Full-length paper

Asian Agri-History Vol. 15, No. 1, 2011 (1335) 13

Betel Leaf and Betel Nut in India: History and Uses

SC Ahuja and Uma Ahuja
College of Agriculture, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Kaul 136021, Kaithal, Haryana, India
(email: ua5419@yahoo.co.uk)

Abstract
Betel vine and areca nut (betel nut) palm are not indigenous to India. The historical, epigraphic records and philological as well as archaeological evidences reveal their original home to be Indonesian archipelago. This complimentary pair entered India during early Gupta period and merged into our culture. Their popularity increased steadily and became a commodity of common use. Their uses vary from masticatory to medicinal and the duos presence is noticed in all social and religious ceremonies, and as an offering to Gods. Betel leaf and areca nut are regarded as auspicious symbols of hospitality, and denote a moral, social, and legal commitment. Malay culture and tradition hold betel nut and betel leaves in high esteem, evident through their use in many social and religious ceremonies. In an Assamese marriage they are conspicuously present in around 15 ceremonies. The exchange of betel leaves and/or areca nuts or presenting betel leaves or a bunch of areca nuts and bundles of betel leaves and a betel box have earned their own social meaning. Tambula (betel leaf) is a token of honor, pledge, and love and exchange is a sign of marriage or betrothal. This single tradition is an integral part of the folklore, art, rituals, ceremonies, and social intercourse of daily life in Cambodia, India, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. This paper presents the history and origin of the pair through the philological, epigraphic evidences, and archaeological as well as written records, royal patronage received, and their social, religious, medicinal, and veterinary uses.

The betel vine ( Piper betle ; Family: Piperaceae) is a perennial creeper cultivated for leaf. It is a dioeceous creeper (Fig. 1) extensively cultivated in hotter and damper parts of India, Sri Lanka, extending to Peninsular Malaysia. The areca nut palm ( Areca catechu ; Family: Palmaceae) is cultivated mainly

in India, Malaysia, Polynesia, Micronesia, and most places in the South Pacific Islands. It is an un-branching, long plant extending up to 15 m and crowned with 6 to 9 palm fronds (Fig. 2). The nut is the seed found within the egg-sized fruit, mottled brown, and has grayish white markings.

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Betel leaf and betel nut

c
Figure 1. Piper betle: (a) Betel vine plantation; (b) Betel leaves; (c) Betel leaf; and (d) Paan.

Figure 2. Areca catechu: (a) Palm trees; (b) Palm with fruits; and (c) Areca nuts.

Asian Agri-History Vol. 15, No. 1, 2011 15

A key to the unconditional patronage of the betel pair in Southeast Asia is its use in four levels as a food, medicine, social and religious purposes. Both betel leaf and betel nut individually are masticatory in themselves, but are generally taken together. The importance of paan can be best judged from the English rendering of a Sanskrit sloka, A mouth devoid of Vedas, the juice of tambula, and witty sayings, is said to be a mere hole and comments of Nicolas Gervaise, a noted French visitor in the 17th century that the Thais prefer to go without rice or other food rather than to deprive themselves of the betel ... (Gode, 1961; Rooney, 1993). Before we focus on this inseparable pair, it may be pertinent and appropriate to remember with reverence and pay homage to the great Sanskrit scholar from Maharashtra, PK Gode, for initiating the research on history of plants in India including tambula (betel leaf) (Gode, 1961). He pointed out the three Ts of Indian social life: Tea, Tobacco, and Tambula. Of these, tambula is the earliest introduction.

became an important commodity in the western Pacific, particularly with the Dutch in the mid-1600s who gained from tax revenues on it. There is no mention of tambula in the Vedic Samhita, the Brahmanas, and Sutras. Even the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and Smritis of Manu and Yajnavalkya do not mention it. This conclusively proves that the custom was not prevalent among the Vedic Aryans. Pali and Sanskrit literature mentions these items as late as in c. 400 BC, in Buddhist Jataka tales and Dharamsutras (Prakash, 1961; Achaya, 1998). References in the famous Mandsaur inscription (c. 473 AD) of the silk weaver guild in Indore, in Varahamihiras Brhat Samhita of c. 530 AD, and ancient medical texts, all indicate its use as common practice everywhere (Gode, 1961; Prakash, 1961; Swamy, 1973). Kautilya mentioned betel nut but not the custom of betel chewing. The practice of chewing betel leaves after meals had become common (75 AD to 300 AD) as mentioned in Charaka and Sushruta Samhitas and Kashyapa Bhojanakalpa (Prakash, 1961). During c. 300 to 750 AD, after drinking some liquid following meals, betel leaves with some fragrant spices were chewed as it was believed to help in digestion, remove the phlegm, and make the mouth fragrant. Yuwan Chwang, the great Chinese traveler, received one hundred and twenty betel leaves and twenty betel nuts daily as part of his ration (Beal, 1973). During c. 730 to 1200 AD, chewing betel leaves with some spices after meals was common.

Historical
Our information on areca nut and betel vine cultivation relies primarily on records of betel chewing rather than cultivation itself. References to the betel nut appear in ancient Greek, Sanskrit, and Chinese literature as early as the 1st century BC. Its use has also been documented by ancient historians in Ceylon and Persia around 600 AD and parts of the Arab world in the 8th and 9th centuries. It is believed that the nut was carried to Europe by Marco Polo around 1300 AD and

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Betel leaf and betel nut

Chewing betel leaves in presence of others without presenting to others was regarded as breach of social etiquette. In 1350 AD, Ibn Battuta, the great Muslim traveler describes its serving in the Sultanates at the end of elaborate palace meal. Ibn Battuta saw betel vines in Kerala and stated, Betel vines are grown like vines on cane trellises or else trained up cocopalms. They have no fruit and are grown only for their leaves (Randhawa, 1982). Babur (14831531 AD), the founder of Mughal dynasty in India, before start of his sojourn, prayed to God for a sign of victory in Hindustan asking for a gift to himself of mango or betel, fruit of that land (Beveridge, 1989). European visitors all refer to ubiquitous chewing habit. Niccolao Manucci in 1654 AD refers to uses of paan and indulgence of palace people in habit of betel chewing. Another visitor wrote that the Mughal Emperor, Shahjahan presented betel laced with poison, as a mark of distinguished favor to a young Persian (suspected as lover of Begum Sahib), in presence of the whole court; the unsuspecting youth was obliged to masticate agreeably to the custom of the country and died (Bernier, 1934). The Shivatattvaratnakara written in c. 1700 AD by Basavaraja, King of Keladi Kingdom, which stretched from Goa to Kanoor, carefully noted the locations of the best betel leaves and the best areca nuts (Desai, 1980). Other sources of information include manuscripts on tambula from medieval era: Tamula-kalpa-samgraha of Nrsimhabhatta (1350 AD); a work of

