Waste Management 33 (2013) 21472156

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Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Review and prospect of emerging contaminants in waste Key issues and challenges linked to their presence in waste treatment schemes: General aspects and focus on nanoparticles
M.-A. Marcoux a,, M. Matias a,b, F. Olivier a, G. Keck c
a b c

ECOGEOS 5, rue du Jeu-de-Paume, 62000 Arras, France Universit de Lyon INSA de Lyon, EVS, UMR 5600 1, rue des humanits, 69621 Villeurbanne, France RECORD, Campus LyonTech La Doua, 66, boulevard Niels Bohr CEI 1, CS 52132, 69603 Villeurbanne Cedex, France

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
The presence in waste of emerging pollutants (EPs), whose behaviours and effects are not well understood, may present unexpected health and environmental risks and risks for the treatment processes themselves. EP may include substances that are newly detected in the environment, substances already identied as risky and whose use in items is prohibited (but which may be present in old or imported product waste) or substances already known but whose recent use in products can cause problems during their future treatment as waste. Several scientic studies have been conducted to assess the presence of EP in waste, but they are mostly dedicated to a single category of substance or one particular waste treatment. In the absence of a comprehensive review focused on the impact of the presence of EP on waste treatment schemes, the authors present a review of the key issues associated with the treatment of waste containing emerging pollutants. This review presents the typologies of emerging pollutants that are potentially present in waste along with the major challenges for each treatment scheme (recycling, composting, digestion, incineration, landlling and wastewater treatment). All conventional treatment processes are affected by these new pollutants, and they were almost never originally designed to consider these substances. In addition to these general aspects, a comprehensive review of available data, projects and future R&D needs related to the impact of nanoparticles on waste treatment is presented as a case study. 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Article history: Received 18 December 2012 Accepted 24 June 2013 Available online 17 July 2013 Keywords: Waste Emerging pollutant Landlling Recycling Incineration Composting Anaerobic digestion WWTP Nanowaste

1. Introduction Evolution in the patterns of production and consumption has led to the presence in end-of-life products, and therefore in waste, of new substances that may engender sanitary and environmental risks and act differently from previously known substances. Indeed, the majority of monitoring programs are currently based on regulated substances that are either persistent, bioaccumulative and/or inherently toxic. Currently, questions exist about the potential impacts of emerging pollutants, which are substances that are not necessarily new to the market but are currently not regulated and may cause environmental hazards. These substances can be detected in the environment but are not yet included in monitoring programs, and their behaviour, fate and (eco) toxicological effects are not well understood. There is no overall denition of those emerging pollutants and no exhaustive list of compounds con Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 6 28 35 92 93.
E-mail addresses: marie.marcoux@ecogeos.fr (M.-A. Marcoux), marta.matias@ ecogeos.fr, contact@ecogeos.fr (M. Matias), contact@ecogeos.fr (F. Olivier), contact@ record-net.org (G. Keck). 0956-053X/$ - see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2013.06.022

tained within this term. Moreover, the notion of the emerging pollutant must be dened according to the target media. In the specic case of waste, current waste treatment schemes (recycling, anaerobic digestion, composting, landlling, incineration and wastewater treatment) were not designed with prior intent to consider these substances. Consequently, such substances can present unexpected sanitary and environmental risks (risks to waste industry workers or risks of release to the environment) or risks to the treatment processes themselves (risks of inhibition or interference with the processes). Considering this, the French IndustryUniversity Cooperative Research Network on Waste (RECORD www.record-net.org) decided to lead a detailed study on new pollutants that can be found in waste focusing on the various steps of their treatment or recovery (Fig. 1). The purpose of the study was to provide answers regarding the presence of new pollutants within waste, their impact on waste management and the risks that they may generate for human health and the environment. The RECORD study was initially based on an analysis of previously documented situations; from a pre-established list of categories of substances, the researchers performed a literature review

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Waste Substance
Transfer scheme

Substance Treatment scheme and/or transformation products Biological Transformation Incineration Landfilling Recycling treatment

Treatment residues Substance and/or Transformation products

WWTP

General information Type of related waste

Diffuse emission or specific collection ? Associated risks

Efficiency of classical waste treatment ? Specific treatment required ? Risks for treatment devices and processes ? Risks for waste workers ?

Fig. 1. Outcome of emerging pollutants in waste collection and treatment processes.

and interviewed experts to assess the available information and the level of knowledge about the presence of these new contaminants in waste. The approach of the study was based on a search by substance and not by type of waste or treatment process. Indeed, a search by waste type requires knowing the specic composition for each type of product (e.g., plastic materials, textile waste or household waste), but this information is not available (because of the great variety of products and industrial secrets). On the other hand, several studies concerning waste treatment processes have been published, but the efciency of a specic treatment depends on the considered type of substance (Kmmerer, 2011). The sheer bibliographical exhaustiveness puts this approach out of reach due to the large number of emerging pollutants, but the substances with the widest range of use and the greatest susceptibility to being found in large quantities in waste were retained within the framework of the RECORD study and were classied into broad categories (nanomaterials, micropollutants and Genetically Modied Organisms GMOs). The second step of the RECORD study consisted of research into new substances that are scarcely documented but are susceptible to being found in waste; this phase was mainly based on interviews with various actors and targeted experts (such as researchers and industrial and association spokesmen) who belong to different elds of activity (waste treatment, environmental and sanitary risk management, toxicology and emerging pollutants) or work with specic substances (nanomaterials, pesticides, pharmaceutical residues and genetic material). From the results of this RECORD study, several challenges linked to the presence of emerging pollutants in waste have been identied according to their pollutant category and appropriate waste treatment schemes. In this review, Section 2 highlights the key issues associated with the treatment of waste containing emerging pollutants. This section presents the most debated and questionable issues, the typologies of emerging pollutants that are potentially present in waste and the major examples of challenges for each treatment scheme independent of the considered pollutants. Section 3 presents a comprehensive review of available data, projects and future R&D needs related to the impact of nanoparticles on waste treatment as a case study. 2. Key issues and challenges linked to the presence of emerging pollutants in waste 2.1. Media and societal background

