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PSD 136
CONTINUING EDUCATION
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INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses various piping systems uniquely associated with the physical care, health, and well-being of laboratory animals. Included are various utility systems for animal watering, water treatment, room and floor cleaning, equipment washing, cage flushing and drainage, and other specialized piping required for laboratory and experimental work within the facility. Other systems involved with general laboratory and facility work, such as those for compressed gases and plumbing, are discussed in their respective chapters.
GEnErAL
It is expected that a facility involved with long-term studies will have different operating and animal drinking-water quality requirements than one used for medical research. For critical studies, the various utility systems shall incorporate design features necessary to ensure reliability and provide a consistent environment. As many variables as are practical (or desirable) shall be eliminated to ensure the accuracy of the ongoing experiments being conducted. Regardless of the facility type, different users and owners have individual priorities based on experiences, operating philosophies, and corporate cultures that must be established prior to the start of the final design phase of a project. 1. The local codes applicable to plumbing systems must be observed in the design and installation of ordinary plumbing fixtures and potable water and drainage lines for the facility. 2. 10-CFR-58 is the code (by the agencies of the federal government) for good laboratory practice for nonclinical laboratory studies. 3. 21-CFR-211, cGMP, requires compliance with FDA protocols for pharmaceutical applications. 4. NIH publication 86-23, Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. 5. American Association for Accrediation of Laboratory Animal Care (AAALAC). Inspection and accreditation by the AAALAC is accepted by the NIH as assurance that the facility is in compliance with Public Health Services (PHS) standards.
Reprinted from Pharmaceutical Facilities Plumbing Systems, Chapter 7: Animal-care Facility Piping Systems, by Michael Frankel. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 2 Plumbing Systems & Design
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These bottles could be filled either by hand or automatically via the operating cost of the proposed system, the species of aniSimpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com a bottle filler. mals housed in the facility, and the animal-housing methods. Automatic bottle fillers should be considered to reduce the The overall objective is to eliminate as many variables as postime necessary to fill bottles and minimize water spillage. Bottle sible for the entire period of time the studies or experiments are fillers are available with manifolds to fit any size bottles. They conducted. can be supplied with purified water from a central water supply The most often-used treatment for drinking water is reverse andwith separate, programmable proportionerscould osmosis. Other possible treatment methods are distillation acidify, chlorinate, and medicate the water as required. The and deionization. A discussion of these purification methods bottle filler automates the filling procedure so that the bottles appears in the chapter Water Systems. are correctly positioned during filling and stops the flow when Reverse Osmosis the water reaches a predetermined level. When a higher-quality water is required and other types of puriFlushing System In order to maintain drinking-water quality, the drinking-water distribution system should be flushed periodically. This is accomplished by having the same drinking water that is normally distributed to the animals flow through the piping system at an elevated flow rate, pressure, and velocity. The water is sent to drain and not recovered. This is initiated automatically at the drinking-water pressure-reducing station by the addition of separate regulating valves and pressure-regulating arrangements. Different flushing arrangements are possible, depending on the cost, facility protocol, and purity desired. One method flushes only the main runs by the addition of a solenoid valve at the end of the main run and the provision of a return line to drain from this point. Another method is to flush the mains and the room-distribution piping by adding the solenoid valve at the end of each room-distribution branch with the return line to drain from each room. A third method flushes the entire system, including the rack manifold, by adding a solenoid valve on each cage connection to the room-distribution pipe, which flushes the recoil hose and the rack manifold. It is accepted practice to replace all the drinking water in the room-distribution piping system at regular intervals, a minimum of twice daily. To approximate the amount of water in the pipe, allow 1 gal (4 L) for each 33 ft 0 in. (10 m) of pipe. General practice is to flush the system with water at about 15 psi (90 kPa) at a rate of 15 gpm (60 L/min). If the drinking water is not purified, it is recommended that the piping be flushed at least twice daily for about 2 min. For purified water, flush once daily for about 1 min. Flushing can be done manually by means of a valve in the pressure-reducing station enclosure or automatically by the addition of a bypass and solenoid valve around the low-pressure assembly to the pressure-reducing station. The sequence and duration of the automatic flush cycle is controlled from a flush-sequencer panel. Figure 7-1 fied water are not available in a facility, reverse osmosis (RO) is normally selected. Since the amount of water is usually small, a package type unit mounted on a skid is provided and connected directly to the water supply. The RO system is flexible and, when used in combination with DI water supply, will provide water that is virtually contamination free. Disinfection and Medication of Drinking Water Disinfection chemical mixtures are added to the animal drinking-water supply to eliminate and control bacterial contamination in the central and room-distribution piping system. Medication is added to conform with experimental protocols if necessary. These mixtures are usually introduced into the piping system by a self-contained, central, proportioning (injector) unit using facility water pressure. Medication is added to the drinking water using the same proportioning equipment that adds disinfectant. All equipment is available in a wide range of sizes and materials. A schematic detail of a typical central proportioner is illustrated in Figure 7-1. Chlorination Chlorination is a recognized biocidal treatment that leaves a residual of chlorine in the entire central-distribution system. Hyperchlorinated water is not as corrosive as acidified water and could be used with brass/copper distribution system components. Accepted practice is to provide a pH higher than 4, with a residual range of free chlorine between 5 and 12 ppm. Free chlorine in water dissipates in time with light, heat, and reaction with organic contaminants, making it ineffective when water bottles are used. Chlorine creates toxic compounds in reaction with some water contaminants and medications. Acidification Acidification has an advantage over chlorination in that it is more stable and lasts longer in the system. The disadvantage is that corrosion-resistant materials must be used. The pH range should be between 2.5 and 3 in order to be effecTypical Central Proportioning Unit
The secondary pressure-reducing assembly used to provide automatically room-distribution pipe-flushing water operates at a pressure of 15 psig (102 kPa). This assembly is installed as a bypass around the low-pressure assembly. Manual operation at a lower cost could also be provided. This additional pressure for a short period of time will not cause the animals any difficulty if they decide to drink during the flushing cycle. One pressure-reducing station can be connected to as many as 35 interconnect stations to small animal-rack manifolds, often referred to as drops. This allows 1 station to control more than 1 animal room. The pressure-reducing station is a preassembled unit complete with all the various valves, fittings, and reducing valves required for a specific project. All the components are installed in a cabinet, which requires only mounting and utility connections. DrinKing VALvES Drinking valves are used by the animals to obtain water from the distributionsystem piping. An internal mechanism keeps the valve normally closed; the animal drinking from the valve must open it by some action, such as moving the entire valve or operating a small lever inside the body of the valve with the tongue. Many different kinds of valve are available to supply any type of animal that may be kept in the facility. The valves can be mounted on cages, on the rack manifold, or on the walls of pens and kennels at varying heights with the use of special brackets.
AniMAL-RAcK MAniFoLd ConFigurAtionS The configuration of the piping on the animal rack plays an important part in the effectiveness and efficiency of the filling and flushing of the drinking-water system. The two most oftenused configurations are the reverse S and the H. The reverse S, illustrated in Figure 7-2, is the most often-used configuration. It has two basic styles based on the valve location in the flush drain line. One style has a supply control valve at the top and the other has a drain valve at the bottom. Either location is acceptable, with the deciding factor being the ease of operating the valve where the rack is installed. This configuration has the advantage of eliminating dead legs and offers more convenience to facility personnel when they fill the piping after washing. The vent is a manually operated air bleed used when the cage rack is reconnected to the room-distribution pipe. It is opened until water is discharged, thereby eliminating any air pockets in the manifold. This manifold style provides a positive exchange of water during flushing with a minimum usage of time and water.
Figure 7-3 Typical Room Distribution, On-Line, Rack Manifold Flushing System
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This configuration is used far more than any The pipe sizes in other areas of the Figure 7-4 Standard S Conguration Manifold Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com other manifold style. It is easily converted animal facility are determined based on to automatic flushing by the installation of the requirements of maximum flow rate at solenoid devices on the valve. It is recomthe necessary pressure to supply the flushmended when micro-isolator cage systems ing velocity. Maximum flow rate depends are installed. The complete, on-line, rackon the flush sequencing, and the pressure manifold flushing system is illustrated in drop depends on overcoming pressure Figure 7-3. This cage system has the advanloss through the equipment connected to tage of the complete isolation of individual the branch being sizedsuch as pressurecages, with the accompanying capability reducing stations, solenoid valves, and for additional flushing and disinfection of recoil hosesand friction loss through the the piping system. piping network. Allowance must be made One variation of the reverse S is the to provide a sufficiently high flow rate and standard S, illustrated in Figure 7-4. This water velocity to efficiently provide the configuration has the advantage of comflushing action desired. plete on-line flushing and lower initial cost CLEAning And DrAinAgE SYStEMS of the manifold. Disadvantages are the And PrActicES need for extra supports on the cage rack GEnErAL and the need for venting to be done manKeeping the animal rooms and cages ually or by the animals after being placed clean is an extremely important facet of facility practice. The in service. This configuration is no longer recommended. The H style, illustrated in Figure 7-5, although rigidly cleaning of the animal room is accomplished either by sponging installed and with positive venting, is not suitable for on-line the walls, floors, and ceiling or by hosing down the room. Cage flushing. Because of this, it is rarely used except for larger ani- racks can be cleaned by washing them with a hose or by placing mals, which will consume all the water in the rack piping mani- them in a large washing machine. Cages are cleaned in a cage washer. Pens and kennels are hosed down. Floors in pens are fold. The most common piping materials are CPVC and 304L stain- cleaned with hoses and the bedding with feces is pushed into less steel. CPVC conforms to ASTM D 2846, is 0.875 outside trenches with floor drains. In specialized areas, such as holding or isolation rooms where diameter (OD) with 0.188 in. minimum wall thickness. Joining process is done with solvent cement socket joints. The drinking only small animals are kept, it is common practice to have pervalves are installed with a proprietary, drilled and tapped fit- manent cage racks or have the portable racks remain in the ting. The 304L stainless steel tubing is 0.50 OD with a 0.036 in. animal room. The litter is put into bags and brought to other minimum wall thickness. Fittings are made with O-ring joints areas for disposal. The cage racks are manually wiped down and socket fittings or compression type fittings. The mounting of and no rack washer is required. A sink is usually provided in both pipe materials is accomplished by the use of 304 SS stain- the animal room for the convenience of the cleaning personnel. Individual water bottles, if provided, could be washed in the less-steel clamps and fasteners. sink. The cages are removed and washed separately in a cage SYStEM SiZing MEtHodS washer. This type of animal room usually does not require a The water consumption of small animals in cages is very low. floor drain if the entire room will be sponged down. If hosing is It is also probable that the animal room will not be used to full practiced, a floor drain is required. capacity. Because of this low consumption flow rate, the flushRabbits and guinea pigs have a tendency to spray urine and ing-water flow rate of the system is the critical factor in sizing feces. This requires that the racks be hosed down in the room. A the piping. Typically, the animal-room piping distribution netwash station with a hose reel and detergent injection capability work is a header uniformly sized at in. (50 mm) throughout to hose down the cage racks and the room itself is usually placed the animal room. in individual rooms. Citric acid is often used as a cleaning agent for rabbits. Figure 7-5 Standard H Conguration Manifold HoSE StAtionS Hose stations usually consist of a mixing valve with cold water and steam to make hot water or hot water alone, a length of flexible hose, and an adjustable spray nozzle. Hot and cold water are also used. It can be exposed or provided with an enclosure when an easily cleaned surface is required. CLEAning-AgEnt SYStEMS Cleaning agents are used to clean and/or disinfect the walls, ceiling, and floor of a room and to add agent to the cage wash water. When used to clean rooms, the equipment used for this purpose is commonly called a facility detergent system. When used to add agent to the cage washing water it is often called a cage-washing detergent system. These are separate systems and are not capable of providing agent to each other.
