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HollyZilke ProfessorMcLeod ENG495Capstone 30November2012 TheoryandPractice: OntheFrontlinesofESLEducation In2009,2.6millionschoolagedchildrenintheUnitedStateswerereportedasspeaking EnglishwithdifficultyaccordingtotheUSDepartmentofEducation.ManyoftheselimitedinEnglish proficiency(LEP)studentsareenrolledintheUSpublicschoolsystem,wheredistrictsandteachersare strugglingtoaccommodateandadequatelyservethesediversepopulations.LegislationsuchasTitleIII, whichoffersmorefundingforstudentswhodonotspeakEnglishwell,helpstoprovideresourcesfor Englishlanguagelearners(ELLs),butreliesonstandardizedtestsasameasureofsuccessanddoes nothingtoalleviatethepressureteachersfacetointegrateELLsandthelackofsupportandappropriate resources.Thoughtheseissueswithlanguagelearninginthesecondaryclassroomareonlybecoming moreprevalent,thereremainsalackofESLspecifictrainingforpreserviceteacherscurrentlyenrolled inpostsecondaryteachertraining.EventeachingstudentswhoaretrainedinESLtheorymayfindthe realworldclassroomtopresentobstacleswhichlaybeyondthemethodsandtheoriesmostcommonly taught. InmyexperienceasastudentinuniversitycoursesforfutureteachersofEnglishasasecond language(ESL)aswellasintheclassroomteachingEnglishtospeakersofotherlanguages(ESOL), thereareresourceswhichIhavefoundparticularlyuseful.Arichwealthofresearchregardinglanguage acquisitionexistshowever,thereisadisparitybetweentheinformationandtheoriespresentedandwhat

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ateacherstudyingESLteachingmayfindwhenheorsheentersaclassroom.Mygoal,inwritingthis thesis,istohelptobridgethatgapbetweenmethodandpractice.IwilldiscussthreeESLclassroom environmentswhichIhavehadexperiencein,andthenexaminethemthroughthelensofthetheoretical aspectswhichareoftenencounteredinamoretraditionalclassroomsetting.TheformatIwillbeusing mimicsthatfoundinthebook,PaceYourself:AHandbookforESLTutorsbyDalleandYoung, whichwaspublishedbyTESOLInc.ThishandbookfirstoutlinesthreecasestudiesofdifferentESL teachingcontexts.Then,throughoutthebook,stepsforsuccessfultutoringareoutlinedandappliedto eachofthecasestudiespresented.IwillusemyownexperiencesinverydiverseESLclassroom settingsinordertoexaminetheorypresentedinliteratureonteachingESLandwhatisoften encounteredinanaverageclassroom. AnIntroductiontotheIssueofESLEducationintheUS TheUnitedStateshas,sincethe1500s,beenalandofimmigrationandassimilation(Gonzalez, Yawkey,andMinayaRowe,21).Beginningwithcolonization,Britainsinfluenceinsettlementand controlofthenewcoloniesestablishedEnglishasthelanguageusedbyinfluentialfiguresingovernment. Theuseofalanguagebythoseinpowerallowsthatlanguagetobecomeavaluableasset.Theprinting ofimportanthistoricaldocumentsinEnglishonlyservedtocementthelanguageasoneofstatusand prestigeintheNewWorld.ThecommandoftheEnglishlanguagecouldearnitsuserhigherprivilege andrespect,aswellassocialstatus.Tothisday,Englishisgivenpreferenceoveranyotherlanguagein theUS,aswellasmanyothercountries(Phillipson,58).ThisisillustratedintheuseofEnglishfor applications,ballots,governmentissuedtestsandlegaldocuments.AlthoughtheUnitedStateshasno officiallanguage,itsclearthatEnglishhasunofficiallytakenonthatrole. SomeofthosewhoresettleintheUScomealreadypossessingthebenefitoffluencyand