Dharamshastra called Jyotirnibandha (earlier than 1524 AD) containing 24 stanzas dealing with tambula; and Tamulamanjari of 1819 AD (Gode, 1961). In addition to the above manuscripts of social and religious nature, references are also found in agricultural treatises such as Kashyapiyakrishisukti by Kashyapa (c. 800 AD in Sanskrit) (Ayachit, 2002), Vrikshayurveda by Surapala (c. 1000 AD in Sanskrit) (Sadhale, 1996), Lokopakara by Chavundaraya (c. 1025 AD in Sanskrit) (Ayangarya, 2006), Krishi Gita (c. 15 th century AD in Malayalam) (Mohan Kumar, 2008), Vishvavallabha by Chakrapani Mishra (c. 1577 AD in Sanskrit) (Sadhale, 2004), and Nuskha Dar Fanni-Falahat by Dara Shikoh (c. 1650 AD in Persian) (Razia Akbar, 2000).

Epigraphic records
The earliest epigraphic record of tambula occurs in a Gupta inscription of 473 AD (Fleet, Gupta Inscriptions no. 18) that means: The women may be young and charming; according to custom they may decorate themselves with garland, tambula , and flowers. But when they go to meet their lovers in the tryst they do not fail to put on silken garments. It is evident from the inscriptions that during 8th to 10th centuries betel leaf vine and areca nut palm were important crops in the South Kanara and Bellary districts of Karnataka in South India. Spatial expanse of cultivation of betel leaf and betel nut is evident from the sudden increase of epigraphical records during 11th to 13th centuries and also suggests

Asian Agri-History Vol. 15, No. 1, 2011 17

the growing popularity of tambula habit. There are inscriptions in Dharwar district, Karnataka regarding bequeathing of areca nut garden (1028 AD); receipt of 100 areca nuts from everyone of the areca garden by 400 public men of Brahampuri (1061 AD); and grant of rows of areca nuts, oil mill, and flower garden for service of god (1050 AD). In South Arcot district inscriptions relate to provision of water facilities for cultivation of areca nut (1245 AD) and the donation of income from betel nut and betel leaf gardens for services in temple Kailasumudyayanar (1315 AD) and record of gardens growing between the rivers Kollidam and Vellar (1263 AD) (Swamy, 1973). Though there was lot of opposition from the religious people (Gode, 1961), slowly the commodity became a daily necessity and also entered into social and religious life of the people. The inscriptions mentioned above reveal that it received sastric sanction of use in rituals and ceremonies and formed an integral part of daksina for the priests. Very soon tambula attained a status of sanctity by being offered to God. It is about the same time the area of cultivation of constituent plants of tambula expanded in order to meet the ever increasing demand. They also became an important commodity of trade and commerce and earned revenue in no small measure to the royal treasury (Gode, 1961; Swamy, 1973). Old Kannada inscriptions in South Kanara and Bellary are noteworthy as they show the production of betel between 750 and 962 AD in South India. South Kanara still is famous for its betel nuts as more than 1200 years ago (Gode, 1961).

The production of betel nut on large scale in Kolhapur, Maharashtra from 1000 AD onwards is amply vouched by inscription at Hosur, Gadang Taluka, Dharwar, Kolhapur, and Vijayanagar. In addition to these areas, betel nut plantations were a regular feature of agriculture and economics of Bengal between 1100 and 1300 AD (Gode, 1961). Inscriptions in Assam reveal cultivation in that area (Neog, 1960).

Philological evidence
The word betel was first used in the 16th century by the Portuguese. It is probably a transliteration of the Malay word vetila (the mere leaf), which is close in sound to betel. Since its earliest use, the word has undergone a series of spellings from bettele to betre to betle and finally to betel. Areca may have been derived from the Malay word adakka (areca nut) or from adakeya, the Indian equivalent. The Hindi term paan for the quid has its root in the Sanskrit word parna for leaf. Another Sanskrit term for quid, vida, is the beeda of common current usage. The betel leaf does not possess a distinctive name of its own in any of the Indian languages or dialects. Throughout North India it is merely paan, a

Our information on areca nut and betel vine cultivation relies primarily on records of betel chewing rather than cultivation itself. References to the betel nut appear in ancient Greek, Sanskrit, and Chinese literature as early as the 1st century BC.

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Betel leaf and betel nut

leaf; although similar is the situation in South Indian languages and dialects, itai (leaf) the origin of alternative name vettalai again points towards Malaysia. The Sanskrit word tambula itself owes its origin to the Malaysian region and is derived from the term tembel (Prakash, 1961; Swamy, 1973; Rooney, 1993). The widest range of words for areca and betel has been found in Indonesia, suggesting it to be the original location where these words were spoken. In India, on the other hand, the lack of variety of words for areca and betel indicates a later date of origin for the plants in that area (for a list of regional words used today, see Table 1). Moreover, sireh, the most widespread name for betel in Malaysia, is not derived from Sanskrit, which suggests betel chewing might have developed independently in Malaysia. Based on linguistic evidence, therefore, the betel chewing custom seems to be native to the Indonesian archipelago. The Assamese word for the duo is interesting. Both leaf and nut are referred as tamol, from the Sanskrit tambula and the word tamol is interchangeably used. The Monkhmer speaking Khasis, one of the earliest tribes to migrate to Assam, are reputed to have brought it into Assam and

are the originators of betel chewing (Das, 1992). Similarly, in Hindi and Urdu languages, paan denotes both the betel leaf and the betel quid with all its ingredients.

Origin and introduction

The earliest archaeological evidence found so far is at Spirit Cave in northwestern Thailand, where remains of Areca catechu dating from 10,000 BC have been found (Gorman, 1970). All the remains excavated are of the cultivated species. The wild species have been found in Malaysia and there is archaeological support to the linguistic evidence of its origin in that area. The wild species of areca nut occurs in abundance in the Philippines suggesting another area of origin (Valdes, 2004). Therefore it becomes evident that the custom of betel chewing might have its origin in Indonesian archipelago while the philological evidences and occurrence of wild species of A. catechu suggest its origin in Malaysia. Compared with these finds, the

Kautilya mentioned betel nut but not the custom of betel chewing. The practice of chewing betel leaves after meals had become common (75 AD to 300 AD) as mentioned in Charaka and Sushruta Samhitas and Kashyapa Bhojanakalpa.

it received sastric sanction of use in rituals and ceremonies and formed an integral part of daksina for the priests. Very soon tambula attained a status of sanctity by being offered to God. It is about the same time the area of cultivation of constituent plants of tambula expanded in order to meet the ever increasing demand. They also became an important commodity of trade and commerce and earned revenue in no small measure to the royal treasury.