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supply has to be changed. A typical central-supply deterThe cage-washing detergent system is usually located in the wet area of the cage-washing facility and, with the use of a detergent pump, could be used as a central system to supply cage and bottle washers. A typical schematic detail of a cage-washing system is illustrated in Figure 7-8. It is common practice to have a central system or a wallmounted cleaning-agent dispenser unit along with the hose station. Separate, portable units could be used when cross contamination between animal rooms is a consideration. A typical, wall-mounted, cleaning-agent system consists of separate water and cleaning-agent tanks; a water pump; and a special, coaxial hose that sprays a proportioned mixture of the water and cleaning agent. Compressed air is often used to provide pressure.
A single-station detergent-dispensing system is used when rooms are cleaned with mops or squeegees. It consists of a wallmounted unit having a holder for detergent concentrate and an injector unit. A container filled with detergent concentrate is placed in the holder and is used to supply agent to the injector that dispenses a metered amount of agent when a hose bibb is opened to fill the pail or container. These rooms usually have sinks and mop racks inside to be used only for these rooms. A typical schematic detail of a single-station detergent system is illustrated in Figure 7-6. When used to supply a single or multiple-spray hose for cleaning floors and walls, a central system could be installed to supply several rooms within a facility by means of a detergent pump that dispenses agent. A 55-gal drum of agent should be used to reduce the number of times the Figure 7-8 Typical Cage-Washing Detergent System
CAgE-FLuSHing WAtEr SYStEM The removal of animal waste from cages can be done by several methods. One method removes the waste along with the bedding at the time cages are removed from the animal room to be washed. Another method uses an independent rack-flush system to automatically remove animal waste from cages on racks while the animals and cages remain in the animal room. The independent rack flush is a separate system that uses chlorinated water automatically distributed to each animal room. The cages and racks are constructed so that the animal droppings fall through the cage floor onto a sloping pan below each tier of cages. Each tier is cascaded at the end onto the sloping pan below. Eventually, the lowest pan spills into a drain trough in the animal room. The flushing schedule is decided by facility personnel. The water supply could be a reservoir placed on the rack that is filled with water and automatically discharged onto the pans at preset intervals. These preset intervals are determined based on experience and generally range from once to three times daily. Another method uses a solenoid valve to automatically discharge water onto the pans; the valve is sequenced by a timer set to alternate fill and dump cycles. The timer could be either
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Figure 7-9 Typical Cage-Rack Utility Connections Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered
centrally located or installed separately in each animal room. Larger cages, such as those for primates, are usually stacked no more than two cages high. Current practice is to have these cages manually cleaned by personnel who hose down the pans directly into floor or wall troughs. Water is supplied to each cage rack by means of a recoil hose, which has a different quick-disconnect end than that of the drinking water recoil hose to avoid cross connection. Refer to Figure 79 for a detail Figure 7-10 Typical Waste-Disposal System of a typical cage-rack utility connection arrangement. SoLid-WAStE DiSPoSAL Solid waste consists of bedding, feces, animal carcasses, and other miscellaneous waste, including straw and sawdust used for larger farm animals. Bedding comprises the largest quantity of this solid waste. It is necessary to determine the quantity of bedding before a decision can be made as to the most cost-effective method to dispose of it. Bedding can be disposed of by incineration, as regular garbage, or into the sewer system. Incinerators are costly, require compliance with many regulatory agencies and multiple permits, and often result in objections from adjoining property owners. Incineration is the preferred method of disposing of carcasses and large quantities of contaminated waste. Carcasses could also be autoclaved and
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Monitoring SYStEMS
The monitoring of various animal-utility systems is critical to keep within a range of values consistent with the protocol of the experiments being conducted at the facility. This is accomplished by a central monitoring system that includes many measurements from HVAC and electrical systems. For the animal drinking-water system, parameters such as water pressure, flow rates, leakage, pH, and temperature in various areas of the facility are helpful for maintenance, monitoring, and alarms.
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type of disinfectant. Where sterilization is required and cleaning Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version very frequent, stainless-steel pipe should be considered. If insulation is used on piping, it should be protected with a stainless steel jacket to permit adequate cleaning. Pipe penetrations should be sealed with a high-grade, impervious, and fire-resistant sealant. Escutcheons should not be used because they allow the accumulation of dirt and bacteria behind them.
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CONTINUING EDUCATION
Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com Continuing Education from Plumbing Systems & Design
Kenneth G.Wentink, PE, CPD, and Robert D. Jackson
Do you find it difficult to obtain continuing education units (CEUs)? Through this special section in every issue of PS&D, ASPE can help you accumulate the CEUs required for maintaining your Certified in Plumbing Design (CPD) status.
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The technical article you must read to complete the exam is located at www.psdmagazine.org. The following exam and application form also may be downloaded from the Web site. Reading the article and completing the form will allow you to apply to ASPE for CEU credit. For most people, this process will require approximately one hour. If you earn a grade of 90 percent or higher on the test, you will be notified that you have logged 0.1 CEU, which can be applied toward the CPD renewal requirement or numerous regulatory-agency CE programs. (Please note that it is your responsibility to determine the acceptance policy of a particular agency.) CEU information will be kept on file at the ASPE office for three years.
Note: In determining your answers to the CE questions, use only the material presented in the corresponding continuing education article. Using information from other materials may result in a wrong answer.
c. is the guide for the care and use of laboratory animals d. is the code for good laboratory practice for non-clinical laboratory studies
8. Select the true statement below. a. There are no generally recognized and accepted standards for animal drinking water. b. Drinking valves are not used by animals to obtain water from the distribution system. c. Water pressure, minimum and maximum, for the various animals to be served is mandated in the plumbing code. d. Reverse osmosis (RO) systems are inappropriate for animal drinking water systems. 9. The recommended water pressure for dogs and cats is ___________. a. 612 psig, b. 20.434 kPa, c. more than for rats and mice, d. none of the above
10. What flow rate and pressure of oil-free air is used to dry the interior of hoses? a. 5 scfm at 30 psig b. 10 scfm at 30 psig c. 5 scfm at 60 psig d. 10 scfm at 60 psig
11. What type of piping material should be used on systems that require frequent sterilization? a. cast iron b. copper c. galvanized d. stainless steel 12. The water consumption of small animals in cages is ___________. a. based on a flushing system to maintain fresh water in the piping at all times b. established by experience c. very low d. none of the above
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Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com Plumbing Systems & Design Continuing Education Application Form
This form is valid up to one year from date of publication. The PS&D Continuing Education program is approved by ASPE for up to one contact hour (0.1 CEU) of credit per article. Participants who ear a passing score (90 percent) on the CE questions will receive a letter or certification within 30 days of ASPEs receipt of the application form. (No special certificates will be issued.) Participants who fail and wish to retake the test should resubmit the form along with an additional fee (if required). 1. Photocopy this form or download it from www.psdmagazine.org. 2. Print or type your name and address. Be sure to place your ASPE membership number in the appropriate space. 3. Answer the multiple-choice continuing education (CE) questions based on the corresponding article found on www.psdmagazine.org and the appraisal questions on this form. 4. Submit this form with payment ($35 for nonmembers of ASPE) if required by check or money order made payable to ASPE or credit card via mail (ASPE Education Credit, 8614 W. Catalpa Avenue, Suite 1007, Chicago, IL 60656) or fax (773-695-9007). Please print or type; this information will be used to process your credits. Name _ __________________________________________________________________________________________________ Title _ ______________________________________________ ASPE Membership No.____________________________________ Organization _ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ Billing Address ____________________________________________________________________________________________ City_ _______________________________________ State/Province________________________ Zip _ ____________________ Country____________________________________________ E-mail_ ________________________________________________ Daytime telephone_ _________________________________ Fax___________________________________________________ I am applying for the following continuing education credits: I certify that I have read the article indicated above. ASPE Member Each examination: $25
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Appraisal Questions
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Animal-care Facility Piping Systems (PSD 136) Was the material new information for you? Yes No Was the material presented clearly? Yes No Was the material adequately covered? Yes No Did the content help you achieve the stated objectives? Yes No Did the CE questions help you identify specic ways to use ideas presented in the article? Yes No How much time did you need to complete the CE oering (i.e., to read the article and answer the post-test questions)?___________________
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PSD 143
CONTINUING EDUCATION
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INTRODUCTION
It has been determined through field studies that the correct sizing and operation of water heaters depend on the appropriateness of the hot water maintenance system. If the hot water maintenance system is inadequate, the water heater sizing criteria are wrong and the temperature of the hot water distributed to the users of the plumbing fixtures is below acceptable standards. Additionally, a poorly designed hot water maintenance system wastes large amounts of energy and potable water and creates time delays for those using the plumbing fixtures. This chapter addresses the criteria for establishing an acceptable time delay in delivering hot water to fixtures and the limitations of the length between a hot water recirculation system and plumbing fixtures. It also discusses the temperature drop across a hot water supply system, types of hot water recirculation system, and pump selection criteria, and gives extensive information on the insulation of hot water supply and return piping.
