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 "

,E A I @A 0=KI@ H

1II IEC E ?= GKA IA = F E=H I = II= >IAHL= F H K B=?J H a ( n ) @A D=LE= K AH l @A K E@=@AI F=@H F=II= =C H= = D=LAH a1 l(n+1) L=I K E@=@AI F=@H 2 H ANA F IA = L= H CK= B H @A AJ=@A @ J= = D @= GKA KI I = AI?= = = JAHE H A J IAH A?AII HE=I @K=I LA AI =EI H F E?=I @= L= H CK= F=H= ? >HEH ? FHE A J = A@EH += ?K A I = GK= JE@=@A

d=

ln N ln f

 #

A GKA N @AIEC = L AH @A H F E?=I HA =JEL= A JA = = JAHE H GK= @ K@= I @A AI?= = @A A@E F H K B=?J H f ?=I @= A@E @A ? FHE A J I f = a  K IA = = L= H CK= a LA AI =EI FAGKA = GKA = @= AI?= = = JAHE H A N = a GKA AL= = d = 1 5A A LA @A K = >=HH= JELAH I K = ?D=F= GK=@H=@= @A =@ L A J = HA= S = ss @A s = K E@=@A @A >=IA @A E@= F H K GK=@H=@ @A =@ @A ? FHE A J l )K A J= @ = AI?= = @= II= A@E F H K B=?J H f @A = JAI ?=>E= s GK=@H=@ I @A =@ l ?=>A =C H= f 2 s GK=@H=@ I @A =@ f 1 l 5A ?= ?K =H I @A L d @A E@ FA = AGK=  # >JA I

d=

ln(f 2 ) =2 ln f
@ AIF=

.
A GKA LELA

 $ > A?J =

2 HJ= J d HAFHAIA J= = @E A I IAH A@E@

 ! 3K= JE@=@AI @AHEL=@=I @E A I AI A D

CA AE@=@A @E A IE

1 =CE A I =C H= GKA = II= H CK= JA >KH=? I = J @=I =I AI?= =I ? AIJ E @E?=@ = .ECKH=   AIJA ?=I GK= @ K@= I @A AI?= = F H K B=?J H f ln 2 d= ,  % ln f GKA @AFA @A @ @ L= H @A f F @A IAH GK= GKAH AH HA= A JHA  A  +DAC= I =IIE ? ? KI GKA B=?J @A A ? JH=H I AH I E JAEH I F=H= I ANF A JAI @ I B=?J HAI @A ? LAHI GK= @ K@= I @A AI?= = @A A@E = HA= E@=@A ? IAGK ?E= @A =I CH= @A =I B IE?=I H =EI IAHA ? J K=I K IA = JAHA >KH=? I = J @=I =I AI?= =I @A A@E

.ECKH=   ) >=HH= @A += J H ANA F

@A K

BH=?J=

 ! 3K= JE@=@AI @AHEL=@=I @E A I AI A D CA AE@=@A @E A IE =

) @AI?HALAH GK= JEJ=JEL= A JA I FH ?AII I = . IE?= E JH @K AEI GKA A L LA H = A JA HA = AI A JHA GK= JE@=@AI @A JEF I @EBAHA JAI 3K= JE@=@AI ? = LA ?E@=@A J L= HAI K HE? I GKA HAIK J= @= A@E @A K = @EIJ ?E= L A @A K JA F t A GKA AIJ ? >E =@ I K AHE?= A JA = B H = Lt1 8= HAI K HE? I @AIJA JEF GKA HAIK J= @A HA = AI =JA JE?=I @AIEC = IA F H GK= JE@=@AI @AHEL=@=I @A = AIF ?EA - JA HE= F @AH = I ? IJHKEH GK=EIGKAH BK AI @A L= HAI K HE? I @A GK= JE@=@AI @A >=IA = FH JE?= =IIE F HGKA =IIK E I F=H= =I GK= JE@=@AI @AHEL=@=I J= ? =I GK= JE@=@AI @A >=IA GKA = H= A JHA I L= HAI >JE@ I F=H= @K=I A@E AI JA @A FAH = A?AH E L=HE= JA GK= @ I K@=@=I =I K E@=@AI @A >=IA AI? DE@=I -IJA F IJK =@ L E@ F=H= J @=I =I GK= JE@=@AI KI=@=I F=H= = @AI?HE @A FH ?AII I B IE? I @ FA A @A 2HE ? FE @A *HE@C = @= IEC E ? ?E= =>I KJ= @= =C EJK@A HA =JEL= 5A =?AEJ=H I AIJA FHE ? FE

3K= JE@=@AI @AHEL=@=I @A = AIF ?EA

2HE ? FE @A *HE@C =

&
F II LA @A B H @= B H =

A@E AI A

A@E@=I

IJH=H GKA K = GK= JE@=@A Q I F @A IAH =?AEJ LA IA

Q = xa y b z c . . .

 &

@A x y z . . .I L= HAI K HE? I HAIK J= JAI @= A@E @=I GK= JE@=@AI @A >=IA X Y Z . . .A a b c . . .I L= HAI HA=EI GKA ?=H =?JAHE = = GK= JE@=@A @AHEL=@= = HA= E@=@A J @=I =I GK= JE@=@AI @AHEL=@=I J AIJ= B H = D=LA @ KJH= B H = F II LA F=H= = HAFHAIA J= @A GK= JE@=@AI B IE?=I JA IA GKA A J @=I =I GK= JE@=@AI @AHEL=@=I =@ EII LAEI K @ 2HE ? FE @A *HE@C = J K IEC E ?=@ B IE? JH= IF=HA JA GK=@H=@ @A K JA F K = CH= @A = B IE?= =@ EII LA =I AN EIJA A DK > A?J K FH ?AII B IE? GKA DA ? HHAIF @= GKA ?AHJ GKA GK= JE@=@AI ? C=HEJ @A K JA F I GK= JE@=@AI B IE?=I =@ EII LAEI F HGKA IA K@=H I = K E@=@A @A >=IA F=H= = A@E @A JA F I = H= @A @K=I A@E AI @AII= GK= JE@=@A FAH = A?A E L=HE= JA

log log

x /a y /a

log log

x y

+ log a log = + log a log

x y

,E A I

@A = K E@=@A @A A@E A a B=?J H @A AI?= = 3K= @ K = GK= JE@=@A JA K L= H K HE? GKA @AFA @A @= AI ? D= @=I K E@=@AI @A >=IA @E A I GKA JA = @E A I @AII=I K E@=@AI @A >=IA 2 H ANA F IA = K = K = GK= JE@=@A X ? HHAIF @A K L= H K HE? @A JA F @E A I GKA JA = @E A I @A JA F A AI ?HALA I [X ] = [t] 1II IEC E ?= GKA GK= @ IA K@= = AI?= = @= II= A@E AI? DA @ K HA CE ?K = K E@=@A a LA AI A H GKA = K E@=@A = JAHE H L= H K HE? @A X =K A J= @A K B=?J H a ,A K = B H = CAH= @A =? H@ ? 2HE ? FE @A *HE@C = F=H= GK= GKAH GK= JE@=@A Q =@ EII LA JA I = HA =
D1 D2 D3 1 2 3 1 d2 d3 Q = xd 1 x2 x3 . . .y1 y2 y3 . . .z1 z2 z3 . . .

 '

@A xi yi zi . . .i = 1, 2, . . . @AIEC = L= HAI K HE? I =II ?E=@ I I GK= JE@=@AI @A >=IA X Y Z . . .A di Di i . . .i = 1, 2, . . . I AH I HA=EI 5A K@=H I = K E@=@A @A >=IA @A X F H K B=?J H @A AI?= = aX Y F H K B=?J H @A AI?= = aY Z F H K B=?J H @A AI?= = aZ . . .A J L= H @A 3 F=II= = IAH

Q = aQ Q
@A

,
i

 

aQ = (aX )

di

(aY )

Di

(aZ )

...

 

K IA = Q JH= IB H = IA ? K = GK= JE@=@A @A >=IA A GKA F=H AJH @A AI?= = AIJ HA =?E =@ F H ? =I AI?= =I aX aY

 ! 3K= JE@=@AI @AHEL=@=I @E A I AI A D

CA AE@=@A @E A IE

'

aZ . . .@A >=IA ) = C= A JA = GKA =? JA?A ? =I K E@=@AI @A >=IA X Y Z . . .@E A I A J GKA = GK= JE@=@A @AHEL=@= Q JA = @E A I [Q] = [X ]
di

[Y ]

Di

[Z ]

...

   GKA

) J JK @A ANA F LA = I GKA IA F=II= ?=I @= FHAII @A E@= ? = B H = =F E?=@= F H K E@=@A @A IKFAHB ?EA

P =
) B H = F H IK= LA

F S

.
AMJ

@=@= FA = AE @A

F = ma
@A m = =II= A a = =?A AH= L=HE= @= LA ?E@=@A

,
-IJ= JE = @A E@= ? =

a=
A = LA ?E@=@A

dv dt dx dt

, .

v=
JAH I @A @E A I AI

[v ] = [L][t]1
@A [L] A [t] @AIEC = =I @E A I AI @A ?

,
FHE A J A JA F A

[a] = [L][t]1 /[t] = [L][t]2

GKA AL= IACKE JA @E A I F=H= = B H =

[F ] = [M ][L][t]2
HAFHAIA J= @ [M ] = @E A I I F=H= = FHAII @A =II= .E = A JA >JA I = @E A

[P ] = [M ][L][t]2 [L]2 = [M ][L]1 [t]2

AIJ= ? IJHK =IIK E I E F E?EJ= A JA GKA =I II=I K E@=@AI @A >=IA AH= ? FHE A J L JA F t A = =II= M - LA @AIJ=I F @AH = I JAH AI? DE@ = LA ?E@=@A V JA F t A = =II= M GKA AL=HE= =

[a] = [V ][t]1 [S ] = [V ] [t]

2 2 1

, , [t]
3

[P ] = [M ][V ]

.
AI = =I

B ?E LAHE ?=H GKA = I = @A GK= JE@=@AI @AHEL=@=I @= @E A I K = GK= JE@=@A @AHEL=@= ? = AI = @E A I



A@E AI A

A@E@=I

GKA EII =? JA?A F=H= FH @KJ K = H= @AIIA JEF @A GK= JE @=@AI - F=HJE?K =H F @A =? JA?AH GKA = H= @A @K=I GK= JE@=@AI @AHEL=@=I FAH = A = E L=HE= JA FAH= JA K = K@= = @A AI?= = @=I K E@=@AI @A >=IA ? =? JA?A F H ANA F = HA = Q = F t/mv A JHA K = B H = F JA F t = =II= m A = LA ?E@=@A v  AIIA ?=I @E A I GKA Q JA @E A I  A AI?HALA I [Q] = 1 2 H @A E K = GK= JE@=@A =@E A IE = JA @E A I  + LE I = JAHE H A JA BK AI AIFA?E=EI ? =I JHEC JHE ?=I C=HEJ I AJ? IA ? F HJ= ? GK= JE@=@AI @AHEL=@=I @ I =HCK A J I - ? IAGK ?E= GK= @ AIJ=I BK AI =F=HA?A = @AI?HE @ I > A?J I K BA A I = E?= F IIE>E E@=@A F=H= ALEJ=H E ? IEIJ ?E=I C=H= JEH GKA I =HCK A J I I GK= JE@=@AI @AHEL=@=I @A @E A I  -II=I BK AI AIFA?E=EI J F EI @A IAH GK= JE@=@AI B IE?=I =@E A IE =EI ? =HCK A J I ECK= A JA =@E A IE =EI B=?J @A J @=I =I GK= JE@=@AI @ AI JEF  A F HJ= J @= AI = @E A I  JAHA @A IA ? F HJ=H @= AI = B H = HAIJHE CA =I HA = AI GKA F II LA AIJ=>A A?AH A JHA =I GK= JE@=@AI B IE?=I -I J=I HA = AI I AIJ=>A A?E@=I =JH=L I @A ? F=H= AI A A F=HJE?K =H =JH=L I @A AGK= AI @ JEF

Q0 = f (Q1 , Q2 , . . ., Qn )

 !

0 CA AE @=@A @E A IE =

+ F=H= F @AHA IAH ? F=H=@ I HAIK J=@ @= BK f A Q0 J @A HAFHAIA J=H GK= JE@=@AI B IE?=I @= AI = @E A I GK= GKAH AGK= B IE?= JA @A IAH @E A IE = A JA D C A= = LAH@=@A AIJA K @ I FHE AEH I FH ?A@E A J I GKA IA @ALA IACKEH F=H= LAH E ?=H IA = @AI?HE @ I BA A I B IE? I AIJ ? HHA?J= AI GKA I=E>= I =@= I >HA K = @=@= AGK= B IE?= F II LA AIJ=>A A ?AH = IK= L= E@=@A =FA =I LAHE ?= @ = D CA AE@=@A @E A IE = FH ?A@E A J = IACKEH KEJ IE F AI  LAHE ?=H A GK= GKAH I IA J @ I I JAH I @= I = @A GK= JE@=@AI ANEIJA JA = AGK= =J = AI = @E A I JHE?=I C=H =@E A IE =EI J = AI =

LAHE ?=H F=H= J @=I =I BK AI AIFA?E=EI JHEC EJ ANF A ?E= AJ?  IA I IAKI =HCK A J I I ! = A JA LAHE ?=H IA = > I I =@ I @= HA = @E A I AJ @ CE= ? IE@AHA I = HA =

2=H= E KIJH=H =

x0 > x1 sin

x2 x3 x4

+ x5

F=H= GKA IA = IE?= A JA L E@= JA

I @A JAH

x0 x1 A x5 J x2 x3 A x4 J

@A JAH = @A JAH =

AI = @E A I AI = @E A I

 ! 3K= JE@=@AI @AHEL=@=I @E A I AI A D

CA AE@=@A @E A IE



) IEJK= =EI ? F E?=@= @A ? =HE ?=H GK= @ = HA = ANEIJA L= HAI K HE? I ?K = HECA JA K = EC= =F=HA JA ? =I K E@=@AI @A >=IA 1 =CE A I GKA JA I @ EI >IAHL=@ HAI A@E @ ANFAHE A J= A JA @A B H = E @AFA @A JA = GKA@= @A K ? HF K F HJKCK I A KJH E C I ) > I D= F=H= = @EIJ ?E= x FAH? HHE@= A BK @ JA F t ?DAC= @ E @AFA @A JA A JA IACKE JA ? ? KI

>IAHL=@ H A >IAHL=@ H A

2 HJKC= x = 4.9t2 1 C =JAHH= x = 16.1t2

H= BA A @= GKA@= @A K ? HF K FH ?AII K ELAHI= = 6AHH= = A I @A FAGKA =I KJK= AI HAIK J= JAI @A L=HE= AI ?=EI = @EIJHE>KE @=I =II=I = LE E D= =  =@= GKA FAH EJ= KIJE ?=H K B=?J H 4 = ? IJ= JA K HE?= @ =@ @EHAEJ @= AGK= ) E?= ANF E?= F II LA HAIE@A = AI? D= @EBAHA JA @A K E@=@AI @A >=IA @ I @ EI >IAHL=@ HAI + ABAEJ >IAHL=@ H F HJKCK I KI K ? K E@=@AI @A >=IA F=H= ? FHE A J AJH m A F=H= JA F IACK @ s A GK= J >IAHL=@ H E C I KI K F f t A IACK @ + = ? LAHI AJH F=H= F A L LA K B=?J H ! & EII KIJE ?= F A = A JA = @EBAHA = @A L= HAI K HE? I =I AGK= AI A ? JH=@=I FA I >IAHL=@ HAI 2=H= ALEJ=H AIJA JEF @A FH > A =I @ALA IA F H EII IACKEH IACKE JA FH ?A@E A J @A *HE@C = F=H= D CA AE = @A K = AGK= B IE?=  IK>IJEJKEH I ? A ?EA JAI K @E A I @AI? DA?E@= HE? I = AGK= F H? IJ= JAI @A

J @ @A CA AE =

@AJAH E =H =I @E A I AI @AII=I ? @= D CA AE@=@A @E A IE =

IJ= JAI =JH=L I @= E F IE

! @AJAH E =H I L= HAI K HE? I @=I ? IJ= JAI =JH=L I @= D=H E = ? I L= HAI HECE =EI GK= @ =I K E@=@AI @A >=IA AI? DE@=I I =I AI =I GKA =I KI=@=I = AGK= @A F=HJE@= ? JA @ I L= HAI K HE? I ) AGK= = JAHE H @A GKA@= @A K ? HF ?= F CH=L JE? @ALAHE= F EI IAH AI?HEJ= K @AIJA FHE ? FE I > = B H =

x = ct2

c = 4.9 ms2

 "
+ IJ= JA B IE?=

GKA ALEJ=HE= J @= = = >ECKE@=@A GK= J HECA @= ? IJ= JA K HE ?= c ) = ? IJ= JA c K = ? IJ= JA B IE?= ?K L= H K HE? ?= N GK= @ IA AI? DA IEIJA = @A K E@=@AI @A >=IA + ?AEJ I ? @A B H = AL= J= K FH > A = E JAHAII= JA F=H= =I GK= JE@=@AI @AHEL=@=I + ABAEJ = B H = K = GK= JE@=@A B IE?= FAHBAEJ= A JA =@=FJ=@= = JAH K = K E@=@A @A >=IA IA A D= = @ GKA =? JA?A ? ? FHE A J K JA F 5=>A I ECK= A JA GKA = =F E?=H K = B H = = K ? HF @A =II= m A A F @A HA=CEH J = @

A@E AI A

A@E@=I

K LE A J ? =?A AH= a IACK @ = AE @A AMJ F = ma ,AFA @A @ @= K E@=@A @A >=IA AI? DE@= F=H= = B H = = B H = =EI CAH= @= AE F = cma , A GKA c K =? IJ= JA B IE?= @A @E A I AI

[c] =

[F ] = [F ][M ]1 [L]1 [t]2 [M ][L][t]2

3K= JE@=@AI @AHEL=@=I @A = AIF ?EA

GK= @ IA AI? DA K E@=@AI @A >=IA @A B H = =II= ? FHE A J A JA F =@= I E FA@A ? JK@ @A AI? DAH = K E@=@A @A >=IA @A B H = @A J= B H = GKA c = 1 A IA =IIE B H = B H = F=II= = JAH @E A I AI [M ][L][t]2 1IJ = HA= E@=@A =J @AIA LA ? AIJ= AI? D= @= ? IJ= JA B IE?= >HEC= I = K E@=@A @A B H = = JAH K = HA = AIFA? ?= ? =I K E@=@AI @A =II= ? FHE A J A JA F AI I ?=I I A GKA = B H = FH @K A DK LE A J 3K= JE@=@AI ? = B H = GKA IA JH= IB H = A GK= JE@=@AI @AHEL=@=I =JH=L I @= AI? D= @A K = K E@=@A JEL=@= F H K = AE B IE?= @AIEC = IA F H GK= JE @=@AI @AHEL=@=I @A = AIF ?EA 8AHA I =EI =@E= JA KJH I ANA F I @= KJE E@=@A @AIJA ? ?AEJ

 " 5EIJA =I @A K E@=@AI

7 IEIJA = @A K E@=@AI @A E@ F H K ? K J @A GK= JE@=@AI F=@H K J= A JA ? ? K J @A FAH= AI A?AII HE F=H= ? IJHKEH J @=I =I K E@=@AI @AHEL=@=I @A FHE AEH= A IACK @= AIF ?EA 2=H= ? IJHKEH K IEIJA = @A K E@=@AI FHA?EI= I F HJ= J @A @A EH  7 ? K J ? F AJ @A GK= JE@=@AI >A@A?A @ I FAH= AI @A ? F=H= A I = A F=H= ?=@= K = @=I @AII=I GK= JE@=@AI K = K E@=@A F=@H ? K J @A K E@=@AI @AHEL=@=I >JE@=I =JH=L I @A AGK= AI @A @A E ?=I @A K E@=@AI @A FHE AEH= AIF ?EA K =JH=L I @=I AEI B IE?=I E F E?=@=I ?=I @A K E@=@AI @A IACK @= AIF ?EA + >LE I IEIJA =I @A K E@=@AI =EI =JKH=EI I I GKA J ? K E@=@AI A A A J=HAI GK= JE@=@AI ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I FH FHE=I @ IAH DK = -IJAI IEIJA =I AL= J= F H KJH =@ FH > A = @A =I K E@=@AI @A >=IA F @AHA AIJ=H =@=FJ=@=I AI?= = @ I BA A I B IE? I A = EIA 2 H EII AI ANEIJA D A IEIJA =I @AIA D=@ I F=H= = @AI?HE @A BA A I AI?= = IK>=J E?= ? BA J AJH # 15 . 10  K AI?= = @ II 7 ELAHI =?JK= ? = K  O '"$%!"% #& &  -IIAI IEIJA =I HA A?JA I E EJAI @= II= ?=F=?E@=@A @A A@E -NEIJA A J @ ?=I K IEIJA = =@ FJ=@
#

6= >

@AIEC =@ F H BAH E

 " 5EIJA =I @A K E@=@AI

K ELAHI= A JA @AIEC =@ F H 5EIJ A 1 JAH =JE = K IEIJA = 51 A L LA @ ? K E@=@AI AJH F=H= ? FHE A J I E CH= = F=H= =II=I A IACK @ F=H= JA F I A JHA K ? K J @A KJH=I GK= JE @=@AI F=H= A@E @A E JA IE@=@A K E I= JA FAH=JKH= E JA IE@=@A @A ? HHA JA A AH @A F=HJ ?K =I = 6=>A =   AIJ EIJ=@=I =I K E@=@AI @A >=IA K J= A JA ? JEF A I > = 6=>A =  E @E?= I = CK =I K E@=@AI @AHEL=@=I 3K= JE@=@A + FHE A J =II= AJH E CH= = C A 5 > ,A E

!

6A F

IACK @

+ HHA JA A ? JHE?=

) F HA

6A FAH=JKH= 3K= JE@=@A @A IK>IJ ?E=

A LE A

1 JA IE@=@A K E I=

?= @A =

?@

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

6=>A =   7 E@=@AI @A >=IA @ 5EIJA = 1 JAH =?E

"

A@E AI A

A@E@=I

-I?= = =>I KJ= @A JA FAH=JKH=I

AIJA IEIJA = = JA FAH=JKH= F H ANA F A@E@= KI= @ = ?D= =@= AI?= = =>I KJ= HAIK J= JA @= ? F=H= A =@E A IEI JA =I B IE? I J @=LE= = ?= @A = A@E@= @A B H = =>I KJ= ? A AHCE= H=@E= JA ? JE@= K @=@ CK I E@ $ GKA E JH @K HAGKEIEJ @A IAH = F H @AII= A AHCE= F=II LA @A IAH FAH?A>E@= FA D DK = @AI=F=HA?AK F HJ= J = AI?= = DK = = = @A E @=I K E@=@AI @A >=IA 3K= JE@=@A .HAGK ?E= HA= )?A AH= . H = 2HAII 6H=>= D - AHCE= 2 J ?E= +=HC=% 6=>A =  ,A E ,E A I I1
2

A DAHJ 0    AMJ   F=I?= 2 KA  M=JJ 9 ? K > + =

 ) dxdy L @2 N @J2 . = 2 . ) 9 F dx @9 @J 3 Idt

I2 C I2

I1 )I

) CK =I K E@=@AI @AHEL=@=I @ 5EIJA = 1 JAH =?E

4AF=HA IA J= > GKA A FAH = A?A IEIJA = 51 ? K E@=@A @A >=IA F=H= AIFA?E ?=H AH @A > A?J I I ? J= I K = K =I A K E@=@AI @ AH @A )L C=@H I?D E@J nA nA = 6.02214179(30) 1023  JA @ A J= J @A IA AIFA?E ?=H GKA ? J=@  J I ?K =I AJ? -IJA AH JA K = E F HJ ?E= BK @= A J= F=H= = @A E @A K = @=I GK= JE@=@AI @A >=IA = I=>AH E CH= = AHH HA =JEL = A@E @A nA = nA /n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
CK I E@ CK AIF= JHE@E A IE = GKA K > A?J IK>A JA @A K @=@ F J $ I @AIEC = = E JA IE@=@A @A ? HHA JA A ?JHE?= & = HA= E@=@A = E?= K E@=@A F=@H F=H= = GK= EII =? JA?A AJH A IA CK @ AIJ =II ?E=@ I =?JK= A JA = JH= IE AI A JHA LAEI =J E? I HAFH @KJ LAEI A GK= GKAH => H=J HE
$

 " 5EIJA =I @A K E@=@AI

I @AIA L LE A J I @= . IE?= I I ?K I :1: A :: AL=H= @AI? >AHJ= @A K ? K J KEJ E F HJ= JA @A ? IJ= JAI B IE?=I K E LAHI=EI K IA = GK= JE@=@AI ?K L= H AI F=H= J @ I I > IAHL=@ HAI K = LA IEIJA = @A K E@=@AI AI? DE@ -NA F I I = LA ?E@=@A @= K L ?K ? = ? IJ= JA @A 2 = ? D K = ? IJ= JA @A * J = kB 0=LA @ K ? K J @A CH= @A =I ?K L= H E @AFA @A JA @ >IAHL=@ H = JA J= CH= @A @A KI=H AIJ=I CH= @A =I ? >=IA F=H= =I II=I A@E AI =I?A =IIE IEIJA = =JKH= @A K E@=@AI A GKA AII=I CH= @A =I I J =@=I ? K E@=@AI @A >=IA AIJA IEIJA = =I K E@=@AI I @A E@=I' @A J= B H = GKA = c = 1 @A = h/2 + AIJ= AI? D= KI= @ = ? A>HA HA = @A -E IJAE E = mc2  JA I [E ] = [M ] 7I= @ = HA = J= > @A -E IJAE HA =?E = @ = A AHCE= A = BHAGK ?E= E = LA I GKA [E ] = [ ] = [t]1 ,EJ @A KJH @ J= J = =II= ? JA F F @A IAH ANFHAII I A BK @A K E@=@AI @A A AHCE= .E = A JA IA ? IE@AH=H I = HA = A JHA ? FHE A J @A @= A = BHAGK ?E= @A K = @= K E I= = c ? ? K I GKA [] = [L] = [ ]1 = [t] K IA = ? FHE A J I F @A IAH A@E@ I A K E@=@AI @A JA F K A E LAHI @A K E@=@AI @A A AHCE= 4AF=HA IA = B H = ? =I GK= JE@=@AI @A >=IA AIJ JH= IB H =@=I A GK= JE@=@AI @AHEL=@=I @A IA CK @= AIF ?EA F H LE= @=I HA = AI B IE?=I KI=@=I IEIJA = =JKH= @A K E@=@AI JA = A H A L= J=CA @A B= AH @AI=F=HA?AH @=I AGK= AI =I ? IJ= JAI c A J @ I I IAKI FH @KJ I GKA HAIK J= A ANFHAII AI KEJ =EI IE F AI A JH= IF=HA JAI + @EIIA I K IEIJA = @A K E@=@AI JA @A JAH K ? K J ? F AJ @A K E@=@AI @A >=IA H= JA @ IEIJA = 51 A IEIJA = @A K E@=@AI =JKH=EI @A HAFHAIA J=H I AI I BA A I B IE? I JA @A IAH F II LA ? LAHJAH I L= HAI A@E@ I A JHA I @ EI IEIJA =I ) II @EIF H F=H= AII= ? LAHI JA I =J = A J

#

+ IJ= JAI K ELAHI=EI

[c] = [L][t]1

, .