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literacyintheEnglishlanguage,whilemanyothersspeakonlythelanguagemostcommonintheirplaces oforigin.Withimmigrationcomesthechancefornewbeginningsandthehopeforavailabilityofbetter opportunities.However,alackofproficiencyinthelanguageofpowerinthenewcountrycanput immigrantsatadistinctdisadvantageandleadtoprejudice,discriminationandapotentialemployer biases.JimCummins,aleaderinthefieldoflinguistics,explains,Formostimmigrantsthereisinstant powerlessness,immediatedisparityofstatus,theexpectationofbeingsubordinateandinferiorto longertermresidents.(Cummins,2).Muchofthisstratificationcanbeattributeddirectlytofactors suchaslanguage,whichmayseemaninsurmountableobstaclefornewresidentsworkingtoadapttoa newplace,wayoflife,andculture.NewresidentsfromnonEnglishspeakingcountriesoftenfacegreat pressuretoassimilatetothenewculture,especiallychildreninthemainstreamclassroom,wherebeing differentcanhavenegativesocialimplications.Thisstresscanitselfhinderlanguageeffectivelanguage acquisition(Drnyei,198).AccordingtoArnoldandBrown,Anxietyisquitepossiblytheaffective factorthatmostpervasivelyobstructsthelearningprocess.(8).ResearchconductedbyDewaelewent asfarastoconcludethathighanxietylevels,especiallywhencoupledwithanintrovertedpersonalityin thelearner,canbedetrimentaltoautomaticprocessinginthebrain,resultinginalimitationofL2fluency overtime.Cumminsdescribestheturmoilexperiencedbymanynewcomers: Emigrationandimmigrationareoftenboundupwiththelanguagesoftheoldandnewcountry. Immigrantsarefacedwithinternaldecisionsandexternalpressurestoloseorretainheritage languagesandlearnthelanguageofthereceivingcountry.Thepossibilitiesofbilingualismare oftenthreatenedbythesubtractivepushesofmajoritylanguagespeakerstowardsacceptingthe dominationoftheirlanguage(2). AsnewresidentsintheUSfacethedecisionofwhethertoassimilateoracculturate,many

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AmericanshaveexpressedstrongoppositionagainstprovidingaccommodationstononEnglish speakersinanycontext,academicorotherwise.Economicwoescauseconcernformanythatanyjob takenbyanimmigrantorrefugeeisajoblostbyalongertermAmericanresident.Hostilitytoward outgroupmemberscanbeblatantinantiforeignersentimentssuchasthoseexpressedbyAlabama gubernatorialcandidateTimJames,whoproclaimed,whilecampaigningin2010,"ThisisAlabama. WespeakEnglish.Ifyouwanttolivehere,learnit."(Condon).Attitudessuchasthesepressurenew residentstolearnEnglishasquicklyaspossible,andmayalsoinfluenceparentstoforgoteachingtheir firstlanguagestoyoungerchildren,insteadfocusingthemonlyontheimportanceoftheirEnglishskills. Thisisunfortunate,asresearchsuggeststhatadditivebilingualismprovidesacognitivebenefitforthe learner(Christian,11).Teachersintheclassroommustbeabletoaddressconcernsregardingthe aforementionedissueswhichmanyoftheirstudentsmayexpress.Additionally,otherstudentsinthe classmayexpressnegativeopinionswithregardstoESL,suchasthese,atwhichpointitfallstothe teachertodiffusethesituationandeducatestudentsonthemanypositivecontributionsofother languagesandnewcomerstotheUS. TheissueofESLstudentsintheclassroomhasincreasedinrecentyears,especiallyinareas withhighnumbersofimmigrantsandrefugees.NewYork'sCenterforanUrbanFutureexplains,The problemofinadequateresourcesforEnglishlanguageinstructionisnotanewone,butitsvisibilityand seriousnesshasgrowninrecentyearsashundredsofthousandsofnewarrivals,fromVietnamesein SyracusetoMexicansinYonkers,havesettledintheEmpireState.MorethanoneinfouradultNew Yorkersarenowforeignborn(Colton,3).Thesenumbersclearlydemonstratethesignificantand growingpopulationofELLscurrentlyenrolledinUSschools.AccordingtoUSDepartmentof Educationstatistics,Thenumberofschoolagechildren(childrenages517)whospokealanguage

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otherthanEnglishathomerosefrom4.7to11.2millionbetween1980and2009,orfrom10to21 percentofthepopulationinthisagerange.(DepartmentofEducation).Whilethislargenumberof childrenspeakingotherlanguagesathomemaycauseconcernthattheywillnothaveadequatepractice inspeakingEnglish,italsoraisestheexcitingpossibilitythatiffirstlanguageeducationiscontinued,a growingbilingualpopulationcouldnotbenefitacademically,butalsoculturallyaswellasenrichingthe nativeEnglishspeakerstheyinteractwithintheclassroom. DespitetherisingnumberofEnglishlearnersintheschoolsystem,ESLinstructioninUS schoolsisanissuethathasbeenlargelyignoreduntilrecently.Previously,thesolutionforstudentswho hadlittleornocommandoftheEnglishlanguagewastoimmersethemwithinaregularEnglishspeaking classroomandletthemabsorbandlearnthelanguageontheirown.Gibbonscountersthismethod, explainingthatschoolrelatedlanguageisnearlyimpossibletopickup.Academiclanguageisoften, ascoinedbyCummins,contextreduced,inthatitoftendealswithabstractconceptsandfieldspecific jargon.Itcanbedifficult,evenfornativeEnglishspeakers,tograspacademiclanguageandconcepts (5).Inordertofullygraspacademicmaterial,itisnecessarytocreatemeaningfulcognitiveconnections. ThismeansthatforELLs,instructioninthefirstlanguageservesasanimportantresourceinorderto keepELLsontrackwithageappropriateachievement.DespitethewidespreadneedformoreESL accommodationwhichhasbeengrowingforyears,somestillarguethatspecialaccommodationsfor teachingEnglishtoforeignersisawasteoftimeandresources.AntiESLsentimentissurprisingly widespread.Extremists,suchasStephenFrank,oncetheheadoftheCaliforniaRepublicanAssembly, havegonesofarastosay,ESLisreallyabouthelpingillegalalienslearnEnglish,usingmoneythat couldgoforequipment,textbooksandsuppliesforhoneststudents.(Elias).Despitethebroad, misinformednatureofaclaimsuchasthis,thereremainmanysimilarmisconceptionsthattheinclusionof

