Important Points Summary from Bushongs Radiologic Science for Technologists.

Chapter 4: The Atom An atom is the smallest particle that has all the properties of an element. The fundamental particles of an atom are the electron, the proton, and the neutron. The atom is essentially empty space. In their normal state, atoms are electrically neutral; the electric charge on the atom is ero. Ioni ation is the remo!al of an or"ital electron from an atom. #n# is the ma$imum num"er of electrons per shell %here n is the shell num"er. The num"er of electrons in the outermost shell of an atom is e&ual to its group in the periodic ta"le. The num"er of electrons in the outermost shell determines the !alence of an atom. The num"er of the outermost electron shell of an atom is e&ual to its period in the periodic ta"le. 'o outer shell can contain more than eight electrons. The force that (eeps an electron in or"it is centrifugal force. The atomic mass num"er and the precise mass of an atom are not e&ual. Isotopes: are atoms that ha!e the same atomic num"er "ut different atomic mass num"ers. Iso"ar: are atomic nuclei that ha!e the same atomic mass num"er "ut different atomic num"ers. Isotones: are atoms that ha!e the same num"er of neutrons "ut different num"ers of protons. Isomers: ha!e the same atomic num"er and the same atomic mass num"er. )olecule: atoms of !arious elements may com"ine to form structures called molecules. Chemical compound: any &uantity of one type of molecule. The smallest particle of an element is an atom* the smallest particle of a compound is a molecule. +adioacti!ity: the emission of particles and energy in order to "ecome sta"le. +adioacti!e decay results in emission of alpha particles, "eta particles, and usually gamma rays. ,alf-.ife: of a radioisotope is the time re&uired for a &uantity of radioacti!ity to "e reduced to one-half its original !alue. +adioacti!e /ecay: acti!ity remaining 0 original acti!ity 12.34n , %here n 0 the num"er of half-li!es. Alpha particle: a helium nucleus containing t%o protons and t%o neutrons. Beta particle: an electron emitted from the nucleus of a radioacti!e atom. 5-rays and gamma rays are the only forms of ioni ing electromagnetic radiation of radiologic interest. Chapter 3: 6lectromagnetic +adiation An $-ray photon is a &uantum of electromagnetic energy.

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The !elocity of all electromagnetic radiation is 9 $ 728 m:s. Amplitude is one half the range from crest to !alley o!er %hich the sine %a!e !aries. ;re&uency is the num"er of %a!elengths passing a point of o"ser!ation per second. At a gi!en !elocity, %a!elength and fre&uency are in!ersely proportional. <elocity 0 ;re&uency $ =a!elength 1for us !elocity is usually c, or the speed of light4 The electromagnetic spectrum includes the entire range of electromagnetic radiation. /iagnostic ultrasound is not a part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The energy of a photon is directly proportional to its fre&uency. The only difference "et%een $-rays and gamma rays is their origin. <isi"le light is identified "y %a!elength, radiofre&uency is identified "y fre&uency, and $-rays are identified "y energy. Photons interact %ith matter most easily %hen the matter is appro$imately the same si e as the photon or %a!elength. 5-rays "eha!e as though they are particles. <isi"le light "eha!es li(e a %a!e. +adiation attenuation is the reduction in intensity resulting from scattering and a"sorption. In!erse S&uare .a% I7:I# 0 1d#:d74# %here I is the intensity at distance d from the source. +adiation intensity is in!ersely related to the s&uare of the distance from the source. The in!erse s&uare la% can "e applied to distances greater than se!en times the longest dimension of the source. The $-ray photon is a discrete "undle of energy. The energy of a photon is directly proportional to its fre&uency.

