d g e   k  
d g
 fl d p
g  fg   d g 
 o  c

c



 

j q

 fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
m

 c d  d g fg k
e
g k
g  
 j d g k q
k  g   c d l
 fi



 dg k 

j d g k    e    c
e d f 

 

m 

 c
d  l
p
i i d j  c f fg   d g 
f
 fl d p
g  m
| \ \ b
 

d

f  n   i e p

m

b  c

  f  d 
  g  f    o  c

q

dg

d  fp

l
 fo

fg

l
  f
 fg  c
l
 

e  p g  i fd p  fi
 c d 
l


l
 m

fl
g   c

k
f fg  fk
g   

d 
  f

 g
o c


l
f
 m

  b

dg

dg k

_` ] } _` a


q dg   c q

 fl d p
g  fg   d g 

 

 c d  fl
g d g fg   d g 
 o  c

o c

e   p
i



 

 fg

 e   p
i



j q
dg e  k  

e  p g  i fd p  fi
m




m   c
p
i i d d  l
j  c

fg   d g 
 d 

 fl d p
g  m

\ } b  q f c l
 
  l
 j k  i fg d  fg 
 f d g
d i e p
 o d  d e c   l
 fg e   p
i m


 c
  g k f f g f d pf  p
k f

g  j
d  c l
 
f d k d 
g     c
i
i
   o  c
k  i fg d  fg


 j d   e e  
k  
d c
k

fg fg  fk
g   
d c i
i
  o  c
k  i fg d  fg 
 m l f   p j
fo

 f   g g
 
k d g k c d  d l
 
  l
  o  f
 j  c
g f c d  d k  i fg d  fg 
  o  f
  c

 d i

  o l
  f
  j    c
  g l
 
f g   g

  d  fp   
m
 c d  fo

fg

 n   i e p

j  c
g

 f pf
p  

 c f 
  f g f     c f m

 q
l
  c
 fi fpd  f  
  

 n   i e p

d  q
pp m  c
i d fg 
  p  o


 

  


| \ \ b

o c
 


f fg

fg

c

c d

o c
l


q






 n m  c


  f  d 
     g  f  

k

 i fg
q c
 c

l


m
f 
k   f p
  k  i fg d  fg 
 m
c   

 m
q d g  d e  p g  i fd p  fi
o g   f g j q c fc fl
g d g



j e  k  


dg



fg   d g 

 c d  d l
 
  l
  o  f
 fo d g k  g p fo 

q

d g pd 

q

g

c


k
f fg  fk
g    d l
 

l


d k d 
g 

 c f

c d

e  p g  i fd p  fi
q
 d g

 

 o c

k  i fg d  fg

c d  d k  i fg d  fg 
  o

l




  l
 e   p
i


 e   p
i j   c  c d 
 f

 c d  d g
f  fg  n   i e p

e   p
i

l
 dg k c q

fg   d g 

f   q
 c  q

k  i fg d  fg 
 m

  f d k d 
g    d l
 
fg


 q
c q
l


   

 f  n   i e p

m

   d p c
e   o c d  q  e d  m

l


    

fg

 c  

c

e   p
i 

fg



  d g  pd  f g

 c



k f

g 

l


l


i    i
c q

f  c

  g k f f g m

f
f c
 fg

i de

c

g   f g

  f d k d 
g 

o

fg  fk
g 



m 
 d  
fg  fk
g 
f d e   e
   o
k
 j d g k d k d 
g  f d e   e
   o l
  f
 j




l
f
  c

c d

c


k    f g

o g   f g

i  

 i
c q

 c d  d g fg  fk
g 
k
f i d e e
k   d g

 g

c

k


o

c

de c

fg  

d k d 
g  l

m

 c f  
    c
o pp q fg fk
d q c fc k 
 g    f
q    m
q fpp fg 
  d l
 
fg    c

i fk k p
 o
d c


k
o c
de c m

 j  d pp
k

m  c
od  c d

j dg k

 c
 q  k  j o 
d c


e pd 

c

q d  fg  fk
g   
k

f d k d 
g     c
   
 e  g k fg l
 

k   c f j q
q fpp p
d l
 c

k

f f  pd 
k f  d g

f f g   fg  fk
g   

dg

fg

d  o pp q  m

dg k d k k
k


dg k 


c d
l
 
e

g f fd pp

 e  

k
 j f k 
 g   g

k

 

 m

dg k


j q
q fpp  
d 

q 

k


d g
q

dg k

k  i fg d 
 c
g
f c  



m  

 c

  p fg  d e c m

  
 g
 c d  f fg  fk
g    g 

 
fg

 c
k  i fg d  fg 
 m

c
l


l
 m



 fg 

k
g  
c

k
g  
 c
g  i
  o f  pd 
k l
  f
 m  c
g  i
  o l
  f


q
 d g fl
 c
  i e p


k    f g m

d de c

d  q
pp m

c

g 
e pd 
k q f c  c
o d    c d 

m
  fpp g

k  

g
dg

  

  o   c
k  i fg d  fg 
 q fpp

 q

c d g q

c

 g p
k  i fg d 
k fo f f fg  p k
k fg

 j d g k p


f  pd 
k l
  f
 fg

k

q f c

fg  c
 d e c

 c f f   fpp g    f
   
   c   c m

k
 m

k

m

fl
g  c
e d f 

 
d c
k

fg

 m



 o  c

fg

e   p
i j q
 
d 

 q

d
d g
q l


k
g  
 c
g  i
  o f  pd 
k l
  f


 c f 
k    f g

fpp    d 
k fg

 c
o pp q fg  
m

  

 d g
e
o  i
k fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
m

k=3

 
  d pf c
 f

fo d g k

c

 g p

f  


 
g

fo

o c

k=3+1=4

 i fg d  fg 
 
k    f g m


k    f g j q
g

k

c d  d k  i fg d  fg 
  o  f




c q

c d

 c d d l

l
 o

f   q
d  
 c d  fo

f d l
 


 

  


l
 o 

 j c
g 



 o  c f  d g  f f p
   c d g





j c
g q
dg

   

 m 
l
c d

f d k  i fg d  fg 
 o 



    

d k k d g l
  f
 q
pf
  i d
 c
 f

 d p  

m

  

c d
 c

fg

 fi e p fg  c d 
f c


 c
 d i
l
 
fg



 o c
e
fd p l
f


 

f fg

f
f c
 fg

  d k d 
g   d l




c
l


l


fg

fg

m  c  



f k  i fg d 
k

f fg  fk
g    d  p
d  

 
p
d pp  o f  g
f c    d 
fg

dg k



 
e  g k   dg
k

fg d pp j
d c  o  c
g  g f  pd 
k   f fg d p l
  f


 j d g k c
g 

f c
 f f fg 

 g

k
fg

f d k  i fg d  fg 
 j     
 l
 c d  d pp  c
f  pd 
k l
  f
 d 
fg



d 
k  i fg d 
k m 
  g k j
d c

g
f c
  d 
j

m  c f f  c  q g fg  c
  e e d    o  c
o pp q fg

 
m

vertex cover for G

dominating set for G

dominating set for G



f  
z

 g l
 
p j q
 pd fi
l

p




d l


 o  f

 
g
 o c

 q
l
 j q
 pd fi

f k  i fg d 
 f 
po d g k

j dg k

 
k    f g m

 o  f




 d  

 c d d l


c
g

i   
fg  c
k  i fg d  fg 
 m

l
  f
 m
i f c     

 pd fi


  i
 c fg pf

f   j



f

i d c dl
l
f
 c d 

 m

c d l
   d 
d  fp 
e pd 
k f q f c



 c d  q
g
l
 g

k    
d g  o  c
g
q p

g e d   f   p d  j fo   i
l
 

j 

vertex cover for G

 m     c f q fpp g   g

  d  fp q   j
 d  


d 
g   e d    o  c
  f fg d p  d e c


f  pd 
k l
  f
  o

 c

i d fg fg

l
 o 

c d  d k  i fg d  fg 


m   
 c d  d pp

 



 c d  fo

using original vertices

c




m

j c
g

i  k fo

 
d 
k  e
 fd p l
  f
 fg


e pd  fg




l
c d c
l


 c
 q 

l
f
 m

c d 
k
  fg  

dg k

k  i fg d 
 c
 d i
l
  f
 d g k e  
g  fd pp i  
 m






  fg



m 
   pk
dg k

fg  
d k j q
  fpp k  i fg d 

m  c  

q f c

f d k d 
g     g p


e pd  fg

q f c

q

k
g  
 c

  p fg 
 d o
  c f

i  k f  d  f  g m   c f  f   c  q g f g  c
p  q
 i f k k p
e d    o  c
 
m

 pd fi

c d

f d l
 

c d q d g   l

k
d k d 
g  

 o 

dg

l


g
f c

o



l
 o 

fg

g  

 m

o j  c

q d  fg

 g d c

q

dg

 c
g

c
e
fd p l


  j   g   d k f  fg  c
c e   c
 f  c d  

 m





k

q   pk

q d d

o

g  

k  i fg d  fg


 

  


; < = > ? @ <

JK M U OP Q R S



S XY Y Y Z

[ \ ] ^ b  c

k    f g q
e 

g  o 
z m m  o


   

 w > 

I> D G Iw G

w u

    

d i fp  g f d g n d  c f   i e p

p k f

g  o   i

 c
 g
fg c d e 

h m

] _} ` _] `

\ b   k d q
  g  fk
 d   pp
  f g  o e   p
i  
pd 
k   g k fg e d  c  fg  d e c 

d g k k f  d e c  m h
 d p p  c d  f l
g d  d e c    k f  d e c  d 

l
 l


fg  c
 d e c


d   p  g 
 m  c

 n  e   p
i  d  q c
 c
 d fl
g  d e c
 c


d

o   l d  fd  f g   o  c


 g k f
 
k j d g k

k
e
g k fg

 g

d i fp  g fd g   p

  k f  d e c  c d    c

e   p
i  k
e
g k fg

q c
c
  

f d  fi e p
  p
 c d 

 f  d  f i e p
e d  c  c d  l f  f  

l f f 
l
 l
 
fg  c
 d e c 
d   p  g 
 m

 g

q dg  d e dc

  d g k

d i fp  g fd g e d  c

d   p
  e d  c j 
 e
  fl
p m

q c
c


c

de c

f

k f
 
k

  d   p
j   d pp  o  c


 

e   p
i 

d 
 n   i e p

m
g

fi e    d g  
pd 
k

de c

 

e   p
i

k f  d e c  q f c

f

fg 



c

  d l
pfg

k

 d p
 i d g

e   p
i

q
f c   j k

 i fg

c

  n  m

  p

fl
g

 o i fg fi  i

  i e p


q
f c   c d 

l f f  d pp  c
l
  f
 m  fg 
 c
 d e c f   i e p

j   c d   p
q fpp d pq d 
f  m  c
k
 f f g
e   p
i

 n   i e p

m
q fpp p
d l
  n


` \ ` }

 j d g k fg 

  j k 
  c


f  d

o  i  pd  f g f j fl
g d   i e p

q
f c 
k  d e c

d i fp  g fd g   p
 o    d p q
f c  d  i    

\ ~_a ` b  e

  k d q
q fpp e   l
 c d 

d i fp  g fd g  p
f

d  d g
d 

  f
m   f k  g
fg 
  f g

  g  q j i     o  c

k    f g   c d  q
c d l


g

z m m f g

o   pf 
j

h m
j dg k

 fg e d   f  pd   d 
 o d 
pd  fl
p  fi e p
l d  f
 m  c
d 
  i
 fi
  d pp
k


k    f g  j
 d  
 c
 e
 d 
i d fg   i
p  d p c d g
 c    c     c
 d e c m

q fpp e 

g 
 g

k f
 
k

i  c

de c  m

f fg l  pl
 k
 f g fg
 m

f

 
d  f g

 e 

g  d  f g

  i e p

  p
 o 
k    f g

 o 
k    f g

f



g o 

fg

o i dg d k
 m
o

c
 

o  c

d i fp  g fd g e d  c

  

  g    d fg  m

 c f  g
fg l  pl
  c

e   p
i

 
k    f g j
 d  



 d p 

  i e p

  g       f g

 d pp
k


k    f g 

 o  g p

i d

 g
m





dg k

c 

o     c

d i e p
  o d k
  m

p q m

    fg
k
 j pd
p
k
   d g l
 fo m

 d pp
k

e d f pd 

 c
d k
  c d  q
q fpp  
fg  c
k f
 
k
f  c  q g

f

 e
 fd p    d e c  j   i
 fi
  d pp
k

q c  


fg l  pl
 c

i  

 c f  e

 


 

d i fp  g fd g e d  c 
k    f g j  d pp
k d

  g  f    o  c 


m

fg   i fg
k
 pd
p
k

 q d  k
 f g
k   f   d  f 
k  c
o  p p  q f g e   e
  j q c f  c

g   f fl
p f  d   c d  fo  
g 
  c
d k
  g d g   
  o  j    z fg e  

k
 j  c
g  c

f d q d  
  c    c  c
d k
 d g k c f
l
 l
 

d   p  g 
j d g k fg

k  fg  
d c e d  c i   
g k  g  c
   
 e  g k fg    e  
k
m


] _ b


fl
g  c

n d k


  d g   
  o fg e  
k
 j  c


f   d 
  o e d  c  q c fc  fg
d c


j  

l f  f 
l
 


  f  
 e
  fl
   e  
k

l


j  

fg  c
d k

d   p  g 
m

g   
  o e d  c   c d    d    g  c
fg e  
k
 d g k
g k  g  c
   e  
k
 j d g k
l f f d pp  c

l
f


o c

d k

d   p

 g 
j i     fg

   
 e  g k fg

   
 e  g k fg    e    m  g   c
 q   k  j d e d  c  c d    d     g fg e  
  e  



 c f  g

   q g j

  d   fg

 d 
o p fg  e
  f g
q f c


d pp  g k
   d g k




d k
 m

 f e   d p

fg e   e d  c  j d g k


  f g

o q c c


d  f
 

d  
i e  fg  

d g k q f c    l f f fg d g l
 

c
d k
 j dg q
 c

  fe p
 m   pk   i
  c
 g  i
 q  

o c

 g
j q  j   c 

  c    c  c
d k
 q f c     fe e fg l
 

q c
c
  

fg e     

i   
f  g

m

 c
e    o f g   c d  k j   fg l  pl
 d


fg e  
k

 c c d  
c
 c

e d c 

q f
m   

d

  e  o


 

  


Gadget

    

What it looks like inside

i1

o1

i1

o1

i2

o2

i2

o2

i3

o3

i3

o3

Path with 1 entry

i1
o1

i1

o1

i2

o2

i2

o2

i3

o3

i3

o3

Path with 2 entries

i1
o1

i1

o1

i2

o2

i2

o2

i3

o3

i3

o3

Path with 3 entries

i1
o1

i1

o1

i2

o2

i2

o2

i3

o3

i3

o3

f  


d k
 d g k
d i e p
  o e d  c   d l
  d p m

   


 

  




_~

\ } \ b  c f d k
 f d g
 
g  fd p e d    o    e    o  c d   c
k f
 
k

e d  c e   p
i

  
 c

e dc m

d i fp  g fd g n d  c e   p
i

b  c


  f  d 

  g  f  

o

c

 g fk
 c

 fi fpd 
p
i
g  
q

g

d e d o c
e dc m

g z  

c
q 

c

 g

d k f  d e c m

fg



z 

n d k
 o 
d c

 
e  g k



c

g
dp   

o c


pf
 d p



o i

pd  



fg

d e e
d  fg

 c

e dc o 
c

  k
 fg

o c

k f  d e c

l
  f
 q fpp c d l
q 

f 
   o d p
m

dg k

e   p
i  m

 

l


k


fg

c

d   p  g 
m

n j q

z  

q

d 
k
 fk fg

d 

p
  fg

q c fc

k
 q fpp
g

n j

 c 

pf
 d p e
  pd  
 m
q fpp   g l
 

k
g  
 c
l d  fd p
 d e e
d  fg fg
c
o i  pd m

fg

 c f

o d p

e dc

q c fc

 d


c

q fpp   g  f 

q fpp e d    c    c

c
e dc

o d

c   c

fg e   

 c   j c

j dg k


 f


e d c   c

dg k

fo



pd  

e d
 c   c

d k
 o 



f 
  

d c


 i
g  i
 o

pd  




j dg k c
di
  e   m

fg



q c fc

 c
d k
  f   g f i e    d g  m

c
g

l d  fd p
m

dg k

d pp  c
 pd  
d k
  o   pd  
 fg q c fc
d pp  c

m
q fpp

  e    o
d c

l
f
 j  g
o 

    fg e d  c  j  g
 d
g

 o  c

e d  c  q fpp  c
g

q fpp e d  

 c

pd  
m

q   pk
g
 d 
d  pd  
d k
 q f c fg e    pd
p
k

 d


l
f


 c

i   
d  p
d    g
  
pf
 d p o 
d c  pd  
m

d   p
d g o  i  pd

 c f o  i  pd fg  

 c

o

i   
l f f
k
d   p  g 
m

d 
fl
g

d k




g 

b  c f q fpp
 c
 
   o  c

   o  c f 
  f g m

d   f g i
g  o   c
l d  fd p
  o  c
o  i  pd m

 g  

d i fp  g fd g

f  n   i e p

m

 f d g
d  i d  
   c
  c d   c
e d  c l f f 
l


d c l


   

f  n   i e p

m

| \ \ b  c
k f
 
k

    

 g
fo

n d k
 m



de e
d j

de e
d m

 c

c
e dc  o 

c d l
e d  
k  c    c  c
f pd   d k
  j  c
g  c
d 
 fg
k    c
g
 l d  fd p
l
 
j






 c f f fpp    d 
k fg  c
o pp q fg  
m  c
 
 g p  c  q  d e    f g  o  c
  g       f g m
 c

q fpp
e d  c    i fg fg    c

 d i
d k
  o  i
g dp l




d i fp  g fd g   p
j  d  c
  c d g

xi _
xi

  
c d  o 
d c

xi

xi

_ _
xi xi

_
xi

l d  fd p
j  c

c
g



_
x i ...

 
d i e p
j   g  fk




c

d  

xi

_
xi

_
xi

d i fp  g fd g e d  c

z  



m

n m

i   
f c
  
 c
  



o q
c   
c

e d c o 

 
fg  c

e dc

q
q fpp c d l
d  p
d    g
e d  c e d   fg

m
o pp q fg   p
d g

o  i  pd fg

z 

m  c

  g       f g

k f  d e c  c  q g fg  c
o pp q fg  
m



   c
o d p

d i fp  g fd g e d  c j

d c  o  c
d k
  q c  
   
 e  g k fg

j d g k fo q
 c  
 c
o d p
e d  c j  c
g

c   c
d c d k
 o 

m  o q
q dg 
k  
k  


x i+1

q
q fpp c d l
d  p
d    g
e d  c e d   fg  c    c

 pd  
  g  d fg 

xi

g
 d p        
 o 
k    f g o  i

e d  c j   f  d g g    
  c m

...

xi

xi

_
xi
f  



d i fp  g fd g e d  c j q
   pk  fg

xi

xi

  c
 l d  f d p
 d  q
p p m
d k k  g

j d g k  c
p d   l d  f d p
 e d  c  d 
  g g
 
k










f
pk   c


 

  


    