BAcKGround
In the past, the plumbing engineering community considered the prompt delivery of hot water to fixtures either a requirement for a project or a matter of no concern. The plumbing engineers decision was based primarily on the type of facility under consideration and the developed length from the water heater to the farthest fixture. Previous reference material and professional common practices have indicated that, when the distance from the water heater to the farthest fixture exceeds 100 ft (30.48 m) water should be circulated. However, this recommendation is subjective, and, unfortunately, some engineers and contractors use the 100-ft (30.48-m) criterion as the maximum length for all uncirculated, uninsulated, dead-end hot water branches to fixtures in order to cut the cost of hot water distribution piping. These long, uninsulated, dead-end Table 1 Water Contents and Weight of Tube or Piping per Linear Foot branches to fixtures create considerable problems, such as a Nominal Copper Pipe Copper Pipe Steel Pipe lack of hot water at fixtures, inadequately sized water heater Diameter Type L Type M Schedule 40 assemblies, and thermal temperature escalation in showers. Water Wgt. Water Wgt. Water Wgt. (in.)a (gal/ft) (lb/ft) (gal/ft) (lb/ft) (gal/ft) (lb/ft) The 100-ft (30.48-m) length criterion was developed in 1973 0.012 0.285 0.013 0.204 0.016 0.860 after the Middle East oil embargo, when energy costs were the paramount concern and water conservation was given little 0.025 0.445 0.027 0.328 0.028 1.140 consideration. Since the circulation of hot water causes a loss 1 0.043 0.655 0.045 0.465 0.045 1.680 of energy due to radiation and convection in the circulated 1 0.065 0.884 0.068 0.682 0.077 2.280 system and such energy losses have to be continually replaced 1 0.093 1.14 0.100 0.940 0.106 2.720 by water heaters, the engineering community compromised a Pipe sizes are indicated for mild steel pipe sizing. between energy loss and construction costs and developed Table 1(M) Water Contents and Weight of Tube or Piping per Meter the 100-ft (30.48-m) maximum length criterion.
CPVC Pipe Schedule 40 Water Wgt. (gal/ft) (lb/ft) 0.016 0.210 0.028 0.290 0.045 0.420 0.078 0.590 0.106 0.710
Copper Pipe Type L Water Wgt. (L) (kg) 0.045 0.129 0.095 0.202 0.163 0.297 0.246 0.401 0.352 0.517
Copper Pipe Type M Water Wgt. (L) (kg) 0.049 0.204 0.102 0.328 0.170 0.465 0.257 0.682 0.379 0.940
Steel Pipe Schedule 40 Water Wgt. (L) (kg) 0.061 0.390 0.106 0.517 0.170 0.762 0.291 1.034 0.401 1.233
CPVC Pipe Schedule 40 Water Wgt. (L) (kg) 0.061 0.099 0.106 0.132 0.170 0.191 0.295 0.268 0.401 0.322
Reprinted from Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition, Chapter 14: Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems. American Society of Plumbing Engineers , 2003.
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As mentioned previously, when there is a long delay in obtaining hot water at the fixture, there is significant wastage of potable water as the cooled hot water supply is simply discharged down the drain unused. Furthermore, plumbing engineers concerned about total system costs should realize that the cost of this wasted, previously heated water must include: the original cost for obtaining potable water, the cost of previously heating the water, the final cost of the waste treatment of this excess potable water, which results in larger sewer surcharges (source of supply to end disposal point), and the cost of heating the new cold water to bring it up to the required temperature. Furthermore, if there is a long delay in obtaining hot water at the fixtures, the faucets are turned on for long periods of time to bring the hot water supply at the fixture up to the desired temperature. This can cause the water heating system to run out of a Unless otherwise noted. hot water and make the heater sizing inadequate, because the heater is unable to heat all the extra cold water brought Table 3 Approximate Time Required to Get Hot Water to a Fixture into the system through the wastage of the water discharged Delivery Time (sec) down the drain. In addition, this extra cold water entering Fixture Flow Rate (gpm) 0.5 1.5 2.5 4.0 the hot water system reduces the hot water supply temperature. This exacerbates the problem of insufficient hot water Piping Length (ft) 10 25 10 25 10 25 10 25 because to get a proper blended temperature more lower Copper in. 25 63a 8 21 5 13 3 8 temperature hot water will be used to achieve the final mixed Pipe in. 48a 119a 16 40a 10 24 6 15 water temperature. (See Chapter 1, Table 1.1.) Additionally, Steel Pipe in. 63a 157a 21 52a 13 31a 8 20 this accelerates the downward spiral of the temperature of Sched. 40 in. 91a 228a 30 76a 18 46a 11 28 the hot water system. CPVC Pipe in. 64a 159a 21 53a 13 32a 8 20 Another problem resulting from long delays in getting hot Sched. 40 in. 95a 238a 32 79a 19 48a 12 30 water to the fixtures is that the fixtures operate for longer than Note: Table based on various fixture flow rates, piping materials, and dead-end branch lengths. Calculations are based expected periods of time. Therefore, the actual hot water on the amount of heat required to heat the piping, the water in the piping, and the heat loss from the piping. Based on demand is greater than the demand normally designed for. water temperature of 140F and an air temperture of 70F. Therefore, when sizing the water heater and the hot water a Delays longer than 30 sec are not acceptable. piping distribution system, the designer should be aware that the lack of a proper hot water maintenance system can Table 3(M) Approximate Time Required to Get Hot Water to a Fixture seriously impact the required heater size. Delivery Time (sec)
Table 2 Approximate Fixture and Appliance Water Flow Rates Maximum Flow Ratesa Fittings GPM L/Sec Lavatory faucet 2.0 1.3 Public non-metering 0.5 0.03 Public metering 0.25 gal/cycle 0.946 L/cycle Sink faucet 2.5 0.16 Shower head 2.5 0.16 Bathtub faucets Single-handle 2.4 minimum 0.15 minimum Two-handle 4.0 minimum 0.25 minimum Service sink faucet 4.0 minimum 0.25 minimum Laundry tray faucet 4.0 minimum 0.25 minimum Residential dishwasher 1.87 aver 0.12 aver Residential washing machine 7.5 aver 0.47 aver
Fixture Flow Rate (L/sec) Piping Length (m) Copper Pipe Steel Pipe Sched. 40 CPVC Pipe Sched. 40
0.03 DN15 DN22 DN15 DN20 DN15 DN20 3.1 25 48a 63a 91a 64a 95a 7.6 63a 119a 157a 228a 159a 238a 3.1 8 16 21 30 21 32
0.25 7.6 8 15 20 28 20 30
Note: Table based on various fixture flow rates, piping materials, and dead-end branch lengths. Calculations are based on the amount of heat required to heat the piping, the water in the piping, and the heat loss from the piping. Based on water temperature of 60C and an air temperture of 21.1C. a Delays longer than 30 sec are not acceptable.
by either the routing of the pipe or other problems. Furthermore, with the low fixture discharge rates now mandated by national and local laws, it takes considerably longer to obtain hot water from non-temperature maintained hot water lines than it did in the past, when fixtures had greater flow rates. For example, a public lavatory with a 0.50 or 0.25 gpm (0.03 or 0.02 L/sec) maximum discharge rate would take an excessive amount of time to obtain hot water from 100 ft (30.48 m) of uncirculated, uninsulated hot water piping. (See Table 3.) This table gives conservative approximations of the amount of time it takes to obtain hot water at a fixture. The times are based on the size of the line, the fixture flow rate, and the times required to replace the cooled off hot water, to heat the pipe, and to offset the convection energy lost by the insulated hot water line.
A circulation system is a system of hot water supply pipes and hot water return pipes with appropriate shutoff valves, balancing valves, circulating pumps, and a method of controlling the circulating pump. The diagrams for six basic circulating systems are shown in Figures 1 through 6.
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BALANcING SYsTEMs
It is extremely important that a circulated hot water system be balanced for its specified flows, including all the various individual loops within the circulated system. Balancing is required even though an insulated circulated line usually requires very little flow to maintain satisfactory system temperatures. If the individual hot water circulated loops are not properly balanced, the circulated water will tend to shortcircuit through the closest loops, creating high velocities in that piping system. Furthermore, the short-circuiting of the circulated hot water will result in complaints about the long delays in getting hot water at the remotest loops. If the hot water piping is copper, high velocities can create velocity erosion which will destroy the piping system. Because of the problems inherent in manually balancing hot water circulation systems, many professionals incorporate factory preset flow control devices in their hot water systems. While the initial cost of such a device is higher than the cost of a manual balancing valve, a
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preset device may be less expensive when the balancing the entire hot water system is included. When using a preset flow control device, however, the plumbing designer has to be far more accurate in selecting the control devices capacity as there is no possibility of field adjustment. Therefore, if more or less hot water return flow is needed during the field installation, a new flow control device must be installed and the old one must be removed and discarded.
Figure 5 Combination Upfeed and Downfeed Hot Water System with Heater at Bottom of System.
Note: This piping system increases the developed length of the HW system over the upfeed systems shown in Figures 1 and 3. * See text for requirements for strainers.
Figure 6 Combination Downfeed and Upfeed Hot Water System with Heater at Top of System.
