Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Yves FERMON
In collaboration with:
Aımara
Cover photos:
ÖÖ Top right: Tilapia zillii - © Anton Lamboj
ÖÖ Top left: Pond built by ACF in DRC, 2008 - © François Charrier
ÖÖ Bottom: Beneficiaries in front of the pond they have done, Liberia, ASUR, 2006 - © Yves Fermon
ÖÖIn this case, it is a question above all of proposing an information system strategic
plan of a system making it possible to produce consumable fish in the shortest pos-
sible time, and with lower costs to mitigate the lack of animal proteins. This does not
prevent the installation of structures having a certain durability. The unit must be
adapted to the environmental context.
In this work, it is a question of providing a guide:
¾¾ To program managers and their technical teams,
¾¾ To managers at headquarters to monitor the success of programs.
THE STEPS
The first handbook is intended for internal use to Action Against Hunger network, therefore,
with restricted diffusion. If possible and requests, a handbook with corrections and revisions will be
proposed later. Then, an external diffusion to ACF could be considered.
The aquatic environments and the management of water represent one of the major stakes for the
decades to come.
The fish are a source of proteins of good quality for the human consumption, but also a source of
income considerable for the developing as developed countries.
However, demography, the urban development, the installation of the rivers, industrialization, the
climate changes, deforestation… have irreversible consequences on the water courses and the biodi-
versity and thus on the men who live of these resources.
� Goals
Research
99 To acquire new ichthyologic knowledge - systematic, biology, ecology, ethology… - on
the fresh water, brackish and marine species;
99 To highlight knowledge and practices relating to fishing and management of the biodi-
versity and their modes of transmission.
Diffusion of knowledge
99 To disseminate the results to the local populations, the general public and the scientific
community by publications, exhibitions, contacts with the media and Internet.
Sustainable management of environment and resources
99 To sensitive by using the social, cultural, food, economic and patrimonial values of the
species with the aim of the conservation, of the management and of the preservationof the
biodiversity;
99 To collaborate with the local actors in the durable management of the aquatic resources.
� Scope of activities
• Studies of the characteristics of environments and impacts;
• Studies of the biology, biogeography, ecology and behavior of species;
• Anthropological and socio-economic relations man - Nature studies;
• Ecosystem modeling, statistical analysis:
• Development of databases;
• Expertise and faunistic inventories. Association AÏMARA
50 avenue de La Dhuys
93170 Bagnolet - FRANCE
association.aimara@gmail.com
ÖÖ ACF
Devrig VELLY - Senior Food Security advisor, AAH
SUMMARY - PART 01 25
APPENDIX 187
Photo W. Nests of Tilapia zillii (Liberia) [© Y. Fermon]. 219
Photo X. Claroteidae. Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus [© Planet Catfish]; C. maurus [© Teigler - Fishbase];
Auchenoglanididae. Auchenoglanis occidentalis [© Planet Catfish]. 232
Photo Y. Schilbeidae. Schilbe intermedius [© Luc De Vos]. 233
Photo Z. Mochokidae. Synodontis batensoda [© Mody - Fishbase]; Synodontis schall [© Payne - Fishbase]. 234
Photo AA. Cyprinidae. Barbus altianalis; Labeo victorianus [© Luc De Vos, © FAO (drawings)]. 235
Photo AB. Citharinidae. Citharinus gibbosus; C. citharus [© Luc De Vos]. 235
Photo AC. Distichodontidae. Distichodus rostratus; D. sexfasciatus [© Fishbase]. 236
Photo AD. Channidae. Parachanna obscura (DRC) [© Y. Fermon]. 236
Photo AE. Latidae. Lates niloticus [© Luc De Vos]. 237
Contents
• Fishfarming: Aim and issues
• Type of fishfarming
• Biogeography and fish species
• Summary
SUMMARY 25
Cover photo:
Ö Ö Children fishing fingerlings in river for the ponds, Liberia, ASUR, 2006 - © Yves Fermon
A little more than 100 million tons of fish are consumed worldwide each year, and ensure to 2.5
billion of human at least 20% their average needs per capita of animal proteins (Figure 1 below).
This can range to over 50% in the developing countries. In some of the zones most affected by food
insecurity - in Asia and Africa, for example - the fish proteins are essential because, they guarantee a
good part of the already low level of needs of animal proteins. Approximately 97% of the fishermen
live in the developing countries, where fishing is extremely important.
Fish production in Africa has stagnated over the past decade, and availability of fish per capita
decrease (8.8 kg in the 90s, about 7.8 kg in 2001) (Table I, p. 4). Africa is the only continent where this
tendency is observed, and the problem is that there do not exist other sources of proteins accessible
to all. For a continent where food security is so precarious, the situation is alarming.
Even if Africa has the lowest consumption of fish per capita in the world, the marine and inland
water ecosystems are very productive and sustain important fisheries which recorded a rise in some
countries. With a production of 7.5 million tons in 2003 and similar levels in previous years, the fish
ensures 50% or more of the animal protein contributions of many Africans - i.e. the second rank
after Asia. Even in sub-Saharan Africa, the fish ensures nearly 19% of the animal protein contribu-
tions of the population. This constitutes an important contribution in an area afflicted by hunger and
malnutrition.
But whereas the levels of production of fishings are stabilized, the population continues to grow.
With the sight of the forecasts of UN on the population trends and the evaluations available on the
Millions tonnes
140
China
120 World excluding China
100
80
60
40
20
0
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 00 04
Years
Figure 1. World capture and aquaculture production (FAO, 2007).
Utilization
Per capita food fish supply (kg) 13.3 13.4 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.4
future tendencies of halieutic production, only to maintain the fish consumption per capita of Africa
on his current levels, the production should increase of more than one third during the 15 next years,
which is a challenge. The situation was partly aggravated by the significant increase in exports, and
harvests of non-African fleets operating in the area under the fisheries agreements.
Fish coastal resources are already heavily exploited and marine capture fisheries would be diffi-
cult to produce more, even through massive investments. Difficult to reduce exports, considering the
need for foreign currencies in the countries concerned.
After a slight downturn in 2002, the total world catch in inland waters is again increase in 2003
and 2004 to reach 9.2 million tonnes during the past year. As previously, Africa and Asia represent
approximately 90 percent of the world total and their respective shares are relatively stable (Figure
2, p. 5). The fisheries, however, seem in crisis in Europe where the total catch has dropped by 30%
since 1999. Game fishing represents a substantial part of the catch. The statistics of developed
countries on catches in inland waters, published by FAO, are generally based on information provi-
ded by national correspondents, and the total catch may vary significantly depending on whether
they take into account or not catch of game fisheries.
In Africa - as in the world in general - aquaculture will play an important role. Globally, aqua-
culture accounts for about 30% of world supplies of fish. The aquacultural production in Africa ac-
counts for only 1.2% of the world total (Figure 3, p. 5). The aquaculture in Africa today is primarily an
activity of subsistence, secondary and part-time, taking place in small-scale farmings.
This African production primarily consists of tilapia (15 000 T), of catfishes (Clarias) (10 000 T)
and of common carps (5 000 T). It is thus about a still embryonic activity and which looks for its way
from the point of view of the development for approximately half a century. The aquaculture yet only
contributes most marginally to the proteins supply of water origin of the African continent where the
total halieutic production (maritime and inland) was evaluated in 1989 to 5.000.000 T. The part of
fish in the proteins supply is there nevertheless very high (23.1%), slightly less than in Asia (between
25.2 and 29.3%), but far ahead of North America (6.5%) or Western Europe (9.4%), world mean of
Europe 3.5%
South America 4.9%
Africa 24.7%
Asia 64.8%
Quantity
North America 1.27%
8.51%
Near East and North Africa 0.86%
Sub-Saharan Africa 0.16%
Value
Asia (excluding China)
and the Pacific 29.30%
Western Europe 7.72%
Latin America and the Caribbean 7.47%
North America 1.86%
19.50%
Near East and North Africa 1.19%
Sub-Saharan Africa 0.36%
Aquaculture
25
Capture
20
15
10
0
70 79 88 97 04 70 79 88 97 04 70 79 88 97 04
World China World excluding China
Years
Figure 4. Relative contribution of aquaculture and capture fisheries to food fish consumption
(FAO, 2007).
But this does not mean ignoring the need for fisheries management. Better management of ma-
rine and inland fisheries in Africa contribute to the safeguarding of these important sectors of food
production. Aquaculture is not intended to replace fishery but to supplement the intake of animal
protein.
II.1.2. DEVELOPMENTS
The various uses of water for agriculture, energy production, transport, domestic needs, are at
the base of many hydrological building facilities. These constraints affect the water balance but also,
directly or indirectly, the aquatic habitats.
■■ Dams
Large hydroelectric dams are expensive constructions, whose economic interest is often contro-
versial and whose environmental impact is important.
When we block a stream to create a dam, we provoke numerous modifications of the environ-
mental habitat and the fish community and we disrupt the movements of migratory fishes.
■■ Development of rivers
The development facilities with the construction of dykes, the rectification of water course, the
construction of locks for navigation ... are still limited in Africa, but we can nevertheless give some
examples of projects that have changed quite considerably natural systems.
In the valley of Senegal, for example, many work was completed for better managing the water
resources of the river and to use them at agricultural ends. The purpose of the construction of a
dam downstream nearby the estuary (dam Diama) is to prevent the coming back of marine water in
the lower course of the river during the dry season, whereas the dam Manantali located upstream
makes it possible to store great quantities of water at the time of the overflood and to restore them
according to the request to irrigate vast perimeters. All the water resources of the valley of Senegal
is now partially under control, but the water management becomes complex to deal with sometimes
conflict demands in term of uses.
■■ Reduction of floods plains and wetlands
The wetlands are often considered as fertile areas favourable for agriculture. Everywhere in the
world the development projects and in particular the construction of dams had an significant impact
on the hydrosystems by reducing sometimes considerably the surface of the floodplains which are
places favourable for the development of juveniles of many fish species..
■■ Changes in land use of the catchment area
The quantity and the quality of the contributions out of surface water to aquatic ecosystems
depend on the nature of the catchment area and its vegetation. However the disappearance of the
forests, for example, whether to make of them arable lands or for the exploitation of wood for do-
mestic or commercial uses, has, as an immediate consequence, an increase of the soil erosion and
water turbidity, as well as a modification of the hydrological mode with shorter but more brutal runoff
resulting from a more important streaming.
The problem of the deforestation concerns Africa in general and the available information shows
that the phenomenon is worrying by its scale. Thus, it was discovered in Madagascar that the defo-
restation rate was 110 000 ha per year for 35 years, and erosion rate of 250 tonnes of soil per hectare
have been reported. In the Lake Tanganyika drainage, deforestation is massive too. The erosion on
the slopes has resulted in significant contributions to the lake sediment and changes in wildlife in
some coastal areas particularly vulnerable. If current trends continue, the figures are coming with an
estimated worrying that at this rate, 70% of forests in West Africa, 95% of those from East Africa and
30% of the congolese coverage would have to disappear by the year 2040.
The increase in the suspended solid in water, and silt deposits in lakes and rivers, has many ef-
fects on aquatic life. There are, of course, reduce the transparency of its waters with implications for
the planktonic and benthic photosynthesis. The suspension elements may seal the branchial system
of fish or cause irritation and muddy deposits deteriorate the quality of substrates in breeding areas.
II.4. INTRODUCTIONS
While for centuries introductions of fish species have been promoted across the world to improve
fish production, they have become in recent decades the subject of controversy among scientists
and managers of aquatic environments. Indeed, the introduction of new species can have significant
effects on indigenous fish populations.
The introduction of new species in an ecosystem is sometimes the cause of the phenomena of
competition that may lead to the elimination of native species or introduced species. But there may
also have indirect changes, which are generally less easy to observe, through the trophic chains.
To correctly interpret the impacts of introductions, it is necessary to distinguish several levels from
intervention:
99 That of the transplantation of species of a point to another of the same catchment area;
99 That of the introduction of alien species to the basin but coming from the same biogeogra-
phic zone;
99 That of the introduction of species coming from different biogeographic zones, even from
different continents.
II.4.1. COMPETITION WITH THE INDIGENOUS SPECIES
Introduced species may compete with native species, and possibly eliminate them. This is es-
pecially true when introducing predator species. One of the most spectacular cases is that of the
introduction into Lake Victoria of the Nile Perch, Lates niloticus, a piscivorous fish being able to reach
more than 100 kg. To some scientists, this predator is the cause of the decline and likely extinction
of several species belonging to a rich endemic fauna of small Cichlidae which he fed on.
`
ÖÖ In this case, it is to pay attention to the provenance of the fish to use and watershed
where action is taken, more so, because of the risks incurred by the introduction of fish and
national and international legislative aspects concerning biodiversity..
ÖÖ This is not because a species has already been introduced in the intervention area, that
it is necessary to use it.
In other words, its objective is to develop national strategies for the conservation and sustai-
nable use of biological diversity. It is often seen as the key document regarding sustainable deve-
lopment.The Convention was opened for signature on 5 June 1992 and entered into force on 29
December 1993. It has been signed in December 1993 by 168 countries. Somalia is the only of the
53 African countries which have not signed.
The convention recognized for the first time in international law that the conservation of bio-
logical diversity is «a common concern of humankind» and is an integral part of the development
process. The agreement covers all ecosystems, species, and genetic resources. It links traditional
conservation efforts to the economic goal of using biological resources sustainably.
At the meeting in Buenos Aires in 1996, the focus was on the local knowledge. Key actors, such
as local communities and indigenous peoples, must be taken into account by the States, which
retain their sovereignty over the biodiversity of their territories they must protect. It establishes the
principles for the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources,
including those intended for commercial use. It also covers the area of biotechnology through its
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety in 2001, addressing issues of technological development, benefit-
sharing and biosafety.
The convention reminds decision-makers that natural resources are not infinite and sets out a
philosophy of sustainable use. While past conservation efforts were aimed at protecting particular
species and habitats, the Convention recognizes that ecosystems, species and genes must be used
for the benefit of humans. However, this should be done in a way and at a rate that does not lead to
the long-term decline of biological diversity.
ÖÖ Above all, the Convention is legally compulsory, the member states are forced to im-
plement its mesures.
ÖÖ This means to respect these mesures in the projects on the field while avoiding up to
have an effect on the environment that may affect biodiversity. If so, this could turn against
the organism responsible for the project despite the intentions and the tacit agreement of
local and regional authorities.
ÖÖ The objective of the fishfarming is not to replace fisheries but to supplement its contri-
butions in maintaining the current level of fish consumption, regarding the increase of
world population. However, this goal must be pursued in respect of environmental, consu-
mer health and bioethics.
Figure 5. GIS assessment of potential areas for production fish farms in Africa.
¾¾ T
he establishment of a chain of sale must be accompanied by a fish processing and other
ways of preservation and transport.
In this context, the concepts of intensive and extensive take a particular significance. Thus, the
fish industry, a long time regarded as a way of geographically concentrated production factors and
to achieve economies of scale is generally comparable with the intensive concept and privatization
seems that he could not pass through it. It now appears that all such projects implemented so far
on the African continent, have failed from their original purpose, ie to produce a fish at a lower cost
price sale.
It will thus be a question of establishing a system of production and of marketing of the produc-
tion, which requires as first, a good feasibility study. This is excluded in zones where the demand for
animal proteins must be rather fast because of a lack for the populations. On the other hand, this
type of system can be developed after a first intervention of the production type.
Intensive Coastal fishery
Semi-intensive Artisanal fishery
Extensive Pond, wetland
Aquaculture Fishery
Figure 6. Continuum Aquaculture - Fishery en relation with the investment intensification.
(Mikolasec, 2008, under press)
species may increase the total fish yield of over 40%. Whatever the species of tilapia used, with the
increase in the number of age classes in an farm enclosure, competition leads rapidly to prevent a
good growth of first stocked fish.
The association of a predator to the farming of tilapia to control the undesirable reproduction of it
is carried out today by a growing number of African fishfarmers. Within this framework, Siluriformes
(Clarias or Heterobranchus sp.) are often regarded as having a double function: predation and poly-
culture. Associated results of farming Clarias - Tilapia show that a big number of individuals of Clarias
is necessary to the total control of the reproduction of O. niloticus and that they exert a competition
with respect to the food resources available in the pond. To control a population of 1200 tilapia in
pond of 10 ares, a population of 260 Clarias of initial mean weight higher than 150 g is necessary
and the growth of the tilapia is lower than that of an identical farming in which Clarias is replaced by
a strict predator (Hemichromis fasciatus). It was also noted that, in the presence of a predator, the
tilapia tend to invest in the growth before reproducing, which could be related to the fact that they
can then better ensure the defense of their youngs.
There exist various advantages to polyculture:
99 The natural foods are used better, in a more complete way, since only one species, even
with a broad food spectrum, never uses all the food resources of a pond.
99 Certain trophic dead ends are avoided. The fish do not consume all the organisms as cer-
tain small crustaceans which can develop in the ponds. It is a question of controlling the populations
of this invader by introducing a species which either will reduce the food of the intruder, or to feed
itself directly on the intruder.
99 The production of natural foods is stimulated. The fish with digger behavior when they
are in the search of food can suspend particles and, thus, aerate the sediment, to oxidize the organic
There exist also disadvantages with the polyculture which occur especially when an imbalance
appears following a competition between the species. Moreover, when the fish density is very high,
the role of the natural productivity of the pond in the diet of fish decreases, since the natural trophic
resources must be allocated among all the individuals. The profit obtained by the practice of the
polyculture is relatively limited, whereas the work caused by the sorting of the various species at the
time of harvest becomes a real constraint.
Monoculture is thus the only method of farming used in the intensive systems where the contri-
bution of natural foods is very limited. In pond, high densities of fish are not current, because the
oxygenation and the accumulation of toxic substances (ammonium, nitrites…) quickly become a
limiting factor.
ÖÖ It will be necessary to check in which country the intervention must take place and see
the corresponding ichthyoregion. Then one can refer in the Annex, on the various tables
for the species which may probably be used in aquaculture, particularly tilapia.
Red Sea
Indian
Ocean
Atlantic Ocean
Figure 7. The ichthyoregions (limits in yellow-green) and the countries (limits in red)
(Faunafri).
particular in Ivory Coast, on the basis of their appreciation by the zootechnical consumers and their
performances. The biological cycle of some of them is now completely controlled, which allowed the
starter of their fishfarming production.
It is clear, however, that the people quickly focused on less than 10 species. However, the po-
tentials of many others were not tested and, within sight of the damage caused by the introductions
of species, it would be advisable to develop the farming of indigenous species.
One of the interests of the step of identification of indigenous species aiming at determining
those having a potential interesting for the fishfarming, is to highlight neglected and badly known
species revealing a potential higher than that of a species sister or a very nearby genus previously
used; the other is that to avoid the introduction of allochtones species. Such is the case for example
of Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus compared to C. maurus or that of Heterobranchus longifilis compared
to Clarias gariepinus. This is also for the aim of diversification
ÖÖ We should think that «what is found elsewhere is not better than what we find at home.»
INTERNATIONAL ASPECTS
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), known informally as the Biodiversity Convention,
is an international treaty that was adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992. The
Convention has three main goals:
1. Conservation of biological diversity (or biodiversity);
2. Sustainable use of its components;
3. Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.
ÖÖ Above all, the Convention is legally compulsory, the member states are forced to im-
plement its mesures.
ÖÖ This means to respect these mesures in the projects on the field while avoiding up to
have an effect on the environment that may affect biodiversity. If so, this could turn against
the organism responsible for the project despite the intentions and the tacit agreement of
local and regional authorities.
OBJECTIVE OF FISHFARMING
ÖÖ The objective of the fishfarming is not to replace fisheries but to supplement its contri-
butions in maintaining the current level of fish consumption, regarding the increase of
world population. However, this goal must be pursued in respect of environmental, consu-
mer health and bioethics.
TYPE OF FISHFARMING
VARIOUS TYPES OF FISHFARMING
The types of fishfarming depend mainly on the investment, the quantity of fish produced per unit
of area and on the destination of the products. They are generally characterized by their degree of
intensification.
POLYCULTURE VS MONOCULTURE
Monoculture is the principle of using only one species in production in the fishfarm structures.
Polyculture is the association of fish with different diets which increase the net yield and value of
production.
ÖÖ It will be necessary to check in which country the intervention must take place and see
the corresponding ichthyoregion.
THE SPECIES
Aquaculture production is based primarily on two groups of species: the Cichlidae with tilapia
and Siluriformes or catfish.
Individually, the species of tilapia and catfish are not necessarily distributed over the whole of
Africa. But both groups are everywhere.
ÖÖ It will thus be a question of paying attention to the source of fish to be used and the
drainage basin where the action is undertaken, this, because of the risks incurred by the
introduction of fish and the national and international legislative aspects concerning the
biodiversity
ÖÖ It is not either because a species was already introduced into the zone of intervention,
that it should necessarily be used.
ÖÖ We should think that «what is found elsewhere is not better than what we find at home.»
Contents
• The initial pre-project assessment Implementation plan
• Villages selection
• Sites selection
• Characteristics of ponds
• The construction of ponds
• Biological approach
• The handling of the fish
• Maintenance and management of
the ponds
Cover photo:
Ö Ö Villagers working on the pond, Liberia, ASUR, 2006 - © Yves Fermon
On the next page, the reader may find the overall implementation plan
for the establishment of ponds.
The chapters follow the plan. As the progress of the manual, it will be
mentioned at the beginning of each chapter showing step processed.
Ponds
Laying out plan
Purchases of the
equipment
Cleaning of the site
Staking out the pond
Water supply channel Ponds inlet
Time
Building of the dikes
Draining channel Ponds outlet
Pond bottom drain laying out
Purchases of
fishing nets
Building of cages Other structures laying out
or hapas
Duration: Completion and filling in water
6 - 9 months 3 to 6 months
Fish farming
Collection in natural Fertilization Outside composter
water or production of
juvenils of tilapia
« Green water » Maintenance and Resumption of a cycle
61/4 - 91/4 months follow-up of the
ponds
Collection in natural
Stocking with tilapia
water of predators
Follow-up
of the fishes
7 - 10 months Stocking with
Duration: predators
4 to 12 months
End of the cycle Intermediate harvest
of fishes
11 - 22 months Storage of Draining of the pond
fishes and harvest
Maintenance and
repair of ponds after
Sale and\or transformation
Duration: draining
0.5 to 1 month of the fish
I. THE ECOSYSTEM
An ecosystem is a dynamic complex composed of plants, animals and micro-organisms and
inert nature, which is subject to complex interactions as a functional entity. Ecosystems vary greatly
in size, lifetime and operating. A temporary pond in a hole of a tree and an ocean basin are both
examples of ecosystems.