   

path will start here

T

x1

_
x1
x2
x3

F
T
F
T

x2
x3

x_2
_x 1
x3

x_1
x_2
x3

to x 3
to x 2

x1
x_3
x2

xe

to x 3
to x 2

F
f  

| \

[ \ ^

} _ ` b

fg

j q

d

l

m

d i e p
 o  c
z  




k    f g m

   fl
d i  
o  i d p k
   fe  f g  o  c

k    f g m h
 d pp  c d  q
d 
fl
g d

  p
d g o  i  pd


fg z 

 
d c pd  

 c
 c 

pf
 d p  o

 d  o pp q  m

m
 
d 
d k f  d e c

 j g di
k

j q

d
d



d p 


d



 
d c l d  fd p

d l


g di
k

d e e
d  fg

 c

g k fg

n d k
 q c  
fg e    d g k    e    d 
pd
p
k q f c

m  c
  k
 f  g fi e    d g  j d  p g d 
d c fg e   d g k f     
 e  g k fg

   e   d 
p d
p
k  c
 d i
m

 fg  c

l
  f
 q f c  c
d k
  d  o pp q  m
 

 





fg q c fc



pd
p
k q f c

fg  c
d k
 o 

q f c  c
fg e    o d k



 
d c l d  fd p

d e e
d   d  d pf
 d p  g   i e p
i
g 
k  m   fg

/




   c
g
 l
 
l d  fd p

m

 o  

 c d   c

g  f

 c

  g       f g

o  i  pd j  
d  fg

c


  p fg

dg

m  o  c f f  c
pd   l d  fd p
j  c
g  fg f  

 c
 d i
q d j    c f  fi
 fg fg  c
d k
  o   c

c

k f  d e c

e
o i
k

d e e  e fd 
l
f
 j d g k

fg

pd
p
k



fg d pp j  fg  c
   e    o  c
pd   d k





  p fg c d fg  o
k
 f  d pp
k  c
o  l d  fd p

 d pp
k

  g  fk
 d pp  c
 pd  

d g
k
   c
fg e  

j d g k fg
g
 d p  fg  c
 c
   e    o d k


 

q f c  c f  d i
pd
p m

j


 i

 pd  
 fg

f  c

  e  

d 
 g k

e  p g  i fd p  fi
j

d k k fg  c



q c fc
o c

f g  
d k m  c

c d fg fg
d   p
de e
d m


k    f g m

 c f f

l

 fi e p fg  e
  fg

d e e  e fd 

k
 

c

c

k f  d e c m

 c
o pp q fg p
i i d
  d pf c
  c
   
  g
   o  c f 
k    f g m

\ ] b  c
  p
d g o  i  pd
d  l

k    f g c d  d

f  d  f d p
fo d g k  g p fo  c

b
g

k  e l
 c c

  e e  
c d

c d

 g p fo

d  d  fo fg

dg k c

d   f g i
g  m

 c f e d  c q fpp   d   d   c
l d  fd p
l
 

  o d p
e d  c

o 

j k
e
g k fg

d g k  c
g f q fpp   g  fg 
q f c
l f f
d c

d 

 e  k  
k c

k f  d e c

d i fp  g fd g e d  c m

l d  fd p
l
 

 g


fo

 pd fi


j c
g

q c
 c
 f f

j c
g

d   p  g 
m

 c f f d  d  fo fg

c d

 c d d

d i fp  g fd g e d  c m

q fpp   d l
p d p g
f c
  c
  
e d  c

    j 
 e
  fl
p j fg

j d g k    g j  g  fp 
d c fg

d   f g i
g  j q
g  q

c d  o 
d c

c

d   f g i
g  j

m   c d e d  c q fpp

 pd  
j
f c


 c f i
d g   c d  o 
d c

d
i e  

dl
p c   c

c

d  l
 pd fi

 c d  fg  c f  d 
f f e    f p
  l f f
l
 l
 
fg  c
d k

d   p  g 
m

   
 e  g k fg

 pd  
j
f c


 j  j   z

 o f  pf
 d p q fpp
  
m

d k
 m

 j  j   z j e d  c  q fpp

q
l
 j q

c dl

d 
k

 c d d

 c  
l
 l
 
fg  c
 d e c f l f f
k
d   p  g 
j fi e p fg  c d 

fg

c

d i fp  g fd g

e dc m

  e e  
c d

c d d

d i fp  g fd g e d  c m

d


c d c
o i

o c

e dc

 
g  fd pp  c
 d i
d   c
 g
k
   f
k fg  c
e 
l f   e d    o  c f e    o m
 c
e d  c i    l f f  c
l d  fd p
l
  f
 fg fg  
d  fg   k
 o  i

 g  fp

i  

g e d f pd  j

j
d 

o

 c
q d fg q c fc  c

l
  f
 d 
 fg
k  
 c
 m
p 

 
l

c d  o 
d c

e d  c    c
o d p
e d  c m

l d  fd p
l
 
j  c

e dc

q fpp e   

k

d p g

f c


c



o f e   

k  d p g  c
  
e d  c j 
  c
   
 e  g k fg l d  fd p


 

  


    

   

Start here
T

x1

x2

x2
_
x3

x1
_
x3

x2

to x 3
to x 2

x1

xe

x3
F

A satisfying assignment hits all gadgets

Start here
x1
F
T

x2

_
x1
x2

to x 3

x_2
_x 1
x3

_
x3

xe

x3

to x 2
F

f  

e dc

 
g



  p fg o  i

c
g  g

A nonsatisfying assignment misses some gadgets

o c

z  

 c
 d  fo fg



d i fp  g fd g e d  c 
  p fg o  i




k    f g m

d   f g i
g  j

 j

i   
f d p g
d

i    l f f d pp  c

n d k
  j fo d e d  c

d p g

 e e
  

 j




c q  c

d i fp  g fd g

 j d g k  c
p q
  
 c  q 

 j

 j




 m

 c d   c

  p fg d   f g i
g  f d  d  fo fg

d i fp  g fd g e d  c

d   

 c



 c
g  g  d  fo fg d   f g i
g 

 d g k   c
 q f

 f    m
q fpp  c  q

d   f g i
g  o 

c

   
 e  g k fg

c


  o d p
e d  c

 d i
p d
p m  c d  f j fo  c
e d  c
d pp  c
d k
  q f c  c
pd
p
d p g  c
o d p
e d  c j  c
g

l
  f
 fg

l f f  d pp  c
l
  f

  e  
k
m

l


d k
 m

 c

o 
j  g 
c



 fg 
d pp  c
d k
  d 
l f f
k

dg k

d  l
 pd fi
f

d i fp  g fd g e d  c

 g

k
 q f c

c

j f i      d l
p  c    c

 g  fp d   fl fg d   c
l d  fd p
l
 
o 

f i      d l
p  c    c

c

o    i
l d  fd p
j f i    
i d fg

  d    d p g  c
  
e d  c o 



d g k
g 
  d p g fg e  
k
 c
g




d pp d k
  q f c  c
pd
p

o f   d   

m

 c
e d  c  i    
i d fg   
   c
f fg f fd p d   f g

i
g   j f o pp q   c d  o 
d c    
 e  g k fg  pd  
j d  p
d    g
d g k e    f p     c 


 o  c
pf
 d p i   
  
m  c

o 
j  c f f d  d  fo fg d   f g i
g  m

r  B

; < = > ? @ <

JK L M N OP Q R S

[ \ ] ^ b c de  z

_` a

s v v @ D  Iu

s 

D @ I>  u

E B

w G H

x 

W S XY Y Y Z
 e  c    c



_} |

w > ID G

m  f g

\ } \ ` \ ~ ~ b f c

h m
 n   i e p

g
  q
c d l


g

c d c


d 
i d g fi

e    d g   e  fi f d  f g e   p
i   c d  d 
pf
p  
 f
c d  k     pl

d   p m  fg 
 c

d 

fi e    d g  e   p
i  j q
 d g g    fi e p fl
 e d   c f e  fg  j  fg 
e
 e p
k  g

k   p  f g   
 c

e   p
i  m
~\

}\

q

k  q
  e
q f c

\ ~\ ]

| b

 n   i e p

g
 

l
g  g  c
o d  
  e d  d pp
p   i e  
   c f d e e   d c f l fd p
 g p

o   c
 i d pp
  fg   d g 
  o  c

e   p
i  m


\ _~}_
c q

~ b

 f d    d 
o   e   k   fg d l d pfk   p  f g j    c

d 
g   d  d g 



 p 
f f  

 e  fi d p m  c f f q    c q c fp
fo d pp
p
o d fp j   fo p d 

 o  e  fi d pf f


 

  


    

   

g   
d pp d g f  
m

\ ` \ ] 

\ ]

\ } | ^ ~ b  c

d 
d g  i
  o l
 e  q
o p 
c g f 
 o    pl fg
g

 d p   i fg d    fd p  e  fi f d  f g

e   p
i   c d 

dg k

 e
 d  f g  

d  c m

 

 g k


_ ] } _ `

 g
e   p
i

c dl

g

g d i
  c

j d g k

  g  fk
 d p o  i

 c


k
l
p e
k

d

fg

c

\  ] `

a _} | ~ b  c f f d g

` ^ ~ b
 

c
 
fd p 
d  g  m
e   p
i m
    fg
c

 n   i e p


q
l


d p   f c i

i   o

 c d    g  fg

g

c


 e  fi f d  f g e   p
i

 e  fi f d  f g e   p
i

 pf 
 e  fi f d  f g e   p
i

d
k

d

e   p
i  f

  p  f g m

k
 f f g
d

e   p
i  o 

g d    d p  e  fi f d  f g

f   g k  c
 fi e p
  p
 o i fg fi  i

f   g k  c
l
 

f   g k  c
 pf 
 o i d fi  i


   g  d p
f fi d 
d g  q
 j   g   g

  d  fp
q

dg

k  q
i
d 
c q

  k

d e e   fi d  f g d p   f c i

dg

  l
  o i fg fi  i

 f
m

 i d pp m

  dg




  j fo o   d pp

j 


j q

d

c d c




  f d pq d  
d 
  c d g

  i
 n   i e p

e   p
i   d g



fg e   j d g k


m

  c

d
dg


dp

l d p

d p   f c i

d e e   fi d  f g

f  d pp
k







 
 dp 

k
g
c

o



c



 c
 e  fi d p

  d i fg fi f d  f g e   p
i

q
q dg 

d p   f c i




d c f
l



 

 

 j d g k f f
 d p  

 fo d g k  g p fo  c

  p  f g m


 g 

dg

d 
o  c

dg k

  c

dg q


dg

q c  

m 

d p   f c i
 d  f



f fl
g

  g k

f

 

d



 c
i  


o 

d e e   d c
  j  c
  g g fg  fi

 
d i e p
j  c
  g g fg  fi
i f c 

  g g fg  fi
k
e
g k   g p  g d e  p g  i fd p o g   f g  o 

 o    e   p
i j p


d e e   fi d 
k  p 
p m

 j dg k

 c     m  c
  g g fg  fi
f d o g   f g
fg  
d 

 g k e  p g  i fd p  fi
m




d e e   fi d 
  p  f g f  c
  
 e  fi  i

c

f  g
 c d 

q
c dl

f

fg   d g 

d 
   f  p e   f fl
l d p
 m

i d


l
c d

dg


  
 i d pp j d g k o   d i d fi f d  f g e   p
i
fg e    f

fl
g

   d e e   fi d  f g d p   f c i j d g k p


  p  f g m
q fpp d    i
 c d      
q
q dg 

 f
j

  
 c d    i
 fi


 g
 o  c
 i d pp
   f
m

d e e   fi d  f g d p   f c i

d  o pp q  m

     o  c
  p  f g e   k  
k

e  p g  i fd p  fi
fk
d pp  j

q
d 
i fg fi f fg d g k   i
 fi
 q
d 
i d fi f fg m g d e e   fi d  f g d p   f c i

o

m  c
e
o  i d g 
 o  c

d e e   d c
 l d  f


e   p
i  c d l

 g k
 p fg

 
d i e p
j  c
  n

d k f  d e c j  c

 c
g
 m

d g k e   k  
 d   p  f g  c d  f q f c fg d  d  d g 

k o d      o  c
 e  fi  i

d
d

 c
g f f  d pp
k d

 
d i e p
j d   g g fg  fi
pf











m

o c

 

 q   pk
 c

dg

d i e p
m
p c   c

 n   i e p


e   p
i  d 

 fl d p
g  q f c


e




q c
c


c

dg

  pl
k

d   p fg e  p g  i f d p  fi
fg  c
q      d 
j  c
f d e e   fi d fpf l d  f
   g  f k
 d p m

    i
 n   i e p


f   m

e   p
i  j f f l


 
d i e p
j fo  c
 d e c

 d  f   g k  o d g l d p
p
   c d g


  n


j c
g

c d k

c d
dg

dg

d e e   fi d  f g

d p   f c i

d e e   fi d  f g d p   f c i

q f c

 n m

d g  n   i e p

 d g
d e e   fi d 
k j    c
 d  f   g k f d  p q   q fg  o g   f g
o

 
d i e p
j  c

   l
 e   p
i

d
g
 d pf d  f g  o  c
l
 

 d g
d e e   fi d 
k   q f c fg d o d      o pg
f   l

k fg


 g pf
p

e   p
i

  l
 e   p
i  j

m
q fpp g   k f      c f d p   f c i j   f

h m

  i
 n   i e p

e   p
i   d g
d e e   fi d 
k   q f c fg d
k   g   d g  o d     m

q fpp k f     q 
d i e p

p q m


 

  


  i
 n   i e p

e   p
i  c d l

n    m

q
c d l
g  k f     
k j   f  k
   f
k f g

    

   

g

d i e p
f  c
  
 e   p
i
h  dg k c

  pfk
d g   n

q c fc

e   p
i m

g o d   j i  c pf
 n   i e p

e   p
i  j  c

d 
  pp
  f g   o e   p
i  q c fc d 

pf
l
k

 
c d  k   d e e   fi d 
d g k d 

 fl d p
g  fg  c

g 
 c d  fo d g  g
 d g
d e e   fi d 
k
fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
 c
g
k f    

 c f o   c
 m

c

  

d pp  d g
f  

m  c f  pd   f  d pp
k

d

c d c

 e f  o

m
q fpp g  

d e e   fi d  f g

d p   f c i  q   pk

pp

dg  c
   
m

 \ } \

\ b

fg

 c  q fg

c d c


f

q f c d  d  f   g k  o  j  c d  f j  c f d p   f c i

dg

d e e   fi d  f g

 f
f d  i    q f
 c d   o  c
 e  fi  i m h
 d pp  c d   c
l
 

d 
  o l
f
  c c d 
l



q

k 


 g

d   

o  l


l


  l
 e   p
i



  g k

k
fg  c
 d e c    c
  g
 o  c

l
  f
 m

g k fg

  i
 c fg  c d  

i  pf
d

d p   f c i

q fpp
 d  d g 

k   g k d l
 
  l
 q c  

dg

d e e   fi d  f g


d   g d p

d p   f c i m

  k d
j d

 c



 m

d e e  d c

f





  g     c d i dg

 fi e p
c
  f  f  j q c
g g    e  fi d p j  d g  o
g
e   l
k  
 p 
   e  fi d p m




f d g

l


c
l




 fg

 fi e p
d p   f c i j  c d   d  d g 



  l
 e   p
i m

c
de c m

g
 o f  q  l
  f


 g
m  c
fk
d  o  c f c
  f  f f    fi e p e  

 i  c

 e fk
 c d g

c
d
g q

fg

c

dg

d e e   fi d  f g q f c fg

 c f  

 c
g

fg

c
l
 j   q

q

i  l
d pp
k
  c d  d 
fg  fk
g   

  l
 j q
e    fg        l
 j   f f
d 

i    q f
 c
 f
 o  c
 e  fi  i



q c fc

  dg g  

dg k

 fg 

 
l
  g
l

c d i  



c d c

l
 q

g
d

f d 

l
 m

G and opt VC

The 2-for-1 Heuristic

f  

 c
 o   c
  f  f o  l
 

l
 m



"((

k  g   g q

l
  f
 fg    c
l
 
  l
 m 

d pp   l

k  j d g k 
   
 g  c

i d fg fg
k
 m

d od   o  o 

 f d 
k  g  c
o pp q fg  
 l d  f g m  g  fk
 d g d  f  d 
k

 
 +(  +  *  , + !      +  (  &   
, +  !'
 & +   +   +    ! &
  
* '        +  +      , , +  +     +    + * + ' 
.
+'  -

  

 







] _ b e e 

f
pk  d o d      d e e   fi d  f g o 

b  g fk
 c




  o
k
 
p
 
k

d   p

  
 d  

  e   e e 

q

 c
pfg
i d 
k q f c
d k k



 

q  l
f
 o 
d c



l
 m

 c
 e  fi  i
d l
m
 c


l

k
m

c d c



 f

c

o

 q
l
 g  
 c d  fg

f
c


 

  


 e  fi  i

 f
 o

 g
o c


f d  p
d  

q 

l
f
 i   c dl


g

  m  c   q
c d l

 

 



c

j dg k

   

c   c



d k k
k

    

 



 c f e    o fpp    d 
  g
 o  c
i d fg o
d   
  o  c
d g d p  f  o d g d e e   fi d  f g d p   f c i m
 d i
p j  c d  q
g

k   i
q d  o g k fg d   g k  g  c
 e  fi d p   p  f g m     i fg fi f d  f g
e   p
i  q

c   pk

q d g  d p q
   g k j o   i d fi f d  f g e   p
i  d g


pd 
k



  i
 c fg

c d q

  g k f 
pd 
k    c

  o
k

]

\ _` a

] \ ~ ] `

\ b

dg

 i e  

j q c fc o i

fg

 e e
   g k m

e  p g  i fd p  fi
m

 c

 c f

  g k

d
j c

d i d fi d p fg k
e
g k
g  
  o
k
 m

g  c
  d l
pfg  d p
 e
   g n   p
i

  n  q
d 
fl
g d   i

e p

 g k f
 
k  d e c q f c g  g g
d  fl

k
q
f c   j d g k q
q d g    g k d   p
 c d  l f f 
d pp l
  f
 d g k f  o i fg fi  i

o
k


i
g  f g
k  c d    n


  i dg o c

  m

o  i fg d     q



k
g



 k
g  
 c
q
f c   g
k

   

c
 i

o
k

d e e pf d  f g   o   n j  c

e   p
i

 d  f
   i
 c fg

g   f fl
p j  c f  d   c d   c
k f
  e d  c o  i





fl
g

d 


d    fi
q





q
f c 
k  d e c j fo q
k
g



 d pp
k



 
d i e p
j fl
g d g

  
 c
 c   
  e d  c p
g  c
q

g

c

 
j f g
l
 p g
  c d g d g fg k f
 

 c

d 
i d g
d i e p
  o  d e c   c d   d  fo  c
  fd g p
fg
 d pf m

m

e  
k d  d k
 f f g e   p
i  f  n   i e p

m

e d  c m
 
o  i d pp j o  d pp

d



q
f c   fg

dg k

 i e  
k j

p  k  d p   f  c i  j  c
g f  q f p p  d  f  o  c
  f d g p
f g
 d p f  m g   c

d i e p
f  f o q

d 
fl
g d 
  o e  fg   fg  c
e pd g
j d g k k
g
d   i e p

 d e c  g  c

e  fg   j q c


f k
g
k



c

  pfk
d g

k f  d g 

q

g

c


e  fg   j  c
g

c



  fd g p
fg
 d pf f

d p   d  f
k m
c
g

c

d p   f c i

 g k
 p fg
o    n

    o g   f g

q f c

 d  f


c

  fd g p
fg
 d pf

d  d  f   g k  o  m  c   j d p c   c

c


f

 c f d p   f c i

d e e   fi d  f g

k 
 g   e  k  

d g  e  fi d p     j  c
     c d  f e   k  
  d g g  
q   
 c d g q f
 c
     o  c
 e  fi d p
   m
 c

fg  f c  f    
 l
 c d  d   n

q f c  g

k

i  l
k f d  e d g g fg  

m

f f g   g

  d  fp

d i fg fi  i

 e d g g fg  

m  c

o 
j  c
     o  c
i fg fi  i

f

d

o c

d

p
d  

d

pd 

   d p    n  f i

c

 

 d p   f c i m

  m

dg

 i e  


 f
g  p

o q
dg g k  i
q d   g l
 c

 

q c fp
fg  
d  fg f      d  i    d   g   d g  o d     j  c
g

q
l


  n

  

  fg

f c


fg   d   n

  

q
q fpp c d l
d g d e e   fi d  f g o 

  n m



f c  q

 c
d p   f c i

q    m

fl
g d g o

 

 c

f d      o  c
 

 d pp
k d

 c d    d l
 
  c

k
  o  c
 

q f
j  g 
fg
d c k f
  f g m  c
 

p q
 c  q  d g
d i e p
 o  c f m
 c f e d  c f g    fi e p

 d  
f 
l f f  l
  f
 j   q
 d g i d
f  fi e p

 c d  f j q
 fe
d 
l f f
k

 l
 e 
l f   p

l f f
k

l
f
 m

  fg  c
 c        f
d   p

   f
 c d   c
g d p   k
 fg

c
di
d d e 
 k


q c fc

dl
dp o c

l
f


  m  c

  f d g p
f g
 d p f  d    
    c d   c
e d  c p
g  c q f p p g   f g  
d 
q c
g q
  d
  c   
    m