60 = min/h 3600 = sec/h q = piping heat loss, Btu/h (kJ/h) r = flow rate, gpm (L/sec) w = weight of heated water, lb/gal (kg/L) c = specific heat of water, Btu/lb/F (kJ/kg/K) T = change in heated water temperature (temperature of leaving water minus temperature of incoming water, represented in this manual as Th Tc, F [K])
Therefore
q = c (gpm8.33 lb/gal)(60 min/h)(F temperature drop) = 1(gpm)500F temperature drop [q = c (L/sec 1kg/L)(3600 sec/h)(K temperature drop) = 1(L/sec) 15 077 kJ/L/sec/K K temperature drop] system heat loss (Btu/h) 500F temperature drop system heat loss (kJ/h) L/sec 15 077 K temperature drop In sizing hot water circulating systems, the designer should note that the greater the temperature drop across the system, the less water is required to be pumped through the system and, therefore, the greater the savings on pumping costs. However, if the domestic hot water supply starts out at 140F (60C) with, say, a 20F (6.7C) temperature drop across the supply system, the fixtures near the end of the circulating hot water supply loop could be provided with a hot water supply of only 120F (49C). In addition, if the hot water supply delivery temperature is 120F (49C) instead of 140F (60C), the plumbing fixtures will use greater volumes of hot water to get the desired blended water temperature (see Chapter 1, Table 1.1). Therefore, the recommended hot water system temperature drop should be of the magnitude of 5F (3C). This means that if the hot water supply starts out from the water heater at a temperature between 135 and 140F (58 and 60C), the lowest hot water supply temperature provided by the hot water supply system could (2) gpm
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of the hot water return lines to establish the initial heat loss figure (q). If that is the case, the plumbing engineer will have to correct the hot water return pipe sizes, redo the calculations using the new data based on the correct pipe sizing, and verify that all the rest of the calculations are now correct.
be between 130 and 135F (54 and 58C). With multiple temperature distribution systems, it is recommended that the recirculation system for each temperature distribution system be extended back to the water heating system separately and have its own pump. Using Equation 2, we determine that, if there is a 5F (3C) temperature drop across the hot water system, the number to divide into the hot water circulating system heat loss (q) to obtain the minimum required hot water return circulation rate in gpm (L/sec) is 2500 (5005F), (45 213 [15 071 3C]). For a 10F (6C) temperature drop that number is 5000 (from Equation 2, 50010F = 5000) (90 426 [from Equation 2, 15 071 6C = 90 426]). However, this 10F (6C) temperature drop may produce hot water supply temperatures that are lower than desired. After Equation 2 is used to establish the required hot water return flow rate, in gpm (L/sec), the plumbing designer can size the hot water return piping system based on piping flow rate velocities and the available pump heads. It is quite common that a plumbing designer will make wrong initial assumptions about the sizes
800 ft13 Btu/h/ft = 10,400 Btu/h supply piping losses (244 m 12.5 W = 3050 W supply piping losses) 2. Assume that the hot water return piping system for the system in no. 1 above has 100 ft (30.5 m) of average in. (DN15) piping and 100 ft (30.5 m) of average in. (DN20) pipe. From Table 5 determine the heat loss per linear foot (meter): 100 ft8 Btu/h/ft = 800 Btu/h piping loss (30.5 m 7.7 W/m = 235 W piping loss) 100 ft10 Btu/h/ft = 1000 Btu/h piping loss 1800 Btu/h piping loss
(30.5 m
9.6 W/m =
3. Determine the hot water storage tank heat loss. Assume the system in no. 1 above has a 200-gal (757-L) hot water storage
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tank. From Table 6 determine the heat loss of the storage tank @ 759 Btu/h (222 W). 4. Determine the hot water systems total heat losses by totaling the various losses: A. Hot water supply piping losses 10,400 Btu/h B. Hot water return piping losses 1,800 Btu/h C. Hot water storage tank losses 759 Btu/h Total system heat losses 12,959 Btu/h Total system piping heat losses (A + B) = 12,200 Btu/h [A. Hot water supply piping losses 3050 W B. Hot water return piping losses 527 W C. Hot water storage tank losses 222 W Total system heat losses 3799 W Total system piping heat losses (A + B) = 3577 W] From Equation 2, using a system piping loss of 12,200 Btu/h (3577 W) and a 5F (3C) temperature drop, 12,200 Btu/h = 4.88 gpm (say 5 gpm) 5F temperature difference500 required hot water return circulation rate 3577 W = 0.29 (say 0.3) L/sec 3 3C temp. difference 4188.32 kJ/m required hot water return circulation
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Table 4 Minimum Pipe Insulation Thickness Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version Required Insulation Thickness for Piping (in.) Runouts 2a 8 in. or in. or Less 1 in. or Less 12 in. 24 in. 5 & 6 in. Larger 1 1 1 1 1
Note: Data based on fiberglass insulation with all-service jacket. Data will change depending on actual type of insulation used. Data apply to recirculating sections of hot water systems and the first 3 ft from the storage tank of uncirculated systems. a Uncirculated pipe branches to individual fixtures (not exceeding 12 ft in length). For lengths longer than 12 ft, use required insulation thickness shown in table.
Table 6 Heat Loss from Various Size Tanks with Insulation Approx. Energy Loss Thickness Tank Size from Tank at Hot Water a (in.) (gal) Temperature 140F (Btu/h) 1 50 468 1 100 736 2 250 759 3 500 759 3 1000 1273
Source: From Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association (SMACNA) Table 2 data. a For unfired tanks, federal standards limit the loss to no more than 6.5 Btu/h/ft2 of tank surface.
Table 4(M) Minimum Pipe Insulation Thickness Required Insulation Thickness for Piping (mm) Runouts DN32 aor DN25 or DN32 DN65 DN125 & Less Less DN50 DN100 DN150 13 25 25 40 40
DN200 or Larger 40
Note: D ata based on fiberglass insulation with all-service jacket. Data will change depending on actual type of insulation used. Data apply to recirculating sections of hot water systems and the first 0.9 m from the storage tank of uncirculated systems. a Uncirculated pipe branches to individual fixtures (not exceeding 3.7 m in length). For lengths longer than 305 mm, use required insulation thickness shown in table.
Table 5 Approximate Insulated Piping Heat Loss and Surface Temperature Surface Nominal Pipe Insulation Heat Loss Temperature Size (in.) Thickness (in.) (Btu/h/ linear ft) (F) 1 8 68 1 10 69 1 1 10 69 1 1 13 70 1 1 13 69 2 or less a 24 or less 74 2 1 16 70 2 1 12 67 3 1 16 68 4 1 19 69 6 1 27 69 8 1 32 69 10 1 38 69
Note: Figures based on average ambient temperature of 65F and annual average wind speed of 7.5 mph. a Uncirculating hot water runout branches only.
Table 6(M) Heat Loss from Various Size Tanks with Various Insulation Thicknesses Insulation Approx. Energy Loss Thickness Tank Size from Tank at Hot Watera (mm) (L) Temperature 60C (W) 25.4 200 137 25.4 400 216 50.8 1000 222 76.2 2000 222 76.2 4000 373
Source: From Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association (SMACNA) Table 2 data. a For unfired tanks, federal standards limit the loss to no more than 1.9 W/m2 of tank surface.
7.6 m 9.6 W/m = 73 W piping loss 22.9 m 9.6 W/m = 220 W piping loss 528 W piping loss] 3. Determine the hot water storage tank heat loss. Assume the system in no. 1 above has a 200-gal (757-L) hot water storage tank. From Table 6 determine the heat loss of the storage tank @ 759 Btu/h (222 W). 4. Determine the systems total heat losses: A. Hot water supply losses 10,400 Btu/h B. Hot water return losses 1,800 Btu/h C. Hot water storage tank losses 759 Btu/h Total system heat losses 12,959 Btu/h Total system piping heat losses (A + B) = 12,200 Btu/h [A. Hot water supply losses B. Hot water return losses C. Hot water storage tank losses Total system heat losses Total system piping heat losses (A + B) = 3050 W 528 W 222 W 3800 W 3578 W]
Table 5(M) Approximate Insulated Piping Heat Loss and Surface Temperature Surface Nominal Pipe Insulation Heat Loss Temperature Size (mm) Thickness (mm) (W/m) (C) DN15 25 7.7 20 DN20 25 9.6 21 DN25 25 9.6 21 DN32 25 12.5 21 DN40 25 12.5 21 DN50 or less 13a 23.1 or less 23 DN50 25 15.4 21 DN65 38 11.5 19 DN80 38 15.4 20 DN100 38 18.3 21 DN150 38 26.0 21 DN200 38 30.8 21 DN250 38 36.5 21
Note: Figures based on average ambient temperature of 18C and annual average wind speed of 12 km/h. a Uncirculating hot water runout branches only.
Note: The recalculation determined that the hot water system heat losses remained unchanged and that 4.88 (say 5) gpm (0.29 [say 0.3] L/sec) is the flow rate that is required to maintain the 5F (3C) temperature drop across the hot water supply system. It should be stated that engineers use numerous rules of thumb to size hot water return systems. These rules of thumb are all based on assumptions, however, and are not recommended. It is recommended that the engineer perform the calculations for each project to establish the required flow rates because, with all the various capacities of the pumps available today, exact sizing is possible, and any extra circulated flow caused by the plumbing engineer using a rule of thumb equates to higher energy costs, to the detriment of the client.