The communities of plants, animals and micro-organisms form a biocoenosis. This one is cha-
racterized by a food chain (or trophic), from the primary producer (the plant build the organic
matter starting from light energy, CO2 of the air and the mineral ions of the ground), to the various
consumers (from the herbivorous to the super predator), while passing through the various decom-
posers in charge of ensuring the return of organic matter in mineral form in the soil. Inert nature is
also known as the biotope. It includes all geographical and physicochemical ecosystem charac-
ters (climate, soil, topography, water…) To analyze and describe a given ecosystem, one uses the
concept of factor ecological. Is known as ecological factor, any element of the external environment
which may affect the development of the living beings. For this reason, one distinguishes several
types of ecological factors:
99 Biotic factors, related to the biological components (biocénose), interactions of alive on
alive, intraspecific (within the same species) and interspecific one (between two different species or
more);
99 Abiotic factors, related to the physicochemical conditions of the environment (biotope).
An ecological factor acts as a limiting factor when it determines the potential success of an or-
ganism in its attempts to colonize an environment. This factor can be limiting as well by its absence
as by its excess. With respect to the ecological factors, each living being thus presents tolerances
limits between which is located the zone of tolerance and the ecological optimum. Thus the ecolo-
gical valence of a species represents its capacity to support the more or less large variations of an
ecological factor.
The ecological factors can thus act in various ways on the biocénose. They in particular will
intervene on:
99 The biogeographic distribution area of the species;
99 The density of the populations;;
99 The occurrence of adaptive modifications (behavior, metabolism).
Thus when the presence of such or such species informs us about the characteristics of its en-
vironment, this one is called biological indicator. The particular characteristics (a biotope implying
such type of biocoenosis and conversely) of each ecosystem allow a zoning. Consequently for each
type of ecosystem, it is possible to associate with this zoning: an operating process, goods and
services produced, known risks and threats…
The human beings, as an integral part of the ecosystems, draw benefit from the “goods and
services” produces by the functioning of the ecosystems. The services provided by the ecosystems
include the services of deduction such as food and water; services of regulation like the regulation
Ponds
Laying out plan
Purchases of the
equipment
Cleaning of the site
Staking out the pond
Water supply channel Ponds inlet
Time
Building of the dikes
Drainig channel Ponds outlet
Pond bottom drain laying out
Purchases of
fishing nets
Building of cages Other structures laying out
or hapas
Duration: Completion and filling in water
6 - 9 months 3 to 6 months
Fish farming
Collection in natural Fertilization Outside composter
water or production of
juvenils of tilapia
61/4 - 91/4 months
« Green water » Maintenance and Resumption of a cycle
follow-up of the
ponds
Collection in natural
Stocking with tilapia
water of predators
Follow-up
of the fishes
7 - 10 months Stocking with
Duration: predators
4 to 12 months
End of the cycle Intermediate harvest
of fishes
11 - 22 months Storage of Draining of the pond
fishes and harvest
Maintenance and
repair of ponds after
Sale and\or transformation
Duration: draining
0.5 to 1 month of the fish
Evapotranspiration
Precipitation
Evaporation
Surface runoff
Stream flow
Source
Infiltration
Sea
Ground water flow
ÖÖ It will thus be a question of carrying out the evaluation of the ecosystem in all its com-
ponents, human beings included, in order to see which are the actions to propose to en-
sure a better “wellbeing”, mainly of food safety but also of health and water and sanitation.
The ideal would be to be able to carry out these two topics of evaluation jointly.
In the case of the interventions in post-urgency, one of the factors limiting is time. It will thus
be necessary to center mainly the intervention in the shortest possible time and to carry out a “fast
evaluation”.
FIELD - ECOSYSTEM
3 1
RESOURCES VILLAGE
ÖÖ Preferably, two specialists will be necessary with priority for the biological aspects.
ÖÖ The hydrographic network of a country is its “blood system”. Any damage in a point will
be found downstream from this point, wether it is chemical, urban, related to erosion…
Water, it is the life. Current and well-known sentence but in the health, water and sanitary
and food security (agriculture, fish), it is the main common factor. As for the human body
where one looks at the blood system to establish a diagnosis, one can study the rivers
to evaluate the health of an area and to thus know the points where it is necessary to
intervene.
One of the best indicators to evaluate water quality is its biological components e.g invertebrate
(crustaceans, molluscs, insects…), vertebrate (fish). An evaluation of the indicators supposes that
biological diversity, from the point of view of the diversity of the species and the communities, can
give informations on water quality, the hydrology and the health in general of particular ecosystems.
The “biomonitoring” is a monitoring often associated with this type of evaluation. Traditionally, that
relates to the use of biological indicators to follow-up of the levels of toxicity and the chemical
contents, but recently, this type of approach was more largely applied to the follow-up of the total
health of a system rather than of its physical and chemical parameters only. The presence or the ab-
sence of some chemical or biological indicators can reflect the environmental conditions. The taxo-
nomic groups, the individual species, the groups of species or the whole communities can be used
as indicators. Usually, the benthic macro-invertebrates, the fish and the algae are used as organic
indicators. It is thus possible to use the presence or the absence of species, and in certain cases the
abundance and the characteristics of the habitat, to evaluate the state of ecosystems of wetlands.
The use of biological criteria to follow the quality of the courses of the rivers in temperate countries is
common. It is less the case for the tropical countries. The biological index of integrity (IBI) has been
used for more than 10 years in Europe and North America. It allows an estimate of the health of a
river by the analysis of its fish settlement. The maintenance of water quality is a major concern for
human society which must provide for increasingly important requirements of water, and this, as well
from the quantitative point of view as qualitative.
The evaluation of the resources has the aim of determining the durable potential of use of the
living resources in a given zone or a given aquaic system. The data deal with the presence, the state
V. SOCIO-ETHNOLOGY
V.1. SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
It is also important to gather information on the socio-economic and cultural characteristics
of biological diversity although a complete economic evaluation is, generally, out of reach in fast
evaluation. Nevertheless, within the framework of a fast evaluation of inventory or an evaluation of
the risks, it can be useful to obtain a first indication of the socio-economic and cultural characteris-
tics which have an importance for the study of the site. That provides an indication of the probable
changes in the base of natural resources and can be used to determine the characteristics which
should be the subject of a more detailed evaluation of follow-up.
It is advisable to take into account in particular:
1. Paleontological and archaeological registers;
2. Historical buildings and artefacts;
3. Cultural landscapes;
4. Traditional systems of production and agro-ecosystems, for example exploited rice planta-
tions, saltworks, estuaries;
5. Practices of collective management of water and lands;
6. Practices of self-management, including the usual property rights;
7. Traditional techniques of exploitation of the resources of the wetlands;
8. Oral tradition;
9. Traditional knowledge;
10. Religious aspects, beliefs and mythology;
11. “Arts” - music, song, dance, painting, literature and cinema.
In addition to the traditional evaluation of the nutritional and medical state of the local population,
It is advisable to raise several questions when one arrives in an inhabited area.
In some cases, one will have to deal with communities which have already experience of fish-
farming, often with failures. The system especially developed in countries having an old fishfarming
tradition and where ancestral know-how, although empirical, plays a crucial role. The many attempts
at transfer of these fishfarming models towards countries where there was no fishfarming tradition
failed.
Ponds
Laying out plan
Purchases of the
equipment
Cleaning of the site
Staking out the pond
Water supply channel Ponds inlet
Time
Building of the dikes
Drainig channel Ponds outlet
Pond bottom drain laying out
Purchases of
fishing nets
Building of cages Other structures laying out
or hapas
Duration: Completion and filling in water
6 - 9 months 3 to 6 months
Fish farming
Collection in natural Fertilization Outside composter
water or production of
juvenils of tilapia
« Green water » Maintenance and Resumption of a cycle
61/4 - 91/4 months follow-up of the
ponds
Collection in natural
Stocking with tilapia
water of predators
Follow-up
of the fishes
7 - 10 months Stocking with
Duration: predators
4 to 12 months
End of the cycle Intermediate harvest
of fishes
11 - 22 months Storage of Draining of the pond
fishes and harvest
Maintenance and
repair of ponds after
Sale and\or transformation
Duration: draining
0.5 to 1 month of the fish
The design and the realization of the ponds must allow the most perfect possible control of wa-
ter. Moreover, the quality of the fishfarming works determines also the facility with which the follow-
up, harvest and the sorting can be done. In other words, they determine the feasibility of a fishfarm.
It is advisable to evaluate each potential site by a series of fast feasibility studies to check that the
principal requirements are respected.
In this chapter and the following, the major part of the drawings and texts are classic and often
comes from various booklets, mainly those of FAO.
Lenght
Width
■■ WATER LOSSES
In addition to a leak in the drain, water losses can occur through infiltration into the substrate
and evaporation.
¾¾ Evaporation
This component depends on the wind, the humidity of the air and the sunning, i.e. the climate
of the area. Evaporation will be less strong under a cloudy sky than sunny (Figure 14 below). In
equatorial zone, the water loss due to evaporation per day is about 2 to 5 mm height, which can be
compensated by an addition from 15 to 35 liters of water per minute and ha of pond. In intertropical
zone (25°N - 25°S), evaporation almost always exceeds 100 cm per year.
¾¾ Infiltration
The water losses occur through infiltration from the bottom of the pond and the dikes. If the dikes
are well built, the principal loss will be done by the bottom. It will be also limited by the soil type. In
general, the losses are more important during the first filling of a pond (Figure 15 below).
■■ FLOW OF THE STREAM
To have the maximum of profit from a pônd, it is necessary that the pond can be in production
during all the year. There is a need for water throughout the year. It takes water to fill ponds and to
maintain the water level. Water lost through evaporation and infiltration have to be compensated. It
Low
evaporation
Low
temperature
1 2
Figure 16. Flow measurement for small rivers.
is during the dry season when there is little water, that the losses are large. To maintain water in a
fishfarm of one hectare, it takes 2 to 5 liters water per second. This water flow is thus to control
during the dry season.
On the other hand, we must also check if there is no risk of flooding. People living locally are
better informed. They know if there are significant flooding and water flows all year. You can also
check the marks of water levels on the banks and bridges. A pond should not be built where there
are risks of flood, for example too low to the bottom of the slope. Not only you can lose all the fish,
but the dikes can be destroyed. We also look at whether the banks are planted, so with a water flow
lower than if everything has been cleared along the riverbanks.
The flow of a watercourse is measured in several ways.
For low flows, one will just need a stop watch and a bucket (Figure 16 above). One channels
all the water of the course to fill a bucket with known capacity and one measures the rate of filling.
For more important flows, in the case of absence of adequate measuring devices, one will pro-
ceed as follows:
(i) Determine the wet cross section S in m2 (Figure 17 below) with:
S=lxp
(ii) Use a stop watch and a half floating object to estimate the speed V in m.s-1 of the flood in
regular zone AB of the stream (Figure 18 below):
V = AB / t
Where t is the time taken for the floating object to travel AB.
D=VxS
l S
A B
Ploughing can increase erosion
and cause silt to enter stream Crops
Exhaust gases may
affect local rainwater
Avoid wind drift of
Factories
A curtain of trees can New crops or new methods of planting
spayed pesticides prevent these pesticides or harvesting may affect the quality of
from reaching ponds runoff water from these field
Discharged waste materials may
contaminate water supplies
Pesticides Roads or bridges may increase the
amount of silt or gravel in the stream
Use interception ditches
to avoid pesticide runoff Construction
Quarrying Curting concrete
Gravel from quarry work near a stream may
may block or alter the affect water quality
course of the stream
A B C
Disc 25 cm in
diameter
Weight
Strong string Z
10 cm
10 cm
10 cm
Finished disc and line
Knot 10 cm
Disc
Weight
Knot
Table VI. Color of the soil and drainage conditions of the soil.
Soil colour/mottling Drainage conditions
Warm colours, browns, reds and oranges Good drainage
Pale yellowish, pale and dark greys with rusty orange Drainage seasonally poor. Water-table at 25- to
and/or grey mottling 120-cm depth
Pale, dark and bluish greys, or pale brownish yellows
Seasonally swampy soil. Water-table at less than
with rusty orange, brown or grey mottling within the
25-cm depth
topsoil
Clay soil Sandy soil
If the ball is falling apart,
the soil contains too much
sand
A - Make a ball
If the ball remains com-
pact, the soil contains
enough clay
B - Throw the ball and
catch up with C
Figure 22. Test of the ball (I).
Coarse texture
Moderately coarse texture
Medium texture
Moderately fine texture
Fine texture
3 m
Figure 23. Test of the ball (II).
A first test consists in taking a handful of soil on the surface and to compress it in the hand into
a ball (Figure 22, p. 51). (A). Throw the ball in the air and catch it (B). The ball will disintegrate if the soil
contains too much sand or gravel (C). If, on the contrary, it remains compact (D), the soil can be good
for a pond, but, to be sure about it, one will have to carry out another test.
Another test, close to the first, can be carried out (Figure 23, p. 51). Take a quantity of the soil in
the hand, knead it, make mortar and produce a ball of it. Throw the ball on a vertical wall located at
approximately 3 m of the operator. If the ball adheres to the wall, the soil is regarded as good for the
dikes of ponds. It is even more appropriate that the degree of flattening of the adhered ball is low. If
the ball does not adhere, but dislocates itself and fall, the soil will be judged of bad quality and thus
non advisable for the construction of ponds.
A more conclusive test can be carried out. One morning, it is a question of digging a rather deep
hole where one will be able to hold until the waist (A). Then, one fills it of water to the top (B). The
evening, a certain quantity of water will be infiltrated in the ground (C). One again fills the hole to the
top (D). One recovers the hole with boards or branches (E). Lastly, the next morning, if most of water
is still in the hole, it is that the soil retains sufficiently water to dig a pond (F) there (Figure 24 above).
Whatever the other conditions, it is essential that the nature of the soil makes it possible to have
a permanent water reserve. It must thus be sufficiently charged out of clays to obtain all the more
large impermeability as the contributions of water will be irregular or weak. The objective is to have
to compensate for only evaporation. The fact of having at its disposal a favourable topography and a
sandy surface soil is however not harmful as long as a source of clay is available in the vicinity or in
the basement close to surface. Indeed, even of very big hydroelectric dam see their dams built on the
principle of the “clay Mask” recovering of the ground “All coming”. A sandy or humus-bearing soil is
swamps
source
land limit
land limit
Figure 25. Identification of potential water supplies (A, K), drainage options (C, D, L, M, E,
F), individual valleys (M level compare to D), comparison of the various good sites for the
installation of ponds (IG, GH, ON), vision of the bottoms (CIRAD).
A. Low slope (1 to 3%)
Suitable
B. No slope
How to empty the pond ?
Unsuitable
Break of the dike
High pressure
C. Strong slope
Unsuitable
A B C
Figure 28. Hill slope. A: Too high; B: Too high on one side, the second side if favourable;
C: The two sides are favourables.
P = (H-h) x 100 / D
Observer at the Observer at the
back front
Keep both ends of the rope at the
same height
Observer at the center
A B
H-h
I. DESCRIPTION
A fish pond is not very deep a water place, used for the controlled farming of fish. IIt is adapted
to be easily and completely drained.
It consists of (Figure 33 and Figure 34, p. 61):
99 The plate which is the bottom of the pond.
99 The dikes which surround the pond and are the walls making it possible to contain water. So
they must be solid to resist to the pressure and impermeable.
99 The intake which is the structure to collect a quantity of water to feed the pond.
99 The emissary who is a river or a channel which allows the drainage of the pond.
99 The channels, which bring or evacuate the water of the pond:
• The water arrival or supply channel which makes it possible to bring collecting water to
the pond.
• The draining channel or evacuation which is the work allowing the drainage towards the
emissary.
99 The devices of regulation, which control the level of water or its flow through the pond, or
both:
• The water inlet which is the device designed to regulate the water flow towards the pond
and which protects water from the floods.
• The water outlet preferably a monk which allows the control of the level of the water and
evacuation of the pond.
99 The outfall or overflow which allows the evacuation of the water excess of the pond and
ensures the safety thus of it.
99 The filters, if necessary, which prevent animals and particles to come in and leave the pond
99 The fence which surrounds the pond and avoids the undesirable visitors.
99 Other structures of protection against ichtyophagous birds, if necessary.
99 The access ways and roads, which skirt the pond and make to reach it.
Ponds
Laying out plan
Purchases of the
equipment
Cleaning of the site
Staking out the pond
Water supply channel Ponds inlet
Time
Building of the dikes
Drainig channel Ponds outlet
Pond bottom drain laying out
Purchases of
fishing nets
Building of cages Other structures laying out
or hapas
Duration: Completion and filling in water
6 - 9 months 3 to 6 months
Fish farming
Collection in natural Fertilization Outside composter
water or production of
juvenils of tilapia
61/4 - 91/4 months
« Green water » Maintenance and Resumption of a cycle
follow-up of the
ponds
Collection in natural
Stocking with tilapia
water of predators
Follow-up
of the fishes
7 - 10 months Stocking with
Duration: predators
4 to 12 months
End of the cycle Intermediate harvest
of fishes
11 - 22 months Storage of Draining of the pond
fishes and harvest
Maintenance and
repair of ponds after
Sale and\or transformation
Duration: draining
0.5 to 1 month of the fish
In this case, only the ponds usable for the subsistence fishfarming and which are the most viable
ponds, will be considered. The principal characteristic will be that they are entirely drainable with
running water available all the year. We will not take into account, ponds collinaires supplied with
streaming or rainwater and the ponds of resurgence supplied with water of the ground water.
We will focus the work on two types of ponds fed by a river:
99 Barrages ponds.
99 Diversion ponds.
Outside slope Pond
of dike
Outlet Inside slope
of dike Inlet
Monk
Water
supply
Pond
Crest
Diker
II.3. COMPARISON
It is important to remember the following points:
ÖÖ Better control of the water supply means easier management of the pond, e.g. when fertilizing
the water and feeding the fish.
ÖÖ Better drainage also means easier management of the pond, e.g. when completely harvesting
the farmed fish and when preparing and drying the pond bottom.
ÖÖ A regular shape and the correct size makes a pond easier to manage and more adaptable for
particular purposes.
ÖÖ The choice of a particular type of pond will largely depend on the kind of water supply available
and on the existing topography of the site selected.
Practically, in spite of a higher cost, the increasingly intensive integrated management of the
production of fish, will be better with diversion ponds (Table VIII, p. 63). Moreover, it will not be possible
to extend the number of ponds with a barrage pond. This is important because that avoids blocking
water of rivers which is also used by the villages located downstream. That can make it possible to
avoid conflicts sometimes violent one.
ÖÖ Diversion ponds supplied with water by gravity are the most adequate approach
proposed here.
* If the barrage pond is built with a diversion channel, some of the disadvantages may be eliminated (controlled water supply, no
spillway, complete drainage, easier pond management), but construction costs can greatly increase if the diversion of a large water
flow has to be planned.
** Relative advantages will vary according to the arrangement of the ponds, either in series (pond management is more difficult) or
in parallel (both water supply and drainage are independent, which simplifies management).
III. CHARACTERISTICS
III.1. GENERAL CRITERIA
According to the needs, it will be possible to build a series of ponds with a management in
shifted with shifted sowing, which allows monthly harvests, that is regular harvests during the year.
Always with an aim of limiting the amount of work and the costs on the one hand, and of optimi-
zing the availability out of water on the other hand, it will be necessary to lay out the basins according
to topography. The development of a suitable site is consequently a complex exercise.
A positioning in terraces makes it possible to arrange a surface much more important of ponds
and to better keep water (Figure 37, p. 66). While seeking to position the downstream-dikes across the
flow of water in the basement, it increases the availability of storage water of the site.
A overall design of a site is essential to use surface as well as possible, the drop between the
intake and draining and the availabilities of water. A provision of the ponds to the current does not
maximize suitable surface (B): Surface in green is not used. This flow is carried out parallel to the
water course. On the other hand, in the diagram (C), water is blocked in its flow perpendicular to
the water course since all the ponds are on the same level. More water will then be stored in the
basement above the plans of ponds. It will be available to fill the ponds again or to limit the losses
during the dry season.
Spillway and overflow
Outlet
Inlet to pond
Dam
Larger stream
Water intake
Outlet
Diversion channel
Dam
Outlet
Larger stream
Pond
Pond
Pond Diversion channel
Pond
Inlet
Larger stream
Diversion channel
Outlet
Pond
Pond
Pond
Pond
Pond
Inlet
Pond
Equidistant
curve level
Drain channel
A B C
Figure 37. Disposition of ponds in relation to the topography (CIRAD).
Water supply channel
A B C
Intermediate dike Downstream dike
I = Inlet - O = Outlet
101.6
20 m
I 101.2
10 101.6
1.2 O I 101.2 20 m
O 100.8
10
100.8 O I
1.0 100.4
100.4
O I
100.0 100.0 O I
10 20
0.8 m 99.6
99.6
99.2
10 99.2
0.6
I = Inlet
O = Outlet
Water supply
I
O I I I I
I
O O O O
O
I
Drain
O
I O
A B
Figure 41. Layout of ponds. A: In series; B: In parallel.
50 cm 150 cm
In the situation of production fishfarming, one will choose ponds having a maximum of
surface of 400 m2.
III.5.2. DEPTH
The fish ponds are generally not very deep. Their maximum depth does not exceed 1.50 m
(Table XII and Figure 42, p. 69). The lower part should have at least 0.50 m in order to limit the growth
of the watery plants. Deeper ponds are of a construction much more expensive because the volume
of the dams increases quickly with the depth of the pond.
However, it is sometimes necessary to use deeper ponds. In the dry areas, to store enough water
to have in dry season for fish is essential.
D E F
Outlet Drain channel
Sream
Drain channel
G H I
Figure 43. The different points for the management of water by gravity.
The explanations are given in the text.