Chapter 72: 5-+ay Production >inetic energy is the energy of motion. Appro$imately ??@ of the (inetic energy of proAectile electrons is con!erted to heat. Characteristic $-rays are emitted %hen an outer-shell electron fills an inner-shell !oid. Bnly the >-characteristic $-rays of tungsten are useful for imaging. This type of $-radiation is called characteristic "ecause it is characteristic of the target element. Bremsstrahlung $-rays are produced %hen a proAectile electron is slo%ed "y the electric field of a target atom nucleus. In the diagnostic range, most $-rays are "remsstrahlung $-rays. A discrete spectrum contains only specific !alues. # of 8

A continuous spectrum contains all possi"le !alues. Characteristic $-rays ha!e precisely fi$ed 1discrete4 energies and form a discrete emission spectrum. Bremsstralung $-rays ha!e a range of energies and form a continuous emission spectrum. )a$imum $-ray energy is associated %ith the minimum $-ray %a!elength. A change in mA or mAs results in a proportional change in the amplitude of the $-ray emission spectrum at all energies. A change in !oltage pea( affects "oth the amplitude and the position of the $-ray emission spectrum. A change in (<p has no effect on the position of the discrete $-ray emission spectrum. In the diagnostic range, a 73@ increase in (<p is e&ui!alent to dou"ling the mAs. The o!erall result of added filtration is an increase in the a!erage energy of the $ray "eam 1higher &uality, spectrum shift to the right4 %ith an accompanying reduction in $-ray &uantity 1reduced spectrum amplitude4. Increasing target atomic num"er increases the efficiency of $-ray production and the energy of characteristic and "remsstrahlung $-rays. Because of reduced ripple, operation %ith three-phase po%er or high fre&uency is e&ui!alent to appro$imate 7#@ increase in (<p or almost a dou"ling of mAs o!er single-phase po%er.

Chapter 77: 5-+ay 6mission 5-ray &uantity is the num"er of $-rays in the useful "eam. 5-ray &uantity is directly proportional to the mAs. 5-ray &uantity is proportional to the (<p#. 5-ray &uantity is in!ersely proportional to the s&uare of the distance form the source. Adding filtration to the useful $-ray "eam reduces patient dose. Penetra"ility is one description of the a"ility of an $-ray "eam to pass through tissue. Attenuation is the reduction in $-ray intensity resulting from a"sorption and scattering. The ,<. of an $-ray "eam is the thic(ness of a"sor"ing material necessary to reduce the $-ray intensity to half its original !alue. ,<. is the "est method for specifying $-ray &uality. Increasing the (<p pea( increases the &uality of an $-ray "eam. Increasing filtration increases the &uality of an $-ray "eam. Added filtration results in increased ,<.. Chapter 7#: 5-+ay Interaction %ith )atter Coherent scattering is of little importance to diagnostic radiology.

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The pro"a"ility of the Compton 6ffect is in!ersely proportional to energy and independent of atomic num"er. Compton scattering reduces contrast in an $-ray image. The photoelectric effect is total $-ray a"sorption interaction. The pro"a"ility of the photoelectric effect is in!ersely proportional to the third po%er of the $-ray energy 17:694. The pro"a"ility of photoelectric effect is directly proportional to the third po%er of the atomic num"er of the a"sor"ing material. Pair production does not occur during $-ray imaging. Photodisintegration does not occur in diagnostic radiology. /ifferential a"sorption occurs "ecause of Compton scattering, photoelectric, effect, and $0rays transmitted through the patient. /ifferential a"sorption increases as the (<p is reduced. To image small differences in soft tissue, one must use lo% (<p to get ma$imum differential a"sorption. The interaction "et%een $-rays and tissue is proportional to the mass density of the tissue regardless of the type of interaction. Attentuation is the product of a"sorption and scattering.

Chapter 79: +adiographic ;ilm Image-forming $-rays are those that e$it the patient and interact %ith the image receptor. The "ase of radiographic film is 732 to 922 Cm thic(, semi-rigid, lucent, and made of polyester. /uring sil!er halide crystal formation the sil!er "romide is precipitated %hile the potassium nitrate, %hich is solu"le, is %ashed a%ay. The latent image is the in!isi"le change induced in the sil!er halide crystal. An ion is an atom that has either too many or too fe% electrons and therefore is electrically charged. The result is the same %hether the interaction in!ol!es !isi"le light from an intensifying screen or direct e$posure "y $-rays. .arge-grain emulsions are more sensiti!e than small-grain emulsions. Crosso!er is the e$posure of an emulsion "y light from the opposite side of the radiographic intensifying screen. +are earth screens are made %ith rare earth elements, those %ith atomic num"ers of 3D to D7. +eciprocity .a%: 6$posure 0 Intensity $ Time 0 Constant Bptical /ensity. The fog le!el for unprocessed film is appro$imately 2.# m+. Chapter 74: Processing the .atent Image /e!eloping is the stage of processing during %hich the latent image is con!erted to a !isi"le image.