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tion thickness shall be increased for materials having R values less 14. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 2000. Energy conPDF Merge (0.028 and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com mm) or may be thanSimpo 4.0 ft2h(F/Btu)in. m2 [C/W] servation in plumbing systems. Chapter 7 in ASPE Data Book, 2 reduced for materials having R values greater than 4.6 ft h(F/ Volume1. Btu)in. (0.032 m2 [C/W] mm). 15. American Water Works Association. 1985. Internal corrosion 1. For materials with thermal resistivity greater than 4.6 of water distribution systems. Research Foundation cooperaft2h(F/Btu)in. (0.032 m2 [C/W] mm), the minimum tive research report. insulation thickness may be reduced as follows: 16. Cohen, Arthur. Copper Development Association. 1978. Copper for hot and cold potable water systems. Heating/ 4.6Table 4 thickness = New minimum thickness Piping/Air Conditioning Magazine. May. Actual R 17. Cohen, Arthur. Copper Development Association. 1993. His0.032 Table 4 thickness = New minimum thickness Actual R torical perspective of corrosion by potable waters in building systems. Paper no. 509 presented at the National Association 2. For materials with thermal resistivity less than 4.0 ft2h(F/ of Corrosion Engineers Annual Conference. Btu)in. (0.028 m2 [C/W] mm), the minimum insulation 18. Copper Development Association. 1993. Copper Tube Handthickness shall be increased as follows: book. 4.0Table 4 thickness = New minimum thickness 19. International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical OffiActual R cials. 1985. Uniform Plumbing Code Illustrated Training Manual. 0.028 Table 4 thickness = New minimum thickness Actual R 20. Konen, Thomas P. 1984. An experimental study of competing systems for maintaining service water temperature in residenConcluSion tial buildings. In ASPE 1984 Convention Proceedings. In conclusion, an inappropriate hot water recirculation system can 21. Konen, Thomas P. 1994. Impact of water conservation on have serious repercussions for the operation of the water heater interior plumbing. In Technical Proceedings of the 1994 ASPE and the sizing of the water heating system. In addition, it can cause Convention. the wastage of vast amounts of energy, water, and time. Therefore, 22. Saltzberg, Edward. 1988. The plumbing engineer as a forensic it is incumbent upon the plumbing designer to design a hot water engineer. In Technical Proceedings of the 1988 ASPE Convention. recirculation system so that it conserves natural resources and is in 23. Saltzberg, Edward. 1993. To combine or not to combine: An accordance with the recommendations given in this chapter. indepth review of standard and combined hydronic heating systems and their various pitfalls. Paper presented at the BiblioGrApHY American Society of Plumbing Engineers Symposium, Octo1. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Condiber 2223. tioning Engineers. 1993. Pipe sizing. Chapter 33 in Fundamen24. Saltzberg, Edward. 1996. The effects of hot water circulation tals Handbook. systems on hot water heater sizing and piping systems. Tech2. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Condinical presentation given at the American Society of Plumbing tioning Engineers. 1993. Thermal and water vapor transmisEngineers convention, November 36. sion data. Chapter 22 in Fundamentals Handbook. 25. Saltzberg, Edward. 1997. In press. New methods for analyzing 3. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Condihot water systems. Plumbing Engineer Magazine. tioning Engineers. 1995. Service water heating. Chapter 45 in 26. Saltzberg, Edward. 1997. In press. Prompt delivery of hot Applications Handbook. water at fixtures. Plumbing Engineer Magazine. 4. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Con27. Sealine, David A., Tod Windsor, Al Fehrm, and Greg Wilcox. ditioning Engineers. Energy conservation in new build1988. Mixing valves and hot water temperature. In Technical ing design. ASHRAE Standards, 90A1980, 90B1975, and Proceedings of the 1988 ASPE Convention. 90C1977. 28. Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Asso5. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Condiciation. 1982. Retrofit of Building Energy Systems and Processes. tioning Engineers. Energy efficient design of new low rise 29. Steele, Alfred. Engineered Plumbing Design. 2d ed. residential buildings. ASHRAE Standards, 90.21993. 30. Steele, Alfred. 1988. Temperature limits in service hot water 6. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Condisystems. In Technical Proceedings of the 1988 ASPE Convention. tioning Engineers. New information on service water heating. 31. Wen-Yung, W. Chan, and Milton Meckler. 1983. Pumps and Technical Data Bulletin. Vol. 10, No. 2. pump systems. In American Society of Plumbing Engineers 7. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Plumbing fixture Handbook. fittings. ASME A112.18.1M1989. 8. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 2000. Cold water systems. Chapter 5 in ASPE Data Book, Volume 2. 9. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1989. Piping systems. Chapter 10 in ASPE Data Book. 10. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1989. Position paper on hot water temperature limitations. 11. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1989. Service hot water systems. Chapter 4 in ASPE Data Book. 12. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1990. Insulation. Chapter 12 in ASPE Data Book. 13. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1990. Pumps. Chapter 11 in ASPE Data Book.
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Haig Demergian, PE, CPD
Do you find it difficult to obtain continuing education units (CEUs)? Through this special section in every issue of PS&D, ASPE can help you accumulate the CEUs required for maintaining your Certified in Plumbing Design (CPD) status.
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The technical article you must read to complete the exam is located at www.psdmagazine.org. Just click on Plumbing Systems & Design Continuing Education Article and Exam at the top of the page. The following exam and application form also may be downloaded from the website. Reading the article and completing the form will allow you to apply to ASPE for CEU credit. If you earn a grade of 90 percent or higher on the test, you will be notified that you have logged 0.1 CEU, which can be applied toward CPD renewal or numerous regulatory-agency CE programs. (Please note that it is your responsibility to determine the acceptance policy of a particular agency.) CEU information will be kept on file at the ASPE office for three years.
Note: In determining your answers to the CE questions, use only the material presented in the corresponding continuing education article. Using information from other materials may result in a wrong answer.
7. The total estimated heat loss of 520 feet of 1-inch copper pipe, with 1-inch berglass insulation, is __________ Btu/h. a. 6,000, b. 6,320, c. 6,760, d. 7,520
8. The approximate time to deliver hot water to a 1.5-gpm xture 25 feet from the water heater, using -inch copper supply pipe, is __________ seconds. a. 25, b. 30, c. 40, d. 50 9. The gpm of a hot water circulating pump for a system with a total calculated heat loss of 10,000 Btu/h and 5F allowable temperature drop between hot water supply and return is __________. a. 3, b. 4, c. 7, d. 9 10. The heat required to raise 35 gpm from 50F to 140F is __________ Btu/h. a. 895,000 b. 1,270,000 c. 1,575,000 d. 1,625,000
11. Why it is necessary to provide a pressure relief valve on potable hot water systems? a. to relieve the water, which expands during the heating process b. to protect the water heater and piping from excessive pressure c. both of the above d. neither of the above
12. Automatic air vents for air elimination shall be installed on the high points of __________. a. hot water supply piping b. hot water return piping c. cold water supply piping d. none of the above
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PSD 140
CONTINUING EDUCATION
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Hydraulics can be defined as the study of the principles and laws that govern the behavior of liquids at rest or in motion. Hydrostatics is the study of liquids at rest and hydrokinetics is the study of liquids in motion. Although this text deals exclusively with water, all the data developed can be applied to any liquid.
When water is moving in a pipe, two types of flow can exist. One type is known by the various names of streamline, laminar, or viscous. The second is called turbulent flow. At various viscosities (various temperatures), there is a certain critical velocity for every pipe size above which turbulent flow occurs and below which laminar flow occurs. This critical velocity occurs within a range of Reynolds numbers from approximately 2100 to 4000. Reynolds formula is: Equation 1
Re= DV gc
where Re = Reynolds number, dimensionless D = Pipe diameter, ft V = Velocity of flow, ft/sec = Density, lbm/ft3 = Absolute viscosity, lbf sec/ft2 gc = Gravitational constant, 32.2 lbmft/lbfsec2 Within the limits of accuracy required for plumbing design, it can be assumed that the critical velocity occurs at a Reynolds number of 2100. In laminar flow, the roughness of the pipe wall has a negligible effect on the flow but the viscosity has a very significant effect. In turbulent flow, the viscosity has an insignificant effect but the roughness of the pipe wall has a very marked effect on the flow. Very rarely is a velocity of less than 4 ft/sec employed in plumbing design. The Reynolds number for a 3 in. pipe and a velocity of flow of 4 ft/sec would be
Re =
VELOCITY OF FLOw
When the velocity of flow is measured across the section of pipe from the center to the wall, it is found that there is a variation in the velocity, with the greatest velocity at the center and a minimum velocity at the walls. The average velocity for the entire cross-section is approximately 84% of the velocity as measured at the center. The plumbing engineer is concerned only with the average velocity, and all formulas are expressed in average velocity. Whenever and wherever the term velocity is used, it is the average velocity of flow that is meant. Since water is incompressible within the range of pressures met in plumbing design, a definite relationship can be expressed between the quantity flowing past a given point in a given time
Reprinted from Engineered Plumbing Design II, Chapter 11: Flow in Water Piping, by A. Calvin Laws, PE, CPD. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 2 Plumbing Systems & Design