In the case of a diversion pond fed from a stream through a main water intake and a feeder canal,
it is easy to determine the difference in level ( (x) (cm) equired between minimum water level at the
main intake and maximum water level at the end of the drain (Figure 44, p. 70). One preferably consi-
ders a pond a depth of 150 cm. It will be necessary to add there the difference in level necessary
between the outlet of the drainage device of the pond and the maximum water level in the channel
of draining (b) and the difference in level necessary between the water supply channel of the pond
and the maximum water level in the pond (c) as well as the value between the entry and the exit of
the drainage device of the pond (e).
1
1a 1b 2 3 4 5 6 7 7a 7b 8 9
c a
d
x x
b
1: Upstream - Water level: 1a: minimum - 1b: maximum
2: Main water intake: same level than upstream 6: Top of dikes
3: End of intake channel 7: Pond outlet - 7a: Start - 7b: End
4: Pond inlet 8: Drainage channel
5: Maximum water level in the pond 9: Downstream - Maximum water level
x = The difference in level required between the minimum water level at the main intake and the maximum water level at the
end of the drainage channel
a = The difference in level required between the top of the dikes and the maximum water level in the pond
b = The difference in level required between the end of the pond outlet and the maximum water level
in the drainage channel
c = The difference in level required between the pond inlet and the maximum water level in the pond
d = Maximum depth of the pond (150 cm minimum)
IV. SUMMARY
ÖÖ We will choose:
ÖÖ Diversion ponds,
ÖÖ Rectangular,
ÖÖ Arranged in parallel,
ÖÖ Size of 100 to 400 m2,
ÖÖ Supply with water by gravity.
The ponds will thus be laid out according to a diagram like that indicated on Figure 45 below.
Examples are presented Figure 46, p. 72.
Stream
Water
Stream used as supply
diversion channel
I
O
I
O
I
O Water supply
channel
Water supply I
channel outflow in O
the stream
I
O
O I
I = Inlet
O = Outlel
Natural diversion
channel
Water supply
channel
Stream Water supply
channel
Water supply
channel
Diversion
channel
B
Figure 46. Examples of diversion fishfarm.
• Water supply by a stream
• One (A) or two (B) row(s) of ponds in parallel
• A natural diversion channel
• Optimal water control
1. Laying out plan
2. Cleaning of the site
3. Water supply channel
4. Draining channel
5. Staking out the pond
6. Building the dikes
7. Pond bottom drain laying out
8. Building inlet, outlet and filtration
9. Décantation pond
10. Other structures: Erosion fight, biological plastic, fence
11. Filling in water and test
Ponds
Laying out plan
Purchases of the
equipment
Cleaning of the site
Staking out the pond
Water supply channel Ponds inlet
Time
Building of the dikes
Drainig channel Ponds outlet
Pond bottom drain laying out
Purchases of
fishing nets
Building of cages Other structures laying out
or hapas
Duration: Completion and filling in water
6 - 9 months 3 to 6 months
Fish farming
Collection in natural Fertilization Outside composter
water or production of
juvenils of tilapia
61/4 - 91/4 months
« Green water » Maintenance and Resumption of a cycle
follow-up of the
ponds
Collection in natural
Stocking with tilapia
water of predators
Follow-up
of the fishes
7 - 10 months Stocking with
Duration: predators
4 to 12 months
End of the cycle Intermediate harvest
of fishes
11 - 22 months Storage of Draining of the pond
fishes and harvest
Maintenance and
repair of ponds after
Sale and\or transformation
Duration: draining
0.5 to 1 month of the fish
swamps
source land limit
Staking out
the channel
Staking out dikes
and slopes
land limit
Figure 48. Visualization by picketing of the first plan of possible water supply (A, K), pos-
sible drainage (C, D, L, M, E, F), of differents valley (level of M towards D), (Figure 25, p. 53)
(CIRAD). In red, limite of work.
The line of greater slope makes possible to establish the various structures of the fishfarm so
that they are most functional possible, particularly from the point of view of the drainage and water
sanitation.
The arrangement of the various structures on the topographic map will have to be done by taking
into account the cost of construction and operation of the future farm, safety requirements of work,
and probable future extension of the farm.
Remove all the
vegetation
1 2
Figure 49. Preparation of the site of the pond.
All the grasses have to be cutted as for the culture. All the trees must be cutted and their roots remo-
ved. If roots are left, the pond will eventually seep. The grasses, the shrubs, all organic matters and
the rocks must be removed. One will be able to burn if that is possible. The ground must be very well
cleaned before the construction itself does start. Among the elements to be removed, one will find
(Figure 50 below and Photo C, p. 77):
99 Woody plants (A), where the roots can cause serious cracks in the fishfarm structures like the
devices of water supply and draining.
99 Stocks of trees (B), whose decomposition can weaken the structures by leaving vacuums
in the ground.
99 Large stones and rocks (C), whose extraction can prove to be necessary.
99 Termite mounds and burrows of animals (D), which must be completely removed. Then it is
necessary to fill the hole created with clay.
Tree stump
B
Rocks and stones
Shrubs and trees
C
Termite mound Burrow
A D
Figure 50. Cleaning of the site. A and B: Trees; C: Rocks and stones; D: Animals habitats.
Photo C. Cleaning of the site. On left: Tree remaining nearby a pond {To avoid}(DRC);
On right: Sites before cleaning (Liberia) [© Y. Fermon].
A B C D E F
Staking out
Final layout Water supply channel
It is always necessary to avoid giving a too strong slope to the channel and providing if neces-
sary, stones or concreted falls. Then, one carries out the digging and the sloping of the channel.
Remember that the channel should be dug dry. The method consisting in digging a channel as water
penetrates there, is to be avoided because it systematically results in giving a slope too much strong
to the bottom of the channel.
The channels without sealing surface have most of the time a cross section of trapezoidal form,
defined by the following elements (Figure 53 below):
99 The width (b) of its bottom (or ceiling) horizontal;
99 The slope (z/l) of the side walls;
99 The maximum depth of water (h);
99 The revenge (f) allowing to avoid any overflow.
The dimensions of the channel are indicated in Table XIV, p. 80.
It is essential that the current speed in the channel does not involve the erosion of its walls.
The maximum speed of water varies with the nature of the ground: 0.15 m/s in the fine ground and
1.00 m/s in stones.
If one cannot follow the level line for an unspecified reason and that one must reduce the level of
the channel, it is necessary to envisage an oblique fall or or a pipe, but one should not in no case give
Water level
Slope z/l (1.5/1 ou 1.5:1)
f
h l
(l = 1)
z
(z = 1.5)
b
Figure 53. Transverse profile of the channel. Measure and slope of sides.
to the channel a too strong slope. So, despite these precautions, the water of the channel is turbid,
it should be provided on the water course of the mud tanks or conceived widenings in such way that
the current velocity is enough low there, to allow the deposit of the suspended matter.
After the last checks of the definite location, one can carry out the earthwork of the dry channel,
while starting where one wants, according to the needs for the moment. This operation is done in
three times (Figure 54 below):
1. First, to dig the central part with distant vertical walls of a width equal to the width of the bottom,
then one adjusts the slope longitudinally along the bottom, and one proceeds to the cut of the slopes
(sloping).
2. Be carefull to leave in place (in the axis or on the edges) the stakes whose tops must be used
Leave 10 Dig out
cm of earth remaining
at the 10 cm of earth
bottom Bottom width Bottom width Bottom width
Mark the Move the rope
line of the out to the slope
channel stakes
with centre, Cut out sides of
slope and Rope channel
bottom Leave
stakes sections of Remove
earth sections of
Rope earth
Stretch a Check
Remove centre cross-section
rope along and bottom
the bottom with wooden
stakes gauge
stakes
Masons level
Stakes Final channel
bottom
Water supply channel
Location of the pond
A Lower level than that of the pond
Drain channel
B Sometimes upper than that of the pond
Figure 55. Setting of draining channel. Figure 56. Level of draining channel.
Water supply channel Water supply channel
Location of the pond Location of the pond
Drain channel Drain channel
Upstream
Downstream
Lateral
Peripheral dikes
Figure 58. Cleaning of the zones where the Figure 59. Definition of the different types
dikes will be build. of dikes.
Crest
1 m
Height
1 m
Extern
Intern
Side Base
Unequal water pressure Equal water pressure
Stronger dike Dike may be less
needed strong
Fish escape
A B
Figure 62. Dikes. A: Good high; B: Dikes too small.
Crest
(> 1.00 m)
Crest width at least
equals water depth (1.00)
(0.40)
Dry side
slope
Wet side slope {1.5:1}
{2:1}
Water
depth
Clayey soils
Increase as sand increase
Slope 1.5
1 m :
Ratio Pourcentage Degrees 1
1
1:
2:1 27 50 Axe
2.5:1 22 40 Figure 68. Calculation of the slope
3:1 18 33 of the dikes.
ÖÖ It should be at least equal to the water depth, but not less than 0.60 m in clayey soil or 1 m in
somewhat sandy soil.
ÖÖ It should be even wider as the amount of sand in the soil increases.
ÖÖ It should be safe for the transport you plan to use over it.
In individual ponds, dikes have two faces, the wet side inside the pond and the dry side or ex-
ternal side (Figure 67, p. 86). These two sides should taper from the base to the top at an angle that is
usually expressed as a ratio defining the change in horizontal distance (z in m) per metre of vertical
distance as, for example, 2:1 or 1.5:1. In a dike with side slope 2:1, for each 1 m of height, the base
width increases on each side by 2 x 1 m = 2 m.
The side slopes of each dike should be determined bearing in mind that:
99 The steeper the slope, the more easily it can be damaged;
99 As the soil becomes more sandy, its strength decreases, and slopes should be more gentle;
99 As the size of the pond increases, the size of the waves increases and erosion becomes
stronger;
99 As the slope ratio increases, the volume of earthwork increases, and the overall land area
required for the ponds increases
Usually side slopes of dikes vary from 1.5:1 à 3:1, which 18° to 45° (Figure 68 and Table XVI
above), depending on local conditions for ponds of 100 to 600 m2. The slope of the dry side can be
made steeper than the slope of the wet side.
The care taken to the construction of the dikes is an essential component of the lifespan of the
ponds (Figure 69, Figure 70 and Figure 71, p. 88 and Photo F, p. 89).
To build the dikes, one digs the ground of the major part of the pond: one removes the too sandy
ground (A). The good argillaceous soil is transported and compacted wet, by a compactor or while
rolling a barrel of 200 l filled with water on the site of the dikes.
Each layer of good 10 cm thickness wet argillaceous soil (not containing vegetable nor large
stones) is vigorously rammed (B). If one rams a layer of too thick soil, the ground will not be well pac-
ked in-depth. The ground will be well compacted and dikes well seals if the dikes are built according
to this technique called “in staircase”. One uses a compactor, a barrel, or a roller for compacting
each stair well, one after the other. The majority of the water escapes are due to a bad compaction,
in particular above the outlet. Each stair, of decreasing width from the bottom to the top, is rammed
and compacted vigorously (C). After having assembled the dike, step by step, until the height of
desired water (0.6 to 1.2 m) according to the type of pond (laying, stocking with fish, parent) and
without forgetting the height of the freeboard of 0.25 m, it is enough to flatten the edges of the steps
with a wooden handle.
In the very argillaceous soils, the soil is more difficult to work and some prefer to build the dikes
with blocks of ground which they cut in the ground. The sandy grounds are easier to work and are
crumbled in the hands: they are very permeable and are less appropriate for fishfarm (D). To build
dikes on clay soils, one proceeds in the same way, (method of the staircase) but one moves the
ground by cut mound, removed the vegetable top layer and the large vegetable debris (E). With a
little water, each argillaceous lump of earth is sticks to neighboring clumps and form a solid and im-
permeable paste, which strongly adheres to the clay soil on which the dike is built. One often forgets
D E F
Figure 69. Construction of the dikes (I). A, B and C: Traditionnal; D, E and F: By blocks.
Water supply channel Water supply channel
Drain channel Drain channel
Figure 70. Construction the dikes (II). Figure 71. Preparation of the bottom.
to clean the lumps thus causing useless water escapes through the dikes. After having deposited
side by side the lumps of earth all along the dike to be built, one sprinkles and one crushes each
stair over all his length so that each argillaceous lump of earth is stick to its neighbors (F). Moreover,
one will use a roller or a barrel of 200 liters filled with water or a compactor for compacting the dike
well over all his length.
If the dikes of the pond are well built with adapted soil, the pond will be able to last more than
twenty years with little maintenance.
Either during construction, one leaves space for the structures of inlet and outlet, or those are
made at the same time. One will see later on how to build them.
Once the dikes are built, one will be able to deal with the plate or bottom of the pond.
Photo F. Dikes. On left: Slope badly made, destroed by erosion (DRC)[© Y. Fermon];
On right: Construction (Ivory Coast) [© APDRA-F](CIRAD).
I = Inlet I
I
O = Outlet
O
A B O C O
Figure 72. The bottom or plate. Direction of the slope (A)
and drain setting: In ray (B); As «fish bones» (C).
Crest of
Normal water dike
Monk with
level
screen in place
Pond bottom Harvesting pit
(pente 0.5 %) Drainage
(± no slope)
channel
20 cm
10 cm
Bottom drain Sloping outlet
(slope 0.2 %) pipe
Bottom of the inlet at the
same level as bottom of
the water supply channel
Wooden gutter
Board water
control
Figure 78. Gutter inlet.
About
1m Corrugated
metal gutter
Corrugated
metal gutter
Photo H. Example of filters set at the inlet of a pond in Liberia [© Y. Fermon].
To fill with Filtering mass
the filtering masses Gravel Sand
Wire netting
Debris
Concrete Water supply
channel
Water
Pond
Wild fishes
Dikes
Maximum water level Maximum water level
Partially empty
Completely
Lower pipe to empty
empty pond
Water level
Drainage of the water
Protection
of the pipe Downstream dike Downstream dike
Drain pipe Drain pipe
Wire netting Clay
Grooves Pipeline
Drainage of the water
Wooden plates
Verticale
tower
Foundation
Monks can be built in wood, bricks or concrete depending mainly on the availability of materials,
their cost, the local technical expertise and the size of the structure.
The most difficult type of monk to build is the brick monk. It requires a very skilled mason to
make it so that it is leak-proof. If not done properly, the mortar surfacing will have to be redone
frequently, increasing maintenance costs. Generally, wooden and concrete monks are cheaper and
easier to build. The following are some points to remember when one build a monk:
ÖÖ The pipeline should be laid down before building the dike and the monk tower.
ÖÖ A solid foundation have to be built to avoid future problems.
ÖÖ A particular attention have to be paid to the junction of the monk tower to its foundation; the
junction of the pipeline to the back of the monk tower; the finishing of the monk’s grooves.
ÖÖ A reasonable slope to the pipeline have to be made, preferably 1.5 to 2 percent.
ÖÖ If several monks have to be build on the fish farm, one have to try to standardize their type and
size as much as possible; and, for concrete monks, one need to prepare strong forms and re-use
them if possible.
ÖÖ One have to provide a separate overflow wherever there is danger of uncontrolled entry of flood
water into the pond.
Top of the Top of the
dike dike
Monk Monk
Outlet Outlet
Dike Dike
A B
Figure 85. Position of the monk according the downstream dike. A: Integrated in the dike;
B: Inside the pond.
3 x 5 cm
cross-support
5 x 5 cm posts 5 x 5 cm posts
Inside Inside
dimensions dimensions
≈ 20 x 22 cm ≈ 28 x 46 cm
100 à 120 cm
150 cm
Oblique
brace
Pipeline
Pipeline
27 cm 50 cm 50 cm
30 cm
A B
Figure 86. Wooden monk. Small (A) and medium (B) size.
A B
Figure 88. Mould of a monk. A: Front view; B: Upper view.
mer invested itself in the research of sand and the gravel, these monks were finally less expensive
than those which are carried out in breeze blocks. Then, this type of formwork undergoes major
changes. As private individuals again, the mould is from now transportable by only one person with
foot or bicycle. The shuttering timber coats oil internally (engines oil of vehicles for example) is thus
carried out above the foundation in order to run the wings and the back of the monk.
As an indication, the dimensions presented in Table XVII below can be adopted, according to the
size of the pond. Thus, for a pond from 0.5 to 2 ha, the formwork to be run will be able to have: 2 m
Surface of the
S < 0.5 ha S > 0.5 ha
pond
Height (m) 1.50 2.0,
Bach width (mi) 0.54 0.70
Sides width (m) 0.44 0.54
Depth of concrete 0.12 0.15
Photo I. Mould and monks (Guinea). On left: The first floor and the mould;
On right: Setting of the secund floor [© APDRA-F] (CIRAD).
from height, 0.7 m of width of the back, 0.54 m for the wings and 0.15 thickness. The mixture of the
concrete to be used will be of 1 volume of cement for 2 volumes of fine sand and 4 volumes of gravel,
for the monk described, 4 cement bags, 4 sand wheelbarrows and 8 crushed stone wheelbarrows.
The capacity of flow of a monk is related to the internal diameter of the drain. The cross section
of the monk increases according to the diameter of the drain (Table XVIII above, Table XIX and Figure
89 below).
The following points are important:
ÖÖ The interior width of the column must be equal to the diameter of the drain increased from 5 to
10 cm on each side;
ÖÖ There must be a space from at least 8 to 10 cm in front of the first groove;
ÖÖ The two series of small boards must be separated by an interval from at least 8 to 10 cm;
ÖÖ The distance between the last series of small boards and the back face of the column must be
all the more large as the capacity of flow is high, without however exceeding a maximum value from
35 to 40 cm
To facilitate the operation of the small boards, it is preferable to limit the interior width of a monk
to a maximum value of 50 cm.
Clay
A
Foundation
B C
small board of the monk. One will always take care that the meshs of netting are smaller than fish
raised in the pond.
When the pond is filled to the last small board, all the water which enters more in the pond,
crosses the grid above the impermeable layer and falls to the bottom of the monk. In this place, it
crosses the dike then leaves the pond while passing by the drain (Photo K, p. 102).
The monk ended, it is essential to equip it with foundations called soles. The sole is also used as
plane surface and hard to catch last fish easily.
The monks of this type are generally provided with drains. One can use a PVC drain or set up
concrete tubes. If one wants to obtain the best results, the drain must have a good foundation whose
construction must be done at the same time as that of the column of the monk (Figure 91 and Photo
L above). The seals of the drains must be carefully sealed to avoid the water escapes.
In the wet environments, because of water abundance which compensates the risks of escape,
the concrete tubes constitute a good technique:
ÖÖ They are cheap: two baggs of cements are enough for 10 m of tube for which it is necessary to
add a half bagg for the seals;
ÖÖ Their section allows an higher capacity that of a pipe of 100 or 120 mms in diameter;
ÖÖ The flat bottom of the tube makes it possible to accelerate the ends of draining, which is very
practical;
ÖÖ It is easy to add a tube when the need is felt some.
However the concrete tubes present also some disadvantages, in particular in the dry zones,
which are as many recommendations:
ÖÖ The mould must be quite manufactured and correctly maintained so that the junctions are en-
casable and remain it;
ÖÖ It is preferable to assemble the tubes before building the dike, it is thus easier to move the water.
One can then install them on a dry and hard soil instead of posing them on mud;
Maximum water level
Angle the pipe so that
inside opening is 15
to 20 cm below
maximum water level
Place overfow at Maximum water level
corner of pond
Remove deeper water
by curving down inside
Figure 92. Setting of a pipe end of pipe
overflow.
3 m - 10 m 1 m x 7 m
Sand and
Sand and silt
silt
A B
ÖÖ Make sure water flows evenly and quietly through the settling basin. Avoid creating areas of
turbulence or rapid flow.
ÖÖ Provide a sloping bottom (slope = 2 percent) from the downstream end to the entrance of the
basin.
The settling basin have to be regularly clean by removing the accumulated soil from its bottom
after closing the water supply. This soil have to be removed more regularly using a simple pipe or
siphon. Usually, the soil is very fertile, and can be use it in the garden and fields to make the crops
grow better.
10 to 15 cm of steppe
black soil Plant grass Seed
A B C
Figure 96. Dikes with plants. A: Vegetable garden; B: Small animals;
C: Trees.
Stream
Pond
Fishponds
Fisherman
Door B
Predators
Dikes
Thief Channel
Controle of water level A
Figure 98. Fences (A).
In scrubs (B); In wood or bamboo (C). C
X. NECESSARY RESOURCES
X.1. MATERIALS
The initial stage of prospection and the picketing of the site requires only few material. It is about:
99 Stakes
99 Tie up and ropes
99 Decametre
99 Machete
99 Two-handed hammer
99 Plumb level or if possible, a theodolite or automatic level
99 Paper and pencils
Then, it is necessary to make the list of the technical descriptions, while referring in the topogra-
phic plans and the drawings of detail available. These descriptions must separately treat earthworks
and works, as indicated hereafter:
1. Descriptions of the earthworks:
(i) Preparing the ground of the site, in particular clearing and uprooting complete, handling
and placement of the cleared vegetation;
(ii) Removal of the layer of topsoil, with indication of its surface, its thickness and places of
storage;
(iii) Construction of the dikes, with indication of the source and the quality of the ground as well
as its characteristics;
(iv) Compaction of the dikes, with mention of the maximum thickness of the layers, the moisture
of the ground, the capacity and the type of equipment to be used
2. Descriptions of the structures, indexing the types and characteristic of materials to be
used in each case, such as:
(i) Reinforced concrete - type of proportioning, limits to be observed during the test of de-
pression, types of reinforcements, method of cure, formwork;
(ii) Wood - detailed list of the species, treatment, relative humidity, conditions of storage;
Table XXIII. Example of calendar according the seasons (15 ponds) in Cameroon.
