Baron-Cohen Cognitive approach Background B-Cs own research with children (Sally-Anne test); other tests with adults

s (Happe) sample Sample method Autistic/Asperger Syndrome (ASD) 13 m 3 f; Tourettes; Normal 25f+25M (non-university, matched for age range) ASD: Self selecting (advert in autistic magazine) + some known to B-C; Tourettes: self selecting - invited via clinic Normal: random from Cambridge University pool of volunteers Lab experiment; Quasi Autism / Normal / Tourettes (control) score when reading eyes Self-report ASD Ps lower mean scores in eyes test + strange stories task cf. Tourette's & normal Ps. All Ps = comparable scores on 2x control tasks Eyes task is useful alternative test for ASD (concurrent validity cf. qualitative Happes strange stories + quantitative); Reading emotion in eyes requires Theory of Mind

Loftus & Palmer Cognitive approach Background sample Sample method Method IV DV Technique results Studies on memory showing post-event information can distort recall; police interest in accuracy of Eye Witness Testimony 45 (exp 1) +150 (exp 2) students M/F Opportunity TWO Lab experiments; True 5 verbs (exp1); 2 verbs + control (exp 2) Mean estimated speed (exp 1); false recall of broken glass (exp 2) self-report Speed estimate reflected strength of verb (exp 1) Memory more likely to be distorted by verb smashed (16/50 exp 2) than control (7/50) or hit (8/50) Conclusion Memory may be distorted by post-event information

Method IV DV Technique results Conclusion

Savage-Rumbough Cognitive approach Background Sample Sample method Method Method Techniques Results Claim that only humans can learn language (LAD theory); previous research with chimps and language Two pygmy chimpanzees (Bonobos), Kanzi ands his sister Mulika. Two common chimpanzees Sherman and Austin. Opportunity (Kanzis learning found serendipitously before study) Lab experiment Case study Observation (including blind trial) and testing (verbal and non-verbal) Kanzi learnt like a human child because he copied things from his mum at first and then started learning for himself like a child; Bonobos responded well to speech, common chimps angry and confused; common chimps over-generalised; Bonobos requested items for each other, common chimps only for themselves Pygmy chimps can learn in the a very similar way to humans; language may not be uniquely human

Cognitive approach Assumptions internal mental processes such as memory, thinking, reasoning, problem-solving and language, are important features influencing human behaviour has provided explanations of e.g. how specific cognitive deficits influence behaviour animals other than humans are capable of using language influence of leading questions on memory It has useful applications e.g. police should avoid using leading questions diagnosis of autism in adults to speech therapist trying to develop childrens language Tends to be reliable through use of controlled experiments often relies on Self-report technique = demand characteristics Usually studied through laboratory experiments [S-R = case studies in lab conditions] so lack ecological validity often reductionist - ignores the complexity of human functioning e.g. biological / social / psychodynamic factors

Strengths

Weaknesses

Conclusion

Samuel and Bryant Developmental Approach ID Conservation Background Sample Sample method Method IV1 DV Technique Results Conclusion Piaget, <7yos could not conserve; Rose and Blank - children confused by 2 Qs - could conserve quantity if only asked 1 256 children, 5-8yo, M/F, from schools / playgroups in Devon. opportunity Lab experiment age, IV2 = task (mass, volume and number), IV3= condition (2Q 1Q; fixed array) mean number of errors in conservation test self report Older children made fewer errors; 1Q condition = under 7s made fewer errors; fewer errors on number task, most on volume task Failure on traditional 2-question conservation task partly due to 2Q confusion > cant conserve; still marked change @ 7yo

BanduraDevelopmental Approach Background Debate over the influence of aggression; Freudian explanation was seeing aggression was cathartic (release) = reduced feelings of aggression after watching aggression 72 children; 36M, 36F; mean age 4; all from Stanford University Nursery Opportunity Lab Experiment; Quasi (sex) True (model) (IV1) Sex of model; (IV2) aggression/non-aggression shown by model; (IV3) sex of participant Imitation of aggression (verbal/physical) Observation Children observing aggressive models are more likely to be aggressive; Boys more physically and verbally aggressive overall; Boys and girls most physically aggressive after Male Aggressive model; Girls most affected by same sex models for verbal aggression Children imitate behaviour of aggressive models; Male models have stronger influence on physical aggression; imitation influenced by identification with role models; cathartic theory not supported