of emerging pollutants in France. The rst questions raised about the presence of new polluting substances in waste emerged from the scientic realm. However, as newspapers specialised in the environment took on the subject, it opened to a wider and more sensitive public. This greater interest in turn spurred on less-specialised media to feed the debate on this question and, therefore, engaged an ever wider section of the public to request information. While media play an important role in investigating societal issues, associations are predominantly the whistle-blowers. Furthermore, the implementation of new regulations that take into account new knowledge of substances or increasingly elaborate studies by safety sanitary agencies is useful to reopen the debate and gives structure to questions, but it may fuel the fears of citizens. In most of the consulted articles in specialised publications, the themes discussed often deal with contamination of food (e.g., by residues of pesticides) or daily consumption items (e.g., additives in feeding bottles), which directly affect the users health. However, it is the issue of drinking water quality that is predominant as it establishes a link between the use and fate of consumer products and the substances they contain. In particular, waste treatment (i.e., wastewater and landll leachates) efciency is questioned especially with regard to products having a dedicated waste treatment process as in the case of pharmaceutical residues or pesticides. Consequently, even if waste management is the responsibility of several actors (among them the users, who can take part in specic sorting), it appears that in the event of a failure, the public turns most easily on public authorities and/or companies in charge of the treatment, which are usually considered to be not vigilant enough. All of this is to say that there is a great distrust with regard to the treatment of waste containing new substances still at an experimental stage (e.g., GMOs) or at an early stage of marketing (e.g., nanotechnologies). Indeed, the public perceives the value of these new technologies but is more and more aware of the fact that the disposal of these products can have fatal consequences for the environment (Grunwald, 2008) especially as the concept of a products life cycle is better known and disclosed. For instance, during the recent French national debate on nanotechnologies, the issue of nanoproducts life cycles was raised by the audience (CNDP, 2010). Finally, contrary to the United States where GMOs and nanotechnologies are better accepted, Europeans favour the application of the precautionary principle (moratoria and case by case limitations), which is considered a threat to the economy by Americans (Kirilenko et al., 2010). 2.2. Emerging contaminants potentially present in waste

Prior to the RECORD study, a survey of environment-focused journalists and environmental and consumer protection associations was performed to estimate the media and societal context

Several new pollutants have been identied as potentially present in waste. It should be noted that these pollutants are men-

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tioned as examples and that this section is not, in any case, an exhaustive or even a prioritised list (quantitatively or toxicologically speaking). Emerging pollutants may be any of the following: new substances such as some specic emerging pollutants detected in the environment (e.g., nanoparticles or emerging micropollutants); substances whose production and use in items are forbidden in France and which are not found as manufacturing waste but which can be present in older products, products imported from countries with no regulation for these substances or residues of treatment units (such as WWTP sludge or leachates) and whose impact on the management of waste is not completely known yet (e.g., bisphenol A BPA in plastic waste, which was only recently forbidden in food containers/packaging and raises the question of cross-contamination of plastics during recycling processes); and relatively well-known substances that are being used in new products and can cause waste treatment problems in the future (e.g., mercury in low-energy light-bulbs). As an example, Table 1 presents a list of pollutants that are potentially present in plastic waste. This list, which is based on literature reviews and expert surveys, is not exhaustive.

(pseudo-persistent) release and the great variety of pollutants present in consumer products. As a consequence, all conventional treatment stages and processes are susceptible to receive polluted waste. The main questions raised are presented in the following sections. 2.3.1. Recycling Recycling raises the problem of recirculation of products containing polluting substances, their possible accumulation in the various cycles and the contamination of other recycled products within the treatment scheme. Mixtures of different types of recycled materials and poorly identied material uxes are the two major difculties. In the case of plastic recycling, cross-contamination is of particular concern as the recycled material could be used for food packaging. Indeed, collected plastics might have been previously contaminated with chemicals that are not suitable for food contact. To evaluate the safety of mechanical recycling processes, the European Food and Safety Administration (EFSA, 2011; EFSA, 2012) assessed a total of 10 polyethylene terephthalate (PET) recycling processes in which used consumer plastics are collected, ground into small akes and decontaminated before being processed into new materials for use in the food chain. The EFSA demonstrated that these processes can reduce chemical contaminants in the recycled plastic to such a low level that potential migration of any residual chemicals does not represent a risk for human health (i.e., dietary exposure of below 2.5 lg/kg/day) provided the proportion of PET from non-food consumer applications does not exceed 5% and the processes are operated under well-dened conditions. A recent study (Wagner and Oehlmann, 2009), however, demonstrated oestrogen activity that was correlated to the migration of endocrine disrupter compounds from mineral water PET bottles. Unlike polycarbonate (PC), for which BPA and di-2ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) are widely used as intermediaries of reaction, PET should not contain any BPA or DEHP. Bilitewski et al. (2012) suggest that DEHP migrated from PC to PET during recycling processes. This hypothesis is debated as several contamination sources could be suggested including caps during the bottling process or even simple experimental noise in the work of the analysis laboratories (Bach et al., 2012). In any event, the French Medicine Academy made a precautionary recommendation in a report on endocrine disrupters in the environment and their related risks on cancers (French Medicine Academy, 2011) to avoid recycling any packaging containing BPA or phthalates. Similarly, BPA can be introduced in wastewater by the paper industry from different types of paper produced with thermal paper recycling processes. BPA has also been detected in some paper products made from recycled papers including napkins and toilet paper at concentrations on the order of 15 lg/g (Liao and Kannan, 2011). However, these concentrations are much lower than the concentrations detected in thermal paper (up to 15 mg/g) and are thus not the main contributor to dermal absorption from handling of papers. Moreover, the magnitude of BPA exposure from paper is minor compared with exposure through diet (Liao and Kannan, 2011). As a nal example, cardboard packaging, which can be used in particular for food packaging, is mostly produced from recycled newspaper and can be contaminated by printing ink and its compounds. Among these compounds, polycyclic aromatic compounds have been detected in concentrations 10 times higher than the permitted threshold for food contact applications (Bilitewski et al., 2012). Additive accumulation also raises questions because additive compounds must be as stable as possible to be integrated in different materials; thus, they also accumulate more easily in recycled products. In the particular case of plastic, the problem is magnied