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Englishlanguagelearners(ELLs)inpublicschoolswillsomehowdetractfromtheeducationofnative Englishspeakersinthesameclassrooms. ThisinfluxofELLsinschoolsisputtingmorepressurethaneveroneducatorsandschoolsto educatestudentsnotonlyinallthestatemandatedcontentareas,butalsoteachEnglishasasecond language.Muchofthisresponsibilityfallsdirectlytoteachers,manywhomhaveneverbeenformally educatedinESLteachingmethodsandtheory.EventhosewhohavebeenschooledinESL methodologyandtheoryoftendonotknowhowtoputthemintopractice.TheCambridgeGuideto TeachingEnglishtoSpeakersofOtherLanguagesexpressesthisconcern,stating:preservice teachereducationprogrammes[sic]provideteacherlearnerswithcertainknowledgeusuallyinthe formofgeneraltheoriesaboutlanguagelearning,prescriptivegrammaticalinformationaboutlanguage, andpedagogicalmethodsthatwillbeapplicabletoanyteachingcontext.Learningtoteachhasmeant learningaboutteaching(Freeman,73).Thosewhodohaveatheoreticalgraspofthetopicmay findthatinpractice,therearemanyotherfactorswhichcancomplicateaseeminglystraightforward languageacquisitionplan.NotonlyareteachersexpectedtoimpartimportantEnglishgrammarand usagetolearners,buttheyarealsoresponsibleforteachingcorrectusage.Gibbonsmakesthe importantpointthatESlstudentsmustlearnbothsocialandacademicregisters,andthenbeableto identifywhichcontextsrequirewhichregister.Thisisdifficultnotonlyinlearningboth,butinusingboth, ...itrequiresmorelinguisticskillstouselanguageforacademicpurposesthanitdoestouseitin everydayconversation.Similarly,ifweareusingasecondlanguage,itisofteneasiertotalktopeople weknowwellandwithwhomweareateasethantoconversemoreformallywithastranger. (Gibbons,1).Theseareimportantdistinctionswhicharepartiallyintuitive,butalsohaveaplacein classroominstruction.Teachersthereforeprovideservicenotonlyaslinguisticinformants,butalso

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serveasculturalinformantsinbeingsomeofthefirstpeoplewhocomeintocontactwithmanynew immigrantsorrefugees.AllofthismustbedoneinawaywhichchallengestheELLstolearnasmuch aspossiblewithouthinderingprogressbycreatinganenvironmentwithoutlinguisticanxietyplacedon thelearner. CaseStudies CaseStudy1 InMayof2012,IhadtheopportunitytotraveltotheMaastricht,Netherlandsandteach Englishasasecondlanguage(ESL)inaDutch/Englishbilingualprograminasecondaryschool.The studentswereveryadvanced,andhadbeenseparatedintothisspecialbilingualtrackbasedontest scoresandexcellenceinacademics.OneEnglishclasswascomprisedofYearTwostudents,about twelveyearsold,whohadjustbeguntheirformalEnglishinstructiononeyearprior.Theclasswas nearingtheendoftheschoolyear,andsomeofthelessonstaughtwerefocusingonaskingquestions. Thelessonsemphasizednotonlywordorderandgrammar,butalsopolitenessmarkers,correct pronunciation,andthewayanativeEnglishspeakerwouldphrasethings.Manyofthesestudentshad alreadyvisitedtheUnitedStates,andtwohadattendedschoolthere.TheseDutchstudents,afteronly twoschoolyearsworthofformaleducationinEnglish,wereabletoread,write,andcommunicatein Englishataverysophisticatedandproficientlevel.Thestudentsquicklypickedupnewconceptsand wordsthatwereintroduced,andeventhoughtheydidmakesomegrammarmistakes,thereEnglish was,asawhole,veryclearandcomprehensibletoanativespeaker.Themistakesthattheydidmake wereconsistentwiththosethatwouldbeexpectedfromspeakersofDutch,suggestingthatL1transfer toL2wasoccurring.