[ ] = [E ][t] = [M ][L]2 [t]1

-IJA IEIJA = JA I K E?= A JAH I @A [L] A [t] = A I GKA AI? D= I K K = K E@=@A F=H= = =II= K K = K E@=@A F=H= = A AHCE= @=@ GKA IEIJA = =JKH= [E ] = [M ] 6H=@E?E = A JA A . IE?= K? A=H A @A 2=HJ ?K =I KI= IA B=?J @A = =II= A HAF KI @ FH J  IAH 1/A8 F=H= N=H = K E@=@A @A A AHCE= ,AIEC A I FA @E?A (un) =I CH= @A =I A@E@=I IEIJA = =J KH= @A K E@=@AI A FA @E?A (SI ) =I A@E@=I A 51 7I=H = c = 1
' ) ? IJ= JA FHABAHE@= = D F H AII= ? >E = =F=HA?AH KEJ BHAGKA JA A JA = @AI?HE @ I BA A I AI?= = E?H I? FE?=  ,A IJH=HA I AIJ= HA = FH NE ?=F JK  7I=@= A=@= A JA = @AI?HE @ ABAEJ B J A ?JHE? ? LAHA I =EI BHA JA  A A?JH L J eV  @A E@ ? = A AHCE= =@GKEHE@= F H K A A?JH ELHA GK= @ =?A AH=@ F H K = @EBAHA = @A F JA ?E= A A?JH IJ JE?= @A  8 J 1eV = 1.60217653(14) 1019  ?=I FHAIA JA  /A8= 109 A8

$
IEC E ?= GKA = K E@=@A @A A@E@= @A LA ?E@=@A

A@E AI A
c
K IA =

A@E@=I

v (un) =
2 H KJH =@ = =II= FH J m0 K IA =

v (SI ) c
BK

.
@= =II= A

 # HAF KI @

A@E@= A

m(un) =

m(SI ) m0
(SI )

m(SI ) c2 E0
(SI )

 $

@A KI I @A L = HA = @A -E IJAE E0 = m0 c2 A JHA = A AHCE= A = =II= L E@= F=H= ? HF I A HAF KI 2 H KJH =@ = HA = E = @ I = K E@=@A @A JA F GKA = BHAGK ?E= = CK =H HAFHAIA J= E LAHI @ JA F A?AII HE F=H= = I?E = ? F AJ= @A K = @= A? E?= 3K JE?= ? LAHA I =EI =@E= JA = ?=@= F=HJ ?K = AIJ =II ?E=@= K = @= @A =J HE= ?K = A AHCE= AIJ =II ?E=@= BHAGK ?E= F H AIJ= HA = @A -E IJAE 2 HJ= J F=H= K FH J JA I

E0
GKA E F E?=

(SI )

t0

(SI ) 1

 %

t(un) =

t(SI ) t0
(SI )

E0

(SI ) (SI ) t

 &

2=H= A ? JH=H =I CH= @A =I 51 ? HHAIF @A JAI I A@E@=I IEIJA = =JKH= >=IJ= =C H= HAI LAH IEIJA = ? IJEJK @ FA =I AGK= AI  $  % A  & (SI ) v = cv (un) (SI ) t = (SI ) t(un)  ' E0 (SI ) (SI ) E0 m = c2 m(un) 1IJ =E @= = JE = F= =LH= = I K @ FH > A = F HGKA 5EIJA = 1 JAH =?E = KI= ? FHE A J I A = LA ?E@=@A ? K E@=@A @A >=IA =I = FHE AEH= AGK= A  ' F @A IAH HAAI?HEJ= =B H = l(SI ) l(un) = c ,   t(SI ) t(un) @A l A t @AIEC = ? FHE A J A JA F HAIFA?JEL= A JA 6A I A J t(SI ) l(SI ) = c (un) l(un) = c (SI ) l(un) ,   t E
0

K KI= @ @A

L = HA =

(SI ) E0

(SI ) m0 c2

l(SI ) =

(SI ) m0 c

l(un)



 " 5EIJA =I @A K E@=@AI

I B=?J HAI @A ? LAHI J K = E JAHFHAJ= B IE?= E F HJ= JA ?K IEC E ?=@ ?=H J J= A JA ? =H GK= @ =EI =@E= JA AIJK@=H I A? E?= 3K JE?=
m0 c

%

? FHE A J @A @= @A + FJ F H =IIE @E AH @ IAK @E AJH 0.211 1015

@ FH J GKA K = A@E@= IAK L= H A K E@=@AI 51 @=

m0 c2

JA F GKA = K @A H= = FAH? HHAH K ? FHE A J @A @A + FJ - K E@=@AI 51 IAK L= H 0.07 1023 I = =II= A HAF KI @ FH J 1.672 1027 C K E@=@AI 51

m0

IAK L= H

)I AGK= AI  ' A   IJH= I =I K E@=@AI @A >=IA @ IEIJA = =JKH= F @ = c = 1 =I =II=I I A@E@=I A K E@=@AI @= =II= @ FH J A I ? FHE A J I A I JA F I I A@E@ I A E LAHI I @AII= =II= = HA= E@=@A JK@ A@E@ A K E@=@AI @A F J ?E=I @A m0 K 1 m0 ) 6=>A =  ! IJH= I =I ? HHAIF @ ?E=I A JHA =I K E@=@AI @ I IEIJA =I 51 A =JKH= 8A = I = CK I ANA F I @A ? LAHI

-NA F

) K E@=@A @A @EIJ ?E=I AI?= = E?H I? FE?= ? LE I BA J AJH 2=H= ANFHE EH AIJ= K E@=@A A K E@=@AI =J KH=EI JA I @A @ELE@EH FA ? FHE A J @A @= @A + FJ @ FH J 1015 /0.211 1015 5 GeV1 ) K E@=@A @A HA= KI=@= AI?= = E?H I? FE?= >=H b 1b = 1024 cm2 7I= @ I B=?J HAI @A ? LAHI ? ?K I GKA  ? = 5.07 1013 GeV 1 2 HJ= J  ? 2 = 2.57 1027 GeV2 K IA = 1 >= 2.57 103 GeV2 K =E @=  /A82 = .389 > - JAH I @ BA J AJH  .2 = 10 > /H= @A = ? FHE A J =II= JA F A J E A=H A AHCE= 7 E@=@AI =JKH=EI /A81 /A8 /A81 /A8 /A8 7 E@=@AI 51



-NA F

cGeV1 GeVc2 GeV1 GeVc1 /A8

6=>A =  ! 4A = 1 JAH =?E =

A JHA =I K E@=@AI @ IEIJA = =JKH= A @ 5EIJA =

+ HABAHE I IEIJA = =JKH= @A K E@=@AI A E E = @=I AGK= AI B IE?=I J @ I I B=?J HAI @A c K GKA F II= AIJ=H FHAIA JAI 2=H= I HAA ? JH=H >=IJ= = = EI=H @E A IE = A JA = AGK= IA = GK= JE @=@A A L LE@= B H K ? FHE A J JA @A IA K JEF E?=H HAIK J=@ F H /c IA B H K JA F F H /c2 A =IIE F H @E= JA 2 @A I @AIJA @ HA= E =H J @ I I II I ? ?K I AIGKA?A @ A c I=>A @ GKA F II LA HA?KFAH=H HAIK J=@ ? HHA?J = =JH=L I @= E ? KI @ I B=?J HAI @A ? LAHI A?AII HE I

&

A@E AI A

A@E@=I

 # ) ) EIA ,E A IE *K? E CD=

= A

6A HA = @A

) DEF JAIA BK @= A J= IK> =?A JA AJ @ CE= @= = EIA @E A IE = GKA = HA = A JHA =I GK= JE@=@AI B IE?=I A C L E@= E @A FA @A JA A JA @= =C EJK@A @=I K E@=@AI KI=@=I ? F=@H @A A @E@= 2=H= IA F @AH ANF H=H ? F AJ= A JA AIJ= DEF JAIA JA I @A E JH @K EH K ? K J E F HJ= JA @A ? ?AEJ I ) JAI @A FH IIACKEH ? L J @=LE= = AHJ=H AEJ H F=H= K = E EJ= E F HJ= JA @= AJ @ CE= GKA =C H= L= I E JH @K EH ) = EIA @E A IE = FAH EJA K E?= A JA @AJAH E =H = @AFA @ ?E= @A K = @=I GK= JE@=@AI B IE?=I @ FH > A = HA =JEL= A JA I KJH=I GK= JE@=@AI A C 5A BA A JA @K=I GK= JE@=@AI HA AL= JAI E @AFA @A JAI = = EIA @E A IE = FAH EJA A ? JH=H = HA = ? =I KJH=I GK= JE@=@AI A C 2 H ANA F D A DK = B H = KI= @ = EIA @E A IE = @A @AJAH E =H =I CH= @A =I v0 A z0 K = AGK= >A ? DA?E@= ? = @= GKA@= @ I CH=LAI

1 z (t) = z0 + v0 t + gt2 2

@A g HAFHAIA J= = =?A AH= @= CH=LE@=@A 5A = S = {Q1 , . . ., Qn } K ? K J @A GK= JE@=@AI B IE?=I HA = ?E =@=I ? K = KJH= GK= JE@=@A B IE?= Q0
+ ? K J F AJ

,A

E ? K J S @E IA ? F AJ IA K = LA AIFA?E ?=@ L= H A@E@ @ I IAKI A A A J I A DK = KJH= GK= JE@=@A F @A =BA?J=H L= H A@E@ @= GK= JE@=@A Q0 ? = GK= AIJ HA =?E =@=I
7 ? K J ? F AJ @A GK= JE@=@AI F @A IAH HA@K @= JA IA JE@ A GKA = = JAH= @A K = @=I L=HE LAEI A A E ? K @=I F @A = JAH=H KJH= K KJH=I L=HE LAEI @A S 2=H= GKA = AJ @ CE= @= = EIA @E A IE = BK ?E A @A B H = A ?EA JA E F HJ= JA GKA EII =? JA = @= @ HECA @A E @A ? K J E @AFA @A JA

+ K J E @AFA @A JA

@A GK= GKAH K

,A

K J S @E IA E @AFA @A JA IA = = JAH= @ L= H @ I IAKI A A A J I E KE I >HA L= H @ I KJH I IK>? K J S = {Q1 , . . ., Qk } S S @A

+ IE@AHA I K knAA A J I
+ K J @E A IE = A JA E @AFA @A JA 5K>? K J ? F AJ

,A

E IK>? K J S @E IA @E A IE = A JA E @AFA @A JA IA A DK @ I IAKI A >H I JA K = @E A I GKA F II= IAH ANFHAII= A JAH I @=I @E A I AI @ I HAIJ= JAI A >H I
I =E @= E JH @K EH = @A ? F AJ F=H= IK>? K J S

8=

E IK>? K J S @E IA ? F AJ IA = @E A I @A GK= GKAH @=I GK= JE@=@AI A {Qk+1 , . . ., Qn } E ? K @=I ? F A A J @A S F @A IAH ANFHAII= A JAH I @=I @E A I AI @=I GK= JE@=@AI @A S

,A

#))

EIA ,E A IE

= A

6A HA = @A *K? E CD=
I =C H= E JH @K EH JA HA = BK

'

)H =@ I @AIJAI ? ?AEJ I F @A @= A J= @= = EIA @E A IE = !

6A HA = @A *K? E CD=

3K= @ K = HA = ? F AJ= A JHA n GK= JE@=@AI B IE?=I @E A IE =EI ANFHAII= I > B H = =@E A IE = AH @A GK= JE@=@AI E @AFA @A JAI GKA E JAHL = HA = HA @K E@ @A n F=H= n k @A k AH NE @A GK= JE@=@AI @E A IE = A JA E @AFA @A JAI @ ? K J HECE =

6A HA =

,A

J= A= A JA = IK= F=II I

IJH=

8=

I @A IJH=H AIJA JA HA = E JH @K E @ IE K AJ @ CE= @A =F E?= 1II BAEJ A GK=JH

2=II  -I? D= @ ?

K J ?

F AJ @A K E@=@AI E @AFA @A JAI

-IJA IACKH= A JA F=II =EI E F HJ= JA A J @ FH ?AII F HGK= J K AHH AIJ= F=HJA AL= E ALEJ=LA A JA = K HAIK J=@ AHH=@ = > A?JEL A ? JH=H K ? K J ? F AJ @A GK= JE@=@AI E @AFA @A JAI S = {Q1 , . . ., Qn } J= GKA

Q0 = f (Q1 , . . ., Qn )
K IA IA FHABAHEH

 !

g (Q0 , Q1 , . . ., Qn ) = 0

 "

2=H= = @A IJH= @ JA HA = L= I KJE E =H = FHE AEH= LAHI =I F=H= I ?=I I FH JE? I =EI =@E= JA L= I KJE E =H = IACK @= F H IAH =EI B ?E @A =KJ =JE =H

2=II

-I? D= @ IK>? @A JA

K J ?

F AJ @E A IE

A JA E @AFA

AIJA F=II L= I ? A =H F H EIJ=H = @E A I @A J @=I =I L=H E LAEI @ ? K J ? F AJ @A K E@=@AI E @AFA @A JAI 5A KI=H I IEIJA = 51 J @=I =I GK= JE@=@AI Qi i = 0, 1, . . ., n J = @E A I

[Qi ] = [M ]mi [L]li [t]i (i = 0, 1, . . ., n)

 #

A GKA I ANF A JAI mi li A i I AH I HA=EI HAIK J= JAI @= @A E @= GK= JE@=@A 7 = LA = EIJ=CA BAEJ= L= I AI? DAH K IK>? K J S @ ? K J E E?E= GKA IA = ? F AJ A @E A IE = A JA E @AFA @A JA 7 = LA EII BAEJ F @AHA I AI?HALAH = @E A I @A J @=I =I GK= JE@=@AI Q0 Q1 . . . Qn A BK @=I @E A I AI @=I GK= JE@=@AI @AIIA IK>? K J JA IA GKA A > H= IK>? K J S F II= A CAH= IAH AI? DE@ @A L HE=I B H =I AH @ I IAKI A A A J I F @A L=HE=H F EI
!

- *K? E CD=

2DOI 4AL "'"!"#

A@E AI A
@A KJH @ IAHE= ? F AJ A @E A IE = A 5A FAH@= @A CA AH= E@=@A L= I =IIK EH @=GKE A ? F IJ FA =I FHE AEH=I k GK= JE@=@AI @ ? K J GK= JE@=@AI @A S A Q0 F=II=H = JAH @E A IE = JA E @E= HECE A JA

A@E@=I

@AFA @A JA JA GKA S = 6 @=I =I =B H =  $ I E @E?=@ I

[Qi ] = [Q1 ]Ni1 [Q2 ]Ni2 . . .[Qk ]Nik

I ANF A JAI Ni1 Ni2 . . . Nik F @A IAH HA =?E = AGK=  # F=H= IEIJA = 51

.
=@ I ?

[Qi ] = [M ]mi [L]li [t]i = = [M ]m1 [L]l1 [t]1

GKA E F E?=
Ni1

[M ]m2 [L]l2 [t]2

Ni2

...

li = mi = ti =

3 j =1 Nij lj 3 j =1 Nij mj 3 j =1 Nij j

, , ,

A GKA FAH EJA @AJAH E =H =I JH I E ? C EJ=I Ni1 Ni2 A Ni3

2=II ! + IJHK

@=I L=HE LAEI =@E A IE

=EI

2=H= ?=@= K = @=I n k GK= JE@=@AI ? F A A J @A S A S A F=H= Q0 L= I ? IJHKEH =I CH= @A =I =@E A IE =EI

i = 0 =

Qk+i N(k+i)1 N(k+i)2 N Q1 Q2 . . .Qk (k+i)k Q0 N01 N02 0k Q1 Q2 . . .QN k .

(i = 1, . . ., n k ),

2=II " 4A@K

= @A GK= JE@=@AI

= F IIA @A L=HE= JAI =@E A IE =EI F=H= =I n k + 1 GK= JE@=@AI Q0 Qk+1 . . . Qn F @A I AI?HALAH = HA =  ! I > = B H =

0 = F (Q1 , Q2 , . . ., Qk , 1 , 2 , . . ., nk )

 %

2 H @A E  A F H ? IJHK  =I GK= JE@=@AI =@E A IE =EI FAH = A?A E L=HE= JAI F=H= GK= GKAH K@= = @A AI?= = @=I K E@=@AI @A >=IA A GK= J EII =? JA?A F=H= =I GK= JE@=@AI Q1 Q2 . . . Qk 2=H= = @EII IA @ 0 =@E A IE = HAIK J=@ @= BK F JA @A IAH F H D CA AE@=@A @E A IE = ECK= A JA =@E A IE = 1II E F E?= GKA I =HCK A J I @A F I F @A IAH =@E A IE =EI A F HJ= J

0 = F (1 , 2 , . . ., nk )

 &

K IA = = ANFHAII=H f A JAH I @A L=HE LAEI =@E A IE =EI AH @A L=HE LAEI A?AII HE F=H= @AI?HALAH FH > A = HA@K E@ @A n F=H= n k 1IJ ? F AJ= = @A IJH= @ 6A HA = @A *K? E CD=

 $ -NA F I @A =F E?=

@ 6A HA = @A *K? E CD=

JA IA GKA JA HA = =FA =I I @ E @E?= AI I >HA AH @A GK= JE@=@AI HA AL= JAI F=H= = @AI?HE @ FH > A = IA @ J J= A JA EII GK= J E@A JE@=@A @AII=I L=HE LAEI A GK= J B H = BK ?E = @A f ) E@A JE@=@A @=I L=HE LAEI @AFA @A @= II= AI? D= F=H= = ? F IE @ I ? K J I S A S 3K= J B H = BK ?E = @A f AII= I F @A IAH @AJAH E =@= K FA = ANFAHE ?E= K FA = HAI K JA HE?= ? F AJ= @ FH > A =

 $ -NA F I @A =F E?= *K? E CD=

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2=H= K >IAHL=@ H F=H=@ I GKA JA JA @AI?HALAH LE A J @A I >A A @AI?A @= > = E JAHE H @ ? > E D F=H= = @= B H = @= CH=LE@=@A LE A J @ ? > E ? K J @ ? LA ?E@=@A vx A GK= J F=H= >IAHL=@ H ? > E D LE A J @= > = IA CK @ x F=H= >IAHL=@ H I AI LE A J ? F HJ= K = LA ?E@=@A vx IACK @ AII= @EHA? ) B H = @= AGK= @ LE A J @= > = J @=LE= = AI = F=H= I @ EI >IAHL=@ HAI ? IJ=J= GKA

 4ABAHA ?E=EI E AH?E=EI 2=HJA 1

=E @= CA AH= E LA F=H= J @ I I >IAHL=@ HAI GKA IA L= ? LE A J HA?JE A A K EB H A  K IA = ? LA ?E@=@A ? IJ= JA A HA = = ? > E + ?K I =IIE GKA =I AEI @= . IE?= J = AI = B H = A J @ I I HABAHA ?E=EI E AH?E=EI 1 =CE A I =C H= GKA ? > E JH=L= >HKI?= A JA 5=>A I F H ANFAHE ?E= GKA >IAHL=@ H ? > E IAH FH A?J=@ F=H= = BHA JA =? JA?A @ AI > = 2 H ? IAGK ?E= = CH=LE@=@A @AEN= @A IAH IK ?EA JA F=H= @AI?HALAH LE A J @= > = 2=H= >JAH = @AI?HE ? HHA?J= >IAHL=@ H JA @A E JH @K EH =I IK=I AGK= AI = L= B H = FI GKA =F=HA?AK IACK @ x

!!

d2 z dt2 d2 x m 2 dt m

= g = FI

, .

 "  #

+ = E?= K@= = GKA D KLA HA =JEL= A JA IEJK= = JAHE H B E = JH=L=CA @ ? > E F JA @A AIJ=H HA =?E =@= ? = @E ?= @= LA ?E@=@A K IA =

FI = m

dvx = max dt

 $

?K = B H = =EI K = LA @EJ=@= FA = AE @A AMJ A FA B=?J @A =?JK=H = @EHA? A IA JE@ F IJ I @= L=HE= @= LA ?E@=@A ) @AEN=H @A IAH K HABAHA ?E= E AH?E= ? > E E JH @K EK = @A I?HE @ BA A KJH I B=?J HAI GKA = J H = =EI ? F E?=@= ,EH AEJ H GKA EII I =? JA?AK F HGKA ? > E JH=L K A J= J ?DAC=H ? ? KI GKA =IIE 5A ? > E = JAH=H IAK LE A J =I >IAHL=@ H I =?A AH=H = @EHA? @ ? > E = IK= @AI?HE J= > JAH @A E ? KEH = B H =  $ =F=HA?E A J @A B H =I @A E H?E= K = ? IAGK ?E= @A AIJ=H I A HABAHA ?E=EI E AH?E=EI =I = = FAHCK J=H IA AEJ H A ? H= F HGKA GKA =F=HA?AH= AII=I L=I B H =I ) FAHCK J= FAHJE A JA A = LAH@=@A AI? =HA?E@= =J D A -NFAHE A J= A JA I=>A I GKA J @ ? HF @AEN=@ = IE FH FHE JA @AH = = JAH IAK AIJ=@ @A LE A J B=?J GKA @ FA A @A 2HE ? FE @A 1 H?E= >IAHL=@ H GKA IA A ? JH= ? > E GKA JH=L= JA @AH = IACKEH IAK LE A J A F H EII FH A?J=@ F=H= = BHA JA ) HECA @AIJA BA A ? @EIIA I @AI? DA?E@= 7 = F IIE>E E@=@A @A ANF E?= @=@= FA 2HE ? FE @A =?D A @=@ F H -E IJAE DEF JAIA IACK @ = GK= =I AEI B IE?=I ?=EI I @AJAH E =@=I FA 7 ELAHI ? K J @ ) FH FHEA@=@A @A E H?E= IAHE= =IIE K = ? IAGK ?E= @= AIJHKJKH= A =HC= AI?= = @ 7 ELAHI 5A =IIE JA AIJA A J HAIF IJ= + JE K=HA I F EI = IA JEH = E H?E= @KH= JA =EI = CK JA F ? = E ? ?E= FH LA EA JA @= EC H ?E=

2HE ? FE @A 1 H?E=

2HE ? FE @A =?D

!"

) 4A =JELE@=@A @A /= E AK A =

A?