2.3. Key issues and challenges according to the waste treatment stage and scheme Because emerging pollutants are present in all types of products and applications, they may end up in several waste typologies such as hazardous industrial solid waste or efuents, non-hazardous commercial and industrial waste (C&I), municipal solid waste (MSW) and municipal wastewater. Except for some regulated waste (such as solvents, pesticides and pharmaceutical waste for which dedicated collection and treatment procedures have already been organised in France), waste containing these emerging pollutants will enter the conventional treatment schemes. The specic question of diffuse release appears to be particularly problematic: although pollutants are present in less concentrated quantities than in industrial releases, for example, their consideration/inclusion is important because of their continuous

Table 1 Substances potentially present in plastic waste. Substance category Metals Phthalates Flame retardants Substances that may be present in plastic waste Lead DEP, DBP, BBP, DEHP, DMP, DEMP, DINP, DIDP Polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDE), Tetrabromobisphenol-A (TBBP-A), Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), Organophosphates Carbon nanotubes (CNT), AgNPs BPA, BPS Nonylphenol, Nonylphenol ethoxylate, Octylphenol, Octylphenol ethoxylate N-butylbenzenesulfonamide (NBBS) Tributyltin (TBT), Triphenyltin(TPT), Tributylstannane Benzophenones PentaPBDE, OctaBDE Dimethylacetamide (DMAC) 2,20 -Dichloro-4,40 -methylenedianiline, 4,40 Diamino-3,30 -dichlorodiphenylmethane (MOCA) Chloroalkanes C1417

Nanoparticles Bisphenols Alkyl phenols Linear Alkylbenzene Sulfonates (LAS) Organostannic compounds UV lters Diphenyl oxides Amide Aromatic amine Chloroalkanes

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because a great proportion of used plastic has already been recycled (more than 80% in Germany, according to Bilitewski et al., 2011) and the recycled material can be used for food packaging. As a consequence, Larsen et al. (2011) emphasises the importance of a life cycle assessment (LCA) to evaluate the impact of additives in certain products. 2.3.2. Biological treatments: anaerobic digestion (AD) and composting The presence of organic pollutants can be harmful to biodegradation either by modifying the environmental conditions (e.g., pH and redox) or by directly inuencing bacterial activity. Moreover, the quality of the nal products and the residues left after treatment processes are uncertain. These factors depend on the type of substance, the contaminant concentration and the biodegradation process. Table 2 presents examples of the potential degradability of several classes of micropollutants during anaerobic digestion and composting. Several studies have described biodegradation of particular substances during biological treatments whether aerobic or anaerobic. However, the formation of transformation products (TPs) can be associated with the biodegradation, and these TP can potentially be more toxic than the parent substance (e.g., Jones and Westmoreland (1999) reported the accumulation of toxic TP during sludge composting due to the degradation of nonylphenol ethoxylates). TP should be studied as deeply as the substance itself, but this is not always the case. Obtaining this information implies a good knowledge of the transformation pathways for each substance under anaerobic and aerobic conditions. During the AD process, both liquid efuents and solid digestates are produced. Low organic micropollutant concentrations are expected in the liquid efuents of digesters, but organic poly-aromatic compounds are expected to appear in the solid phase as TP or as adsorbates on the surface of organic substances in concentrations similar to the initial concentration (Couturier et al., 1998). For organic recovery, the quality of the obtained composts is questioned due to contaminated WWTP sludge or domestic waste that may contain emerging pollutants. Even if some compounds are biodegradable during composting, Patureau et al. (2008) found higher pollutant concentrations in the nal compost than in sludge due to dry matter reduction. In addition to a mass balance calculation, it is thus recommended to also measure toxicological activities. Carrying out these measurements, Patureau et al. (2008) found increased oestrogenic activity and decreased dioxin-like and pregnane X activities in the composted sludge. 2.3.3. Incineration Few studies have focused on the fate of emerging pollutants during incineration. The main consequences observed are from the presence of compounds with high chlorine levels (e.g., BPA, phthalates and ame retardants) during the incineration of household waste. These compounds increase the rate of formation of dioxins, furans and chloro-aromatic compounds (Sderstrm, 2003; Lenoir et al., 2001; Sidhu et al., 2005). However, adapted combustion procedures in incinerators can reduce the associated emissions.