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TheDutchstudentsIencounteredwereidealEnglishlanguagelearners.Duringmytimewith them,Iwasalsotakingacourse,TeachingEnglishasaSecondLanguage,anddailyIwasabletosee theconceptswediscussedinclassinthebilingualclassrooms.ThestudentscamefromaGermanic languagebackgroundasspeakersofDutch,sotheywereabletofindmanycognateswithinthe language.ThestudentsstartedoutwithayearoflearningEnglishasaforeignlanguage,andthenmoved intolearningcontentforothersubjectswithEnglishasthelanguageofinstruction.Althoughmostofthe studentswerenotoriginallyhighlymotivatedtolearnEnglish,astheywereinaDutchspeakingcountry, theyweremotivatedtopayattentionandworktodeciphermeaningbecausetheyknewthattheywould laterbeheldaccountablefortheinformationbeingcovered.Manyofthesestudentshadbeenexposed toEnglishthroughmusicandmediasinceayoungage,whichalsocontributedtotheirmoreadvanced understanding.Also,theteachersgivingtheEnglishinstructionwerealsoabletoconverseinDutch, givingthemtheabilitytoexplainconcepts,words,andphrasesthatmayhaveotherwisebeendifficultto understandinameaningfulwaytothestudents.Additionally,manyofthestudentswerefluentnotonly inDutch,butalsohadexperienceinFrenchandGerman,aswellasseveraldifferentmutually unintelligibledialectsofDutch.Thesestudentshadalreadydevelopedindividualmethodsforeffective languageacquisition,whichtheywereabletoapplytoEnglish.Assignmentswereoftenissuedin EnglishwithresponsesinEnglishrequired.TeachersalsoencouragedexclusiveusageofEnglishwithin Englishclassrooms,whilecontinuingonwithDutcheducationinothercontentareas.Thehighlevelof literacyintheirfirstlanguageofDutch,coupledwithhighimportance,highcontextinputofEnglishand continuanceofeducationintheirfirstlanguagecreatedarichlearningenvironmentfortheseDutch students.Theirpriorunderstandingofacademictermsandconceptsalsoofferedanopportunityfor scaffoldingwhichmayhavehelpedthemtoreachacademicproficiencysoonerthanotherstudents.

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Scaffoldingisanimportantpedagogicalconcept.Gibbonsexplainstheconcept,stating Scaffolding,however,isnotsimplyanotherwordforhelp.Itisaspecialkindofhelpthat assistslearnerstomovetowardnewskills,concepts,orlevelsofunderstanding.Scaffoldingis thusthetemporaryassistancebywhichateacherhelpsalearnerknowhowtodosomething,so thatthelearnerwilllaterbeabletocompleteasimilartaskalone.(10) EvidenceoftheeffectivenessofscaffoldingintheDutchclassroomsupportstheclaimmadeby VirginiaP.Collierinherarticle,AgeandRateofAcquisitionofSecondLanguageforAcademic Purposesthatstudentsintheirmidteenyearshaveahigherrateofinitialacquisitionthanotherage groups,duelargelytotheirabilitytoeffectivelyscaffoldwithpriorknowledge,coupledwiththestillhigh plasticityoftheiryoungbrains.ThecombinationofthesefactorssuggeststhattheseDutchstudentsare likelytoreachveryhighlevelsoffluencyandliteracyinEnglish. ThroughmyexperienceintheNetherlands,Iwasinspiredtocontinueworkingtobecomean ESLeducator.IenrolledinanESLPracticum,whereIwasplacedasavolunteerwithanagency whichworkstoprovideEnglishlanguagelessonstorefugeesinGrandRapids.Ibeganworkingweekly withmostlyBhutaneseandBurmeserefugeestudentstohelpthemlearnsurvivalEnglishtohelpthemin theirnewlivesintheUnitedStates.Thesestudents,unliketheDutchteenagers,arehighlymotivatedto learnbasicEnglishwordsandphrasesinordertoeffectivelysurviveintheirnewenvironment.Their abilitiestogetjobsandcommunicatewiththelargerAmericansocietytheyarelivinginrelyheavilyon theirEnglishlanguageskills.Despitetheirdedication,thesestudentsstrugglegreatlytomakeany progressintheirlanguageacquisition.ThreemonthsintotheirEnglishlanguageclasses,whichthey attendtwohoursperday,fivedayseachweek,somestudentscontinuetostrugglewithphraseslike, Hello,mynameis,basicwordsforcolors,furniture,andclassroomobjects,andidentifyingletters