Activity/Month Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept
Clean the site
Topographic
plan
Design setting
Water supply
Excavation
works
Other
XI. SUMMARY
ÖÖ All of the operations being carried out can be summarized in the following figure:
Ponds
Laying out plan
Purchases of the
equipment
Cleaning of the site
Staking out the pond
Water supply channel Ponds inlet
Time
Building of the dikes
Draining channel Ponds outlet
Pond bottom drain laying out
Purchases of
fishing nets
Building of cages Other structures laying out
or hapas
Duration:
Completion and filling in water
3 to 6 months
ÖÖ Emphasis on:
ÖÖThe cleaning of the site that must be done well
ÖÖThe picketing which must be precise for the slopes
ÖÖThe control and management of the water by channels
ÖÖThe importance of dykes, their strength and their size and although compacted
ÖÖThe choice of a monk for draining ponds
ÖÖThe total isolation of the ponds from the outside for better control
ÖÖThe soil conservation upstream
Nekton
Small
invertebrates
Benthos
Bacteria
Ponds
Laying out plan
Purchases of the
equipment
Cleaning of the site
Staking out the pond
Water supply channel Ponds inlet
Time
Building of the dikes
Draining channel Ponds outlet
Pond bottom drain laying out
Purchases of
fishing nets
Building of cages Other structures laying out
or hapas
Duration: Completion and filling in water
6 - 9 months 3 to 6 months
Fish farming
Collection in natural Fertilization Outside composter
water or production of
juvenils of tilapia
« Green water » Maintenance and Resumption of a cycle
61/4 - 91/4 months follow-up of the
ponds
Collection in natural
Stocking with tilapia
water of predators
Follow-up
of the fishes
7 - 10 months Stocking with
Duration: predators
4 to 12 months
End of the cycle Intermediate harvest
of fishes
11 - 22 months Storage of Draining of the pond
fishes and harvest
Maintenance and
repair of ponds after
Sale and\or transformation
Duration: draining
0.5 to 1 month of the fish
Tertiary consumers
1 g
Super-carnivores
Secundary consumers
10 g
Carnivores
Primary consumers
100 g
Herbivores
Primary producers
1000 g
Plants, phytoplankton
Minerals Organic
Nutrients Decomposers debris
10 µm
Filamentous algae
1 mm
10 µm 10 µm
Unicellular algae Colonial algae Multicellular algae
Adults
Juveniles
Small size Big size
Pest Cladocerans Copepods
Table XXIV. Maximum amount of fresh solid manure per day in 100 m2 pond.
Solid manure Maximum amount (kg fresh/100 m2 /d)
Duck 2.8
Poultry
Chicken 4.8
Pigs Pig 6.0
Small ruminants Sheep/Goat 3.4
Buffalo 6.3
Large ruminants Cattlel 6.0
Horse 5.2
Air should always be
present within the
composting pile
keep moist
Pile not too high but not wet
Finely cut and loosely
Protect from sun packed material
and rain
AIR
25 cm First layer:
very coars material
Check composting process: … if too hot or smelly,
drive stick in… turn pile over
Pile up composting material… …or in pits
A B C D
Figure 111. Applying animal manures to a drained pond bottom. A: New pond;
B: Pond in which the water is badly controled;
C and D: Pond in which the water is well controled (most common case).
10 m
1m
A B C D
Figure 112. Applying animal manures to water-filled ponds that have been stocked (I).
A: Distribution of liquid animal manure from the banks; B: Distribution of animal manure
using an inner-tube and basket; C: Disposition in heaps along the banks;
D: Detail of an elongated crib.
A B
Fill up to the surface of
the water and well
compress
III. SUMMARY
14. Collecting tilapia
• In the field
• By propagation
15. Juveniles storage
16. Transporting live fish
17. Stocking tilapia
18. Following the fish
19. Stocking with other species
20. Draining and harvesting
In a certain number of cases and areas, it is rather easy to get tilapia fingerlings in the wild.
Otherwise, one will choose to produce fry from broodstock collected in the wild. The assessment
previously carried out will indicate which are the species usable close to the selected sites:
ÖÖ To limit the loss of fish;
ÖÖ To limit the costs. A transport on long distance requires a logistics which can be costly. One will
try to limit the maximum displacements.
Insofar as the majority of the fingerlings producers currently in Africa do it without real
genetic management of the broodstock and, moreover, starting from introduced species, and
in order to limit the costs, one will avoid most of the time providing oneself in fingerlings from
local producers
I. CATCH METHODS
On a fish farm, live fish have to be handled on many occasions, for example during routine
monitoring of their growth and health, transfer from one pond to another and final harvesting. This
handling usually involves the use of various nets and other small pieces of equipment.
However, it is necessary to remember some points mentioned above.
ÖÖ If they are beneficiaries who will make the catch, the difficulty will be to make them
understand that it is not necessary to look for fish elsewhere than at home.
ÖÖ One of the main principles will be to use only non-destructive gear for the local wildlife.
ÖÖ Care should be taken to respect the laws relating to fishing. Where appropriate, per-
mits have to be requested from the local authorities.
To get wild specimens, the help of local fishermen who can be, sometimes, also beneficiaries
can be requested. In general, they know well the places of possible capture of the various species.
If necessary, one will be able to manufacture small fishing gears.
Ponds
Laying out plan
Purchases of the
equipment
Cleaning of the site
Staking out the pond
Water supply channel Ponds inlet
Time
Building of the dikes
Draining channel Ponds outlet
Pond bottom drain laying out
Purchases of
fishing nets
Building of cages Other structures laying out
or hapas
Duration: Completion and filling in water
6 - 9 months 3 to 6 months
Fish farming
Collection in natural Fertilization Outside composter
water or production of
juvenils of tilapia
« Green water » Maintenance and Resumption of a cycle
61/4 - 91/4 months follow-up of the
ponds
Collection in natural
Stocking with tilapia
water of predators
Follow-up
of the fishes
7 - 10 months Stocking with
Duration: predators
4 to 12 months
End of the cycle Intermediate harvest
of fishes
11 - 22 months Storage of Draining of the pond
fishes and harvest
Maintenance and
repair of ponds after
Sale and\or transformation
Duration: draining
0.5 to 1 month of the fish
To be able to make a net, various materials are necessary (Figure 118, p. 130).
Rope can be made either of natural fibre (hemp, manila, sisal) or synthetic fibre (polyamide,
polyethylene or polypropylene). Synthetic fibres are stronger and more resistant. Rope can be either
twisted or braided.
Floats can be made of several materials such as light woodpaint or tar it to keep it from beco-
ming impregnated with water, which would reduce its floatability; cork; plastic.In short, of a material
which floats
Sinkers are usually made either from baked earth or lead. In this last case, they are available as
thin lead sheets or in the form of olives of various individual weights. Lead recovered can be used. A
total weight of sinkers equal to 1 to 1.5 times the total floatability of the floats is need. Small stones
can also be used, but they may break more easily.
For the assembly, one will put a float every 10 to 25 cm maximum. For the sinkers, one every 3
intervals. Various stages are necessary to mount a seine (Figure 118, p. 130).
A small seine may be handled by as few as two people, one at each end of the net, who hold the
net vertical with the wooden poles (Figure 119, Figure 120 and Figure 121, p. 131 and Photo O, p. 132). f
no poles are used, take care to keep the bottom rope slightly ahead of the top rope. With a muddy
pond bottom or with a larger and heavier seine, additional strength may be needed. In this case, one
person pulls at each end pole of the net while others assist by pulling at the extended end ropes. It is
useful to have an additional person standing near the middle of the seine while it is being handled to
help whenever necessary, for example when it gets stuck on some underwater obstacle.
C D
Begin to attach netting to
the head rope ÖÖ Note that the use of seines is
generally prohibited in the wild.
9 meshes 8 meshes 8 meshes
If this is not the case, it will have
to be used only for the harvest
of fingerlings or broodstock. If
Float applicable, authorization must
E be obtained from the competent
authorities.
Upright wooden pole
Tie the foot rope
between two posts 20 to
and begin to attach 30 cm
bottom part of
netting
F
Head rope Placement of floats and sinkers First float
43 2 1 4 3 21 4 3 21 4 3 21
with floats
Tie side
Tie side rope
rope to
next to frst
pole
knot
Side
rope Join the head and
Foot rope 3 2 1 3 2 1 3 2 13 2 13 2 1 3 2 1 Notch foot ropes and add a
with sinkers pulling rope
G First sinker
Figure 118. The differents steps to construct Figure 119. Setting of the pole
a simple seine. to hold the seine.
2 m
1.30 m Wing Aile 1.30 m
Central section
When the three parts are assembled a bag
shape is formed in the central section
23 m
Bag shape
Pulling the seine
Larger and heavier
from both sides of
seine nets will need
the pond
more people to
handle
A A
B C D
Transfer the fish to
a container using
a hand net
E E
Figure 121. Manipulation of a seine.
…the mesh size should be a
little less than this
A gillnet stretched between
two posts in midwater
A gill net is very similar in overall shape and design to a seine net. The netting twine is thinner
and usually made of synthetic monofilament such as polyamide monofilament with a diameter from
0.12 to 0.25 mm, depending on the opening of the mesh. Mesh size is determined by the size of fish
to be harvested.
Fish should be able to pass through the extended mesh just beyond their gill covers but not
further. (Figure 122 above and Photo P, p. 132). When they feel caught and try to back out of the mesh,
their gill covers should be caught by the mesh sides (thus the name gill net). Such nets are highly
selective. The mesh size is calculated by measuring the body perimeter, or girth, of a few fish of the
size you wish to harvest. Your gill net should have a stretched mesh size about a quarter smaller than
the fish girth. Gill nets of stretched mesh size less of 4 cm or de 2 inches have to be avoid, for not
catching too small fish. It is important to check and remove the gilled fish maximum every hours
if one want to get the fish alive and not too damaged.
Use a castnet
in the water
Use a castnet
from a boat
In position Closed
Round
Square or rectangular
Half-round
Handle
Frame
Bag
Photo R. Dip net (Guinea) [© Y. Fermon].
I.5. TRAPS
There are many different kinds of traps commonly used when fishing in lakes and rivers in the
wild. It might be the case to catch broods-
tock or associated species as catfish.
Certain kinds may be useful for simple and
regular harvest of food fish without distur-
bing the rest of the pond stock.
These traps are usually made with
wood, plastic pipe, bamboo or wire
frames, with netting, bamboo slats or wire
mesh surfaces.
Opening: 25 to 30 cm
There are two main types (Figure 125 Length: 80 to 100 cm
opposite and Photo S, p. 136):
99 Pot traps, which are usually bai-
ted and have a funnel-shaped entrance
through which fish can enter but have dif-
ficulty escaping from; and
99 Bag or chamber traps, which
usually have a guide net that leads the fish
into a chamber and have a V-shaped en-
trance that keeps the fish from escaping. Figure 125. Differents types of local traps.
Other changes in water quality may also take place during transport.
99 Increased water temperature in warm climates increases oxygen consumption and the
content of toxic free ammonia.
99 Increased carbon dioxide content and thus decreased pH, reduce toxic free ammonia but
increase the content of toxic free CO2.
99 Increased suspended solids from fish waste.
ÖÖ Water quality
¾¾ A cool water, so fish and bacteria will be less active, thus reducing DO consumption and produc-
tion of ammonia/carbon dioxide. Ice may be use if necessary. One will avoid to expose the fish
to a sudden change in temperature.
¾¾ A clear water which is free from silt or suspended solids, to reduce stress to the fish gills, to re-
duce bacteria in organic solids, and to reduce risk of low oxygen levels caused by decomposition
of organic material.
As far as possible, it is necessary to avoid handling fish with the hand too much because
its destroys the mucus which they have on the body and to leave them too a long time out of
water.
For transport itself, of short and medium time, one can use clay pots or barrels, buckets or ba-
sins but also plastic bags inflated with the air. For Clariidae, just a small amount of water is enough
because of their capacity to be able to breathe the ambient air.
In the case of long time transport, one will used plastic bags inflated with oxygen, with the air
if no oxygen (Figure 126 and Photo T, p. 138). One can get oxygen in a carriage-builder who makes
welding either in a dispensary or a hospital. As much as possible, each breeder will have to be alone
in his bag and, for the juveniles, one will limit the densities. However, it is true that this will increase
volume to be transported, thus, the risks of mortality are largely reduced. One should not put too
much water in the bag. A level just above fish is enough amply. One counts, in general, 1/3 of water
for 2/3 of air or oxygen.
For just catch fish, one will change the water of the container every 5 mn or when the fish pipe
on the surface, to evacuate the organic waste rejected by fish because of the stress of their capture
and which consume the oxygen of water and this, very quickly.
There exists a certain number of precautions to be taken and actions to be undertaken:
For transport in the medium and long term, before transport, when the fish come from the ponds,
one will keep them in stables, in hapas for example, without food and one will keep them long
enough so that their digestive tract is completely empty. Water in which they will be transported will
remain thus cleaner. The minimum duration of the period of fast depends on the temperature of water
and the species. In warm water, a duration from 12 to 12 midnight is sometimes sufficient. It is not
necessary for transport of short duration.
One will avoid, as much as possible, to dirty the water of transport. It will thus be necessary to
carefully clean the fish with clean water before loading them into the container with transport.
One will place the containers in the darkness and safe from sudden noises to maintain fish quiet
during the transport itself.
Wherever possible, one will maintain fish cool during transport. There will be transport during the
Milt drop
Anus
Urogenital A - Maturation test
papilla
Urogenital orifice Urinary orifice
Anus
Genital slit
B - Clarias gariepinus C - Lates niloticus
Papilla
Tail Head
Genital papilla
Anus
Oviduct
Urethra
Fingerlings production
Density breeders Sex ratio
(ind/m2) (female / male)
(ind/m /month)
2
(g/m2/month)
0.35 3 33.1 60
0.50 1 27.5 49
0.70 3 54.0 86
1.00 1 45.0 112
400
80
Nomber of fry/kg female/day
Fry production/m2/day
300
70
60
200 50
40
30
100
20
10
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
Genitors density (ind/m2) Females body weight (g)
Figure 128. Fingerlings produced per fish Figure 129. Fingerlings produced per females
density in Oreochromis niloticus. body weight in Oreochromis niloticus.
Internal
hapa
External
hapa
A2 A1
Figure 130. Hapas and cages. A: Hapas, A1: Simple, A2: Double; B: Cage.
A B C
Figure 131. Differents systems of reproduction of tilapia in hapas and cages. A: Simple;
B: Double with breeders in the middle; C: Breeders in one half.
One of the advantages of the use of the system hapas is the facility of control of the spawnings
and recovery of fry, each unit being easily handle by one or two people maximum. One can also get
the fry every day with hand net. A good harvest interval will be from 10 to 14 days for females of one
to two years old.
The cages generally consist of a rigid framework of wood made support or of metal equipped
with a synthetic net delimiting a volume of water and equipped with a system of floating attached to
the upper framework or supported by stakes inserted in the lakes or river at a shallow depth.
A B
C D F
Figure 132. Live fish storage in hapas or nets. A: Wood frame and net bag;
B, C and D: Hapas or cage in net in pond or in channels; E: Basket;
F: Wood and mesh holding box.
The majority of the projects retained and still retain the catfish (often Clarias gariepinus). This
technique is very constraining: It is necessary to be able to get, at each beginning of cycle, catfish
fry well calibrated to prevent that those do not attack the tilapia in growth in the pond. Moreover, if,
for an unspecified reason, the duration of the cycle increase, the catfish, growing faster, will forsake
fry of tilapia to attack the large individuals. The value of the production fall down then since the large
fish are more expensive than the small ones. If some seasons, the catfish fry are aboundant, they
are difficult to find in the wild at other times of the year. In the extensive fields, Clarias gariepinus
appeared a poor carnivore, incompetent of reduce the amount of fingerlings. On the other hand,
some individuals have a growth so fast that they are able to attack the large tilapia at the end of 4 to 5
months. It is to better retain Hemichromis fasciatus, or another piscivorous Cichlidae with an easiest
management. This small carnivore, of size definitely lower than the tilapia, can attack only fry. It is
with this type of carnivore that the fastest growths of the tilapia were recorded (Figure 135, p. 148). This
gives a new advantage: It makes it possible to quickly obtain a product of large size, appreciated
better by the consumer. The eradica-
6000 600
tion of fry of tilapia (first competitors
for the large tilapia for the food re-
5000 500 source) allow to develop twice better
Mean weight (g)
For the predator, the proportion must be approximately 13% of the weight of put tilapia.
Globally, ten fish of approximately 7/8 cm for a hundred tilapia having reached 6/7 cm are
enough. The stocking of predators will be done approximately one month after stocking the
pond in tilapia.
Introduction of predator
Reproduction
at small size
Growth
Growth
Available food Reproduction
Available
at higher size
food
Growth
Predation
Reproduction
at small size
Dwarfism Good growth
Figure 135. Impact of the presence of a predator (here, Hemichromis fasciatus) in fishponds.
On left: Without predator; On right: With predator.
Tare Weighing
Spring
B
A simple wooden
fish measuring box
finish with water
proof varnish
Commercial
A
Figure 136. Measurement gears. Ruler in mm or cm
A: Balances and springs; B: Taking a weight;
C: Measuring board. C
220
200
180
Fresh weight (g)
160
146
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
20.4
Total length (cm)
Length and weight of fish can be related mathematically, and so weight can be estimated from
length measurements (Figure 137 above). This relationship varies with the species and its environ-
ment. For that, it is necessary:
1. To take a fish sample in the pond.
2. To measure the standard length preferably each individual then,
3. To weigh fish individually.
The sample must have a minimal size of 20 individuals, even if statistically a sample of 5 indi-
viduals is enough.
If the weighing of fish is difficult, it is advisable to use the relation length-weight, in order to
consider the individual mean weight of fish. It is enough for this purpose proceeding as follows.
To make a follow-up of growth, one will proceed as follows (Appendix 01, p. 189):
1. To take measurements of a fish sample during stocking;
2. For fish of less than 5 cm of LS, there will be twice a week the same manipulation during the first
month. Then, the catches of measurements will be able to be spaced, one per week.
It is well, as much as possible, to follow the growth over one 3 months duration.
20
cm Netting
Harvesting box
Figure 139. Examples of way to collect the fish outside of the pond.
VII. SUMMARY
Ponds
Laying out plan
Purchases of the
equipment
Cleaning of the site
Staking out the pond
Water supply channel Ponds inlet
Time
Building of the dikes
Draining channel Ponds outlet
Pond bottom drain laying out
Purchases of
fishing nets
Building of cages Other structures laying out
or hapas
Duration: Completion and filling in water
6 - 9 months 3 to 6 months
Fish farming
Collection in natural Fertilization Outside composter
water or production of
juvenils of tilapia
« Green water » Maintenance and Resumption of a cycle
61/4 - 91/4 months follow-up of the
ponds
Collection in natural
Stocking with tilapia
water of predators
Follow-up
of the fishes
7 - 10 months Stocking with
Duration: predators
4 to 12 months
End of the cycle Intermediate harvest
of fishes
11 - 22 months Storage of Draining of the pond
fishes and harvest
Maintenance and
repair of ponds after
Sale and\or transformation
Duration: draining
0.5 to 1 month of the fish
Figure 140. Setting of fish pond: 5. End of cycle and start again…
Most treatments required not easily findable chemicals and which can pose problems of
handling and toxicity. One will thus avoid employing any treatment. It will then be advisable to
sacrifice sick fish. However, it will be advisable to know if one deals with disease related to
pathogenic organisms.
When that is possible and if that appears to be essential because of the importance of diseases
in a zone, one can carry out an autopsy with, in particular:
1. Search for external parasites;
2. Search for internal parasites;
3. Color and aspect of the liver.
There are three major groups of living organisms that may be responsible for fish diseases: (Fi-
gure 142 below and Figure 143, p. 157):
99 The viruses. Their detection and identification requires highly specialized laboratory tech-
niques. Control of viral diseases is difficult and requires specialized advice.
99 The bacteria. Bacteria are minute single-cell organisms (I to 12 µm), usually living in colonies.
Their detection and identification generally also require special laboratory techniques. The treatment
of bacterial diseases such as tail or fin rot and skin ulcers requires experienced, specialized advice.
99 The parasites. Parasites are very small to small organisms made up of one or several cells.
They develop either inside or outside the body.
Ichthyophthirius
(Protozoa)
Skin ulcers
Leeches
(on body)
Tail rot
Lernaea
(Copepods)
Dactylogirus
(on gill)
Juveniles free-swimming Maturing trophozoïte in skin and
in water (tomites: 30 to gills (2 days at 25-28°C)
40 µm)
Life cycle from 3 to 5 days at 20°C
Juveniles
escape from Parasite encysts on pond
the cyst bottom and sbdivides into
many juveniles
A
Adult trematode:
In gut of water • Internal fish parasites are very difficult to
bird
control. Although their effects can sometimes be
easily identified, detection and identification of
Metacercariae the parasites themselves usually requires special
in fish eyes
skills.,
• External fish parasites are much easier to
Egg in detect and identify. It is usually possible to eli-
water
minate them.
Protozoa are very small, single-cell parasites,
Flukes (Monogenea) are very small worms atta-
Miracidium ched by hooks (0.3 to 1 mm),
Leeches are rather large, segmented worms
attached by a sucker on each end (3 to 5 cm),
Cercariae in Copepods (crustaceans) attached on the fish
water
body with often two elongated egg sacs atta-
Snail as
B ched,
intermediate host
Fish lice (Crustacea) have a flat, disc-like body
covered by a rounded dorsal carapace (6 to
Figure 143. Example of life cycles of fish 10 mm),
disease factors. Water fungi (water moulds) are made of fila-
A: Ichthyophthirius multifilis – White-spot ments that usually grow into a cotton-like mass
diseases; or mat. They can also develop in the gills.
B: Diplostomum spathaceum - Diplostomosis.
Table XXX. Relative value of major feedstuffs as supplementary feed for fish.
Content
Feedstuff Water Crude proteins Carbohydrates Fibers
Cereals
Rice broken 11.3 L VH VL
pollshing 10.0 L VH L
bran 10.0 L VH H
hulls/husk 9.4 VL H VH
Wheat bran 12.1 H VH L
middlings/pollard 10.5 H VH L
Oilcakes
Coconut/copra 8.5 H VH H
Cotton seed without hulls 7.8 VH H H
complete 7.9 H H VH
Groundnut/peanuts without hulls 10.0 VH H VH
Mustard 9.5 VH H L
Palm 10.5 H VH H
Sesame 8.0 VH H L
Soybean with hulls 11.0 VH H L
Sunflower with hulls 7.3 VH H VH
Other terrestrial vegetables
Coffee pulp fresh 11.4 L VH VH
Lucerne, leaves 76.0 VL L L
Sweet potato, leaves 89.2 VL VL VL
Sugar cane fresh bagasse 45.0 VL H VH
molasses 25.0 VL VH nil
Aquatic plants
Water jacinth (Eichornia crassipes) 91.5 VL VL VL
Kangkong (Ipomea aquatica) 92.5 VL VL VL
Water lettuce (Pistia spp.) 93.6 VL VL VL
Animal by-products
Blood cattle, fresh 79.6 H nil nil
Ruman contents, fresh 57.5 VL H H
Very high = VH 30 - 42 40 - 55 20 - 30
Intervalle de valeurs High - H 16 - 21 20 - 30 12 - 15
en pourcentage du
poids Low = L 7 - 13 7 - 10 5 - 10
Very low = VL <5 <5 <2
To obtain best results, it is better to use simple mixtures of various feedstuffs to provide the fish
with the additional proteins and good carbohydrates required. As far as possible, one will have to
avoid using a high proportion of fibrous materials to feed the fish. (Table XXXI above). The mix will be
made regarding the available feedstuffs for a lowest cost.