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Table 1. Names for betel nut and betel leaf in various languages.
Region/Language English India Andaman Assamese Bangla Gujarati Hindi Kannada Konkani Malayalam Marathi Khasi Sanskrit Tamil Telugu Urdu Other Asian countries Bhutanese Cambodia China Divehi Indonesia Bali Javanese Khmer Kapampangan Laos Malay Myanmar Mon Philippines Singapore Sri Lanka Tokodede Tagalog Taiwan Tetum Thai Vietnamese Betel nut Areca nut, areca, betel nut palm, penang palm Ah-bud-dak, ah-purud-dak Tamol Gua, supari Supari Supari Adike, betta, chikaniyagike, puga, adake, kavangu, kaungu Popphal Adakkamarom, kavangu, kazahangu Supari Kwai Guvaku, puga, rubaka, guvaka Addakai, pakku, kamaku Vakka, pokavakka Supari Doma Slh Binlang Fuvah Jambi Boa Jambe Slah Luyus Mak Pinang Kun si, ah-dak, quan-di-beng Bunga, bo, boga, bu, buga, lyos, takobtob Puvak, puvakka Puak, puwak Bunga, tempak siri, nga-nga Binlang Mak Eau, cau Malus Maluu, plue, plu Trau, giau continued Betel leaf Betel leaf

Tamol Paan Naagveli, nagurvel, paan Paan Veeleya, vilya, vilyadelai

Vettila, vetta, vetrila Paan, videchapana Tympew Nagavali, tambula Vettalai (verrilai) Tamalpaku Paan Pani Ml Laoye Bileiy Sirih

Maluu, mlu Bulung samat Ph Daun sirih, sireh, siri Kvm, kn, vettal, kunya Pl Ikmo Vattat, vat-tat Malu

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Betel leaf and betel nut

Table 1. continued Region/Language South America Chamoro (Guam) Guatemala Pohnpei Chuuk Yap Palau New Ireland Kuanua Pala Lamekot Solomon Islands Kwarae Solomon Islands Are-are Europe French German Spanish Betel nut Pugua Pugua Poc Pu Bu Bua, buuch Buai, vua Buei Vua Angiro Ota Arec cachou, arequier Betelnusspalme Palma catechou Betel leaf Pupulu

earliest archaeological evidence for betel found in India is the early years of the Christian era, much later than other parts of the region (Rooney, 1993). The areca nut and the betel leaf grow naturally in Southeast Asia and this fact, according to Reid, is borne out by the extraordinary diversity of indigenous words for them (Valdes, 2004). Writing about areca palm, Whitmore (1977) mentions that its nearest wild relatives grow in northern Borneo, the Philippines and Celebes. In the Philippines, where there are several (species), betel tends to escape and produce many varieties, a fact which led him to conclude that the origin may be there (in the Philippines) (Whitmore, 1977). The Mandsaur inscription on tambula supports the present belief of some scholars

that tambula was introduced into India from South Sea Islands like Java and Sumatra, during early Gupta period as a result of increased maritime between India and these islands. The references to tambula and its ingredients found in Kalidasas work and in early medical texts like Charaka Samhita, Kasyana Samhita, and Sushrutra Samhita are in harmony with this inscriptional reference of 473 AD (Gode, 1961). The historical, epigraphic records and philological and archaeological evidences reveal that the original home of betel leaf and betel nut is Malaysia and Indonesian archipelago and the pair was introduced in India during early Gupta period.

Cultivation and varieties

Kashyapiyakrishisukti by Kashyapa (c. 800 AD) includes information on preservation

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of seed of both plants and refers to growing betel vine on high ground and betel nut on watery ground as also in gardens and pleasure gardens (Ayachit, 2002). Vrikshayurveda of Surapala (c. 1000 AD) points out that the areca nut plants should be carefully planted at a distance of two to three fore-arms. The treatise also warns that closer planting might result in reduction in the yield, while planting at farther distance exposes to danger of strong winds. Further, the trees like coconut and betel nut bear fruit when manured with the powder of saphari fish and sesame (Sadhale, 1996). Vishvavallabha by Chakrapani Mishra (c. 1577 AD) includes areca nut in the list of plants recommended for planting inside a fort and if fed once with salt water and then sprinkled with palm water everyday after planting, plants grow within one month (Sadhale, 2004). The earliest record on varieties seems to be that found in Hulgar inscription (1077 AD) of Vikramaditya IV on three betel leaf varieties, i.e., ekkavatige , palai, and kalai. Krishi Gita, written in Malayalam, provides information on 15 betel vine and seven betel nut varieties, their features, and uses (Mohan Kumar, 2008). It elaborates on various varieties as: Mukkanni is of the best quality, Chelatha vettila will not be damaged even a month after plucking, Kuzhikkattiri vettila is without fetid odor, and young women enjoy Chuwoor betel leaves that keep off tiredness. In Ain-iAkbari, Abul Fazl elaborates the cultivation practices of paan and provides description and properties of six types of leaves as Bilhari, Kaker, Jaiswar, Kapuri, Kapukant , and Bangla (Blochmann,

1927) . At about New Years time, in MarchApril, take a part of a creeper four to five fingers long with korhanj (Pongamia pinnata) leaves on it, and plant it. After 1520 days as leaves and knots form, a new creeper will appear. The growth of the creeper and leaves lasts for seven months. No creeper has more than 30 leaves (Randhawa, 1982; Ayangarya, 2006). Of the varieties of Akbars period, Bangla and Kapukant and another variety Khas (known as Sanchi paan ) were grown in Bengal. In Nasik, Maharashtra two varieties Bakshi and Tamdya were common (Watt, 188992). The Rural and Agricultural Glossary offers a number of terms related to betel cultivation and rituals performed during cultivation (Crooke, 1888). A number of rituals are performed during selection of land for conservatory and during growth period in Maharashtra and Bengal to ensure the good crop. The paan maara (conservatory) is considered an auspicious place and the owner dare not enter it with shoes on. Women during menses are forbidden to enter the conservatory. Plucking of leaves is ceremoniously done and first picking of 200 leaves is distributed to friends who reciprocate it with presents (Crooke, 1888, 1896; Gupta, 1991).