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andnumbers.Insharpcontrast,othershaveexcelled,andshowmuchhigherlevelsofunderstanding,as wellasabilitytoproduceverysimplenovelsentences.Still,alloftherefugeestudentsarefarbehindthe levelatwhichDutchstudentswhohavestudiedthesameamountoftime. TherearemanyfactorswhichmayexplainthedifferenceinEnglishacquisitionbetweenthe Dutchstudentsandamongsttherefugeestudents,suchasage,firstandotherlanguages,motivation,and priorexposuretoEnglish(RichardsandFarrell,122).Perhapsthestrongestvariableinfluencingany studentsabilitytopickupanewlanguage,however,isthelevelofeducationandliteracyinthefirst language(Genesee,LindholmLeary,Saunders,andChristian,223).Therefugeestudentscomefrom manyverydiversebackgrounds.Somehavenothadanyformalschoolingandhavenoliteracyintheir firstlanguages.Othersreceivedlimitedschoolingopportunities,whilestillothershavedegreesfrom Universitiesintheirhomecountries.TheDutchstudentswereadvancedintheirfirstlanguage(L1) learning.Theywereonanacademictrackwhichincludedmanyreadingcomprehensiontasksaswellas papersandpresentations.Thesestudentswereabletousetheirhighlevelunderstandingoftheirfirst languageofDutchinordertoapplypriorknowledgetothelearningofEnglish.Thismadescaffolding mucheasierfortheteacher,andallowedformoreconcreteandexplicitgrammarinstruction.

AsIgainednewexperiencesworkingwithESLstudents,IwassurprisedbymuchofwhatI experiencedandlearnedthroughresearch.BeforeMaastricht,Ihadneverreallyconsideredsecond languagelearning,beyondmyownhalfheartedattemptsatSpanishandGerman.Evenafterfindingmy newpassionforESL,IwascompletelysurprisedbythenewenvironmentIfacedatBethany,wherewe wereteachingadultstudentswhospokenoEnglishatall,andwhosefirstlanguagesweasteachers wereunfamiliarwith.IfounditevenmoreapparentwiththeserefugeestudentstheissueofBICSand

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CALPS.Onaverage,accordingtoseveraltopmethodologists,ittakesstudentsabout12yearsto developbasiccommunicationskillswithwhichtoconverseonaneverydaybasis(BICS),whereasthe registersassociatedwithwithacademiclearningtakebetweenfiveandsevenyearsforthelearnerto developatalevelequivalenttoacompetentnativespeakerofthesameage.Theseareknownas CALPs(Gibbons,5).ItwasshockinghowmuchfurthertheDutchstudentswereat12yearsof experience,versuswheretherefugeestudentsareeverprojectedtobeasfarascommunicationaswell asliteracy.Thisisatroublingissue,especiallyconsideringthattheserefugeesarehopingtogainjobs, citizenshipstatus,andraisefamiliesintheUS,alargelyEnglishspeakingcountry.Basedonthelearner variablewehaddiscussedinmyteachingESLclass,Iassessedthatage,languageoforigin,andseveral otherfactorscouldbecontributingtothelargedisparity.However,Isuspectedthatfirstlanguage literacycouldbethelargestunderlyingfactor.Uponreviewingtherefugeesrecordsforacasestudy,I foundthatmysuspicionswerecorrect,inthatmyrefugeestudentsmostlyhadlittleornoschoolingin theirfirstlanguages.This,madeitverydifficultfortheinstructortoscaffoldbasedonexistingliteracy andunderstandingoflanguage. Manystudieshavefoundthatcognitiveandacademicdevelopmentin thefirstlanguagehasan extremelyimportantandpositiveeffectonsecondlanguageschooling(e.g.Bialystok,1991 Collier,1989,1992bGarcia,1994Genesee,1987,1994Thomas&Collier,1995)(23) Furthermore,somestudiesindicatethatifstudentsdonotreachacertainthresholdintheirfirst language,includingliteracy,theymayexperiencecognitivedifficultiesinthesecondlanguage (Collier,1987Collier&Thomas,1989Cummins,1981,1991Thomas&Collier,1995). (24,Collier,ReadingPacket). MyinstructorhaddiscussedwithustheimplicationsoflowL1literacy,buttoseeitinpracticewas

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anentirelydifferentexperience.Lessonplanningwasmuchmorechallenginginworkingwiththese students,andculturalconsiderationshadtobetakenintoaccount.AccordingtoGibbons,Children whoarelearningthroughthemediumoftheirfirstlanguage,andwhocometoschoolhavingalready acquiredthecoregrammarofthislanguageandtheabilitytouseitinarangeoffamiliarsocialsituations, haveaheadstartinlearningtousetheacademicregistersofschool.AndasCummins(1996,2000) pointsout,TheseEnglishspeakingpeersdonotstandstillintheirlearningandwaitforESLstudentsto catchupinthelanguageofinstruction.(Gibbons,5) Mypracticumhasfocusedmuchofthecourseworkonbasictutoringskills,accommodatingall levels,andeffectivelyassessingbeginninglevel,progress,andfirstlanguagelevelandcontinuation. Whileourclassroomtimeandtextbookhavebeenhighlyrelevanttothelowliteracypopulationweare currentlyserving,Ihavebecomeacutelyawareofthelackofresourcesofferingpracticaladviceto educatorswithstudentsbeginningwithlowornoL1literacy.ExaminingshelvesworthofESL educationmaterialsinGrandValleyStateUniversitysZumbergeLibraryproducedveryfewusable