Sample Sample Method Method IV DV Technique Results

Conclusion

Freud Developmental Approach Background Freud had tried to explain the unconscious mind in terms of early childhood development but not investigated young children directly 1 boy age 4+ (little Hans) Case study Opportunity Self report + observation by father (Max); Freud only met Hans x1 Hans liked to play with his widdler; fantasies about giraffes (interpreted as taking his mum away from his dad); plumber cutting of his widdler (but replacing it with copper!); Hans like to talk about lumf; Hans had a phobia of horses; fantasy where Hand became father (= husband of his mum), Max became grandfather = resolution of Oedipus complex Hans was experiencing the Oedipus complex; Hans was going through the anal and then phallic stages of infant sexuality

Developmental Approach Assumptions internal mental processes such as memory, thinking, reasoning, problem-solving and language, are important features influencing human behaviour Explanations: why differing ages demonstrate different intellectual abilities, social skills and emotional responses Adding knowledge to the continuing nature versus nurture debate Applications: Controlling violence on childrens TV (Bandura); Helping teachers understand learning processes (Samuel and Bryant) Methodology: use of variety of approaches = match method to issue under investigation (considering all 3 studies) Determinism: Many proposals about age-related development have been shown to be too rigid [e.g. Freud; Piaget] Ethics: often uses children [consent/vulnerable to harm]

Sample Method Sample method Techniques Results

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Weaknesses

Conclusion

Maguirephysiological / biological approach Background hippocampus plays a role in spatial memory; view that brain could not change in adults Sample Sample method Method IV DV Technique Results 16 RH. M, taxi drivers, age range 32-62, licensed for >1.5 years, no health problems + 16 matched non taxi drivers Self selecting (ad) taxi drivers (TDs) + non-TDs 16/50MRI scans from pool of volunteers Lab experiment + Correlation non taxi drivers + taxi drivers difference in shape of hippocampus MRI scan of hippocampus (VBM - density of grey matter + Pixel Counting of hippocampal volume VBM/ Pixel = more grey matter in hipocampi of TDs; Non taxi drivers = more grey meter in anterior region; no overall difference in volume; positive correlation time spent as TD - volume posterior hippocampus relationship between navigational skills and relative distribution of grey matter in the hippocampus; brain can change as a result of experience

Sperry physiological / biological approach Background Before brain imaging technology of 1980s little was known about working brain, esp. role of corpus calosum (Sperry got Nobel prize) 11 Ps with severe epilepsy, had split brain surgery Opportunity Lab experiment presence of split brain (non-split brain control for contradictory task performance on the tests images in visual field (VF) only recognised if re-appearing in same one; verbal response only to right side prompts; Split Brain Ps did not slow down on contradictory task brain functions divided by hemisphere; each hemisphere is capable of a separate consciousness

Sample Sample method Method IV DV Results

Conclusion

Conclusion

Dement and Kleitman physiological / biological approach Background Sample Sample method Method IV DVs Other findings Psychodynamic psychology tried to explain dreams via interpretation; D&K want to find a scientific, reliable approach 9 adults, 7M/2F; 5 studied intensively Not reported! Lab experiment IV1) Woken in REM or nREM sleep; IV2) woken after 5 or 25 min REM; For IV1) Recall of dreams; For IV2) estimation of dream length (5 or 15 min); Found correlation of dream content to eye movement via self reports + observations; Found pattern: REM-nREM sleep 90 min cycle via EEG readings Ps woken in REM sleep more likely to recall dreams than in nREM; Observation / Physiological measures (EEG/EOG) Dreaming is accompanied by REM activity, eye-movement probably represents seeing content of dream; = scientific basis for research