E?= + IIE?=

2HE ? FE @= 4A =JELE@=@A @A /= E AK
+ @EIIAH I ?=F JK = JAHE H 2HE ? FE @= > A?JELE@=@A =JAHE= E = IA = B H = ? I >IAHL=@ HAI ? F=H= =I IK=I A@E AI ) FHE AEH= LAHI @AIIA FH J ? @A ? LAHI @A E B H = B E @AI? >AHJ= F H /= E AK /= E AE I ?K :81 ? IJEJKE @ K @ I =EI E F HJ= JAI =H? I @= 0EIJ HE= @= . IE?= + IE@AHA I K >IAHL=@ H HABAHA ?E= @A E H?E= K0 GKA FHAI A ?E= K BA A ?= @A ? H@A =@=I x0 , y0 , z0  E IJ= JA t0 KJH >IAHL=@ H HABAHA ?E= K1 A HA = = GK= K0 IA LA ? = LA ?E@=@A V ? IJ= JA @A ? F A JAI Vx , Vy , Vz  >IAHL= AI BA A F J @A ? H@A =@=I x1 , y1 , z1  E IJ= JA t1 5A FAH@= @A CA AH= E@=@A L= I =IIK EH GKA I HABAHA ?E=EI ? E ?E @A K @=@ E IJ= JA GKA @AIEC =HA I F H HECA @ I JA F I F=H= I @ EI >IAHL=@ HAI 5ACK @ /= E AK F=H= GKA I @ EI >IAHL=@ HAI F II= ? F=H=H =I IK=I A@E AI JAH @A KI=H = HACH= @A ? LAHI x1 = x0 + Vx t0 y = y + V t 1 0 y 0 .  % z = z + V t 1 0 z 0 t = t 1 0 -IJ= AGK= F @A IAH HAB H K =@= KI= @ = @A LA?J H @A F IE A GKA = F IE @A K @=@ ALA J K HABAHA ?E= E @E?=@= F H K LA?J H ? >=IA = HECA @ HABAHA ?E= A ? ANJHA E@=@A = F IE @ ALA J LAH .ECKH=  AIIA ?=I KI= @ =I HACH=I KIK=EI F=H= LA?J HAI F @A I AI?HALAH  % = B H = ? F=?J=

6H= IB H = AI @A /= E AK

8A?J H @A F IE

r1 = r0 + V t0

 &

GKA F @A B=?E A JA IAH ? FHAA @E@= I > B H = CA JHE?= = .ECKH= GKA AIJ= AGK= I @E GKA F=H= >JAH =I ? H@A =@=I @ ALA J A@E@=I FA >IAHL=@ H A K0 >IAHL=@ H A K1 JA @A IK>JH=EH AIF= FAH? HHE@ F H K0 A JHA E IJ= JA E E?E= A E IJ= JA A GKA ? HHA ALA J 2=H= ?= ?K =H = LA ?E@=@A ? GKA IA LA ALA J E F HJ= JA JAH A ? J= GKA JA F @A ? HH ?E= @ BA A AI F=H= >IAHL=@ H A K0 A K1 1II E F E?= GKA t0 = t1 = t A GKA F HJ= J dx dx0 1 dt = dt + Vx dy0 dy1 ,  ' dt = dt + Vy dz1 dz0 dt = dt + Vz K =E @= KI= @ = @A E @= LA ?E@=@A vx 1 = vx 0 + Vx vy 1 = vy 0 + Vy vz 1 = vz 0 + Vz

 

IEC E ?=@
-IJ= AGK=

=JA

JE? @=I JH= IB H = AI @A /= E AK

=EI K = LA IAH AI?HEJ= I > = B H = LA?J HE=
AE @= =@E

!#

F @A

v1 = v0 + V

 

@A LA ?E@=@AI

@A v0 = dr0 /dt A v1 = dr1 /dt = LA ?E@=@A @ ALA J A@E@ HABAHA ?E= K0 A K1 HAIFA?JEL= A JA ) AGK=   = >A ? DA?E@= AE @= =@E @A LA ?E@=@AI @A /= E AK 4AF=HA IA = E F HJ ?E= BK @= A J= F=H= >JA @AIJA HAIK J=@ @= ECK= @=@A @ JA F F=H= J @ I I >IAHL=@ HAI 2 H ANA F

dx1 d d = (x0 + Vx t0 ) = (x0 + Vx t0 ) = vx 0 + Vx dt1 dt1 dt0

) AE @= =@E @A LA ?E@=@AI K = ? IAGK ?E= @EHA?J= @A IAH AI F=H= J @ I I >IAHL=@ HAI 5A =C H= ?= ?K =H I =I =?A AH= AI =II ?E=@=I = ALA J JH= I d2 x d2 x0 1 2 = dt2 dt 2 d2 y1 0 , = ddty 2 dt2 2 d2 z1 d z0 = dt2 dt2 K

.
JA F A ?

  

a1 = a0

 !

GKA E @E?= ? AIJ=H = I AIFAH= = =KI ?E= @A B H =I =@E?E =EI F=H= BA A I ? HHA @ A HABAHA ?E=EI E AH?E=EI ) AGK= = JAHE H IJH= = E L=HE ?E= @=I AEI @A AMJ F=H= =I JH= IB H = AI @A /= E AK

IEC E ?=@ @A /= E AK

=JA

JE? @=I JH= IB H = AI

)CHKF= @ =I ? H@A =@=I @ ALA J A K0 A K1 I > = B H = @A ? K = F @A I AI?HALAH = AGK=  % I > = B H = =JHE?E=

1 t1 x1 Vx y1 = Vy Vz z1

0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0

t0 0 x0 0 0 y0 z0 1

.
 "

5KF D= I =C H= GKA AI ALA J LEIJ F K HABAHA ?E= K2 A HA = = GK= K1 IA 2=H= AIJA >IAHL=@ H JA I ECK= A JA 1 0 0 0 t1 t2 x2 Vx 1 0 0 x1 y2 = Vy 0 1 0 y1 z1 z2 Vz 0 0 1

HK LA ?

KJH >IAHL=@ H LA ?E@=@A V

.
 #

!$

) 4A =JELE@=@A @A /= E AK A =
A JA @ A =JA 1 t2 x2 Vx y2 = Vy Vz z2 4A= E = @  "

A?

E?= + IIE?=

0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0

1 0 Vx 0 0 Vy 1 Vz
JA

0 1 0 0
I

0 0 1 0

0 t0 x0 0 0 y0 z0 1

.  $

FH @KJ @A =JHE AI 1 t2 x2 Vx + Vx y2 = Vy + Vy z2 Vz + Vz

0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

= A JA t0 x0 y0 z0

 %

?K I =IIE GKA = ? >E = @A @K=I JH= IB H = AI @A /= E AK =E @= K = JH= IB H = @A /= E AK F=H= K = LA ?E@=@A HA =JEL= V +V ? IAHE= @A AIFAH=H 2 H KJH =@ = JH= IB H = ? LA ?E@=@A HA =JEL= V = 0 K IA = = =JHE E@A JE@=@A AIF= GK=@HE @E A IE = ? IJEJK @ FA =I JH I ?= E = AI AIF= =EI JA F GK= @ K JEF E?=@= F H GK= GKAH KJH= JH= IB H = @A /= E AK @AEN= AII= JH= IB H = E L=HE= JA .E = A JA I=>A I GKA = K JEF E ?= @A =JHE AI K = FAH= =II ?E=JEL= FA GKA = =F E?= IK?AIIEL= @A JH= IB H = AI @A /= E AK JAH = AI = FH FHEA@=@A 2=H= GK= GKAH JH= IB H = @A /= E AK ANEIJA K = JH= IB H = E LAHI= GKA I L J= = ? ?=H HABAHA ?E= E E?E= 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Vx 1 0 0 Vx 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 . Vy 0 1 0 Vy 0 1 0 = 0 0 1 0 Vz 0 0 1 Vz 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 8= I @E ?=H = II= J= F=H= = GKA =EI KIK= A JA KJE E =@= AIJA ? JANJ AIJ= J= I @E?AI @=I II=I ? H@A =@=I I E @E?=@ I @A B H = ? JH=L=HE= JA K IA = = F IE @A K AN F A JA  ? BK @EH 5A = q = (q 0 , q 1 , q 2 , q 3 ) K LA?J H @A F IE AIF= JA F F=H= K ALA J ? HHA @ E IJ= JA q 0 = t ?= 1 2 3 @A ? H@A =@=I AIF=?E=EI (q = x, q = y, q = z ) A IA = (V ) = JH= IB H = @A /= E AK GKA AL= @ HABAHA ?E= K A GKA ALA J JA AII=I ? H@A =@=I F=H= HABAHA ?E= K A HA = = GK= K IA LA ? LA ?E@=@A V 6A I

q = (V )q
+ LA -E IJAE @A

, = 0, 1, 2, 3

 & @E?AI HAFAJE

@A IA =IIK A IACK @ = ? LA @A -E IJAE @ I ? HHAIF @A = K = I = K IA =

3

GKA I

q =
=0

(V )q

= 0, 1, 2, 3
@EIIA

 ' =I IACKE JAI

)I JH= IB H = AI @A /= E AK ? FH FHEA@=@AI

I =?E = JA

IEC E ?=@

=JA

JE? @=I JH= IB H = AI @A /= E AK

!%

) ? F IE @K=I JH= IB H = AI @A /= E AK (V ) (V ) = (V + V ) K = JH= IB H = @A /= E AK K IA = = ? F IE K = FAH= BA?D=@= ? K J @A J @=I =I F II LAEI JH= I B H = AI @A /= E AK ) ? F IE @A JH= IB H = AI @A /= E AK (V )(V ) (V ) = (V ) (V )(V ) )
=II ?E=JEL=

 (V ) = (V )  = (V )

=JHE E@A JE@=@A  GK=@HE @E A IE

AA A J

AKJH

+=@= JH= IB H = @A /= E AK (V ) JA K = E LAHI= 1 (V ) = (V ) (V )1 (V ) = 1 (V )(V ) = 

=JA =JE?= A JA AIJA ? K J @A FH FHEA@=@AI B= A @ ? K J @A J @=I =I JH= IB H = AI @A /= E AK K CHKF @AIEC =@ F H /HKF @A /= E AK 2=H= = @ =EI F=H= GK=EIGKAH @K=I JH= IB H = AI (V ) A (V ) JA I (V )(V ) = (V )(V ) ) ? F IE @A @K=I JH= I B H = AI @A /= E AK ? KJ=JEL= K @EJ @A KJH= B H = /HKF @A /= E AK ? KJ=JEL K =>A E= 7 = JH= IB H = @A /= E AK CA HE?= F @A IAH AI?HEJ= @= B H = 1 0 0 0 V1 1 0 0 (V ) = V2 0 1 0 =   V3 0 0 1
/HKF @A /= E AK

= + V1 J1 + V2 J2 + V3 J3 =  + V .J
@A =I =JHE AI

J1 = J2 = J3 =

0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

, ,
 

I I CAH=@ HAI @ CHKF @A /= E AK GKA FAH EJA ? IJHKEH J @ I I A A A J I @ CHKF 7I= @ = @A E @A ANF A ?E= @A K = =JHE 
2 H @A E F=H= GK= GKAH =JHE A @A @E A I F J ?E=  @A GK= GKAH =JHE A @A @E A I n n = @E A I


n n A0 =  K IA = = =JHE E@A JE@=@A @= AI =

/AH=@ HAI @ /HKF @A /= E AK

!&
A

) 4A =JELE@=@A @A /= E AK A =
m=0

A?

E?= + IIE?=

1 eA =  + A + A 2 + . . . = 2
B ?E @A IJH=H L@ -NAH? ?E

1 m A m!

$ GKA

(V ) = eV .J

!

GKA FAH EJA ANA F E ?=H =EI B=?E A JA =I FH FHEA@=@AI @=I JH= I B H = AI @A /= E AK 2=H= @=H K ANA F LA I GKA

(V )(V ) = eV .J eV

.J

= e(V +V ).J = (V + V )

"


6H= IB H = ? B H A

=I GK= = = CA AJHE?= A JA ABAEJ @A K = JH= IB H = @ CHKF @A /= E AK 2=H= FAH?A>AH L= I E =CE =H GKA JA I = C @ AEN @ I xx K ? K J @A F=@=I F=H=@=I GKA =?A @A = E JAHL= I HACK =HAI t @EC= I @A  IACK @ 4AFHAIA J=H CH= ?= A JA AIIAI ALA J I AIF= JA F GK=@HE @E A IE = F II LA =I ? = LAH@=@A = II= IEJK= I A?AIIEJ= @ AEN @ I xx A @ JA F F=H= IAH @AI?HEJ= F @A I HAIJHE CEH I = F = @A E@ FA =I ? H@A =@=I x A t 8EIJ @ F J @A LEIJ= @ HABAHA ?E= K @A =I F=@=I AIJ F=H=@=I = IAGK ?E= @A ALA J I AIF= JA F AIJ HAFHAIA J=@= AIGKAH@= = .ECKH=  1 =CE A I =C H= GKA K >IAHL=@ H K HABAHA ?E= E AH?E= K LA @ IA ? LA ?E@=@A V = (V1 , 0, 0) A HA = = K FHAIA ?E= = AI = IAGK ?E= @A ALA J I , IAK F J @A LEIJ= = IAGK ?E= @A ALA J I =F=HA?A ? AIJ HAF HAIA J=@= @EHAEJ= = .ECKH=  /A AJHE?= A JA AIF= JA F = JH= IB H = @A /= E AK ? HHAIF @A F HJ= J = K AIJEH= A J @= IAGK ?E= @A ALA J I )FAI=H @ AIJEH= A J AIF= JA F FH L ?=@ FA = =? @A K = JH= IB H = @A /= E AK ANEIJA =E @= GK= JE@=@AI GKA FAH = A ?A E L=HE= JAI F=H= J @ I I >IAHL=@ HAI 7 = >LE= A JA JA F GKA F H @A E AI F=H= J @ I A AI KJH= = @EIJ ?E= A JHA @ EI F J I q A q @A E@= F H

s2 = (x x )2 + (y y )2 + (z z )2 = q q

#

HAIK J=@ B ?E @A @A IJH=H = F=HJEH @A  % L@ -NAH? ?E $ .E = A JA I CK I I FHAIAHL=@ I ? IA F @A LAH F H ANA F A y Vy t y + Vy t yy tan = = .  $ xx x Vx t x + Vx t 1II B= @= JH= IB H = @A /= E AK K = JH= IB H = ? B H A 2=H= = @=I @ ?=I @A HABAHA ?E=EI = E =@ I @A K LE A J HA =JEL JA I =E @= @A ? IE@AH=H =I JH= IB H = AI A JHA >IAHL=@ HAI ?K I HABAHA ?E=EI AIJ HA =?E =@ I IE F AI A JA F H K = H J= 1IJ FAH EJA AIJA @AH /HKF @A /= E AK @A B H = = ? JAH K ? K J =E H @A F II LAEI HA = AI A JHA >IAHL=@ HAI

!
K
t

IEC E ?=@

=JA

JE? @=I JH= IB H = AI @A /= E AK

K
t

!'

0 0

6 x

0 0

10

12 x

.ECKH=  5AGK ?E= @A ALA J I AIF= JA F J= ? LEIJ= I HABAHA ?E=EI E AH?E=EI K A K ? LA ?E@=@A HA =JEL= V = (Vx , 0, 0) )I E D=I D HE J=EI HAFHAIA J= =I @ AIF= JA F ? AI L= H F=H= JA F + A?A I FA ?=I =EI IE F AI @A K = H J= F= A GKA I @ EI HABAHA ?E=EI A  F=HJE D= = AI = HECA A AI AEN @ I =I ?K I AEN I @ I NN A OO AIJ H @=@ I K A HA = = KJH F H K CK J= ? AIJ E @E?=@ = .ECKH= 7 LA?J H q LAH ? = H J= = IK= ? F A JA IACK @ @E ?=@= AI =? JA?A I ? F A JAI IACK @ N A O HABAHA ?E= GKA IAH HABAHA ?E=  @=@=I F H

q 1 = q 1 cos + q 2 sin q 2 = q 1 sin + q 2 cos

K A J= =JHE?E=

, ,

%

q1 q2

cos sin sin cos

q1 q2

&
=JHE @A H J=

7 = FH FHEA@=@A BK @= A J= @=I

=JHE AI @A H J=  =E @= K = H J= '

R() =
GKA ? F= >E =

cos sin sin cos

F=

@A @K=I H J= AI

R()R() = R( + )
B ?E @A @A IJH=H L@ -NAH? ?E FHEA@=@AI @A CHKF I LAHE ?=@=I FA

 !

$ GKA J @=I =I KJH=I FH ? K J @=I =JHE AI  '

"

) 4A =JELE@=@A @A /= E AK A =
? = FAH= @A K JEF E?= @EII GK= GKAH =JHE @A H J=

A?

E?= + IIE?=

KIK= A JHA =JHE AI A GKA F=H= = I=JEIB= = HA =

RT .R = 
K IA =
4A = @A H J C = E@=@A

, .

 !  ! 

RT = R1

-IJ= HA = @AIEC = IA F H HA = @A GK ?E= @EHA?J= @A K LA?J H q A IE F=II=H I @ HABAHA ?E= F=H=  H >IAHL=@ HAI I @ EI HABAHA ?E=EI AIJ @A F J I @A LEIJ= @EBAHA JAI 1II GKAH F @A = JAH=H ? = FAH= @A H J=

HJ C = E@=@A A K = ? IA IAH = JAH=@ FA B=?J @A @=@ HA =JEL= A JA = A A I = LAH AI LA?J H =FA =I @E AH GKA @K |q |2 IA K IA =
,

|q |2 = |q |2

GKA JA F H ? IAGK ?E= FHA?EI= A JA = HA =  ! L@ -NAH? ?E $ JA IA =E @= GKA @AJAH E = JA @A GK= GKAH =JHE @A H J= IA FHA ECK= =  ) =JHE  ' F @A =E @= AI?HALAH IA @= B H =

R() = cos  + i sin

GKA JA @ A ?

0 i i 0

,
?E=I @=

 !! =JHE 3  !" FAH EJA AI  !#

J= =I FH FHEA@=@AI @=I F J

3 =

0 i i 0

A KI= @ = ANF= I A I HEA @=I BK AI IA A ? IA ?HALAH IA A D= = @ GKA A I A  !

R() = ei3
/HKF 5  

8A I =IIE GKA = =JHE 3 CAH=@ H @ CHKF @A H J= AI F= = ? =IIE ?= @A - +=HJ= AIJA CHKF @AIEC = IA F H 5   5 AIJ= @ =II ?E=@ = B=?J @A =I =JHE AI JAHA @AJAH E = JA  LE @ @ B=?J @A A =I IAHA HJ C =EI A =JKH= A JA HAIK J= JA @A IAHA =JHE AI @A @E A I 2=H= CA AH= E =H AIJA HAIK J=@ = H J= AI JHE@E A IE =EI L= I ? A =H F H AI?HALAH  ' = B H = JHE@E A IE = JA @ A ? J= GKA = ? F A JA @A K LA?J H IACK @ z IA = JAH= F=H= K = H J= A J H @ AEN @ I zz cos sin 0 .  !$ R3 () = sin cos 0 0 0 1
8AH F H ANA F 9 E6 C

IEC E ?=@

=JA

JE? @=I JH= IB H = AI @A /= E AK

"

F II LA @A IJH=H GKA GK= GKAH H J= F @A IAH @A? F IJ= A JH I H J= AI A J H @A ?=@= K @ I AEN I @ HABAHA ?E= AI? DE@ ! )I HAIJ= JAI @K=I H J= AI A J H @ AEN @ I xx A yy F @A IAH A ? JH=@=I @ AI @ GKA = = JAHE H @= @ =I =JHE AI @A H J= 1 0 0 R1 () = 0 cos sin  !% 0 sin cos A

cos 0 sin 1 0 R2 ( ) = 0 sin 0 cos

 !& F= = ? KJ=

+ JH=HE= A JA = GKA =? JA?A F=H= H J= AI FKH= A JA ? >E = @A H J= AI A J H @A AEN I @EBAHA JAI JEL= 2 H ANA F

cos 0 sin R1 ()R2 ( ) = sin sin cos cos sin cos sin sin cos cos
A GK= J

 !'

cos sin sin cos sin cos sin R2 ( )R1 () = 0 sin cos sin cos cos

 "

B ?E @A IJH=H GKA HAIK J=@ @ FH @KJ @A =JHE AI GKAH A  !' GKAH A  " IA FHA K = =JHE HJ C = ? @AJAH E = JA  ) ? >E = @A JH I H J= AI J H = = IEJK= =E @= =EI ? F AN= =I ? JE K= IA FHA = IAH LAH@=@A GKA = =JHE HAIK J= JA HJ C = ? @AJAH E = JA  ? K J @=I =JHE AI @A H J= JHE@E A IE =EI ? = FAH= @A K JEF E?= B H = K CHKF L@ -NAH? ?E $ GKA IA @AIEC = ? IAHE= @A AIFAH=H F H 5 ! 4AF=HA IA GKA =I =JHE AI HJ C =EI FHAIAHL= =I @EIJ ?E=I A F HJ= J ECK= A JA I CK I A GKA F H EII I J= > JH= IB H = AI ? B H AI 6= ? A I ?=I @=I H J= AI A J H @ AEN @ I zz J= > F II LA AI?HALAH =I H J= AI A J H @ I AEN I xx A yy I > =B H = R1 () = ei1 , i 2 R2 ( ) = e ,  " R3 () = ei3 ,
-IJA HAIK J=@ ? DA?E@ F H 6A HA = @=I 4 J= AI @A -K AH @AJ= DAI LAH F H ANA F / @IJAE
!

/HKF 5 !

2=H=

=EI

"

) 4A =JELE@=@A @A /= E AK A =
@A 1 2 A 3 I @=@=I F H

A?

E?= + IIE?=

1 = 2 = 3 =
/AH=@ HAI @A 5 !

0 0 0 0 0 i 0 i 0 0 0 i 0 1 0 i 0 0 0 i 0 i 0 0 0 0 0

. .
 " 

)I =JHE AI 1 2 A 3 I I CAH=@ HAI @ CHKF 5 ! 3K= GKAH =JHE @AIJA CHKF F @A IAH >JE@ F H ? >E = @A =I = B H =  " )J =GKE =IIK E I GKA =I JH= IB H = AI @A H J= I A?= EI I @A ? LAHI @A E B H = A JHA >IAHL=@ HAI A @ EI HABAHA ?E=EI ? K = H J= HA =JEL= @A K @=@ CK 5A HA A?JEH I K F K? =IIK J ? ? K I J @=LE= GKA AII= FAH= AGKEL= A JA = AI HABAHA ?E= H @=H I LA?J HAI @A K AI CK IA JE@ F IJ " 2 @A I =IIE KI=H E @EIJE J= A JA =I =JHE AI @A H J= GKAH F=H= = ? LAHI @A @=@ I A JHA HABAHA ?E=EI H @=@ I K A HA = K KJH GKAH F=H= @AI?HALAH = H J= @A K LA?J H AI HABAHA ?E= ) H J= F=II= =IIE = IAH IE F AI A JA K = FAH= R GKA =F E?=@= = K @=@ LA?J H r JA ? HAIK J=@ LA?J H r = Rr E JAHAII= JA LAH = =? @AIJ= FAH= @A H J= I >HA K LA?J H ?=I @A K = H J= E EJAIE = 6 A I ? ANA F ?=I @A K = H J= E EJAIE = A J H @ AEN @ I zz I >HA K LA?J H r ? >=IA = HECA @ HABAHA ?E= -NF= @E @ = =JHE R3 A  " =J FHE AEH= H@A @= I HEA @A 6=O H JA I

1 d 0 1 0 =  i d 3 R3 (d) = d 0 0 1
)F E?= @ AIJ= H J= I >HA LA?J H >JA I

 "!

LA?J H H @=@ r  "" I A ? F

r = r i d 3 r
+= ?K = @ = @EBAHA A JAI

= dr = r r = i d 3 r JA

dr1 = d r2 dr2 = d r1 dr3 = 0 .

, ,

) CK I =KJ HAI @AIEC = F H JH= IB H = AI =?JEL=I

"

=I FHE AEH=I F H JH= IB H = AI F=IIEL=I A =I IACK @=I

IEC E ?=@

=JA

JE? @=I JH= IB H = AI @A /= E AK

"!

5A @A EH I LA?J H d = d e3 @A e3 LA?J H K EJ HE = C @ IA JE@ F IEJEL @ AEN @ I zz LA I GKA HAIK J=@ = JAHE H AGKEL= A JA = FH @KJ ANJAH

dr = d r =

e1 e2 e3 0 0 d r1 r2 r3

= d r2 e1 + d r1 e2

 "#

A GKA e1 A e2 HAFHAIA J= I LA?J HAI K EJ HE I IACK @ IA JE@ F I EJEL @ I AEN I @ I xx A yy HAIFA?JEL= A JA 4AIK J=@ I IA A D= JAI F @A IAH >JE@ I F=H= H J= AI E EJAIE =EI A J H @A GK= GKAH @ I AEN I + >E = @ AIJAI HAIK J=@ I LA I GKA K = H J= E EJAIE = CA HE?= @A K CK d A J H @A K AEN =H>EJH HE @AI?HEJ F H K LA?J H K EJ HE n @= B H =

dr = dn r = d r
A

 "$

GKA d = dn I=>E@ GKA FH @KJ ANJAH A JHA LA?J HAI K = FAH= =C IKE CA AHEI F EI @AFA @A @= HEA J= @ HABAHA ?E= AI? DE@ ,EJ @A KJH= B H = FH @KJ ANJAH IA = JAH= GK= @ = K HABAHA ?E= @A =F E?= = JH= IB H = @A F=HE@=@A P A GKA

P r = r
F=H= GK= GKAH LA?J H r 1II GKAH @E AH GKA F H =? H = r IA JH= IB H = K LA?J H r @A P K LA?J H

6H= IB H = @A F=HE@=@A

r = P r = r
A GK= J K FIAK@ LA?J H r K IA = @A @ EI LA?J HAI IA JH= IB H = ?

,
GKA HAIK J= @ FH @KJ ANJAH
2IAK@ LA?J H

r = P r = r

) JH= IB H = @A F=HE@=@A >LE= A JA @=@= FA = =JHE P =  5A JELAH I K = JH= IB H = R I >HA K LA?J H GKA ? IEIJA = FAH= @A F=HE@=@A P IACKE@= @A K = H J= R J= > @AIEC =@= F H H J= E FH FHE=  JA I

R = P Rr = Rr = det(R)Rr = det(R)Rr

4 J= E FH FHE=

K = LA GKA JA I det(R) = 1 A @AJAH E = JA @A K FH @KJ @A = JHE AI ECK= = FH @KJ @ I @AJAH E = JAI @A ?=@= K = @=I =JHE AI L= H @ @AJAH E = JA @= =JHE @A JH= IB H = HALA = =IIE JEF @A H J=  FH FHE= K E FH FHE= A ?=KI= A ? F HJ= A J FAH= JA = JH= IB H = @A F=HE@=@A I CAH=@ HAI @A 5 ! @A E@ I A  "  @ALE@ I FH FHEA@=@AI @=I =JHE AI @A H J= ? KJ= ,A = I ? KJ=@ H [A, B ] @A @K=I =JHE AI A A B ?

[A, B ] = A.B B.A

 "%

""

) 4A =JELE@=@A @A /= E AK A =
)F E?= @ AIJ= @A E I HA = AI @A ? KJ= = I CAH=@ HAI  "  LA
ijk

A?

E?= + IIE?=

I GKA A AI >A@A?A

[i , j ] = i

i, j, k = 1, 2, 3

 "&

4A = AI @A ? KJ=

@A ijk  ?D= =@ JA I H ? F AJ= A JA = JE IE JHE?  @A E@ @A B H = = GKA IAK L= H IA = 1 ? I = JA ? K J {i, j, k } ? JA D= K AH F=H K F=H @A FAH KJ= AI @A 1, 2, 3 2 H ANA F
213

= 1
K = FAH KJ= = @A  ?