It is not easy to know which quantity exactly of food to give to fish. The observation of fish allows
to have an idea of their needs.
To determine the necessary quantities the following factors have to be take into account:
ÖÖ The small fish relatively need more food than the large ones.
ÖÖ In the presence of an abundant natural food, less additional food is necessary.
ÖÖ The quantity necessary of additional food is of as much less important than its quality is impro-
ved,
ÖÖ Water with high temperature requires a more abundant feeding than water at fresher tempera-
ture.
The total quantity of sup-
Table XXXIII. Feeding rate for tilapia in pond related
plementary feeding to be given
to the size (table of Marek).
daily to the fish in a particular
pond is usually expressed as a Size class Rate in monoculture Rate in polyculture
percentage of the total weight 5 to 10 g 6.67 5.33
Earth mound
A B C
Figure 144. Structures to facilitate the feeding. A: Raised pond area;
B: Fixed submerged tray; C: Fixed floating frames.
The best moment of the day for this visit is early the morning, when the dissolved oxygen
contents are likely to become insufficient and that the owner can contribute to preserve the good
state of health of fish. If possible, a second visit of the ponds can take place towards the end of the
afternoon, in particular during the critical periods, to take care that the fish remain in good health
during the night.
More detailed controls must be made once per week and in a periodic way on:
ÖÖ Channels and dikes of the ponds, for major maintenance or repair,
ÖÖ Filters,
ÖÖ Compost piles, in order to fill them if necessary.
In all circumstances, it is necessary to maintain under control the development of the terrestrial
vegetation and to use it for composting.
It will also have to be taken care that the ponds remain protected well as that was mentioned
before (Chapter 07 p. 73).
Table XXXV. Monitoring. x: following; xx: fuller check or major repair; V: In drained pond only.
Items Monitoring and possible action Daily Weekly Periodically
Water supply
Main water intake Clean/repair/adjust x - -
Water supply channel Clean/repair/adjust x xx -
Pond inlet Clean/repair/adjust x - xx V
Filters Check/clean x - x
Pond
Water level Check/adjust x - -
Water quality Color check x - -
Dikes Check/repair/protect x xx xx V
Bottom mud Thickness check/quality - - xV
Aquatic plants Check/remove - x xx V
Terrestrial plants Check/remove - x xx
Pests Check/remove x - xx
Fish
Fish behavior Check x - -
Compost piles Check/refill - x -
Theft Protect x - -
Certain disinfection treatments have additional benefits such as improving water and bottom soil
quality or increasing the pond fertility.
Earthen fish ponds are most easily disinfected after their water has been drained as thoroughly
as possible, by gravity for drainable ponds.
By keeping the pond dry (preferably in warm, sunny weather). many undesirable will be elimina-
ted. The ultraviolet rays of the sun have a powerful sterilizing effect. Depending on air temperature, it
will be necessary keep the pond fully dry from 24 hours (at the minimum) to one month.
Some agricultural by-products can also be used to disinfect drained ponds cheaply whenever
they are locally available, for example rice bran (400 to 1000 kg/ha), crude sugar molasses (400 to
500 kg/ha) and tobacco dust or tobacco shavings (300 kg/ha). One will just spread the required
amount of by-product over the pond bottom. Then, one will flood with 5 to 10 cm of water for 10 to
15 days. It is best not to drain the pond but to fill it up, so as not to lose the fertilizing effect of the
organic disinfectant. Before applying tobacco dust or tobacco shavings, it is best to soak the sacks
in water overnight. This step will prevent the dust being blown away by wind during spreading on the
pond bottom. It is better to avoid the use of chemicals like lime.
I.6. SUMMARY
ÖÖ Emphasis on:
ÖÖ The daily visits for maintenance;
ÖÖ The control of fish behavior and actions to be taken (ventilation, autopsy ...);
ÖÖ The nutrition only if necessary;
ÖÖ Maintenance of ponds with the cleaning and the fight against predators.
Once this work finished, it is enough to remake to run water in the pond and to fertilize it with
animal or vegetable compost, animal manure or vegetable matters like before. Once green water
become again, one can stocking again.
Through the eyes
Hanging from a
rack of poles
Through the mouth of
throat
Hook in throat
Split open
1st exemple 2nd exemple
Month Pond 1 Pond 2 Pond 3 Pond 4 Harvest Pond 1 Pond 2 Pond 3 Pond 4 Harvest
3
1
4
2 1
5
3 2
1st year
6
4 3
7
5 4
8
6
5
9
7
6
10
8
7
11
9
8
12
10
13
11 9
14
12 10
15
13 11
16
14 12
17
15
13
2nd year
18
16
14
19
17
15
20
18
16
21
19
22
20 17
23
21 18
24
22 19
Stocking fish Growing Drain and harvest
Maintenance of ponds Pond not in use
m yes
10
m
10
no yes
no
no
10 m
no
yes
Figure 150. Several human behavior to avoid nearby the ponds.
The evaluation of the ecosystem in all its components, human beings included, is of
a major importance in order to see which are the actions to propose to ensure a better
“wellbeing”, mainly of food safety but also of health and water and sanitation. Preferably,
two specialists will be necessary with priority for the biological aspects.
The whole of collected information will allow:
ÖÖ To know the statement of the zone where the intervention must take place;
ÖÖ To know the available resources usable and their current use;
ÖÖ To know the communities and social structures.
The goal being to have the elements to propose a solution allowing a good appropria-
tion of the project by the populations, if the various components make it possible to affirm
that fishfarming is a solution for the zone considered.
The source of fish to be used and the drainage basin where the action is underta-
ken are of highest importance, this, because of the risks incurred by the introduction of
fish and the national and international legislative aspects concerning the biodiversity It is
not either because a species was already introduced into the zone of intervention, that it
should necessarily be used.
Ponds
Laying out plan
Purchases of the
equipment
Cleaning of the site
Staking out the pond
Water supply channel Ponds inlet
Time
Building of the dikes
Draining channel Ponds outlet
Pond bottom drain laying out
Purchases of
fishing nets
Building of cages Other structures laying out
or hapas
Duration: Completion and filling in water
6 - 9 months 3 to 6 months
Fish farming
Collection in natural Fertilization Outside composter
water or production of
juvenils of tilapia Resumption of a cycle
End of the cycle Intermediate harvest
of fishes
11 - 22 months Storage of Draining of the pond
fishes and harvest
Maintenance and
repair of ponds after
Sale and\or transformation
Duration: draining
0.5 to 1 month of the fish
The choice will go to diversion ponds supplied with water by gravity. rectangular, ar-
ranged en parallel, of a size of 100 to 400 m2.
Emphasis on:
ÖÖ The cleaning of the site that must be done well;
ÖÖ The picketing which must be precise for the slopes;
ÖÖ The control and management of the water by channels;
ÖÖ The importance of dykes, their strength and their size and although compacted;
ÖÖ The choice of a monk for draining ponds;
ÖÖ The total isolation of the ponds from the outside for better control;
ÖÖ The soil conservation upstream.
ÖÖ For the fertilisation, the preparation of aerobic and anaerobic compost is important.
ÖÖ The expectation of a « green water » indicate that the pond is ready for ensemense-
ment.
One of the main principles will be to use only non-destructive gear for the local wildlife.
Care should be taken to respect the laws relating to fishing. Where appropriate, per-
mits have to be requested from the local authorities.
Emphasis on:
ÖÖ Fishing methods and precautions to keep fish in good condition and avoid problems
and local legislation;
ÖÖ The biology of the species and they provide for good production, breeding, feeding,
behavior, both for good growth and in the choice of density;
ÖÖ The transport of fish and to provide care in order to avoid a loss of fish which may be
the complete number of fish.
We thus have a master plan of a system allowing to produce consumabl) fishes in the
shortest possible time and at a lower cost to compensate a lack of animal proteins.
Arrignon J., 1993. Aménagement piscicole des eaux douces, 4ème édition. Technique & documen-
tation - Lavoisier - Paris. 631 p.
Bard J., de Kimpe P., Lemasson J. & Lessent P., 1974. Manuel de pisciculture tropicale, CTFT, PARIS.
Coche A.G. & Van der Wal H., 1983. Méthode simple pour l’aquaculture Pisciculture continentale :
l’EAU. FAO collection formation, 1 volumes 112 p.
Délincé G., 1992. The ecology of the fish pond ecosystem with special reference to Africa. Kluwer
Academic (Publ.), Dordrecht, Netherlands : 230 p.
Egna H.S. & Boyd C.E., 1997. Dynamics of pond aquaculture, Boca Raton, USA : CRC Press, 437 p.
FAO, 1997. Review of the state of world aquaculture. FAO Fisheries Circular. N°886, Rev. 1. Rome,
Italy. FAO Inland water resources and aquaculture service, Fishery Resources Division.
Froese, R. and D. Pauly. (Eds). 2008. FishBase. World Wide Web electronic publication.
www.fishbase.org, version (06/2008)
Jauncey K. & Ross B., 1982. A guide to tilapia feeds and feeding. Institute of Aquaculture, University
of Stirling, Scotland, 111 p.
Lazard J., 1990. L’élevage du tilapia en Afrique. Données techniques sur sa pisciculture en étang. p.
5-22. In : Méthodes artisanales d’aquaculture du tilapia en Afrique, CTFT-CIRAD, 82 p.
Lazard J. & Legendre M., 1994. La pisciculture africaine : enjeux et problèmes de recherche. Cahiers
Agricultures, 3 : 83-92.
Lazard J., Morissens P. & Parrel P., 1990. La pisciculture artisanale du tilapia en Afrique : analyse
de différents systèmes d’élevage et de leur niveau de développement. p. 67-82. In : Méthodes
artisanales d’aquaculture du tilapia en Afrique, CTFT-CIRAD, 82 p.
Lazard J., Morissens P., Parrel P., Aglinglo C., Ali I. & Roche P., 1990. Méthodes artisanales d’aqua-
culture du tilapia en Afrique, Nogent sur Marne, France : CTFT-CIRAD, 82 p.
Oswald M., 1996. Les aménagements piscicoles du Centre-Ouest de la Côte d’Ivoire. p 383-400 In
LavigneDelville P. et Boucher L., 1996. Les bas-fonds en Afrique Tropicale Humide, GRET-CTA
Coop. Française. 413 p.
Oswald M., Glasser F. & Sanchez F., 1997. Reconsidering rural fishfarming development in Africa. p
499-511 vol II In Tilapia Aquaculture, Proceedings from the Fourth International Symposium on
Tilapia in Aquaculture Orlando (Floride- USA, ed Fitzsimmons K. Nraes, New York, USA.
Otémé J. Z., Hem S. & Legendre M., 1996. Nouvelles espèces de poissons chats pour le développe-
ment de la pisciculture africaine. In : M. Legendre & J. P. Proteau (eds). The biology and culture
of catfishes. Aquat. Living Resour., 9, Hors série, 207-217.
Paugy P. & Lévêque D., 2006. Les poissons des eaux continentales africaines. Diversité, écologie,
utilisation par l’homme. 2nd édition. IRD. 521 p.
Pouomogne V., 1998. Pisciculture en milieu tropical africain : comment produire du poisson à coût
modéré (des exemples du Cameroun). Presse universitaire d’Afrique, Yaoundé . 235 p.
Pullin R.S.V. & Lowe-McConnell R. H., 1982. The Biology and Culture of tilapia. Proceedings of the
International Conference Held 2-5 September 1980 at the Study and Conference Center of the
Rockefeller Foundation, Bellagio, Italy, Sponsored by the International Center for Living Aquatic
Resources Management, Manila .
Pullin R.S.V., Lazard J., Legendre M., Amonkothias J.B. & Pauly D., 1996. Le troisième symposium
international sur le tilapia en aquaculture, Manila, Philippines : ICLARM/CIRAD-EMVT/ORSTOM/
CRO. Proceedings of the international symposium on tilapia in aquaculture, 630 pp.
Sclumberger O., 1997. Mémento de pisciculture d’étangs. 3ème édition, CEMAGREF, France, 238 p.
Wilson R. P. & Moreau Y., 1996. Nutrien requirements of catfishes (Siluroidei). In : M. Legendre & J. P.
Proteau (eds). The biology and culture of catfishes. Aquat. Living Resour., 9, Hors série, 103-111.
Wolfarth G. W. & Hulata G. I., 1981. Applied genetics of tilapias. ICLARM Studies and Reviews, 6,
26 p.
www.fao.org
www.fishbase.org
www.ird.fr/poissons-afrique/faunafri/
Line of saturation: Upper limit of the wetland in Mulch: Made non-dense cover organic residues
an earthen dike partially submerged. (for example cut grass, straw, sheets) which
one spreads on the surface of the ground,
Line of sight: Imaginary line from the eye of the mainly to preserve moisture and to prevent
observer and directed towards a fixed point, bad grasses from pushing.
it is always a straight line, also called «line
of sight.» Mulching: Placement of a layer of vegetable
matter, in order to protect young plantations
Limnology: The study of the lakes, ponds and (see Mulch).
other plans of stagnant fresh water and their
biotic associations. N
Lipid: One of the main categories of organic
Nekton: Animal whose swim actively in a pond;
Contents
• Examples of files
• Table of data
• Some elements of the biology of the species
• Biogeographic data
• File of species
Cover photo:
Ö Ö Cichlidae, Hemichromis fasciatus in the wild, Liberia, ASUR, 2006 - © Yves Fermon, Claire Gsegner
These are examples and should be changed according to the operation implementation.
There is, however, the information necessary for proper management of ponds and fish stocks.
Total of the month
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Total
At the end of the year or at the end of the cycle, then it is possible to make a general assess-
ment of activities, income and consumption in general, where appropriate, to improve the operating
system for the other cycles.
Fish stock
Date Pond n° Surface or volume (V)
Species
Introduction date Di
End date Df
Duration (days) Df - Di
Initial number Ni
Initial biomass (g) Bi
Initial mean weight (g) Pmi
Initial density Ni / V
Initial mean size (cm) Tmi
Dead fish
Final number Nf
Final biomass (g) Bf
Final mean weight (g) Pmf
Final mean size (cm) Tmf
Total ration (g) RT
Total production (g) Bf - Bi
Conversion rate RT / (Bf - Bi)
Day growth (g) (Pmf - Pmi) / days
Day growth (cm) (Tmf - Tmi) / days
Survival (%) (Nf - Ni) x 100
Pond
Surface or volume
Controle n°
Beginning date Di
End date Df
Duration (days) Df - Di
Initial numbers Ni
Initial biomass (g) Bi
Initial mean weight (g) Pmi
Dead fish
Final number Nf
Final biomass (g) Bf
Final mean weight (g) Pmf
Total ration (g) RT
Total production (g) Bf - Bi
Conversion rate RT / (Bf - Bi)
Day growth (g) (Pmf - Pmi) / jours
Survival (%) (Nf - Ni) x 100
Monitoring of fish - Size / Weight - individual or mean
Pond n° Date
Standard
Species Nomber Sex Weight (g) Remarks
length (cm)
Table XXXIX. The checklist of freshwater species which have been the subject of an in-
troduction in Africa.
Table XLI. The list of freshwater species used for aquaculture in Africa.