Biological Perspective physiological / biological approach All that is psychological is first physiological that since the mind apAssumptions pears to reside in the brain, all thoughts, feelings and behaviours ultimately have a physiological cause. Strengths has provided explanations of e.g. It provides strong counter-arguments to the nurture side of the naturenurture debate It has useful applications e.g. Rehabilitation after brain damage Treating sleep disorders such as REM deprived sleep patterns Its research methods are very reliable [via machines] Weaknesses It is very reductionist [too much emphasis on biological factors [e.g. psychodynamic view of dreams as more than a biological process] It is very determinist [little room for free will/choice] Predominant research method (experiments) has low ecological validity [lab processes not like real life e.g. D&K]

Results Technique Conclusion

Piliavin social approach Background nobody helped in murder of Kitty Genovese; diffusion of responsibility explanation sample Sample method IVs DVs Method Technique results 4,000+ 45% black and 55% white M/F New Yorkers Opportunity IV(1) lame/drunk victim; IV(2) white/black victim; IV(3) latency of model; IV(4) proximity of model; IV(5) crowd size DV(1) time to help (latency); DV(2) helper gender; DV(3) helper 'race' Field Experiment Observation people helped quickly; (IV1) lame helped more than drunk; (IV2) 'race' not significant; (IV3) quicker model more help; (IV5) crowd size no effect; (DV2) males helped more helping determined via cost-benefit calculation; no diffusion of responsibility due to being 'trapped'

Milgram social approach Background Nazi Germany - soldiers obeyed orders to kill innocent civilians; authoritarian personality (individualistic) explanation of lethal obedience 40M; 20 - 50; wide range of occupations; paid $4.50 ad + flyers for learning experiment Lab Experiment/Simulation (not strictly experiment with IVs) Record of willingness to shock @ 450v = obedience Observation of reactions to procedure 65% obeyed to 450v ; 100% @ 300v Ps reacted strongly to stress - hysterical laughter; gouging back of hand; ordinary people will obey lethal orders (13 explanations for why participants obeyed)

Sample Self-Selecting Method Techniques

Results

Conclusion

Conclusion

Reicher & Halsam social approach ID Tyranny - BBC Prison Study Background Sample Sample Method Method IV DV Techniques Results Zimbardo's claim that roles determine behaviour (ignoring Social Identity) 15M, various backgrounds; mentally healthy (lots of checks) Self-selecting (newspaper ad) + extensive checks on mental health + interviews and psychometric test (matched pairs allocation) Experiment (simulation of prison) (time series) (IV1) Permeability of Roles; (IV2) Legitimacy of Roles; (IV3) Cognitive Alternatives Social Identity + levels of stress + authoritarianism Self-reports (psychometric tests); Observations (CCTV); Spit test for cortisol (stress hormone) Permeability of roles = low Social Identity; Low Legitimacy = low SI; Cognitive Alternatives = Hi SI (for prisoners); Lack of agreement to apply rules leads to Tyranny Social Identity can be a component in promoting or controlling Tyranny

Social approach Assumptions

other people and the surrounding environment are major influences on an individuals behaviour, thought processes and emotions Explanations: how behaviour can be influenced by other people and the situation in which people find themselves Often uses more ecological valid methods (filed experiments and realistic simulations) Applications: reducing tyranny in institutions such as prisons; advice to members of the public / emergency services about helping in emergencies; training armed forces about the dangers of following extreme orders.

Strengths

Weaknesses

Reductionist: e.g. may underestimate the influence of individual differences / biology / psychodynamic factors on behaviour; Often raises ethical issues in its research technique (observation) e.g. informed consent / psychological harm

Conclusion

Thigpen & Cleckley Individual Differences Approach Background unclear cases of identity; young lady suffering from headaches from which she has lapses of memory one young woman opportunity

RosenhanIndividual Differences Approach Background Sample Sample method Debates about the nature of mental illness; suggestions of ill-treatment of patients Staff (Doctors, Nurses, Orderlies) 12 hospitals Opportunity Observation (covert) Field observation / 12 case studies + field experiment (would staff talk to patients?) + follow up Behaviour of staff towards pseudopatients and patients; reports on suspected pseudopatients (second study) Staff labelled all behaviours as abnormal and fulfilled their own predictions of insanity among sane patients; staff ignored patients; therapeutic time <8 minutes per day; staff suspected 1/10 non-pseudo patients It is not possible to distinguish sanity from insanity; diagnosis is based on sticky labelling