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and the velocity of flow. This can be expressed as (Equation 3- g = gravitational acceleration, 32.2 ft/sec2 Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com 2): gc = gravitational constant, 32.2 lbmft/lbfsec2 Q=AV V = velocity, ft/sec where When the body weighs 1 lb the formula becomes Q = quantity of flow (volumetric flow rate), ft3/sec Equation 6 A = cross-sectional area of flow, ft2 V2 EK = 2g V = velocity of flow, ft/sec c The units employed in this flow formula are inconvenient for where use in plumbing design. The plumbing engineer deals in gallons EK = kinetic energy per pound weight per minute and inches for pipe sizes. Converting to these terms, STATIC HEAD the flow rate becomes (Equation 8-8): At any point below the surface of water that is exposed to atmospheric pressure, the pressure (head) is produced by the weight q=2.448 d2V of the water above that point. The pressure is equal and effective where in all directions at this point and is proportional to the depth q = quantity of flow (flow rate), gpm below the surface. This pressure is variously called static head, d = diameter of pipe, in. static pressure, hydrostatic head, or hydrostatic pressure. It is the V = velocity of flow, ft/sec measure of the potential energy. Because pressure is a function POTENTIAL ENERGY of the weight of the water, it is possible to convert the static head One of the most fundamental laws of thermodynamics is that expressed as feet of head into pounds per square inch. (See energy can be neither created nor destroyed; it can only be con- Table 2.) verted from one form to another. The energy of a body due to The pressure developed by the weight of a column of water 1 its elevation above a given level is called its potential energy in in.2 in cross-sectional area and h ft high may be expressed as relation to that datum. Work had to be performed to raise the body to that elevation and this work is equal to the product of Equation 7 h p= 144 the weight of the body and the height it was raised. This can be expressed as: where p = pressure, lbf/in2 Equation 2 = specific weight of water, lbf/ft3 EP=w h= mgh gc h = static head, ft where At 50F, the pressure expressed in pounds per square inch for EP = potential energy, ft lbf a 1-ft column of water is then: w = weight of the body, lbf h = height raised, ft g = gravitational acceleration, 32.2 ft/s2 Table 2 Heads of Water in Feet Corresponding to Pressure in Pounds per Square Inch gc = gravitational constant, 32.2 lbmft/ PSI 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 lbfs2 0 2.3 4.6 6.9 9.2 11.6 13.9 16.2 18.5 20.8 10 23.1 25.4 27.7 30.0 32.3 34.7 37.0 39.3 41 .6 43.9 When the weight is equal to 1 lb the for20 46.2 48.5 50.8 53.1 55.4 57.8 60.1 62.4 64.7 67.0 mula becomes 30 69.3 71.6 73.9 76.2 78.5 80.9 83.2 85.5 87.8 90.1 Equation 3 40 92.4 94.7 97.0 99.3 101.6 104.0 106.3 108.6 110.9 113.2 50 115.5 117.8 120.1 122.4 124.7 127.1 129.4 131.7 134.0 136.3 EP= hg gc 60 138.6 140.9 143.2 145.5 147.8 150.2 152.5 154.8 157.1 159.4 where 70 161.7 164.0 166.3 168.6 170.9 173.3 175.6 177.9 180.2 182.5 EP = potential energy per pound weight 80 184.8 187.1 189.4 191.7 194.0 196.4 198.7 201.0 203.3 205.6 90 207.9 210.2 212.5 214.8 217.1 219.5 221.8 224.1 226.4 228.7 KINETIC ENERGY 100 231.0 233.3 235.6 237.9 240.2 242.6 244.9 247.2 249.5 251.8 The energy of a body due to its motion is 110 254.1 256.4 258.7 261.0 263.3 265.7 268.0 270.3 272.6 274.9 called kinetic energy and is equal to one-half 120 277.2 279.5 281.8 284.1 286.4 288.8 291.1 293.4 295.7 298.0 its mass and the square of its velocity. Mass 130 300.3 302.6 304.9 307.2 309.5 311.9 314.2 316.5 318.8 321.1 140 323.4 325.7 328.0 330.3 332.6 335.0 337.3 339.6 341.9 344.2 is equal to the weight of the body divided by 150 346.5 348.8 351.1 353.4 355.7 358.1 360.4 362.7 365.0 367.3 its acceleration imposed by gravity. 160 369.6 371.9 374.2 376.5 378.8 381.2 383.5 385.8 388.1 390.4 Equation 4 170 392.7 395.0 397.3 399.6 401.9 404.3 406.6 408.9 411.2 413.5 wgc m= g 180 415.8 418.1 420.4 422.7 425.0 427.4 429.7 432.0 434.3 436.6 c 190 438.9 441.2 443.5 445.8 448.1 450.5 452.8 455.1 457.4 459.7 Equation 5 200 462.0 464.3 466.6 468.9 471.2 473.6 475.9 478.2 480.5 482.8 2 wg 210 485.1 487.4 489.7 492.0 494.3 496.7 499.0 501.3 503.6 505.9 w V2 EK= gc c V = gc 2g 220 508.2 510.5 512.8 515.1 517.4 519.8 522.1 524.4 526.7 529.0 230 531.3 533.6 535.9 538.2 540.5 542.9 545.2 547.5 549.8 552.1 where 240 554.4 556.7 559.0 561.3 563.6 566.0 568.3 570.6 572.9 575.2 EK = kinetic energy, ft lbf 250 577.5 579.8 582.1 584.4 586.7 589.1 591.4 593.7 596.0 598.3 w = weight of body, lbf m = mass of the body, lbm
Notes: 1. To use the chart, nd the point corresponding to the specic pressure (psi) by adding incremental values in the top line to the base values in the extreme left column. For example, to nd head in ft. corresponding to 25 psi, follow the line of gures to the right of 20 psi and read 57.8 ft under 5 psi. 2. Head values in the body of the chart were calculated by multiplying psi by 2.31. To convert ft of head to psi, multiply by 0.433, or use the chart in reverse.
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Conversely, the height of a column of water that will impose a pressure of 1 lb/in.2 is
The term Pgc/g is equal to the static head or height of the liquid column. Substituting in the equation it becomes Equation 12
To convert from feet of head to pounds per square inch, multiply the height by 0.433. To convert pounds per square inch to feet of head, multiply the pounds per square inch by 2.31.
Zg + h + V2 = E T gc 2gc
VELOCITY HEAD
In a piping system with the water at rest, the water has potential energy. When the water is flowing it has kinetic energy as well as potential energy. To cause the water to flow some of the available potential energy must be converted to kinetic energy. The decrease in the potential energy, or static head, is called the velocity head. In a freely falling body, the body is accelerated by the action of gravity at a rate of 32.2 ft/sec2. The height of the fall and the velocity at any moment may be expressed as: Equation 8 Equation 9
FRICTION
When water flows in a pipe, friction is produced by the rubbing of water particles against each other and against the walls of the pipe. This friction generates heat, which is dissipated in the form of a rise in the temperature of the water and the piping. This temperature rise in plumbing systems is insignificant and can safely be ignored in plumbing design. It requires a potential energy of 778 ft-lbf to raise 1 lb of water 1F. The friction produced by flowing water also causes a pressure loss along the line of flow, which is called friction head. By utilizing Bernoullis equation this friction head loss can be expressed as:
h= gt 2
V=gt or t= V g
Figure 11-1 Bernoulli's Theorem (Disregarding Friction)
where h = velocity head, ft t = time, sec g = gravitational acceleration, 32.2 ft/sec2 V = velocity, ft/sec Substituting t=V/g in the first equation,
2 g h= 2 V2 g
Equation 10
V2 h= 2g
The foregoing illustrates the conversion of the potential energy of a body (static head) due to its height into kinetic energy (velocity head). The velocity head, V2/2g, is a measure of the decrease in static head expressed in feet of column of water.
BERNOULLIS THEOREM
As previously stated, energy can be neither created nor destroyed. Bernoulli developed an equation to express this conservation of energy as it is applied to a flowing liquid. The liquid is assumed to be frictionless and incompressible. Equation 11
where ET = total energy ftlbf/lbm Z = height of point above datum, ft P = pressure, lbf/ ft2 = density, lbm/ft3 V = velocity, ft/sec g = gravitational acceleration, 32.2 ft./sec2 4 Plumbing Systems & Design
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Zg + Pgc + V2 = E T gc g 2gc
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hF=
Simpo PDF Merge Version - http://www.simpopdf.com Z1g V12 and Split Z2g Unregistered V22
gc + h1+ 2gc - gc + h2+ 2gc
][
Experiments to determine the velocity of flow from an outlet in the side of an open tank were performed by Toricelli in the 17th century. The result of these experiments was expounded in the theorem: Except for minor frictional effects, the velocity is the same as if the fluid had fallen freely from the surface through a vertical distance to the outlet. This can be expressed as: Equation 15
V=2gh
It is graphically shown in Figure 2. If friction, size, and shape of the opening and entrance losses are disregarded, the ideal velocity is the same as the maximum velocity and is equal to the velocity attained by free fall. The actual velocity, however, is always less than the ideal. All the factors, previously ignored, when taken into consideration can be expressed as the coefficient of discharge, CD. The actual velocity can then be written: Equation 16
V=CD 2gh
For most outlets encountered in a plumbing system an average coefficient of discharge of 0.67 can be safely applied.
FLOw IN PIpING
The velocity of flow at any point in a system is due to the total energy at that point. This is the sum of the potential and kinetic energy, less the friction head loss. The static head is the potential energy, but some of it was converted to kinetic energy to cause flow and some of it was used to overcome friction. It is for these reasons that the pressure during flow is always less than the static pressure. The pressure measured at any point while water is flowing is called the flow pressure. This is the pressure that is read on a pressure gauge installed in the piping. The kinetic energy of water flowing in a plumbing system is extremely small. Very rarely is the design velocity for water flow in plumbing systems greater than 8 ft/sec. The kinetic energy (velocity head) at this velocity is V2/2g or 8 64.4. This is equal to 1 ft or 0.433 psi, which is less than 0.5 psi. It can be seen that such an insignificant pressure can be safely ignored in all calculations. The maximum rate of discharge from an outlet can now be determined from the flow pressure and the diameter of the outlet (using Equations 8-2 to 8-5):
2
d = diameter of outlet, in. V1 = ideal velocity, ft/sec h = flow pressure, ft p = flow pressure, psi If 0.67 is used for the coefficient of discharge, then, per Equation 6-1,
qD=13.17d2 h and
Equation 18
qD=20d2 p
FRICTION IN PIpING
As stated previously, whenever flow occurs, there is a continuous loss of pressure along the piping in the direction of flow. The amount of this head loss because of friction is affected by 1. 2. 3. 4. Density and temperature of the fluid Roughness of the pipe Length of run Velocity of the fluid
qD=CD29.87d2 p
where qD = actual quantity of discharge, gpm q1 = ideal quantity of discharge, gpm CD = coefficient of discharge, dimensionless
Experiments have demonstrated that the friction head loss is inversely proportional to the diameter of the pipe, proportional to the roughness and length of the pipe, and varies approxiPlumbing Systems & Design 5
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(h L) ( ) ( ) ( )
where h = friction head loss, ft p = friction head loss, lbf/in2 = density of fluid, lbm/ft3 f = coefficient of friction, dimensionless L = length of pipe, ft D = diameter of pipe, ft V = velocity of flow, ft/sec gc = gravitational constant, 32.2 lbm ft/lbf sec2 Values for the coefficient of friction are given in Table 3. It can be seen from Table 3 that steel pipe is much rougher than brass, lead or copper. It follows that there will be a greater head loss in steel pipe than in the other material. Table 3 Average Values for Coecient of Friction, f Nominal Brass, Copper, Galvanized Pipe Size, in. or Lead Iron or Steel 0.022 0.044 0.021 0.040 1 0.020 0.038 1 0.020 0.036 1 0.019 0.035 2 0.018 0.033 2 0.017 0.031 3 0.017 0.031 4 0.016 0.030
fLV2 p=144D2g c
q=60.8 d2 p L
q=28.3 d2 h L q=43.0 d2 p L
where q = quantity of flow, gpm d = diameter of pipe, in. h = pressure, ft p = pressure, psi L = length of pipe, ft
The terms h/L and p/L represent the loss of head due to friction for 1 ft of pipe length and is called the uniform friction loss. Values of d2 for various diameters of pipe and various materials are given in Table 4. In all water flow formulas, the term L (length of run in feet) is always the equivalent length of run (ELR).Every fitting and valve imposes more frictional resistance than the pipe itself.To take this additional friction head loss into account, the fitting or valve is converted to an equivalent length of pipe of the same size that will impose an equal friction loss, e.g., a 4-in. elbow is equivalent to 10 ft of 4-in. pipe.Thus, if the measured length of run of 4-in. piping with one elbow is 15 ft, then the equivalent length of run is 15+10=25 ft.The length of pipe measured Table 4 Values of d2 Nominal Brass or Size, In. Copper Pipe 0.31 0.61 1 1.16 1 2.19 1 3.24 2 6.17 2 9.88 3 16.41 4 32.00
