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pv1.m2pv1.m1 ( )

pv1.m3pv1.m1

pv1.m3pv1.m2 5 0

( 5

95 % twosided confidence intervals

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Congresso da APG
Minicurso: Introduo ao R
Parte 2

00.1-

Introduo Referncias Nenadic, O., Zucchini, W., Statistical Analysis with R http://www.statoek.wiso.uni-goettingen.de/mitarbeiter/nenadic.html Faraway, Julian J., Practical Regression and Anova using R http://www.maths.bath.ac.uk/~jjf23/book/ Ribeiro Jr., Paulo Justiniano, Curso sobre o programa computacional R http://leg.ufpr.br/Rpira/Rpira/

0.2-

Mudando o diretrio de trabalho

rm(list=ls()) setwd("C:\\Documents and Settings\\...\\Congresso APG\\Rotinas em R") getwd()

11.1-

Distribuies de Probabilidade Introduo Dada uma varivel aleatria X, existem duas funes relevantes associadas: Caso X seja contnua, a distribuio de probabilidade acumulada,
FX ( x ) , e a

funo densidade de probabilidade, f X ( x ) .

FX ( x ) = P [ X x ]

fX ( x) =

d FX ( x ) dx

FX ( x ) =

f X ( u ) du

f X ( u ) du = 1

Exemplo 1:

X ~ exp(2)

f X ( x ) = 2e 2 x , x > 0

FX ( x ) = 1 e 2 x

2 . 0

1 . 5

1 . 0

0 . 5

0 . 0

0.0

1.0 x

2.0

3.0

0 . 0 0.0

0 . 2

0 . 4

0 . 6

0 . 8

1 . 0

1.0 x

2.0

3.0

Caso X seja discreta, a distribuio de probabilidade acumulada, funo de probabilidade, f X x j , em que x j { x1 , x2 ,..., xn } .

FX x j , e a

( )

( )

FX x j = P X xj
FX x j = Exemplo 2:

( )

fX xj = P X = xj

( )
xn

( ) f (u ) u=x
X

xj

u = x1

f X (u ) = 1

1 X ~ binomial (10, ) 2
X {0,1, 2,...,10}

10 1 1 f X ( k ) = P [ X = k ] = 1 k 2 2 50 1 FX ( k ) = P [ X k ] = j =0 j 2
k

10 k

10 1 = k 2

10

50

0 .2 5

0 .2 0

0 .1 5

0 .1 0

F x 0 .0 5 0 .0 0 0 2 4 x 6 8 10 0 .0 0 0 .2 0 .4

fx

0 .6

0 .8

1 .0

4 x

10

As funes disponveis no R para distribuies de probabilidades compreendem duas partes: a) Um prefixo (primeira letra) determina a ao tomada pela funo d densidade de probabilidade p probabilidade acumulada q quantil r amostra aleatria b) Um sufixo (restante do nome) identifica a distribuio

Distribuio Normal Exponencial Log-normal Logstica Geomtrica Poisson

Funo R norm exp lnorm logis geo pois

Distribuio t F Beta Weibull Binomial Binomial Ne

Funo R t f beta weibull binom nbinom

Distribuio Chi-quadr Uniforme Gama Cauchy Hypergeo

Funo R chisq unif gamma cauchy hyper

Exemplos:

Amostra de tamanho 10 de uma distribuio normal padro

> rnorm(10) [1] -0.1940739 1.3084103 -0.5032871 -1.1976513 -1.6180376 -1.2097209 [7] -0.8758033 -0.5817017 0.2427872 -1.4026841

Amostra de tamanho 10 de uma normal N(5,4)

> rnorm(10, 5, 2) [1] 4.214025 6.426099 3.844926 6.324220 8.446865 5.357674 5.170518 5.706036 [9] 1.291295 5.859870

Densidade normal padro em X=0

> dnorm(0) [1] 0.3989423

Normal padro acumulada at X=0

> pnorm(0) [1] 0.5

Quantil de 95% da normal padro

> qnorm(0.95) [1] 1.644854

1.2-

Comparao entre a Binomial e a normal Se X tem distribuio binomial de parmetros (n,p) e

n 30 ento X tem

distribuio aproximadamente Normal de parmetros = n p e 2 = n p (1 p ) . Vamos verificar essa afirmao graficamente para n = 30 e p = 1 2 .