Sample Sample method Method Techniques

Technique Case study self-report (interview) + observation + TESTS: EEG + psychometrics (IQ, memory) + projective (Rorschach) Patient showed sharp personality changes; each alter lucid; EW higher IQ and memory scores; EW & Jane had similar EEG; EB faster; a rare case of multiple personality disorder caused by childhood trauma Method Measures Results

Results

Conclusion

Conclusions

Griffiths Individual Differences Approach background Sample Sample Method Method IV DV Difficulty of explaining individual difference in gambling via reinforcement or rational choice theory n=60, mean age 23.4 RGs (29M/1F); NRGs (15M/15F) self selecting (via posters in uni.) + some opportunity RGs field experiment (in arcade) regular gamblers (RG) or non-regular gamblers (NRG) (a) Behaviour: total plays; total time play rate; end stake; wins; win rate time; win rate plays (b) Cognition: irrational verbalisations, claims to skill Cognition via self-reports (talking allowed, post procedure interview) + Behaviour via observation RGs significantly higher play rate; RGs more erroneous heuristics; RGs believed in own skill; NRGs more irrelevant speech RGs think differently to NRGs; use faulty heuristics (thinking techniques) e.g. Confirmation bias; Illusion of control; Hindsight bias; Fundamental attribution error

Individual Differences Approach Assumptions Individuals differ in their behaviour and personal qualities so not everyone can be considered the average person has provided explanations of e.g. allows psychologists to suggest causes of (rare) mental disorders allows psychologists to suggest why individuals behave in ways those individual themselves cannot easily explain or understand. It has useful applications e.g. treatment of rare mental disorders [T&C] treatment and diagnosis of people worried bout mentally health Often emphasises collection of qualitative data, strengthening validity studies which take this approach often use unrepresentative samples often uses interpretation in methods so may not be objective and therefore open to bias (lowers validity) based on concepts that are difficult to test and verify scientifically (lowers reliability) ethics ID tends to use vulnerable Ps [harm/consent]

Strengths

Technique Results Conclusion

Weaknesses

Thigpen & Cleckley - essentially psychodynamic approach taken Background unclear cases of identity; young lady suffering from headaches from which she has lapses of memory one young woman opportunity Case study self-report (interview) + observation + TESTS: EEG + psychometrics (IQ, memory) + projective (Rorschach) Patient showed sharp personality changes; each alter lucid; EW higher IQ and memory scores; EW & Jane had similar EEG; EB faster; a rare case of multiple personality disorder caused by childhood trauma (unconscious mind attempting to deal with trauma by repression [EW] and regression [EB]

Freud - invented this perspective! Background Freud had tried to explain the unconscious mind in terms of early childhood development but had not investigated young children directly 1 boy age 4+ (little Hans) Case study Opportunity Self report + observation Hans liked to play with this widdler; had fantasies about spending time with him mum away from his dad; had fantasies about giraffes, and the plumber cutting of his widdler; Hans like to talk about lumf; Hans had a phobia of horses; Hans was experiencing the Oedipus complex; Hans was going through the anal and then phallic stages of infant sexuality; Oedipus complex resolved through 'farther becomes grandfather' fantasy;

Sample Sample method Method Techniques

Sample Method Sample method Techniques Results

Results

Conclusion

Conclusion

Bandura NOTE very limited reference to psychodynamic theory! Background Sample Sample Method Method IV DV Technique Results Debate over the influence of aggression; 72 children; 36M, 36F; mean age 4; all from Stanford University Nursery Opportunity Lab Experiment; Quasi (sex) True (model) (IV1) Sex of model; (IV2) aggression/non-aggression shown by model; (IV3) sex of participant Imitation of aggression (verbal/physical) Observation Boys more physically and verbally aggressive overall; Boys and girls most physically aggressive after Male Aggressive model; Girls most affected by same sex models for verbal aggression Children identify with their same-sex parent; this is subconsciously transferred to other same sex adults (here the role models)