"((
 
 

!  !
 & & 
  '  (   
  +   +  -

++ 


 

  


MST

start

Optimum tour


 , 
     
+'  -

] _ b e e    n





Shortcut tour
  n

  +

e e   fi d  f g m

(++

k
g  
c
   e  k  
k

 c f d p   f c i

 

 
l
c d  c
q f
d   g k     o


d g k p


 c
 e  fi  i

   m

 e d g g fg  

m  q
 d fk
o 
j  fg 
q
 d g 
i  l
d g
k
 o

q f
m

,  

c d  d  d  f   g k  o  m


  p fg fg d  e d g g fg  

j d g k  fg 

 q

 c
i fg fi  i

f  

+ +
*  -




   

Twice-around tour

start

    

 c
  fd g p
fg
 d pf j q c
g

f  c
i fg fi  i


c d   

     e d g g fg  

q
c d l

  j  fg 

l


q
c    d g

k
o

k
fg

 o i

f c f

q
k  g  

fg  
d 
 c
     o  c
    j d g k   q
c d l



 

 i fg fg  c

q
c d l






; < = > ? @ <

IG

r  B

D @ <

 



s v v @ D  Iu

w > ID G E B

x < >

C D

< @

w G H

IG

 w =  

JK M U OP Q R S

[ \ ] ^ b c de  z
 g

fg

e 

g 
k




h j  

y S XY Y Y Z
mz m  c
 c
 
i
 c fg

d  d g

  f
fg

 o  c
d e e   fi d  f g   g k e   l
g c

f d f q
d
 o  i

f f
d  f
  

 g k
dg k m

h m

 c

i d 
fd p  g

c

fg

e d  fg

e   p
i

c

f


 

\ }

  


\ b  c



e d f






 g

 o
 g fk





l


f

d


l





fi e    d g   e  fi f d  f g



f

g f

f d o d i fp  o   
   o  j   c

 


k  i d fg fo
l


e   p
i

q c


 c f f

p
i
g   o 

 

d

p
i
g   

fl
g

dg k

d


p g    d  p
d  

d

c d

c




o

 c d    l
   m  g  fk
  c

d i e p


   l
   g  f    o  c
 c 


 

S3

o

p
i
g   o 

 l
  m

o 


f   g k  c
i fg fi  i  f
k   


 c  q g
p q m  c
 e  fi  i

e   p
i m

k  i d fg

   

j  c d  f

 
 c
e   p
i

d

c d
l


  pp
  f g

f fg   i

  o




    

S4

S5

S1

S2
S6



 l
 dg
 e 
   f


d e e pf
k  

f  



 l
 m

d g  i
  o d e e pf d  f g  m

 d i
 d      l
 d pd 
d   d pp
 m


  d fg

 


o c

e d fg  fg  m

d c

 c

 i

 
d i e p
j   e e  
  q d g    


d c e    f p
 d i
 d e   f f g j  

 


 o e d fg  fg  f d 
 fg

dg

    
i m

  q d g    e    e  c
o
q
   d i
 d    

d pp  c
e d fg  fg  m


\

_}

d

c

e   p
i

  i e p

m

\ }

\ b

c dl

 
d i e p
j l
 

k
 j dg k

d c



g

e
fd p d 


o c




l


e   p
i   c d 

d

 n

  l
 f d  e
 o 
   l
 e   p
i m  c
k  i d fg  
  l

k

l


l
 c

 


 o fg  fk
g 
k
 m

 c

o 

c




l


f  n   i e p

d  q
pp m

 g o    g d 
p j d p c   c q
c d l
d o d      d e e   fi d  f g o   c
l
 
  l
 e   p
i j f 
pf
k
 g  c
o d    c d 
d c
p
i
g   o  c
k  i d fg d g
k
 f fg
d   p  
  m  g o    g d 
p j  c f
f g     
o   c

g
dp 


  l
 e   p
i m

h

g  p

  g   d g  o d     d e e   fi d  f g    c

   l
 e   p
i

f c d 

g

 g p
  n

e l
k

c d c


f g 

 n  m  c f f  g o    g d 
j

 d  

   l
 f  g
 o  c
i    e  q
o p  n   i e p

e   p
i  m
  k d q
q fpp  c  q

 c d   c

f d 
d   g d p
d e e   fi d  f g d p   f c i j  c

q c fc d c f
l
 d g d e e   fi d  f g   g k  o pg

j q c


 m  c
  e   l
 d   i
q c d      g
 
  p j  c d   c
d e e   fi d  f g o d      o pg




\ \ ^

\ }

f  c
 f
 o  c
pd 
  
 fg


\ b

 fi e p


k

d e e  d c


 c d l
 c

d
 g  i
 o

 +      +  !
 & 
    + (   *  , + !
   +(  & 
 + , +      *      + 






 g l

k

l
 q   


p
i
g   m

d 
d c

q c


  d

p
  fg

 

 

++


 q
l
 j  c
f  e    o f  i  
  i e p f  d 
k m

 j

f  c
 f
 o  c
 g k
 p fg k  i d fg

* +


 + * +  +    +  + +
, , + * +  +   * +   +
   * +  +     +  + , +        + 
 +,+ +      

 

c

 



 

  


.
+'






   c

d i e p
fl
g
d  pf
  c


k 
   l
 d p   f c i

 e  fi d p 
   l
 c d   f
z m

dg

 

_ ] } _ `

o  p
k

fg  

m  c   j f q   pk 
   g

e f fg

 c

c

e   p
i

q  g

 j c
g

 f

d p   f c i

dg k

c

  f

S2

 fg 
f   l
 

l


d p   f c i

 g fk
 c

f  c d 

o pp q fg

m    fo  f
 d 
 
g fg  c
q    

 f

 j c
g


d c  m

 f
d 

 fg 
f   l
 

p

 f



j c
g

 m

S5

Optimum: {S5, S6}

S6

Greedy: {S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6}

 q
l
 q
q fpp  c  q

 o pg

j q c


 f



 c d   c f
d i e p

S1

f  





 l
 d d fg m

 d g

g
 d pf
k    c d   c
 d  f   g k q fpp
   c p

S4 S3

d 
   l
  o  f
 j q c

d   c



k

dg k

dg k

q fpp 
p
  
 

  j d g k g d pp

q f c


 j l


d i e p
m  c
 e  fi d p 
   l
   g  f    o 
 
e    f p
q d   c


k

q   pk 
p
 

 fg 
f   l
  z     o  c

i d fg fg  j  c
g

  o  c

i d fg fg z  d g k g d pp

f

   

    o  
p
i
g    j  c
g

{ | ] } _~ }| \ ]

    

c d c


k



k


 l
 m


   l
 c
  f  f g
l
  e
o  i  q   
 c d g d o d    

  m    
 c d   c f  f  g d    d p p  j g   d 
 m 


o 
fl fg  c
e    o j q
g

k  g
fi e    d g  i d  c
i d  f d p fg
 d pf m

\ ] b

  d pp

 j


q c




f  c
d 
 o  c
g d    d p p d  f c i m

b  c
  fl
 d e    o j   c

f  g
 c d 


q




c dl

 c
q  o g   f g  d 

 d p q c
g



 



j dg k

fo q
 d f

pf
m

 c

 
 f
  c
o d    c d  o  d pp

 m

  q j fo q
    f  

fk
 

c

c

e q
 j q

o 

 

c dl
c

k
 f
k 
  p m

| \ \ b



k 
   l
 c d   c
 d  f   g k  o d  i    pg

k
g  
 c
 f
 o  c
 e  fi  i




   l
 i fg    m
q fpp  c  q
q
d 
   
    q f c fg
g f fd pp j  c


 o  f

d


 c d

p
   c d g

c


k


   l
 j d g k p


 

pg

  

l


d p   f c i

 c





p
i
g   p
o  

d  p
d  


p
  

 

  m

k
g  
 c
 f
 o  c


k

m  c f f g    f
q c d  q
q d g 
k j  

  

c

l

k m

g q

p
i
g   m


 fg 



  c
 q f
j fo
l



     pk   l
 d pp

pd 
  
 j f q fpp 
p
 

m

c d c


f d   l


 c
e f
 g c  p
e  fg  fe p
j  c

i   
d 

g  i
  o
p
i
g    c d 


 
 m

p
i
g   j  c
g g    pp
  f g  o

  

p
i
g   m

 

 c
 e  fi d p   l
  d g k  c

o 

p
d    g

i dg

c d

q c



i d fg






l

k

p
i
g   m

 fg 

d 
  c d    l
  d  p
d    c f

l

k

f

d i  


 

  


e e p fg  c
d   i
g  d d fg j q
g  q
 o  f

 c

 e  fi d p   l
  j d g k

c d q
dg l
 c


c
g 

c


 fi
 j
d c  fi
q
   

k fg   l
 fg d  p
d   d o d   f g  o

do



q

 

  

o q
d e e p  c f d   i
g 


 



p
i
g   q f c d   l


f   d   
  c d    l
  d  p
d  

   

p
i
g   j p
d l fg d  i   



    

 

p
i
g   
i d fg fg m

  o  c

i d fg fg
p
i
g   m  c
g  c
g  i
  o
p
i
g    c d  
i d fg f  g   l

k

 c dl


g

p g

dg

 c f 

c  
g
 g

c


k

 g fk
 c

  c
pd  
  o c


k
 c   j q
d 
fg 

 
k

d p   f c i

f d  i   

pd 
  l d p
 o

 c

c d



 

d o
 
i  l fg

d pp

  l
 j q
  fpp c d l
  i

p
i
g  
i d fg fg  
  l

k m

fg  c
pd 
  l d p
 o


c d

 c

 d g 
q  f
 c f d 



  c
fg
 d pf d  l
q
c d l

  q j fo q
i  p fe p

d g k  d
g d    d p p  q

  c d 

pg

 d  f


 c f   i e p

  c
e    o m
_`

 _ ` a b  fg e d  fg f d g   c
 q
pp g  q g  n   i e p

e   p
i j q c f  c f d l d  f d g   o  c

g d e  d  e   p
i m
d 
fl
g d 
  o


 j q c


 q fpp  fi e pfo  c
e 

g  d  f g   d    i
 c d  
d 
  o fg  m





k
g  
 c

 o  c

c 
 m

 m
q d g    e    c

 
   f g  

d c fg  d g c  pk d   
  o 
   q c  
   d p  f
f d  i     m  c
e   p
i

f   e d   f f g  c

   d i  g  c
fg   
   fg

 f
f g    j  c
g

 

dg

d     
 c
o
q
  e    f p
fg  m    
 c d  fo


k  
 c
e   p
i

fg    c f o  i

 fi e p k fl fk fg d pp

 f
  c
 f
 o  c
f g m
 fg e d  fg d  f
 fg i d g d e e pf d  f g  m
d g  o  c

d e e pf d  f g  fg l  pl
g    g p  c
 f

 o  c

     c
f
 i
  f  c d e
d  q
pp m
d     j       fg
i
dpm

i d fi  i

 
d i e p
j  c

fg  p k
e d  fg 
 fg  

g  i
  o e f

  o 
  d fg

 c d e
     o d e f


o c



 q
l
 j
l
g fo q
f g  
 c

 i
  j d g k      g  f k
  c
 f
  o  c

   j  c

k
 f f g e   p
i


c

f   fpp  n   i e p

m  c

k    f g


f d  fi e p
c
  f  f d p   f c i

  d   q f c

f o  i

 c
g d e  d  e   p
i m

o   c
fg e d  fg e   p
i j  d pp
k  c

d g  g pfi f
k g  i
  o
i e  fg  m
 d

d c

 m


  fg    g j d g k g k  c

   fg  c d  c d   e d 
  c  pk  c f 
  m
e    c f 
  fg  c f fg m  c
d p   f c i
fpp    d 
k fg  c
 

p q m
 pd fi

f

 c d       
 d  i    q f
d  i d g fg  d   c

 e  fi  i j  c d  f j fo  c
 e  fi d p   p  f g  





fg  j d g k      


| \ \ b  c
    c
  f  f d c f
l
 d  d  f   g k  o  m

 



fg  j  c
g


 

  


    

   

k
g  

s6
s3
s7

s1

b  g fk
 d g

c
 i

s5
s4

s2

f  


fg   d g 



 o d pp  c

   f
 m

f   



 o  c
fg e d  fg e   p
i m

  f  f m



k
g  
 c
 e  fi d p g  i
  o fg  j d g k




k
g  

 c
g  i
  o fg   
k     m


f    
 l

c d

 

 c f f   
j  fg 
g  fg

dg

c  pk

d    d p  d e d  f

o i  

c dg

  g f j d g k
l
g fo q
q

  pp
d  c fg
d   p   f   d e d  f j q
q   p k g

k d 

p
d  

fg o d  


 j q
 pd fi

fg   m



c d

    e    fg   fg

g   j c
g c

m   

 c f j p


f   c 
p d   f g k


g    o fg 

k

f   pf  d p j   fo
  g

m  g  fk
 fg 

  q   pk g
l


c dl

dg

  d  
k

 c
   fg m  c   q
c d l

dg k

 

  

d k k   e

  pp  c

JK L M N OP Q R S





 <




 m
 pd fi

c d

fg j e 
o
 fg



e

 



 m

l
  c fg

fg

d pp  c

p
i
g   q f
j   f c d  d    d p l d p
 o 

m  i fg fg  c f q f c  c
o d    c d 

fi e p fg  c d 


 g k



; < = > ? @ <

  c
g



k
g  
 c
   d p  f
 o  c

    c d 
 pp
k     m    i
 c d  fg k
fg

    p k    c
e   f g    c
 d i
f g j d g k c
g 

    c f   i




 


m  c   q
c dl

q
c dl



 j d  k
 f
k m

 @ D < u

C < G > < @

Y S XY Y Y Z

[ \ ] ^ b   k d  i d 
 f d p f  g     l

k f g    
 m
]

__}

] } _ ` b

i d fg
 c d   p    


fk
 q d g    e
g

    
 fg

  i
 f m  c

  i e d g d       k

 i fg
 c

  p  d  f g  o   c

   
 m  c
  g k f f g f  c d   
d



i fg fi f
 c

i d fi  i

k f  d g 

c d

dg


fk
g 

o c

 f

i    k  fl

fg

 k
 

 g k f
 
k

de c

q c  

k
q
f c   d 
 c

d   fl
d   c
g
d 
     
m
o q
i  k
p c
 d k g
q  

o c

 f

d dg

k f  d g 

q

g fg 
 
  f g  j  c
g  c f f d g fg   d g 
 o  c

e   p
i
dg

f

fg 



fl
g

j  i e  

k f  d g 

q

g

dg

 g k f
 
k

de c

d  
 o

dg l


fg

l
f


 q f c

m  c


g




g  g g
d  fl

k
q
f c   j d g k fl
g

 j  d pp
k  j   c  c d   c
i d fi  i

d g k f  g
d 
  
g 
 fg

 

f i fg fi f
k m


 

  


 



o  i d pp j p


m




g  g g
d  fl
m

q

g
e dc



 



d c

 k
g  

c


d 

f

e d f  o l
  f
 j

j  c d  f j  c
p
g  c

de c j dg k



 j p
  

 k
g  

d i



o c
c  
 e dc o i

c d





q
f c   o
k

d pp
k



c

   

q
f c  

k
g  

c

d

  
c d  c
c  


k f   d g 
 d  f 
  c
  f d g p
f g
 d p f  m  c f  q f p p
 
k f g    e    o m

 g fk

q f c

d  


f  g
d 
 

 o l
f
 j c


g 
 fg

d p  d     fd 

d c

 

g
 d pp

 
d c

l


fg

 p    
    
 

q

dg

d     fd 
f

   c   
m

dg


g 
 q f c  c

  o l
  f
 o  q c fc f f  c
 p 
  
g 
 m  c

d 

q fpp

 fk f  d g  o  i

 c f f  c
g
d 
 

 c
c   
  c d  d 
 p  
     c f  
g 
 m

p


 g k f 
 
k m

    

  g  f 

o

 fg p

d g  i
 o 
g 
 m

 





g 


dg k






e 

o q

d

       

q    i  

g 
  j q
 d g  c fg  o

j k
g

 o 

 o 

fg


d





k

g
d

 f  d  f g

q c


f

 f
 o  l
  f
  c d  d 

 fk f  d g  o  i



d  o   i fg d  o  c
l
 




 m  c
 d     fd 
k q f c
d c 
g 
 f  c
k f  d g 
  f  o    c
  l
 
fg     j

o

 c d  f j



 c f f  c
o   c
 

k f  d g 
 c d  d g



i d




l




d  fd 
k

q f c

k
g




l




q c  
k f  d g 
o  i

\

` }\

\ b

g k d  

 c


m

p
i
g   o   
 

k
 f f g e   p
i

k  i fg d  fg

fl
g

o

 c

 

   dg k

o

c

  p  f g

 j d g k   i e   fg

f  g
d 
  
g 
 m  c f f  d pp
k  c

de c


g







 c f

e   p
i
e   p
i

 o 
d c
 f  

    c f g  i
 f c 
m

k 

f  d g
 f
g  d e e   fi d  f g d p   f c i
 

_ ] } _ `




f

 g
m

 n   i e p


m

fg l  pl

 q
l
 j fo
o

dg k

 

m 

q

 c
k f  d g 
 o  i

p
 
k m


d

f  n   i e p

j f

 

l
 
fg  c
 d e c

c d c


   p
g


 c
p q
 p
o

d g k d pp  c
  c


 c f 
g 
  c
 e e


l

o 

 

m
q   pk pf

d    
k  
 c f k f  d g 
m   p
      i d
f  c
g
 
g 
 j

 i e  
c

k f  d g 
 o  i

d c

l


fg

c
de c



  q c

k d  c
k pfg
 fg k f d 
q c fc l
  f
 d 
 p 
   q c fc

 d
 c
   p
g
 l
 

o i
d pp

f d 
k  g d  fi e p


k d p   f c i

d  k f  d g 
 z fg  c
 
 m  c f  c
   p
g


 c
g

 j

d 
 c l
 pd 

f   m
q fpp  c  q

l
  f
 fg  c
 d e c 

   m  g  fk
  c
l
 
 c d  f o   c
  o  i

 

  d g k

l
 
j  d j fg  c
 

p q  m  i e  
 c
k f  d g 

q

g  c f l
 

dg k

o   c
e   p
i m

k f  d g 
m

fg p
  fg  c
 c
   
g 


 d pp
k


k    f g

fl
g  c d   c
e   p
i

a _} | b   d e e   fi d  f g d p   f c i

  
p
   c
g
 
g 
  

g  i
 d  fg

 c d  e   k  
 d    p
g
 k f  d g 

   c d  f g   i  
 c d g q f
 c
 e  fi  i

 f c  l
 

 j d g k d g fg 



q   pk

f c f c p  g pf
p  c d  d  f g f  d g  p i  

 f
g  d p   f c i

fg d pp j q

 c d 
   f i fg fi f
k m

pd 
j  c
g  i
  o e    f p
  
  f c 
m

m m

o  i d pp k
g
 c
e   p
i m

o  i  pd  f g
o 

  f f d p
p
i
g     fi e   l fg  c
  p  f g m

d q
f c 
k  g k f
 
k

 o  f

 

 f m
m  c

f  g
d 
  
g 

 d p
  f  d pp
k d

fl
g  c f g   d  f g j q
 d g g  q

 

 

 c f f  c
i d fi  i k f  d g 
 o d g l
 
o  i
f f  c
   p
g


i d
 

 j
 d  

f d q d o  i

 
 c
g
 
g 
  c

g 
 l
 

d c l


o

 


g 
  m d fg

fg k   j d g k d d fg   i e  

  f  g
d 
  
g 
 m h
e
d   c f  g  fp d pp

g  c

d i e p
j  c
z 
g 
  d 
 c d k
k j d g k  c
g d p    p
g


 

c


g 
 c dl


g

k f  d g 
f   m


 

  


p c   c  c


k

d e e   d c c d  d 
  d fg

    

   

fg   f fl
d e e
d p 
 d  
f d  
i e     g k  c

l
 
 c d  fl
  c
   p
g
 k f  d g 
j d g k  c
g e    d 
g 
  f c   g  c f l
 
 j f f g  
 e  fi d p m

 c

d i e p
 c  q g

d    p
g


  o

6
7

12
6

(a)

(b)

f  
z



f d

 i i d o c



k

d p   f c i m


g

 
d c

l


+ 
"(( !