The earliest archaeological evidence found so far is at Spirit Cave in northwestern Thailand, where remains of Areca catechu dating from 10,000 BC have been found.

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Betel leaf and betel nut

At present, in North India, Desi, Calcutti, and Banarasi leaves are most favored. Prominent among betel leaves in Southern states are the small and fragile Chiguruyale of Karnataka, and thicker and more popular Arnbadi and the Kariyale.

describes pancha-sugandha in a tambula with five aromatic products: cardamom, clove, nutmeg, mace, and camphor (Shrigondkar, 1939). It refers to tambula as one of the eight bhogas (objects of enjoyment). Shahbaj Khan, a Subedar of Thane (1416 AD) issued official orders forcing the practice of offering tambula to a Brahmin as a mark of honor and a sign of betrothal (Gode, 1961). Betel chewing prevailed especially among the nobles and magnates and kings, observed Marco Polo in the 13th century (Latham, 1958). In the same century, the King of Pagan decreed that anyone using the gilded pillars in the halls of temples for cleaning his fingers after chewing betel would be punished by having the index finger of his right hand cut off. Forgetting his royal edict, the King rubbed his betel-stained fingers on the gilded posts, and when reminded of the decree endured the punishment of cutting off his own finger. Betel formed part of royal gifts and exchange between kings and sent by one king to another in the hope of maintaining good relations. Luscious milky betel nut fruits and green harita doves formed part of gifts by Kamrupa King Bhaskararaman sent to King Harshvardan Siladytia of Thanesar and Kanauj. Old chronicles describe the meeting and exchange of tambula between Ahom viceroy in Western Assam and Satrajita and Emperor Aurangzeb (Neog, 1960). In Assam, during Ahom monarch period (1253 AD onwards), a whole band of servants were maintained from royal coffers

Royal patronage
The duo (betel leaf and betel nut) has been a favorite pastime of elite of society and royal persons and was used for royal gifts exchanged between the various kings and emperors. The duo was used in welcoming guests, exchange of gifts, and even as a signal for a visitor to depart. The royal connection of the duo in Southeast Asia is elaborated by Rooney (1993). Royal patronage in the Indian subcontinent is evident from the travelogues of Ibn Battuta (Bernier, 1934), Abdul Rezzak (Randhawa, 1982), and Niccolao Manucci in 1654 (Irvine, 1906). Niccolao Manucci refers to the allocation of revenue of Surat by emperor Shahjahan for his daughter to meet her expenses on paan. He also mentions betel leaves carried to Persia by the designated ambassador of Aurangzeb (Irvine, 1906). Manasollasa (1130 AD), written by King Someshwara of Kalyani in Central India,

In Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl elaborates the cultivation practices of paan and provides description and properties of six types of leaves as Bilhari, Kaker, Jaiswar, Kapuri, Kapukant, and Bangla.

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to prepare for the king, the royal household, and dignitaries of state when at court. Their department was under the Secretary of state called Tamuli Phukan. Ministers and other officers had their own tamuli ligirds. Each of the chief Vaisnav monasteries had several guva-katas. The chief among them was called bara-guva-kata . The king, officers, and other aristocrats gave audience to people in a tamol cara (hall). In the general assembly of officers at Ahom court, different types of spittoons had to be used by different grades of officers (Neog, 1960). In Bhutan, during the coronation ceremony of the First King in 1907, the guests were offered three types of tea, rice, and paan. At that time Bhutanese were not used to drink tea or eat rice and paan. Serving three kinds of paan was a sign of wealth. The King, moreover, had a courtier to carry the container of betel leaves and areca nuts a senior changgap carrying doma bata (betel nut container). Bata is a round metal container; its lid is often decorated with lotus motifs and its use reserved for the King, the Chief Abbot, and the ministers (Pommaret, 2000).

In Jyotirnibandha, it is stated, One who chews tambula with preponderance of betel nut in the morning, of chunam in the midday, and of betel leaves at night attains increasing prosperity (Gode, 1961). But one should not forget: Betel is not good except after food (Percival, 1874). Ibn Battuta writes They sweeten breath and aid digestion, prevent disagreeable effects of drinking water on empty stomach, and stimulate the faculties (Randhawa, 1982). Abdul Rezzak of Herat, the ambassador from Samarkand to the court of Vijayanagar in c. 1443 AD, attributed the virility of king to his habit of chewing betel leaf. He writes: It deserves its reputation it lightens up the countenance and excites an intoxication like that caused by wine. It relieves hunger, stimulates the organs of digestion, disinfects breath, and strengthens the teeth. It is impossible to describe, and delicacy forbids me to expatiate on its invigorating and aphrodisiac qualities (Randhawa, 1982). Betel leaves are useful in diseases caused by deranged phlegm (kapha), and the juice is much used as an adjutant to the pills administered to these diseases. The stalk smeared with oil is used to treat constipation and tympanitis in children. Paan leaves are used as ready dressing for foul ulcers, fruit with honey is used for cough in Konkan, roots are used to prevent child bearing in Orissa, warm juice as febrifuge, for indigestion in children, and along with milk for hysteria. The root is commonly chewed by public singers and criers to improve voice (Watt, 188992). Leaves warmed by fire and applied in layers over the mamma are used effectively for arresting milk secretion. Betel

Medicinal uses
According to the universal classification of food, the areca nut and the betel leaf complement each other and are, therefore, in harmony. Since the areca nut is hot and the betel leaf cool, they act together to keep the human body in balance. Some claim that the areca nut is an aphrodisiac, perhaps because of its classification as a hot food. Conversely, the betel leaf, as a cool food, is believed to relieve hot illnesses such as headaches and fever.