Incineration is recommended for the management of dedicated treatment processes such as those of phytopharmaceutical products or unused medicines. Pollutants produced during combustion of these waste uxes are considered to be similar to those produced during combustion of domestic waste. Nevertheless, there are no estimated data on the overall emissions. Other classes of substances (such as NP, see Section 3) raise questions in particular as to the efciency of purication of ue gases. 2.3.4. Landlling Once they are in a landll, the main risk associated with emerging contaminants in waste is the risk of release by leaching. Volatilisation of substances dissolved in leachate during landlling could be another source of release via gaseous emissions (Christensen et al., 2001). Numerous studies have estimated the fate of hundreds of emerging micropollutants within the framework of waste storage (man and Junestedt, 2008; Buszka et al., 2009; Bertanza and Pedrazzani, 2005; Slack et al., 2005). It has also been suggested that several other unknown compounds could be present. The complex degradation dynamics (e.g., temperature, pH and type of waste) of landlling make it difcult to anticipate the behaviour of some substances. Leaching obviously depends on the type of compound being considered and on the environmental conditions. In particular, the presence of organic carbon dissolved in the leachate, which depends on the type of landlled waste and on its level of biodegradation, strongly inuences the elution by adsorption and, therefore, the quantity of leached compounds (Bauer et al., 1998; man and Rosqvist, 1998). The presence of phthalates and BPA appears to be associated with the presence of plastic waste whereas dioxins and furans are observed in greater concentrations when incineration ashes are landlled (Bertanza and Pedrazzani, 2005). Reinhart and Pohland (1991) highlighted the assimilation and attenuation of some organic substances; for example, few chlorine compounds are present in leachate due to dechlorination, which occurs during acidogenesis and methanogenesis. In the end, the authors warn against transformation metabolisms and recommend avoiding landlling of compounds that are susceptible to engender more toxic and mobile metabolites. 2.3.5. Treatment in WWTP Treatment of liquid efuent in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) appears to be a key issue in the waste treatment scheme for these emerging pollutants. Indeed, many emerging pollutants end up in liquid efuents be they industrial and urban efuents directly loaded with these pollutants or waste treatment liquid residues such as landll leachate. In large part, WWTP were never designed to treat these emerging pollutants. The type of treatment required depends on the compounds considered. For example, BPA, DBP and BBP can be eliminated through aeration whereas DEHP requires advanced oxidation processes (Asakura and Matsuto, 2009). Advanced processes such as ozona-

Table 2 Examples of potential degradability during anaerobic digestion and composting: a case of micropollutants. During anaerobic digestion (from Couturier et al., 1998) Potentially degradable substances Organic aliphatic compounds and mono-aromatic compounds Organic poly-aromatic compounds Some AOX such as dioxins (unstable mutagens or thyroid disrupter products) Most poly-aromatic micropollutants During composting Linear Alkylbenzene Sulfonates (Pakou et al., 2009) PAHs (Hadi et al., 2008) DEHP (Amir et al., 2005; Kapanen et al., 2007) Nonylphenol Ethoxylates (Jones and Westmoreland, 1999)

Substances that are potentially degradable but coupled with the formation of TP Non-degradable substances

M.-A. Marcoux et al. / Waste Management 33 (2013) 21472156 Table 3 Nanoparticle applications and products (adapted from Brar et al., 2010 and Bystrzejewska-Piotrowska et al., 2009). Type of NP Transition and alkaline earth metals NP Ag Quantities used in terms of tons High Nanoproduct: main applications/uses Antimicrobial agent in domestic appliances (e.g., fridges, vacuum cleaners and air conditioning units), paints, textiles, plastics, varnish, coatings, medical use and food packaging Purication of waters from PCBs, organochlorine pesticides and chlorinated organic solvents and degradation of PAH-based contaminants Automotive exhaust converters and catalysts Paints Metallic coating/plating Microelectronics Catalysts Nutraceuticals and health supplements Remediation and removal of toxic elements and compounds Cosmetics, paints and coatings Cosmetics, paints and coatings Fuel catalyst Paints, coatings, reproof glass, UV-protection, varnish, ceramics, electronics, pharmaceutical products, dentistry and polishing Batteries, grinding, re protection, metal- and biosorption and paintings (usually substratebound) Concrete additive Biochemical assays, biomanipulation and removal of contaminants Substrate-bound but released with tyre wear Electronics, additive to tyres, lubricants and used in adsorption of contaminants Medical and cosmetics use Plastic packaging Coatings Different compositions Magnetic resonance imaging, drug delivery and biochemical assays Vitamins, medicines, carriers for medicines and cosmetics, food additives and ingredients

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Reference 1

Fe

High

2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1

Pt, Pd Sn Al Cu Zr Se, Ca, Mg Fe/Ni, Fe/Co, Fe/ Pd, SiO2/TiO2 TiO2 ZnO CeO2 SiO2

High Unknown High Unknown High Low Unknown High Low High High

Metal oxides

Al2O3

High

Carbon material

Fe2O3 Fe3O4 Carbon black CNT Fullerenes (C60C80) Nanoclay Ceramic Quantum dots Ferrouidic Organic nanoparticles