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;i$ing the sil!er halide that %asnt e$posed to radiation is the process of clearing it from the emulsion and hardening the emulsion to preser!e the image. Synergism occurs %hen the action of t%o agents %or(ing together is greater than the sum of the action of each agent %or(ing independently. .ac( of sufficient glutaraldehyde may "e the "iggest cause of pro"lems %ith automatic processing. Archi!al &uality refers to the permanence of the radiograph: the image thus does not deteriorate %ith age "ut remains in its original state. Sil!er sulfide stain is the most common cause of poor archi!al &uality. The shorter dimension of the film should al%ays "e against the side rail in order to maintain the proper replenishment rate. ;ilm transport time should not !ary "y more than #@ in either direction of the time specified "y the manufacturer. Cleaning the tan(s and the transport system should "e a part of the routine maintenance of any processor. )ost processing faults leading to damp film are due to a depletion of glutaradehyde, the hardener in the de!eloper. A finished radiograph that is damp easily pic(s up dust particles that could result in artifacts.

Chapter 73: Intensifying Screens The radiographic intensifying screen amplifies the image-forming $-rays that reach the screen-film cassette. The phosphor con!erts the $-ray "eam into light. Isotropic emission means radiation %ith e&ual intensity in all directions. Intensification factor 0 e$posure re&uired %ithout screen : e$posure re&uired %ith screens ,igher con!ersion efficiency results in increased noise. Eenerally, those conditions that increase the I; reduce spatial resolution. In mammography, the screen is positioned in contact %ith the emulsion on the side of the film a%ay from the $-ray source to reduce screen "lur and impro!e spatial resolution. Screen-film compati"ility is essential* use only those films for %hich the screens are designed. +are earth radiographic intensifying screens ha!e the principal ad!antage of speed. The com"ination of impro!ed con!ersion efficiency and higher $-ray a"sorption results in the increased speed of rare earth radiographic intensifying screens. Chapter 7F: Beam-+estricting /e!ices Collimation reduces patient dose and impro!es contrast resolution. Appro$imately 7@ of incident $-rays reach the image receptor. Scatter radiation increases as the field si e of the $-ray "eam increases.

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Compression of anatomy impro!es spatial and contrast resolution and lo%ers patient dose. Collimation reduces patient dose and impro!es contrast resolution. Gnder no circumstances should the $-ray "eam e$ceed the si e of the image receptor.

Chapter 7D: The Erid +educed image contrast results from scattered $-rays. Erid ration 0 h : / ,igh-ratio grids increase patient radiation dose. The use of high-fre&uency grids re&uires high radiographic techni&ue and results in higher patient radiation dose. The principal function of a grid is to impro!e image contrast. The contrast impro!ement factor 10 contrast %ith grid : contrast %ithout grid4 is higher for high-ratio grids. As the Buc(y factor 1patient dose %ith grid : patient dose %ithout grid4 increases, radiographic techni&ue and patient dose increase proportionately. Selecti!ity 0 primary radiation transmitted through grid : scatter radiation transmitted through grid Erid characteristics o high-ratio grids ha!e high contrast impro!ement factors o high-fre&uency grids ha!e lo% contrast impro!ement factors o hea!y grids ha!e high selecti!ity and high contrast impro!ement factors The main disad!antage of parallel and crossed grid is grid cutoff. ,igh-ratio grids ha!e less positioning latitude than lo%-ratio grids. Bff-le!el grid causes grid cutoff across image* undere$posed, light image Bff-center grid causes grid cutoff across image* undere$posed, light image Bff-focus grid causes grid cutoff to%ard edge of image Gpside-do%n grid causes se!ere grid cutoff to%ard edge of image. In general, grid ratios up to 8:7 are satisfactory at tu"e potentials "elo% ?2 (<p. Erid ratios a"o!e 8:7 are used %hen (<p e$ceeds ?2(<p. Erid selection factors o patient dose increases %ith increasing grid ratio o high-ratio grids are usually used for high-(<p e$aminations o patient dose at high (<p is less than that at lo% (<p Bne disad!antage of the air-gap techni&ue is image magnification %ith associated focal spot "lur. Chapter 78: +adiographic 6$posure (<p controls radiographic contrast. =ith a constant e$posure time, mA controls $-ray &uantity and therefore patient dose. 5-ray &uality remains fi$ed %ith a change in mA. F of 8