Osteoglossiformes
(Bony tongues) Arapaimidae Heterotis niloticus (Cuvier, 1829) 100 SL m 1
Anguilliformes
(Eels) Anguillidae Anguilla anguilla (Linnaeus, 1758) m-s 200 TL ns 1
Clupeiformes 17.5 TL
(Herrings, sardines) Clupeidae Limnothrissa miodon (Boulenger, 1906)
ns
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Aristichthys nobilis (Richardson, 1845) 146 SL ns
(Carps, minnows) Barbus anoplus Weber, 1897 s 10.1 FL f
Barbus barbus (Linnaeus, 1758) 90 SL ns
Carassius auratus auratus (Linnaeus, 1758) 41 TL ns 1
Carassius carassius (Linnaeus, 1758) 64 TL ns 1
Catla catla (Hamilton, 1822) 120 TL ns
Ctenopharyngodon idella (Valenciennes, 1844) 150 TL ns 1
Cyprinus carpio carpio Linnaeus, 1758 120 SL ns 1
Gobio gobio gobio (Linnaeus, 1758) s 13 SL ns
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Valenciennes, 1844) 100 TL ns 1
Labeo rohita (Hamilton, 1822) 96 TL ns
Labeobarbus aeneus (Burchell, 1822) 50 FL m
Labeobarbus natalensis (Castelnau, 1861) 68.3 TL m
Mylopharyngodon piceus (Richardson, 1846) 180 SL ns
Rutilus rubilio (Bonaparte, 1837) 25.8 FL f
Rutilus rutilus (Linnaeus, 1758) 45 SL ns
Scardinius erythrophthalmus (Linnaeus, 1758) s 35 SL ns 1
Tanichthys albonubes Lin, 1932 2.2 SL ns
Tinca tinca (Linnaeus, 1758) s 64 TL ns
Characiformes Citharinidae Distichodus niloticus (Hasselquist, 1762) s 83 TL m
(Tétra) Characidae Astyanax orthodus Eigenmann, 1907 10 TL m
Siluriformes Bagridae Bagrus meridionalis Günther, 1894 97 TL f
(Catfish) Schilbeidae Schilbe mystus (Linnaeus, 1758) s 34 SL ns
Clariidae Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) 150 SL ns 1
Ictaluridae Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque, 1818) 100 SL ns
Siluridae Silurus glanis Linnaeus, 1758 500 TL ns 1
Salmoniformes Salmonidae Hucho hucho (Linnaeus, 1758) 165 SL ns
(Salmons) Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum, 1792) m-s 100 SL ns 1
Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchill, 1814) 85 SL ns
Salmo trutta fario Linnaeus, 1758 60 TL ns
Salmo trutta trutta Linnaeus, 1758 140 TL ns 1
Esociformes
(Pikes) Esocidae Esox lucius Linnaeus, 1758 s 150 TL ns 1
Central Africa
Burkina Faso
Côte d’Ivoire
Country
South Africa
Cape Verde
Cameroon
Congo DR
Botswana
Comoros
Family
Erythrea
Ethiopia
Burundi
Djibouti
Angola
Algeria
Congo
Egypt
Benin
Species
Central Africa
Burkina Faso
Côte d’Ivoire
Country
South Africa
Cape Verde
Cameroon
Congo DR
Botswana
Comoros
Family
Erythrea
Ethiopia
Burundi
Djibouti
Angola
Algeria
Congo
Egypt
Benin
Species
Guinea Equatorial
Guinée-Bissau
Country
Mozambique
Madagascar
Mauritania
Family
Mauritius
Morocco
Namibia
Lesotho
Gambia
Guinea
Malawi
Gabon
Liberia
Ghana
Kenya
Species
Libya
Mali
Arapaimidae Heterotis niloticus I N N I
Anguillidae Anguilla anguilla I N N
Clupeidae Limnothrissa miodon I
Cyprinidae Aristichthys nobilis I o
Barbus anoplus N I
Barbus barbus I
Carassius auratus auratus I I I
Carassius carassius I
Catla catla I
Ctenopharyngodon idella I I I o
Cyprinus carpio carpio I I I I o I I I I
Gobio gobio gobio I
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix o o I I o
Labeo rohita I I
Labeobarbus aeneus N N
Labeobarbus natalensis
Mylopharyngodon piceus I
Rutilus rubilio
Rutilus rutilus o I
Scardinius erythrophthalmus o I
Tanichthys albonubes I
Tinca tinca o I
Citharinidae Distichodus niloticus N
Characidae Astyanax orthodus I
Bagridae Bagrus meridionalis N N
Schilbeidae Schilbe mystus N N N N N N N
Clariidae Clarias gariepinus I N N N N N N N
Ictaluridae Ictalurus punctatus
Siluridae Silurus glanis
Salmonidae Hucho hucho I
Oncorhynchus mykiss I I I I I o
Salmo trutta fario I I
Salmo trutta trutta I I I I o
Salvelinus fontinalis I o
Esocidae Esox lucius o I
Aplocheilidae Pachypanchax playfairii q
Cyprinodontidae Aphanius fasciatus N I
Poeciliidae Gambusia affinis I I I I I
Gambusia holbrooki I I I
Phalloceros caudimaculatus I
Poecilia latipinna I
Poecilia reticulata I I I I
Xiphophorus hellerii I I I
Xiphophorus maculatus I I
Guinea Equatorial
Guinée-Bissau
Country
Mozambique
Madagascar
Mauritania
Family
Mauritius
Morocco
Namibia
Lesotho
Gambia
Guinea
Malawi
Gabon
Liberia
Ghana
Kenya
Species
Libya
Mali
Moronidae Morone saxatilis
Terapontidae Terapon puta N
Latidae Lates niloticus N N NI N N o N
Centrarchidae Lepomis cyanellus q o I I
Lepomis gibbosus I
Lepomis macrochirus q I I I I
Lepomis microlophus I I
Micropterus dolomieu I
Micropterus punctulatus
Micropterus salmoides I I I I I I o I I
Percidae Perca fluviatilis I
Sander lucioperca I
Cichlidae Amatitiana nigrofasciata
Astatoreochromis alluaudi N
Astronotus ocellatus
Oreochromis andersonii I N
Oreochromis aureus o o I N
Oreochromis esculentus N
Oreochromis karongae NI N
Oreochromis leucostictus I
Oreochromis macrochir I I I I I I N
Oreochromis mortimeri q
Oreochromis mossambicus I N I I
Oreochromis niloticus eduardianus I
Oreochromis niloticus niloticus I N I I I
Oreochromis shiranus shiranus o N
Oreochromis spilurus niger N I I
Oreochromis spilurus spilurus N
Oreochromis urolepis hornorum
Serranochromis robustus jallae N N
Serranochromis robustus robustus N N
Tilapia guinasana E
Tilapia rendalli N I I I N
Tilapia sparrmanii I N N N
Tilapia zillii N N N N N I N N I N
Eleotridae Butis koilomatodon N N
Anabantidae Microctenopoma ansorgii I
Osphronemidae Macropodus opercularis I
Osphronemus goramy I I
Trichogaster trichopterus I
Channidae Channa maculata I
Channa striata I I
Protopteridae Protopterus aethiopicus aethiopicus N
Number of introductions 4 0 3 0 0 0 22 4 1 1 35 8 0 25 23 1 7 9
Number of introduced
Sao Tome & Principe
Number of native
Country
Family
Sierra Leone
Reunion La
Seychelles
Zimbabwe
Swaziland
Tanzania
Species
Rwanda
Senegal
Somalia
Uganda
Zambia
Nigeria
Tunisia
Sudan
Chad
Niger
Togo
Arapaimidae Heterotis niloticus N N N N I 6 10
Anguillidae Anguilla anguilla 2 3
Clupeidae Limnothrissa miodon I N NI I 5 2
Cyprinidae Aristichthys nobilis 4 0
Barbus anoplus N 1 3
Barbus barbus 1 0
Carassius auratus auratus I I 7 0
Carassius carassius 2 0
Catla catla I 2 0
Ctenopharyngodon idella I I I I I I 15 0
Cyprinus carpio carpio I I I I o I I I I o I 28 0
Gobio gobio gobio 1 0
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix I 10 0
Labeo rohita o I 4 0
Labeobarbus aeneus I 1 3
Labeobarbus natalensis I 1 1
Mylopharyngodon piceus 1 0
Rutilus rubilio I 1 0
Rutilus rutilus 2 0
Scardinius erythrophthalmus I 3 0
Tanichthys albonubes 1 0
Tinca tinca o o I 6 0
Citharinidae Distichodus niloticus N N 1 6
Characidae Astyanax orthodus 1 0
Bagridae Bagrus meridionalis N I 1 3
Schilbeidae Schilbe mystus N N N N N N N N N 1 23
Clariidae Clarias gariepinus N N N N N N N N 2 26
Ictaluridae Ictalurus punctatus I 1 0
Siluridae Silurus glanis I 2 0
Salmonidae Hucho hucho 1 0
Oncorhynchus mykiss I I I I o o I 16 0
Salmo trutta fario 3 0
Salmo trutta trutta I I I 10 0
Salvelinus fontinalis I 4 0
Esocidae Esox lucius I I 6 0
Aplocheilidae Pachypanchax playfairii E I 1 0
Cyprinodontidae Aphanius fasciatus N 1 4
Poeciliidae Gambusia affinis I o I 13 0
Gambusia holbrooki I 5 0
Phalloceros caudimaculatus 1 0
Poecilia latipinna 1 0
Poecilia reticulata I I I I I 11 0
Xiphophorus hellerii I o 6 0
Xiphophorus maculatus I I 4 0
Number of introduced
Sao Tome & Principe
Number of native
Country
Sierra Leone
Family
Reunion La
Seychelles
Zimbabwe
Swaziland
Tanzania
Rwanda
Species
Senegal
Somalia
Uganda
Zambia
Nigeria
Tunisia
Sudan
Chad
Niger
Togo
Moronidae Morone saxatilis 1 0
Terapontidae Terapon puta N N 1 3
Latidae Lates niloticus N NI N N I N 5 14
Centrarchidae Lepomis cyanellus I I o 8 0
Lepomis gibbosus 2 0
Lepomis macrochirus I o I 9 0
Lepomis microlophus 2 0
Micropterus dolomieu o I o o 6 0
Micropterus punctulatus I I 3 0
Micropterus salmoides o I I I I I 21 0
Percidae Perca fluviatilis 2 0
Sander lucioperca I 3 0
Cichlidae Amatitiana nigrofasciata I 1 0
Astatoreochromis alluaudi N N N 4 4
Astronotus ocellatus 1 0
Oreochromis andersonii I o 5 3
Oreochromis aureus N N o N N I o 7 7
Oreochromis esculentus N I NI 2 2
Oreochromis karongae N 1 2
Oreochromis leucostictus N I I 4 2
Oreochromis macrochir I I I I N 20 5
Oreochromis mortimeri N N 1 2
Oreochromis mossambicus I I I I I 15 2
Oreochromis niloticus eduardianus N N I N 2 5
Oreochromis niloticus niloticus I I I N I I I 18 2
Oreochromis shiranus shiranus N 1 2
Oreochromis spilurus niger I 3 2
Oreochromis spilurus spilurus I N N 2 4
Oreochromis urolepis hornorum N N 1 2
Serranochromis robustus jallae I N N 2 7
Serranochromis robustus robustus I N N 1 4
Tilapia guinasana 1 0
Tilapia rendalli N I I N N N 7 12
Tilapia sparrmanii N N N N 1 10
Tilapia zillii N N N N N I N N N 5 22
Eleotridae Butis koilomatodon I N N 1 4
Anabantidae Microctenopoma ansorgii 1 2
Osphronemidae Macropodus opercularis 1 0
Osphronemus goramy o I 6 0
Trichogaster trichopterus I I 3 0
Channidae Channa maculata 1 0
Channa striata 2 0
Protopteridae Protopterus aethiopicus aethiopicus N I N N N 1 9
Number of introductions 0 8 9 10 11 0 0 5 0 0 5 10 16 0 3 12 14 21 381 217
Central Africa
Burkina Faso
Côte d’Ivoire
Country
South Africa
Cape Verde
Cameroon
Congo DR
Botswana
Comoros
Family
Erythrea
Ethiopia
Burundi
Gambia
Djibouti
Angola
Algeria
Gabon
Congo
Egypt
Benin
Species
Guinea Equatorial
Guinea-Bissau
Country
Mozambique
Madagascar
Reunion La
Family
Mauritania
Mauritius
Morocco
Namibie
Lesotho
Uganda
Guinea
Malawi
Nigeria
Liberia
Ghana
Species
Kenya
Libya
Niger
Mali
Arapaimidae Heterotis niloticus A A N N IA A N A
Anguillidae Anguilla anguilla I N A N
Cyprinidae Carassius auratus auratus I I I
Carassius carassius I
Cirrhinus cirrhosus A
Ctenopharyngodon idella I IA I oA I IA
Cyprinus carpio carpio I IA IA IA oA IA I IA I I IA IA
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix o o IA I o
Scardinius erythrophthalmus o I
Alestidae Brycinus lateralis N A
Bagridae Bagrus bajad N N N N N
Claroteidae Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus A N N N A A
Schilbeidae Schilbe intermedius N N N N A N
Clariidae Clarias anguillaris A N N N N N
Clarias gariepinus A A N N A A N N A A N N A N A N
Clarias ngamensis N N A
Heterobranchus bidorsalis A N A N N N
Heterobranchus longifilis A N N A N N N N
Siluridae Silurus glanis
Mochokidae Synodontis nigromaculata N A
Salmonidae Oncorhynchus mykiss IA IA IA IA IA o IA
Salmo trutta trutta IA I I I o
Esocidae Esox lucius o IA IA
Mugilidae Liza ramado q N N
Mugil cephalus N N N N N N N N N N N
Moronidae Dicentrarchus labrax A A N
Terapontidae Terapon puta N
Latidae Lates niloticus A N N NI N N o N N A NI
Centrarchidae Micropterus salmoides I I I I IA I o IA I o
Percidae Sander lucioperca I
Cichlidae Oreochromis andersonii I N A
Oreochromis aureus o o I N N N o
Oreochromis karongae NIA N
Oreochromis macrochir IA I IA I I N A
Oreochromis mossambicus I N I A A IA I IA
Oreochromis niloticus niloticus A A IA A I A I A A A A IA
Oreochromis shiranus shiranus o A N
Sargochromis carlottae A
Sargochromis giardi A
Sarotherodo galileus galileus N N N N A N N N N N N
Sarotherodon melanotheron melanotheron A N N N N N
Serranochromis robustus robustus N N
Tilapia cameronensis
Tilapia rendalli I IA A I N A N A I
Tilapia zillii N N N N A I N N I N N N A
Number of species used in aquaculture 10 3 0 0 5 3 6 1 4 7 3 8 1 1 5 11 1 6 4 5
Number of species introduced for aquaculture 1 0 0 0 4 2 1 0 4 3 0 6 0 0 3 1 0 0 2 5
Number of species introduced 2 0 0 0 13 4 1 1 16 5 0 10 10 1 4 4 0 3 5 5
Number of species natives 5 8 2 9 8 1 4 4 1 4 6 4 1 9 13 2 11 9 4 0
Number of introduiced
Number of times used
Sao Tome & Principe
Number of times
Number of times
for aquaculture
in aquaculture
Country
introduice
native
Sierra Leone
Family
Seychelles
Zimbabwe
Swaziland
Tanzania
Rwanda
Senegal
Somalia
Species
Zambia
Tunisia
Sudan
Chad
Togo
Arapaimidae Heterotis niloticus N N N I 11 5 6 10
Anguillidae Anguilla anguilla A 3 0 2 3
Cyprinidae Carassius auratus auratus I I 1 1 7 0
Carassius carassius 1 1 2 0
Cirrhinus cirrhosus 1 0 0 0
Ctenopharyngodon idella I I I I 5 5 15 0
Cyprinus carpio carpio IA o IA I I IA oA I 16 16 27 0
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix I 2 2 10 0
Scardinius erythrophthalmus IA 1 1 3 0
Alestidae Brycinus lateralis N N 1 0 0 7
Bagridae Bagrus bajad N A N 1 0 0 12
Claroteidae Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus N N N 4 0 0 11
Schilbeidae Schilbe intermedius N N N N N N N N 1 0 0 18
Clariidae Clarias anguillaris N N N N N 3 0 0 16
Clarias gariepinus A N N N N A A N N A A 18 1 2 26
Clarias ngamensis N N N 1 0 0 8
Heterobranchus bidorsalis N N N N 2 0 0 13
Heterobranchus longifilis N N N N N N N N 3 0 0 24
Siluridae Silurus glanis IA 1 1 2 0
Mochokidae Synodontis nigromaculata N N N 1 0 0 9
Salmonidae Oncorhynchus mykiss I I IA o o IA 9 9 16 0
Salmo trutta trutta I I I 1 1 10 0
Esocidae Esox lucius I 2 2 6 0
Mugilidae Liza ramado A 1 0 0 4
Mugil cephalus N N N N N N A 2 0 0 26
Moronidae Dicentrarchus labrax N A 5 0 0 2
Terapontidae Terapon puta N N 1 1 1 3
Latidae Lates niloticus N N A I N A 4 0 3 16
Centrarchidae Micropterus salmoides I I I I I 3 3 21 0
Percidae Sander lucioperca IA 2 2 3 0
Cichlidae Oreochromis andersonii IA A oA 4 2 5 3
Oreochromis aureus N N I o 1 0 7 7
Oreochromis karongae N 1 1 0 3
Oreochromis macrochir I I IA I A N 5 3 20 5
Oreochromis mossambicus I A I I A 7 2 15 2
Oreochromis niloticus niloticus IA A A A IA N A I IA I 27 11 18 2
Oreochromis shiranus shiranus N 1 0 1 2
Sargochromis carlottae N N 1 0 0 4
Sargochromis giardi N N 1 0 0 4
Sarotherodo galileus galileus N N N N 1 0 0 22
Sarotherodon melanotheron melanotheron A N N 3 0 0 11
Serranochromis robustus robustus IA N N 1 1 1 4
Tilapia cameronensis 1 0 0 1
Tilapia rendalli I N A A N A N 7 1 7 12
Tilapia zillii N N N I N N N 2 0 5 22
Number of species used in aquaculture 0 3 2 0 1 0 3 5 6 0 2 8 6 4 170
Number of species introduced for aquaculture 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 4 0 0 4 2 2 72
Number of species introduced 0 6 0 2 0 0 4 5 11 0 3 10 5 8 215
Number of species natives 1 1 14 1 9 3 8 0 9 13 9 1 8 9 317
Opercle
Caudal peduncle
Head
Chin
Thoat
Caudal fin
Chest Belly
Anal fin
Pectoral fins
Pelvic fins
A B C D
Figure 154. Cross-section of body. A: Laterally compressed; B: More or less rounded; C: Dor-
so-ventrally depressed; D: Strongly depressed or dorso-ventrally flattened.
99 The head
¾¾ The jaws (Figure 143 below)
The premaxilla(e), the maxilla(e) and in certain families, the supramaxilla(e) of the upper jaw are
normally distinguished from the mandible(s) of the lower jaw (A). Depending on species or families,
the jaws may be equally long and normally developed (Alestidae, certain Cyprinidae) (B) or strongly
elongate, forming a beak (rostrum) (Belonidae) (C); In both cases, the mouth is called «terminal». The
jaws may also be unequal, the mouth then being either superior (Cyprinodontidae, Centropomidae)
(D), subinferior (certain Mormyridae) (E) or inferior (Mochokidae (F). Finally, some species have a
protrusible or protractile mouth (Serranidae, Gerreidae) (G). In certain genera, e.g., Labeo , Garra
and Chiloglanis , the mouth has strongly developed lips sometimes forming (e.g., in Chiloglanis ) a
sucking disk (H) which allows the fish to cling to rocks and live in rather turbulent waters.
pmx
mx E G
md
C
A Retracted
Protrused
B H
D F
Figure 155. Jaws. A: Premaxilla (pmx), maxilla (mx), mandible (md); B: Jaws equal, prolonged
into a beak; C: Jaws equal, normally developed; D: Mouth superior;
E: Mouth subinferior; F: Mouth protrusible; G: Mouth inferior;
H: Mouth inferior, forming a sucking disk.
A B C F G
D E H I
Figure 156. Tooth shapes.
Monocuspid straight (A: Marcusenius sp.), conical (B: Brycinus sp. and C: Chromidotilapia
sp.), cutting (D: Hydrocynus sp.) and recurved (E: Synodontis sp.).
Bicuspid (F: Petrocephalus sp. and G: Distichodus sp.).
Polycuspid in one plan (H: Micralestes sp.) and molariform (I: Brycinus sp.).
¾¾ The eyes
Depending on families, the eyes may be located in different positions. They are usually lateral,
but may be placed dorsally, particularly in the Batoidea and the Pleuronectiformes (where they are
furthermore both located on the same side of the head). Finally, they may be protruding as in Pe-
riophthalmus. In some species, the eyes are partially covered by an adipose eyelid, a nictitating fold
or a nictitating membrane.
1 2
¾¾ The fontanellae
(Figure 157 opposite)
The cranial fontanellae are
sometimes used as a genus- or
species-diagnostic criterion for
identification; the fronto-parietal
fontanellae in some Alestidae (A),
and the frontal and occipital fonta-
nellae in some Clariidae (B). A B
2
A 3 B C D
4
A 3 1
2
3 1 2
2
B1 1
1 3
B2 C D E
3 4
Figure 160. Accessory aerial breathing organs. Branched breathing organs (A: Clarias sp.),
branches (1), gills (2), branchial valves (3); position of the swim bladder (1) and the lungs (2
and 3; plates of the labyrinth in an Anabantidae (C), principal plates (1-3), stylet (4); pharyn-
geal diverticula (D: Parachanna sp.), anterior chamber (1), posterior chamber (2), communi-
cation with pharynx (3); digestive tract and swim bladder (E: Gymnarchus sp.), swim bladder
(1), opening of pneumatic duct (2).
99
The body
The forms and constitutions of fins, the types of scales and other features make possible to
diferenciate species.
¾¾ The fins
The fins may be paired (pelvics or ventrals and pectorals) that are equivalent to the members of
Tetrapods or unpaired (dorsal, caudal and anal):
The paired fins are the pelvics (ventrals) and the pectorals (Figure 161 below).
In the Gobiidae, the pelvics are either fused into a ventral disk (A), or united by a transverse mem-
brane. In Periophthalmus, they are also united, while the pectorals allow these fishes to move rather
quickly on dry land. In the Siluriformes, the first pectoral-fin ray is often ossified, forming a spine that
may be denticulate on one or both margins (B). In the Polypteridae, the pectoral fins are real paddles
attached to the trunk by a peduncle (C) that allow the fish to effect a wide range of movements.
A B C
Figure 161. Pair fins. Coalesced pair of pelvic fins in a Gobiid species (A);
first pectoral-fin ray denticulated on one margin (1) or on both margins (2) (B: Clarias sp.);
paddle-shaped pectoral fin (C: Polypterus sp.).
The unpaired fin are the dorsal, caudal and anal fins.
there are three types of dorsal fin (Figure 162, p. 212): one is supported by simple spinous rays,
another with soft, usually branched, rays, and the so-called adipose dorsal fin. The latter is usually
placed behind the soft-rayed dorsal (A). Many fishes have two dorsal fins, the first spinous (anterior)
and the second soft; or a single dorsal fin with anterior spinous rays followed by soft rays (B). In some
species (the majority of Siluriformes), the first ray is represented by a strong, more or less denticulate,
spine. Depending on species, the dorsal fin may have different shapes, i.e., outer margin straight,
concave or rounded, filamentous. (C). Finally, some species lack dorsal fins (certain Schilbeidae).
3 A 4 1 C 1
Figure 162. Dorsal fin.
Soft dorsal (2) preceded by a strong spinous ray (1) and followed by
an adipose dorsal (3) (A). Two dorsal fins: spiny rays (1), and simple or branched rays (2),
separate (B1) and contiguous (B2). Fin margin straight (1), concave (2), rounded (3) and fila-
mentous (4) (C).
Depending on the relative length of its upper and lower lobes, the caudal fin is termed (Figure
163 below) homocercal, when the lobes are symmetrical (A); heterocercal: when the lobes are ex-
ternally and internally asymmetrical, with either the upper (Carcharhinidae) (B1), or the lower lobe
(some Amphiliidae) (B2) better developed. The shape of the caudal fin may vary with species from
rounded to forked, notched, emarginate. (C): In the Cyprinodontidae, caudal-fin shapes are manifold.
A B1 B2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
C
Figure 163. Caudal fin.
Homocercal (A: Citharinus sp.). Heterocercal (B1: Carcharhinus sp.) and (B2: Amphiliidae).
Caudal shapes (C): rounded (1), truncate or emarginate (2), concave (3),
lunate (4), forked (5), pointed and separated from dorsal and anal fins (6),
absent or coalesced with dorsal and anal fins (7).
The morphological diversity of the anal fin may be used for the identification of certain species,
especially within the Cyprinodontidae. In some Alestidae, its shape differs between males and adult
females. In the Perciformes, the first simple rays are modified into real spines. In some Siluriformes
(Schilbeidae, Clariidae), this fin is very well developed while in other families (Gymnarchidae), it is
absent.
A B C D E
Figure 164. Different types of scales. A: Ganoid; B: Cycloid; C: Ctenoid;
D: Dermic sclerification in Tetraodontidae; E: Placoid (denticules).
¾¾ The lateral line (Figure 165 below)
In scaled fishes, this line is communicated with the surrounding water by a longitudinal series
of pores which frequently open on the pored lateral-line scales. There are four types of lateral lines:
complete, with perforations on all lateral-line scales (Mormyridae and some Alestidae) (A); interrup-
ted, with pored scales on two levels (Cichlidae, Anabantidae) (B); incomplete, with only the anterior
scales perforated (some Alestidae and Mugilidae) (C), and absent (some Mugilidae and Nandidae).
A B C
Figure 165. Lateral line. A: Complete; B: Interrupted on two levels; C: Incomplete.
¾¾ Electric organs
Some families have electric organs variable in shape, power and function, located in different
parts of the body. The electric organs of the Gymnarchus species, as well as those of the Family
Mormyridae, produce rather weak discharges and seem to serve mainly for the recognition of conge-
ners and obstacles (A and B). Those of the Malapterurus species are capable of much stronger
discharges and are used for purposes of defence and attack (C).
A B C
Figure 166. Location of electric organs. Gymnarchus (A); Mormyridae (B); Malapterurus (C).
The arrows indicate the direction and sense of the electric current inside the organs.
The plane is that of the electric plates.
¾¾ Total length (1): horizontal distance from front tip of snout to hind tip of caudal fin.
¾¾ Standard length (2): horizontal distance from front tip of snout to base (or articulation) of caudal
fin.
¾¾ Body depth (3): maximum vertical depth of fish, excluding fins.
¾¾ Head length (4): depending on families, either the horizontal distance from front tip of snout to
hind margin of gill cover, or the horizontal distance from front tip of snout to hind tip of occiput or
to the bony rim of the notch formed by the scapular girdle behind the head.
¾¾ Snout length (5): horizontal distance from front tip of upper jaw to anterior margin of eye.
¾¾ Eye diameter (6): horizontal diameter of eye.
¾¾ Interorbital width: minimum width between the orbits.
¾¾ Predorsal length (7): horizontal distance from front tip of snout to the articulation of first dorsal-
fin ray.
¾¾ Preanal length (8): horizontal distance from front tip of snout to the articulation of first anal-fin
ray.
¾¾ Prepectoral length (9): horizontal distance from front tip of snout to the articulation of first pec-
toral-fin ray.
¾¾ Prepelvic (preventral) length (10): horizontal distance from front tip of snout to the articulation
of first pelvic (ventral) - fin ray.
¾¾ Length of dorsal-fin base (11): maximal horizontal distance measured between both ends.
¾¾ Length of anal-fin base (12): see dorsal-fin base.
¾¾ Pectoral-fin length (13): length from articulation of first ray to tip of longest ray.
¾¾ Pelvic (ventral)-fin length (14): see pectoral-fin length.
¾¾ Caudal-peduncle length (15): horizontal distance from hind margin of anal fin (or from that of
dorsal fin if this extends further backwards than anal) to base of caudal fin.
¾¾ Depth of caudal peduncle (16): minimum vertical depth of caudal peduncle.
ÖÖ All these features are important to determine which family, genus, species are far-
med species.
3 16 A
13
9 12
14
10
8
1
2
74
11
6 13 15
5 16
3
B
14
9
12
10
8
7
11 15
5 4
3 16 C
6
14
9
10
8 12
2
1
Figure 167. Principal measurements that may be taken on a fish. A: Characiforme; B: Perci-
forme; C: Siluriforme. For explanation of numbers, please refer to text.