Unknown Unknown High Mediumhigh Mediumhigh High High Low Unknown Low

Miscellaneous

References: 1. Brar et al. (2010) and 2. Bystrzejewska-Piotrowska et al. (2009).

tion, ltration on activated charcoal and reverse osmosis ensure a complementary treatment for compounds that are generally poorly retained by biological processes and allows greater than 70% removal (Choubert et al., 2011; OFEV, 2010). Complementary treatments must be considered in some specic cases where micropollutants are active at extremely low concentrations (several dozens of ng L1). Moreover, the fate of the non-biodegradable fraction and the transfer of pollution must be addressed; these substances tend to concentrate in sewage sludge, which is sometimes applied to the surface of soils. Emerging treatment technologies such as nanoltration, photolysis and biological treatment through an aquatic buffer area are currently being tested. Jossa et al. (2006) stated that wastewater dilution decreases biological treatment rates (based on a batch study on 25 compounds); they consequently suggest wastewater segregation and treatment at the source. 3. Focus on NP: impact of the presence of nanoparticles on waste treatment 3.1. Denition of nanowaste The use of engineered nanomaterials in commercially available products is increasing exponentially and covers a wide variety of applications and products (Brar et al., 2010; Bystrzejewska-Piotrowska et al., 2009, cf. Table 3).

The question of associated nanowaste is therefore a burning issue (Reinhart et al., 2010; Boldrin et al., 2011). There is no complete denition of nanowaste in the current regulatory framework relative to waste treatment. The British Standards Institute (BSI, 2007) denes nanowaste as waste containing nanomaterials and differentiates among several types depending on NP concentration in the waste. Based on this, Boldrin et al. (2011) proposed a denition that adds a distinction between waste of production/refuse of manufacturing (called manufactured nanowaste) and end-of-life products containing nanomaterials. Nanowaste includes the following (Fig. 2): pure nanomaterials (i.e., nanoparticles and rods), items contaminated by nanomaterials such as containers, wipes and disposable personal protective equipment (PPE), liquid suspensions containing nanomaterials and solid matrices containing nanomaterials (end-of-life products containing nanomaterials). Their properties and especially their toxicity depend on the type of NP being considered. Kirchner et al. (2005) distinguish three main causes of nanoparticle toxicity following contact with live cells: the chemical toxicity of materials from which they have been made. The partial release of ions from nanoparticles is very likely due to the high surface-area-to-volume ratio of nanoparticles;

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R&D laboratories

Nanotechnology industry

Nanoproducts

Households, industries

Solid residues from R&D

Production refuse

Production residues

cvContainers,

cv

wipes, disposable PPE

Domestic waste, industrial waste

PURE NANOWASTE

CONTAMINATED
ITEMS

R&D RESIDUES

MANUFACTURED NANOWASTE

END-OF-LIFE PRODUCTS CONTAINING NANOMATERIALS

LIQUID SUSPENSIONS OF NANOMATERIAL

Laboratory effluents Industrial effluents Household effluents

Fig. 2. Nanowaste sources and uxes.

their small size: nanoparticles may stick to cellular membranes and enter the cells. Attachment of nanoparticles to the membranes and storage of nanoparticles inside the cells can impair cellular functions even in the case of chemically inert nanoparticles, which do not decompose and do not react with other matrix components; and their shape: for example, carbon nanotubes can easily pierce cell membranes. In the case of nanowaste, it is interesting to consider the location of the nanostructure in the waste and the way it is bound to the matrix. Hansen et al. (2007) distinguish between materials that are nanostructured in three dimensions, i.e., in the bulk of the material; materials that have nanostructure on the surface; and materials that contain nanostructured particles. For the third category, nanoparticles can be any of the following: bound to the surface of another solid structure (e.g., in heterogeneous catalysts where the catalyst is usually manufactured on the nanoscale on an inert surface material because the catalyst material is often an expensive metal); suspended in a solid (e.g., polymers reinforced by carbon nanotubes); suspended in a liquid (e.g., nanoparticles inside T cells used for targeted drug delivery or TiO2 in cosmetics or paint); or suspended in air or gas (e.g., free carbon nanotubes or C60 nanoparticles).

source of release is liquid suspensions of nanomaterials as both industrial and household efuents. In terms of quantity, the main source of nanowaste is the nanomaterials industry. This is particularly the case for top-down production processes such as mechanical processes (like shredding and sintering), lithographic processes, production of aggregates in the gaseous phase, ablation (e.g., laser) and laser pyrolysis. On the contrary, bottom-up processes (i.e., chemical synthesis) produce less waste (MEDD, 2006). In fullerene production, it has been shown that only 10% of the manufactured material can be used (RCEP, 2008).

3.3. The challenge of quantication The evaluation and quantication of NP in waste and/or the residues of waste treatment is not an easy task. While there exist standards for the quantication of nanoparticles and aerosols in air and in workplaces (e.g., ISO/TR 27628:2007), the current analytical procedures (sampling and quantication) for waste are not adapted to NP (Boldrin et al., 2011). Indeed, sorting of nanowaste materials from municipal waste streams is problematic because tracking of NP in products (through amount reporting and labelling) has not been compulsory up to now and nanowastes are in most cases difcult to recognise visually. As for releases of NP in environmental media due to waste treatment, the presence of naturally occurring NP in the media and the small quantities at stake make it difcult to quantify the amount of engineered NP (AFSSA, 2008). Table 4 presents several analytical techniques that have been described for the detection and/or characterisation of NP in soil and solid matrices and that could be used for waste matrices (Nowack and Bucheli, 2007). While characterisation and quantication techniques are available for organic NP, no similar technique has been described so far for inorganic engineered NP. Moreover, current analytical techniques other than particle counting (which is heavy and costly) do not allow the gathering of data on both the type of NP and its concentration in a specic media. New techniques (surface-enhanced Raman scattering, NP separation and centrifugation) are currently being developed in the framework of the Nanosustain project to quantify low concentrations of NP in environmental matrices. Several attempts have been made to estimate nanowaste uxes (Gottschalk et al., 2009; Blaser et al., 2008; Boldrin et al., 2011) based on probabilistic material ow analyses. Table 5 presents