n = 30 p = 1/2 x = 0:n fx = dbinom(x,n,p) xx = seq(0,n,0.1) nx = dnorm(xx,n*p,sqrt(n*p*(1-p))) plot(x,fx,type="h") lines(xx,nx,type="l",col="blue")

fx 0.00 0 0.05

0.10

0.15

10

15 x

20

25

30

A comparao no to boa se p
p = 0.05 .

muito pequeno ou muito grande.

Seja

n = 30 p = 0.05 x = 0:n fx = dbinom(x,n,p) xx = seq(0,7,0.1) nx = dnorm(xx,n*p,sqrt(n*p*(1-p))) plot(x[1:8],fx[1:8],type="h") lines(xx,nx,type="l",col="blue")

fx [1 :8 ]

0 .0 0

0 .0 5

0 .1 0

0 .1 5

0 .2 0

0 .2 5

0 .3 0

0 .3 5

3 x[1:8]

1.3-

Teorema Central do Limite Se X 1 , X 2 ,..., X n so cpias independentes de uma mesma varivel aleatria X de

media e varincia 2 , ento

Xn = 2 1 n X j ~ Normal , n j =1 n

Vamos comprovar graficamente. Gerar amostras da U ( 0, 2 ) , Exp (1) , Gama ( 2, 2 ) e Cauchy (1,1) e plotar os histogramas de X n :
na = 10000 # n = 100 # u = vector("numeric",na) # e = u # g = u # c = u # for (i in 1:na){ u[i] = mean(runif(n,0,2)) e[i] = mean(rexp(n)) g[i] = mean(rgamma(n,2,2)) c[i] = mean(rcauchy(n,1,1)) } par(mfrow=c(1,2)) x = seq(-2,4,0.1) yu = dunif(x,0,2) nmero de amostras tamanho de cada amostra mdias das amostras da uniforme mdias das amostras da exponencial mdias das amostras da gama mdias das amostras da cauchy

ye = dexp(x) yg = dgamma(x,2,2) yc = dcauchy(x,1,1) plot(x,yu,type="l",main="Uniforme(0,2)") hist(u,main="Mdia da Uniforme(0,2)") plot(x,ye,type="l",main="Exponencial(1)") hist(e,main="Mdia da Exponencial(1)") plot(x,yg,type="l",main="Gama(2,2)") hist(g,main="Mdia da Gama(2,2)") plot(x,yc,type="l",main="Cauchy(1,1)") hist(c,main="Mdia da Cauchy(1,1)")
Uniforme(0,2)
0 . 5

M dia da Uniforme(0,2)
3 0 0 0

0 . 1

0 . 0

-2

1 x

5 0 0

1 0 0 0 1 5 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 5 0 0

0 . 3

0 . 4

0 . 2

F r e q u e n c y

y u

0.8

1.0 u

1.2

Exponencial(1)
1 .0

Mdia da Exponencial(1)

0 .6

F r e q u e n c y

0 .4

0 .0

0 .2

-2

1 x

0 0.6

5 0 0

1 0 0 0

y e

1 5 0 0

0 .8

0.8

1.0 e

1.2

1.4

Gama(2,2)
2 5 0 0 0 . 6 F r e q u e n c y y g 0 . 4 0 . 2 0 . 0 -2 0 1 x 2 3 4 0 5 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 5 0 0 2 0 0 0

M dia da Gama(2,2)

0.8

1.0 g

1.2

Cauchy(1,1)
0 . 3 0

M dia da Cauchy(1,1)

0 . 2 0

0 . 2 5

F r e q u e n c y

y c

0 . 1 5

0 . 0 5

0 . 1 0

-2

1 x

0 0

2 0 0 0

4 0 0 0

6 0 0 0

e+00

4 c

e+05

> max(c) [1] 621394.2

Reamostrando a Cauchy e abandonando amostras cuja mdia tenha valor absoluto maior que 10:

i = 1 while(i<(na+1)){ c[i] = mean(rcauchy(n,1,1)) if (abs(c[i])<10) i = i+1 } plot(x,yc,type="l",main="Cauchy(1,1)") hist(c,main="Mdia da Cauchy(1,1)")