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Betel leaf and betel nut

quid chewing promotes health in damp areas (Watt, 188992). A paste composed of the root of cotton plant beaten up with juice of betel leaves is used in the process of reducing diamond into dust (diamond bhasma) for medicinal purposes (Watt, 188992). The leaves are used in snakebite. The Brahan Vaivarta Purana (750 AD) states that chewing tambula daily after meals is good for health. Tambula with karpura can cure paralysis of tongue but it states that Brahma Chari and mendicants must not use tambula (Sensarma, 1989). In Ayurveda, betel leaves and betel nut are both used as medicine and in various forms like leaf juice, leaf itself, and betel quid as adjuvant along with other Ayurvedic preparations that increases the efficacy of the prescribed medicine. Betel leaf is used in control of filarial infection, obesity, skin diseases, and conjunctivitis (Sharma, 1996). The leaf juice is dropped into the eyes for painful affections. It is also used to relieve cerebral congestions and satyriasis and to allay thirst. The ethereal solution of the leaves gives an alkaloid called arakene which increases saliva, slows the action of the heart, and has a purgative action (Watt,

188992). Burnt betel nuts are esteemed as tooth powder. A paste of betel nuts is used as laxative, and when mixed with sandal wood, it is useful in intrinsic hemorrhage; the decoction along with that of sallaki ( Boswellia serrata ) bark alleviates vatavyadi disease in three weeks (Sharma, 1996). Betel leaf is placed on the temple to reduce headache (Acharya, 2008). In Malaysia, A. catechu flowers are put into the bath water of a woman who has just given birth. In Southeast Asia, the pulp of the nut is used for relieving stomachache. As an astringent it hardens the mucous membranes of the stomach. In Malaysia, young shoots of A. catechu palm are believed to be effective in aborting a pregnancy. The root of the palm is given to cure dysentery. The Igorots of the Philippines believe that the chewing of betel staves off hunger and tiredness as they work long hours in their rice fields (Valdes, 2004). Powdered betel nut is used as a constituent in some tooth powders (Watt, 188992). Other medicinal uses include the removal of tapeworms and other intestinal parasites by swallowing a few teaspoons of powdered betel nut, or by taking tablets containing the extracted alkaloids. Use of chikni supari (betel nut) (two to three small pieces) for some days controls leucorrhea in females (Watt, 188992). Decoction of betel leaves is used for healing wounds. The root along with black pepper is used to produce sterility in women. The leaves yield an essential oil that is used in respiratory catarrh and diphtheria; they are

Manasollasa (1130 AD), written by King Someshwara of Kalyani in Central India, describes panchasugandha in a tambula with five aromatic products: cardamom, clove, nutmeg, mace, and camphor.

Asian Agri-History Vol. 15, No. 1, 2011 25

also considered carminative and show antioxidant action (Ambasta, 1986; Horticulture and Herbal Department, 2001). In Konkan, betel nut fruit is used with honey for cough and in Orissa the root is used to prevent child birth (Watt, 188992).

Food and other uses

A preparation of areca nut is considered as an article of food and if prepared or touched by a man of impure caste could pollute a man of higher caste given that its preparation has social importance and is a mark of great affection. In sending out an emissary or messenger anywhere and offering him a preparation of areca nut, etc. is tantamount to saying you have my authority or you carry my confidence (Neog, 1960). More restaurants in Taiwan are adding betel hearts and betel flowers into their cuisine. Betel hearts are literally called half sky bamboo shoots in Mandarin for their similarity in flavor and texture to bamboo shoots though they are sweeter and tenderer. Areca nut is also used in various cosmetic and aromatic preparations as crape jasmine oil, musk oil, incense sticks, tooth powder, and tooth stick along with infusion of other herbals. It was also used to induce flowering in champa ( Michelia champaca ) tree (Ayangarya, 2006). Betel leaves are used to remove bitterness of Aloe barbadensis juice.

Veterinary use
Ground leaves of betel, Leucas aspera, Vitex negundo, bottle gourd ( Lagenaria siceraria), madar (Calotropis gigantea), mustard, and lime were used to check diseases in animals as mentioned in Lokopakara (1025 AD) (Ayangarya, 2006). In Gujarat, crushed betel nut with 500 g groundnut oil, 30 g asafetida, and water is used to cure bloat in cattle within two hours (Dodhiya, 1997). In Southeast Asia, areca nut is widely used in veterinary medicine, mainly to expel parasitic worms in animals. In India also, it has been used as anthelmintic and antitapeworm in dogs (Watt, 188992). The ground areca nut wood in goat urine is smeared in eyes of a fierce cow to make it amenable. An ointment made with areca nut in sesame oil along with other items is used to cure the swelling of shoulders in cattle (Ayangarya, 2006).

Novel use
In Taiwan, interest has been generated recently in betel nut pigment in a quest to find out additional uses of the plant. The same pigment that is reminiscent of spilled blood after it is spat out onto the pavement is a brownish mauve when applied to fabrics. By combining betel nut extract with catalysts, other hues, extending into the blue range can be produced (http:// taiwanreview.nat.gov.tw/ ct.asp?xItem=25619&CtNode=128).

In Ayurveda, betel leaves and betel nut are both used as medicine and in various forms like leaf juice, leaf itself, and betel quid as adjuvant along with other Ayurvedic preparations that increases the efficacy of the prescribed medicine.

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Betel leaf and betel nut

Ethno-botanical information
Both betel leaf and betel nut are also used as vegetable in Assam. The Miri (Mishing) tribe uses betel leaves and areca nut as vegetables (Hajra and Baishya, 1991). Kols of Bengal use leaves for wounds caused by thrusting of the iron trident through the tongue or cheek; a mixture of lime juice, ground onion, ghee, wood ash, and betel leaves is applied (Griffiths, 1946). Khasi and Jaintia tribes of Meghalaya use the betel leaf juice for optic problems (Kharkongor and Joseph, 1991). Santals of Bengal present a unique case about uses of the duo. The mastication of paan is not common (Bodding, 2001), but they use the two in many of human affections: paste from ground bark of Areca catechu and Ziziphus rugosa is applied in mouth sores; the boiled pith reduced to constituency of molasses is smeared on the sore in face cancer; ground leaf of Areca catechu along with fruit of Citrus medica and roots of Randia uliginosa is mixed well with pure spirit and is used as a drink for colic conditions; ground exudation from areca wood along with roots of Abrus precatorius, saltpeter, sulfur, and exudation from Diospyros tomentosa sapling, stirred in refuse of molasses is used as a drink in case of gravel, redness, and blood in urine; Acacia catechu, Achyranthes aspera, and Randia uliginosa are taken along with a betel quid for treatment of strangulation of intestine (symptoms appear as body pain due to a risen nerve across the body); roots of Piper betel are used to shut the womb (i.e., to stop pregnancy); eating leaves with nut