F HGKA ? K J {2, 1, 3} ? ? K J {1, 2, 3} A GK= J

J
312

= +1

F HGKA ? K J {3, 1, 2} ? J @K=I FAH KJ= AI  ? A ? ! ? K J @=I =JHE AI @A H J= JHE@E A IE =EI =H =@ ? @K=I FAH= AI BA?D=@=I ? K J = I=>AH = K JEF E?= A ? KJ=@ H @A =JHE AI @A A K = CA>H= )I HA = AI @A ? KJ=  "& @A A = CA>H= @A 5 ! # ) E ? KI @=I H J= AI CHKF @A /= E AK GKA>H= = ? KJ=JELE @=@A FHAIA JA = LAHI E E?E= =II ?E=@= I JH= IB H = AI  % ) B H = CAH= @A K = JH= IB H = @ CHKF F=II= =IIE = IAH 1 0 0 0 V1 = ,  "' V2 V3

@A R K = =JHE @A H J= JHE@E A IE = 5A D KLAH H J= A L LE@= = =JHE R HA@K IA =JHE E@A JE@=@A JHE@E A IE = A  "' B H =  %

"

LE A J ?EH?K =H

F=

K HABAHA ?E= = F IE AIF=?E= @A K @AJAH E =@ > A?J ? LE I = JAHE H A JA E @E?=@= F H K LA?J H @A F IE r ?K = >=IA = HECA @ HABAHA ?E= ? IE@AH=@  K IA = F J @A HABAH ?E= @ >IAHL=@ H A = K F J @A HABAH ?E= > A?J A AIJK@ LAH .EC  ) LA ?E@=@A A J @=@= FA LA?J H

v=

dr dt

 #

# 3KAH CHKF GKAH = CA>H= @=I H J= AI B H= E JH @K E@ I E E?E= A JA F=H= HAI LAH = CK I FH > A =I A A? E?= =I = IK= E F HJ ?E= I J J= A JA ALE@A JA ? JANJ @= A? E?= 3K JE?= A GKA AIJ =II ?E=@= = FH FHEA@=@AI BK @= A J=EI ? IFE

"

LE A J ?EH?K =H
E J= CA JA

F=
JH= A?J HE= @ > A?J A GKA JA F H  #

"#

GKA F H @A ? F A JAI

(vx , vy , vz ) =
? ) =?A AH= JA F A F H IAK =@ @=@= J= >

dx dy dz , , dt dt dt

@A E@= ? = L=HE= @= LA ?E@=@A I > = B H = LA?J HE= F H

a=
GKA K LA?J H ? ? F

dv dt

 # 

A JAI

(ax , ay , az ) =

dvx dvy dvz , , dt dt dt

 #!

) @AI?HE A ? H@A =@=I ?=HJAIE= =I GKA =?=> I @A E JH @K EH IA FHA L E@= =I A IA FHA = =EI A? E?= 2=H= ANA F E ?=H AIJA B=?J J A I ?=I @A K ? HF LA @ IA K = JH= A?J HE= ?EH?K =H K F = + >IAHL=@ H JA = E>AH@=@A @A AI? DAH IEIJA = @A ? H@A =@=I GKA =EI DA ? L F @A AI? DAH K HABAH A ?E= ? = HECA ?A JH @= ?EH?K BAH ?E= @AIA D=@= FA ? HF = C @= IK= JH= A?J HE= A A GKA F = @AII= AI = JH= A?J HE= @A E@ FA I AEN I xx A yy - > H= AEN @ I zz IA = F H @A E FAHFA @E?K =H = F = @= JH= A?J HE= = ? H@A =@= z IAH IA FHA K = @KH= JA LE A J >=IJ= @ I @K=I CH= @A =I F=H= ?= E =H ? HF A ?=@= E IJ= JA ) JH= A?J HE= =IIE @A E@= FA ? K J @A F J I (x(t), y (t)) 5=>A I J @=LE= GKA = JH= A?J HE= ?EH?K =H ? K H=E ? IJ= JA r = |r|2 = x2 (t) + y 2 (t) GKA E F E?= GKA =I @K=I CH= @A =I x A y AIJ FAH = A JA A JA HA =?E =@=I A JHA IE *=IJ= F H EII ? DA?AH K = @A =I F HGKA = KJH= AIJ ? IJH= CE@= FA B=?J @A = JH= A?J HE= IAH ?EH?K =H 1II GKAH @E AH GKA LE A J A?AIIEJ= =FA =I @A K = CH= @A = B IE?= F=H= IAH @AI?HEJ= K IA = JA =FA =I K CH=K @A E>AH@=@A B=?J @A JAH K CH=K @A E>AH@=@A E F E?= A?AII=HE= A JA GKA = CH= @A = = KI=H IA = x K y = HA= E@=@A AII= AI? D= =J >=IJ= JA E ? LA EA JA GKA EII E F E?=HE= JAH

5EIJA = ? K CH=K @A E>AH@=@A

y (t) = r2 x2 (t)

 #"

? =I ? IAGKA JAI E AH=I A @AI=CH=@ LAEI FAH= AI A L LA @ H= AI GK=@H=@=I 2 H ANA F = ? F A JA IACK @ y @= LA ?E@=@A @=@= F H

vy =
A = =?A AH=

dy = dt

x(t) r2 x2 (t)

x(t) dx(t) = vx (t) dt y (t)

IACK @ y @=@= F H

ay =

dvy 1 = dt y

1+

x2 y2

2 vx +

x ax y

"$

) 4A =JELE@=@A @A /= E AK A =

A?

E?= + IIE?=

) AI? D= @=I CH= @A =I GKA HAFHAIA J= I CH=KI @A E>AH@=@A @ IEIJA = K IA = =I L=HE LAEI GKA =EI A? E?= A JA @AI?HALA LE A J K = ? F A JA ?HK?E= @= HAI K @A K FH > A = A . IE?= ?=I @ LE A J ?EH?K =H A GKA JA I =FA =I K CH=K @A E>AH@=@A = AI? D=  #" A > H= L E@= KEJ F K? A? E?= A JAH I @A ? ?K ? =?=> I @A LAH 7 = F IIE>E E@=@A KEJ =EI E JAHAII= JA ? IEIJA A KJE E =H CK (t) @AI?HEJ FA ? HF = C @= JH= A?J HE= -IJ= GK= JE@=@A =@E A IE = =I GK= GKAH GK= JE@=@A B IE?= @A ? FHE A J HA AL= JA F @A IAH >JE@= K JEF E ?= @ H=E @= JH= A?J HE= F H (t) K GK= GKAH BK =@E A IE = @A (t) - F=HJE?K =H

x(t) = r cos (t) y (t) = r sin (t)

+ AIJ= @A E A KI= @ = ? HHAIF @A = K = @AHEL= A J= H@A

, .
GKA ?=@= F J

= d/dt A = JA F ,

= y vx (t) = r sin (t) = x vy (t) = r cos (t) ,

A

2 y ax (t) = x 2 + x ay (t) = y

, ,

8A ?E@=@A = CK =H

= d2 /dt2 IACK @ = J= @A E JH @K E@= =?E = ,KH= JA = H J= LA?J H @A F IE = F=II=H @ E IJ= JA t F=H= E IJ= JA t + dt I BHA K = H J= GKA AL= @A r F=H= r = r + dr 5A @ = LA ?E@=@A @=@= F H dr/dt @A =? H@ ?  "# =JKH= E JH @K EH LA?J H LA ?E@=@A = CK =H @EHECE@ IACK @ AEN @ I zz A ?K IA JE@ @AJAH E =@ FA = @EHA? ? @K @ LE A J ? B H A E @E?=@ = .EC 5A @AIEC =H I @A L F H e1 e2 A e3 I LA?J HAI K EJ HE I = C @ IA JE@ F IEJEL @ I AEN I x y A z HAIFA?JEL= A JA A ?= ?K =H I FH @KJ ANJAH e1 e2 e3 0 0 x y z
LA I GKA

1 + xe 2 = y e

 ##

v =r
2 H IK= LA

 #$

r+v = r + ( r ) = a = r | |2 r = ,

 #%

"

LE A J ?EH?K =H

F=

"%

@A KJE E I = HA = @A =CH= CA a (b c) = b(a.c) c(a.b) A @A F J @AIEC = FH @KJ E JAH KIK= A JHA LA?J HAI + IACKEK IA =IIE K = B=?E E@=@A @A ? ?K KEJ =E H A K = @AI?HE >=IJ= JA =EI ? F=?J= A JH= IF=HA JA @ GKA A ? H@A =@=I ?=HJAIE= =I 5KF D= I =C H= GKA F=H= = @ >IAHL=@ H F=H=@ GKA L > A?J A LE A J ?EH?K =H JA I J= > K >IAHL=@ H E JAHE H @ > A?J 8A = I = @AI?HE GKA ?=@= K B= @ LE A J

>IAHL=@ H F=H=@

2=H= AIJA >IAHL=@ H ? HF @A =II= m JA K LE A J ?EH?K =H A J H @A K ?A JH N + = IK= LA ?E@=@A IA = JAH= A ?=@= E IJ= JA I F @A I ? ? KEH GKA ? HF AIJ IK AEJ = K = B H = GKA >HEC= = K@=H @A ?KHI = ?=@= E IJ= JA ) F=HJEH @A  #% LA I GKA = B H = = =?JK=H ? HF JA @K=I ? F A JAI

7 = ? JHE>KE m| |2 r GK= =?JK= IACK @ r =I IA JE@ F IJ -IJ= B H = @AIEC = IA F H B H = ?A JH FAJ= F H AIJ=H HEA J=@= F=H= ?A JH @A H J= r IACK @ = @EHA? 7 = ? JHE>KE m @= LA ?E@=@A =I ?K IA JE@ @AFA @A @= L=HE= @= LA ?E@=@A = CK =H ? JA F -IJ= ? F A JA AIJ FHAIA JA IA B H ? IJ= JA

. H = ?A JH FAJ=

>IAHL=@ H

> A?J -IJA >IAHL=@ H AIJ F=H=@ IAK HABAH A ?E= =I = HA= E@=@A A A AIJ A FAH = ?E= = JA J=H ? HHECEH B=?J @A AIJ=H K HABAHA ?E= E AH?E= )I B H =I @A E H?E= GKA =F=HA?A I A @K A @EHA? E@ JE?=I I A ? JH=@=I HABAHA ?E= @ >IAHL=@ H F=H=@ =I ? IA JE@ E LAHI = A ? JH=@ F H AIJA F H B H = = JA J=H ? HHECEH = LE = @ 2HE ? FE @A 1 H?E= - F=HJE?K =H = =?A AH= ?A JH FAJ= F=II= F=H= AIJA >IAHL=@ H = IAH ?A JH BKC= K = LA GKA A A L=E IA JEH K = B H = H=@E= GKA JA J= B H = ?=@= E IJ= JA = = JAH K LE A J HA?JE A A K EB H A

. H = ?A JH BKC=

FH > A = GKA =C H= IA F A @A I=>AH ? ? F=H=H =I A@E AI HA= E =@=I FA I @ EI >IAHL=@ HAI 2=H= IE F E ?=H = @EI?KII L= I =IIK EH GKA = LA ?E@=@A = CK =H ? IJ= JA >IAHL=@ H E JAHE H @ > A?J A LE A J KI= K HABAHA ?E= @A ? H@A =@=I e A er ? E @E?=@ = .ECKH= GKA @ F J @A LEIJ= @ >IAHL=@ H F=H=@ JA I AEN I A FAH = A JA LE A J LA?J H @A F IE @A K @=@ IEIJA = HABAHA ?E= A LE A J LEIJ = F=HJEH @ HABAHA ?E= F=H=@ r =R+ A C

=R r +

 #&

@A F J HAFHAIA J= =EI K = LA = @AHEL=@= A HA = = JA F 7I= @  #$ F @A I AI?HALAH = HA = = JAHE H I > = B H =

= R + d ( e + r er ) r dt

 #'

"&

) 4A =JELE@=@A @A /= E AK A =

A?

E?= + IIE?=

2=H= ? JE K=H JA I @A JAH A ? J= GKA =C H= I LA?J HAI e A er L=HE= ? JA F GKA E F E?=

= R + d e + de + dr er + r der r dt dt dt dt
7I= @ AH? ?E $ AI H=?E ? E GKA AL K
de dt der dt

 $ I L@ AN  $  $ 

AGK=

 #$ JA

= e = er

, , ,

GKA E F E?=

=R+ r

@A = LA ?E@=@A @ IEIJA = LEIJ= ) =?A AH= @ IEIJA = F @A IAH A ? A ?E= @ A HA = = JA F

IEIJA = A LE A J JH=@= = F=HJEH @A  $  @EBAH

a = r = (R + ) + = + ( r ) 2 .

 $!

8A I =F=HA?AH L HE I JAH I = HA = A JHA = =?A AH= a @ IEIJA = A@E@= HABAHA ?E= F=H=@ A = =?A AH= A@E@= HABAHA ?E= A LE A J FHE AEH JAH

( r)
GKA JA @ A ? J= = HA = @A =CH= CA

( r) = (.r) r(. ),
AL= = 4AA ? JH= @ IEIJA = JAH
)?A AH= + HE EI @A

acentripeta = | |2 r
I =IIE = =?A AH=

 $" LE A J

?A JH FAJ= =II ?E=@= =

aCoriolis = 2

 $#

@AIEC = IA F H =?A AH= @A + HE EI 2=H= ? FHAA @AH = IK= =? E =CE A I GKA IEIJA = A AIJK@ K ? HF LA @ IA ? LA ?E@=@A ? IJ= JA HABAHA ?E= A LE A J = C @ AEN er A @EHA? = ?A JH O ? AIJ= E @E?=@ = .ECKH= AIIA ?=I K= =I @ F J @A LEIJ= @ HABAHA ?E= N = =?A AH= @A + HE EI AIJ= @ HEA J=@= = C @A e E IJ= JA E E?E= AIJA HABAHA ?E= A@E@= GKA ? HF IA LA @AI?HALA = JH= A?J HE= ?KHL= HAFHAIA J=@= = .ECKH= A > H= HABAHA ?E= A LE A J = AI = JH= A?J HE= IA = A E D= HA?J= ) B H = @A + HE EI HAIK J= F HJ= J K E?= A JA @A AIJ=H I = E@=H ? HABAHA ?E=EI E AH?E=EI

# 5E AJHE=I A AEI @A ?

IAHL=

"'

# 5E AJHE=I A AEI @A ?
4ABAHE I = 5A?  GKA GK= GKAH ? ? K LE A J HA?JE A A K EB H = I F H 2HE ? FE @A 1 H?E= = B H =I I CH= @A =I LA?J HE=EI A I=>A JAHE HAI Fi =F E?=@=I = K ? HF EII F GKA = I = LA?J HE= @A J @=I A =I
n

IAHL=
HF ELHA @A E JAH=? AI IA LA A K = FH FHEA@=@A GKA @AIEC A? E?= + IIE?= @A AMJ =I I GKA IA JELAH I n B H =I AN AGKEL= A JA = JAH K = I B H =

F =
i=1

Fi

 $$

1II E F E?= GKA GK= @ AIJ= I = AIJK@=H ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I C >=EI @ IEI JA = F @A I AIGKA?AH =I B H =I E @ELE@K=EI A ? ?A JH=H I = B H = ANJAHE H J J= =F E?=@= 2A = AE @A AMJ I=>A I GKA AII= B H = AIJ HA =?E =@= ? = =II= A ? = =?A AH= @ ? HF A GKA GK= @ A = K = JA I d2 x ,  $% F =m 2 =0 dt 1II E F E?= @A E A@E=J

mv = constante
) GK= JE@=@A

 $&  $'
@A 3K= JE@=@A LE A J

p = mv

= GK= JE@=@A @A LE A J A = AGK=  $& IJH= GKA A = FAH = A?A ? IJ= JA JA F GK= @ IEIJA = AIJ EI =@ K IA = GK= @ D B H =I ANJAHE HAI = =?JK=H I >HA A A 1 =CE A I =C H= GKA ? HF IA IAF=H= AIF J A= A JA A N FA@= I GKA IA @AI ?= ?=@= K ? = IK= LA ?E@=@A vi AIIA ?=I ?=@= K @ I FA@= I = =KI ?E= @A B H =I ANJAH =I JAH IAK A J E A=H ? IAHL=@

pi = mi vi = ci

i = 1, . . ., N

 %

@A ci I GK= JE@=@AI ? IJ= JAI JA F 5=>A I J= > GKA = JAI @= IAF=H= A J E A=H @ ? HF HECE = IA = JE D= ? IJ= JA p = mv , A =E @= GKA F H ? IAHL= @=
N

=II=

m=
i=1

mi

 % JA F A @AF EI @= @E

6A LEI

I =IIE = JAI @= @ELEI p ? IJ= JA ?=@= K @ I pi ? IJ= JA JA F

#

) 4A =JELE@=@A @A /= E AK A =

A?

E?= + IIE?=
II =H I

5A @ A J E A=H K = CH= @A = LA?J HE= F @A A J I E A=HAI @ I FA@= I HAIK J= JAI @= IAF=H=

N

p =
i=1

pi

 % 

2 @A

I HAAI?HALAH AIJ= AGK=

@= B H =
N i=1 pi

p =m
GKA AL= =

m ,

p = mV
@A
N i=1 pi

-IJ= AGK= E@A JE ?=@ F H  %! LA?J H @A F

.  %! m IJH= GKA ? K J @ I FA@= I F @A IAH B H = A JA ? K E? > A?J @A =II= m A LA ?E@=@A V @=@= -IIA > A?J F @A E ? KIEL= A JA IAH HABAHA ?E=@ F H K IE R @=@ F H V = R=
N i=1 mi ri

 %"

+A JH @A =II=

GKA = @AHEL=@= A H@A = JA F @AIJ= F IE B H A?A FHA?EI= A JA HAIK J=@  %! F J =II ?E=@ = LA?J H @A F IE R @AIEC = IA F H ?A JH @A =II= @ IEIJA = ,AIJA F J @A LEIJ= JA I = JAI @= @ELEI K ? HF @A A J p A @AF EI @= @ELEI K ? HF @A A J p ? = =II= J J= m @ IEIJA = A LA ?E@=@A @=@= F H  %! 5A LAH@=@A GKA F=H= K ? HF EI =@ E @ELEI A J E A=H IA ? IAHL= =@= I C=H= JA GKA AIJA L ?A HE J= > IA ? IAHL= 2=H= I=>AH EII JA I @A = = EI=H = IEJK= ? =EI ?KE@=@ 3K= GKAH GKA IA = FH ?AII B IE? A J E A=H @ IEIJA = F @A @AFA @AH A JE = = EIA @= F IE A @ JA F ) @AFA @ ?E= JA F F @A IAH ANF ?EJ= K E F ?EJ= 5A B H E F ?EJ= A = AIJ=H =II ?E=@= = JAH= ? JA F @= F IE @ ? HF 5A B H ANF ?EJ= A J E A=H F @AH K@=H ? JA F E @AFA @A JA A JA @= ?= E = @ IEIJA = =JA =JE?= A JA ? K J @=I @K=I IEJK= AI F @A IAH ANFHAII =JH=L I @ ? ?AEJ @A @AHEL=@= J J= GKA F=H= ?=@= ? F A JA @ A J E A=H I @

d pi pi = + dt t

3 k=1

pi d xk pi = + xk d t t

3 k=1

pi vk xk

 %#

@A vk HAFHAIA J= = ? F A JA k @= LA ?E@=@A @ IEIJA = FHE AEH JAH @ =@ @EHAEJ ? J = ? JHE>KE @= @AFA @ ?E= ANF ?EJ=

# 5E AJHE=I A AEI @A ?

IAHL=

#

JA F A GK= J I JAH I IACKE JAI HAFHAIA J= = ? JHE>KE @= @AFA @ ?E= E F ?EJ= JA F 5KF D= I =C H= GKA FH ?AII A AIJK@ E L=HE= JA F=H= JH= I = AI 1II GKAH @E AH GKA A J E A=H A ?=@= E IJ= JA J= GKA p(r + a) = p(r) ,  %$ @A a K = JH= I = =H>EJH HE= 1IJ E F E?= GKA A J E A=H AI A J @ I AIF= A ?=@= E IJ= JA K IA = @AFA @A @= F IE 5A EII =? JA?AH =I @AHEL=@=I @A pi A H@A F IE A  %# = K = IA =I F @A =E @= =? JA?AH GKA @A K E IJ= JA t F=H= K E IJ= JA t + t A J K@A = JA @ = E L=HE ?E= F=H= JH= I = AI 1IJ F II LA IA IEIJA = AIJELAH IK AEJ A ?=@= E IJ= JA = K = B H = F E@ JE?= A J @ I I F J I @ AIF=  K IA = K ?= F AIF=?E= A JA K EB H A $ ) AGK=  %# ?= A J

pi d pi = = Fi (t) dt t

 %%

5A J @=LE= J= JEF @A B H =I ANJAHE HAI = IEIJA = ANEIJEH = AGK= = JAHE H ?= IE F AI A JA F=H= ? K J @=I ? F A JAI @ A J E A=H dp =0 ,  %& dt K IA = A J E A=H FAH = A?A ? IJ= JA = C @= AL K -IJA HAIK J=@ @ FA A @A 2HE ? FE @A ? IAHL= @ A J E A=H 4AF=HA IA GKA HAIK J=@ = JAHE H I @AFA @A @= E L=HE ?E= @A JH= I =  K ? J= > ?D= =@= D CA AE@=@A @ AIF=  A @= =KI ?E= @A B H =I ANJAHE HAI - A F HJ= J L E@ AI ?=I E JH @K E@ =?E = A GKA IEIJA = E E?E= IA IAF=H= AIF J A= A JA A L HE I ? F A JAI A J E A=H E E?E= JA @A IAH E@ JE? = A J @ ?A JH @A =II= = 1IJ IJH= @K=I ? EI=I E F H J= JAI GKA HAIK J=@ =EI CAH= GKA 2HE ? FE @A 1 H?E= =F E? LA K E?= A JA = K ? HF EI =@ ?K = AIJHKJKH= IA = JAH= A GKA A J E A=H K = CH= @A = KEJ =EI BK @= A J= GKA = =II= K = LA ?E@=@A F II LA =F E?=H AI H=?E ? E = KJH I ?=I I 1 =CE A I GKA K = IEJK= E E?E= JA I @ EI ? HF I EI =@ I @A =II=I m1 A m2 A A J I p1 A p2 HAIFA?JEL= A JA =EI J=H@A >IAHL= I @ EI ? HF I EI =@ I ? =II=I m1 A m2 A A J I p 1 A p 2 2 @A I IK>IJEJKEH ? K J E E?E= @ I @ EI ? HF I F H K E? @A A J

2HE ? FE @A ? IAHL= @ A J E A=H

Pini = (m1 + m2 )
$

p1 + p2 = mini vini m1 + m2

 %'

) E F IE @= E L=HE ?E= F=H= JH= I = AI E FA@A I F H IE = ANEIJ ?E= @A B H =I @AFA @A JAI @= F IE FA GKA = E ANEIJ ?E= =@E?E = @A K ?= F AIF= ?E= A JA K EB H A E F E?= = J J= =KI ?E= @A B H =I = =?JK=H I >HA IEIJA =

#
@A

) 4A =JELE@=@A @A /= E AK A =
mini = m1 + m2 1 +p2 vini = pm ini
@ ? K J = F HK

A?

E?= + IIE?=

,
E? @A A J

 &

A @A ECK=

Pf in = (m1 + m2 )
?

p1 + p2 = mf in vf in m1 + m2

 &

mf in = m1 + m2 , p 1 +p 2 vf in = mf in .

 &  FH A  &!

5A I K>AH I GKA D KLA B H =I ANJAHE HAI = =?JK=H @KH= JA ?AII = E @AFA @ ?E= A HA = ?= E = AIF= @ BA >HEC= =EI K = LA = GKA

Pf in = Pini
K IA = GKA -IJA JE @AIJA FHE ? FE

A J E A=H @ IEIJA = ? F IJ IA ? IAHL= ?=I F=HJE?K =H A JA E IJHKJEL GK= J = = ?= ?A 2 @A I HAAI?HALAH  &!

p 1 p1 = p2 p 2 ,

K IA = GKA = FAH@= @A A J @A K = @=I F=HJ ?K =I ECK= = C= D @= KJH= 5A t HAFHAIA J=H JA F @A? HHE@ A JHA = >IAHL= @ AIJ=@ E E?E= A = >IAHL= @ AIJ=@ = AIJ= JE = AGK= F @A IAH AI?HEJ= I > = B H =

p2 p 2 p 1 p1 = t t
K IA = IA @AIEC =H IF H

 &"

F12 = F21 =
=I GK= JE@=@AI ? @E A I AGK=  &" ? ? K I

p 1 p1 t p 2 p2 t

, ,

 &# I @ EI =@ I @=  &$

@A B H = FHAIA JAI

F1 = F2

2 HJ= J A > H= ANEIJ= B H =I ANJAH =I = =?JK=H I >HA IEIJA = ANEIJA B H =I E JAH =I A JHA =I @K=I F=HJ ?K =I GKA J @=LE= IA ? FA I= 7 ? HF EI =@ LA IA IACK @ = JH= A?J HE= GKA = AIJHKJKH= @ AIF= FAH EJA 1II IEC E ?= GKA K ? HF EI =@ = LAH@=@A K = I @= F=H= JAIJ=H =I FH FHEA@=@AI @ AIF= -NFAHE A J= A JA I=>A I GKA A J E A=H @A K J= ? HF IA ? IAHL= A GKA F HJ= J AIF= D C A ,AIJA F J @A LEIJ= K = B H = F = =?JK=H

# 5E AJHE=I A AEI @A ?
I >HA K IEIJA = AL= @AIIA IEIJA =

IAHL=
@= ? IAHL= @ A J E A=H

#!