Cauchy(1,1)
0 . 3 0

M dia da Cauchy(1,1)

0 . 2 5

0 . 2 0

F r e q u e n c y

y c

0 . 1 5

0 . 1 0

0 . 0 5

-2

1 x

0 -10

5 0 0

1 0 0 0

1 5 0 0

2 0 0 0

2 5 0 0

-5

0 c

10

1.4

Criando funes no R A mdia geomtrica (geo.mean)

G = n x1 x2 ...xn
n n = xi i =1
= exp
1

1 n log ( xi ) n i =1

geo.mean = function(x){ n = length(x) gm = exp(mean(log(x))) return(gm) } x = c(1,2,4,1,1,8) y = geo.mean(x) y x = runif(10) (y = geo.mean(x))

A sada de uma funo pode ser um objeto do R:

lixo = function(x){ n = length(x) y = matrix(x,n,n) return(y) } x = 1:5 (z = lixo(x))

[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5] [1,] 1 1 1 1 1 [2,] 2 2 2 2 2 [3,] 3 3 3 3 3 [4,] 4 4 4 4 4 [5,] 5 5 5 5 5
rm(z,lixo) z z = lixo(x)

1.5

Obtendo valores internos em um loop: Isto no funciona:

for (x in 1:5){ y = x^2 x y }

Isto funciona:
for (x in 1:5){ y = x^2 print(c(x,y)) }

2-

Grficos em R

2.1#

Plotando o grfico da densidade normal padro:

2.1 plotando o grfico na normal padro

x = seq(-5,5,0.1) fx = dnorm(x) par(mfrow=c(1,1)) plot(x,fx)

0 .0

0 .1

0 .2

fx

0 .3

0 .4

-4

-2

0 x

2.2-

Plotando vrios tipos de grficos

?plot()

par(mfrow = c(2,2)) plot(x,fx,type="p") plot(x,fx,type="l") plot(x,fx,type="s") plot(x,fx,type="n")

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0

-4

-2

0 x

0.0 -4

0.1

0.2

fx

fx

0.3

0.4

-2

0 x

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0

-4

-2

0 x

0.0 -4

0.1

0.2

fx

fx

0.3

0.4

-2

0 x

2.3 -

Colorindo os grficos
col col col col = = = = "blue") "green") "red") "cyan")

plot(x,fx,type="p", plot(x,fx,type="l", plot(x,fx,type="s", plot(x,fx,type="h",

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0

-4

-2

0 x

0.0 -4

0.1

0.2

fx

fx

0.3

0.4

-2

0 x

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0

-4

-2

0 x

0.0 -4

0.1

0.2

fx

fx

0.3

0.4

-2

0 x

Para cores disponveis (657):

Colors() plot(x,fx,type="p", plot(x,fx,type="l", plot(x,fx,type="s", plot(x,fx,type="h", col col col col = = = = 394) 372) 19) 118)

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0

-4

-2

0 x

0.0 -4

0.1

0.2

fx

fx

0.3

0.4

-2

0 x

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0

-4

-2

0 x

0.0 -4

0.1

0.2

fx

fx

0.3

0.4

-2

0 x

2.4 -

Acrescentando outros detalhes ao grfico

2.4.1- Ttulo, sub-ttulo e fonte

par(mfrow = c(1,1)) plot(dnorm, -5,5, col= "blue", main="FIG. 1 \n Normal padro", sub="FIG. 1 Normal padro",)

FIG. 1 Normal padro

0.4 dnorm(x) 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3

-4

-2

0 FIG. x1 Normal padro

plot(dnorm,-5,5,main="FIG. 1- Normal padro",xlab="varivel aleatria X", ylab="F x",col= "blue",font.main=2,font.lab=3)