1 1
* 3
** 3
A B
+ **
*
Figure 168. External features of the Cichlidae. A: Tilapia zillii; B: Haplochromis spp.
Family characteristics: 1: A single pair of nostril; 2: Dorsal fin in two continuous parts, hard
and soft rays; 3: Lateral line interrupted.
Intra-family characteristics: +: Tilapiine mark well visible in juveniles;
*: Cycloid scales; **: Ctenoid scales.
A
B
C D
At the oral incubators, often, the males stayed on a zone of nesting at a shallow depth and on
a movable substrate (gravel, sand, clay). Each male showing a characteristic color patterns delimits
and defends a territory and arranges a nest, where it will try to attract and retain a ripe female. The
shape and the size of the nest vary according to the species and even according to the popula-
tions within the same species (Figure 170 below). It is often about an arena social organization of
reproduction. The females which live in band near the surface of reproduction come only for briefs
stays on the arenas. Going from one territory to another, they are courted by successive males until
the moment when, stopping above the cup of a nest, they form a transitory couple. After a parade
of sexual synchronization (Figure 171, p. 220), the
female deposits a batch of eggs, the male im-
mediately fertilizes them by injecting its sperm
on eggs in suspension in water, then the female
is turned over and takes them in the mouth to
incubate them. This very short operation can
be started again, either with the same male, or
with another male in a nearby territory. At Haplo-
chromines, the anal fins present a spot mimicry
an egg to lure the females. It is about succes-
sive polygyny and polyandry. Finally, the female
moves away from the arena where the males re-
main confined and carries in mouth the fertilized
eggs which it will incubate in sheltered zones. Photo W. Nests of Tilapia zillii (Liberia)
[© Y. Fermon].
A B
D E F
G H I
Figure 171. Courtship and spawning in a mouthbrooder Cichlidae, Haplochromis burtoni from
Lake Tanganyika. The male is gray. A and B: The female lays eggs while the male remains
close to; C: After laying a few eggs, the female quickly turns; D: The female is preparing to
collect the eggs before the male has had time to fertilizers; E: Collection of eggs per female,
F: The male spreads his anal fin to the female and it shows the ocelli; G and H: The female
egg in the mouth, trying to collect these ocelli and closer to the orifice of the male genital
ejaculates at the time; I: The female begins to lay a new string of eggs. The entire sequence
is repeated several times.
The hatching takes place in the mouth of female 4 to 5 days after fecundation, and the vitelline
vesicle is completely resolved at the age from 11 to 12 days (Figure 174, p. 222). The duration of this
phase depends mainly on the temperature. As soon as the vitelline vesicle is resolved and that the
alevins are able to take exogenic food, the female lets escape from the mouth a cloud of juveniles
which is directed compared to the mother and takes refuge in its mouth with the least danger and
the call of its movements (Figure 172, p. 220).
A B
Figure 172. Mouthbrooding. A: The juveniles come in the mouth of their mother when any
danger. B: The juveniles in the mouth of their mother.
In breeding season,
males build their nest
Mouthbrooding
incubation by females
Non breeding adults live in
open water First fry live in group near the mother
Then, they live alone in group Light background
Separation of fish and down deeper and deeper as they grow
and habitat
selection
They seek later
sandy and muddy
areas
mud sand
When the alevins reach a size of 9 - 10 mm, they are freed definitively from their mother. This
one releases them out of not very deep water, on the edges, where they are organized in group and
continue their growth. The whole of the cycle is summarized in Figure 173, p. 221.
A female in good condition can reproduce at intervals from 30 to 40 days when the temperature
is of 25 with 28°C. The same female can produce 7 to 8 spawn per year, but all the females of a batch
are far from also frequently reproducing.
Embryo
1 mm 1 mm
5 days
7 days
Juveniles Larvae
8 days
10 days
Figure 174. Different stages in Figure 175. Comparison between fry of substrate
mouthbrooders. spawners and mouthbrooders.
The number of eggs and alevins which a female can contain in its mouth varies according to its
size and the species. The record is undoubtedly held by Oreochromis mossambicus which reached
the size of 35 cm with 4 000 eggs.
For Sarotherodon melanotheron, the eggs of ocher yellow color and slightly pear shaped, reach
3 mm in diameter. They are incubated by the male. The alevins at hatching are 5 mm long and 9 mm
when the vitelline vesicle are resorbed.
II.3.3. THE GROWTH
The mode of reproduction and parental care has an influence on the size of the embryos and
their development. In general, from the physical constraint, the mouthbrooders can accommodate
only one limited number of eggs in the oral cavity (Figure 175 above).
According to the species, one can note that the maximum size and the size at sexual maturation
vary: the fish of the great lakes mature with a larger length and grow until a size more important than
those of the lagoons, ponds or rivers (Table XLIII, p. 223, Figure 176 and Figure 177, p. 224). In lake, the
size of maturation and the maximum length of the males and females do not differ. On the other
hand, in the small over-populated fields or stretches of water, the males grow more quickly than
the females whose size of maturation is lower than that of the males. This sexual dimorphism of
growth can be connected to the mode of parental care. As soon as the individuals reach the age of
maturity (1 to 3 years according to the sex and the field), the male individuals present a growth de-
finitely faster than the females and reach a definitely higher size. That can be understood insofar as
the males must establish a territory of reproduction and defend it. For the substrate spawners, this
difference is, as that gets along, less important. For the mouthbrooders, the male is generally more
dominating that its length is large. Each time one introduces a new male into the field, the males keep
a hierarchical basis and preserved this hierarchy until the arrival of the new intruder. What makes
the dominant? It takes the territory best placed and supervises it highly, attacking any male passing
in the vicinity and courting the females. It will thus invest energy in the defense of its territory at the
expense of its growth compared to the other males. However, the growth of the males will remain
higher than that of the females.
The fish in poor environmental condition mature with a size smaller than those which are in good
condition. If one finds individuals in a state of reproduction all the year, there exist nevertheless
peaks of reproduction which coincide with the two rainy seasons in equatorial region or at the single
rainy season under other latitudes. Moreover, the growth of Oreochromis niloticus is extremely va-
riable from one field to another, which suggests that the maximum size is more dependant on the
environmental conditions than of possible genetic differences. For example in the lake Chad in
Size at
Typical Maximale Longevity
Species Location maturation
/ Dwarf size (mm) (years)
(mm)
Alcolapia grahami Lake Magadi D 25 100
Oreochromis aureus Lake Kinneret T 190 315 5
Oreochromis esculentus Lake Victoria T 230 375 10
Lake Victoria, Kavirondo
T 230 330 7
Gulf
Lake Victoria, Jinja T 225 340 7
Lake Victoria, Mwanza T 240 325 7
Aquarium D 105
Pond D 164
Oreochromis leucostictus Lake Naivasha T 180 250
Lake Edward T 210 240
Lake George T 140 280
Lake Albert T 260 280
Lagon, Lake Albert D 100
Pond in Ouganda D 120
Pond in Kenya D 70
Oreochromis lidole Lake Malawi T 285 390 5
Oreochromis mortimeri Lake Kariba T 300 390 8
Lower Malolo T 180
Upper Malolo D 90
Oreochromis mossambicus Egypte T 300 7
Lake Sibaya D 100
South Africa T 390 11
Aquarium D 45
Oreochromis niloticus Egypt T 200 330 9
Lake George T 400
Lake Rudolf T 390 640
Crater, Lake Rudolf D 250
Lake Edward T 170
Lake Baringo T 260 360
Lake Albert T 280 500
Lagon, Lake Albert D 100
Oreochromis rukwaensis Lake Rukwa D 280
Oreochromis saka Lake Malawi T 275 340 5
Oreochromis shiranus shiranus Lake Malawi T 220 290 5
Oreochromis shiranus chilwae Lake Chilwa T 200 290 5
Oreochromis squamipinnis Lake Malawi T 240 330 5
Oreochromis variabilis Lake Victoria T 220 300 7
Sarotherodon galileus Lake Kinneret T 220 345 7
River Sokoto D 110
Tilapia mariae Nigeria, river Osse T 165 300
River Jamieson D 100
Lake Kariba T 450 5
Tilapia zillii Lake Kinneret T 135 270 7
Pond in Egypt T 130 250
Lake Naivasha D 90
Aquarium D 70
Mean weight (g) for fish less than 20 cm length
G
R
170
160
D A
E
150
C
140
K
130
T
120
110 B
100
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42
Maturation size (cm)
Figure 176. Relationship the weight of fish of 20 cm and the size of maturation
for Oreochromis niloticus for several geographic location. R: Lake Turkana;
A: Lake Albert; G: Lake George; E: Lake Edward; D: Lake Katinda; C: Lake Chanagwora;
K: Lake Kijanebalola; T: Lagoon Tonya of lake Albert; B: Lagoon Buhuku of lake Albert.
10
Pond Kijansi
5 ● ●
0 x x
15 Maturation size
Lagoon Buhuku
10
5
0
20
Lake Kijanebalola
15
10
5
Fréquency
0
35
Lake George
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
20
Lake Turkana
15
10
5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66
Total length (cm)
0
Oa Oa
Barotse Kafue (1) Kafue (2) m
40 Tr f Oa
Total length (cm)
Oma Tr
30
m
Oma f Oma
20
10
40 Lake Malawi Lake Victoria
Plover Cove
Ol Os
30 m
Osa f
Osh Ov m Omo
20 f
10 Lac Sibaya
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years)
Figure 178. Comparison of growth rate for different species in natural field by locality.
Oa: Oreochromis andersonii; Oau: O. aureus; Oe: O. esculentus; Ol: O. lidole;
Oma: O. macrochir; Omo: O. mossambicus; On: O. niloticus; Osa: O. saka; Osh: O. shiranus;
Ov: O. variabilis; Sg: Sarotherodon galileus; Tr: Tilapia rendalli; Tz: T. zillii.
40 1: Incomati, Limpopo 1: Lake Itasy
1
2: Dam of Doordraai 2: Kafue
35 2
3: Dam of Dam 3: Lake Aloatra
30 4: Lake Sibaya 3
1
25 4
2 5 1
3 2
20 6
3
4 1: Lake Albert
Standard length (cm)
15
2: Lake Itasy
10 3: Lake Chad
4: Lake Montasoa
5 5: Lake Mariout
A B 6: Lake Aloatra C
0
35
1: Lake Victoria 1: Lake Chad 1978
30 2: Lake Chad 2: Lake Chad 1980
3: Lake Mariout 1
3: Niger 2
2
25 1 4: Lake Mariout 1 2 3
4 3
20 3 5 4
6
1: Kafue
15
2: Lake Montasoa
10 3: Lake Itasy
4: Lake Liambezi
5 5: Lake Kariba
D 6: Lake Alaotra E F
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Age (years)
Figure 179. Comparison of growth rate for different species in natural field by species.
A: Oreochromis mossambicus; B: O. niloticus; C: O. macrochir;
D: Tilapia rendalli; E: T. zillii; F: Sarotherodon galileus.
80 30
70 E
Hatching and relative fecundity (%)
T°
Rainfall (cm) and Temperature (°C)
60
20
50
40
30
P
10
20
10 FR
0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Mois
Figure 180. Relative Fecundity (% of total weight), % of hatching (% total eggs) of Clarias
gariepinus, monthly average rainfall and average temperature. Brazzaville.
B
A
C
E
D
Figure 181. Courtship in Clarias gariepinus. A: The male (in gray) approach the female;
B and C: The male surrounded the head of the female and keep it firmly;
D: The sperm and egg cells are released into the environment and the females scatters them
by movements of tail; E: The couple rests.
1 mm
48 h
Hatching
1 mm
6 j
1 mm
12 h
1 mm
9 - 12 j
1 mm
1 mm 24 h
J3 rc J4 rc J4
J3
rd ea
J6 ea
J5 aa
J5 rd
bp J6
ra
bpe
J7 bp
J8
J7
bpe
J8
ra
5 mm
J10
J10
5 mm
J14 J14
J17 J17
A B
Figure 183. Several stages of larval development until 17 days.
A: Clarias gariepinus; B: Heterobranchus longifilis.
aa: adipose fin start; bp: burgeon of the pectoral; bpe: burgeon of the pelvic;
ea: start of the anal rays; ed: start of the dorsal rays;
ra: anal rays; rc: caudal rays; rd: dorsal rays; v: vesicles.
140 800
Ln
130 Hl
700
120
Standard or total length (cm)
110 Cg
600
100
Hl
Body weitgh (g)
90 500
80
70 400 Cg
Cs Cg
60
300
50
40
200
30
20 100
10 50
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 10 28 56 84 112 140 168 196 224 254
Age (years) Days
■■ CHRYSICHTHYS MAURUS
In wild, C. maurus has a relatively slow growth, it reaches approximately 12 cm (more or less
25 g) in one year. When it is rise in pond with a density of 3 fish per m2 and feed with an artificial food
to 33% of proteins, C. maurus passes from 11 g to 200 g in 12 months.
C. maurus can reproduce from 10 months age. The size of small mature individuals is from 9 to
11 cm in the rivers of Côte d’Ivoire.
In wild, the reproduction of C. maurus is seasonal. Ovocytes of small diameter (100 - 150 µm)
can be observed at the beginning of the great rainy season (either in April - May). The arrival of conti-
nental freshwater and the fall of the temperature of water (passing then to 26 - 29°C) seem to have
an influence on the beginning of the process of reproduction of this species. The activity of spawning
begins in June and is spread until November - December. During the dry season, as from January,
the couples still in reproduction are rare. For the mating and the deposit of eggs, this species seeks
crevices (rocks, deadwood, bamboos…). The parents generally remain in the nest with alevins until
the resorbtion of their vitelline vesicle. The sexual dimorphism is very marked: the mature male is
recognized by a broader head and the female by a plumpness of the abdomen and a bulge of the
urogenital papilla. Relative fecundity is about 15 to 20 ovocytes per g of weight of female. The same
female produces only one clutch each year.
C
Photo X. Claroteidae. A: Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus [© Planet Catfish];
B: C. maurus [© Teigler - Fishbase];
Auchenoglanididae. C: Auchenoglanis occidentalis [© Planet Catfish].
10
Standard length (cm)
60
50
50
40
40 4 1: Delta of Nil
2: Niger
30 3: Chari
30 4: Nil at Khartoum
5: Lake Chad, south
20 6: Lake Chad, north
20
1: Nyong 7: Lake Kyoga
2: Niger 8: Lake Turkana
10 10
3: Upper Niger 9: Lake Albert
10: Lake Nasser
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
A Age (years) B Age (years)
Figure 185. Growth of Heterotis niloticus (A) and of Lates niloticus (B).
with small basins measuring approximately 1.2 m in diameter, the center slightly excavated located
at approximately 30 cm of depth. The bottom is naked and is generally well flattened. The compact
edges are 20 cm thickness at the top and are slightly above water. It are built with the stems of the
plants which were removed from the center of the nest. The parents remain near the nest when the
eggs are laid.
The eggs are rather small (2.5 mms diameter) and orange. They hatch approximately two days
after the spawning. The larvae have long branchial filaments, red dark, which are prolonged outside
the opercle. They quickly form a swarm of approximately 30 cm in diameter occupying the center of
the nest. The 5th or the 6th day, the alevins leave the nest, always in dense swarm, and under the
protection of the parents.
The juveniles of Heterotis niloticus live in swarm, then in groups whose the number decrease
progressively with the growth.
99 It is a microphage - planktivorous but with omnivorous tendency.
ÖÖ The African species are numerous and many may be used in fish farming. However,
in the context of livelihoods, will be chosen:
ÖÖ A tilapia for the main production; with
ÖÖ A piscivorous species.
ÖÖ We may also use other species in the pond as an omnivorous species and / or her-
bivore species.
ÖÖ The choice of species will depend on the geographic location of ponds (ichthyore-
gions).
To complete the chapter 03 p. 21, the reader will found here informations on:
Table XLVII. The genera and species of tilapias recorded by countries in Africa.
The user on the field, therefore, by cross, know in each ichtyoregion he is and which species of
tilapia is present in its area of intervention.
Algeria 3 10 16 23
Cape Verde 1 1 1
Comoros 12 23 28
Djibouti 1 5 5 5
Erythrea 2 8 9 10
Lesotho 37 63.4 1 5 11 15
Libya 3 4 5 8
Mauritius 20 41 59
Mayotte (France) 7 12 13
Reunion La (France) 19 34 50
Western Sahara 1 6 7 7
Saint-Helena 0 0 0
Seychelles 18 26 33
Swaziland 70 21.4 1 10 18 35
Surface
N° Ichtyoregion Drainage basins Families Genera Species
area (km2)
A Angolese 520 000 131 34 78 184
B Lower Guinea 622 000 116 56 176 511
C Cap 232 000 158 27 49 78
D Congolese 3 453 000 3 66 228 983
E Upper Guinea 261 000 116 43 105 286
F Karroid 1 087 000 77 32 64 107
G Maghreb 1 588 000 438 22 40 60
H Madagascar 596 000 364 24 39 52
I Nilo-soudanian 9 668 000 74 70 218 653
Nilo-soudanian
J 425 000 108 57 148 320
(Eburneo-ghanean)
K Oriental 1 905 000 249 41 88 214
L Sherbro Island 1 900 24 7 7 9
M Zambezis 2 949 000 115 46 27 303
N Zanzibar Island 23 000 1 4 6 12
O Non defined 1 (Red sea) 61 000 48 15 34 46
P Non defined 2 (Abyssinia) 956 000 425 31 72 99
Q Non defined 3 (Namibia 1) 176 000 33 1 1 1
R Non defined 4 (Namibia 2) 71 000 23 0 0 0
S Non defined 5 (Sahara) 4 462 000 58 8 10 13
a Lake Amaramba 3 100 1 7 10 17
b Lake Chilwa / Lago Chiuta 9 800 1 10 23 39
c Lake Edward / Édouard 24 000 1 12 24 62
d Lake Georges 25 000 1 10 20 50
e Lake Kivu 7 300 1 7 12 38
f Lake Malombe 2 000 1 8 31 48
g Lake Naivasha 3 500 1 3 3 3
h Lake Natron 22 000 1 2 3 9
i Lake Nyasa / Malawi 128 000 1 13 88 375
j Lake Ruhondo 1 700 2 4 5 8
k Lake Rukwa 75 000 1 14 27 60
l Lake Tanganyika 233 000 1 25 112 371
m Lake Victoria 309 000 2 16 45 205
O
S
Red sea
I
P
E
J
L N
c d
K
B j m g Indian ocean
e h
D
l
k
A i
a
f b
Atlantic ocean M
Q H
R
F
Figure 186. The ichthyoregions (limits in yellow-green) and the countries (limits in red)
(Faunafri).
Number ichthyoregion
Ichthyoregions
(Eburneo-ghanean)
Nilo-Soudanian
Zanzibar Island
Nilo-soudanian
Sherbro Island
Upper Guinea
Lower Guinea
Madagascar
Congolese
Zambesis
Angolese
Maghreb
Oriental
Karroid
Country
Cap
South Africa 3 1 1 1
Algeria 3 1 1
Angola 3 1 1 1
Benin 1 1
Botswana 2 1 1
Burkina Faso 2 1 1
Burundi 2
Cameroon 3 1 1 1
Central Africa 2 1 1
Congo 2 1 1
Congo DR / Zaïre 6 1 1 1
Côte d’Ivoire 2 1 1
Djibouti 1
Egypt 4 1
Erythrea 2 1
Ethiopia 3 1 1
Gabon 1 1
Gambia 1 1
Ghana 2 1 1
Guinea 3 1 1 1
Equatoriale Guinea 2 1 1
Guinea-Bissau 1 1
Kenya 6 1 1 1
Lesotho 1 1
Liberia 2 1 1
Libya 3 1 1
Madagascar 1 1
Malawi 5 1
Mali 3 1 1
Morocco 2 1
Mauritania 3 1 1
Mozambique 5 1 1
Namibia 5 1 1 1
Niger 2 1
Nigeria 1 1
Uganda 5 1
Rwanda 3
Western Sahara 1 1
Senegal 2 1 1
Sierra Leone 1 1
Somalia 2 1
Sudan 3 1
Swaziland 1 1
Tanzania 6 1
Chad 2 1
Togo 1 1
Tunisia 2 1
Zambia 4 1 1
Zimbabwe 1 1
Number of country 48 2 5 1 6 5 4 6 2 23 6 5 1 9 1
Lake Edward/Édouard
Ichthyoregions
Lake Malawi/Nyasa
Lake Tanganyika
Lake Amaramba
Lake Malombe
Lake Naivasha
Lake Ruhondo
Lake Georges
Lake Victoria
Lake Rukwa
Lake Natron
Lake Kivu
Country
South Africa
Algeria 1
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi 1 1
Cameroon
Central Africa
Congo
Congo DR / Zaïre 1 1 1
Côte d’Ivoire
Djibouti 1
Egypt 1 1 1
Erythrea 1
Ethiopia 1
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Equatoriale Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Kenya 1 1 1
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya 1
Madagascar
Malawi 1 1 1 1
Mali 1
Morocco 1
Mauritania 1
Mozambique 1 1 1
Namibia 1 1
Niger 1
Nigeria
Uganda 1 1 1 1
Rwanda 1 1 1
Western Sahara
Senegal
Sierra Leone
Somalia 1
Sudan 1 1
Swaziland
Tanzania 1 1 1 1 1
Chad 1
Togo
Tunisia 1
Zambia 1 1
Zimbabwe
Number of country 1 6 1 1 10 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 3 2 2 4 5
Number of country
Equatoriale Guinea
Congo DR / Zaïre
Guinea-Bissau
Central Africa
Country
Total Length
Burkina Faso
Côte d’Ivoire
South Africa
Cameroon
Botswana
Species
Erythrea
Ethiopia
Lesotho
Burundi
Gambia
Djibouti
Guinea
Angola
Algeria
Gabon
Congo
Ghana
Kenya
Egypt
Benin
Number of species 106 48 7 2 13 7 8 3 6 30 3 11 27 18 0 8 2 10 10 7 11 12 3 10 22 1
Oreochromis amphimelas 31 1
Oreochromis andersonii 61 10 N N N I I
Oreochromis angolensis 23 1 E
Oreochromis aureus 46 11 I N I N
Oreochromis chungruruensis 23 1
Oreochromis esculentus 50 4 N
Oreochromis hunteri 34 2 N
Oreochromis ismailiaensis - 1 E
Oreochromis jipe 54 2 N
Oreochromis karomo 30 2
Oreochromis karongae 34 3
Oreochromis korogwe 31 2 N
Oreochromis lepidurus 19 2 N N
Oreochromis leucostictus 32 6 I N I
Oreochromis lidole 38 3
Oreochromis macrochir 40 25 I N I N I I I I I ? I I I I I
Oreochromis malagarasi 30 1
Oreochromis mortimeri 48 4 I ?