7
6

k
g  

c

  

k f  d g 

 





c

 

 & 
  +  * ' 
 
      ,  +       + 
 #' $      .
  
   
     ,  (
 +   #  $  '  '  *  *    #' $        '  ! * +    , +  +          + &
  ' (    +       + 
   ( '  +  # $
 * +      '         +       # $
 # $
  
 # $ .  
+  *  +  +  
- ! * +    , +  +    +   +  &
.
 +  '    #   $      ,  +  +  

.




g q

o i

f    d   d p   f  c i

d pp   c
 l
  f
 fg

c

de c m

c q


i  p fe p
    
 c   
  e d  c e   p
i
k  g
q f c d  fi e p
i  k f  d  f g  

 

 

 m

 p

_ ] } _ `
  

 d e c j fg

 i e  

c


e

` ^ b

q c fc

dg

f

 fi
  c
  g g fg

q

d k

  pk



k



d pp
k


d

 c
i d fi  i
c q

 

 o q
f c 

 m

 c



k

 c d   c f



q c fc f

k f  d g 
q   pk  g p

 fg p

  



  pl

 fi
 o

f    d   d p   f  c i j

d e e   fi d  f g

 l
f
 d d g
k

d p   f c i

dg

 c
i d fi  i

e f

d p   f c i

 j q c fc f
 

d pq d  e   k  


o

d pfg
d 

fg f fd p l
 

    p
g
  k f  d g 

o q
c d k fg  
d k c  
g


dg

fg

c
l


fg  c

d od   o  m

d g d p k f  d g 



d o d      o   o  c
k f  d g 
 o  c
 e  fi d p   p  f g m




 

k
g  

 c
 c

g 
   o  c
 e  fi d p   p  f g

fg  c
 

p q j d g k  c
pfg
  c  q
e  fg    m

d   

q fpp d  
 c d  f c d  d  d  f   g k

 d od    o  j  g fk
 d 
  o

f  c
k f  d g 
   c
 f c  i    l
 

 c d  f q f c fg

o i

f    d   d p   f  c i m  c
i  k f  d  f  g  d 
g   k f   p  m

 c d  f pf
 m   e e  
f e f   c
p
o i    l
 
m  c
g

q dg  

e dc

d p   f c i

m

c d q

i fk k p
j  c
g

c  


 o  c f

q c

 c
    
 d 
 c

g 
    o d   m  c f  d g

 c
  g g fg  fi
 o  c
g d p d p   f c i



 q
l
 j
d c

 

 c  q g

d  pd 

 c
e d   f f g fg    c
g
f c   c   k  o 
d c

 c
 e  fi d p    p
g
 k f  d g 
m

 z

Optimumum Cost = 7




4
9


 m

 
 

j p


g
d
 
g 
 m

(d)
Greedy Cost = 11

d e e   fi d  f g  

6
6

4
9

 c
 f c   c d 

 g

(c)

dl
m

14

12

 c  q g

4
9

  p  f g
d p   f c i

11

7
8

19

4
9

  c d c


k

11

23

7
8

fg  c
 
j  c
 e  fi  i

j q c fc
d  c

19

14

k  

o c



 

  


Greedy

Cost = n

Opt

Cost =n/2




k    fg







f  


c

  f

c d

c

l


o 

k f  d g 

   

 d 
o  

k m


g 
 o  g k

 c
 

p q  m p  j p


g
 j  c d  f j  c
   p
g

o 

    

c



k

d e e   fi d  f g

k
g  
c
g
 
g 
 c d

o i





f 



 c  q g

d  q c f

g

 k
g  
 c
   p
g


g
d



g 


f

 dp

d k k
k

k f  d g 

 c

e  o

fg l  pl
 d   
d e e pf d  f g  o  c
e f
 g c  pk e  fg  fe d p m

g3
o1

o4

g1

o3

g2

g5

g6

<D opt
>D G
o2
<D opt
g4
f  

| \ \ b  c


k





g d p  f  o  c


k

 c f f d


p
 
k



c
  f  f o 

d e e   fi d  f g c d  d  d  f   g k  o  j  c d  f










g 
   
 c
 q f c  c
g
 

k

o5


  p  o    

k
d c

i d fi  i



c


g 


 
p
i
g 


p
  f g

k f  d g 

q

g

 c
g d p    p
g


j d pp  c


g 


 p 
 


g 
 fg

f

  g  f  fg

d c

k f  d g 
o  i

q
d k k i  

g 
  j  c
i d fi  i
k f  d g 

d pp  c

o c

f 


g 


 m

f    
 l
 c d  o 

d
m

    p
g
 








k


/


p
 
k j f f

e 
l f   
g 
  m

d g e d f  o 
g 
  k
 
d 
 m  fg 

d

d  p
d    c f o d  d e d   o  i

 g

dg  c
 m

d c

f d     fd 
k

f o pp q  o  i



f 

 
 o   i
 m  g c
 
j c


k 
g 


 fg 



dg k

f  c
   p
g


k f  d g 
o 

d g k d e d  c  o p
g  c

c
 i i
g  d l
q
c dl





q c fc  c
k
 f
k

j dg k


g 


dg k

o


p
i
g   fg

d 
fg

d
 c

 j

c
di

fg

    m

 c d   c


f   d e d  c  o p
g  c 

o i

 c
 e  fi d p   p  f g j  c d  f j
d c

 c
e f
 g c  p
e  fg  fe d p j  c d  d  p
d   q 

 c


k
g  
k

o i

q f c

 
 o    i
 m 
 d  
 c

d 
 
g 
  fg

p g   

j q
g q

o i

o i



 d  f o pp q  m








/


/

 c d   c

f d e d  c  o p
g  c

m  c   j

m  c

o 
j


/



m    fd g p
fg
 d pf j  c f fi e pf





/



m    o i


 

  


; < = > ? @ <

JK M U OP Q R S

_\

IG w 

<

I<

    

   

S XY Y Y Z

b  c f 
i
 
 q
c d l
k f    
k
g
 d p d e e   d c
   d p   f c i

g   fg l
  f d 
d  f d p   f c i
k g d i f e    d i i fg j k
e  c   

k
 f g e d  d k f i 

d c j
 m

k
 f g m  c
fg 
g  c d 

k fl fk
d g k   g 
 j 

k

g k



 fi e p
j q
pp k
g
k e   p
i  m
c d l
d p  k f    
k

 g fk


c


d p   f c i  j


c g f 


 g

o d f p

d  i e    f g   d  f g d g k 
c g f 
 o 

i d  c
i d  f  d pp d g d p fg  c
e
 o   i d g 
 o d p   f c i  j d g k q
c d l
k f    
k d  p d    o l


c d  k e   p
i      pl
j  d pp
k  n   i e p

e   p
i  j d g k c  q

  d e e   fi d 
 c
i m

c d l
p
d  g
k

~\

} | _~ _`

] } _ ` b

 i

g 
j c

d p   f c i   

c


d

c d  k p

l
 fi i
k fd 
p d e e pf d p
     pd 
 q    g p
      g  
d g d p   f c i

k
 f g
 

 d  

d p q   pk e   p
i  d 
d pq d  i
  f
  c d g  c

 fi e p
d    d   e   p
i  m

q
l
 j

fi e  

 c

d 
  i
fi e    d g  p
   g     d
    o  c f  pd   m

\ 

dg 

\ ] `



] }| \ ] }_


e

o  i  pd  f g m
e   p
i


\ ] }\

fg

  pl fg

]  ^ \  b
   
d p q   p k e   p
i  d 

dg

e   p
i

f



e  k  

 fi e p

dg k

i
 m
 p
d g

 
d i e p
j  c f i f c  fg l  pl
k
   f fg  c
e   p
i

i d c
i d fd p

d dg

 e  fi f d  f g

 g  d e c  j 
  j      fg  m

a ^

a |

^ \ ~ _a ` ~ b 
o 
 i e fg fg d g k   d   fg   k fg j f f fi e    d g   
fg

q f c d   k    c k
 f g m
 fl

g  i
 d  f g j q c
g

o       c k
 f g f d 
k  g d d k e d  d k f i

k
e c  
d c

  pk

c dl


g

d e e pf
k   c
g


m m
c d  
g 

di   g  o

d k k f f g d p   g fg d g k 
g fg q fpp  d l
 c f d k k
 f g m

\ ] a _} |
fg j  g p

~\



g k

 
 m

o  

a \ ` \ ] 

o i

] ] ^ _a ~ _`

d c

] `

_}

d

c
g

} }

\ }

k 


g   q   m

 



^ \ ~_a ` _` a ] a _} | ~ b h d c


   
po q c
 c
  c
k
 f g

e l

c d   

d p   f c i

c dg

e d  d k f i   

k
 f g fg

g q

dg



k   p  f g

dg

f

d p   f c i

 
k

    pl

 m

\ ^ b g 
  c d l
d   p  f g j       i
 e q f c d
 
  g
m

q c

d
 
   p  f g

i d
   e   p
i


} b
d g  fi
     i
 e q f c d g fk
d  c d  

i  e   i f
 c d  f

  c

d k fl fk
d g k   g 
   p  f g

 i

d g

 d g g   

q c f f    
  j c d g 
 d 
 c d  f f g      
  d  d pp m

   e   p
i m


   pd 


a \ ` \ ] }\

k 
 g  
f 

o      p  f g

 c


f
e  g
g  fd p  fi
j

f  n c d  k m

\ } } \ ^ \ ~ _a ` ~ b
c d l
d  
i e 
k   d g d p
d p   f c i  o  i

d  i e    f e
  e
  fl
j q c fc

c f k
 i d g  o k
 d f p   o  c
  g g f g  f i

m m

o d       j   fl
d
g
 d p e
  e
  fl
o  
e d  d  fg   k k
 f g  o  i

dg

 g dg 

d k  g
 m o


  c d l
f  pd 
k  c
  k k
 f g  j  c
g f f  fi
    d   e      e fg d g k k  fg
i e f f d p

    
  d pf c  c

d p   g   d g  o d      m

} _ }
dg

~

o    e   p
i

c d  d g  g d  
e  d p c f c

   f g  fi
j   i f c    g  fk


d e e   fi d  f g d p   f c i m  c
q   pk f o pp  o c
  f  f  j   k

k
l
p e

dg k d k m

 

c   pk

d   k c
  f  f  j d g k fo e    f p
j e   l
d  d  f   g k o      d p   f c i m

o  

 d g g   e   l
d  d  f   g k j   g i d g
e
 fi
g     

c  q   k  c
d    d p e
o  i d g 

f m
 c

f   fpp i  c

i  


k
d p  o c
d f i d 
fd pm
e d
g

g

d    d p   f c i

k f
  f g

f    e
 fd pf

i d  c fg j   i e   d  f g d p
 i
  j e d  d pp
p

d e e   fi d  f g d p   f c i  m
 e f m

p
d  g
k

g  c


k f
  f g

q
c d l
pd 
p f g  
k m

 q   pk

d 
f



d fg

  fpp d g   c


  i
e d   f   p d  d 
d j
m m

i f c 
 

o dl
d
d

 k

d 
d
   fg

d p   f c i  j  

g  f

i
 
   d g

 g k
   d g k fg

k f
  f g



fg

d p   f c i  j  d g k  i f
k

 k
l 
dg




k
 f g j   q
c d l
  l

k

 g
o c


d g d p  f j q c fc

g  i
 f d p d p   f c i  d 


 

  


l

k

fg

  

 g

 fi  pd 
k d g g
d pfg m
 g fk


c q



g  i
 f d p d g d p  f  j  
fg d pp j d g

k
 f g

i
 fg

d p   f c i   c d 



 g fk


g
d p 
d c

d 
d f  c
   k

d

 c

 f
g 

 o d p   f c i
fg

    

   d 
f


   

 c

d

g fg

 fg j q c fc

e d fd p 
g 
j d 

q
pp d 

c
 
fd p 
g 
m

] } \ _] 
^

}| \

` ]  \

] } \ _] b

o 


] b

g q

 dg k

g
 d p 
  p  j  
n m

q fpp g   d     i d g k
 d fp
k 
  f g  m

  q fpp pf
p d g

d p   f c i

k
 f g

e   p
i

 g  

 c d  q fpp fg l  pl
 g
 o

c

q  
c g f 
 m

| }\ ~}

] }| ~ b

 _


~ } ] ~

\  ] `

 c d e   d g k  m m
a _} | b  fg p
    
j g  g g
d  fl

k
q
f c   m h  g g fg  fi

{

] ~| ] 

] ~_

 m

p

m

 a _ } | b pp e d f   c   
  e d  c  j d  f  d 
k
q
f c   g  g

d  fl
      p
  m h  g g fg  fi



a _} | b  fg p
    
j d  f  d 
k
q
f c   g  g
d  fl
    

 p
  m h  g g fg  fi

 ^

m

 \ } \ ` \ ~ ~ b  c d e  z m m

} ~ b

 f f g

e   p
i  j e  p g  i fd p  fi
j  c

 p d   n j 
  f  d 


dg k

c

 pd    n j e  p g  i fd p  fi

k    f g  m



\ } \ ` \ ~ ~ \ ^

} _ ` ~ b

 

d


 e  g  f p

o  g  q fg

c

o pp q fg 
k  

 f g  m


z   p  fg    pf 
  l
 m

z  

  fg k
e
g k
g  
 m

g k
e
g k
g  
  l




z  

 f d p 

  l
 d g k  pf 
m

  l
   k  i fg d  fg 
 m
  k f
 
k

d   k fk
d 

d i fp  g fd g e d  c m

 g k
dg k

d pp  c

k    f g   c d  q

 
k

fg

c
c  i
q  

  p  f g  j  fg 
i  k f  d  f g   o  c

i d d e e
d   g  c
g d p m
 n   i e p


k    f g   d g
c d pp
g fg m

o   dg g   

c q

    pl
 c
e   p
i j

c

d 
  i
 
  f g  o   i d fi f fg e d   f d p  
k f m
pp  n   i e p

e    o  c d l
d l
  e
 f  o   i m

e pd fg  c d    g  q

c

i e pd 
j

d g k     pp fg d  i d g d  e
   d  e    f p
m   e e  
 c d    q d g    e   l
 c d    i

e   p
i


f  n   i e p

m

 n m  c f  d p i    d p q d 
d  j   k  g  p  q

d pi    d pq d   c
 c fg  c d   c
e   p
i


   i
g q g

g k

 n   i e p

e   p
i

d e  p g  i fd p  fi
o g   f g


d
  
 
  c
k f
  f g


f m h
i
i
  c d   c

  f  d 
f

f d  fg     g k m
j

c d i de  dg

 c f i
d g   c d   

fg   d g 
 o

f     e e  
 c d    c d l
d   p  f g  

o 

dg

q dg  

fg   d g 
 o

dg k c q

c q

fo d g k  g p fo

 

  i d e  c f   d   p  f g

  d g k c  q

c q

  i d e  c f

o   dg g    
   q c d
q c fc
p
i
g    o e   p
i
c d  

  m  c
g   e e  
 c d    c d l
d   p  f g  

  d   p  f g o 



   
  

 c  q  c
   
  g
   o    
k    f g j  c  q fg  c d 


f j d  p
d   
pp i
q c d    q   pk pf

 k  m

q fpp pf
p i d e   q c fc
p
i
g    o e   p
i

d 
  fg     d g  pd 
 c

p
i
g    o  g
e   p
i

fg    c

e pd fg

m h
i
i


  i i  g
p
i
g  

 o  c
  c
 e   p
i m
    i d
d  p
d    g

k    f g  g  c

d i

 fi fpd     g
 c d    c d l


g
o 
j

  i d
  
 c d   g k
   d g k  c
 g
  c d  q
c d l
k  g

f c
 fg  pd      g c  i
q  
e   p
i  m




 

  


 

_ ] } _ `

 \ } \

_} |

a _} | ~ b  c d e  m z

   

m  m

\ b h d  f   g k  o  m
} _] ` a \ _` \

] _} b h d  f   g k  o  m

\ }

\ b h d  f   g k  o pg

_`

 _` a b h d  f   g k  o  m

\

j  e c   c

    

j q c


  m

` } \ b h d  f   g k  o  m

d g d e e   f i d  f  g d p   f  c i  d 
 f i e p
m 
   d 
d 
k  g  f i e p


k c
  f   f   m
 c



e   l fg

 e  fi d p   p  f g

i dg

 d  f


m m j   n

  g k 

f   

  m

  i fg

 e

q f c


 j e  l fk

dg

 e e


p q
   g k
  g k

 g

 g

c

c

 

o

   c
  f   f  
p d  f l
   c f   d i
 d g  f  
m m j  c
 c        q f 
d    g k     o    c

f d  i    q f
 c

 

; < = > ? @ <

A B

 m

< = ? @ @ < G = < E

w G H

[ \ ] ^ b  c f i d 
 fd p f g     l

k fg

m
` ^

? G = > ID G E

U  U   Q N R Z

JT M V V

< G < @ w > IG

} _ `

h m  c

d   k k
   fe  f g  o
g
 d  fg o g   f g  fg

] ` ^

d g d p fg

` ~}


    fl

} _ \

` ^

} _ ` b

d p   f c i  j q c


d    fi
q
fg    k  
k
c

g   c
 
c g f 
o    pl fg 
   
g 

c

  p  f g j    c

g
 d p o  i

c   c
g
m

fg k    f g m

o c

  i
 fi
  c


 f


o c

  p  f g j d g k

c
g

d
i e  

d 
e d  d i

  q c  
l d p
  

 

f  g d   f g  i
  d  f
fg





fg


    fl

 f
k

   j  

  g       f g

c d

p q m

c



o 

k
 f g m

 c
g  i
  o p
d l
 





 

k
g  



 j

e dg k

 

c

f  

L(2)=2

c

l
 fo
k 

f     
  g
 

g   g q m

 c f f



 m





j   c
f c  d pd g 
k j
d

g  i
  o p
d l




e  k  
k
fg

 m



c

i fg fi  i

j  

 d g k


d

 m  c  

f 
d    

 c d 

L(4)=5



 m
q fpp  
 l
 c d 

 f 
i e  fg     g
   
 c d 

c

 

 o c
f c 

f  g d   f 
 f
 o  d g  i
  o 
 i  j  

e  g
g  fd pp j   g   d  o d   d  

m

 

 o c
f c  

L(3)=3

fg fi  i  f
k

o    k

o  

L(0) = 1 L(1)=1

 q

i fg fi  i  f
k

 

m     g       d i f g f i  i  f
k

 

 o c
f c 

k dd   

q fpp p
d  g

fl
g

    g  k
q c  
 c f p k 
g   g  f    o d i f g f i  i  f
k

 

e 
k f  d p
m

g  c
    
 o  c
fg k    f g e    o j   q fpp    d pp g k    q c d   c

l d p
 i   
m

d d i
c  k o 

  e   p
i  f

d g k  c f q    o    i i d  f g  d  q
pp f   
 

q fpp   g  fk
 d o d i   
d i e p
j  c d   o  c

 c


 
g 



    fl

    
 
     
      
  m

g  c j

de e
d




j o 


 

  


 i

dp e ddi



j q c


  g k  g

\ ] b

  d pp fg 

 

 j

 m

dg

 

fg k    f g

o   i
 g dg 



j 

e l

] ~_~ b
` ^

   c
d  f  d 
 q
  g  fk


} _ `

~}\
m

   c
fg k    f g

  fg

 c f

f 
po j q c
g
l

 fg 

p
   c d g

j q
dg

 
e j p
   d    i
 c d 

  q

q fpp  c  q

m   q j  fg 

q fpp
  
fo d g k  g p fo  




c d c

j d  k
 f
k m


p
i i d c  pk  o 

 dg k

q c
g
l


  c
  f f d p l d p
 o

 d 
  c    f  p




m  c f f g     
o  d pp l d p
  o

 m p
d  p  c f


o  
d i e p

 m

 c f fg
 d pf q fpp
d g



q c fc q
c dl

o   d   f d p
 c  f 
 o

   f f   
q c
g

 c d   c f f d  i   

f f g     
q c
g

d e e p  c
fg k    f g c e   c
 f j o  i


q dg   c q

 m 
l
c d

k
 fl

 m

 j q
c dl

 c f d g k

   

 m

b
q fpp     k
 fl
 c
 f c 
    g k q
 d g  g  c
l d p
 o

    

 d pf j fi e p fg  c d  q
q d g 

  g k  c
      o  c

 d  f g


 c
 d k d f o i  pd q
c dl

 




 fg 

 c

 m

dg k

d e e pf
k  

   p



q
 pd fi

 