resourcesforthisissue.Ifoundasectionineachbookdiscussinghowimportantfirstlanguage
literacyistosuccessinEnglish,includingachapterentitled:CriticalRoleoftheHomeLanguage, whichstresses,RegardlessofthetypeofprogramELLsarein(ESL,shelteredEnglish,bilingual,or duallanguage)andregardlessoftheirgradelevel,ELLswhoknowhowtoreadandwriteinthehome languageacquirehigherlevelsofcompetenceinacademicoralandwrittenEnglishthanELLswithout thisadvantage.(Cloud,GeneseeandHamayan,82).Thosesameresourceswentontooutlinebest practicesforstudentswithfirstlanguageliteracy,despitemakingmentionoftheproblemoflowL1 literacy.

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ThedozensofbooksonthistopicIencounteredinthenextfewweeksechoedthissentiment: Firstlanguageliteracyisimportant(CrdenasHagan,Elsa,ColeenD.Carlson,andSharolynD. PollardDurodola).Theauthorsstressedthisinabriefsectionineachbook,thencontinuedonto outlineliteracyandlanguageacquisitiontheoriesandconcepts,evenpracticaladviceattimes,which seemedtobelargelycateredtoELLswitheveryadvantage,likethoseIencounteredinthe Netherlands.IfeltincreasinglydejectedasIpagedthroughhundredsofpagesofbooksonteaching ESL,oneaftertheotherproclaimingthenecessityoffirstlanguageliteracyandpooroutlookforthose withoutit.Butwhataboutmyrefugeestudents?Wheredoesthatleavethem?AsIwondered thesethings,Irealizedhowdifficultthissituationmustbeforteacherswhodonthaveexperiencein diverseclassroomsettingsanduniversitycoursesinteachingESL,likeIdo.Teachersinmainstream EnglishclassroomswhoareconfrontedwithastudentwhodoesnotspeakEnglishandhaslowL1 literacymayturntotheliteratureinsearchofanswers,andfindonlymorequestions,ratherthan answers. CulturalInformantRole NotonlydolinguisticandliteracyissuesneedtobetakenintoaccountwhenteachingESL students,butculturalconsiderationsalsomustbeassessed(Walqui).Whileteachingaworksheetinmy refugeeclassroom,therewasanimagethatwewereusingalongwiththephrases,Whatareyou doing?,andIamfeedingthebaby.Thegraphicshowedamanholdingababywhowasnursinga bottle.Theclass,consistingmostlyofBhutaneseandBurmesewomen,wasprompted,Whatareyou doing?asImimedrockingababy.Thewomenlookedatthepicture,thenchattedamongst themselvesintheirL1.Theylaughed,andthenwentontogesturetomethatthepicturewasno,that itwaswrong.Iconsideredthemquizzically,Whatdotheymean,itswrong?.Oneofthewomen

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caughtmyattention,Teacher!,shemimedrockingababy,andpattedherbreast,Feedthebaby! Realizationdawnedonme,andIlaughedalongwiththem.Intheirculture,babiesarebreastfed,not bottlefed.ThisworksheetmadetheassumptionthatanESLstudentwouldunderstandaman bottlefeedingababy.Thewomeninmyclasseventuallygotit,afterconversingamongstthemselves, butitoriginallygavethempause.Thisisaninstancewhereusingamoreculturallyrelevantandaware resourceforteachingwouldhavehelpedtomakethelessonIwasteachingclearer.Whileitis importantthatweactasculturalinformantsforourstudents,itisequallyimportantthatwerespecttheir culturesandutilizethemwithinourteachingpractices.Comfortablestudentsarebetterabletolearnand absorbinformationthanthosewhofeeluncomfortable.Manyofthesestudentsareseekingjobsinan Americanworkplace,makingthisculturalinformationevenmorevital. WhileworkingwiththeDutchstudents,Ifoundthattheonethingtheyweretrulyeagertolearn aboutwithinanyclassroomwasAmericanculture,astoldbyarealAmerican.Thestudentshadmany, manyquestions.Americancultureisoftenportrayedinthemedia,andtheywerefascinatedtohear whatwastrueandwhatwasexaggeratedormadeupentirely.Understandingthecontextinwhich Englishlanguagewasusedwasveryimportanttothestudentsinunderstandingtherelevanceandutility oftheirnewfoundlanguageskills.TalkingwithnativeEnglishspeakerssuchasmyselfalsoforcedthe DutchstudentstouseonlyEnglish,becausewithustheycouldntswitchbackintoDutchastheyoften didwiththeirclassmates,becausewehadnounderstandingoftheirlanguage. Similarly,intheclassroomwiththerefugeestudents,itfallstotheinstructortoinformthe studentsofAmericanculturalnorms.Forexample,wespentthebeginningofoneclassperiod explainingthatitwasinappropriatetospitinthedrinkingfountains,andthatitisbettertospitinthetoilet

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orintoanapkin.InSoutheasternAsia,wherethestudentsarefrom,spittingisverycommonand sociallyacceptableinordertohelpthestudentstobemorewidelyacceptedinAmericanculture,we gavethemtheknowledgeofwhatiswidelyseenasappropriatehere.Anotherexampleisthesigns hanginginthestallsatourtutoringcenter.Figure1showsthesignageineverystall.