LE =

F (t) =

A F H ? IAGK ?E= @AIJHKE AIF= ) AIJHKJKH= @ AIF= @AEN= @A IAH = AI = E F HJ= JA E JAHE HE =H GKA = ? IAHL= @ A J E A=H E F E?= A?AII=HE= A JA GKA K IEIJA = J =@ E @ELE@K= A JA JA D= = AI = =II= I E IJ= JAI E E?E= A = 5A ? IE@AH=H I K B CKAJA F H ANA F A A FAH@A = =II= GKA A A?J=@= @=I IK=I JKH>E =I 6 =@ A ? K J IEIJA = B CKAJA =EI I FH @KJ I A A?J=@ I >A@A?A = FHE ? FE @A ? IAHL= @ A J E A=H

dp  &% dt @= FH FHEA@=@A @A D CA AE@=@A @ ?= = JAH=@= K IA = = IK= CA AJHE=

d (pf + pe ) = 0 dt

 &&

@A I @E?AI f A e @E A HAIFAEJ = B CKAJA A = I FH @KJ I A A?J=@ I 5A >IAHL=H I =FA =I B CKAJA J @=LE= IAK A J E A=H ? IAHL=@ A = AGK= = JAHE H @E I GKA

mf

d vf d mf = vf pe dt dt

)@ EJE @ GKA J H @ B CKAJA ANFA A I FH @KJ I @A ? >KIJ = K = LA ?E@=@A ve ? IJ= JA A JA @ A ? J= GKA = =II= FAH@E@= FA B CKAJA AN=?J= A JA ECK= =II= A A?J=@= FA =I JKH>E =I JA I

mf

d vf d mf = (vf + ve ) dt dt
LA A

.
@EHA? AI F IJ=I  &'

+ B CKAJA A I FH @KJ I A A?J=@ I IA = AGK= = JAHE H F @A IAH AI?HEJ= ?

mf

d vf d mf = (ve vf ) dt dt

GKA IJH= GKA B CKAJA AIJ A ?=@= E IJ= JA IK AEJ = K = B H = GKA @AFA @A ? E JKEJEL= A JA AIJ=H = I AIFAH= @= LA ?E@=@A @ I FH @KJ I A A?J=@ I A HA = = B CKAJA A @= J=N= @A =II= A A?J=@= 5A JEL IIA I JE@ A ? J= JAH ? JA @ = L=HE= @A =II= @ B CKAJA A = IK= LA ?E@=@A AII= B H = AIJ=HE= =FA =I HA =?E =@= ? = LA ?E@=@A @ I FH @KJ I A A?J=@ I GKA AIJ=HE= >LE= A JA AHH=@ 1IJ IJH= GKA = AE @A AMJ JA @A IAH AI?HEJ= @= B H =  &% F=H= F @AH E ? KEH I ?=I I A GKA IEIJA = = JAH= = IK= =II= @KH= JA = AL K 2 @A I HA =?E =H = L=HE= @ A J E A=H @A K IEIJA = = C @= AL K E JACH= @ = AGK=  &% JA F 2=H= EII L= I KI= @ = @A E @A @AHEL=@= HAAI?HALAH = AGK= = JAHE H =B H = dp = p(t + dt) p(t) = F dt .  '

#"

) 4A =JELE@=@A @A /= E AK A =

A?

E?= + IIE?=

GKA AIJ= L= AGK= I @E GKA = L=HE= @ A J A JHA I E IJ= JAI t A t + dt ECK= = FH @KJ @= B H = E IJ= JA t FA E JAHL= @A JA F dt 5A I =H I =I L=HE= AI @A A J dp A JHA I E JAHL= I @A JA F t t + dt t + dt t + 2dt AJ? I=>A I GKA AII= I = ECK= = I = @A F (t)dt F (t + dt)dt AJ? ,EJ @A KJH= B H = IA pini A pf in B HA I A J I E IJ= JA E E?E= tini A tf in JA I
pf in pini

dp =

tf in tini

F ( )d
C

FHE AEH JAH

@= AGK=

pf in pini A
tf in tini

pf in pini =

F ( )d

 ' F=H= ?=@=

) AGK=  &# =FA =I K ?=I F=HJE?K =H @AIJ= HA = IK>IEIJA = E @ELE@K= A GKA FKIA I

F12 = F21 =

1 t 1 t

t+t F12 ( )d t t+t F21 ( )d t

, ,

@A F12 ( ) A F21 ( ) HAFHAIA J= =I B H =I E IJ= J A=I GKA = F=HJ ?K =  ANAH?A I >HA = F=HJ ?K = A = F=HJ ?K = ANAH?A I >HA = F=HJ ?K =  HAIFA?JEL= A JA E IJ= JA ) @EI?KII = JAHE H IJH K GKA = E F IE @= D CA AE@=@A @ AIF= = I FH ?AII I B IE? I E F E?= = ? IAHL= @ A J E A=H A J= J AI IA @AFA @AH @= F IE K FH ?AII B IE? F @A @AFA @AH @A KEJ I KJH I F=H AJH I ?K = E K ?E= = AL K @ IEIJA = F @A JAH ? IAGK ?E=I E F HJ= JAI 6= ?=I GKA L= I =C H= = = EI=H @= @AFA @ ?E= = @EHA? A GKA FH ?AII B IE? ? HHA AIJ=@ @A K IEIJA = @A =? H@ ? GKA ? ? K I =J =C H= @AI?HEJ ? HA?KHI = @K=I GK= JE@=@AI = F IE r A A J E A=H p 2=H= FAH?A>AH = E K ?E= @= @EHA? @ LE A J = AL K @ IEIJA = ? IE@AHA I K = ? FE= @A A GKA AIJ=@ E E?E= AIJ H @=@= A J H @A K AEN n @A K CK E EJAIE = ) ? FE= A HECE = AIJ =IIE E E?E= A JA HA =?E =@=I A JHA IE =JH=L I @= HA =  "$ +=I IEIJA = JA D= = IK= AL K ? @E ?E =@= FA = @EHA? A GKA ? HHA LE A J AIJ=@ = @A K @A AI ? HHAIF @AH = K = H J= @ KJH FA AI CK AA J H @ AI AEN 2=HJE @ @A L @= HA =  "$ LA I GKA =I CH= @A =I B IE?=I @ I @ EI IEIJA =I AIJ=H HA =?E =@=I F H K = H J= =I A GKA CK @A H J= F @AH =C H= @AFA @AH @ JA F p (t) = p(t) + (t) p(t) ,  '  GKA E F E?= F=H= GKA = AL K GKA JA D= @A D=LAH K = HA = @ IEIJA = @AFA @= @= @EHA? AIFA? ?= A JHA =I GK= JE@=@AI B IE?=I

# 5E AJHE=I A AEI @A ?

IAHL=

##

A L LE@=I GKA I JH= IF HJ=@=I @ AIJ=@ E E?E= F=H= AIJ=@ = 2=H= A ? JH=H AII= HA = L= I ? A =H F H @AHEL=H AIJ= AGK= A H@A = JA F @A B H = = B= AH =F=HA?AH = E JAH=?

dp d p d ( ) dp = + p + dt dt dt dt
A L= I B= AH LA?J H @A F IE FH @KJ E JAH r IEIJA = @A = > I I =@ I @= AGK= H @=@ FA

dp dp d ( ) dp .r = .r + p .r + dt dt dt dt

.r

@A B H = = FH ?KH=H = HA = A JHA = F IE A = E JAH=? A C E IJ= JA t 2=H= GKA AIJ= AGK= IA = JE @ALA I HABAHEH ?=@= =@ = K I IEIJA = @A B H = = GKA IA = F II LA ? F=H=H IA = >ECKE@=@A GKA IA F=II= A JHA I AIJ=@ E E?E= A = F=H= GK= GKAH @ I IEIJA =I 2=H= B= AH JA I @A JAH A ? J= GKA = F IE r F @A IAH ANFHAII= A JAH I @= F IE r KJH IEIJA = =JH=L I @A K = H J=

dp . r r dt

dp d ( ) dp .r + p .r + dt dt dt

.r

GKA E F E?= KI= @ =I FH FHEA@=@AI @ FH @KJ LA?J HE= JHEF

dp dp dp .r . r = .r+ dt dt dt dp d ( ) . (p r) + . r + dt dt

H= = GK= JE@=@A (dp/dt).r K E L=HE= JA F=H= H J= AI L@ -NAH? ?E $ GKA E F E?= GKA JA AI L= H F=H= IEIJA = HECE = A F=H= H @=@ - ? IAGK ?E=

d ( ) . (p r) = . dt

dp r dt

dp r dt

.
AI = AIIA

5A = H J= =BA?J=H = B H = ? FH ?AII @A? HHA = H J= =F=HA?A AIJ=@ = A AIJ=@ E E?E= @ IEIJA = ?=I d( )/dt = K = IA A

dp r dt

dp r dt

=0

GKA JA @ A LEIJ= B=?J @A AIJ= HA = =H>EJH HE= AL= =

IAH L E@= F=H= K = H J=

d p r pr =0 dt

#$

) 4A =JELE@=@A @A /= E AK A =
=I p r LA?J H HAIK J= JA @= H J= AGK= = JAHE H = HA= E@=@A E@ JE?= =

A?

E?= + IIE?=
+ J= =

@A p r

d [ (p r)] = 0 dt
A KI= @ @A L =? @E @A K E@=@A @A d( )/dt >JA I

=EI K = LA AIJ= HA = =H>EJH HE= GKA E F E?=

d (p r ) = 0 dt

JA @A IAH LAH@=@A F=H= K = H J= = A JA

d (p r) = 0 dt

 '!

A J = CK =H

-IJ= AGK= @E I GKA IA K @=@ FH ?AII B IE? B H E L=HE= JA F=H= H J= AI K IA = IA F=H= AIIA FH ?AII AIF= B H EI JH FE? = GK= JE@=@A L=rp  '" ? IAHL= IA =H A = AGK= JA F -IJ= GK= JE@=@A @AIEC = IA F H  '! GKA F @A IAH AI?HEJ= I > = B H =

A J = CK

dL =0 dt
2HE ? FE @A ? IAHL= @ A J = CK =H

 '#

? HHAIF @A = 2HE ? FE @A ? IAHL= @ A J = CK =H JA IA GKA AI = FHAIA = @A ?AHJ=I B H =I L F @A IAH ? IAHL=@ >=I J= @ F=H= EII GKA F IA = F=H= A = = r A ?=@= E IJ= JA AIJA A J ? A = = AIJ=>A A?AH IA K F=@H ? IEIJA JA IA FHA GKA K IEIJA = JA K JEF GK= GKAH @A IE AJHE= =F=HA?A =II ?E=@= = A = K = GK= JE@=@A ? IAHL=@= JA F 3K= @ K FH ?AII AIF= =F=HA?A ? D C A K IA = GK= @ FH ?AII E L=HE= JA F=H= JH= I = AI AIF=?E=EI A J E A=H ? IAHL=@ 5A F H KJH =@ AIF= =F=HA?AH ? EI JH FE? K IA = E L=HE= JA F=H= H J= AI A J = CK =H ? IAHL= IA % 4AF=HA IA GKA =J =C H= I B= I @A IE AJHE=I ? J K=I A GKA = JH= IB H = F=H= AJHE =@= F H K F=H AJH K ? K J @A F=H AJH I HA= F=H= = D CA AE@=@A AIF=?E= ? IE@AH= I K LA?J H a  K JH I F=H AJH I HA=EI GKA I I ? F A JAI @AIIA LA?J H F=H= =I H J= AI F=H= AJHE = I = IE AJHE= F H K LA?J H @A JH I ? F A JAI =II ?E=@ = K AEN @A H J= =I D =E @= IE AJHE=I @A JEF ? J K ? F H ANA F = IE AJHE= @A F=HE@=@A GKA JH= IB H = K LA?J H @A F IE r A r -II=I IE AJHE=I @EI?HAJ=I J= > F @A
= HA= E@=@A AIJA HAIK J=@ J J= A JA CAH= A @ FA A @A 6A HA = @A AJDAH . E @A IJH=@ FA = =JA JE?= = A ) = EA AJDAH A '# A D A K KJA I E E @EIFA I LA A . IE?=
%

# 5E AJHE=I A AEI @A ?

IAHL=

#%

@=H HECA = GK= JE@=@AI ? IAHL=@=I GKA AIJ J @=LE= =II ?E =@=I = K = GK= JE@=@A ? J K= ?K = @AHEL=@= JA F H= IA = K = ) JH= IB H = @A F=HE@=@A P A=@= A JA J= GKA

P r = r

 '$

H = A JA P K = IE AJHE= @=I B H =I =?JK= @ IEIJA = K IA = = B H = @AII=I B H =I FAH = A?A E L=HE= JA GK= @ = JH= I B H = =F E?=@= 2=H= GKA EII =? JA = JA I @A JAH

F (P r) = P F (r)

 '%

@A P K = ? IJ= JA @A FH F H?E = E@=@A J= GKA ? P2 =  =FA =I F @A J =H I L= HAI 1 +=I = IE AJHE= IA = LAHE ?=@= AIJ= GK= JE@=@A JA @A JAH AI L= H I E IJ= JAI E E?E= A = = C GKA @ F J @A LEIJ= ? IIE? JA ? IAGK ?E=I =I = LA GK JE? IA J H = K KJA I E E @EIFA I LA F=H= ?=H=?JAHE = @=I B H =I A @=I FH FHEA@=@AI @= =J HE= 2 @A I ACEJE = A JA FAHCK J=H I GK=EI =I ? IAGK ?E=I @AIJ= HA = A JHA IE AJHE= A AEI @A ? IAHL= F=H= K = @=I CH= @A =I B IE?=I =EI E F HJ= JAI = I=>AH JA F JA F J= J GK= J I=E>= I K = CH= @A = K E@E A IE = 1II E F E?= GKA =I @K=I IE A JHE=I =EI > IE?=I GKA F @A I ? IE@AH=H I = E LAHI A = D CA AE@=@A JA F = FHE AEH= =II ?E= I AIJ=@ @ IEIJA = E IJ= JA t ? IAK AIJ=@ E IJ= JA t = IACK @= J= ? A I F=H= AIF= JA I @A ? IE@AH=H IEIJA =I ?K =I FH FHEA@=@AI IA = JAH= A JHA K E IJ= JA t A K E IJ= JA t + JA IA J @=LE= GKA IA @ JA F ? @EIIA I K = CH= @A = K E@E A IE = JAHA I A ?=@= ?=I K = I GK= JE@=@A ? IAHL=@= ?=I @= IE AJHE= @A E LAHI JA F T = GK= JE@=@A =II ?E=@= GKA =EI K = LA I F @A J =H I L= HAI 1 >LE= A JA ? IAHL=@= A JHA I AIJ=@ I E E?E= A = - > H= =I ? IAGK ?E=I @= E L=HE ?E= T IA = @A A H IIE = E F HJ ?E= AIJ=@ =?JK= @ II ? DA?E A J @=I E JAH=? AI A A A J=HAI L= I A => H=H =EI I >HA =IIK J F HGKA AII= @EI?KII K JH=F=II= A KEJ >EJ @AIJA ELH 2=IIA I = A JA IE AJHE= @A JH= I = JA F 5A K IEIJA = B H E L=HE= JA F=H= AIJA JEF @A JH= I = AI JA I F=H= K a =H>EJH HE p(t + a) = p(t) .  '& 7 == EIA IKFAH ?E= F @AHE= AL=H = ?HAH GKA EII I =? A J E A=H E @AFA @A JA @ JA F =I AII= =EI CAH= F @A I J= > JAH = HA = JA?A GK= @ =I K

d p(t + a) d p(t) = dt dt GKA ? HHAIF @A = K = JH= I = @A J @ FH ?AII JA F @A K = GK= JE@=@A a -IJ= HA = >HEC= = GKA GK= GKAH B H = =?JK= @

#&

) 4A =JELE@=@A @A /= E AK A =

A?

E?= + IIE?=

IEIJA = JA D= AI L= H A J @ I I E IJ= JAI @A JA F K IA = = B H = @AFA @A @ JA F ) AGK= @A AMJ @E I A J GKA dp = F (r) . dt 5A AH I FH @KJ E JAH @A = > I I =@ I @= AGK= FA = LA ?E@=@A >JA I dp p dr . = F (r). dt m dt GKA AL= = 1 d |p|2 dr = F (r). .  '' 2m d t dt 5A = =II= FAH = A?AH ? IJ= JA = C @ FH ?AII F @A I HAA I?HALAH AIJ= AGK= I >=B H =

d dt

|p|2 2m

dt = F (r).dr
= tf A = A JA C

A E JACH= @ JA F A JHA I E IJ= JAI E E?E= ti A @= JH= A?J HE= T IACKE@= FA IEIJA = >JA I =

|p(tf )|2 |p(ti )|2 = 2m 2m

- AHCE= ?E JE?=

F (r).dr
T

 

) GK= JE@=@A

= A AHCE= ?E

|p|2 2m JE?= @ IEIJA = A GK= J = GK= JE@=@A K= W =

T

 

F (r).dr

  

6H=>= D

JH=>= D HA= E =@ FA = B H = F = C @= JH= A?J HE= T HA IK J=@   @E I F HJ= J GKA = L=HE= @= A AHCE= ?E JE?= @A K IEIJA = ECK= = JH=>= D HA= E =@ FA = B H = =F E?=@= = C @= JH= A?J HE= @ IEIJA = = LAH@=@A F=HJA = GKAIJ @= =II= IAH E @AFA @A JA @ JA F AIJA HAIK J=@ J J= A JA CAH= K = LA GKA =E @= KJE E I B=?J @= B H = I F @AH @AFA @AH @= F IE ?=I @A D=LAH D CA AE@=@A JA F H= & 5KF D= I =C H= GKA F=H= = @= B H = I @AFA @AH @= F IE A = @= B H = d V (r ) F (r ) =  ! dr
A
&

- AHCE= F JA ?E=

GKA V (r)

K = BK

K E?= A JA @= F IE

@E A I
=II= JA

@A
A

+ ALE@A JA IA D KLAH IE AJHE= @A JH= I = ?AII=HE= A JA @A IAH = AI = @KH= JA J @= = AL K

JA F = @ IEIJA =

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?=I @A AIJK@

@K

IE F AI
AIIA ?=I = AGK=   

#'

A AHCE= GKA @ FA FAH EJA AI?HALAH

A @A F JA ?E=

d dt
A ?

|p|2 2m

d V (r ) d r d V (r ) = dr dt dt

 "
2HE ? FE @= ? IAHL= @= A AHCE=

IAGKA JA A JA

d (K + V ) = 0 dt
) CH= @A =

 #

E =K +V

 $
- AHCE= A? E?= J J=

@AIEC = = A AHCE= A? E?= J J= @ IEIJA = A  # IJH= GKA ?=I JA F IA = D C A = A AHCE= A? E?= J J= @ IEIJA = @A ? IAHL= 5A D KLAH B H =I = =?JK=H I >HA IEIJA = JAHA I IE F AI A JA

d dt

|p|2 2m

=0

K IA = FHE ? FE @= ? IAHL= @ A J E A=H )I B H =I ?K = AIJHKJKH= E FA@A = ? IAHL= @= A AHCE= @AIEC = IA F H B H =I ? IAHL=JEL=I AIIA ?=I =I B H =I @AHEL= @A K F JA ?E= K GKA AGKEL= A JA @AFA @A =FA =I @= F IE ?=I =EI ? DA?E@ I =I B H =I @A =JHEJ GKA A CAH= @AFA @A @= LA ?E@=@A 6H=@E?E = A JA A A? E?= JA J= IA E E E =H F=FA @AII=I B H =I @A B H = = IE F E ?=H JH=J= A J @ I FH > A =I 6 @=LE= = IK= FHAIA = FAHF=II= J @ I I BA A I HA=EI A = IK= E ? KI E ALEJ LA = F=HJEH @A K @AJAH E =@ LA @A @AJ= DA @= @AI?HE @ I IEIJA =I B IE? I ) ANEIJ ?E= @A GK= JE@=@AI ? IAHL=@=I K =KNE E=H BK @= A J= = HAI K @A FH > A =I A . IE?= + L= I LAH @A IACKE@= I FHE ? FE I @A ? IAHL= FAH EJA A KEJ I ?=I I E JACH=H =I AGK= AI @A LE A J AI GK= @ = => H@=CA JH=@E?E = IA HAL A = E FH=JE? LA

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?=I @A AIJK@

@K

IE F AI

)FAI=H @ GK= E ?=JEL IE F AI LE A J @ F @K JK@ A I EII = LAH@=@A =FA =I = =FH NE = @A FAGKA =I I?E = AI F @A IAH ?= ?K =@= = = EJE?= A JA @A B H = AN=?J= JA @ J @ I I KJH I ?=I I @A IAH => H@=@ I K AHE?= A JA IEIJA = ? IJEJK @ F H K = D=IJA H CE@= IA =II= @A ? FHE A J l = ANJHA E@=@A @= GK= AIJ IKIFA I= K = AIBAH= @A =II= m IK AEJ= =? @ FAI P GKA ANAH?A = IK= =? II IEIJA = @A ? H@A =@=I IACK @ = @EHA? AC=JEL= @ AEN @ I zz L@ .EC $ ?=I @ F @K IE F AI JA I A ? IAHL= @ A J E A=H  IEIJA = AIJ IK AEJ

$

) 4A =JELE@=@A @A /= E AK A =

A?

E?= + IIE?=

.ECKH= F @K @= F CE = A F H EII

IE F AI AEN @ I yy AIJ HAFHAIA J=@

FAHFA @E?K =H = F =

B H = @= CH=LE@=@A A ? IAHL= @ A J = CK =H  FAI JA A CAH= = @EHA? F=H= A = D=IJA @A IKIJA J= K IA = @ LA?J H @A F IE  + = B H = @= CH=LE@=@A ? IAHL=JEL= @ I JH I FHE ? FE I A K ?E=@ I = JAHE H A JA E? GKA HAIJ= L E@ @= ? IAHL= @= A AHCE= ?=I D= = B H =I @A =JHEJ A =? 1II GKAH @E AH J @=LE= GKA =I CH= @A =I =II ?E=@=I = I FHE ? FE I @A ? IAHL= @AENA @A IAH JAEI ) J JK @A ANA F ?= ?K A I = @AHEL=@= @ FH @KJ E JAH L.P A H@A = JA F

d L.P = (r P ).P dt
GKA =II ?E=@

,
AL= =

I FH FHEA@=@AI @ FH @KJ LA?J HE= JHEF

(r P ).P = (P P ).r = 0
A ? ? KI @A GKA L.P ? IJ= JA JA F 1 =CE A I =C H= GKA =HC= I F @K @A K CK 0 IA LA ?E@=@A E E?E= AIIA ?=I E IJ= JA E E?E= L.P = 0 A ? AII= GK= JE@=@A ? IJ= JA ? ?K I GKA IAH IA FHA K = ,= HAIK J= FA = FH FHE= @A E @A L GKA L A P IAH IA FHA FAHFA @E?K =HAI + = @EHA? @A P

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? IJ= JA @A@K E I GKA L JA IA FHA = AI = @EHA? A F HJ= J GKA F = @A E@ F H r A p IA FHA AI LE A J @ F @K F EI ANA?KJ=@ IA FHA AI F= 1CK= ? ? KI L E@= F=H= ?=I A GKA F @K IA = = =@ ? K = LA ?E@=@A E E?E= ?K = @EHA? AIJA = F = @A E@ F H r A P - > H= A J = CK =H IA = ? IJ= JA JA F = IK= @EHA? FAH = A?A IA FHA = AI = GKA JA ? ? IAGK ?E= GKA J @ LE A J @A? HHA IA FHA AI F= 4A= E = @ IA LE A J K F = I A?AII HE=I JH I ? H@A =@=I F=H= @AI?HALAH ?DAC= @ =FA =I @K=I =EI ? =@ EJE I GKA = D=IJA @A IKIJA J= H CE@= LE A J @= =II= L=E B= AH IA IACK @ K =H? @A ?EH?K BAH ?E= IEJK=@ AIIA F = 2 @A I =IIE HA@K EH AIJK@ @ LE A J = AIJK@ @= AL K @A K CK ? JA F  K = E?= L=HE LA F HJ= J )I E?=I B H =I A =? I FAI ALA JK= A JA =JHEJ GKA L= I @AIFHA =H A = B H = @A JA I @= D=IJA HEA J=@= @= =II= F=H= F J @A IKIFA I @ F @K IACK @ = @EHA? @A r =I A IA JE@ F IJ  2 @A I @A? F H FAI A @K=I ? F A JAI K = IACK @ = @EHA? @A r Pr A KJH= IACK @ = @EHA? J= CA JA JH= A?J HE= P L@ .EC $ 5A @ = D=IJA H CE@= A = JAH= @ F H EII IAK ? FHE A J = C @ LE A J I I B H =@ I = ? ? KEH GKA = JA I A = ? F A JA H=@E= Pr @ FAI I ? FA I=@=I F H K = B H = @A HA=? @A =C EJK@A ECK= I = @=I @K=I 4AIJ= I =IIE P ? E?= B H = HAIF I LA FA LE A J B ?E @A LAH GKA CK A JHA P A P FHA?EI= A JA FA GKA @K P = mg sin 2 H KJH =@ ? FHE A J s @ =H? FAH? HHE@ FA = =II= ' s = l 5A @ = =?A AH= @=@= FA = IACK @= @AHEL=@= A H@A = JA F @= @EIJ ?E= s FAH? HHE@= JA I

d2 d2 s = l dt2 dt2
A C

ml
+DAC= I =IIE AGK=

d2 = mg sin . dt2 @A LE A J @ F @K g d2 = sin 2 dt l

 % CH=L JE? IE F AI  &

-GK= @ LE A J @ F @K

JA @ ? I K = BK (t) GKA I @E = F IE A GKA IA A ? JH= = =II= = ?=@= E IJ= JA ) AGK=  & K ANA F @A K = AGK= @EBAHA ?E= E A=H 5A 1 (t) A 2 (t) B HA @K=I I K AI F II LAEI @A  & K = ? >E = E A=H a1 1 (t) + a2 2 (t) @=I @K=I ? a1 A a2 ? IJ= JAI K =I K @AII= AGK=
'

A@E@ A

H=@E=

I ? =H

) 4A =JELE@=@A @A /= E AK A =

A?