 

 

m  c
e   f fl
    f

fg  c
e 

k fg
c d

 

    c
fg k    f g

 

d

   j  
 l
 c d   g
 o  c
     f g
d  fl
j d g k c
g 
q   pk g  

d e    f p
 d g k fk d 
o 

 c

f d l


e  o m

dg

dg k c
g

 

c e   c
 f  g p

f q
   pk fg  p k

 

 

 e   f




 c

          fg  c

q
d e e p  c
fg k    f g c e   c
 f  

d e e pf
 o 

 

 j dg k

c
g 

dg g  

d  e d    o  c
d  f  d 
d  q
pp m

 

   f
g    g p k fk q
e   l
 c
p
i i d fg k    f g j   q
d    d pp

k

 i fg
k  c
l d p

o

q c fc i d
  c
p
i i d   
m  c f f q c  c f i
 c  k f  d pp
k

  c
q d j  c
l d p

d m

 f  c






dg k

 d  f o  c
 p k
g  d  f fo



d



l
 fo

c d

 f d o d i      g   d g  fg i d  c
i d  f  j d  c f
   

m  q  g  i



 f

dg k

  d  f


dg k

 c f

  g k f f g m

 c f e   e    f g

  

 c    c     c
q   pk  o d   d g k d  c f
   
m

\ ` \ ] } _` a


} _ ` ~ b  c
i
 c  k  o   g       fl
fg k    f g e   l fk
k d q d  
 d   g k  g

j   q
k fk g  
 d g
d  d g q
 j d g k q
c d k 
g
d 
d   k 

o 
q
q


l
g

d p
    d   m

  

 g fk



q   m

dg

 c f

d e e  d c

i
c  k

f



k

 i fg

d
k

 g  fk
 d g fg g f


g 

 g

dg

l


d   
e 

g  d  f g

p
d g 





o

  g 
e  j  d pp
k

j q c fc


 f
 g 


 

  


o q
q   pk pf
 
 c c d  c


g  k

 c f 

g 
    fg   p j q

d 
 c
 
 f
g    o  c
o g   f g

  
 c f

f

 d pp
k

l d  fd p
m

c

q fpp d pi     g
l


 

o

d   f g

c

f

k
g

   

d e  p g  i fd p o g   f g



  pk

    

 



g 
m

d  e
 f 



c d

l d p
m



f

 c   j
l


f   

 i  pf

fg g f


g 

o

g  i
  c d  d    
 e  g k fg
g
 d  fg o g   f g j d g k l f
l
  d m c d  f  c
d k l d g  d
 o  c f

e 

g  d  f g

  g     c d  q
d g e
o i

d  f c i
 f   d g o  i d  f g   g  c

o g   f g 


m m j d k k f g  c
i j i  p  f e p f g  c
i j k f

g  f d  f g  c
i  d g k  c f  c d  d    
 e  g k f g

 
 g
c

c



 g k
 p fg

  d g o  i d  f g  m

    g      c d    i
g f
p        
k

f  g d   f g  i
  j d g k i d g 

g 
 d  f fg o  i

o g   f g   c d  d 

d    q  f
k  q g

 c
f

fg

k
d pfg

q f c

 

f  g d   f g  i
 



 







g
 d  fg o g   f g  f    
   c  q

 c

g
 d  fg o g   f g  
g
 d 
d p
 d f d pp
 fl d p
g  o  i  m

q
i  p fe p  c

g
 d  fg o g   f g d o d      o
   c
 f c 

pf

d g k i d g fe  pd 
m

    g  f k
  c

g
 d  f g o  g   f  g o    c

  



g 


pfg
d  
   
g 
  c d l

g
 d  fg

l d  f   i d g fe  pd  f g   o
 
d i e p
j g   f 
 c d  fo

j  c f c d   c


   o  c fo  fg  c


g 

  

  

  

 


 






 
 

 







  

 




 








             j d g k 

q c d  q

  q j p
     c
o  p p  q f g i d g f e  p d  f  g m  i e  





   

  



 





l

c d

l



i

 



 


 g k

f








c



 








 





 dp 



c

k
g f f g

o

 i

 c

 c f

  

   

d p
 g d  fl

e 

g  d  f g

o  c

 o  c f o  g   f g fo
e d g k
k

   d  
 c f   d g 
p p d  f  g        m

q
i d   g  p k
 c d 

q
c dl
dg


e 

e d   f  pd  i d g fe  pd  f g q
e f
k q d  c  
g

  j g q



f  g d   f g  i
  j d   c

d  d e  q
 
 f
 m   q c d    k f  c f

d   c
 
 f
g    o f  e  q
 
 f

e d g  f g m  c

d 

  d fg

 
 f
g  

 c
i d fg  d p f  


  i i  g   f   c d  e
 e p

 
  i d g fe  pd 

g
 d  fg o g   f g  m
 c
   f    
 l
 c d   c



 f


e d g  f g m

 i
  f 
 f
 m

d 
  i
o g   f g  o  q c fc f f l

d   
 d g e  q


 
d i e p
j  c

o 

o pp q fg f



  fg

d  fi e p

 g 

g 

 c
g


j q
c dl




 







o c

o i  pd o  c


 

  


 g  c
 q  k  j 
fl
g d g

 



 g dg 

 f  c

g
 d  fg o g   f g o   c


g 

c

g
 d  fg



q
c dl



f



    

o g   f g

g
 d  fg o g   f g

 

o 



 
fg



c
o i





o 

 

m


 





q   pk

m

   

g
g
dpj




d

fo

q

 o   i
 g dg 

  pk

i  k fo

j  fg 
 c
g

  

q
  pk

 c
g
  d    c
 
 f
g    o  c
e  q
 
 f

d  fp m
g   k
   k   c f j q
q   pk pf
  
q  f
 c

g
 d  fg o g   f g fg  c
o pp q fg o  i

  

c
g
 fi e

 

 

q c


 d  f g









d e e pf
k  


   




dg k

j dg k

 



c
g




 m




 

 g

 



  

 q

   

    m
q fpp  fe  c
 
e  fg k  fg  c f j   f f
    q c fc d 
   d g k     i   

 d p    c

  pl
o   d g k   d fg  c

 fe    d p  o  c
      o  c
p
d p
 d q
 d g e p  c

l d p
 fg d g k   pl
o   d g k 

o   i

o 

g   c d  k   l
 fo  c
    
   o 

f
pk fg


g
g
 d p j  c f f  d pp
k  c
i
 c  k  o

 

m
dg
 i




k

 i fg



   

f  d k  d  f m  c
g

e d f pd  j 

 g fk
 q c d  c d e e
g  q c
g

 

j i  p fe p

 fi fpd    f


c

dg

m

q
d 
fg   k  c d e
j
 d  
q
 d g
  d    c
 
 f
g   o   c

q  o d   f g  o  i

 c
d  l
o g   f g m

 i

 c f q
c d l
 c
o pp q fg

  

 


 






 i fg fg 
 i  q
c d l

dg g q


d k 

  

 c
 
 f
g  
d  fp m



 c f f d g
d   
  p j d g k g  
  q  

; < = > ? @ <

r B

  
   





q d g

k
k m

 D IG > E

s @ > I= ? w > ID G

g e d   f  pd  f o pp q   c d 





w G H

I= D G G < = > < H

C D u

v D

G < G > E
JT M V V

U  U   Q N R Z

[ \ ] ^ b  c f i d 
 fd p f g     l

k fg  c

 

e  d  n   p
i

}_

] } _ `
 c f

_` } ~ ] ` ^

 fi
 

e   p
i

 g

` ` \

}\ ^

 g k f
 
k

 z  m

| ~ b   k d q
k f     d g   c
 d e e pf d  f g  o

de c  m

 d e c m  g  fk
  c
o pp q fg k
g f f g  m

 





` ` \

}\ ^

 g k f
 
k


 

  


}_

] } _ `

_` }

}  \ }\

 b

 dg

l


    

q c  

i  l d p  
 c
 q f c

   

c


i  l d p  o d g fg  fk
g 
k
  
  p  fg d k f   g g
 
k  d e c m
_^ a \ b
_

` ` \

 d g
k
q c  

i  l d p 
  p  fg


}\ ^ b



f

 d e c f

g g
 
k j fo

d k f   g g
 
k

fo f   g  d fg  g  d   f   p d  f g e  fg   m  g
g
 d p d  d e c

l
  f 
 i   

i  l
k   k f    g g
   c
 d e c m

 f g g

k

de c 

f  

dg k

d p   f c i  j
 d  

d

Biconnected
components

  f  pd  f g n  fg   d g k   fk


d   f  pd  f g

c


Articulation point
Bridge

de c m

c

e  fg  

d

  f f d p

o


d

fg 

 

e  fg   j q c  

fg

c

k
 f g

o d fp 
q fpp 
  p

fg

o

g
q  

c

g
q  

  i fg k f   g g
 
k m
d

 fi
q

 
l
k

c d

c

g   f g

k f  d e c fg  
 fl d p
g 
 pd  
 m

k


dg k

d

fo
f c


k
 m

 f g      c d  k  

de c m

   f 
 c d  fo  q 
k


  fg o  i
_

` ` \

 o i    d p 
d c d fpf

q   pk pf
 


  fo  c


l
 fo  c d   c f k
g

d

e d   f f g
k

c

k   c
 d i
 c fg c

m

    pf j  c
g

dg

l
f


o

d c d  q 

f d  fi e p
  p
 c d    g  d fg    c

 fl d p
g 

pd  f g

c


d 

 
g  fd pp

 g

q 

c

k
 o d

k f

g  q d   o

 g

k
   c
  c
   fg d    g k  c
 c
  p

d c q d  m

}\ ^

` \ ` } ~ b  c

f g g

k

 i e  g
g 

o

de c

d

c

 fl d p
g 

 pd  
  o  c
   pf f 
pd  f g m
   f
 c d   g pf
    g p   g g
 
k

  i e  g
g    o d k f  d e c

l


 c
f g g

k  i e  g
g   o d d e c o i

q c fc o  i

d e d   f f g  o  c

d e d   f f g  o  c

k

 m

  i f c 

 c fg o  d q c fp
q c  c f f   m

fl
d g

d p   f c i

o    i e   fg d   f  pd  f g e  fg   m g

d p   f c i

o    i e   fg  fk


f  fi e p
i  k f  d  f g    c f e   
k  
m

}_

] } _ `

_` } ~ ] ` ^

 k




k

 i fg

c

d   f  pd  f g

e  fg  

o

dg

 g k f
 
k

 d e c j q
q fpp  d pp k
e  c    
d  c j d g k  
 c
 

       
e   l fk
k  c

d  c   d fk
  m

g e d   f   p d  j p
   d     
pl
 fo d l
 

f f         
fg  c


d i
c d
 i e  g
g m


 

f d g d   f  pd  f g e  fg  j c  q

q   pk q
g  q

 f   g g
 
k fo g   j q
 d g d e e p  c f d p   f c i  
d  c fg k fl f k  d p   g g
 
k

  q
d    i
f  g p

  

c d  d  fi e p
        
m

d 
k
 j d g k q
    d pp  c
i

 g
 

fg


c

 o 
 m


d 

 f  g k f
 
k j  c

f    j q
 d g g   k f  fg  f c
q

g o  q d  k
k
 d g k

d 
k
 m p  j  c

d 
g      
k
 m 

  c   pk d

d i  i
g      g l f g 
   
po q c  c f  f    
m


  g  q j p
     g  fk
  c
 e f d p  d 
 o d l
 

   m

  p




 

   
k d   c f c fpk m

 c
c fpk 
g

o

j q c


 
d c

f g   d p
d o d g k

f g    c

c fpk  c

f d    

 o  c

o o    i
c fpk j  c

f g  d 
k
 fg   d e   e
 d g 
     o

  


 

  


j c
g

fo q
q

  
i  l

de c j dg k c
g 

f d g

j  c f    

q   pk
  i
k f   g g
 
k

d   f  pd  f g e  fg  m

   
k d   c
c fpk 
g  o

o i

 c
  c
 c d g k j fo
l


c dl
d 
k
  e  e
 d g 
   o

   

c

 o c

 g
o c
 



j  c
g fo

    

f 
i  l
k j  c

 d e c 
i d fg    g g
 
k  c
d 
k
 c  pk
l
  c fg  
 c
  m  c f p
d k     c
o pp q fg m


~\

]

} _ `

b g fg 
 g d p l
 

o c

  

  c
  c d g  c
     f d g d   f  pd  f g

e  fg  fo d g k  g p  c


f   d    

   
k

k
o i
n p
d 
c


dg l


 c

 d 
o pp   

 c d     g k
   d g k

f m

 c f   g k f f g

 c
  g k f f g o  q c
 c


d  d c fpk  o

fg  c f    

  d e   e
 d g 
     o

f d g

d   f  pd  f g e  fg  k
e
g k   g

 c d   c

f g  d 

m
g

e d f pd  j g  f
c d 

d 
  d e e pf
k   f  c fpk 
g m

 c f f  c
i      i i  g     
 o   g o  f g o   c f d p   f c i m

c d  d     c
p
d l

q c
g  

f  

  f  pd  f g n  fg   d g k

f d p
d o j  d g

k
p

d p
d o o  i

~\

]

} _ `

  i e p

p


p
d o

o

c

  g  f 
g  q f c

 

j  q
dg

c d d    c
  

dg

d   f  pd  f g e  fg 

g q


  j
d 

d  

j  c

   o  c
 


i d fg    g g
 
k j  c  
l
g f g   fg

 c
d 
k
 j  c
 d e c f   g g
 
k


f

Low[u]=d[v]

d o
  c
k
p
 f g  o d p
d o o  i


f


 l d  f g

k
p

 c
q   k

 fg 
 c


d
g 

g
l


dg

 j  fg 

d   f  pd  f g

c

e  fg  m

 

m

  

c d

 c f

d p
d o q fpp g   c d l
d g    

 fg

fg 
 g d p o  i


 l d  f g

 
k

q

g

f

c

 m

 c
   

  o  c
    fo  c

    c d  q    i  
c fpk 
g  c
g f f d g d   f  pd  f g e  fg   fg 
f  
i  l d p 
e d  d 
  c


q   

 m

 c
  c
 c d g k j fo  c
    c d   g p d  fg p
 c fp k j  c
g

p
d l
  f  
i  l d p k 
 g   k f   g g
   c

d  fg  c

d

o

  

j d g k c
g 
 d g g   k f   g g
   c
 d e c

fg
g
 d p m


~\

]

} _ `

b  c
   o c

 f d g d   f   p d  f g e  fg  fo d g k  g p fo f c d   q    i  

c fpk 
g m

}_

] } _ `

_` } ~

b 
 l d  f g   j  j d g k z e   l fk
  q f c d         d p c d  d  
 f d

 f g  o q c fc l
  f
 fg  c

q c fc 
    c

  g k f f g 

c
 fg


 l d  f g

  

d 
d   f  pd  f g e  fg   m

q

 d g q
k
 f g d g d p   f c i

c
 fg  c d   c
    c d  i  p fe p
c fpk 
g f d g
d 

  f
m

 f  c
c d  k
  j   q

q fpp
e p f  c

  

o c





c
pe   m
 c
d  f  c fg q
g

k   c
 o  f q c
 c
  c

f d d 
k
o  i
d g 
     o d fl
g l
 
m

q

 d g q
k   c f

 

 i
 

 dg

 q   pk
  
e
g  fl
 

e   d   o d pp


 

  


c
d 

k
 o i

d c

 


 d  

c

i d

  d 

    

k
 m

   

 fi e p
  c
i

f  

e   d   o d 
k
 c d  
 c f c
  fg  c
 

fg  c

g 
 o  fg  p 
     c

  m


q

o d g d 
k

  d g

k 

q
g q

c q

dg 
  o

 p 
d d 

j  c f  g
q fpp m

k

 

c

  

    j  
 l
 c d   c
k f   l
  fi
  o  c

d g 
      o

 q

dl
p o i

c d l fg  c
 i d pp
  k f   l
  fi
 o   m   q


e   d   o  c
d 
k


 

g


 
 c
i fg fi  i

 
 
 c


i

q c



k

g k
g 

 

g   f fl
p j 

f

f

c

q

i
d g  p q

 
k

fg

c f c
 

k f   l


 

o

dg k

 f d d 
k
d g k

 d fg d g  g
d 
k
o  i


 c d c d c

 
 m

 i d pp
  l d p
 o

c

g  g f

 p 
 

f c


q dk  c

  i d pp
 d g k  i d pp
  c
   



f d k
 
g k
g   o


g 
j

c

  

c d

f j

c d  

i d
dg

 dp 

 fg

c



  d g  o f  k
 
g k
g   m 
q d 
 o  c f g   d  f g

 fi
j g   p q

fg  c
 

m

 

g od  


g k  

c f c

f g  c
 

j f g  c

g 
 o
f g  p  
   c
    m
 

 i e  

 

 g c
l


q
 

 

` _} _] _ ] } _ ` b 
]

 \ ^ a \ 

k

b

\ ^ a \



b

d

| \

_` ] 

    m 

o  c f 
  

 

 

i fg  

 

fg  c

a _} | b  c

f  g
   p




q c
g

d fl
g
k

d g  q
 f   
  q c
 c


d k d 
g 

 c
 fk

pf   o d g

fg  c

 c
  i e p

d p   f c i


 m

e pd g d  f g

d g
q

d 

k
c
g

 fg 

f

fg

c

 

f d  fg p
d 
k
o   c

j q
 d g 
  q c
 c
 d fl
g g  g    

 d  o pp q 


o c

 g k f
 
k

f d g

    

d   f   p d  f g e  fg  fo d g k

 fg 
fo  c

q

d d 
k

 

c
g q
q   pk c dl


 c d  q
i    q d  c o  fg

 f d d 
k
m

f   p 
k  d

k
 m   
     
  p o  d d 
c
e d
g  o

k


k

 c
e 
l f   d 

k
 f g fg  c

k  q
k   c f

j q

d pi       
 

 fg 
d pp  d l
  f
 d 
d g 
      o  c
   
g 
i d
c
e d
g  o




k

q

g

de c

q

  m

d p   f c i

  g  g k f
 
k  d e c   m c
g e   
  fg d l
 

l
 
 m  c f f g    f
   
 
 d  

c

c dl

l d p
 c d g

   g
 o f  k
 
g k
g     d g d g 
     o

g

k  g q

o 

 

o  q c fc

c

f   i e  
k o  d pp l
  f


fg e d   f  pd   c f f   
o  d g

   

fg

e pd g d  f g

d p q


f d g d   f  pd  f g e  fg  
 l d  f g

f c


 g p fo f c d  d  c fp k
o i

p q m


l
c d  g 


i fg  

d g  fg p
d 
k
p
d l fg  c
 

   
k d 



  
k

l


 

  i fg     o

  
k d

  e e  
 c d  q
d 
e
o  i fg

 m

i d
 c f  c
g
q
\ \

 c
o pp q fg  fi e p
  p


q


d

dg k
q 

fg  c


 d ppfg

k f
 
k

k
q
 
c
e 
k

 

 

dg k q
d

 c d  fg

  g       fg

k
 o 
d c

e  fg 
   c


 g k f
 
k

c d

f g  

 

m

o    i e   fg d   f  pd  f g e  fg   f fl
g
p q m  c
i d fg e   
k  


      
   m

 f   c
 d i
d 
o  
j

e   c d  f   d p p   c
o  p p  q f g     f g
 d  c
  c  d g


"  
 !' & 
  ,   #' $    
   #' $   #' $       +
   +   * !   "   !' & & 
  !   ,   # $    *   + & 

 

 z

!'