Oreochromis mossambicus 39 21 N I I I N I I I I I N
Oreochromis mweruensis 27 3 N
Oreochromis niloticus baringoensis 36 1 E
Oreochromis niloticus cancellatus 28 1 E
Oreochromis niloticus eduardianus 49 7 N N I
Oreochromis niloticus filoa 15 1 E
Oreochromis niloticus niloticus 64 34 I I N I N I I I N N I ? I N N N I
Oreochromis niloticus sugutae 20 1 E
Oreochromis niloticus tana 35 1 E
Oreochromis niloticus vulcani 28 2 N N
Oreochromis pangani girigan 33 1 E
Oreochromis pangani pangani 34 1
Oreochromis placidus placidus 36 4 N
Oreochromis placidus ruvumae 27 2
Oreochromis rukwaensis 36 1
Oreochromis saka 40 3
Oreochromis salinicola 10 1 E
Oreochromis schwebischi 33 4 N N N N
Oreochromis shiranus chilwae 20 2
Oreochromis shiranus shiranus 42 4
Oreochromis spilurus niger 35 4 N N
Oreochromis spilurus percevali 16 1 E
Oreochromis spilurus spilurus 19 6 I N N
Oreochromis squamipinnis 33 3
Oreochromis tanganicae 45 4 N N
Oreochromis upembae 23 2 N
Oreochromis urolepis hornorum 27 3 I
Oreochromis urolepis urolepis 48 1
Oreochromis variabilis 33 3 N
Number of country
Country
Total Length
Mozambique
Sierra Leone
Madagascar
Zimbabwe
Mauritania
Swaziland
Morocco
Species
Tanzania
Namibia
Rwanda
Senegal
Somalie
Uganda
Zambia
Malawi
Nigeria
Tunisia
Liberia
Sudan
Libya
Chad
Niger
Togo
Mali
Number of species 106 48 17 0 8 10 5 2 7 14 7 6 8 10 7 12 11 1 4 3 31 7 7 3 14 9
Oreochromis amphimelas 31 1 E
Oreochromis andersonii 61 10 N N I N N
Oreochromis angolensis 23 1
Oreochromis aureus 46 11 I N N N N N I
Oreochromis chungruruensis 23 1 E
Oreochromis esculentus 50 4 N I N
Oreochromis hunteri 34 2 N
Oreochromis ismailiaensis - 1
Oreochromis jipe 54 2 N
Oreochromis karomo 30 2 N N
Oreochromis karongae 34 3 N N N
Oreochromis korogwe 31 2 N
Oreochromis lepidurus 19 2
Oreochromis leucostictus 32 6 N I I
Oreochromis lidole 38 3 N N N
Oreochromis macrochir 40 25 I I ? N I I I I N N
Oreochromis malagarasi 30 1 E
Oreochromis mortimeri 48 4 N N
Oreochromis mossambicus 39 21 I N N I I ? N I I N
Oreochromis mweruensis 27 3 N N
Oreochromis niloticus baringoensis 36 1
Oreochromis niloticus cancellatus 28 1
Oreochromis niloticus eduardianus 49 7 N N I N
Oreochromis niloticus filoa 15 1
Oreochromis niloticus niloticus 64 34 N I N ? N N N I N N N I N N I I I
Oreochromis niloticus sugutae 20 1
Oreochromis niloticus tana 35 1
Oreochromis niloticus vulcani 28 2
Oreochromis pangani girigan 33 1
Oreochromis pangani pangani 34 1 E
Oreochromis placidus placidus 36 4 N N N
Oreochromis placidus ruvumae 27 2 N N
Oreochromis rukwaensis 36 1 E
Oreochromis saka 40 3 N N N
Oreochromis salinicola 10 1
Oreochromis schwebischi 33 4
Oreochromis shiranus chilwae 20 2 N N
Oreochromis shiranus shiranus 42 4 I N N N
Oreochromis spilurus niger 35 4 I I
Oreochromis spilurus percevali 16 1
Oreochromis spilurus spilurus 19 6 I N N
Oreochromis squamipinnis 33 3 N N N
Oreochromis tanganicae 45 4 N N
Oreochromis upembae 23 2 N
Oreochromis urolepis hornorum 27 3 N N
Oreochromis urolepis urolepis 48 1 E
Oreochromis variabilis 33 3 N N
Number of country
Equatoriale Guinea
Congo DR / Zaïre
Guinea-Bissau
Central Africa
Country
Total Length
Burkina Faso
Côte d’Ivoire
South Africa
Cameroon
Botswana
Species
Erythrea
Ethiopia
Lesotho
Burundi
Gambia
Djibouti
Guinea
Angola
Algeria
Gabon
Congo
Ghana
Kenya
Egypt
Benin
Number of species 106 48 7 2 13 7 8 3 6 30 3 11 27 18 0 8 2 10 10 7 11 12 3 10 22 1
Tilapia bakossiorum 9 1 E
Tilapia baloni 18 2 N
Tilapia bemini 9 1 E
Tilapia bilineata 18 1 E
Tilapia brevimanus 27 6 N N N N
Tilapia busumana 21 2 N N
Tilapia buttikoferi 41 4 N N
Tilapia bythobates 16 1 E
Tilapia cabrae 37 4 N N N N
Tilapia cameronensis 14 1 E
Tilapia cessiana 24 2 N
Tilapia coffea 19 1
Tilapia congica 25 1 E
Tilapia dageti 40 10 N N N N
Tilapia deckerti 20 1 E
Tilapia discolor 23 2 N N
Tilapia flava 12 1 E
Tilapia guinasana 14 2 I
Tilapia guineensis 35 17 N N N N N N N N N N N
Tilapia gutturosa 9 1 E
Tilapia imbriferna 15 1 E
Tilapia ismailiaensis ? 1 E
Tilapia jallae 8 1
Tilapia joka 11 2
Tilapia kottae 15 1 E
Tilapia louka 25 4 N N
Tilapia margaritacea 18 1 E
Tilapia mariae 40 5 N N N N
Tilapia nyongana 21 2 N N
Tilapia rendalli 45 24 N N N I N N N I N I
Tilapia rheophila 10 1 E
Tilapia ruweti 11 6 N N N
Tilapia snyderae 5 1 E
Tilapia sparrmanii 24 10 N N N
Tilapia spongotroktis 15 1 E
Tilapia tholloni 22 4 N N N N
Tilapia thysi 9 1 E
Tilapia walteri 27 2 N
Tilapia zillii 27 28 N N N N N N I I N N N N N
Number of country
Country
Total Length
Mozambique
Sierra Leone
Madagascar
Zimbabwe
Mauritania
Swaziland
Morocco
Species
Tanzania
Namibia
Rwanda
Senegal
Somalie
Uganda
Zambia
Malawi
Nigeria
Tunisia
Liberia
Sudan
Libya
Chad
Niger
Togo
Mali
Number of species 106 24 17 0 8 10 5 2 7 14 7 6 8 10 7 12 11 1 4 3 31 7 7 3 14 9
Tilapia bakossiorum 9 0
Tilapia baloni 18 1 N
Tilapia bemini 9 0
Tilapia bilineata 18 0
Tilapia brevimanus 27 2 N N
Tilapia busumana 21 0
Tilapia buttikoferi 41 2 N N
Tilapia bythobates 16 0
Tilapia cabrae 37 0
Tilapia cameronensis 14 0
Tilapia cessiana 24 1 N
Tilapia coffea 19 1 E
Tilapia congica 25 0
Tilapia dageti 40 6 N N N N N N
Tilapia deckerti 20 0
Tilapia discolor 23 0
Tilapia flava 12 0
Tilapia guinasana 14 1 N
Tilapia guineensis 35 6 N ? N N N N
Tilapia gutturosa 9 0
Tilapia imbriferna 15 0
Tilapia ismailiaensis ? 0
Tilapia jallae 8 1 E
Tilapia joka 11 2 N N
Tilapia kottae 15 0
Tilapia louka 25 2 N N
Tilapia margaritacea 18 0
Tilapia mariae 40 1 N
Tilapia nyongana 21 0
Tilapia rendalli 45 14 I N ? N N N I I N N N N N N
Tilapia rheophila 10 0
Tilapia ruweti 11 3 N N N
Tilapia snyderae 5 0
Tilapia sparrmanii 24 7 I N N N N N N
Tilapia spongotroktis 15 0
Tilapia tholloni 22 0
Tilapia thysi 9 0
Tilapia walteri 27 1 N
Tilapia zillii 27 15 N I N N N N N N N N N I N N N
Number of country
Equatoriale Guinea
Congo DR / Zaïre
Guinea-Bissau
Central Africa
Country
Total Length
Burkina Faso
Côte d’Ivoire
South Africa
Cameroon
Botswana
Species
Erythrea
Ethiopia
Lesotho
Burundi
Gambia
Djibouti
Guinea
Angola
Algeria
Gabon
Congo
Ghana
Kenya
Egypt
Benin
Number of species 106 48 7 2 13 7 8 3 6 30 3 11 27 18 0 8 2 10 10 7 11 12 3 10 22 1
Sarotherodon caroli 22 1 E
Sarotherodon caudomarginatus 20 4 N N
Sarotherodon galilaeus galilaeus 41 20 N N N N N N N N N N N
Sarotherodon galilaeus multifasciatus 17 2 N N
Sarotherodon galileus borkuanus 16 1
Sarotherodon galileus boulengeri 20 1 E
Sarotherodon galileus sanagaensis 16 2 N E
Sarotherodon linnellii 21 1 E
Sarotherodon lohbergeri 14 1 E
Sarotherodon melanotheron heudelotii 26 5 N N N
Sarotherodon melanotheron leonensis 20 2
Sarotherodon melanotheron melanotheron 26 14 N N N N N N N N
Sarotherodon melanotheron paludinosus 15 1
Sarotherodon mvogoi 24 3 N N N
Sarotherodon nigripinnis dolloi 22 3 N N N
Sarotherodon nigripinnis nigripinnis 20 4 N N N N
Sarotherodon occidentalis 31 5 N N
Sarotherodon steinbachi 15 1 E
Sarotherodon tournieri liberiensis 20 1
Sarotherodon tournieri tournieri 13 2 N
Alcolapia alcalicus 10 2 N
Alcolapia grahami 20 2 N
Alcolapia latilabris 9 1
Alcolapia ndalalani 8 1
Danakilia franchettii 10 1 E
Konia dikume 14 1 E
Konia eisentrauti 10 1 E
Myaka myaka 9 1 E
Pungu maclareni 14 1 E
Stomatepia mariae 15 1 E
Stomatepia mongo 14 1 E
Stomatepia pindu 13 1 E
Genera
Oreochromis 43 5 2 6 2 4 2 5 3 2 4 14 5 5 1 7 3 1 2 1 19 1
Tilapia 43 2 6 3 4 1 1 19 1 3 8 9 2 1 2 5 3 6 6 2 5 2
Sarotherodon 26 1 2 8 4 5 4 1 1 2 3 3 5 1 5 1
Alcolapia 2 2
Danakilia 1 1
Konia 1 2
Myaka 1 1
Pungu 1 1
Stomatepia 1 3
Number of country
Country
Total Length
Mozambique
Sierra Leone
Madagascar
Zimbabwe
Mauritania
Swaziland
Morocco
Species
Tanzania
Namibia
Rwanda
Senegal
Somalie
Uganda
Zambia
Malawi
Nigeria
Tunisia
Liberia
Sudan
Libya
Chad
Niger
Togo
Mali
Number of species 106 24 17 0 8 10 5 2 7 14 7 6 8 10 7 12 11 1 4 3 31 7 7 3 14 9
Sarotherodon caroli 22 0
Sarotherodon caudomarginatus 20 2 N N
Sarotherodon galilaeus galilaeus 41 9 N N N N N N N N N
Sarotherodon galilaeus multifasciatus 17 0
Sarotherodon galileus borkuanus 16 1 E
Sarotherodon galileus boulengeri 20 0
Sarotherodon galileus sanagaensis 16 0
Sarotherodon linnellii 21 0
Sarotherodon lohbergeri 14 0
Sarotherodon melanotheron heudelotii 26 2 N N
Sarotherodon melanotheron leonensis 20 2 N N
Sarotherodon melanotheron melanotheron 26 6 N N N N N N
Sarotherodon melanotheron paludinosus 15 1 E
Sarotherodon mvogoi 24 0
Sarotherodon nigripinnis dolloi 22 0
Sarotherodon nigripinnis nigripinnis 20 0
Sarotherodon occidentalis 31 3 N N N
Sarotherodon steinbachi 15 0
Sarotherodon tournieri liberiensis 20 1 E
Sarotherodon tournieri tournieri 13 1 N
Alcolapia alcalicus 10 1 N
Alcolapia grahami 20 1 N
Alcolapia latilabris 9 1 E
Alcolapia ndalalani 8 1 E
Danakilia franchettii 10 0
Konia dikume 14 0
Konia eisentrauti 10 0
Myaka myaka 9 0
Pungu maclareni 14 0
Stomatepia mariae 15 0
Stomatepia mongo 14 0
Stomatepia pindu 13 0
Genera
Oreochromis 43 9 3 2 2 1 3 2 4 3 4 2 1 4 6 1 2 3 3 3 1 4 3
Tilapia 43 6 1 1 3 1 2 5 4 1 2 2
Sarotherodon 26 4
Alcolapia 2
Danakilia 1
Konia 1
Myaka 1
Pungu 1
Stomatepia 1
Are presented here by files, different species more or less commonly in aquaculture. The reader
will find the scientific Synonyms, common names french and english, size and maximum weight
known in the literature, as well as distribution maps and elements of the biology of these species.
© K. Winnemiller
Max. size: 61 cm TL
Distribution: Know from Ngami basin, Okavango River; Cunene River and Mossamedes, Angola;
upper Zambezi, Kafue River; middle Zambezi, Lake Kariba.
© Fishbase
Distribution: The natural distribution of this species include the Jordan Valley, Lower Nile, Chad
Basin, Benue, middle and upper Niger, Senegal River.
© Fishbase
Max. size: 50 cm LS
Distribution: Known from Lake Victoria, Lake Nabugabo, Lakes Kyoga and Kwania, and the Vic-
toria Nile above the Murchison Falls; the Malawa River (Uganda) and Lake Gangu, west of Lake
Victoria. This species, which was originally endemic to Lake Victoria, is widely distributed in dams.
© Luc De Vos
Max. weight:
Distribution: Known from Kafue, upper Zambezi, and Congo River systems; introduced elsewhere
in Africa and in Hawaiian Islands. Also in the Okavango and Ngami region, Cunene basin, Cham-
bezi and Bangweulu region.
© A. Lamboj
Max. size: 39 cm SL
Distribution: The natural distribution is of Lower Zambezi, Lower Shire and coastal plains from
Zambezi delta to Algoa Bay. Occurs southwards to the Brak River in the eastern Cape and in the
Transvaal in the Limpopo system. Widely introduced for aquaculture.
© Y. Fermon
8 sub-species of Oreochromis
niloticus are recorded:
O. n. baringoensis, O. n. cancel-
latus, O. n. eduardianus, O. n.
filoa, O. n. niloticus, O. n. sugu-
tae, O. n. tana, O. n. vulcani.
Distribution: O. n. niloticus: coastal rivers of Israel; Nile from below Albert Nile to the delta; Jebel
Marra; basins of the Niger, Benue, Volta, Gambia, Senegal and Chad. - O. n. baringoensis: en-
demic to Lake Baringo, Kenya. O. n. cancellatus: Lakes of the Ethiopian Rift Valley, Lake Beseka
and the Awash system. O. n. edouardianus: Albert Nile; Lakes Albert, Edward, George, Kivu; River
Ruzizi and Lake Tanganyika. Introduced in Lake Victoria. O. n. filoa: Awash system. O. n. sugutae:
river Suguta in Kenya. O. n. tana: Lake Tana. O. n. vulcani: Lake Turkana (Rudolf) and arround.
© Fishbase
Max. size: 39 cm SL
Max. weight:
2 sub-species of Oreochromis
shiranus are recorded:
O. s. shiranus, O. s. chilwae
Distribution: O. s. shiranus: Shire River above the Murchison rapids and its tributaries; Lake Ma-
lawi and its tributary rivers, streams and lagoons; upper Shire.
O. s. chilwae: Lake Chilwa and its basin in Malawi and Mozambique.
© Fishbase
Max. size: 41 cm TL – 34 SL
5 sub-species of Sarotherodon
galileus are recorded:
S. g. borkuanus, S. g. boulengeri,
S. g. galileus, S. g. multifasciatus,
S. g. sanagaensis.
Distribution: S. g. borkuanus: Saharian oases Borku, Ennedi and Tibesti in northern Chad. S. g. boulengeri:
Lower Congo from Malebo (Stanley) Pool to Matadi. S. g. galileus: Jordan system, especially in lakes; coastal
rivers of Israel; Nile system, including the delta lakes and Lake Albert and Turkana; central Congo basin, Uban-
ghi and Uele Rivers; in West Africa in the Senegal, Gambia, Casamance, Géba, Konkouré, Niger, Volta, Mono,
Ouémé, Ogun, Cross, Benue, Logone, Shari and Lake Chad. S. g. multifasciatus: Côte d’Ivoire (Sassandra,
Bandama, and Comoé Rivers) to western Ghana (Tano River and Lake Bosumtwi). S. g. sanagaensis: known only
from the Sanaga River system, Cameroon.
© Y. Fermon
Max. size: 31 cm TL
Max. weight:
3 sub-species of Sarotherodon
melanotheron are recorded:
S. m. heudelotii, S. m. melano-
theron, S. m. leonensis.
Distribution: S. m. heudelotii: Lagoons and estuaries from Mauritania to Sierra Leone.
S. m. melanotheron: Lagoons and estuaries from Côte d’Ivoire to Cameroon.
S. m. leonensis: brackish areas and freshwaters near the coast of Sierra Leone and western Libe-
ria. Sometimes found in sea.
© A. Lamboj
Max. weight:
Distribution: Known from coastal waters from mouth of Senegal River to mouth of the Cuanza
River (Angola), sometimes ascending far up rivers.
© Fishbase
Distribution: Known from coastal lagoons and lower river courses from the Tabou River (Côte
d’Ivoire) to the Kribi River (Cameroon), but absent from the area between the Pra River (Ghana)
and Benin.
© Fishbase © Fishbase
Max. size: 45 cm TL
Distribution: Know from Senegal and Niger River, Congo River system, Zambezi River system,
Lake Tanganyika and Malagarazi. Also known from Shaba, upper Kasaï, Lualaba system, Lake
Malawi, Natal, Okavango and Cunene. Introduced elsewhere.
© A. Lamboj
Max. size: 49 cm TL - 21 SL
Max. weight:
Distribution: Found is South Morocco, Sahara, Niger-Benue system, rivers Senegal, Sassandra,
Bandama, Boubo, Mé, Comoé, Bia, Ogun and Oshun, Volta system, Chad-Shari system, Ubangi-
Uele-Ituri Rivers (Democratic Republic of the Congo), Lakes Mobutu and Turkana, Nile system and
the Jordan system. Introduced in several countries.
© A. Lamboj
Distribution: H. fasciatus (in blue on the map). Found from the Nile basin to the East and in Central
regions as Lake Chad. Widely distributed from Senegal to Congo.
H. elongatus (in red on the map). Found from Sierra Leone to Okavango and Zambezi basins.
© K. Winnemiller
Max. size: 41 SL
Distribution: Cunene River system, Okavango River, upper Zambezi, and Kafue Rivers, and Lua-
pula-Moeru.
© K. Winnemiller
Max. size: 56 TL
2 sub-species of Serranochro-
mis robustus are recorded:
S. r. robustus, S. r. jallae.
Distribution: S. r. robustus: Found in Lake Malawi and the upper Shire River. Reported from
Luongo River, Congo system, Zambia. Translocated to the upper Ruo River in Malawi and also to
Swaziland.
S. r. jallae: Found in Cunene River, Okovango River, upper Zambezi River, Kafue River, middle Zam-
bezi River including the Luangwa River; Luapula-Moero, Lualaba and Kasai (Congo River system).
Translocated to localities in Zimbabwe, to the Limpopo River and Natal, South Africa.
English name: North African catfish French name: Silure, poisson-chat nord africain
© Y. Fermon
Max. weight: 60 kg
Distribution: Almost Pan-Africa, absent from Maghreb, the upper and lower Guinea and the Cape
province and probably also Nogal province. Asia: Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, Syria and southern
Turkey. Widely introduced to other parts of Africa, Europe and Asia. Several countries report ad-
verse ecological impact after introduction.
© Y. Fermon
Max. weight: 55 kg
Distribution: Found from Nile, Niger, Senegal, Congo system, upper and middle Zambezi. Also
from Lakes Tanganyika and Edward, Gambia and Benue River, Chad and Volta basins, and the
coastal basins of Guinea to Nigeria.
English name: African bonytongue, Heterotis French name: Poissons sans nom, Heterotis
© www.arowana.de
Distribution: In the case of this species, a distinction must be made between the present area of occurrence
resulting from man-made introductions, and its original, natural geographical distribution area. It is generally
accepted that the first introductions were made in the early fifties of this century. Original (natural) distribution:
all water-basins of the Nilo-Sudanese region: rivers Corubal, Senegal, Gambia, Volta, Niger (as well as Benue),
Chad, Nile, Omo and lake Turkana. Areas of successful introduction: artificial reservoirs of Côte d’Ivoire (Banda-
ma and Bia basins), rivers Cross, Sanaga, Nyong, Ogowe, Lower and Middle Congo (the species was apparently
unable to overcome the Kisangani falls), Ubangui and Kasaï. Attempts to implant the species in Madagascar
have generally been fruitless, although it may occur in certain river basins along the eastern coast of the island.
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