3.2. Related waste uxes The presence of nanomaterials is a concern in every type of waste: (i) diffuse release in domestic waste and more concentrated release in industrial waste; (ii) liquid (industrial and domestic efuents) and solid waste; and (iii) primary waste and residues from waste treatment processes (such as sludge and bottom ash). Fig. 2 presents different types of nanowaste sources and uxes. With regard to solid waste, the nanomaterial industry produces pure nanowaste streams (e.g., refuse of manufacturing and waste of production from the nanotechnology industry) and items contaminated by nanomaterials (e.g., containers, wipes and disposable personal protective equipment) while households and industries dispose of end-of-life goods containing nanomaterials. Another

M.-A. Marcoux et al. / Waste Management 33 (2013) 21472156 Table 4 Available techniques for the identication and characterisation of NP (from Nowack and Bucheli, 2007). Type of NP Fullerenes CNT Analytical technique High concentrations: UVvis spectrometry Low concentrations: HPLC; ESITOFMS In ice cores: TEM (detection only) Under well-dened laboratory settings: UVvis spectrometry (high concentrations only) In medical applications: uorescence In soil matrices: no technique described so far Natural inorganic NP: TEM or scanning probe microscopy (detection and characterisation but no quantication) Engineered inorganic NP: no technique described so far

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Inorganic NP

Table 5 Distribution of nanowaste uxes in the main waste treatment schemes. CNT Product Reference All types of products Gottschalk et al. (2009) USA 2009 75 30 3% 1% 78% 50% 17% 13% 1% 63% AgNPs Textiles and plastics Blaser et al. (2008) EU 25 2010 110230 14% 14% 94% Textiles Boldrin et al. (2011) Denmark 2011 5.5 (23 000)* Not evaluated

Localisation Year Production (tons/year) Percentage recycled Percentage landlled Percentage incinerated Percentage received in WWTP

bres of the lter by different mechanisms depending on their size: for large particles (>1000 nm), inertia and interception are the main mechanisms whereas diffusion is predominant for smaller particles (<100 nm). In the case of diffusion, small particles undergo random displacements due to Brownian motion, which enhances the probability of collision with bres. To prevent NP contamination through dermal contact, Nanosafe (2008b) recommends the use of non-woven fabrics (e.g., high density polyethylene textiles) rather than cotton. Similarly, gloves have been demonstrated to have a very high efciency at blocking nanoaerosols. However, the efciency of gloves against colloidal liquid suspensions has not been tested, and it is recommended to use at least 2 layers of gloves when dealing with liquids containing NP. Regarding the explosion risks of nanopowders, Nanosafe (2008c) observed that (i) CNT exhibit explosion sensitivities (minimum ignition energy minimal explosion concentration) and explosion severities (maximum pressure of explosion and maximum rate of pressure rise) of the same order as those found for various coals, food ours and other nanostructured carbon blacks; (ii) for metallic aluminium nanopowders, the small oxide layer covering passivated nanoparticles may make them less explosive than micropowders; and (iii) nanopowders that tend to agglomerate show explosion violence characteristics of the same order as those observed with micropowders of the same substance. As for combustion risk, combustion mechanisms of aluminium nanosized particles are different from those observed with microsized particles. This nding may lead to potential problems for large scale industrial storage of such particles, and specic prevention and protection measures are recommended. 3.5. Behaviour during waste treatment 3.5.1. Recycling Only very few nanomaterials (for example, gold nanomaterials) have a sufcient economic value to justify recycling. Indeed, nanomaterial recycling requires nanowaste sorting, dismantling and chemical or physical recovery of its components (e.g., composite layers of a product) (Bystrzejewska-Piotrowska et al., 2009). Nanosafe (2008a) also suggests reusing nanowaste powders that are stored in tight bags. Improving precautionary design and improved recyclability of engineered nanomaterials is one of the goals of the Nanosustain project (2012). On the topic of the impact of nanomaterials within waste on recycling processes and the resulting quality of the recycled materials (textiles, paper and plastics), no study was identied. 3.5.2. Incineration While organic NP are supposed to be destroyed during combustion, the fate of mineral and metallic NP raises questions as to the efciency of purication of ue gases with regard to these substances. In particular, the NP temperature of fusion and potential for agglomeration must be evaluated (ORDIMIP, 2009). Temperatures of fusion are known for macro or microparticles (e.g., 2 400 C for Al2O3, which is greater than the common incineration temperature), but ORDIMIP suggests that NP burning rates could be lower than those of larger-sized particles, which brings into question previously measured values for the temperature of fusion. Only one study has been identied regarding the thermal reactivity of carbon materials: Cataldo (2002) showed that carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are thermally stable up to 850 C (similarly than diamonds), whereas fullerenes are considered to be less stable. Further combustion tests are required to estimate whether NPs that do not melt remain as NPs or whether they form agglomerates by sintering with other particles. Assuming agglomeration occurs, the NP would end up in clinkers or would be transported in their