& 

++ ++


 

  


(  +  # $  '
"  
 ! &
   #' $     !    #' $
   #  $ &
  ' (    +    #' $
  ! (  +  #' $       & 
       ( ( ,
  ! *     '   +      *  ,  &
"   '    +    ' ,   (    
.
+ ,  +   !    #  $
  #' $ & 
    +    ,    +
"   '    +    ' ,   (    
.
.
+ ,  +   !    (  +  #' $ & 
   #' $     !    #' $
 #  $ &
.

d i e p
f  c  q g

 fi
f

f

k 


g   o pp q

d d 

dg c q

fg

 c
o pp q fg  
m  q f c

d  

d l
m

p p p
d l
f  d 

c d

dg k

d

k
 d 
fg
 c   c

c

  f
m

 d
k

+  

++

d p   f c i  j  c
  g g fg


d c m

< >

D @

f  

b
c

e  f g   m

c
g

 

f d  fk
 c
g

g  c



  f g

c fg  c

f  

 i


dg

f

c q



 
c

k


d   f  pd  f g e  fg  j  

  i e  g
g  q fpp
  g 
   fl
fg  c
  d  m

Low=1

    f 
 c d  fo

 i e  g
g  m

d=1

7 f 1

10

= articulation pt.
3

g


D

  f  pd  f g

w G H

n  fg   m

w > =  IG

U  U   Q N R Z

[ \ ] ^ b  c f p
   
q d  e 

g 
k
]

; < = > ? @ <

d pp

d   f  pd  f g

 c d  d pp  c

k
 fg  c
f  g g
 
k

dg

 c

c
f g g

k

JT M V V

    i e  
 c
 f k
  o d  d e c m  c f  d g
k  g
d  i d pp i  k f  d  f g

d p   f c i

k

 i fg
q c fc
fg

(( ,

 m  c

d 
  i
fg 

  fg e   p
i   c d  q
  fpp c d l
g   k f    
k m
k fk

g   k f     c  q
o c

 

   

.
g

!'
 &   
' (    +  #' $

 

+   

    

b  c

d

f fl
p q
 d g

 c fg

o d

p q

q

 m

e   p
i
g
q  

c  pp
 m 

c d e  

fg

h m

f  g
 o  c
d  f e   p
i   o d p   f c i
d  d k f
 
k

 

de c

fg

q c fc

 fk f

k
 f g m

g 

 q fg d p g  c


 

  


 d c
k
c d 
 q q
dg e

k
 o c
de c m
g k    c q

 c
i d

i  c

q

e   p
i

 c
 fi e p
  e   p
i


  d fg i d fi  i
c o i

    

   

 d e d  f  c d  f  d g  d   m  c
fk
d f  

 g
e  fg    d g   c
 m

c d  d e e pf d  f g  fg d 
d  pf
  d g  e    d  f g j     fg fg g
q    m

 f

fg d pfg
 o i d g fi e    d g  e   p
i  c d l fg   k  q f c  c
i  l
i
g   o

  i i  k f f
  c    c

d g
q   m  c


d
o
g

   k f
k

fg   fg
   c   p j d g k  e
 d  f g 



d c m


 ~ b

\ }

d g  g
d  fl

q  e
fd p l
f

o i

 





 m

j dg k d

q
i  k
p  c f 
  fg

m
d i
c d
l


_}

` ~} ] _` } b

\ } b

` ~\

]

q

 

  d pp

d pp

  d pp

 j





 fl
g


q

k 


q

 

o i

 

q

c
g
q   j c   c

 c
 d g  f



d e e p





p q

c

   o

pf
  g   i
e d  c

f m
m  c

q

q fpp  c  q
 c

q

 g p

n d

 o

dg k

l
f


d d c

i d fi  i

d pp  c

q

o i



q



q  k  j q

dg

 c fg



 d fg j

  

dg k

 q fg




q

 fg j  fg 

q

fg  

 q    m

q

q

q

   
pl


d

  
c d

 c fg

o

f p   d g q c


p
fg

m  c
 dp

 o  c

q

f k
g
k

j c

q

fg  

m

dg k

j g k

g
q   j d g k     
d g k  fg l
  f


\ ~ b

 fg p
 fg











dg k

 i d 

i

l

m
i dg


 fg



 l
 p 
   f  fl
  
 f
 c d   c

f

dg

q

e   p
i  c d l
 f  d  f g  fg

l
f


dg k d






 m

 c f

dg

j d g k d   d c fg

p
  c


k
 c d l
fg g f
 d e d  f m   q

q
d 


  fl
p e   k   fg  c
i d fi  i

q



q c fc

d  fp

  





q

o i


 g
    

   d g   c
  fg m
 fg

j c
g

 

 

c dl

  c


  d pp  c

e   c fg  c

o i

d pp  c

 m

o i

o

  
 c d  q
k  g   d 
q c f  c

 c


h m

i  k
pp
k    d k k fg d  e
 fd p

d pp  c

 g

o i

f j fl
g d

l d p
o  i

\
} _ ~ _`  

  

dg k

m

    g      c d   c f f d p 
 d p  

d  fg p
    

i dg

 c f pd 
 m

 o i d fi  i

d i e p

} _~

   o

j q
c dl

c

c d

m

q fpp
 d p  c

d



l


 m  c

d

q c fc  d  f
  c
o pp q fg

  g 
 l d  f g i
d g   c d  g 

 f  d pp
k  c



 i i
  j  c f f
 fl d p
g   

  g 
 l d  f g
e  i e fg




 q m  c f  f  e  f i d  f p o   i d f g d p
 d f  d g d p  f 
d  f
 m

 j

d  g
d  fl

} _ ` b



d  q d k 

c

 m

f d 
d p l d p
k o g   f g  g e d f   o l
  f
 j

 c 

e   e
  f



 f d k f
 
k  d e c fg q c fc
d c
k


o 

 c
    
   c
 fg o     c
 q f
 c
l
 
f  o g   
     m  c f fi e pf
  c d   c

k f  d e c f   g g
 
k j d g k c
g 






o   
 f
 c d 
e   p
i

 d pp
k

c


 

\ }

  


} ] } _ ` b   i
 fi
  d  c

q dg  

 d p

d    c

c dg

q

o i

 c f q


g k  c
k
g f f g  o

 d p fg

d    c

 o l
f
 

q

o i








 

 m

d e d   f f g



 i

dg

q

d pd g 
o  d l


k f   f g    
  


 fg   q 

 dg
c   c  o d c
g
 di   g  o
 fi e p
i d g fe  pd  f g   o  c
k
g f f g  o

f



 

ff



fff

o 




d l


 o l
f


j q

 

k 

q

q


i  
    fg  p

f q c
g

dg k

dg k

   q  f fg
k
g

 m

d
g

 f m
m
 c f  d 

     fg  l
  c
   m
q
dg

e   l
 c
o pp q fg o d    m

c

g   f g

 m

 \ ~ `

f

q m

 m

\ }| ^ b  c

o

e dc





c
g





 dg k



 

i  

fg

q

d f


 g 
e 

 c

fk
d

 g

d pp g
q     q

q c fc

f  

d

q f c

q

d p   f c i 

q  

 j dg k

c
g

 o  f

pd 
 d g k pd 
 g k fg d e d  c d p g q c fc q
 d g e   c i  

c
g
q  

o i



d p g

q c fc

i  

q

dg

e  c
k

f  d pp
k

m  c f fk
d f fl
g  c
i     fi e p
i
 c  k o    i e   fg g
q  
 d pp
k  c

m

fg  
i
g  d pp i d
 c

k
g

g
fi e    d g   e
 fd p  d 
 o  c f   g 
e 

o c
l


\ ] b

q

   

  
  k
g fg


  fg  c f g   d  f g

d l


dg  c
 

    

 k

    

 p
   g i
 c  k m

 

 


d p   f c i  d 
d 
k  g  c f  fi e p
f k
d m  c
 g p k f
 fg c  q

c


' ,+  !


 & 
   ,  +  ,       *  , +
! * +  + +         '   +    
'   +   * +  ,    ,   ( .
' ( '  * +    ,  ,   .

dg

q  j

pi    d pp g
q  

q

( * ( & 

k
 fk
q c fc e d  c   e d  c  d p g q c fc   e   c


e  c

dg

i  

q

[ \ ~_^ ] 

 b  

\ }


fk  d p g
q   m




l

c d

fo





c   c

 f m
m d p   d p p i d f i  i

q

k
g

c



g   f g

q

g
q   j q



c
g

 c


d 
 c
e d f  

  c c d 

o dg

c dl

d c
k

c

i d fi  i



f


m

f




d 

e    f p

e    f p

q



j k
g
c

o c

e  c

 d e d  f

i  

k
g
c

g   f g


  g    d fg  j

q

c   c



c

o d

 o d e d f

k




 m

m

f  c
k f
 
k  d e c


d  i
g  fg e d  c j q
  

 dg k d  q

g
q  

 c
 q f
q
 d  c d   c

k
f

 q m
q fpp e   l
 c d  q c
g f f fi e    f p

f p d pp i d fi  i  m

fl
g

c

 m


q f c  c
 d i
l
 

 d     q c  

k


d c
k
fg  c

 fk  d p g
q   f q
f c 
k q f c

f  
 fk  d p  d e d  f m

d i e p

\ ] b


n d







d




o

h m

 q fg

  f d

 d g k p


q

fg

d

 q fg


m  c
g 

 m  c
l d p
 o  c
  q f  

 




 k
g
k 

m




 

  


b  d  f d pp  c

 fk  d p g
q   
pp   c  q

 m  c f fi e pf
  c d 

  p
 o 

a \ ` } _` a

c d

c
g 

q  d

d

] }| ~ b g

o c
e dc

dg

 c f  

q

d p g

q

c d

d i
g  c

d c

q


  g f    o   q

d p g  c

l
 

k



fk  d p g
q  
 
g 

i  c d k k f f g d p

c

 l
 d pp
k



   f  p

k

 m

fg

o c

 f k
g  
k

e dc j q

d

dg k

f  d g

 m  c
 c


d p g d g
k




 m 
 l

q


j dg k

fg

k
g fg

 q
 



 c f

 o
j q
c dl
 e  c

   i d fg  d fg 
q  i i
  m  fg 

l

k
 o  c

e   f fl
q
f c  j  c


  p fg

q

f    f  p

pd 
 c d g

c

 m

o 

e 
k

 



h
i
i
 c d  q c
g

f   q
  g        c

 fk  d p g
q   j d g k  c
g q
  g

  d   fg

q
dg e  c c   c


m  c
 

fg

g   k
   k

 i fg
q c
 c
  c


f   d g d  i
g  fg e d  c o  i


q

 d e d  f f
  o

 d e d  f  o d g
k
 g  c
e d  c m


  g f    o   q

 



k 

   

  l
 fo m

c d q c
g
l
 q
e  c
 g f   o

g
l


f d  fi e p
e d  c o  i

f  c

e   c fg

q

    

o c


d c


d c


e  fg 
  d  q d  k   

c q g

c d c

c
g

q

g q


 g  

f  m


fk  d p g
q  

c d

 fg 

c d

   

e dc




f d g
d  e   p
i m

  g c

fk  d p g
q  

f  

dg k

d g k

  f
j  c

dg

d

o pp q


c

  fi
j

  g g fg  fi
 o

 k

 p
   g f d  f d pp



 g  i
  o d  i
g  fg   d
  

d 
 q
q fpp d g d p
 c
pd  
  d g  f m


} ` \ ~ ~ b  
  d pf c

k

e p

fg  

c

c
 
g
 o c

c
 

o

e d   f f g  o  c
l
 

k
g
c

q

fg   i e   fg







 


 fg   q 

 k

 p
   g d p   f c i

g
q    m

k f   f g    
 



j 

dg k

 c

q
g

k   k
pl
i  

 j fg

c d

 q
 dg

 j d g k q
k
g
 c
 d e  f  o  c
   d 

q  o i

 q


fg



g
q  
k







f

m

m   

d 
   g 
k g
d  fl
p  
q  i i
   j d g k

   g    g    d fg    g
k
 p
d k fg o  i



m

f g   fg  c  

m

\ ] b  c
di   g  o

q  dg k

d   c
  d

 c d  fg   i e   fg

o i

q

d   dg

   fg  c
g
q   f
 d p  

b








 



 

q

 c
o d    c d 

c dg

dg k

   
  



  



 




 

  i
 o i

j d g k  fg 

  g 
 l d  f g m



f o  i
k  o   c l
  f
  c
  i

 

 o  d pp

 o  c
f

 c


 q  q fpp

 

d p   m


] b  c

d fi  i

 c

l d p

q

o dg

o c

p q j
fg  

fg fi  i

  dg g   e  c

 
g



q

dg i  

 k

f   g k
k

q

 p
   g

 c
 
i m

o i

d l

c

 d e d  f

o dg

  m

 f m
m

 m

c   c
i
c  k

d  f d pp

 

d     c d g f   d e d  f m

f d 
k

d


c d

 g
fg

 c
o pp q fg  c
 
i j  d pp
k
dg

q

g
q  

c

c

i fg fi  i


 

  


 d e d  f

 

d 

pf

   p
g


d p   f c i


 i fg d 
 q c
g

i d fi  i



f

f

q

ff

d p g  c f e d  c q
q   pk c d l
d pd 


fff

fff

f

o c


d




` ]  ~_~



m

f

 fg 
 c

g 

q

dg k

c


d  i
g  fg

c

q

q


e dc 

dg

d p   f c i

d p   f c i

q

d  

\ }| ^ b  c

q


i d

c

 

e   p
i




g k

q



\ \ ` } b

d p   f c i

 

c q g

q c fc c  pk   c
i d fi  i
 c
e d  c  o i d fi  i

fo

c

^ ` ^ ~

di   g  o

 d e d  f o  i

dg k

g k fg

g
q   j   d   fg

c

q fpp

c



 c

  g  q g
 c
od  c d


~\

]





d p   f c i

f


e dc o i





 fi e p







  j c  

 k

 p
   g

q

 d p

d p   f c i

f

e d

fg

h m

 q
l
 j fo  c
d p   f c i

q

  

q m

o

q
g

 g p

g
dpj

d  fg p
 g f m
 k

 p
   g

q m
e dc

q d

  g l
 fg  g

q

c  
g

c
g dp

fg

q m

d k

q d

c

 

i  o   i

f   
p
   c
d  i
g  fg e d  c

 f g   g  q g c  q

o d    c f i
 c  k

 c d  f  d  d g 

k   fl
  k

de

d p   f c i

e dc j q

 

f

 k

 
d k c

g  i
 o







e  e

 j d g k fo

 p
   g j q f c

d c

fg



d  i
g  d  f g  g

k
k



p

pf  p


fk  d p

q c

 c

q fpp

d i  



m

 j  c
 l
 d pp   g g fg  fi

  g k
  c

d   g d p
d    i e  f g  c d 

k
 g


m

 c
i fg fi  i

p
g  c

d  i
g  fg e d  c o  i

 m

c  







 g

c

 d  i
g  d  f g  f d 
k  g  c
o pp q fg  
 l d  f g  m

o



q

 f d g

j dg k c
g 

f  

 c d   c f c  f
f e d   f  pd  p

  fi
    i e  
  fg 

f
 
g  fd pp



j d g k  c   q
g k  c
 c   
  d  i
g  fg e d  c

de  


o c

k


j c
g

b  c f

k i  g k 

} _ ` b
fg



o c

fg  c

 fk  d p g
q   m  c f f
d   p  c
 d i

k i  g k 

d c
  

c

 q m  i e   fg  c f e d  c f
 fl d p
g    k

 i fg fg

d  i
g  fg

d  i
g  d  f g  d




fg

m

 c d  j fo q
k    j  c

 fg 

d c

 g g

k

 d e d  f

k


p
g  c  o  c
e d  c f  c
g  i
  o
k
  g  c
e d  c  m
 pd fi
g f
fg

fi e   l
 c

f l
g  g  c
p d  
d i m

a _} | b  c

c
g

c

c

 c
q      d 
j    c

f d g   c
  fi e p
   d 

c d g
m

g  

 j   j   j  c

d  i
g  fg

p g  fi

o 

d   c


   d g  e    e   p
i

d

fg  c

 fk  d p g
q   d g k p


q
f c 

f  c
i d fi  i

c d

o  d l


  g k  fg 
 i   o


j c
g

fg

d g k  c f    i   
i fg fi  i  m

q f c

 c

d i e p
q
 c  q
k   c d  d i  
p f d p q d   e   c

q    fg

o 
q

 c
g dp

 q c


c dl

  pk  g

dg k

 d p

d p g

 c
i fk k p

k
j f q fpp   g  fg     p

 q m  g  f k
  c
o  pp q fg
d i e p
o   i

g   c

 j   j   d  i
g  f g q f p p
g

k
k
 d g  d
 fi

e dc

 q j d   g   d k f  f g m

c
g

q   pk 
 i fg d 
fg q  d  i
g  fg  
e  m

d  i
g    fg

  dg k

f e f  d  i
g  fg e d  c  j f i d  e
g k d g fg   k fg d 
d i   g   o  fi

d   fl fg d  c
g d p i d fi  i
c

d  i
g  fg

f g
l
 f
  c d g  c
 d e d  f  o d g    j fo  c

 \ ~ `

 c d  k
e
g k fg  g c  q

 p
   g

 o  i  d    m 
 d  

d c
k
     fg  c
   i   
 d    d 
k

}| \

 m

 o

 c  
l
  f
 
d c d p
o  i

 q j f o pp q   c d 

i d

 c
 d e d  f  o   i
   j  c
g f i   
i d fi  i

 k


  g  d fg  g  d  i
g  fg e d  c  j

 o   i
  

c

 m 

q m

f g k   c
i fg fi  i

 j

fg

q

q f c


fk  d p g
q   m

di   g  o

c
g 



e   c fg
ff

i d fi  i

| \ \ b  c
o pp q fg  c 

  g k f f g  d 

 fl d p
g  m

f d i d fi  i



_`

 c

fk  d p g
q  

fff

pfi f  c

   

q m

ff



f g k   c f    p
g
 j d g k

    



e dc  m


 fg 

 c
g

c


 f g    g d g  c   
  e d  c m

 

f

dg

k

o i



q   pk g  
 g c
c  



 

  


\ ] b
fg

c

 

d c

d p   f c i



 c
l d p
 o







c

k f  d g 

 fg  
d 
 i  g    g f d pp q f c
d c

o g   f g

d  i
g  d  f g 

c

q

o i



k i  g k 

de

d  i
g  d  f g m

k i  g k 

d  e d p   f c i

i d
 d i  

 d  i
g  d  f g  m

b g
k
fg  c
d  i
g  fg e d  c f fo  c

 f k  d p  d e d  f  o  c
e d  c
 d p

c


 fk  d p  d e d  f

 o  c f
k
m

  c
 q   k  j d o
 d  i
g  d  f g  c

  i
  d    d 
k j d g k k f d e e
d   o  i




j p



m  c
g d q
e
o i

   



  j   g        i e p f  d 
k m 

 c

 m

| \ \ b  c

l



fk  d p g
q  

    

q

i d g  fi
  d g

c d

q c
g



c d



c



d g
k

  i
  f f d p
o 
 c
d p   f c i

k







 f

 m o
  c f f k f d e e
d   o  i

  f f d p f pf



d e e
d  j f i   
 c d  q

k  


k


m

q

 g

c

c  



 i fg d 


d  i
g  fg

q



q



l

e d  c j fi e p fg

c

fk  d p d e c m

 g  c f 
k
j f m
m q
e   c

   c f  
 c
 d 
q
c d l
d    i
pd 


 c   q
c dl

  f f d p
k

c

fk  d p d e c m

g  k
 

d p g  c

l
 







 m






 

 

 