controls phthisis hemoptysis and bronchitis; betel leaf is used with parts of 15 other plants to check biliary colic; a fresh betel nut, leaf of betel along with roots of Gymnema hirsutus and Nigella indica are used to check a venereal disease called chancre and the first stage of symphysis; while shoot of Ficus benghalensis and leaf stem of Piper betle are used in curing madness (Bodding, 2001). Khasi and Jaintia tribes of Meghalaya use the betel leaf juice as indelible ink for marking and labeling garments (Kharkongor and Joseph, 1991). Areca nut plays an important role in Khasi life. In the past, distance was measured not by time but by the number of kwai (areca nut) chewed on the way and for a Khasi, heaven is a place where one gets betel to ones heart content. Khasi etiquette requires exchange of kwai as a mark of good upbringing and failing in doing so means lack of good manners. The host must welcome the guest with it and chance meeting on the street must be followed with reciprocal offer of kwai. No social function is complete without it. The reception at a social gathering starts with it and social etiquette demands that kwai should be offered and taken for a correct and accepted leave-taking at the end. Both betel leaf and betel nut serve a great deal towards breaking ice between unknown and welcoming known. The Assamese social, cultural, and religious life is webbed around the duo and offers a panoramic view of its possible uses in various walks of life. Various ethnic groups and Hindus all are fond of, love, and use the duo to the extent that it may incite a bit of

Asian Agri-History Vol. 15, No. 1, 2011 27

jealously in people in its original home place, Indonesian archipelago. For an Assamese, a dream house is one with a courtyard with areca nut trees and betel leaf creepers behind these. Such a house is a great beauty as celebrated in folk lyric: Age bari suwant kakinitamole, piche bari suwant paan.

filled with chocolates during archery games or official ceremonies; betel leaves and betel nuts are passed round after dinner (Pommaret, 2000).

As gift, alms, and penalty

The duo is given as alms to a Brahmin so as to become beautiful as Gods and free from all diseases. In Assam, the pair is so revered that the village council absolves a culprit of his guilt if he bows with paan and nut in bata (big tray), makes a confession, and asks for forgiveness. The number of betel leaves to be gifted is determined by the social status of the receiving person. A king is presented with 32 leaves, a prince 24, son-in-law 18, learned man 12, bride 10, 8 to all others, 4 to an ordinary man, while 6 betel leaves are sent to an enemy. Likewise, one betel nut offered brings profit to the receiver; 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 respectively bear fruit, bring loss, cause pain or misery, bring long life, and cause death (Gode, 1961).

Welcoming a visitor or guest

The romance of betel chewing is widely prevalent in Assam. Betel chewing is a luxury indulged in by all and sundry, from prince to pauper. Khasis of Assam consider kwai (betel nut), tympew (betel leaf), and tobacco as god-given gifts and as cheap and efficacious means of hospitality (Sachdeva, 195758). The first thing that a visitor to an Assamese home is offered is the betel nut; it is a routine item after every meal. In everyday life it is a symbol of friendly greetings and at a social or any other feast, brisk circulation of kwai among the assemblage is sine qua non. Every laborer expects kwai over and above their wages. Likewise in its home place (Malaysia), traditionally guests are welcomed with a tray of betel nuts and betel leaves, the same way as one offers drinks or tea to guests nowadays. Doma zhes is one of the most heard and widespread phrases in Bhutan: Please have betel leaf and areca nut becomes a leitmotiv each time two individuals meet, at the end of a meal, and in all the occasions of everyday life (Pommaret, 2000). Betel leaf with a small piece of areca nut is offered by the host with his two hands to the guests at the time of a ceremony; betel leaves and nuts are placed in a plate along with those

Offering to gods and use in religious ceremonies

In Thailand and Malaysia, the symbolical use of betel that began with offerings to spirits of water, soil, land, sea, and other evil sprits that may harm a newborn, pregnant lady, etc. was later assimilated into religious ceremonies. Betel, for example, is linked symbolically to the Hindu trinity: the areca nut to Brahma, the Creator; betel leaves to Vishnu, the Preserver; and lime to Shiva, the Destroyer. Its association with Buddhism is represented in a group of stones in the

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Betel leaf and betel nut

Maldives known as the Great Mound of Fua Mulaku, which holds areca nut and betel leaves mixed with lime so that the Buddha can chew betel. In Bhutan, the Buddhist monks are permitted to take betel whereas alcohol and tobacco are forbidden (Pommaret, 2000). To the Iban people of Sarawak, Pulang Gana is a spirit who presides over the earth and causes rice to grow. To escape from crop failure, they propitiate the spirit by offerings of jars, bracelets, shells, ornamental shells, and glass beads. The next set of gifts includes cooked rice, ingredients of betel quid as well as rice beer and a hens egg (Piper, 1993). Betel is offered to propitiate other spirits too. In India, betel nuts along with various fruits, such as dates, coconuts, and plantains, are placed in the lap of the bride or pregnant woman to scare the evil spirit which is believed to cause barrenness (Majumdar, 1927). In India, a betel leaf is used to sprinkle holy water at all the religious ceremonies. Leaves are considered sacred offered to Lord Shiva, Lord Vishnu, and other Gods in many religious ceremonies of Hindus while betel nut itself is worshiped symbolically as an image of Ganesha, the God who removes all obstacles and his worship takes precedence over worship of all other deities (Gupta, 1991). Religious people believe that the nut pleases Brahma, the leaves Vishnu, and the lime Lord Shiva. Hence, no religious ceremony or worship is complete without tambula occupying an important place along with coconuts and flowers (Satyan, 1993). In Assam, betel nut is used as a sacred item in

religious functions by villages of non-Aryan origin. The Ahoms of Assam include tamol in the items offered to the Goddess Sulichani in no-khowa or navann. They offer fresh tamol paan along with other items to the almighty. Bodos also do the same in their Kheral puja before clearing land (Das, 1992). Even the various portions of a betel leaf are associated with different lords (gods). The Goddess Laxmi (Hindu Goddess of wealth and prosperity) is believed to reside in the fore part, Jyeshtha at the back, lord of speech on the right, Parvati on the left. Vishnu resides inside, the moon outside, Shiva in all edges and Manmatha (Cupid) everywhere; Yama, the Lord of Death, resides in the stalk. Only the blade of paan leaf is consumed as masticatory; the stalk is associated with disease and tip of leaf with sin. Therefore, the leaf stalk and tip are discarded before use.

Rites de passage
In addition to social and religious ceremonies, paan is also a must in some personal rites (Table 2). In Malaysia, betel leaves and ingredients of quid are used in child birth ceremony. Areca nut is given as gifts to celebrate the birth of a boy; rice is similarly sent on birth of a girl (Crooke, 1888).