E?= + IIE?=

) I K @A  & A > H= ANEIJ= IA FHA A CAH= F I I LA @A @AJAH E =H = = EJE?= A JA ) AN?AF ?=I @A FAGKA =I I?E = AI F=H= =I GK=EI sin AIIA ?=I  & HA@K IA =

d2 g = dt2 l

 ' CAH= @AIJ=  

GKA E A=H A F=II LA @A I K = = JE?= AN=?J= ) I K AGK= (t) = sin(t) + cos(t) ,

@A = g/l = LA ?E@=@A = CK =H IA @ A F=H AJH I = @AJAH E =H = F=HJEH @=I ? @E AI BH JAEH= @ FH > A = 2 H ANA F IA = 0 F=H= t = 0 A = 0 GK= @ t = /2 = I K >JE@=

(t) = 0 cos(t)

 

HAFHAIA J= @ 0 = = F EJK@A @A I?E = ?=I = JAHE H =F=HA?A @K=I GK= JE@=@AI E F HJ= JAI A 0 ) FHE AEH= A@A = LA ?E@=@A @A L=HHE A J = CK =H @ F @K A GK= J = IACK @= A@A CK NE =JE CE@ LE A J 3K= GKAH @=I I K AI   K   AIJ @A =? H@ ? = II= ANFAHE ?E= F EI = >=I I FAHE @E?=I ?=I @= I K   A=@= A JA EII E F E?= GKA ANEIJA K E JAHL= @A JA F 6 F=H= = HAFAJE @ L= H @= I K (t + T ) t = 2 . 6A I =IIE @=@= F H K = AI?= = @A JA F BK @= A J= LE A J GKA   

T =
2AH @ @= I?E =

2 = 2

l g

1I ?H

EI

AE @A 0

A GKA IA @AIEC = F H FAH @ @ LE A J I?E =J HE 4AF=HA IA GKA T @AFA @A =FA =I @ ? FHE A J l A @= =?A AH= @= CH=LE@=@A ,AI@A GKA    IA = LAH@=@AEH=  GKA =? JA?A A=@= A JA = FHAIA = @A =JHEJ  FAH @ IAH E @AFA @A JA @= = F EJK@A @A I?E = ) AIJ= FH FHEA@=@A ?D= = IA EI ?H EI A A = GKA J H = LE LA KI=H F @K F=H= A@E AI FHA?EI=I @A JA F A HA CE I A? E? I ) AGK=  ' @AI?HALA =FA =I LE A J @ F @K =I GK= GKAH LE A J D=H E? IE F AI @AI?HEJ =FA =I F H K = E?= L=HE LA ? F H ANA F LE A J K E@E A IE = @A K ? HF I?E = @ D HE J= A JA FHAI = K = = L@ .EC ! AIJA ?=I ? HF AIJ IK AEJ =FA =I = K = B H = @A HAIJEJKE @=@= FA = AE @A 0 A F = kx  !


6EFE?= A JA F=H= I?E = AI @A = F EJK@A @= H@A

K E BAHE HAI = 

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$!

FH F H?E = = ? FHE A J x @= = A ?=@= E IJ= JA ) CH= @A = k = ? IJ= JA @A HAIJEJKE A = AGK= @ LE A J

d2 x = 2 x dt2

 "

? =C H= @=@= F H k/m 4AF=HA IA GKA AIJA ?=I = LA ?E@=@A = CK =H  A ? IAGKA JA A JA FAH @ @A I?E =  @AFA @A I @ ? A ?EA JA @A HAIJEJKE @= = =I J= > @= =II= @ > A?J = A = FHAI  + L HABAHEH GKA = AE @A 0 A J= > I L E@= F=H= FAGKA =I @AB H = AI @= = 2=H= CH= @AI @AB H = AI @AEN= @A IA LAHE ?=H = HA = @A FH F H?E = E@=@A A JHA = B H = A = C= A J ? J @ I I=>A I F H ANFAHE ?E= IA AIJE?=H I @A =IE=@ K = = A = @AB H = IA EHHALAHIELA A JA A =I IK=I FH FHEA@=@AI A IJE?=I E E?E=EI FAH@A IA

.ECKH=

I?E =@ H D=H

E? IE F AI

+ @EIIA I =?E = A > H= I=E>= I GKA ANEIJA IA FHA K = I K F=H=  & ANEIJA E BA E A JA A DK = AJ @ CE= GKA I E @EGKA ? = ?= ?K =H AIJA ?=I JA I @A FH ?KH=H = I K F H JA J=JEL=I + A?A I F H K JEF E?=H = > I I =@ I @= AGK=  & F H d/dt >JA @ IA

d (cos ) d d2 d = 2 = 2 sin 2 d t dt dt dt
7I= @ = E@A JE@=@A

d dt
? ?K I GKA

d dt

=2

d d2 d t dt2

d dt
K IA =

d dt d dt
2

2 2 cos = 0

= 2 2 cos + C
=II= @= =

 #
=II= @

-IJ= > A?J



I = =@ EJEH GKA =

@AIFHA LA FAH= JA =

$"

) 4A =JELE@=@A @A /= E AK A =

A?

E?= + IIE?=

) ? IJ= JA C F @A IAH @AJAH E =@= FA = ? @E (d/dt) = 0 F=H= = 0 E F @ = F=H=CA  A J A= @ F @K GK= @ = = F EJK@A NE = =JE CE@= >JA I =IIE

C = 2 2 cos 0
7I= @ =C H= = ECK= @=@A JHEC JHE?=

cos cos0 = 2 sin2

A  # ? ?K I GKA

0 sin2 2 2

d sin2
K E JACH= @
0 2
2

sin2 d sin2

= dt

t =
0

0 2

sin2

 $

+= ?K = @ E JACH= =@ @EHAEJ @AIJ= ECK= @=@A  ?D= =@ E JACH= A FJE? @A FHE AEH= AIF ?EA  F @AH IA E= = A JA >JAH = J = A =@= HA = A JHA A t I K @= AGK= @ LE A J 1 BA E A JA AII= E JACH= ANAGK LA A JAH I = = JE? I FA GKA =F=HA JA A JA L J I AIJ=?= AH 6 @=LE= AIJ= L= B H K = @= I K FAH EJA I EH =EI CA 2 D= I

GKA

0 = sin . sin 2 2 I FAH EJA AI?HALAH sin sin2

0 sin2 = sin cos 2 2 2 d = cos 2 d

K IA =

d
0 sin2 2

sin2 2

1 sin2

@A = sin(0 /2) 7JE E = @ AIJ= HA = = AGK=  $ A F=HJE?K =H F=H= = 0 t = T /4 @A T FAH @ @A I?E = F @A I AIJE =H FAH @ @AI@A GKA ? IEC= I JAH K = E@AE= I >HA L= H @ E JACH= F=H= = 0 7I= @ =I @A E AI @A A = JAHE HAI >JA I l T = 4 ,  % g ? 2 d = .  & 1 sin2 0 -IJ= AGK= JA = CK =I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I E JAHAII= JAI

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$#

5A 0 0 A J

0A A

l T = 2 g K IA = HAA ? JH= I?E = AI @A FAGKA = = F EJK@A

5A 0 A J F=HJA @= F IE = EI ?H EI

1A AIJA ?=I LAHJE?= >JA I NE

- JHA AIJAI @ EI ?=I I F @A I JAH K = AIJE =JEL= F=H= T HA= E = @ K ANF= I A I HEA @ E JACH= @ A  & A E JACH= @ JAH = JAH = I HEA >JE@=

=
-IJ= ANFHAII @

1+

2 9 4 + + ... 4 64

 '

I = ANF= I

T = 2

l g

1+

1 0 9 0 sin2 + sin4 + ... 4 2 64 2

  

FAH @ @AFA @A =C H= @= = F EJK@A @= I?E = A EI ?H EI FAH@A IA 2=H= JAH K = E@AE= @= E F HJ ?E= @=I ? HHA? AI F=H= K F @K ? 0 1 1 FHE AEH JAH @= ANF= I = JAHE H ? HHA 2 IF @A = K = ? HHA? @A  F=HJA A  )J AIJA A J KJE E I =E @= FHE ? FE @A ? IAHL= @= A AHCE= E? L E@ ?=I @ F @K IE F AI IA =JHEJ 2=H= LAH I A =? ? A?A I F H K JEF E?=H = > I I A >H I @= 2 AGK= F H ml (d/dt)

ml2
7I= @ = @A E

d d2 d = ml2 2 sin 2 d t dt dt
I
2

@A JA

d dt
K =E @=

1 2 ml 2

d dt

d (mgl cos ) dt

d dt

1 2 ml 2

d dt

mgl cos
E@= F H
2

=0

  

5EC E ?= EIJ GKA = GK= JE@=@A E @A

1 E = ml2 2
IA = J ? IJ= JA JA F

d dt

mgl cos

 

K IA = GKA

IAHL=@=

$$

) 4A =JELE@=@A @A /= E AK A =

A?

E?= + IIE?=

4A A >HA I GKA l ? FHE A J @A =H? =II ?E=@ = CK A GKA F H ? IAGK ?E= = LA ?E@=@A v @= =II= m @=@= F H

v=
2 HJ= J

d d (l) =l dt dt d dt
2

1 2 ml 2

1 = mv 2 2

K IA = ECK= A AHCE= ?E JE?= 2 H KJH =@ = = JKH= h = GKA = =II= IA A ? JH= = LAHJE?= @ F J @A IKIJA J= LAH .EC $ @=@= F H l cos FA GKA

mgl cos = mgh

HAFHAIA J= = A AHCE= F JA ?E= CH=L JE?= @= ? IAHE= @A AIFAH=H = A AHCE= J J= @ ? IJ= JA = C @ JA F ) AGK=    FAH EJA I JEH=H = CK I >HA LE A J @ F @K IA = AI?HALAH =II= m 4AIK E @ E IEIJA = GKA IA = J =I E = AI E JAHAII= JAI I =B H =

2 (E + mgl cos ) ml2

  !  IA E < mgl =CE HE HAIK J=@ AIJ E EJ=@ = K @A E@ FA =

+ ? IA K = BK GKA L=HE= A JHA  A E H=@E?= @ F @A J H =H IA AC=JEL AL= @ = K GKA IE?= A JA JA IA JE@ 1II IEC E ?= GKA E JAHL= @A L= HAI [ , + ] @A CK NE ? @E E . cos = mgl 5A B H FAGKA IJHE CE@ = I JAH

@AIA L LE A J A I HEA @A 6=O H @A cos HA I =EI IEC E ?=JEL I @

1 cos 1 2 2
FA GKA    IA HA@K =

1 2 + 1 mgl2 mgl E ml2 2 2

+

.
I   "

mgl

K =?

IJ= JA A J

F=H= FAGKA =I I?E = AI JA

1 2 2 1 ml + mgl2 = C 2 2
-IF= B=IAI @A

 ? C = E + mgl AGK= GKA @AI?HALA K = A EFIA AIF=  J= > @AIEC =@ F H AIF= @A B=IAI  @A AEN I =E H rM A A H


-IJ=

I IA FHA = =@ EJEH GKA

FHE A J l @= D=IJA

IJ= JA

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IE F AI

$%

rm @=@ I F H rM = 2C ml2 2C mgl

rm =
+

E = A AHCE= J J= @ IEIJA = A mgl = A AHCE= F JA ?E= @= =II= m GK= @ IA A ? JH= = LAHJE?= F H ?E = @ F J @A IKIJA J= = H= HAFHAIA J= = ? F=H= @= A AHCE= J J= ? = A AHCE= F JA ?E= NE = GKA F @K F @A JAH )? JA?A GKA IA @ E K = ? IJ= JA @ LE A J IAK L= H FAH = A?A E = JAH=@ = C @ JA F A C = J IA ECK= = GKA JE D= A J E E?E= -IJ= I F HJ= J = ? F=H=H = A AHCE= J J= @AJAH E =@= FA =I ? @E AI E E?E=EI =I ? @E AI HA=EI @ IEIJA = ? = A AHCE= F JA ?E= NE = GKA A A F @A JAH 2 IJ EIJ L JA I = EIA @ I L HE I ?=I I ? JA F =@ I A   !

-> C

6 @ I I CK I E JAHL= [0, 2 ] I=JEIB= A AII= AGK= A = =II= m B= K = H J= ? F AJ= GKA =? JA?A IA = LA ?E@=@A E FHAII= = F @K B H J= GKA A A F II= F=II=H FA = LAHJE?= =?E = @ F J @A IKIJA J= ? K = LA ?E@=@A K = ? JE K= @ =IIE = H J= 5A AI?HALAH I   ! = B H = E = 2 + cos ,   # mgl LA I GKA IA E mgl JAH cos E @AFA @A JA @A E K ?E= A JA AIIA ?E= A JA

- C

6A

JHEC

2 1 + cos
JHE?=

KJE E = @ = HA =

cos
? ? KE I GKA

x = 2

1 (1 + cos x) 2

cos .   $ 2 ) ECK= @=@A AIJ= JE = AGK= >J IA ?=I E EJA E = mgl ? HHAIF @A JA IEJK= A GKA = A AHCE= J J= @ IEIJA = IA HA@K K E?= A JA A AHCE= F JA ?E= NE = AIJ= IEJK= F @K ?=E @= LAHJE?= A = L J= =F I ANA?KJ=H K = H J= ? F AJ=

-< C

+ HHAIF @A IEJK= KIK= A GKA @ EI L= HAI NE I @ CK 5A E ?=I @=I FAGKA =I I?E = AI

F @K I?E = A JHA mgl HA?KFAH= I

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@K

AIF=

@A B=IAI

)I JH= A?J HE=I ?=I I F II LAEI AIJ

AIF= @A B=IAI ? HHAIF @A JAI = I @EBAHA JAI HAFHAIA J=@=I = .ECKH= "

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s2 = c2 t2 x2 y 2 z 2 = 0

!  

6 @ I I F J I @ AIF= JA F GKA F @A ? IJEJKEH F=II=@ K BKJKH @ >IAHL=@ H A (0, 0) A ? JH= IA @A JH @AII= AIBAH= JA IA GKA = HA = !   L E@= F=H= J @ I I >IAHL=@ HAI @ALE@ E L=HE ?E= @= LA ?E@=@A @= K L ?K c ) HA = @A ?=KI= E@=@A AIJ =IIE C=H= JE@= F=H= J @ I A AI + IE@AHA I =C H= GKA >IAHL=@ H K1 FHAIA ?E= @ EI ALA J I E1 A E2 ? HHAIF @A @ F H ANA F = K AIJ= FE@ E IJ= JA t0 F J x0 A KJH E IJ= JA t1 F J x1 5A FAH@= @A CA AH= E@=@A F @A IA IA FHA @A EH HABAHA ?E= @A B H = GKA A ? H@A =@=I @A AIF= JA F I ALA J I ? HHA A E1 = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0) A E2 = (t, x, 0, 0, 0) @A x = x1 x0 A t = t1 t0 + IE@AHA I = CH= @A = s2 (E1 , E2 ) @A E@= CA AHE?= A JA F H

s2 (E1 , E2 ) = c2 |t|2 |x|2 |y |2 |z |2

! !

&"

-IF=
2=H= K1 AIJ= CH= @A = J =

6A F A = 4A =JELE@=@A @A -E IJAE
L= H%

2 2 2 s2 1 = c t x

4AF=HA IA GKA F=H= K1 F @AH KLEH IACK @ AIJ= FE@ E IJ= JA t = F IE x JA @A IAH J= GKA x = V t @A V = LA ?E@=@A @ I + IE@AHA I K >IAHL=@ H K0 LA @ IA ? = LA ?E@=@A V @ I A HA = = K1 + F @A I IA FHA @A?E@EH GK= = HECA @ HABAHA ?E= A GK= @ @A?E@E I ? A =H = A@EH I JA F I L= I =IIK EH GKA A A F=II= F J @ AIF= @A ? HHA FHE AEH AI J= FE@ A J A GKA A A JA KC=H ,A L IA FAH@= @A CA AH= E@=@A L= I =@ EJEH GKA V JA A HA = = K1 K E?= A JA ? F A JAI IACK @ xx K IA = V = (Vx , 0, 0) 2=H= >IAHL=@ H K0 I @ EI ALA J I ? HHA AI ?= = HECA @ HABAHA ?E=  GKA B= ? GKA F=H= A A = CH= @A = ! ! J A L= H s2 0 @=@ F H 2 2 s2 . 0 = c @A @AIEC = 7I= @ = @E =J= E IJ= JA A GKA IACK @ ALA J @ JA F JA I ? HHA F=H= K0

c2 t2 =
A C
2 2 s2 1 0 = c t

c2 2 1
V2 c2

V2 c2

= c2 t2 V 2 t2
GKA

=I ?

LE

I =?E = V t = x FA

2 2 2 2 s2 0 = c t x = s1

? ? KE @ IA =IIE GKA = CH= @A = ! ! = AI = F=H= I @ EI > IAHL=@ HAI ) LA ?E@=@A @ I = LAH@=@A EHHA AL= JA AIJ= @EI?KII 2=H= = =HCK A J= = JAHE H IAH L E@= >=IJ= GKA I @ EI F J I AIF= JA F F II= IAH EC=@ I F H K IE = FH F=C= @ IA ? LA ?E@=@A V c GKA F @A IAH @EBAHA JA F=H= >IAHL=@ HAI @EBAHA JAI 1II E @E?= s2 J = AI L= H F=H= J @ I I >IAHL=@ HAI GKA FHAIA ?E= I @ EI ALA J I A GKA F HJ= J K E L=HE= JA = 4A =JELE@=@A @A -E IJAE ) GK= JE@=@A s2 K = CH= @A = BK @= A J= GKA =I IK=I FH FHEA@=@AI FAH EJA ?=J= C=H I >IAHL=@ HAI AIFA?E ?= @ A=@= A JA =I IK=I HA = AI ?=KI=EI
5A FHA GKA ?E= I ALA J I A
%

D= = = >ECKE@=@A ?=KI=

EJEHA

I = ANFHAII

@A s2 = @AFA @

! % ) CA

AJHE= @ AIF=

JA F
I F J I @ AIF= IE = FH F=C= @ IA F=H= J @ I I F J E I L ?K JA JA F GKA F II= ? K = LA ?E@=@A I GKA I F II= IAH IA s2 = 0

&#

s2 0 F=H= J @ I IAH ? J=?J=@ I F H K V c - F=HJE?K =H EC=@ I F H K IE = K 6

=@= ? BK K = CH= @A = IE

@ I F J I E1 A E2 @ AIF= JA F s2 JHE?= K IA = s2 (E1 , E2 ) = s2 (E2 , E1 )

8 JA I = HABAHA ?E= K0 A GKA I ALA J I =? JA?A = HECA =I A E IJ= JAI @A JA F @EBAHA JAI + IE@AHA I =C H= JH I ALA J I E0 E1 A E2 ? HHA @ I E IJ= JAI t0 t1 A t2 J=EI GKA t0 t1 t2 AIIA ?=I s2 (E0 , E2 ) = c2 (t0 t2 )2 = c2 (t0 t1 + t1 t2 )2 = = c2 (t0 t1 )2 + c2 (t1 t2 )2 + 2c2 (t0 t1 )(t1 t2 )
A @=@ I JH I ALA J I AIJ=HA H@A =@ I JA F ? ! " ?K I

s2 (E0 , E2 ) s2 (E0 , E1 ) + s2 (E1 , E2 )

+

! #

s2 K E L=HE= JA AIJ= HA = L E@= F=H= J @ I I >IAHL=@ HAI

@AIECK= @=@A JHE= CK =H 

-IJ=I JH I FH FHEA@=@AI B= A @A s2 = GK= JE@=@A E@A= F=H= = @A E @A @EIJ ?E= AIF= JA F @AI@A GKA J A I A ? J= GKA = @EI J ?E= A JHA @ EI F J I F @A IAH K = IA GKA I F J I A L LE@ I IA = ? E ?E@A JAI ) @EIJ ?E= s2 @A E@= A ! ! @AIEC = IA F H @EIJ ?E= @A E MI E + JH=HE= A JA = GKA =? JA?A = @EIJ ?E= AK? E@E= = JHE@E A IE = H = @=@= FA 6A HA = @A 2EJ C H=I

,EIJ ?E= @A E MI E

d(r1 , r2 ) = x2 + y 2 + z 2
AIF= JA F = @EIJ ?E= F K = GK= @ I @ EI F J I I F LA @ IA ? = LA ?E@=@A @= ? =IIE ?= @ I E JAHL= I AIF=

@A IAH F IEJEL= AC=JEL= K AI @A IAH EC=@ I A JHA IE F H K IE = K L ?K -IJA B=?J AL= IACKE JA JA F H=EI
1 JAHL= @ JEF JA F

s2 (E1 , E2 ) > 0 E JAHL= @ JEF JA F  I @ EI ALA J I F @A IAH EC=@ I F H K IE = LA @ IA ? LA ?E@=@A V < c ) HA = A JHA E1 A E2 ?=KI= IA @ = ? AN JA F H= A JHA I @ EI ALA J I IA FHA = AI = ) . IE?= KIK= ? HHA K E?= A JA AIJA JEF @A E JAHL= I s2 (E1 , E2 ) = 0 E JAHL= K  I ALA J I I F @A IAH EC=@ I A JHA IE F H K IE = LA @ IA ? LA ?E@=@A V ECK= LA ?E@=@A @= K L ?K -IJAI E JAHL= I J= > >A@A?A = FHE ? FE @A ?=KI= E@=@A =I ? LAHA I =EI BHA JA I I =?AII LAEI = F=HJ ?K =I A A A J=HAI IA =II=

1 JAHL=

&$
1 JAHL= @ JEF AIF=

-IF=

6A F A = 4A =JELE@=@A @A -E IJAE

s2 (E1 , E2 ) < 0 E JAHL= @ JEF AIF=  -LA J I IAF=H=@ I F H K E JAHL= @AIJA JEF K ?= F @A ? K E?=H A JHA IE F EI EII AGKEL= AHE= = JAH IE =EI @AI ?= @ IA ? LA ?E@=@AI IKFAHE HAI @= K L ?K GKA E F II LA ? I F IJK =@ I @A -E IJAE I BA A I =II ?E=@ I = ALA J I @AIJA JEF LE = FHE ? FE @A ?=KI= E@=@A A F H EII F @A IAH ? IE@AH=@ I A . IE?= A ? @E AI H =EI &
+ =I E JAH=? AI ?=KI=EI A JHA @ EI ALA J I I F @A ? HHAH F=H= E JAHL= I @ JEF JA F K K A ?=@= F J E @ AIF= JA F K IEIJA = B IE? JA IAK BKJKH E HAIJHE CE@ = K ? A @A K @A E@ FA = HA =

A @A K

s2 (E, E ) 0
E D= @A K ELAHI

) IK= JH= A?J HE= AIF= JA F H= K E D= @A K ELAHI AIJ =IIE A ?=@= F J @A E EJ=@= FA ? A @A K =>AHJ IK= BHA JA ? AIJ AIGKA =JE?= A JA HAFHAIA J=@ = .EC

- 6A HE= 3K JE?= 4A =JELEIJ= F @A IAH ? IE@AH=@ I A HA = AI @A E ?AHJA = @A 0AEIA >AHC ? LAHA I ?=F JK

&

=I

)F

@E?A )

CA>H= E A=H
7 ? HF K ? K J K A GKA AIJ @A E@=I =I FAH= AI BA?D=@=I @A =@E A K JEF E?= .A?D=@ IEC E ?= AIJA ? JANJ GKA = =F E?= @AII=I FAH= AI = GK=EIGKAH A A A J I @ ? K J K JA IA FHA ? HAIK J=@ K A A A J @AIIA AI ? K J )I FAH= AI @A =@E A K JEF E?= >A@A?A = I IACKE JAI =NE =I
+ HF

KJ=JELE@=@A a, b K : a + b = b + a, a b = b a
(a b) c

)II ?E=JELE@=@A a, b, c K : a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c, a (b c) = ,EIJHE>KJELE@=@A a, b, c K : a (b + c) = (a b) + (a c) -A A J AKJH

a K 0,  K : 0 + a = a,  a = a a K a, a1 K : (a)+ a = 0, a1 a = 

- A A J E LAHI
IA a = 0

-NA F I ? DA?E@ I @A ? HF I I ? K J @ I HA=EI 4 K @ I ? F AN I + =H =@ I ? =I FAH= AI @A I = A K JEF E?= KIK=EI 7 AIF= LA?J HE= V ? IJEJK @ F H K ? K J V @A LA? J HAI GK= IA @A A @K=I FAH= AI = I=>AH = I = @A LA?J HAI A = K JEF E?= F H K AI?= =H GKA I BA?D=@=I AIIA ? K J 7 AI?= =H F H IAK =@ K A A A J @A K ? HF A K AIF= LA?J HE= >=IA=@ A A A A J I @AIIA ? HF @AIEC = IA F H AIF= LA?J HE= I >HA ? HF )I @K=I FAH= AI @A E@=I I >HA I LA?J HAI J @A >A@A?AH = K = I HEA @A HAGKEIEJ I

-IF= LA?J HE=

KJ=JELE@=@A A, B V : A + B = B + A
A V ,
A = A

)II ?E=JELE@=@A A, B, B V : A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
: ( A) = ( )A

-A A J

AKJH

A V 0 V : 0 + A = A A V  A V A V : A + A = 0

- A A J E LAHI

&& ,EIJHE>KJELE@=@A A, B V
A V ,

CA>H= E A=H
: (A + B) = A + B : ( + )A = A + A

=EI K = LA 4n A +n F=H= K @=@ n I AIF= I LA?J HE=EI I >HA 4 K I >HA + 5A = L K = EIJ= @A n LA?J HAI @A V A K = EIJ= @A n AI?= =HAI A K = ? >E = E A=H @ I LA?J HAI Vi L ? ? A ?EA JAI @=@= F H
n

LL () =
i=1

i Vi

) 

A B H A?A F H @A E K LA?J H @A V 2=H= K = EIJ= L N= LL () @AII= F @A IAH ? IE@AH=@= K = BK @= EIJ= ? JH=@ E V BK K IK>? K J @A V CAH=@ FA I LA?J HAI @A L 5A F=H= GK= GKAH EIJ= @A n AI?= =HAI

LL () = 0 i = 0 (i = 1, 2, . . ., n)
8A?J HAI E A=H A JA E @AFA @A JAI

) 

I LA?J HAI @A L @E A IA E A=H A JA E @AFA @A JAI 5A B H ? LA EA JA A JA AI? DE@= A IA AH @ I IAKI A >H I B H IK ?EA JA CH= @A = EIJ= L F @A CAH=H = HA= E@=@A J @ AIF= LA?J HE= K IA = GK= GKAH LA?J H V @A V F @A IAH AI?HEJ = B H =
n

V=
i=1

i Vi

) !