 










 fg 
k f   fg  
d 
q f c  fi



 c   j
q

g  c
 fi
 c d  d g
k

  i
   f f d p j f   d fp l
 
fg  
d 
 fg k f  d g 

o i

 c
    
q  m  c f  d g

c dg

d

g

o i

 
k
 j c
g 
do


 i i d j c



 g p c d e e
g

c
  
m  c   j
d c

k i  g k 

de

k
dg

  fi
 j  fg 
g  l
 

  i
  f f d p d  i   

 d  i
g  d  f g  j  c
d p   f c i

d p   f c i

i d
 d i  

dg

o c


   fi
 j  c


i    
 i fg d 
m

 d  i
g  d  f g  d g k   g  fg

  fi
m

] }

| _` a b g

 d p d p   f c i

q c fc

o c

fi e    d g 
p
i
g  

 o g
q  

f  d e d p
 o   pl fg i d g e   p
i  m

 g

q

f  c d 

f f

l


d i e p
f e   p
i

g

z fg

c

c  i
q   m
q f p p f l
d g   c

d i e p
c

m
 g  fk
  c
o pp q fg e   p
i j  


d 
  g g fg

d k d  fg 
 l f

dg k c

d
d 
 o i
g

d g k d 
  o q  i
g  m   fg d 
  f g d f
 
  d pf c q c fc i
g d 
  i e d  f p
q c fc

q c fc q  i
g m

    d  f   e d f  e d  i d g   i e d  f p
e d f   o i
g d g k q  i
g d  e    f p
j

 
     c
  g    d fg   c d 
d c i d g f e d f
k q f c d  i     g
q  i d g j d g k l f
l
  d m  
i d
 c d    i
i
g d 
g   e d f
k q f c
 c f e   p
i

f i  k
pp
k

fl fg d g

q c  

k

   g  f    o e d f 
e   p
i

f   g k

d i    g

k
o



d i e p

fg  fk
g   



e d
  fg

  e   c

 g k f
 
k

[ \ ^

} _ `

\ }

e   p
i j  c
g

de c


 c

q c  
l


c d
 c


 f

dg k

d

dg k

  i e d  f p
m  c

c d  o 
d c

 j  c

f

h m

de c

 c
k d  fg 
 l f
f p  d 
k  g


m  c
k
 f
k i d  c fg f  c
 g
 c d  c d   c
i d fi  i

c d  c
e  e


 c d  d pp f 
k
  o  i

 g k f
 
k

j  c d  f d   
  o
k


g  i
  o
k
 j d g k f  d pp
k d

 c

  p fg

j

d g q  i d g m

 g

  e

 c d  f  l
 



c

 c


 e  g  f  p
 m  c f e   p
i




dg

k fl fk
k

g
l
 q f c fg

f  d pp
k  c

fg   q 

   e j  g p
 

m

 

b
 p d fi  c d  fo   c d l
d g d p   f c i o     pl fg  c
g
 q  

 d g  
 c f d p   f c i

    pl
 c
i d fi  i

  
 c d   c f fk
d k 
 g   q   o 
g
 d p  g k f
 
k

 

q

fe d   f
i d  c fg e   p
i m

 d e c  m


 

  


 g   d

q

g
q  

 

 

 d  o pp q  m



 


  c
 d e d  f  o d pp
k
 fg  c f g
q    

d i e p



e d
  fg

 q j  i e  

c

q

 k

 fg 

d c l
 

fg

k
j d g k  fg 

d c

fg

c d 
d   p

l


fg

 m

q  g
q

l
f


dg k

p


 

 m

p c   c

fg

q



 

dg

q

c d

q 

d


dp

q   c

d p g d  i         fg

     fg
k
j f  d g

d p   f c i   m

k
g  
 c
i d fi  i

g
 d p f

q fpp  g p d   f g fg 

 l d p

 fg   i fg
k
j f  d g c d l

c d 
d   p

 fg   i fg
k
m  c   p
  fg

q





 p
   g d p   f c i

k
 d g k  c f f   
 o d pp
f  fg g
q  

 pd fi

dg k

   

h m

i d fi  i

g  i
 j  
l
c d c



    

q j q
dg



 



c dl

q

d p g d  i   

k
g
d i d  c fg

 c d   c f i d  c fg f i d fi  i
 d  
o 
l
 i d  c fg  c

f d    
 e  g k fg

 o
 d p l d p
j d g k o 
l


fg 

 

q

 c

f d i d  c fg  o
 d p l d p
m  c  

i d fi f fg  g
q
i d fi f
 c
  c
 m

; < = > ? @ <

 <

G w v E w =

 @ D < u

U  U   Q N R Z

JT M V V
[ \ ] ^ b

 c

e 

g 
k

` ] _

fg    k    f g



c de 


fg    
 j   f  f

fg

k f    
k

h m  c

i d 
fd p  g

fg 
  f g

c

a ] _` a b   k d q
i  l
  d g
g  f
p g
q

e d  d k f i

e   p
i  m   o d  q
c d l


g  c
k fl fk
d g k   g 
 e d  d k f i
    fg     k
 fg  j d g k o   d e c e   p
i  q
c d l


g 


g d e d 

n   p
i

f g  

m m

fg   pl fg  e  fi f d  f g

 
o p fg e   p
i  
pd 
k  

 dg k

 d g k 

k d p   f c i  m

g d i f e    d i i fg f  
k fg  e  fi f d  f g e   p
i  q c

q
d 
 e f d pp p  fg o  d

  p  f g

c d 
e 

g 


  o k
 f f g 

 c d  i fg fi f
  i

  fl
o  g   f g  m


m m
 c

d 


o 


 

d 

g 

fi e    d g 
p
i
g    

 o  e
 d  f g 

k g d i f  e    d i i fg

e   p
i  d 
 c d 

} \ b   p  f g   

c

 e  fi f d  f g

e   p
i 

dg


g

k q g

fg  

  e   p
i  m

o
g e   p
i   d g
 
g fg   
    fl
  e   p
i  d  fg k fl fk
d g k   g 
   
 g pf
k fl fk
d g k   g 
  c

f  o
g  l
 pd e
q

g

_`

_ \

 c
  e   p
i  m

} _ ] _} b   e   p
i  i   
  pl
k  e  fi d pp o   c

g  f
  p  f g



 e  fi d p m
}}

} ] } _ ` b  i e   d  f g f  e f  d pp e
 o   i
k fg d     i  e i d g g
    

  pl fg  i d pp
   e   p
i  j d g k  c
g

  i fg fg  c


 o i

  p  f g    pd 
  

e   p
i   m



` ]

~]

\ b

k
g  
 c
l d p
 o  c

 d   f
 d g d e  d 

i d fg
 c d  d   pd  
d  fg   d i  
 i
c

f
i j d g k p


dg k g k 

k
g  
 c
q
f c   o  c

 d e d  p
 o c  p k f g    d p q
f c 

c

f
i  m



f
i m  c
  pd 

m  c
  p d  q f  c
  

d

dq d c

i    l d p d p
  
 f
i   
     c
q
f c    g    d fg  m


 
d i e p
j d   pd  q   pk  d  c
  
d p k fd i  g k 
o 
 pk
 d  
 c
l d p
e
 e   g k

f
 
 m    c
q   pk  d  c
  
d p  pk
o 
p
d k o   c
 d i

d   g m
d    i
 c d   c

 


 

  


    

   

  pd   d g g    d
d o d   f g  o d g 
  j   c

 c
i    i d
d k
 f f g    d
 c

 

g  f
p

  p
d l
f
c fg k m

 c


f d l
  f g

 o  c
e   p
i

q c

c
  pd  d g

d

o  d   f  g  o d g 
  o   d o  d   f  g  o  c
l d p 
d g k q
f c  m  c f  f  i   c
d  f
     p l
m

 
o  i d pp j fl
g
c
 






dg k

 o 
    

d

j dg k

 j q
q f c



k

 i fg





  c d  i d fi f



 



   d i
c d c

 j

 dg k

d 
d pp e   f fl
fg 

  m

    g      c d   c f e   p
i

f  n   i e p

j d g k   q
 d g g   
d pp c  e
  g k d g
 f
g    p  f g m
 c
 d i
     o d    i e  f g  c d  q
i d k
fg    g  fg     j q
 d g

 q
l
 fo q
i d

  i
 e q f c

d g
 f
g 

  p  f g m

d i
c d c

c d
d

 c f e   p
i

pd 

fg 

 m

dg
  

 d 
 i d pp fg 

  j d g k

  pl
k

fo q

fg

 g d

  

c d

  fi
m

f 
po f

  

g  i
 

 i d pp fg 

 m

 c d   c f f g  

l


p q
 e 
 f f g j  c f

  k

fl


c q

fo

f


d   g d p

d e e   f i d  f  g d p   f  c i m




f

dg k





dd

c q


q


j  c
g

  pl

j c

c

e   p
i m

 

 

 

g 

c
dd
g 

 

 

q  d 


\ ]

 o  

\}

 fg 
fo q
c d l
g  f
i   c
g



 m

 

  
  o 
  

  i e  
d pp  c

g   f
  o  c f
l d p
 o d pp


 c d dg

q
c d l
g  l d p
m
  g  fk


\}

   

e    f p

o q

q d

 

c


d




j c
g

c

 
 

 g p

 
 




  g       fg  c
d   d

 c

i d fg fg 
  

m

d

q f c

e    f p
fo

j  c
g  c
 e  fi d p l d p
q fpp   i
d   

 f c
q

  pp d g d e  d   o  f


 d e d  f  m  f  c  c

i d f g f g 

 fg 

o q
c   
 g   d



  g  f k
 f g  c  q

o q
dg

q fpp   g  d fg  c
i d fi  i



l d p
 o d g

 c f f   
]  \

 

dd

 q
q fpp fi e p d g fg k    fl
d e e   d c m  d d  f j  
 l

    i e  
 c

g   f
  o  c
d   d

 

dg

 c
i d fi  i

 c d   d g  f g   d  g d e  d   o q
f c   m

 fg    c

g  f
g d e  d   o q
f c 

c d

 g  

q
q fpp    

q 

d fg


m

e    f fpf f
 j q

   

i d 

 

 c
   pfg
  d 
  c d  fo  c


 c f f

dg

dg k 



d

  c dl

 
k



 

 

   

d
g  
 j c
g

 


 m

 

c d



   

q

c dl

dg k 

   

d l d p
 o

 e


m

o   

 d e d  f fg  c
g d e  d  j q
 d g pp f fg  c

 

 

 m  c
dg
 g


q




 


 

c



fo

fo



 c f

o pp q fg

f

 g p

  p

o 

 m

 
 




 c

f g  l d p
j f 
 e
  fl
 o  m  c


  g k pfg
fi e p
i
g    c
  p
d  l
m
 f l

d     d
 c

  p
 d g e   k  
d g d p   f c i

 c d    i e  
  c
i d fi  i

o   c
g d e  d  fg  fi
e   e    f g d p    c
 f
 o  c
d   d j q c fc

 m  c
d p   f c i

f fl
g
p q m

 

f





l d p




 

  


!  #   $
 #    $


& 
, ,     + #    $ #   
$     

#
 $     
   
    
 
,++
, 
# 
 $   !
  # $ &
   +
  ,   # $ 
# 
   # $ $ +,+
  +
 ,       #
 $     !, +   +
  ,
   +
  , & .
.
+'
#

$ -

 (

    

   

   



   ,   

 

  ,  ,' +   + ,+ + 
+ ' * (       + 
  ,  ,' +   +   + 

 

 
 

        + 
   ,   ,' + 

 
 

  

.
g


d i e p
f  c  q g

 

fg  c
 

p q m  c
g d p    e   f

    c

p
  f g  o f
i   d g k  j  o l d p


d p
  o  c

   d 



f c    o  c

   d 

 

 dg k

z 

 

 



j 
 e
  fl
p d g k q
f c   




z

d p

f c 















z 

d e d  f

i

 

fg d p 
  p f

f  



 m  c f
z

 m






 o    d fg f
i   d g k   m

 

g d e d 

d i e p
m

 c
 g p i f  fg k
 d fp f q c d  f
i   c   pk q

p
    d c f
l
 c
i d fi  i m
q fpp p
d l

 c f

d

dg

  f
m

   c f
g  

 c

 d fg


  g        c
 e  fi  i

; < = > ? @ <

JT M V V

c

f
c


f
i

g d e  d 

x ? E < >


 k
 

o 

d c

p
d l fg

g 

f m

f c

 

 

 c f 

fg

c

i d   f

q c
c


q

fg o  i d  f g j f f e    f p



 g 
g  m

x ? u

U  U   Q N R Z

[ \ ] ^ b c d e  z m mz d g k z m m m

~\ }

b  c
 
  i

d g k d
 c f

e   p
i

e   p
i

e   p
i

j q
q dg   g q
f

 fi e pf  d  f g

 c
l d p
 o d g

f
i

 c

  e    f p
  p  f g

f  c
o pp q fg m

fl
g

d g f



q c
 c
  c


f   d   

o

c

g d e d 

e   p
i m

f
 d p   f  q
f c  m

 d c

  e e  

f
i

 o e   f fl
g  i
  j

q c fc   i 
d   p  
c d

f q    c

f  
d   p pp  c
g d e  d  j  c d  f j f  c


q c  
   d p q
f c    i     c
g d e  d   d e d  f

 

 

fg

c

g d e d 

f  q
f c  fg

 pk



d  
 o 



 

  


d i e p

 c
d g  q
 f
 m



 z

z 
dg k

 c
 


    


 i  

 

  fi
j    c f f g   d e  p g  i fd p o g   f g  o  c
fg e    f
m

d  i
c d 
d c
fg e   f

 p

c
 
  i


g  i
 f p
 
m

e   p
i

] _ b   
  i

c
 i
 

l


fl
g

f 
e 

g 
k

fg
p

dg k

j  c

  f  d 
f  c
  


c d  g 

e d   f   p d  j fo q

 j c
g

c

m
q fpp  c  q

g d e  d  e   p
i

 f

o c

fg o d    c d 

f  n c d  k  m

g e  p g  i fd p  fi
q
 d g   i e  

j d g k l
 fo  c d  f
 d p

m
 c d  i d e  d g fg   d g 
 o  c

 d g k fg 

     d g fg   d g 
 o  c
 c
  
   i e   p
i

 l
 d d e c

d

   f  n   i e p

m

d g k  d 
 fg 



c d  d   
   i i fg  

q

dg k

b
q d g  d e  p g  i fd p  fi
  i e   d p
o g   f g

q   pk l




c dg

f
e  g
g  fd pp pd 
  c d g

f  n   i e p

fi e p fg  c d   c

 o
p
i
g   fg

 o fg 

 

q
l
 j

j 

 c
d g  q
 f g  m

 c  q
k  c d   c

f d g k g d i f e    d i i fg   p  f g    c
g d e  d  e   p
i
fg

   

  c




 c d  d l
 
  l
  o  f
 fo d g k  g p fo

c d

m  c   j fo   
   i

q

  pl d p
fg

e  p g  i fd p  fi
j  

l
 m

 d g q

g   k
 c
g   f g  o 
p
  fg d   
  o l
  f
  c d    l
 d pp  c

k
  

 c d   o 
p
  fg d   
  o g  i
   c d    i   

p
  fg

l
  f
 j d g k fg

c
 
  i

p f d p  c d   c

k    f g

c   pk

e   p
i

g c
l


q
d 

p
  fg

  l
 e   p
i
g  i
 j 

i d e l
  f
 fg   g  i
  m  c

q
d

f 

i 

  g    d fg   c d   c


l
  f
  c   pk   l
 d pp  c

k
 i   
i d e e
k    c
  g    d fg   c d   c
  i

o c

g  i
   c   pk
 d p  c
 d 
 l d p
m



f d g fk
d j q c fc

c

k
 o c
de c
c
 c

f f 
  

l
  j o i
fg q c fc

k 
 g   q   j   fl
 d 
g 
 o c  q
 c   c

 fo d g k  g p fo  c

k

c
q  o dg

v1
v2
v3
v4
v5
v6
v7

v5

e1

e3

e7

e4

v4
e8

v3


f fg  fk
g    l
 

f  



m  c   j  c

f

v2

v3 v v4

  l
 d g k fg  f k
g 
i d   f m

  q j  e e  
q
d
d g  
  o l
f
 d g k o i
f l
     m

f   g  i


e1 e2 e3 e4 e5 e6 e7 e8

v6
e5

v2

d  d f l
    j q c


 o    c
 d e c m g
d i e p
f  c  q g
p q j

e6

e2

 e  

k m

l


z m

v7
v1

m  c
g 
e 

g 
d c

 c
p f  d p    o  c
   
 e  g k fg

o  c
  
 f d l
 
  l
 j  c
g
l

k
q fpp
  l

k d  p
d    g

 o  c

l
  f 
 j d g k    c
p  f  d p   q f p p
d f  l
     o d p p   j    
fo  c
p f  d p   f d f l
     o
fi e p fg  c d   c
l
  f
 o  i
o d    c d   c

 g p d pp q
k

  j  c
g

d l


d c

l
 m 

k

c d

g

l

k



 m  g l
 
p j

d 
 q
q fpp   g  fk
 c  q

 i
l

j

g  k
c

l
  f 
 f g  c
  l
 m

 fg 
f l
      d g
 c   c   o d     d q d  o 
e 

g  fg g  i
  fg fg d  j  c f
f   d   fg

  o

p i  
pf
 c

 
  i

 z

e   p
i m

 c

d 
 q   pk

c

g  i



 

  


    

   

q c  
f  l
    f  d p p   m  c
e   p
i  d 
 c d  p  f  d p   f  g    c
 d i
d  d k k f  f  g
d g k q
c d l
g  q d  o   g    ppfg c  q

i d g l
  f
  fg    c
l
 
  l
 m
q   pk

pf
 c
d k k f f g e   
     fi  p d 
 c f p f  d p   
k    f g m
 c

d 
 q  q d  fg q c f  c d k k f f g k f
   f g f  d g  p o   i
f  
 o  d   f
 m

 
d i e p
j  c
   

   

p f  d p   m  c
   f  c

    j   fg fg d 

   c f j q

  g f
 c d  q
k  g   c d l
   
d fg d 
od  j q
dg d i
dg d
 
i
i d   f c d  d  i     q 

  f g

d



c

d g   p i g j
 d  

d c

g
 e   f f g m

od  q

q fpp  
d 

  
c d c
d
o c
g  i
  
i
c
g  i
 c dl


g

   

   m
g

q
q d g  m 
 l
 c d 
d c   p i g  o  c
fg  fk
g 


k
f fg  fk
g    d  i    q 

l
  f 
 m  c   j fo  
d g d 
 c d  f d  p
d   d  p d 
d  d 

d

  

 d 
  
e 

g  d  f g m

o i
k j c

f    o   q g

q fpp

 g l

k

z j q
q fpp g
l

g
 d 

o   
d   g   



g

p q  m

  g l
g f
g 
 o g   d  f g m g 

fg   q c d 
l
 o  i

   i d c fg

d    i
 o   f   f g e   
e 

g  d  f  g j
m m k
 f i d p m
 c

  g k e   p
i
l


f  c d  d g
k
i d
g
 d pp
  l

k
f c
  g 
  q f
fg  c

  l
 fo  g
    c

 o f 
g k e  fg   f fg

g  i
  q fpp
d g  i
   g  f  fg  o
e   l fk
  q f c
c   pk

d  g f 
 d 
 l d p

d
 m

c d  q
q fpp k 

q fpp
 o  c
o  i
q fpp

c

  g  f  fg

 

c

l
m

 k f f   j
m m

q
l
 j q
g q

q fpp
 


d

  j c
g dp  i
  

dg k

  



  j d g k

 d p p    m

c
g

q

 i

  

  m



o c


 c f k 
 g  

 c d  g  k f f  o    g  i


            c d  f j f q fpp c d l
d  fg p

g  i
    
o

 dg k

l


 m

d c

 k f f fg

l
 q

q fpp   e e p
i
g   c f

pd 

f  m

q fpp


d k k fg

fg

g  i


  d

d

g  i


g   c

pd 

l d p 
     g l
  d p p  c
      m
 c

f  g
pd   f  
m
d 
 g p
q fpp c d g k p
 c f d k k fg d g
  p i g m

 
d c

  p i g   i

k f f  m

 c


d

k f f  o
f

   c
l d p

pd 

f



c

l d p


 fo
k





l
 m  c   j  o i



 c
k
 f
k   i j

f
 d p d  o pp q
k

l


f d  o pp q
k




dg k

l


d


  c
 q f
m

d


k f f  m




 c

c

 c
d 
 g  i
 q c  
   k f f 

fg d pp p


k f f  d 
d pp  m    
 c d  fo

 fg  c f

l d p
 m

fg  fk
g   

j q c


d pp   c
  d 
 m

d g k q c  

i d fg fg

f

l
 m

q
q fpp e   d

 d g k fg 

  q
 
d 
d 
 f
  o

fl
g d  d e c

l


 c
 d 
 j q
q fpp 
 f
 c d   c f

  fg d 
 g   d  f g m  c
l d p

k f f f

 dg k

c
l


l
  f
 fg  c
l
 

 
d c

j  c
 f
 o  c
l
 

l d p
 o  i


f  c
g d p 
k    f g m

l d p
 j

 pd  l d  fd p
q
q fpp e   d  m

q
i d  g p 
p
 

d pp q
k   e pd 

d k k f f g d p   p i g m

 

z c
g

 c
   k f f f g  

d p
d p d 
 l d p
m
 d g p
  c f i     f g f  d g  k f f
d  p d 
d  q
pf
j
 d  

f

dg g  

dl


fg  

g   d  f g m   e    c



dg

 c


e   f  f  g  m



 g l
 c



dg k

   /

dg k



k
 fi d p

m 
 l
 c d  d pp  o  c f  d g

k  g
fg e  p g  i fd p  fi
m  c f f fpp    d 
k
p q m

 pd fi
o

c d

 c d  d l
 
  l
  o  f
 fo d g k  g p fo  c d  d   
  c d    i   

l
f
  o c

l
 j dg k

 
 c d  i  

f i    
p
 
d   p

 c d  d l
 
  l
  o  f
 j  c
g q
 d
 c
l
 
l d p
      
 e  g k fg    c

 m  c

q fpp o  i


d c
 f q    c

d i
g  d g

d

 g l
 
p j fo

l d p
 o  i

d l


d    d p  o  fg
d c

f

d

p
d  

d

c
l


c
g

m  

c d d

q
d
 c d

l d p
  fg 
 c
   k f f i      i



  p i g m

pd 

k g d i f  e    d i i fg   p  f g

 pd  l d p
   o  i

  l
 j  fg 
g    p i g 
k
  d g
 g   l

k fo q
d 
 

g   fg  c d  fg  c f 
k    f g j q
g

k
k

 d 
 l d p

q f c

c d d  
 c d  i  

d


j    

f g   e  p g  i fd p  fi
m



 c dl
pd 
g  i
 m

d    i fg

i  

k


d p   f c i

c dg

q   pk   g fg

 
d i e p
j  c

l
f
 m
 

  

  fi
j q c fc


 