For ease of application for the plumbing engineer, the formula for friction head loss can be reduced to a simpler form. Assuming an average value for the coefficient of friction of 0.02 for brass and copper and 0.04 for steel, the formula becomes: For brass and copper Equation 20 Equation 21
h=0.000623q2 L5 d p=0.00027q2 L5 d
Copper Copper Galvanized Type K Type L Iron or Steel 0.20 0.22 0.31 0.48 0.55 0.62 0.99 1.06 1.13 1.73 1.80 2.24 2.67 2.78 3.29 5.37 5.55 6.14 9.25 9.54 9.58 14.41 14.87 16.48 29.23 30.13 32.53
Table 5 Equivalent Pipe Length for Valves and Fittings Gate Nominal Valve Angle Globe Swing L 2 h=0.00124q 5 Pipe Size Full Valve Full Valve Full Check Full d inches Open Open Open Open Equation 23 0.35 9.3 18.6 4.3 p=0.00539q2 L5 0.44 11.5 23.1 5.3 d 1 0.56 14.7 29.4 6.8 These formulas can be rearranged in another 1 0.74 19.3 38.6 8.9 useful form: 1 0.86 22.6 45.2 10.4 For brass and copper 2 1.10 29.0 58.0 13.4 2 1.32 35.0 69.0 15.9 3 1.60 43.0 86.0 19.8 4 2.10 57.0 113.0 26.0 5 2.70 71.0 142.0 33.0 6 3.20 85.0 170.0 39.0 8 4.30 112.0 224.0 52.0 Equation 22 6 Plumbing Systems & Design
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45 Elbow 0.78 0.97 1.23 1.6 1.9 2.4 2.9 3.6 4.7 5.9 7.1 9.4
Long Sweep Elbow or Run of Tee 1.11 1.4 1.8 2.3 2.7 3.5 4.2 5.2 6.8 8.5 10.2 13.4
Std. Elbow 1.7 2.1 2.6 3.5 4.1 5.2 6.2 7.7 10.2 12.7 15.3 20.2
Std. Tee Thru Side Outlet 3.3 4.2 5.3 7.0 8.1 10.4 12.4 15.5 20.3 25.4 31.0 40.0
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along the centerline of pipe and fittings is the developed length. Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version Table 5 shows equivalent lengths of pipe for valves and fittings of various sizes. Note that the larger the pipe size, the more significant the equivalent length of run becomes. In the design phase of piping systems, the size of the piping is not known and the equivalent lengths cannot be accurately determined. A rule of thumb that has worked exceptionally well is to assume 50% of the developed length as an allowance for fittings and valves. Once the sizes are determined, the accuracy of the assumption can be checked. All equipment imposes a friction head loss and must be carefully considered in the design and operation of a system. The pressure drop through any piece of equipment can be obtained from the manufacturer. The knowledgeable engineer is careful to specify the maximum pressure drop he/she will permit through a piece of equipment.
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CONTINUING EDUCATION
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Kenneth G.Wentink, PE, CPD, and Robert D. Jackson
Do you find it difficult to obtain continuing education units (CEUs)? Through this special section in every issue of PS&D, ASPE can help you accumulate the CEUs required for maintaining your Certified in Plumbing Design (CPD) status.
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The July/August 2007 continuing education article is Flow in Water Piping, Chapter 11 of Engineered Plumbing Design II by A. Cal Laws, PE, CPD. This chapter discusses hydraulics, which can be defined as the study of the principles and laws that govern the behavior of liquids at rest or in motion, hydrostatics, the study of liquids at rest, and hydrokinetics, or the study of liquids in motion. Although this text deals exclusively with water, all the data developed can be applied to any liquid. The chapter delves into the physical properties of water, types of flow, Bernoullis and Toricellis Theorems, and friction in piping as they relate to sizing piping systems. It provides calculations for finding the Reynolds number, velocity of flow, potential and kinetic energy, pressure, velocity head, and Bernoullis Theorem, among others. You may locate this article at www.psdmagazine.org. Read the article, complete the following exam, and submit your answer sheet to the ASPE office to potentially receive 0.1 CEU.
The technical article you must read to complete the exam is located at www.psdmagazine.org. The following exam and application form also may be downloaded from the website. Reading the article and completing the form will allow you to apply to ASPE for CEU credit. For most people, this process will require approximately one hour. If you earn a grade of 90 percent or higher on the test, you will be notified that you have logged 0.1 CEU, which can be applied toward the CPD renewal requirement or numerous regulatory-agency CE programs. (Please note that it is your responsibility to determine the acceptance policy of a particular agency.) CEU information will be kept on file at the ASPE office for three years.
Note: In determining your answers to the CE questions, use only the material presented in the corresponding continuing education article. Using information from other materials may result in a wrong answer.
7. How much potential energy is required to raise 1 pound of water 1F? a. 728 ft-lbf, b. 778 ft-lbf, c. 828 ft-lbf, d. 878 ft-lbf
8. The pressure at any point below the surface of water exposed to atmospheric pressure is referred to as ______. a. static head b. hydrostatic pressure c. specific pressure d. a or b 9. What is the equivalent pipe length for a 4-inch fully open globe valve? a. 113.0 b. 142.0 c. 170.0 d. 224.0
10. The critical velocity of water _________. a. in -inch, 1-inch, and 2-inch pipe is less than 0.5 fps at temperatures of 60F to 140F b. is represented by a Reynolds number of 82,500 c. is Re=DVp/ugc d. is greater than 20 ft/sec for all pipe 10 inches and smaller at temperatures of 60F to 140F 11. The static pressure is always _________ the pressure during flow. a. less than b. greater than c. the same as d. none of the above 12. Water in motion _________. a. has used its potential energy b. has only kinetic energy c. has both kinetic and potential energy d. none of the above
PSD 140
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This form is valid up to one year from date of publication. The PS&D Continuing Education program is approved by ASPE for up to one contact hour (0.1 CEU) of credit per article. Participants who ear a passing score (90 percent) on the CE questions will receive a letter or certification within 30 days of ASPEs receipt of the application form. (No special certificates will be issued.) Participants who fail and wish to retake the test should resubmit the form along with an additional fee (if required). 1. Photocopy this form or download it from www.psdmagazine.org. 2. Print or type your name and address. Be sure to place your ASPE membership number in the appropriate space. 3. Answer the multiple-choice continuing education (CE) questions based on the corresponding article found on www.psdmagazine.org and the appraisal questions on this form. 4. Submit this form with payment ($35 for nonmembers of ASPE) if required by check or money order made payable to ASPE or credit card via mail (ASPE Education Credit, 8614 W. Catalpa Avenue, Suite 1007, Chicago, IL 60656) or fax (773-695-9007). Please print or type; this information will be used to process your credits. Name _ __________________________________________________________________________________________________ Title _ ______________________________________________ ASPE Membership No.____________________________________ Organization _ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ Billing Address ____________________________________________________________________________________________ City_ _______________________________________ State/Province________________________ Zip _ ____________________ Country____________________________________________ E-mail_ ________________________________________________ Daytime telephone_ _________________________________ Fax___________________________________________________ ASPE Member Each examination: $25
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Appraisal Questions
Flow in Water Piping (PSD 140) Was the material new information for you? Yes No Was the material presented clearly? Yes No Was the material adequately covered? Yes No Did the content help you achieve the stated objectives? Yes No Did the CE questions help you identify specic ways to use ideas presented in the article? Yes No 6. How much time did you need to complete the CE oering (i.e., to read the article and answer the post-test questions)?___________________ 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
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PSD 144
CONTINUING EDUCATION
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GENERAL
NG is obtained from a franchised public utility obligated to provide gas to all who request this service. There are different types of services a utility may provide, each with a different cost. They include the following: 1. Firm Service. This service provides constant supply of gas under all conditions. 2. Interruptible Service. This service allows the utility to stop gas supply under certain conditions and proper notification and to start service when the conditions no longer exist. The most common reason for this interruption is when the ambient temperature falls below a predetermined point. 3. Light or Heavy Process Service. This service is provided for process or other industrial use. The quantity of gas must meet utility company requirements. 4. Commercial or Industrial Service. This type of service is used for heating and cooling loads for this class of building. 5. Transportation Gas Service. This is used when the gas is purchased directly from the producer (or wellhead) and not directly from the utility company. The gas actually is carried in the utility company mains, and there is a charge for this use. There are many gases used as a fuel gas. Where easily and cheaply available, two major fuel gases, NG and LPG, are preferred. Other gases are used because of availability. For properties of gases commonly available throughout the world, refer to Table 2.
Table 1 Average Physical Properties of Natural Gas and Propane Formula Molecular weight Melting (or freezing) point, F Boiling point, F Specific gravity of gas (air=1.00) Specific gravity of liquid 60F/60F (water=1.00) Latent heat of vaporization at normal boiling point, Btu/lb Vapor pressure, lb/in2, gauge at 60F Pounds per gallon of liquid at 60F Gallons per pound of liquid at 60F Btu per pound of gas (gross) Btu per ft3 gas at 60F and 30 in mercury Btu per gallon of gas at 60F Cubic feet of gas (60F, 30 in Hg)/gal of liquid Cubic feet of gas (60F, 30 in Hg)/lb of liquid Cubic feet of air required to burn 1 ft3 gas Flame temperature, F Octane number (isooctane=100) Flammability limit in air, upper Flammability limit in air, lower Propane C3H8 44.097 305.84 44 1.52 0.588 183 92 4.24 0.237 21591 2516 91547 36.39 8.58 23.87 3595 125 9.50 2.87 Natural gas (methane) CH4 16.402 300.54 258.70 0.60 0.30 245 2.51 23000 1050 59.0 23.6 9.53 3416 15.0 5.0
APPROVALS
The American Gas Association, the National Fire Protection Association, and the American National Standards Association do not approve, inspect, or certify installations, procedures, equipment, or materials. The acceptability of all such items must comply with the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ).
Reprinted from Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook, Volume 2: Plumbing Systems, Chapter 7: Fuel Gas Piping Systems. American Society of Plumbing Engineers , 2005.