Fig1. Tous,inWesternculture,itseemsobvioushowatoiletistobeused.However,hygieneandbathroom etiquettevarygreatlyfromcountrytocountry.TheEnglishclassesweareteachingareservingtonot onlyteachthestudentsEnglishlanguage,butalsoAmericanwaysoflifethatwillhelpthemtointeract moreeffectivelywithAmericanstheymayencounter.Refugeesaregiventwoyearsofsupportbefore theyareexpectedtobeselfsufficient.Thistimeframeisimplemented,regardlessofstudiesshowing thatevenalearnerwithamoreeducatedbackgroundthanmanyofthesestudentstakes35yearsto learnbasicconversationalEnglish.Ourtimeintheclassroomwiththesestudentsisalsooftenlimited whenastudentleavestheprograminordertoprocureajob. Actingasaculturalinformantisarolewhichfalls,tosomeextent,tomostESLeducatorsin someform.Thisisarolewhichisbrieflytoucheduponinmuchoftheliteratureonthesubjecthowever theextenttowhichsomestudentsmustbeinformedaboutappropriateandacceptablebehaviorsmay comeasasurprisetoeducatorswithlittleornoexperienceinthefield.Thebooksavailablediscussthe

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importanceofvaluinghomeculturesoflearners,butdonotadequatelyimpartthevastdifferencein culturalpracticeswhichcancreatedifficultsocialsettingsinlanguageclassrooms.Variablessuchas genderroles,honorificagesystemsandreligiousbeliefsmayheavilyinfluenceinstructionalmethodsand classroomsetupsinawaythatmaybeoriginallyunderestimatedbyaninexperiencedteacher (McBrien).Oversightsofimportantculturaldifferencesmayalsoresultinstudentsbecoming uncomfortable,causingthemtobenefitlessfrominstructionaltime. Manyteachereducationprogramsfocusstronglyonteachingmethods,includingincorporating creativitywhilestillteachingtowardstateandnationalstandardsandadjustingmaterialtobestfitboth acceleratedandstrugglingstudents.Althoughtheseprogramsprovideteacherswithadepthof knowledgeinpedagogicaltheoriesandconcepts,ESLeducationisoneareathatisoftenskimmedover oroverlookedaltogether.PreserviceteacherswhoarenotawareofthelikelihoodofhavingESL studentsinfutureeducationalsettingsmaynotseekoutclasseswhichcaterspecificallytopedagogical andlinguisticadaptationpractices. EventhoughavailabilityofinstructiononteachingESLisstilllimited,manyuniversitieshave realizedthis,andhaverecentlyintroducedmoremajors,minorsandcourse.Forexample,Grand ValleyStateUniversityhasrecentlyintroducedanewminorinAppliedLinguistics.Despitethesegreat stridesforward,GrandValleyhasalreadyhadtocancelsomeoftheclasseswithinthisminorduetolow enrollmentnumbers.Itseemsthatmanyteachingstudentsarenotrealizinghowgreatthedemandfor ESLexperienceandknowledgeis,eveninaregularmainstreamclassroom. IfoundthatmyexperienceintheNetherlandsandintheUSadulteducationclassmergedasI pickedupavolunteerspottutoringinaGrandRapidsPublicmiddleschoolmathclassroom.The studentsintheclassroomcouldconverseeasilyinbothEnglishandSpanish.Manyspokeexclusively