  


    

e1 e2 e3 e4 e5 e6 e7 e8
x1
x2
x3
x4
x5
x6
x7
y1
y2
y3
y4
y5
y6
y7
y8

Vertex values
(take those in vertex cover)

Slack values
(take any to reach target)

vertex cover size



f  



l
   
  i




k    f g m

   


 

  


 B

; < = > ? @ <

x ? E < >

s v v @ D  Iu

x ? u

    

   

w > ID G

U  U   Q N R Z

JT M V V

[ \ ] ^ b 
  f g

 

 ` _] 

m m

_ ] } _ `

| \ \ ~ b

d    fi
q
 d q

f f e    f p
  d e e   fi d 
 c
e   p
i
c

d e e   fi d  f g d p   f c i

  p  f g m

e  k  


dg

d g  q
  c d  f q f c fg

d p   f c i j d g k 
 f fg  c d   c
d p   f c i
o c

d p   f c i

 e  fi d p   p  f g m

q fpp fg  
d 
m   c

dg

 
d i e p
j  c
  g g fg

fg   c

e  k  
d 

q c fc


  j c

 g

c



 e  fi d p

f  g k
     k
d p   f c i

 fi
 o  c

 d  e d    o  c
fg e      c
d e e   fi d  f g

e  k  
dg
c d

d


g k  

 j c

f  d pp
k d 

d p   f c i

  

 

  g g fg

 g dg 

i f c 

  

od   q   pk


n
g  f  i m

 fi
f e  p g  i fd p fg

 q   pk  d  fo  c f   g k f f g m

 c






  g g fg

m

g  c

dg k

 fi
 o  c



 f
d 





c d

m   
d i e p
j  

q c fc q   pk
d    g k   d k  fppf g

d g  q
  c d  f q f c fg

 d 
  c
 
 e d  d f e
g d p fg   g g fg  fi
d  d o g   f g  o


g    f


 
d i e p
j

d od   o  o c

 q
l
 j fg e  d   f
j e
 e p
q   pk pf
   c
  g    p  c
e 
 f f g  o  c
d e e   fi d

 f g m  c f f k  g
 e
 fo fg d e d  d i



o

 c d  o    i
 n   i e p

e   p
i  j

  q f c fg d
k   g   d g   d  f   g k m



 
d i e p
j d

f

 g

fg

  g g fg

 fi

o

 d 
 j 
d   g d p d     d 
d e e   fi d  f g  d 

  i e   d  f g d pp o
d  f p
m
 g o    g d 
p j  c

d 
l
 o
q
c
i
 m

o d   j 

g  p

 n   i e p

e   p
i  q f c o pp e  p g  i fd p d e e   fi d  f g

c


c d

g

 g

l fk
g 

 c d  i d g  n   i e p

e   p
i 

k  g   c d l
e  p g  i f d p d e e   fi d  f g   c
i
 o  pp     c
 q f
 m   k d q
q fpp    k  g

c d k 
 m

~\ }

b h
 d pp  c d 



dg k

fg

c

 


 i

d  d 
 l d p

 c d    i 
d   p  

q

d

fl
g




o

e   f fl

f d 

f d  f    i d g e d  fg e   p
i  j d g k f fg k f
  p 
p d 
k   e   
      c
k  p

k
g  
 c
 e  fi  i

f   k

 i fg
 c
  
 q c  
  i

fg e   p
i   c d  d  f
fg  e
 d  fg   
i  d  q
pp m   e e  
q
d 
d p  fl
g 

fg 

 

q
d 
d 
k q c
 c
  c


f   d   


m  c
 e  fi f d  f g e   p
i

pd 
d  e    f p
  g   pd 
  c d g
 c f e   p
i

e   p
i

j dg k

  i m  c
d e e   fi d  f g e   p
i

f   
   g

d l d p

 m


 c

c d

  



o q
 c fg  o  c f d  d g d e  d  e   p
i j q
q d g     g d e  d   
q f c fg d o d      o  
 o
fg d  o  pp d  e    f p
m   j fo

 c

  e    f p
m

  j c
g

c d  k  q
i
d g e  p g  i fd p  fi
c


fg  c
 f
 o  c
fg e   p
g  c m l f   p



 c
g d e  d   c   pk
d  p
d  

d  o pp d 

h
 d pp  c d   c
  g g fg  fi
 c   pk
e  p g  i fd p
f e d    o  c
fg e   p
g  c m   

dg k c
g  i


   pk d p 
c 
fg d  g  i
  m    i d pp q
   d    i
 c d  d fg d  g  i
  d g 

fg   d q   k  o      i e  
 j d g k k  g      g   c
f p
g  c m
 d o
 fk
m p
d  p


p

g   f fl
p


 f


p

f f g   c d  k

pp  c
g d e  d 





q f c fg

pf
l

c d q
dg
dg

e  fg  m

g   g

  d  fp
d  k

 c



l d p

o


d p pfo
m

d

d pf  p

 c d  f  c   pk

e    f p

 o  e  fi d p m o
 d pp j q

e d  fg e   p
i  d pp  c
 fi
fg
e   p
i  d 

g  c f  d 
q
q fpp  
 g  c

 k f f   
   
fg  c
fg e   m
q fpp  d
 c
fg e    f


pp




   c

  g l
  fg  

 p e e

fg

    c q



k

 i fg



q c
c


e fg

d p   f c i  m

d 
q

dg

 

d e e p

  fg   f f g

 o
d   p o pp  c


m

q

dg

  pl fg  fi fpd        o

i
g  d p c
  f  f   c d  q

 f
g 

 p e e



d
 
k



g d e d 

d e e   fi d  f g

c



pp  
f d 

q fpp k 


 

  


  i
 c fg  fi fpd  m

f   q
  g  fk
 d g

    

e  g
g  fd p  fi
d p   f c i j d g k  c
g

   

  g l
  f fg  

d g d e e   fi d  f g d p   f c i m



` \ ` } _] 

_ \

a _} | b  c f d p   f c i

f d l d  fd  f g  o  c
k g d i f e    d i i fg   p

 f g q
d l
o   c
g d e  d  e   p
i m h
 d pp  c d   c

q
 
k

dg

 k fi
g  f g d p d   d

e   d   o q c
 c
 q
   pk pp d g d e  d   o d fl
g  d e d  f q f c  c
  

 o q c f  c

q fpp k    i
 c fg  fi fpd  c

m 
o 
j q
q fpp   g 
g   d 
 g  c

  f g




 m

 i 

d 
e    f p
j   k

 i fg fg  c
  
   c d  fl
 c

  i  q fpp g  
c d  k m



k
g  

pf 

 o fg 

 

c d

  g  d fg 

fg  p k fg  c

i e  
 q c  
  i

f   m

pf   o   i    g  d fg 

dg

c dl

d i dg

d 



c

d pp 

 


 
d i e p
j o   c





 i  o

p
i
g   j   i d

  

  

c d l
o
q
 j  fg 

o





 c
   
 e  g k fg


 m   
c d

 i
 


i d c dl
c

di
 i m
 c




d

j dg k

q 

 

e  
k  

 c fg 

 g p

 

q

e

 

q fpp q d g 

 i 

c d

  



d

k 

o 

p
 

 f
g  m

c dg

 

 dp



h
i l





dg

 

k  e pf d 


 e e  

c d

o i
q

q c fc i

 q     
k pf   j d g k 
   g  d    
k pf   q f c

d pp k  e pf d 
 
i  l
k m  c f f
 
g  fd pp  c
e   
k  
 
k fg


      q f c  c
d k k
k
k  e pf d 

p
i
g  
  m  d f  o g   d  f g j p


g  i




l


p
i
g   o pf 

e  
k  
o  c
 
  i

 c  

e   p
i m

k
g  
 c
pf  
  p fg

  

o pp q fg

 


d k k fg  c

 c f fl
  c

 




! #

  $
 & 
 %
  
   
 
+   +      !
   # $ &  +  +    ,, +,+ +    + + *   .
 +'  ,   +  + , + +    -

 
d i e p
j fo




pd   pf  q   pk

 c
d p   f c i

 




_ ] } _ `
  fi

  g  fg

dg k

 c
g  c
   
  fl
pf   q   pk



p
i
g  






dg k

k

d



 

c
g d p d g q
 q   pk

d e e   fi d  f g d p   f c i j q
q fpp fg    k  

 c
f  f
 m  c
f k
d f  c d  fo  c
pf 

dg k

  j c
g

  g  d fg  q  g  i
 

q
c   pk g   g

k 

e

f   k
g   c o  o   
d e e   fi d  f g  m  c f

q fpp 
k  
 c
 f
 o  c
pf    c d   c
d p   f c i

g

k    i d fg  d fg m    j c  q

d g k   fpp

e    d e e   fi d  f g   g k

i   c   fi i fg

   c
 i  
j q fpp q

d p
  
k  


  f g  f
 j e   l fk
k  

d e e p d e   e
 q d  o   fi i fg  c

e  g
g  fd p   e  p g  i fd p

 c
dg q
   c c


pf   m
q fpp   fi

d 
g  k  e pf d 
 j d g k g  f
i  d 

i  l
k m

 p  
   g
d g   c
 j
m m

 c
pf   f
 o  i

  fi
fg  c
q      d 
j
 d  
 c f f  c
g  i
  o   i   c d 

  c  o  c

g  i
  fg  c
pf  m g
 o  c
i

 d g q
d pp q

  
i l
k j dg k

a _} | b     g l
   c f fg   d g

 c
pf    

c d d
l


c dl
c

d 

g
 d 
k fo  c


 c

p
i
g   q c  
l d p
 d 
   f
g  p



 p 
 
d c

 c
 m

   q
c   pk


 

  


k
g

 p 

fg

i dg g
 c d

i    d p  k
e
g k  g

f 
pd  fl

m

p
 



i d

l
  c f g q      f g  c

g k m

 f
  o  c



 c
g

p
i
g   
  g  fk

k m

q

  fi

o i

c

pf  m

 c

dg k

e  g
g  fd pp


  

c
g



 

 f
m

 





 



 

 





 

q c


c d

c

g d p   fi i
k

pf 

dg g  

 

 z

c dl

d  d q d  o
g o   fg

i  

c

c dg

 g

m



f
i

 z

  
  m

 c
fg 
 l d p o  i


 


  

  


dg g  

j d g k p


fg  c
pf  m

 

 c   j q

 

l f  d pf
  fi i fg f   
d

fg  
d  fg

           

i
dg 

g  c
 q d 

q fpp   g  f   o

 m    i
 c d   c

p
i
g    o

  d g k fl
g  c
pf 

 c
  fi i
k pf 

 fl d p
g  p j  c f

d  

 
d i e p
j fl
g

  fi i fg

c d


 d g  c fg  o

 c

  g  d fg q  l d p

fg l  pl
k m

k
g  
 c
pd    g   fi i
k
p
i
g  fg

 
c
g

g  i


   

q fpp 

pd 
  c d   c f f  c
l d p
 c d 

  
c d 

d 
   
k m
q d p  c    c  c
pf  m

 

c

m  c



    

c d

q f c fg

  g k f f g  c d  f
i  fg

d

d c

fg

fg  

d 
 o

 g fk


c
di

c

fg 
 l d p

   o
fg 
 l d p

  

 

 
 m

dg

 c fg

 o   fi i fg

   pf   d 
g   
pd  fl
p   

 p 
 

 g

d g   c
 j
g o   fg  c
  g k f f g  c d  g   
 c d  i  
 c d g  g
f
i m

1 2

16

L
L


f  

  fi i fg

f   o  e e   fi d 
  
   i m

] _ b  c
g  i
  o k f  fg   f
i  fg
fg fg e    f
d g k

b
g q

d  p
d  



c d 
d c




c

c

 m

  fi i
k pf 




c
od  c d



 m

 c   j c

k f


p
i
g  f d  p
d   d  pd 
d 

 

k
g  



 j q c fc f e  p g  i fd p

d  d  f



d   fi i
k pf  k f
 d  d  f  o

 c
g  i
  o
p
i
g   fg
 i d pp
  g  g
 


 

 o d  p
d  

 fg 

fk
 q
c dl


d g k  c
p fk
g  f  c d  pg  

 

pg

pg


p



pg  
pg

pg

pg




c

l d p
d g k
c

 j d g k  c
pd 
  f g  pd 
  c d g

 d fg  c
g d    d p p  o   c


  p

e d f  o   g 
   fl

p
i
g   fg



f g   fg  c

p
i
g   o l d p

fg

d   fi i
k pf  f

l d p

 i d pp
  g  g
  

j c
g

  fi i
k pf  j

i d fi  i

  pg

j q
c dl

f o pp q   c d 

pg

  fg


 

  



l

 c d   c
fg e    f

p
d   d  pd 
d  p

f d  p
d   d  pd 
d 

 fg 
f  d
 p

o g   f g f e  p g  i fd p fg  c
fg e    f
d g k
 c
d e e   fi d  f g d p   f c i

 fg 
 c


k f f    q  f
k  q g


d

    

g  i
 dg k



 e
 d 
 d 
o 
j   fg

  
 

d k k f f g q
 d pp  c
e   
k  

  

 

 

d

 g  c
fg e    m  c   j  c f

fl
g
p q m

   !
 + ,   & 
,+ * + +,+ +     +  +  + #
   % # $
,  # $        
  !,    % !   + ,   & # $ & 
 ( ( +   # $   +       ,     # $ .
.
.

   




$ -

 

   *     +
,  +   +  +

 

  + +  + ' * 

 

" ( (   
!  #   $

+ (  & 
 +,   +(    ( (         
  %
  + (  '   
  
   
 
+   +      !
   # $ &        +    +
     !
 + ,   &         ) +   )  ' ( ,     + 
 +  +    ,, +,+ +    + + *   .
 +'  ,   +  + , + +    .


 
d i e p
j   g  fk





  m

c





 

  

 
dg k


f d   i i d   o  c
d p   f c i

i







i l



i


 



 

 


i l

 

 

i


 

  

 

z z

 

  

z  z

 

  

z  z

  fi

  fi

  fi

i l





z 



   f g m

fg f



 

dg k

   m

c dl


 

  


i


  fi

i l

 

 

  

 z

 

  

z  

 

  

z  

 c
g d p    e   f z   m  c
 e  fi  i
fg  c f  d 
f q f c fg 

 

_ ] } _ `

d i  
p


 e  fi  i

  p  f g m

k
g  
 c
l d p

   g
k

 i d pp
  c d g



f q c



 



 dg k

d p   f c i m  fg 
 c
d p   f c i




  c

d  pf
  pd fi m

d c f
l


 e  fi  i

dg


pd  fl

   

pd 
     
   i

c d

o

dg k

f g      i  c

 c

d c


d p d g d p  f m


dp g  i
 j

h
 d pp  c d     fg   f f g q d   c d  q
q   pk d pp q

pg

 c
d p   f c i m
q d g     c  q

f

c d



j  c d  f j



   m      d    d p 
pd  fl

   

d p   f c i
c

  e    o q fpp i d
 
 o d g fi e    d g  fg
 d pf o  i
\ ] b

c

k
g  

 

   q c f  c f 

` ]  ~ _ ~ b  c
g d p 
  f g

l
 c

z  z

   

 c
  g g fg  fi
 o  c
e   
k  
f

f z 

z  

    

d 
pd  fl

     o

d 
d c



d
o c

  d
 j  c
g  c
   d p 
pd  fl

     c   pk
 l f   p

c d c


d


pd  fl
j g  

d   p 

  m

 c


 





g  

k
g  
c

c

d    i  pd 
d k k f fl
p j    d  c
 i  p fe pf d  f g m   q
g

k  
i  
 d 
o p m



k
g  
c

 c pf  fg  c

e  g
g  fd p  fi
 e  fi d p   p  f g d g k p


p f   f g  c
d e e   f i d 
d p   f  c i m
 p d f i
f
i

q c  

pd  fl

    o  i

 c

e  o

o c

 pd fi

f





fg k    f g

 g



m
g q

c d

g f fd pp

 

q fpp
g
 d 
q 
p
i
g   fg

  d  
 c d   c

q fpp
d 
e 

g  d  fl
 c d  f

 p 

c
g

m

q

d e e p

  

d p   f c i j q


 l
 c d  d k k fg


 c
f
i 

dg k









q fpp o  i





q 

 

i f c  g   d e e
d  fg



g
q

j dg k
fg

dg k





c


f

g 

m  g fk
 d g

m

q dg 

 o  c

f
i  m

fg



 c

c d

f
i   

d k k

fg f fd pp   

dg k

   c
fg
 d pf d  l
d g k d pf  p
 fi e pf  d  f g q



 c
f 
 e
  fl

e 

g  d  fl
 m  c   j




d c

    fg k    f g c e   c
 f j  c

f d 
e 

g  d  fl

p
i
g 


    m   e e  
f g k    f  g  c d   c
d  l

  d  f  g c  p k  o  
d  c f 
i

p
i
g 

 c


f    d 
e 

g  d  f l

 c d   d  f




c d  o 
d c










dg k




z 






 d  
 c
i d
  fi i
k m

 


d 

p
i
g    o


 







m
c dl





dg k

 


 

  


    

   

z y
L*i-1
L i-1
L*i
Li

f  

y+xi
z y z
z+xi
z


  
  i

d e e   fi d  f g d g d p  f m

 i fg fg  c

q f c  c
fg
 d pf f
 d  l
q
c d l



 fg 

dg k

 





d 
fg















 





 





 c
 e  fi  i





 

d g  q
  f  c
pd 
 
p
i
g   o

 c
d e e   fi d 
d g  q
  f  c
pd 
 
p
i
g   o






 c
p
i i d d  l

  fg



 

 c f   i e p

  c
d e e   fi d 
d g d p  f m

z 

 c d

dg k

c d 

q
c dl

 c f f g    f
q c d  q
q d g 
k m
q d g 
k    c  q
e  o j q
 
l
o i



 c f f  c
k
 f
k 
  p m  c f
g k   c
e    o  o  c
 pd fi m

  fg     pd fi j d g k  c
o d    c d 

m     i e p

 c