AIIA ?=I

= EIJ= L CAH= V IA ?=@= LA?J H @ AIF= LA?J HE= JA FA A I K = ANFHAII @ JEF ) ! F @A JAH =EI @ GKA K = A L LA @ EIJ=I . . .@EBAHA JAI = EIJ= L E A=H A JA E @AFA @A JA GK= @ ?=@= LA?J H @A V JA NE K = ANFHAII @= B H = ) !
*=IA

= EIJ= L K = >=IA @ AIF= LA?J HE= IA ?=@= LA?J H @A V JA AN=?J= A JA K = ANFHAII @= B H = ) !

AH @A LA?J HAI @= >=IA @AIEC = IA F H @E A I @ AIF= LA?J HE= I ? A ?EA JAI i F=H= K = @=@= >=IA @AIEC = IA F H ? H@A =@=I @ LA?J H AII= >=IA F II LA @A IJH=H GKA GK= GKAH AIF= LA?J HE= @A @E A I EJ= JA K = >=IA  2 H ANA F A 4n K = >=IA ? IJEJK @= FA I >A ? DA?E@ I LA?J HAI 1 0 0 0 1 0 e1 = , e2 = , . . ., en = , ) " 0 0 1


,E A I

8AH F H ANA F

=? = A A *EH D

&'
IA @ =I ? H@A =@=I @A K LA?J H V v1 v2 V = vn

) #

@=@=I AIJ= >=IA F H vi i = 1, 2, . . ., n 7 = JH= IB H = E A=H K = BK f A JHA AIF= I LA?J HE=EI GKA FHAIAHL= =I FAH= AI @A =@E A K JEF E?= F H K AI?= =H -IFA?E ?= A JA IA X A Y B HA AIF= I LA?J HE=EI @= AI = @E A I I >HA K ? HF X A X B HA LA?J HAI @A X A a K = JH= IB H = f : X Y I=JEIB=

6H= IB H = E A=H

f (X + Y) = f (X + Y) f (aX) = af (X) .

) $

= FH JE?= BHAGKA JA A JA X Y @A B H = GKA f KEJ=I LA AI K A @ H I 0=LA @ IA FHA K = >=IA {e1 , e2 , . . .} F=H= K AIF= LA?J HE= K = JH= IB H = E A=H A JHA @ EI AIF= I LA?J HE=EI @A @E A I n JA A?AII=HE= A JA @A >A@A?AH =
n n

f (V) = f (
i=1

i ei ) =
i=1

i f (ei )

) %

2 H IAK =@ HAIK J=@ @A f K LA?J H W AIF= LA?J HE= @A ?DAC=@= GKA JA ? F A JAI 1 , 2 , . . . = >=IA { } AI? DE@= AIIA AIF= f (V ) = n , i=1 i i ) & a , f (ei ) = n j =1 j,i j @A aj,i HAFHAIA J= = ? F A JA j @= JH= IB H =@= @ LA?J H @A >=IA ei = >=IA { } 7I= @ AIJ=I AGK= AI A ) % JA I
n n n n n

l
l=1

=
i=1

i
j =1

aj,i j =
j =1 i=1

aj,i i

j.

) '

2 @A

I HAB H K =H = HA = = JAHE H ? K IEIJA = @A AGK= AI 1 = a1,1 1 + a1,2 2 + . . . + a1,n n 2 = a2,1 1 + a2,2 2 + . . . + a2,n n , )  n = an,1 1 + an,2 2 + . . . + an,n n A ? F

K =>HALE=@= A JA 1 2 = n

a1,1 a2,1

a1,2 a2,2

an,1 an,2

1 . . . a1,n . . . a2,n 2 n . . . an,n

A JAI

) 

'
@A IA =IIK A =I FAH= AI ANFHAII=I A =EI IE F E ?=@= F @A I =E @= AI?HALAH

CA>H= E A=H
)  ,A B H = =E @= )   ? F A JAI =I

W = AV
A GKA V A W HAFHAIA J= I LA?J HAI ANFHAII I A >=IAI HAIFA?JEL=I > A?J =JA JE? A a1,1 a1,2 . . . a1,n a2,1 a2,2 . . . a2,n A= an,1 an,2 . . . an,n
=JHE

) !

@AIEC = IA F H =JHE @= JH= IB H = E A=H f + A = HAFHAIA J= = B H = @= JH= IB H = @ I LA?J HAI @= >=IA @ AIF= LA?J HE= @A F=HJE@= A JAH I @= >=IA AIF= LA?J HE= @A ?DAC=@= A = ?=H=?JAH E = = JH= IB H = @A GK= GKAH LA?J H @ AIF= LA?J HE= @A F=HJE@= F=H= AIF= LA?J HE= @A ?DAC=@= H = A JA IA FHA GKA EII ?HEA = >ECKE@=@A ? FH @KJ @A @E?AI F=H= IE F E ?=H = J= A E E =@= = L HCK = F=H= IAF=H=H I @E?AI @ I A A A J I K IA = AI?HALA IA K A A A J ai,j IE F AI A JA @= B H = ai,j 4AF=HA IA GKA K = =JHE JA @A IAH A?AII=HE= A JA K > A?J ? n n A A A J I 5A = V K IK> AIF= LA?J HE= @A @E A I m ? JE@ K AIF= LA?J HE= W @A @E A I n I >HA K ? HF A IA = U K KJH AIF= LA?J HE= @A @E A I m I >HA AI ? HF I LA?J HAI @A >=IA @A V JA n ? F A JAI F H AIJ=HA E ? K @ I A W K = JH= IB H = E A=H g : V U ?=H=?JAHE =@= AIJA ?=I F H K = =JHE GKA JA HA =?E =H LA?J HAI @A n ? F A JAI ? LA?J HAI @A m ? F A JAI =FAI=H @= HA = IAH A JHA @ EI AIF= I LA?J HE=EI ? = AI = @E A I m ) =JHE @= JH= IB H = ? HHAIF @AH =IIE = K = J=>A = ? JA @ m E D=I A n ? K =I ) CK I ? ?AEJ I E F HJ= JAI =II ?E=@ I @A =JHE

=JHE GK=@H=@= =JHE @E=C =

7 = =JHE ? AI F H =JHE GK=@H=@= 7 = ?AFJ

AH @A E D=I A ? K =I @AIEC = IA

=JHE GK=@H=@= @E IA @E=C I @= @E=C = FHE ?EF= I a11 0 0 0 a22 0 0 a33 A= 0 0 0

= IA J @ I I A A A J I AN K I K IA = IA = B H = ... 0 ... 0 ... 0 . . . . ann

2 H LA AI KI= IA = J= diag(a11 , a22 , . . ., ann ) F=H= HAFHAIA J=H =JHE AI ? = = JAHE H

'
7 = =JHE GK=@H=@= A GKA J @ I I A A A @= @E=C = I K I @AIEC = IA F H =JHE A F = IACKE JA =JHE A @E=C = a11 0 0 ... 0 a21 a22 0 . . . 0 A = a31 a32 a33 . . . 0 an1 an2 an3 . . . ann
-IJA JEF @A K HE?= =JHE AI J I =?E = K =>=EN JHE= CK =H 2 H AN
=JHE JHE= CK =H

F=HJE?K =H A JA E F HJ= JA A

EIA
=JHE JH= IF IJ= =JHE =@ K J= A =JHE DAH JE?=

,=@= K = =JHE A ? A A A J I {aij } = =JHE AT J= GKA I T IAKI A A A J I aij = aij @AIEC = IA F H =JHE JH= IF IJ= 7 = =JHE A J= GKA A = AT @E IA IE JHE?= ,=@= K = =JHE GK=@H=@= A @A A A A J I {aij } ? F AN I = =JHE A J= GKA a @A a ? F AN ? KC=@ @A ij ij = aij aij @AIEC = IA F H =JHE =@ K J=  K JH= IF IJ= ? KC=@=  @A A 5A K = =JHE ECK= IK= =@ K J= A = A @E IA DAH JE?= >LE= A JA I A A A J I @= @E=C = FHE ?EF= @A K = =JHE DAH JE?= I HA=EI GKA aii = a =JHE AI DAH JE?=I I ii )I ANJHA = A JA E F HJ= JAI A A? E?= 3K JE?= ) I = @ I A A A J I @= @E=C = FHE ?EF= @A K = @AIEC =@ F H Tr A J = A @A JH= @A A
=JHE A

6H=

HAIK J=@ @ FH @KJ @A K AI?= =H F H K = =JHE A @A A A A J I {aij } @A E@ ? K = =JHE A GKA ?=@= A A A J @=@ F H aij

) I = @A @K=I =JHE AI K = =JHE A GKA ?=@= A A A J ECK= I = @ I A A A J I ? HHAIF @A JAI @A ?=@= K = @=I =JHE AI
+ IE@AHA I =C H= @K=I JH= IB H = AI E A=HAI f : U V A g : V W @A U V A W I AIF= I LA?J HE=EI I >HA AI ? HF ) ? F IE g f K = JH= IB H = @A U F=H= W GKA HAFHAIA J=@= F H K = =JHE HA =?E = @ I LA?J HAI @= >=IA @A U ? I LA?J HAI @= >=IA @A W 2=H= LAH GK= = B H = @AII= =JHE F=HJ= I @= =JHE @A f
n

f (ei ) =
j =1

aj,i

) "

@A {e} A { } @AIEC = =@ F=H= = JH= IB H =

>=IAI A U A V HAIFA?JEL= A JA 2 H IAK g JA I

n

g( i) =
j =1

bj,i j

) #

'
A GKA { } @AIEC = K = >=IA A I
n n

CA>H= E A=H
W 1 IAHE @ ) " A
n

) " >JA

n j =1

bk,j aj,i k . ) $

(g f )(ei ) =
j =1

aj,i
k=1

bk,j k

=
k=1

5A @ (g f ) : U W K = JH= IB H = E A=H A F HJ= J F H @A E HAFHAIA J=@= F H K = =JHE C @A ? F A JAI ci,j HA =?E = @ = >=IA @A U ? = >=IA @A W ? ? K I GKA A JAH I @=I =JHE AI E @ELE@K=EI A A B @A f A g HAIFA?JEL= A JA = =JHE C JA ? F A JAI
n

ci,j =
j =1

bk,j aj,i

) % HAFHAIA J=@= FA

2H @KJ @A =JHE AI

) ? F IE @A JH= IB H = AI E A=HAI =IIE @KJ @A =JHE AI C = B.A ,

FH

) &

@A = =JHE C FH @KJ @A A F H B JA ? F A JAI @=@ I F H ) % +=I K = JH= IB H = E A=H f JA D= E LAHI f 1 AIJ= IAH J= > K = JH= IB H = E A=H =I A IA FHA E LAHI ANEIJA 2 H ANA F FAHBAEJ= A JA F II LA GKA = JH= IB H = f GK= @ =F E ?=@= = K LA?J H V B H A = ? HAIK J=@ LA?J H K AIF= @A ?DAC=@= K IA = AV = 0 . ) '
-IF= K

=JHE E LAHI=

@A A = =JHE =II ?E=@= = f ? K J {V} @A LA?J HAI GKA LAH E ?= ) ' @AIEC = IA F H AIF= K @= =JHE A >LE= A JA LA?J H K B= F=HJA @ AIF= K @A K = =JHE =I ?=I I D A GKA KJH I LA?J HAI F=H= = @AIIA >A@A?A = ) ' AIIA ?=I ANEIJA =EI @ GKA K LA?J H AIF= @A F=HJE@= ? HHAIF @A @ = LA?J H K AIF= @A ?DAC=@= D=LA @ F HJ= J K = ? HHA IF @ ?E= >EK L ?= A JHA AIF= @A F=HJE@= A AIF= @A ?DAC=@= AIIA ?=I = BK E LAHI= ANEIJA 5A = BK E LAHI= ANEIJEH IA @ K = JH= IB H = E A=H JAH @A JAH K = =JHE =II ?E=@= -II= =JHE @AIEC = IA F H =JHE E LAHI= @A A A @AIEC = IA F H A1 5A

Y = AX
A J A?AII=HE= A JA

) 

X = A1 Y

) 

5A @ )  ? B H A )  AGKEL= A JA = K IEIJA = @A AGK= AI E A=HAI LA I GKA = @AJAH E = @ E LAHI @= =JHE @= JH= IB H = AGKEL= A JA = HAI LAH IEIJA = @A AGK= AI K IA = = @AJAH E =H LA?J H X ?K =I ? F A JAI I=JEIB= A = HA = ) 

'!
>LE= A JA IA =F E?=H I = BK =F E?= @A f L J= I = LA?J H V E LAHI= f 1 = HAIK J=@ @= K IA =

(f 1 f )(V) = Id(V) = V
@A Id @AIEC = = BK E@A JE@=@A JAH

,
I @A =JHE AI JA

) I

A1 .A = I
A GKA I @AIEC = =

, .

) !
=JHE E@A JE@=@A

=JHE E@A JE@=@A 1 0 0 ... 0 1 0 ... I = 0 0 1 ... 0 0 0 ...

0 0 0 1

) "

,A L ?E =@ I ?

= CK I JEF I @A =JHE ? FH FHEA@=@AI AIFA? ?=I HA = = E LAHI= J =H= @AIEC = AI AIFA? ?=I ECK= IK= JH= IF IJ=
=JHE HJ C = =JHE K EJ HE=

7 = =JHE A J= GKA = IK= E LAHI= @AIEC = IA F H =JHE HJ C =

7 = =JHE A J= GKA = IK= E LAHI= ECK= IK= =@ K J= @AIEC = IA F H =JHE K EJ HE= 7 = =JHE K EJ HE= ? J @ I IAA A J I HA=EI ? =H= A JA K = =JHE HJ C =
+ @EIIA I =?E = A IA FHA = =JHE E LAHI= ANEIJA 7 = FAHCK J= >LE= IA ANEIJA K ?HEJ HE >=IA=@ = AIJHKJKH= @= =JHE @A F=HJE@= GKA FAH EJ= I=>AH IA = IK= E LAHI= ANEIJA K 8A = I K ANA F IE F AI ? IE@AHA I = =JHE

A=
?K = E LAHI= IA ANEIJEH = =JHE

a11 a12 a21 a22

A1 =

b11 b12 b21 b22

J= GKA A.A1 = I 6A I A J IACKE JA IEIJA = @A AGK= AI = HAI LAH F=H= @AJAH E =H I A A A J I @A A1 a11 b11 + a12 b21 = 1 a11 b12 + a12 b22 = 0 a b + a22 b21 = 0 21 11 a21 b12 + a22 b22 = 1 )I K
a11

b11 =
@A

|A|

, b12 = a12 |A|

, b21 = a21 |A|

, b22 =

|A|

a22

'"
|A| =
,AJAH E = JA

CA>H= E A=H
a11 a12 a21 a22 = a11 a22 a12 a21

@AJAH E = JA @= =JHE A 8A I =IIE GKA F=H= = =JHE A JAH K E LAHI A?AII HE GKA IAK @AJAH E = JA IA = K 2 H ANA F = =JHE 1/2 1/3 A= 3 2
JA E LAHI F HGKA JA @AJAH E = JA K 7 = =JHE ?K JAH E = JA K @AIEC = IA F H matrizsingular - CAH= @AJAH E = JA @A K = =JHE GK=@H=@= n n A @A FA = B H K = @A AE> E
n n n

=JHE IE CK =H

@A E@

|A| =
i1 =1 i2 =1

...
in =1

i1 i2 . . .in

a1i1 a2i2 . . .anin

) # = AEH=

@A

i1 i2 . . .in

>

@A ALE +ELEJ= @A

E@ @= IACKE JA

? IE@AHA I ? K J H@A =@ C = {1, 2, 3, . . ., n} K = JH= IF IE @AIIA ? K J ? IEIJA = FAH= @A JH ?= @A @ EI @ I IAKI A A A J I ? F H ANA F {1, 2, 3, . . ., n} {3, 2, 1, . . ., n}
1 i2 . . .in 7 = FAH KJ= i K = JH= IB H = {i1 , i2 , . . ., in } C @A C ? HHAIF @A @ = K AH nt @A JH= IF IE AI 7 = FAH KJ= @E IA F=H IA nt B H F=H K K F=H ?=I ? JH HE -NEIJA >LE= A JA n! FAH KJ= AI F II LAEI

AIJ=I @A
i1 i2 . . .in

E AI JA

IA J

i1 i2 . . .in F=H +1 IA C i1 i2 . . .in ) $ = 1 IA C F=H 0 IA ia , ib {i1 , i2 , . . ., in } A ia = ib

J= > ? DA?E@ F H JA I H ?

> @A ALE +ELEJ= J= A JA = JE IE JHE?

4ACH= @A +H= AH

FA

) E F HJ ?E= @ ? ?AEJ @A @AJAH E = JA AIJ E JE = A JA EC=@= HACH= @A +H= AH + IE@AHA I IEIJA = @A AGK= AI ANFHAII A B H = =JHE?E= = A ) % K A ? F A JAI

a1,1 a1,2 . . . a1,n 1 2 a2,1 a2,2 . . . a2,n = an,1 an,2 . . . an,n n

1 2 n

) &

'#
) HACH= @A +H= AH AIFA?E ?= A J GKA

i =
@A Ai = =JHE GKA IA LA?J H K IA = a1,1 a1,2 . . . a2,1 a2,2 . . . Ai = ... an,1 an,2 . . . >J

|Ai | |A|

) '

FA

IK>IJEJKE @ = i IE = ? K = @A A

a1,i1 a2,i1

1 2

an,i1 n

a1,i+1 . . . a1,n a2,i+1 . . . a2,n an,i+1 . . . an,n

) !

8A I =IIE =EI K = LA GKA = I K @ IEIJA = ) & I ANEIJA H = A JA IA |A| = 0 3KA =? JA?A J @=LE= IA B H LA?J H K AIIA ?=I B ?E @A @A IJH=H GKA F=H= GK= GKAH i |Ai | = 0 A =I H= AI ) ' ?= E @AJAH E =@=I AIIA ?=I =I I K AI ? HHAIF @A = AIF= K @= =JHE A 2 HJ= J K IEIJA = D C A A = 0 JA I K IA A I IA |A| = 0 2=H= JAH E =H AIJ= FAGKA = @ECHAII I >HA =JHE AI L= I E JH @K EH = @A LA?J H A L= H FH FHE 5A = A K = =JHE GK=@H=@= nn LA?J H @E IA K LA?J H FH FHE @A A IA

8A?J H FH FHE

A =

) !
8= H FH FHE

@AIEC = @ IA AI?= =H @A L= H FH FHE ? HHAIF @A JA = LA?J H FH FHE 0 ? ALE@A JA NE n L= HAI FH FHE I @EIJE J I 2=H= A ? JH=H I LA?J HAI A L= HAI FH FHE I @A K = =JHE n n A JA I @A HAI LAH K = AGK= @ JEF ) ! 2=H= EII HAAI?HALA I = AGK= @= B H = A = I @A I = =JHE E@A JE@=@A n n K =E @=

(A I ) = 0
AIIA ?=I IA @ K IEIJA = D C A

.
I JA I K IA ) ! 
-GK= ?=H=?JAH IJE?=

|A I | = 0

GKA @ FA A @A AGK= ?=H=?JAH IJE?= -IJ= AGK= FAH EJA @AJAH E =H I L= HAI FH FHE I GKA @AF EI @A E JH @K E@ I A ) ! FAH EJA A ? JH=H LA?J H FH FHE ? HHAIF @A JA I L= HAI A LA?J HAI FH FHE I I KEJ E F HJ= JAI K CH= @A AH @A FH > A =I A . IE?= KEJ A AIFA?E= A A? E?= 3K JE?= @A =IIK A K F=FA ?A JH=

'$

CA>H= E A=H

)F

@E?A *

EIA 1

EJAIE =


+ IE@AHA I K ? K J X ? dX (x, y) : X X R K = ?=@=I =I IACKE JAI ? @E AI

A A A J I {x, y, z, . . .} 7 = BK JHE?=  K @EIJ ?E=  A X IA I LAHE

JHE?=

dX (x, y) 0 IA @ dX (x, y) = 0 IA A I IA x = y dX (x, y) = dX (y, x)

K IA = = BK

IE

JHE?=
K IA = dX (x, y) +

= BK d I=JEIB= = @AIECK= @=@A JHE= CK =H dX (y, z) dX (x, z)

7

? K J X ? K = JHE?= dX @A E@= @AIEC = IA F H AIF= JHE? I AIF= I Rn ? n = 1, 2, 3, . . . =H =@ I ? = @EIJ ?E= AK? E@A= = H = >=IA=@= 6A HA = @A 2EJ C H=I F H ANA F I AIF= I JHE? I ? B=?E A JA IA ? FH L= ,=@ K AIF= JHE? X ? K = @EIJ ?E= dX A K F J p X @AIEC = IA F H > = =>AHJ= @A ?A JH p A H=E r > 0 ? K J BA (p; r) = {x X |dX (x, p) < r} + IAHE= @A AIFAH=H @A A IA > = BA?D=@= ? AI ?A JH A AI H=E ? ? K J BF (p; r) = {x X |dX (x, p) r} ? K J S (p; r) = {x X |dX (x, p) = r} @A A = AIBAH= ? ?A JH p A H=E r 5A A X A @E IA K ? K J =>AHJ IA F=H= J @ x A ANEIJA K r > 0 J= GGKA BA (x; r) A 7 ? K J BA?D=@ ? FA A J=H @A K ? K J =>AHJ 5A = =C H= B K IK>? K J @A X @E IA GKA A K = LE E D= = =>AHJ= @A B IA B H K ? K J =>AHJ ? JA @ B ,AIEC = IA IE F AI A JA F H LE E D= = @A B GK= GKAH ? K J ? JA @ K = LE E D= = =>AHJ= @A B 7 F J x X @AIEC = IA F H F J =@AHA JA @A K ? K J A X IA GK= GKAH LE E D= = @A x A ? JH= A ? K J @ IF J I =@AHA JAI @A A @AIEC = IA F H =@AH ?E= @A A
 -IJ= @A E AIJHEJ= A JA =JA JE?= JA GKA IAH ? IE@AH=@= ? = CK = IK>JE A = A . IE?= 2 H ANA F AIF= @A E MI E ? ?AEJ =JKH= F=H= AIF= JA F = 4A =JELE@=@A @A -E IJAE JA K = @EIJ ?E= GKA F @A J =H L= HAI F IEJEL I K AC=JEL I

-IF= JHE?

* = =>AHJ=

K J =>AHJ

8E E D= =

2 J =@AHA JA

'&

EIA 1

EJAIE =

.K ? J K=

E EJA

) @A AIF= JHE? FAH EJA AIJ=>A A?AH = AIJHKJKH= A?AII HE= @A E @A ? ?AEJ I ? ? JE KE@=@A E EJA AJ? J= ? I KIK= A JA KJE E =@ I A . IE?= + IE@AHA I @ EI AIF= I JHE? I X AY ? HAIFA?JEL= A JA JHE?=I dX A dY A IA = f : X Y K = BK A JHA AIIAI @ EI AIF= I ) BK f @E IA ? J K= F J x X IA F=H= J @ I I F J I y J=EI GKA dX (x, y) < F=H= K @A JAH E =@ =H>EJH HE ANEIJA K J= GKA dY (f (x), f (y)) < 2 H ANA F = BK f (x) = |x| ? x R K = BK ? J K= F J x=0 5A = =C H= A X A IA = a K F J =@AHA JA @A A 5A f B H K = =F E?= @A A K AIF= JHE? Y @E IA GKA f (x) JA K E EJA a Y GK= @ x JA @A F=H= a IA B H L E@= K = @=I IACKE JAI ? @E AI

IA a / A = BK g : A {a} Y @A E@= @A J= B H = GKA g (x) = f (x) GK= @ x A A a = g (a) ? J K= F J a IA a A f

? J K= A

A
I * 

5A GK= GKAH @AIJ=I ?

@E AI B H LAHE ?=@= AI?HALA

a = lim f (x) xa
5K?AII

5 HEA

-IFA?E= A JA E F HJ= JAI I =I BK AI un : N X @A X K AIF= JHE? 7 BK @AIJA JEF @AIEC = IA F H IK?AII A ? IEIJA F HJ= J K = EIJ= H@A =@= @A A A A J I {x1 , x2 , . . .} A GKA ?=@= AA A J E @AN=@ F H K AH =JKH= )I IK?AII AI F @A JAH K AH EJ K E EJ @A A A A J I 5A JELAH I @A E@= K = FAH= @A I = BA?D=@= ? K J X LAH )F @E?A ) F=H= = @A E @A FAH= BA?D=@= F @A I ? IE@AH=H = I = @ I JAH I @A K = IK?AII GKA @A A K = I HEA ,EJ @A KJH= B H = K = I HEA K = IK?AII A GKA ?=@= A A A J
n

Sn =
i=1

xi

* 

E EJA @A IK?AII

+ IE@AHA I K = IK?AII JHE? X ? K = @EIJ ?E= IK?AII A AI?HALA IA c=

{x1 , x2 , . . .} @A A A A J I @A K AIF= dX ,E IA GKA c X E EJA @=

n

lim xn

* !