The romance of betel chewing is widely prevalent in Assam. Betel chewing is a luxury indulged in by all and sundry, from prince to pauper.

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Table 2. Use of betel leaf and betel nut in various social and religious ceremonies.
Country India Maharashtra Assam Ceremony/Occasion Child birth Newborn child (11th day Sun worship) Ritual/rite A pair of paan-supari is used in all cermonies. Child is placed on a pira, made to hold a piece of paper (male child) or that of cotton (female). Mother bows to Sun, throws three rolled tambula in three directions. At one end of the field an arum (taro; arvi) plant and a plantain sapling are planted. On the plantain leaf, three rolled tambula are placed. Dayaks sprinkle newborn child with areca nut and other auspicious symbols; wrap these in a cloth. Lay baby on the bed of areca nut palm; palm and betel vines are planted side by side for baby. Must offer betel to midwife. Lying by the fire ritual: Mother has to lie on the bed heated below by charcoal fire for seven days after the birth to dry out womb. Protective spirits are propitiated with traditional offering of betel, flowers, food, incense, and candles. Betel juice used to embalm the dead in 17 th century.

Paddy transplantation

Sumatra

Newborn child

Cambodia Thailand

New mother New mother

Philippines (Luzon) Bali Thailand Cambodia Myanmar Malaysia

Embalm the dead Royal cremation Funeral gathering

Betel leaves are among the gifts presented to regent. Funeral ends with a social gathering, people chew betel, talk, play games through the night. On death Betel leaf is placed between finger of the deceased and fig leaf inscribed with verse is placed on lips. Dying person Offering with quid and a cup of water. Man condemned to death Given betel quid to assuage the soul.

It is customary in Maharashtra to use two betel leaves at all paan-supari (betel leaf and nut) ceremonies, on the occasions of marriage, mundan (first ceremonial shaving of head), social functions, and religious festivals. The newly married daughters and daughter-in-law perform Gauri Puja on Bhaddprad Shukla Paksh and Anuradha

constellation. The kalasa called nvahn, the integral part of every worship, is decorated with betel leaves. Good luck offerings including rice, kharkai, coconut, turmeric, and betel nut are placed (Gode, 1961). In Konkan area, during Hadga Khelana , Goddess Parvati (Bhulabai) is worshiped and songs run as: Bhulabai ko manaegein,

30

Betel leaf and betel nut

Hadga dev mein pujegein, Lavang supari aur elachi, Paa beeron ki dum machi (Babar, 1987). In Karnataka, the use of paan-supari is more elaborate. As in Maharashtra, betel leaves along with mango leaves are tied around the neck of kalasa filled with water, representing life, and an integral part of all religious ceremonies and Agnihotra. Betel nut and leaves form part of good luck offerings called sagalaki [rice (5 kg), two coconuts, one large cube of gur (jaggery), five sets of betel leaves and areca nuts, and a piece of turmeric] placed in the lap at the time of departing wedded daughter to her husbands place. Similar departing offerings are also given to Goddess Laxmi (Prati ritual), and used in Mastamma ritual during Diwali, Gauri worship, Sibling Group Festival (offered to snakes), and Cobra Festival (Hancett, 1988). The use of paan-supari is also customary in religious ceremonies in Tamil Nadu.

of betel nut and betel leaf. A bunch of nuts and a bundle of betel leaves invariably show their presence in all the ceremonies related to marriage. In Malaysia, betel has been closely associated with ceremonies involving marital union since ancient times. It was offered as a prelude to discussions of partners, dowries, and other arrangements necessary for a marriage. Acceptance of the betel signified agreement to the proposal being discussed. For example, the parents of a prospective bride acknowledged the engagement of their daughter by accepting a betel quid offered by the husband-to-be. During betrothal negotiations amongst the Malays, the parents of the groom offered a betel tray to the parents of the bride. If it was turned upside-down, it meant the proposal was not accepted; but if the betel tray remained upright, it signified that the arrangement was agreeable to both parties. Maharashtra has a peculiar custom in connection with the marriage ceremony. At dinner, the bride and groom are made to sit facing each other. A small roll of betel leaves is given to the bride, who holds one end in front teeth. The relatives and friends of the groom signal to him to snap asunder the roll of vidi by a simultaneous downward jerk of his mouth (Gode, 1961). In Rajasthan, paan chewing is popular and also betel leaf is part of the wedding tradition. The bridegrooms relatives have dinner only after the brides relative serves a betel leaf to everyone, a ceremony called Niyona. In Haryana and Punjab, areca nut is tied along with the kangan on the forehand of the bride and bridegroom.

Marriage
In ancient times, offering of betel leaf was considered sufficient to affect an Asura marriage (Gode, 1961). In Assamese marriage, tamol plays an important part. In Bhojpuri speaking areas of Bihar and Awad, the marriage pavilion is prepared with green bamboo and betel leaves. Saat paan ka bira is a sign of betrothal among Thakurs. The brides father sends a bundle of seven betels to the grooms father through a barber, this being the essential part of the betrothal ceremony (Crooke, 1888). Marriage ceremonies in Assam in India and Malaysia offer a panoramic view of uses

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Betel was listed as a necessary adjunct to sex in the Kama Sutra. An early Indian text instructs that a young and beautiful woman cannot go to meet her lover in a secret place without golden necklaces and betel leaves and flowers. Shastras indicate that the householder should go to bed with wife after enjoying perfumed betel. Even these days, in Assam, lovers begin their courtship by exchanging tamol (the word tamol stands for both nut and leaf in Assam, as against paan in other parts of India). The betel leaf and betel nut play an important role in Vietnamese culture. Betel leaves and areca nuts are used ceremonially in traditional Vietnamese weddings. The groom traditionally offers the brides parents betel leaves and areca nuts (among other things) in exchange for the bride. The betel leaf and areca nut are praised as an ideal combination to the point that has become important symbols of the ideal married couple bound together in love. Therefore, in Vietnamese the phrase matters of betel and areca is synonymous with marriage. Betel has also been used to confirm the separation of two people as well as to bring them together. For example, formerly in Burma, a wife could ask her husband for a

divorce by dividing a betel leaf in half and offering the other half to him; if he accepted and chewed the betel, it signified that he agreed to a divorce. Among the Newa people of Nepal, a young woman accepts a betel nut as a marriage proposal and, in fact, she marries the betel nut too before formally taking a husband. Accepting betel nut ( Gwaye kayegu ) means she accepts the bridegroom. Also she can simply leave the groom even after marriage by giving the betel nut back. According to custom, an unhappy wife puts betel nuts below her husbands pillow when he is sleeping and is free to leave him and choose another. By marrying the areca nut first, says one source, no woman ever becomes a widow thus shes freed of the obligation to throw herself on her husbands funeral pyre should he pre-decease her.