Psychodynamic Perspective Assumptions Strengths Many important influences on behaviour come from a part of the mind individuals have no direct awareness of, the unconscious has provided explanations of e.g. Phobias (Hans' fear of horse = subconscious transfer of fear of father) Multiple Personality (results from subconscious unable to cope with childhood trauma, personalities 'defend' subconscious via repression / regression It has useful applications e.g. Dealing with phobia Treating (resolving) Multiple Personality Main Method gathers detailed and extensive evidence (via use of Case Study) Evidence is from interpretation / case studies, subject to experimenter bias Deterministic - assumes subconscious dominates free will Reductionist - ignores other factors such as learned behaviour (phobia acquired via Classical conditioning, e.g. little Albert)

Weaknesses

Conclusion

Savage-Rumbough - as a behaviourist study Background Sample Sample method Claim that only humans can learn language (LAD theory); previous research with chimps and language Two pygmy chimpanzees (Bonobos), Kanzi ands his sister Mulika. Two common chimpanzees Sherman and Austin. Opportunity (Kanzis learning found serendipitously before study, via Social Learning [imitation of mother]) Chimps trained via operant conditioning Lab experiment (in 55 acre naturalistic enclosure + lab) Case study Observation (including blind trial) and testing (verbal and non-verbal) a behavioral concordance measure: Ps verify utterances x9/ 10; Only spontaneous utterances counted Kanzi learnt like a human; Bonobos responded well to speech, common chimps angry and confused; common chimps over-generalised; Bonobos requested items for each other, common chimps only for themselves Pygmy chimps can learn in the a very similar way to humans; language may not be uniquely human

Bandura as a behaviourist study Behaviourist aspect Sample Sample Method Method IV DV Technique Results Social Learning theory - Children learned aggression via imitation of role models; rewarded vicariously = by the excitement of watching adults behave aggressively 72 children; 36M, 36F; mean age 4; Stanford University Nursery Opportunity Lab Experiment; Quasi (sex) True (model) (IV1) Sex of model; (IV2) aggression/non-aggression shown by model; (IV3) sex of participant Imitation of aggression (verbal/physical) Observation Children observing aggressive models are more likely to be aggressive; both most physically aggressive after Male Aggressive model; Boys more physically and verbally aggressive overall; Girls most affected by same sex models for verbal aggression Children imitate behaviour of aggressive models; Models have stronger influence when children identify with them

Method Method Techniques

Results

Conclusion

Conclusion

Griffiths - as a behaviourist study Behaviourist aspect Gamblers continue to gamble because they are rewarded by the payout; paradoxically this is reinforced (operant conditioning) by being random and rare n=60, mean age 23.4 RGs 29M/1F NRGs (15 males15 females) self selecting (advert in uni.) + some opportunity RGs field experiment regular gamblers (RG) or non-regular gamblers (NRG) (a) Behaviour total plays; total time play rate; end stake; wins; win rate time; win rate plays (b) Cognition self-report + observation RGs significantly higher play rate; RGs more erroneous heuristics; RGs believed in own skill; NRGs more irrelevant speech RGs think differently to NRGs; use faulty heuristics (thinking techniques) e.g. Confirmation bias; Illusion of control; Hindsight bias; Fundamental attribution error NOTE this means that operant conditioning cannot explain regular v non-regular differences, esp. addiction

Behaviourist Perspective Assumptions Reinforcement (rewards and punishments, are important features influencing human behaviour Has provided explanations of e.g. How human/ animal behaviours can be modified by experiences How aggression can be learnt How language can be learnt It has useful applications e.g. Controlling violence on childrens TV Helping teachers understand learning processes Weaknesses Determinism: Leaves little room for free will (fails to explain individual differences Ethics tends to lead to manipulation of Ps (and people when applied) Reductionism: Tries to explain complex human behaviour with a simple, single idea

Sample Sample Method Method IV DV Technique Results Conclusion

Strengths