* The rst number represents the quantity of NP contained in waste whereas the data in brackets represents the nanowaste quantity.

the scope of these studies (type of NP, type of product under investigation, year and place of production), the annual production and the distribution of waste uxes in the main waste treatment schemes. These results show that nanowaste ux distributions are highly dependent upon the type of NP (e.g., CNT are more likely to be found in landlls whereas AgNPs from textiles and plastics are mostly expected in WWTP). Moreover, it is necessary to distinguish estimations of NP quantities (e.g., 5.5 tons/year due to textile products in Denmark according to Boldrin et al., 2011) from nanowaste quantities, which are much higher (e.g., 23 000 tons/year due to textile products in Denmark). 3.4. Risks associated with the handling and transfer of waste containing NP The risks associated with NP handling during waste collection and treatment are mainly due to inhalation or dermal contact and are less likely due to injection or ingestion. Due to the lack of available information on the risks associated with the handling and transfer of nanowaste, conservative recommendations have generally been given: separate at the source, identify and store in tight containers. However, these techniques are hardly applicable because of the difculties in nanowaste identication and source separation. In the framework of the Nanosafe 2 project, different conventional, individual protection devices were tested with graphite nanoparticles ranging from 10 to 150 nm (Nanosafe, 2008b). Regarding protection against NP inhalation, results showed that masks made with brous lters and protective clothes made with non-woven fabrics are even more efcient for nanoparticles than for larger-sized particles. Indeed, particles are deposited on the -

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bigger form towards lters. On the contrary, if the re-agglomeration of the NP does not take place, the NP would be transported in ue gases and the efciency of the lters must be questioned. Ultraltration lters, which are usually designed for NP ltration, cannot be used in incineration plants as they engender high head losses that may cause plant disturbances. High removal rates (between 99.95% and 99.995%) for 10 and 100 nm NP have, however, been observed in a waste incinerator equipped with an electrolter, a wet scrubber and a selective catalytic on non-catalytic reduction system for NOx (Burtscher et al., 2002). Regarding the impact of the presence of NP in ue gases, Yoo and Kwak (2011) evaluated the impact of PVC-encapsulated TIO2 particles on dioxin emissions during PVC incineration; they observed reductions between 40% and 80% of PCDDs, PCDFs and PCBs as compared with incineration without proper dioxin treatment. The authors thus suggest that the presence of TiO2 (a chlorine decomposition catalyst) within the PVC increases contact opportunities between NP. 3.5.3. Landlling A recent LCA suggests that more than 50% of NP products will end up in a landll (Mueller and Nowack, 2008). Questions remain on the potential of nanomaterials to aggregate in leachates, to interact with other wastes, and to be transmitted through bottom liners (Reinhart et al., 2010). Laboratory tests and models are required to estimate the impact of environmental conditions (pH, conductivity and temperature) on the liberation of NP (Breggin and Pendergrass, 2007). Bolyard et al. (2011) specically addressed the fate of zinc oxide (ZnO) coated with triethoxycaprylylsilane in both mature and middle-aged leachates. They identied the absence of inhibitory effects towards anaerobic and aerobic processes in the leachates, which can be attributed to low concentrations of dissolved/soluble zinc. However, they observed that the nanomaterial coating was affected by middle-aged leachate components and the ZnO particle size decreased in the mature landll leachate. Additionally, it was observed that the zinc concentration in the size fraction less than 200 nm was increasing, which supports the potential for ZnO to interact with leachate components. Regarding nano-silver, Yang et al. (2012) observed in a 9 L experiment an inhibition of methanogenesis and biogas production from MSW due to the presence of Ag at a concentration of 10 mg/kg, but they found no impact for lower concentrations. Lozano and Berge (2012) performed laboratory-scale experiments to show if humic acid is present in mature landll leachates, the ionic strength (when represented as NaCl) is the dominant factor over organics and pH that inuences CNT stability. Their experimental results also indicate that CNT may be mobile through solid waste, which suggests that particle landlling needs to be examined more closely. 3.5.4. Biological treatments: AD and composting The inuence of NP materials and products on the nal quality and safety of compost end-products can also be questioned. The Nanosustain WP5 program (20102013) is currently evaluating the degradability of nanocellulose lms and paper products containing nanocellulose in a pilot-scale compost environment followed by controlled composting tests. The results are expected in 2013. 3.5.5. Treatment of liquid efuents The issue of the impact of NP on WWTP has been raised both in terms of interference with water treatment processes and regarding their fate after treatment and release to the environment. Indeed, industrial process efuents and wastewaters are rejected at WWTP with no prior pre-treatment. Similarly, household efuents can be loaded with NP leached from domestic products containing NP with the primary sources being laundry and household detergents (Benn and Westerhoff, 2008) (cf. Fig. 2). NP can also be inten-