Short e$posure time reduces motion "lur. mAs controls optical density 1B/4. mAs is one measure of electrostatic charge. Bnly the $-ray &uantity is affected "y changes in mAs. /istance has no effect on radiation &uality. /istance 1SI/4 affects B/. Changing the focal spot for a gi!en (<p:mAs setting does not change $-ray &uantity of &uality. ,alf-%a!e rectification results in the same radiation &uality as that for full-%a!e rectification, "ut the radiation &uantity is hal!ed. The radiation &uality does not change %hen going from half-%a!e to full-%a!e rectification* ho%e!er, the radiation &uantity dou"les. Three-phase po%er results in higher $-ray &uantity and &uality. ,igh-fre&uency generation results in e!en higher $-ray &uantity and &uality.

Chapter 7?: Image Huality Spatial resolution impro!es as screen "lur decreases, motion "lur decreases, and geometric "lur decreases. +adiographic noise is the random fluctuation of B/ of the image. The use of high mAs, lo% (<p settings, and slo%er image receptors reduces &uantum mottle. +adiographic &uality rules o fast image receptors ha!e high noise and lo% spatial resolution and contrast resolution. o high spatial resolution and contrast resolution re&uire lo% noise and slo% image receptors o lo% noise accompanies slo% image receptors %ith high spatial resolution and contrast resolution An increase in .+6 1log relati!e e$posure4 of 2.9 results from dou"ling the radiation e$posure. ,igher fog density reduces the contrast of the radiographic image. Base plus fog B/ has a range of appro$imately 2.7 to 2.9. The reciprocity la% states that B/ on a radiograph is proportional only to the total energy imparted to the radiographic film. +adiographic contrast is the product of image receptor contrast and su"Aect contrast. ;ilm contrast is related to the slope of the straight-line portion of the characteristic cur!e. .atitude and contrast are in!ersely proportional. Eeometric factors o magnification o distortion o focal-spot "lur D of 8

)agnification factor 0 source-to-image receptor distance : source-to-o"Aect distance )inimi ing magnification o large SI/: use as large a source-to-image receptor distance as possi"le o small BI/: place the o"Aect as close to the image receptor as possi"le Gne&ual magnification of different portions of the same o"Aect is called shape distortion. /istortion depends on the o"Aects: o thic(ness o position o shape Thic( o"Aects are more distorted than thin o"Aects. If the o"Aect plane and image plane are not parallel, distortion occurs. ;ocal-spot "lur occurs "ecause the focal spot is not a point. ;ocal-spot "lur is the most important factor in determining spatial resolution. The focal-spot "lur is small on the anode side and large on the cathode-side. (<p is the most important influence on su"Aect contrast. Patient motion is usually the cause of motion "lur. Principles to "e considered %hen planning a particular e$amination: o use of intensifying screens decreases patient dose "y a factor of at least #2 o as the speed of the image receptor increases, radiographic noise increases and spatial resolution is decreased. o lo%-contrast imaging procedures ha!e a %ider latitude, margin of error, in producing an accepta"le radiograph. >eep e$posure time as short as possi"le. The primary control of radiographic contrast is (<p. The primary control of B/ is mAs.

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