FIG. 1- Normal padro

0 .4 0 .0 0 .1 0 .2 Fx 0 .3

-4

-2

0 varivel aleatria X

2.4.2- Personalizando os eixos

plot(dnorm,-5,5,main="FIG. 1- Normal padro",col= "blue",font.main=1,axes=F, xlab="",ylab="")

FIG. 1- Normal padro

?axis() axis(1,c(-5:5), col = rgb(1,0,1)) axis(2,seq(0,0.5,0.05)) box()

FIG. 1- Normal padro
0.4 0.0 0.1 0.2 Fx 0.3

-4

-2

0 varivel aleatria X

2.4.3 Adicionando outro grfico

plot(pnorm,-5,5,main="FIG. 1- Normal padro",xlab="varivel aleatria X", ylab="F x",col= "blue",font.main=1,font.lab=3) x = seq(-5,5,0.1) lines(x,dnorm(x),col="red")

FIG. 1- Normal padro

1.0 Fx 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

-4

-2

0 varivel aleatria X

2.4.4- Adicionando Linhas

abline(h=0.5, col="yellow") abline(v=0, col="yellow") abline(0.5,dnorm(0),col="blue") lines(c(-4,4),c(0.2,0.8),col="green")

FIG. 1- Normal padro

1.0 Fx 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

-4

-2

0 varivel aleatria X

2.4.5- Adicionando legendas

x = seq(0,1,0.1) y = (1-x)^2 + rnorm(length(x),0,0.2) plot(c(0,1),c(-0.2,1.2),type="n") points(x,y,pch=16) m1 = lm(y~x) y1 = m1$coef[1]+m1$coef[2]*x lines(x,y1,col="red") text(0.7, 0.95, expression(bold(m1)*":"*hat(y)[1]== hat(beta)[0] + hat(beta)[1]*"x"),col="red") x2 = x^2 m2 = lm(y~x+x2) y2 = m2$coef[1]+m2$coef[2]*x+m2$coef[3]*x2 lines(x,y2,col="blue") text(0.7, 0.85, expression(bold(m1)*":"*hat(y)[1]== hat(beta)[0] + hat(beta)[1]*"x" + hat(beta)[2]*"x"^2),col="blue")

1.0

1.2

c(-0.2, 1.2)

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

^ + ^ x ^ = m1:y 1 0 1 ^ + ^ x+ ^ x2 ^ = m1:y 1 0 1 2

0.0

0.2

0.4 c(0, 1)

0.6

0.8

1.0

2.4.6 Adicionando legendas com valores

x = seq(0,1,0.1) y = (1-x)^2 + rnorm(length(x),0,0.2) plot(c(0,1),c(-0.2,1.2),type="n") points(x,y,pch=16) m1 = lm(y~x) y1 = m1$coef[1]+m1$coef[2]*x lines(x,y1,col="red") t1 = paste("m1: y1 =",round(m1$coef[1],2)," + ",round(m1$coef[2],2)," x") text(0.7, 0.95,t1,col="red") x2 = x^2 m2 = lm(y~x+x2) y2 = m2$coef[1]+m2$coef[2]*x+m2$coef[3]*x2 lines(x,y2,col="blue") t2 = paste("m2: y2 =",round(m2$coef[1],2)," + ", round(m2$coef[2],2)," x"," + ",round(m2$coef[3],2)," x^2") text(0.7, 0.85,t2,col="blue")

1.0

1.2

m1: y1 = 0.9 + -1.04 x m2: y2 = 0.97 + -1.49 x + 0.46 x^2

c(-0.2, 1.2)

-0.2 0.0

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

0.2

0.4 c(0, 1)

0.6

0.8

1.0

2.5

Grficos 3D

ls() data(volcano) ls() ?volcano() persp(volcano)

volcano

Mudando o ngulo de viso:

persp(volcano, theta=70, phi=40, col="red")

Z
volcan o

2.5.1 Funes de duas variveis

y = x = seq(-2,2,length=20) f = function(x,y){ fxy = x^2 + y^2 return(fxy) } z = outer(x,y,f) persp(x,y,z,theta=30,phi=30, col="green")