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Spanishathome,eventhoughtheywereexpectedtouseEnglishasthelanguageofdiscourseand instructionwithintheclassroom.ThoughSpanishwasthefirstlanguagespokenbythesestudents,they hadnevergainedliteracyinSpanish,butinstead,allformalschoolinghadtakenplaceinEnglish. ThoughtheyhadreceivedthefullEnglishlanguagecurriculuminallsubjects,thesameasnativeEnglish speakers,theylaggedbehindtheirEnglishL1peers.TheseHispanicstudentswerestrugglingnotonly intheiruseofEnglishwhenitcametowrittenandacademicsubjects,buttheywerealsofallingbehindin othersubjects,suchasmathandsocialstudies.Manyofthestudentswerehavingproblemsoutsideof theclassthatIworkedin,andtheteacherdidnothavehighhopesfortheirfutures.Sometimesthe studentswouldconverseinSpanishamongstthemselves,atwhichpointtheteacherwouldinterveneand reprimandthestudents,pressingthemtospeakEnglish.Heexpressedtomethathewasconcerned aboutwhathisstudentsmightbesayingthathecouldntunderstand.Itseemedthattherewasavicious cycleinplay.Thestudentswerenotcomfortablewiththematterbeingcovered,andgaveupeasily. Theteacherwasnotprovidingadequatesupportforstudentswhowerenotatasatisfactorylevel.The studentswerefallingintoharmfulpatternsofbehavior,andthiswascontributingtodisruptiveand apatheticattitudesinclass.TheschoolwasnotofferingcontinuingeducationintheL1.Therefore,the studentsmighthavefallenbehindintheirregularacademicclassworkastheyimprovedinEnglish languageskills.TheirculturewasalsonotbeingvaluedinthattheirL1usagewassuppressed.The teacherswereawareofthechildrensbackgroundshowevertheirtrainingandteachingtheoriesdidnot supportandwerenotcateredtoaccommodatingESLstudents.Therefore,thosestudentsjustfell furtherandfurtherbehind. Theschoolwasfundedbasedonscoresonstandardizedtestswhichrequireanunderstanding ofthejargoparticulartoacademicEnglish,which,aspreviouslydiscussed,takesatleastfivetoseven

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yearsforfullmastery.Thestudentsdopoorlyonthesetests,andfundingiscutfortheschool,resulting inmorelimitedaccesstoresourcesandhelpwhichmightbebetterabletomeettheneedsofthediverse learningpopulationataschoolsuchasthisone.LegislationsuchasTitleIII,whichprovidesadditional fundingfromthefederalgovernmentforlowproficiencyEnglishstudents,helptoprovidemoreESL teachingresourcesandpayforteachers,especiallyinschoolswithhighESLstudentpopulations. However,programssuchasthisoneareflawedintheirassessmentofEnglishacquisition.Successis measuredinstandardizedtestscorecomparisons,andstudentsareexpectedtokeepupwith classmatesinallotheracademicsubjects,regardlessofthelanguagewhichthosesubjectsarebeing taughtin.Thestudentsarerequiredtoshowthattheyhavemadeprogressinordertocontinue receivingfunding,orfacecutsofmonetarysupplementationorteachers.Onceagain,thisplaceshigh stakesontheELLsabilitytoquicklyacquireEnglish.Italsoleadstoteachersteachingforthetest, ratherthanmorepracticalandrealisticcontexts. Conclusion Overall,itseemsthatthelargestroleswhichESLteachersmustplayintheclassroomarethatof alinguisticinformant,aculturalinformant,andapedagogicalexpert.Asalinguisticinformant,the educatoruseshisorhernativeexpertiseinordertoimparttothestudentconcretegrammaticaland functionalrulesforthelanguage.Theteachercreatesmeaningfulcontextandrelationshipsbetween seeminglylowcontextwordsandacademicjargoninordertohelpstudentstobettercomprehendand makelastingcognitiveconnections.Allofthisisdonewhileprovidingacademicallyenrichingand relevantcontextsfromwhichstudentscandrawrealworldexamples.Withinthis,theculturalinformant roleenterstheequationaswell.Byusingexamplesandteachingmaterialswhichoutlineappropriate and/orculturallyrelevantinformation,ESLteachersmayhelptheirstudentstobetteradjusttoAmerican

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cultureandbecomemoreawareofsociologicalnormswithinoursociety.Allofthisteachingmusttake placeinasoundlearningenvironmentoftheteacherscreating.Theteacherisexpectedtousesound pedagogicalstrategiestocreateahighinterest,challenginglearningenvironment,withoutcreating unnecessaryanxietyorworryaboutmessingupfromstudents. AllofthesecriteriaforagoodESLteachercanbemetbyESLteachersbeingselfawareand willingtogobeyondrudimentarypreparationsfortheirgivenclass.Ifateachertakesthetimetolearn aboutthesocial,political,andculturalbackgroundofthestudentsplace(s)oforigin,theteacherwillbe moreawareandbetterabletorespondifthereisanissueintheclassroomstemmingfromoneofthese areas.Also,experiencedESLteachersshouldworktoimparttheirknowledgetonewcomersinthe field,byofferingpracticaladviceandinformingofspecialconcernsoreffectivemethodsthattheyhave foundtoworkintheirexperience.Themanytheoriesandmethodologicalmaterialsinthisfieldareno substituteforpracticalapplicationandexperienceinaclassroomsetting.However,thesematerialsmay bebuiltuponandenrichedwithfirsthandaccountsandcompetentresearchintohomecountry practicesinordertocreateclassroomspaceswhereESLstudentscanflourish.Thoughthisfieldis oftenignored,themovementforbetterESLeducationcontinuestogrowinprevalenceandsupport,due toitswideneedinthelargerschoolsysteminAmericatoday.ThefutureofESLeducationintheUS looksbright,aslongasteacherscontinuetopushforchangefromwhatwemayhavepracticedinthe past.

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