tionally used for wastewater decontamination (e.g., metal adsorption), and NP such as nano-iron and TiO2 are directly present in WWTP (Brar et al., 2010). The processes that control the transport and movement of nanoparticles in water and especially in wastewater have been studied (in particular, by NP photochemistry) with the aim of their possible application in water treatment. The main mechanisms that may play a role are aggregation, transport, deposition, sorption, desorption and adsorption by biomass (Brar et al., 2010). However, their outcome in the collection network and WWTP remains uncertain (AFSSA, 2008). The capacity of these processes to immobilise or to destroy NP depends on the chemical and physical nature of NP and on their residence time in the treatment process compartments. pH can also greatly inuence sorption, agglomeration and interactions of metal colloids and NP (EPA, 2007). Fortner et al. (2005) showed that water pH affects the particle size of fullerenes (C60) and NP stability depends on the ionic concentration of the water solution. Flocculation appears to be the most appropriate method to eliminate NP (especially non-biodegradable particles) in aqueous media (Mackay et al., 2006); however, complementary trials at an industrial scale are necessary to conrm the initial laboratory results. Another area of research is the biological degradation of NP during secondary treatment (Ivanov et al., 2004). A preliminary study on C60 and C70 fullerenes showed a 12-week degradation due to wood decay fungi (Filley et al., 2005). Concerning the issue of the interaction of NP with treatment types in WWTP, several contradictory studies have appeared that justify complementary studies. It has been shown that C60 fullerenes inhibit the development of nitratereducing bacteria (Fortner et al., 2005; Choi et al., 2008). An et al. (2007) observed a signicant decrease in the microorganism community due to AgNPs whereas Burkhardt et al. (2010) demonstrated that, due to low concentrations in wastewater, AgNPs do not affect nitrication.

4. Conclusions and perspectives on complementary research Emerging pollutants are numerous and widespread in waste, and conventional waste treatment processes are not necessarily adapted to deal with them. Several studies regarding the impact of emerging pollutants in waste have been identied. Issues differ for each treatment scheme: The issue of the risk connected to recycling waste that contains micropollutants (e.g., additives in plastics, textiles and papers) is being progressively addressed. In particular, the contamination of recycled materials by additives contained in the waste and the accumulation of these additives in a circular economy are being questioned. In biological treatment processes (AD and composting), the focus is on the biodegradation of organic substances, which impacts the quality of the nal products or treatment residues (compost, digestate and liquid efuents). This requires good knowledge of the transformation pathways for each substance/class of substances in both aerobic and anaerobic processes. In the case of landlling, emphasis is placed on the risk of release by leaching. Again, this implies a need to understand the transformation metabolisms under anaerobic conditions. As for waste incineration, emissions linked to organic pollutants can be reduced by adapted combustion procedures in incinerators, but other classes of substances such as NP raise questions about the ltration and purication efciency of ue gases. In the particular case of NP, studies related to waste are just being launched. The presence of nanomaterials is a concern for

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every type of waste and for all conventional treatment processes, and they may impact the treatment itself (e.g., AgNPs in the case of wastewater treatment) and the quality of the nal residues. To increase the available information, research efforts should be undertaken in a deep sense for each type of considered substance to enable the following: improve the tracking of these substances in products to quantify their presence in waste (e.g., amount reporting and labelling); develop sampling and quantication methods/procedures for waste and treatment residues (e.g., leachates and WWTP sludge); identify the potentially toxic effects of soiled waste to ensure proper treatment and eventual source separation; estimate how emerging pollutants interact and affect matrix waste; dene the fate of these substances during and after waste treatment and disposal; and establish guidelines for the handling, treatment and disposal of this waste. Given the many issues raised by the presence of emerging pollutants in waste, eco-design and green manufacturing must ultimately be considered. In particular, waste management is a key step that must be taken into account in any life cycle assessment. The data collected by the risk assessment committee of the ECHA within the framework of the REACH procedure will contribute to cataloguing this information. Moreover, the recent publication by the ECHA of a list of consumer goods containing substances of very high concern improves this list with the addition of substances and indications to their toxicity and concentration (minimum threshold: concentration in the article superior to 0.1% by mass).

Acknowledgments The authors wish to thank the French IndustryUniversity Cooperative Research Network on Waste (RECORD www.record-net.org) for its contribution to the funding of this work and for providing industrial orientations and scientic supervision to the research.

References
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Glossary of acronyms and abbreviations

AD: anaerobic digestion AgNPs: silver nanoparticles AOX: adsorbable organic halogen BBP: butylbenzyl phthalate BPA: bisphenol A BPS: bisphenol S CNT: carbon nanotubes DMAC: dimethylacetamide DBP: dibutyl phthalate DEHP: di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate DEMP: dimethoxyethyl-phthalate DEP: diethylphthalate DIDP: diisodecyl phthalate DINP: di-isononyl phthalate DMP: dimethyl phthalate ECHA: European Chemical Agency EFSA: European Food and Safety Administration ESI-TOF-MS: electrospray ionisation time-of-ight mass spectrometry GMO: genetically modied organism HBCD: hexabromocyclododecane HEPA: high-efciency particulate air HPLC: high-performance liquid chromatography LAS: linear alkylbenzene sulfonates LCA: life cycle assessment MOCA: 4,40 -diamino-3,30 -dichlorodiphenylmethane NBBS: N-butylbenzenesulfonamide NOX: nitrogen oxides NP: nanoparticle PBDE: polybrominated diphenylethers PC: polycarbonate PCBs: polychlorinated biphenyls PCDDs: polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins PCDFs: polychlorinated dibenzofurans PET: polyethylene terephthalate PFOS: peruorooctane sulfonate PPE: personal protective equipment PVC: polyvinylchloride R&D: research and development SERS: surface-enhanced Raman scattering TBBP-A: tetrabromobisphenol-A TBT: tributylin TEM: transmission electron microscopy TiO2: titanium dioxide TP: transformation products UVvis: ultravioletvisible spectroscopy WWTP: wastewater treatment plant ZnO: zinc oxide