Ceremony of the dead

Among Khasis of Assam, betel nut is equally important in mourning ceremony connected with death. The dead body is generally kept for three days in the house and meals consisting of rice, curry, and bananas are offered to it. And kwai too must be there to avert the displeasure of the departed soul. At the time of fire setting of the pyre, the youngest daughter, who inherits the property, puts kwai on it and she is followed in this by all present. It implies that the departing soul takes it along to the realm of the dead so that it might not miss the luxury of betel chewing there. Khasis place a tamol over the dead body and say, Farewell, go to the God and chew a tamol with Him. In burial of Ahom kings

In India, a betel leaf is used to sprinkle holy water at all the religious ceremonies. Leaves are considered sacred offered to Lord Shiva, Lord Vishnu, and other Gods in many religious ceremonies of Hindus.

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Betel leaf and betel nut

a bata (tray) made of gold with a small gold tomi (lime peel), with lime, a knife with gold cover, and a silver areca nut is placed on a silver sarai (big tray) by the side of the bedstead on which the deceased monarch is placed inside the vault of the grave along with other articles of food. In Karnataka, four betel nuts are used in the funeral ritual.

gallery in Delhi that boosts to sell a wide range of handmade items, betel nut jewelry, toys, lamps, temples, bracelets, rings, bangles, walking stick, etc. In Taiwan, handicrafts made with betel nuts have also begun appearing in the market. The thin thread-like fibers in betel nuts are woven and braided to make small dolls. Other household decorations are pieced together using palm bark and leaves as materials.

Worshiping ancestors and propitiating spirits

It is the duty of those living on earth to honor and propitiate the spirits of their deceased ancestors. Betel quid and rice are typical offerings used for the rites associated with ancestors. Such rites are performed in Malaysia, India, and among Hindus of Surinam. The following folksong of Hindus of Surinam titled Five betel leaves and nine coconuts is repeatedly used to invoke all ancestors: Five betel leaves and nine coconuts; you who are in heaven, gods and ancestors, male and female ancestors, paternal grandfather and maternal grandmother for you, O deities, (the world with all) three realms has been filled with sacrifice. Five betel leaves and nine coconuts; you, who are today sitting in heaven, today (this) invitation (is extended) to you. (Arya, 1968)

Disadvantages
So much in praise of the duo, like all the worldly things, paan having numerous uses has its disadvantages too. Excessive eating of paan leaves weakens the teeth, impairs health, and deadens the taste buds of the tongue. Chewing paan with areca nut and tobacco increases the chances of oral cancer, tobacco itself being carcinogenic. The risk of developing carcinoma of the oral mucosa is 7.7 times higher in betel chewers than in others. Sometimes the moldy contaminants of areca nut play the role of source of mycotoxins like sterigmatocystin, patulin, etc. The latter triggers the cancer of mouth and gullet. Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare; saunf) used with paan is often contaminated with molds and produces Betel was listed as a necessary adjunct to sex in the Kama Sutra. An early Indian text instructs that a young and beautiful woman cannot go to meet her lover in a secret place without golden necklaces and betel leaves and flowers.

Art and craft

Recently interest in betel nut art has been generated and a number of art items are available in the market. There is a betel nut

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aflatoxins. Betel leaf itself has a protective role to play in oral cancers. The real culprits are betel nut and tobacco. Sachdeva (1957 58) writes that the bad habit of rubbing the lime leaves its mark everywhere, around lamps and telegraph posts on the roadsides, letter boxes, house corners, backs and bottoms of chairs, tables, and benches.

Achaya KT. 1998. A Historical Dictionary of Indian Food. Oxford University Press, Delhi, India. 346 pp. Ambasta SP. 1986. The Useful Plants of India. CSIR, New Delhi, India. 918 pp. Arya U. 1968. Ritual Songs and Folksongs of the Hindus of Surinam. E.J. Brill, Leiden, the Netherlands. 179 pp. Ayachit SM. (Tr.) 2002. Kashyapiyakrishisukti (A Treatise on Agriculture by Kashyapa). AgriHistory Bulletin No. 4. Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad 500009, India. 158 pp. Ayangarya VS. (Tr.) 2006. Lokopakara (For the Benefit of People). Agri-History Bulletin No. 6. Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad 500009, India. 134 pp. Babar S. 1987. Maharashtra Lok Sanskriti Sahitya (Folklore of Maharashtra). National Book Trust, New Delhi, India. 203 pp. Beal S. 1973. The Life of Hiuen Tsang. Acadeca Asiatica, Delhi, India. 370 pp. Bernier F. 1934. Travels in Mughal Empire 1656 1668. Low Price Publications, New Delhi, India. 497 pp. Beveridge AS. 1989. Memoirs of Babur (BaburNama). Low Price Publications, New Delhi, India. 880 pp. (Reprint.) Blochmann H. 1927. The Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazl Allami. Vol I. (Translation) 2nd Edition. Low Price Publications, Delhi, India. 734 pp. (Reprint 1993.) Bodding Rev. PO. 2001. Studies in Santal Medicine and Connected Folklore. The Asiatic Society, Calcutta, India. 502 pp. (Reprint 2001.) Crooke W. 1888. A Rural and Agricultural Glossary for N.W. Frontiers and Oudh. Thacker Spink and Company, Calcutta, India. 285 pp. (Reprint 1989.)

Epilogue
Areca nut and betel leaf, through introduction to India during Gupta period, have embedded and merged themselves in Indian social, cultural, and religious life. Both are used by the main stream of Indian population as well the tribal people. The historical, epigraphic records, and philological and archaeological evidences reveal that the original home of betel leaf and betel nut is Malaysia and Indonesian archipelago and the pair was introduced into India during early Gupta period. People habituated to chewing quid are prone to oral cancer but if used in limited quantity and only after food as the literature suggests, it helps in improving digestion, checks the bad odor of mouth, and protects against the disorders of humid areas. It is used as medicine in many affections and also as anupaan (adjuvant) for many of the Ayurvedic drugs. But paan, which has been the grace of lips of women for centuries, has been put to disgrace by the so-called paan-masala. Let the paan live the same glorious life as in the past. We have to restrain consuming excess paan.

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