+ LAHC ?E= @A K = IK?AII

IA A I IA F=H= GK= GKAH R ANEIJA K N N J= GKA F=H= n > N dX (xn , c) < ) J JK @A ANA F = IK?AII {2(n1) } n = 1, 2, 3, . . . JA F H E EJA c = 0 ? B=?E A JA IA F @A LAHE ?=H FA = @A E 5A K = IK?AII JA E EJA EJ @E IA GKA ? LAHCA JA +=I E EJA IA = E EJ ? ?=I @= IK?AII @A E@= F H xn = 2n n =
-IJ= @A E = HA= E@=@A E@ JE?= @A E @A E EJA @=@= =EI =?E =

*)

EIA E

EJAIE = A

''

1, 2, . . . @E IA GKA @ELAHCA JA +=I I D A GKA E EJA @= IK?AII AIJ AI @A E@ ? ?=I @A xn = sin n n = 1, 2, . . . GKA I?E = K E?= A JA A JHA I L= HAI  A  5A >A GKA IA = F II LA B H K =H =I AI >=IA @= = EIA E EJAI E = @A B H = KEJ CAH= = LAH@=@A GKA =FA =I F JK= A JA K A @ E I KEJ AIFA? ? I @= . IE?= A?AII HE KI=H AIF= I JHE? I ? F AJ= A JA =H>EJH HE I = AI =C=@ H= =E HE= @ I ?=I I JH=>= D= I ? I AIF= I Rn  K ALA JK= A JA Cn  ? n = 1, 2, . . . ,ALE@ IK= E F HJ ?E= A F HGKA @A GK= GKAH @=I B H =I AIIAI I I E? I AIF= I KJE E =@ I AIJA ELH  L= I = F=HJEH @A =C H= ?E CEH I =FA =I = Rn + I ? ?AEJ I F II LAEI @A @A EH I ECAEH= A JA @EBAHA JAI ? A =HA I FHE AEH ? Rp =H= A IACKEH JAH E =H AIJA =F @E?A ? Rn

* )

EIA E

EJAIE = A
?

R
F J
,AHEL=@=

*   ,AHEL=@=I
5A = f : R R K = BK x R = GK= JE@=@A J K= ,AIEC = IA F H @AHEL=@=

f (x + ) f (x) d f (x) = lim 0 dx

* "

5A K = BK JA @AHEL=@= K F J @E IA @AHEL LA AIIA F J A IA JA @AHEL=@= A J @ I I F J I @ IAK @ E @E IA IE F AI A JA GKA @AHEL LA ) ? JE KE@=@A A = @AHEL=>E E@=@A @AFA @A @= BK A ?=KI= A F=H= K = @=@= BK @ F J @A IA ?= ?K = = @AHEL=@= = HA= E@=@A = ? JH HE @ GKA K FHE ?EFE= JA AIJ= HA= JA JA @ ?E= = FA I=H =I BK AI ? J K=I I =EI = AN?AF @ GKA = HACH= )FA =I = II= ANFAHE ?E= @A ? JE KE@=@A @ I BA A I B IE? I I AL= = AI? DAH BK AI ? J K=I A @AHEL LAEI A J= J ?=@= LA =EI A . IE?= ? = 6A HE= @ I .A A I +H JE? I A GKA IA AIJK@= =I FH FHEA@=@AI @ I IEIJA =I = HACE @A ?AHJ I JEF I @A JH= IE AI @A B=IA IA HA? DA?A F=FA BK @= A J= GKA BK AI @AI? J K=I A @AHEL LAEI J = @AI?HE @ I BA A I B IE? I ) @AHEL=@= @A K = BK F @A IAH F H IK= LA ? IE@AH=@= ? K = BK @ F J A GKA ?= ?K =@= 5A AII= BK @AHEL=@= B H ? J K= F @A I @A L ?= ?K =H = IK= @AHEL=@= K @=@ F J -II= @AHEL=@= @AIEC = IA F H IACK @= @AHEL=@= @A f F J AI? DE@ A @A J= IA

d2 f (x) = lim 0 dx2

d f (x + ) d f (x) dx dx

5ACK @= @AHEL=@=

* #

FH ?AII F @A IAH HAF E?=@ ? = IACK @= @AHEL=@= ?=I = @AHEL=@= ANEIJ= @= @ HECA = K = JAH?AEH= @AHEL=@= A =IIE F H @E= JA ,A


K = B H = CAH= = @AHEL=@= @A H@A F H

EIA 1
f

EJAIE =
@A E@=

n @A K = BK

,AHEL=@= @A H@A n

dn f (x) dxn

dn1 f (x + ) dn1 f (x) dxn1 dxn1 = lim 0

* $

,AHEL=@=I AIGKAH@= A @EHAEJ=

? ?AEJ @A @AHEL=@= F @A IAH CA AH= E =@ F=H= E ? KEH I ?=I I A GKA = ANEIJ ?E= @ E EJA A * " @AFA @A @= B H = ? I =FH N E = I @ F J x 2 @A =? JA?AH GKA E EJA ANEIJ= =FA =I GK= @ I =FH NE = I @ F J =FA =I F H L= HAI IKFAHE HAI = x K =FA =I F H L= HAI E BAHE HAI = x FHE AEH ?=I @E A I GKA = BK JA @AHEL=@= @EHAEJ= F J x A GK= J IACK @ @E A I GKA = BK JA @AHEL=@= AIGKAH@= F J x ,E A I A J GKA = @AHEL=@= K F J x ANEIJA IA ANEIJEHA =I @AHEL=@=I AIGKAH@= A @EHAEJ= A IA IAK L= H ? E ?E@EH ) J JK @A ANA F = BK f (x) = |x| GKA A ? JH I =?E = JA @AHEL=@=I AIGKAH@= A @EHAEJ= F J x = 0 GKA I J @=LE= @EBAHA JAI ANEIJA F HJ= J @AHEL=@= A x = 0 /A AJHE?= A JA = @AHEL=@= @A K = BK K F J ? HHAIF @A IACK @ = @A E * " = @A? ELA @= HA?J= J= CA JA BK AIIA F J 1IJ E F HJ= JA I=>AH F HGKA K @ I ? ?AEJ I =EI E F H J= JAI @= . IE?= @A LA ?E@=@A GKA IA @A A FHA?EI= A JA ? AIF= FAH? HHE@ F H E JAHL= @A JA F A GKA ? HHAIF @A F HJ= J @AHEL=@= @= JH= A?J HE= x(t) A H@A = JA F ) LA ?E@=@A JA =IIE F H ? IJHK = LAH ? = J= CA JA JH= A?J HE= E IJ= JA ? IE@AH=@ 2=H= IE F E ?=H = AI?HEJ=  A IA EII ?HE=H ? BKI  KI= IA F H LA AI = J= f (x) F=H= = FHE AEH= @AHEL=@= @= BK f F J x f (x) F=H= = IK= IACK @= @AHEL=@= F J x A A CAH= f (n) (x) F=H= = IK= @AHEL=@= @A H@A n F J x - . IE?= KI= IA =E @= BHAGKA JA A JA K = J= AIFA? ?= F=H= @AHEL=@=I A H@A = JA F )IIE g (t) @AIEC = = FHE AEH= @AHEL=@= @= BK gA H@A = JA F E IJ= JA t A g (t) = IK= IACK @= @AHEL=@= A H@A = JA F E IJ= JA t AJ? KIK= KI=H AIJ= J= F=H= @AHEL=@=I @A H@A IKFAHE H =J F HGKA FA = FH FHE= AIJHKJKH= @=I AEI @A AMJ =FA =I @AHEL=@=I =J IACK @= H@A  K IA = =J =?A AH=  AIJ H = A JA A L LE@= 5A = f (x) A CN @K=I BK AI R R 2 @A I ? IJHKEH =I BK AI I = (f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) @EBAHA = (f g )(x) = f (x) g (x) FH @KJ (f.g )(x) = f (x).g (x) GK ?EA JA (f /g )(x) = f (x)/g (x) A ? F IE (f g )(x) = f (g (x)) 8= I HA =?E =H = @AHEL=@= @AII=I L=I BK AI ? = @AHEL=@= @=I BK AI f A g HAIK J=@

*) )@E

EIA E

EJAIE = A

R
E @A @AHEL=@=



A IK>JH=?

)F E?= @ = @A

(f g )(x + ) (f g )(x) d (f g )(x) = lim = 0 dx f (x + ) f (x) g (x + ) g (x) lim = = lim 0 0 d f (x) d g (x) = . dx dx
2 HJ= J = @AHEL=@= @A K = I @=I @AII=I BK AI

* %

= @A BK

AI = I

= @=I @AHEL=

2H @KJ

,A

d (f.g )(x) (f.g )(x + ) (f.g )(x) = lim = 0 dx g (x + ) g (x) f (x + ) f (x) = lim f (x) + g (x) = * & 0 d g (x) d f (x) = f (x) + g (x) . dx dx
7 ?=I F=HJE?K =H @AIJ= HACH= ? HHA GK= @ K = @=I BK = BK ? IJ= JA f (x) = const + AI

d const const const = lim =0 0 dx

? ?K @A c I K =?

d cf (x) d f (x) =c dx dx IJ= JA

* '

3K ?EA JA ) >JA

@= @AHEL=@= @ GK ?EA JA @A BK AI K F K? =EI ? F E?=@= @ GKA = @ FH @KJ =I IACKA I AI I @AI ,AEN= I = @A IJH= @ HAIK J=@

d f (x) d g (x) g (x) f (x) d (f /g )(x) d x dx = dx [g (x)]2

* 

= ?=HC @ AEJ H 7 ?=I F=HJE?K =H ? HHA GK= @ = BK K AH=@ H K = ? IJ= JA c AIIA ?=I d g (x) d (c/g )(x) = c d x 2 . *  dx [g (x)]

.K

=EI ?

F IJ= ) @AHEL=@= @A K = BK
F E?=@= @A HA =?E =H ?

=I BK

F IJ= K F K? AI E E?E=EI A F H EII


L= I B= AH = @A HAIK J=@ ! IJH= =GKE

EIA 1

EJAIE =

=I =FA =I =FHAIA J=H

d (f g )(x) d f (g (x)) d g (x) = dx d g (x) dx

F=HJE?K =H IA c B H K = ? IJ= JA

*  

d f (cx) d f (cx) = .c dx d (cx)

8A = I =C H= = CK I ANA F I @A ? ?K @A BK

.
@AHEL=@=

* !

.K

FHE AEH ?=I FA = @A E @A @AHEL=@= JA I dx/dx = 1 ?=I IACKE JA JA I KI= @ = B H K = @ >E E @A AMJ " A @AIFHA = @ J @ I I JAH I @A H@A k ? k > 1 F H IAHA KEJ FAGKA I GK= @ 0

AI f (x) = x A f (x) = xn

(x + )n xn xn + nxn1 xn d xn = lim = lim = nxn1 0 0 dx

.K

AI JHEC JHE?=I I @A KJE E = ? HHA JA A . IE?= A F H EII E F HJ= JA ? DA?AH =I IK=I @AHEL=@=I ) @EII I BK AI ? J K=I A GKA J @AHEL=@=I @A J @=I =I H@A I ? AEJ H F @AH @A IJH=H B=?E A JA )F EGKA I A J = @A E @AHEL=@= @A sin x

AI sin(x) A cos(x) )I BK

sin(x + ) sin x d sin x = lim 0 dx sin x cos + sin cos x sin x = lim 0
GK= @ 0 sin A cos 1 GKA AL= =

sin x cos + sin cos x sin x cos x = lim = cos x 0 0 lim

,A B H = E@ JE?= IA F @A @A IJH=H GKA

d cos x = sin x dx

.
=EI = @A E

.K

@A -K AH F=H= = BK

ANF

A ?E= ex 4A A >HA
ANF

I = JAI @A JK@ A ?E=

ex = lim
@A @A @A@K E

1+

x n

* "

I GK= @ x 0 GKA

ex 1 + x
! "

x0

* #

8AH F H ANA F (x + a)n = n i=0

n i

x(ni) ai

*)

EIA E

EJAIE = A
?= ?K A

R
ANF A ?E= =JH=L I

!

2 IJ EIJ @= @A E

I = @AHEL=@= @= BK

d ex ex+ ex e 1 = lim = ex lim 0 0 dx

JA @ A LEIJ= GKA E EJA IA =F E?= = A = x 7I= @ * # LA I GKA d ex 1+1 = ex lim = ex . * $ 0 dx 2 HJ= J = @AHEL=@= @= BK ANF A ?E= ANF A ?E= = FH FHE= BK

2=H= JAH E =H AIJ= =FHAIA J= @A HAIK J=@ I HABAHA JAI @AHEL= B= J= HABAHEH ?=I @= @AHEL=@= @= BK E LAHI= f 1 (x) @A K = @=@= # BK f (x) 5A AII= BK E LAHI= ANEIJEH A J F @A @A IJH=H IA GKA 1 d f 1 (x) d f (f 1 (x)) = . * % dx d (f 1 (x)) -IJA HAIK J=@ FAH EJA ?= ?K =H ?=I I ? log(x) + elog(x) = x JA HA = @= BK @= @AHEL=@= @ C=HEJ

6A HA = @= .K E LAHI=

,
? KEH

E LAHI= * % FAH EJA ?

d log(x) = dx

d elog(x) d log x

= elog(x)

1 x

* &

AI J @ F @A IAH KI=@ F=H= ?= ?K =H =I @AHEL=@=I @=I BK AI arcsin(x) arccos(x) AJ? = 6=>A = *  AIJ EIJ=@=I =I @AHEL=@=I @A = CK =I BK AI =EI ? HHA JAI

*

1 JACH=EI

+ IE@AHA I IACKE JA FH > A = K ? HF @AI ?= IA = C @A K = HA?J= ? K = LA ?E@=@A v @AFA @A JA @ JA F = @A K JA F t GKA @EIJ ?E= x FAH? HHAK 2=H= A ? JH=H = HAIF IJ= F @A I B= AH IACKE JA H=?E ? E @KH= JA K E JAHL= t IK ?EA JA A JA FAGKA F @A I ? IE@AH=H = LA ?E@=@A ? IJ= JA A F HJ= J AIF= FAH? HHE@ AIIA E JAHL= @A JA F x(t) = v (t)t ) I K @ II FH > A = ? IEIJA A I =H I E JAHL= I x >JE@ I F=H= E JAHL= I @A JA F t ? J CK I JA @ ?KE@=@ @A C=H= JEH GKA = I = @ I E JAH L= I @A JA F ? >HA E JAHL= t ,EJ @A KJH= B H = IA JA F
# 6H=J= IA @A K @ I HAIK J=@ I =EI E F HJ= JAI @ ? ?K E EJAIE = GKA EHA I J @=LE= @A IJH=H =GKE F H K JH=F=II=H >EJ @AIJA ELH A F HGKA @A GK= GKAH @=I B H =I FH F IEJ @AIJA )F @E?A J I A JA E JH @K EH ? ?AEJ I GKA AEJ H F @A KJE E =H @A B H = FAH=?E =

" .K
const. x
 R 

EIA 1

EJAIE =

,AHEL=@=
0 x1 x = sgn(x) |x| ex 1 x cos(x) sin(x) sec2 (x) = 1 cos2 (x)

|x| x = 0 ex log(x) sin(x) cos(x) tan(x) arcsin(x) arccos(x) arctan(x) sinh(x) cosh(x) arcsinh(x) arccosh(x) arctanh(x)

1 1 x2 1 1 x2 1 1 + x2 cosh(x) sinh(x) 1 2 x +1 1 x2 1 1 1 x2
AI =EI ? K I

6=>A = *  ,AHEL=@= @A = CK =I BK

? A =H = IAH ? J=@ E IJ= JA t0 A JAH E =H A t1 = t0 + t A IA B HA A?AII HE I n E JAHL= I @A JA F ti F=H= ? >HEH E JAHL= @A JA F J J= t = t1 + t2 + . . . + tn A J

n

x
i=0

v (ti )ti

IE = @A =FH NE = LA @ B=?J @A JAH I =IIK E@ GKA =I LA ?E @=@AI v (ti ) I ? IJ= JAI E JAHL= ti GKA F @A =J AIJ=H CA @A IAH LAH@=@A 5A J @=LE= AH I J @ I I ti 0 =K A J= @ ? H HAIF @A JA A JA AH @A E JAHL= I n @A B H = = = JAH = ? >AHJKH= @ E JAHL= t A J = =FH NE = IAH ?=@= LA AD H E EJA @A E JAHL= I E EJ= A JA FAGKA I A A AH E EJ= A JA CH= @A = I = IAH AN=?J= A JA ECK= = L= H FAH? HHE@ FA

*)
? HF

EIA E
K IA =

EJAIE = A

#

x = lim

n i=1

ti 0

v (ti )ti

. v (t)

) I = = ANFHAII = JAHE H @ FA E JAHL= [t0 , t1 ] A KI= IA = J=

t1 n

A @A E JACH= @= BK

v (t)dt = lim
t0

n i=1

ti 0

v (ti )ti

.
IAK E JACH= $

,A K = B H = CAH= @=@= K = BK f (x) : R R K E JAHL= [x0 , x1 ] @A E@ @= IACKE JA B H =

 ,ELE@A IA [x0 , x1 ] A n E JAHL= I [xi , xi+1 ] (i = 1, 2, . . ., n 1) @A J= = D xi = (xi+1 xi ) + IJH E IA = I =

n1

S=
i=1

f (xi )(xi+1 xi )
E JAHL=
n

.
A IA A J ? * '
1 JACH=

E JACH= @= BK
x1

f lim

[x0 , x1 ] @A

f (x)dx =
x0

xi+1 xi 0

f (xi )(xi+1 xi )
i=1

A GKA E JAHL= x0 , x1 IA @AIEC = F H E JAHL= @A E JACH= I L= HAI x0 A x1 F H E EJAI @A E JACH= E BAHE H A IKFAHE H HAIFA?JE L= A JA A f E JACH= @ -IJA FH ?A@E A J JA K = E JAHFHAJ= CA JHE?= ? IA F @A LAH = .EC +=@= K @ I FH @KJ I f (xi )(xi+1 xi ) ? HHAIF @A HA= @ HA?J CK @A = JKH= f (xi ) A @A >=IA (xi+1 xi ) FA GKA E JACH= ? HHAIF @A = LAH@=@A HA= I > = ?KHL= y = f (x) E JAHL= (x1 x0 ) ) @A E * ' FAH EJA @A@K EH GKA
x1 x0

1 JACH= ?

HA=

f (x)dx =
x0 x1 x0

f (x)dx

A GKA

f (x)dx = 0
x0

.
@K=I BK
x0

=E @= E A@E=J GKA IA f (x) A g (x) B HA @K=I ? IJ= JAI A J

x1 x0

AI R R A A

(f (x) + g (x)) dx =
x0
$ E JACH= =GKE E JH @K E@ @ =JA JE? *AH D=H@ 4EA = ? ?AEJ @A E JACH= @A K = BK =EI CAH=EI GKA EHA I => H@=H

f (x)dx +
x1 x1

g (x)dx

* 

= HA= E@=@A E JACH= @A 4EA = @ A GKA FA = FHE AEH= LA @A EK HEC H I= A JA I >HA K E JAHL= -NEIJA D A @A E AI AIJA ELH

$

EIA 1

EJAIE =

- ?=I I AIFA? ? I L= H @ E JACH= * ' E JKEJEL= A JA B ?E @A ?= ?K =H 2 H ANA F IA f (x) = c K = BK ? IJ= JA E JACH=

x1 x0

cdx = c(x1 x0 )

* 

AI =? JA?A GK= @ f (x) = cx @A c K = ? IJ= JA AIJA ?=I E JACH= = HA= @ JH=F E IK>A JA @E@ FA = HA?J= y = cx E JAHL= [x0 , x1 ] A F HJ= J
x1

cxdx =
x0

c 2 x x2 0 2 1

*

- CAH= E JACH= J B ?E @A ?= ?K =H = LAH@=@A K E JACH= F @A IAH K = GK= JE@=@A AI KEJ @EB ?E ?= ?K =H 2 H EII I =JA JE? I @E A = E @A GKA @AHEL=H K = J ? E?= E JACH=H K = =HJA -NEIJA J @=LE= = CK =I J ? E?=I GKA F @A IAH KI=@=I F=H= IE F E ?=H = J=HAB= E JACH= @A K = @=@= BK F @A F H IK= LA IAH ? IE@AH=@ K = BK If (x0 , x1 ) @ I E EJAI @A E JACH= 5KF D= I F=H= AI E JACH= @ GKA = JA I E EJA @A E JACH= E BAHE H x0 N A B= A I L=HE=H E JAHL= @A E JACH= IKFAHE H @A x1 x1 + If (x0 , x1 ) F=II= A J = IAH K = BK @ E EJA IKFAHE H =FA =I % + IJHK= I = GK= JE@=@A

If (x1 + ) If (x1 ) f (x1 )

A GKA KJE E I = @A E * ' = = JAHE H IJH= GKA E EJA 0

JE = ECK= @=@A ) HA = * !


2HE EJEL=

If (x1 + ) If (x1 ) d If (x1 ) = = f (x1 ) 0 dx lim

K IA = GKA = @AHEL=@= @ E JACH= K @=@ F J @ E EJA IKFAHE H @A E JACH= E@ JE?= = L= H @= BK E JACH= @= AIIA F J ,EJ @A KJH= B H = =I FAH= AI @A @AHEL= A E JACH= I =I E LAHI=I K = @= KJH= 1IJ AL= @A E @A FHE EJEL= @A K = BK f ? IA @ = BK Pf (x) ?K = @AHEL=@= F J x ECK= BK f AIIA F J 7I= IA BHAGKA JA A JA = J= @A E JACH= IA E @E?= @A E EJAI @A E JACH= F=H= HAFHAIA J=H = FHE EJEL= @A K = BK

Pf (x) =
) FHE EJEL= F H ? =H>EJH HE= c K IA =
x1 x0
%

f (x)dx
@A E@= =

.
A I @A K = ? IJ= JA

IJHK

f (x)dx = Pf (x1 ) + c

.
6 @

>LE= A JA = AI? D= @ H=?E ? E GKA IA IACKA ECK=

E EJA IKFAHE H @A E JACH= =H>EJH HE= A JA L E@ F=H= E EJA E BAHE H

*)
+

EIA E

EJAIE = A
x0 x0

%

f (x)dx = 0 = Pf (x0 ) + c

?K

I GKA

c = Pf (x0 )
A GKA
x1 x0

f (x)dx = Pf (x1 ) Pf (x0 ) = Pf (x)

x1 x0

* "

-IJA HAIK J=@ FAH EJA ?= ?K =H E JACH=EI A @ @= @EHAEJ= F=H= = AI GKAH@= = 6=>A = *  2 H ANA F
2

sin(x)dx = cos(x)

2 0

=1

HAIK J=@ * " FAH EJA =E @= FAH?A>AH GKA

x1 x0

d f (x) dx = f (x1 ) f (x0 ) dx

* #

-IJ= HA = @ HECA = K = @=I J ? E?=I =EI F @AH I=I F=H= ? ?K @A E JACH=EI @AIEC =@= F H E JACH= F H F=HJAI + I=>A I IA f (x) A g (x) B HA @K=I BK AI R R

d d g (x) d f (x) (f (x)g (x)) = f (x) + g (x) dx dx dx

JAH I @A E JACH=EI AIJ= AI = HA = AI?HALA IA
x1 x0

f (x)g (x)

x1 x0

x1

=
x0

f (x)

d g (x) dx + dx

d f (x) g (x)dx dx
1 JACH= F H F=HJAI

K @A B H = AGKEL= A JA
x1

f (x)
x0

d g (x) dx = f (x)g (x) dx

x1 x0

x1

x0

d f (x) g (x)dx dx

* $

2=H= LAH ? KJE E =H AIJ= HACH= ? IE@AHA I E JACH= @= BK x cos(x) E JAHL= 0, 1 7I= @ = AGK= = JAHE H JA I
2

x cos(x)dx = x sin(x)

sin(x)dx =

1 2

5A = ?= ?K =H

f (x) : R R A IA = x = g (y ) : R R E JACH= @A f A H@A = x K E JAHL=

x1 g (y1 )

II > A?JEL x 0 , x1 H=

f (x)dx =
x0 g (y0 )

(f g )(y )d (g (y ))

&
? I=>A I GKA = L=HE= @= BK

)
g (y ) ? , y

EIA 1

EJAIE =

@=@= F H

d (g (y )) =
? ?K I GKA
x1

d g (y ) dy dy

g (y1 )

f (x)dx =
x0 g (y0 )

f (g (y ))

d g (y ) dy dy

K@= = @A L=HE LA

* %

-IJA HAIK J=@ IJH= ? K@=H = L=HE LA @A E JACH= A HAFHA IA J= =EI K J @ ANJHA = A JA F @AH I @A ? ?K @A E JACH=EI 8A = I K ANA F KI= @ = IK>IJEJKE x = sin(y ) IACKE JA E JACH=
1 arcsin(1)

arcsin(x)dx =
0 arcsin(0)

y cos(y )dy =
0

y cos(y )dy =

1 2

) K @ I J @ I @A E JACH= F H F=HJAI A @A K@= = @A L=HE LA FAH EJA A ? JH=H L= H @ E JACH= @= BK E LAHI= @A K = BK f + ABAEJ IA = y = f (x) A J

f 1 (y )dy =
A KI= @ E JACH=

f 1 (f (x))

d f (x) dx = dx

d f (x) dx dx

F H F=HJAI

f 1 (y )dy = xf (x)
2 H ANA F ?= ?K A

f (x)dx

I = IACKE JA FHE EJEL=

arccos(x)dx = y cos(y )
7I= @ y = cos(x) JA I =

cos(y )dy = y cos(y ) sin(y )

A JA

arccos(x)dx = x arccos(x)
HAIK J=@ GKA ? J= JA =@EJEL= J @=I =I FHE EJEL=I

1 x2
A I @A K = ? I

L E@ =