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Table 2 Physical and Combustion Properties of Commonly Available Fuel Gases Heating value Specific Btu/ft3 Btu/lb Heat release, Btu Specific Density, volume No. Gas Gross Net Gross Net Per ft3 air Per lb air gravity lb per ft3 ft3/lb 1 Acetylene 1,498 1,447 21,569 20,837 125.8 1677 0.91 0.07 14.4 2 Blast furnace gas 92 92 1,178 1,178 135.3 1804 1.02 0.078 12.8 3 Butane 3,225 2,977 21,640 19,976 105.8 1411 1.95 0.149 6.71 4 Butylene (hutene) 3,077 2,876 20,780 19,420 107.6 1435 1.94 0.148 6.74 5 Carbon monoxide 323 323 4,368 4,368 135.7 1809 0.97 0.074 13.5 6 Carburetted water gas 550 508 11,440 10,566 119.6 1595 0.63 0.048 20.8 7 Coke oven gas 574 514 17,048 15,266 115.0 1533 0.44 0.034 29.7 8 Digester (sewage) gas 690 621 11,316 10,184 107.6 1407 0.80 0.062 16.3 9 Ethane 1,783 1,630 22,198 20,295 106.9 1425 1.05 0.080 12.5 10 Hydrogen 325 275 61,084 51,628 136.6 1821 0.07 0.0054 186.9 11 Methane 1,011 910 23,811 21,433 106.1 1415 0.55 0.042 23.8 12 Natural (Birmingham, AL) 1,002 904 21,844 19,707 106.5 1420 0.60 0.046 21.8 13 Natural (Pittsburgh, PA) 1,129 1,021 24,161 21,849 106.7 1423 0.61 0.047 21.4 14 Natural (Los Angeles, CA) 1,073 971 20,065 18,158 106.8 1424 0.70 0.054 18.7 15 Natural (Kansas City, MO) 974 879 20,259 18,283 106.7 1423 0.63 0.048 20.8 16 Natural (Groningen, Netherlands) 941 849 19,599 17,678 111.9 1492 0.64 0.048 20.7 17 Natural (Midlands Grid, U.K.) 1,035 902 22,500 19,609 105.6 1408 0.61. 0.046 21.8 18 Producer (Wellman-Galusha) 167 156 2,650 2,476 128.5 1713 0.84 0.065 15.4 19 Propane 2,572 2,365 21,500 19,770 108 1440 1.52 0.116 8.61 20 Propylene (Propane) 2,332 2,181 20,990 19,030 108.8 1451 1.45 0.111 9.02 21 Sasol (South Africa) 500 443 14,550 13,016 116.3 1551 0.42 0.032 31.3 22 Water gas (bituminous) 261 239 4,881 4,469 129.9 1732 0.71 0.054 18.7 CODES AND STANDARDS
The local code in the area where the project is located is the primary code to be used. Often, this code refers to NFPA 54. Other codes and standards that may be applicable are ANSI/NFPA 30: Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, ANSI/NFPA 58, ANSI Z83.3: Gas Utilization Equipment for Large Boilers, ANSI/UL 144: Pressure Regulating Valves for LPG, NFPA 88A: Standard for Parking Structures, and American Gas Association standards. Insurance carriers such as Industrial Risk Insurers and FM Global also have standards, which may be in many respects stricter than the applicable code.
majority of times, the utility company will reduce the incoming pressure to a figure that is requested by the design engineer at the start of the project. The maximum allowable operating pressure for NG piping systems inside a building is based on NFPA 54: National Fuel Gas Code, except when approved by the AHJ or when insurance carriers have more limiting requirements. NG systems are not permitted to have more than 5 psig (34.5 kPa) unless all the following are met: 1. The AHJ will allow a higher pressure. 2. The distribution piping is welded. 3. Pipe runs are enclosed for protection and located in a ventilated place that will not allow gas to accumulate. 4. The pipe is installed in areas only used for industrial processes, research, warehouse, or mechanical equipment rooms. The maximum LPG pressure of 20 psig (138 kPa) is allowed, provided the building is used only for research or industrial purposes and is constructed in accordance with NFPA 58: Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, Chapter 7.
GAS METERS
Meters are required in all services. To achieve greatest accuracy, the pressure into the meter must be regulated. Requirements for various utilities differ regarding the placement and arrangement of the meter assembly. The assembly could consist of filters, valves, regulators, and relief valves. It could be placed indoors, on a slab outdoors aboveground, or underground in an outdoor pit. The plumbing contractor is usually responsible for a pit, if required, a slab, telephone outlet, and electrical outlet adjacent to the meter. The utility company almost always supplies the meter. The utility company usually runs the service on the consumers site up to the meter, terminating with a shutoff valve.
EFFICIENCY
The difference between the input and the output of any equipment is the heat lost in the burner, the heat exchanger, and the flue gases. Water heating and space heating equipment are usually 75 to 85% efficient, and ratings are given for both input and output. Cooking and laundry equipment also is usually 75 to 85% efficient, and ratings are given for the input that take into consideration the internal losses. When only the output required for the appliance is known, it will be necessary to increase the volume of gas to account for the loss of efficiency.
INTERLOCKS
An automatic interlock, connected to the automatic fire extinguishing system, is required to shut off the gas supply to all equipment in a kitchen when there is a discharge in the event of a fire. In earthquake-prone areas, an interlock is required to shut off the supply of gas if the disturbance may rupture the pipe or separate pipe from any equipment.
APPLIANCES
Appliances are listed by types and categories that shall be used in the design of vents. These vents shall be sized and located in accordance with NFPA 54. Most manufacturers of gas appliances rate their equipment by the gas consumption values that are used to determine the maximum gas flow rate in the piping. Table 3 shows the approximate gas consumption for some common appliances. To find the flow rate of gas required, use the consumption from the manufacturer and divide by 1,000. If the equipment is a water heater, multiply the figure by the weight of water (8.48 lbs). The products of combustion from an appliance must be safely exhausted to the outside. This is accomplished with a gas vent system in most cases. Where an appliance has a very low rate of gas consumption (e.g., Bunsen burner or countertop coffee maker) or where an appliance has an exhaust system associated with the appliance (e.g., gas clothes dryer or range) and the room size and ventilation are adequate, a separate gas vent system may not be required. Current practice usually dictates the use of factory-fabricated and listed vents for small to medium-size appliances. Large appliances and equipment may require specially designed venting or exhaust systems. It is not the plumbing engineers responsibility
a
Deep fat fryer, 45 lb (20.4 kg) of fat Deep fat fryer, 75 lb (34.1 kg) of fat Doughnut fryer, 200 lb (90.8 kg) of fat 2-deck baking and roasting oven 3-deck baking oven Revolving oven, 4 or 5 trays Range with hot top and oven Range with hot top Range with fry top and oven Range with fry top Coffee urn, single, 5-gal (18.9 L) Coffee urn, twin, 10-gal. (37.9 L) Coffee urn, twin, 15-gal (56.8 L) Stackable convection oven, per section of oven Residential equipment Clothes dryer (Type I) Range Stove-top burners (each) Oven 30-gal (113.6-L) water heater 40 to 50-gal (151.4 to 189.3-L) water heater Log lighter Barbecue Miscellaneous equipment Commercial log lighter Bunsen burner Gas engine, per horsepower (745.7 W) Steam boiler, per horsepower (745.7 W) Commercial clothes dryer (Type 2)
50,000 (52.8) 75,000 (79.1) 72,000 (76) 100,000 (105.5) 96,000 (101.3) 210,000 (221.6) 90,000 (95) 45,000 (47.5) 100,000 (105.5) 50,000 (52.8) 28,000 (29.5) 56,000 (59.1) 84,000 (88.6) 60,000 (63.3) 35,000 (36.9) 65,000 (68.6) 40,000 (42.2) 25,000 (26.4) 30,000 (31.7) 50,000 (52.8) 25,000 (26.4) 50,000 (52.8) 50,000 (52.8) 5,000 (5.3) 10,000 (10.6) 50,000 (52.8) See manufacturers data.
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The values given in this table should be used only when the manufacturers data are not available.
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aware that large appliances, such as boilers, may require higher roof and away from doors, windows, and fresh-air intakes. It also Simpo to PDF Merge and Splitappliances Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com gas pressures operate properly. Where require higher should be located on a side of the building that is not protected pressures or where long distribution lines are involved, it may be from the wind. Refer to NFPA 54 and local codes for vent locations. necessary to use higher pressures at the meter outlet to satisfy ALTITUDE DERATINg FACTOR the appliance requirements or provide for greater pressure losses NG has a reduced density at a higher altitude that must be allowed in the piping system. If greater pressure at the meter outlet can for when the project location is more than 2,000 feet above sea level. be attained, a greater pressure drop can be allowed in the piping This altitude correction factor shall be multiplied by the gas input at system. If the greater pressure drop design can be used, a more ecosea level to determine the correct input at full load capacity. Refer nomical piping system is possible. to Figure 1 to determining the derating factor for NG.
LABORATORY USAgE
NG is the primary gas used in laboratories at lab benches for Bunsen burners. Where NG is not available, propane gas is used, but this generally requires the manufacturer to be advised due to the Bunsen burner requiring a smaller orifice. Typical Bunsen burners consume either 5 cfh (0.15 m3/h) (small burners) or 10 cfh (0.30 m3/h) (large burners).The maximum pressure at the burner should not exceed 14 in. (355.6 mm) wc. 10 cfh (0.30 m3/h) is more commonly used. Some local codes require laboratory gas systems, especially those in schools or universities, to be supplied with emergency gas shutoff valves on the supply to each laboratory. The valve normally should be closed and opened only when the gas is being used. It should be located inside the laboratory and used in conjunction with shutoff valves at the benches or equipment, which may be required by other codes. The designer should ensure locations meet local code requirements. The following diversities, found in Table 4, shall be applied where flow will be from Bunsen burners:
Table 4 Laboratory Diversity Factors Laboratory Number of Diversity Flow cfh Outlets Factor (m3/h) 18 100 9 (0.26) 916 90 15 (0.43) 1729 80 24 (0.68) 3079 60 48 (1.36) 80162 50 82 (2.32) 163325 45 107 (3.03) 326742 40 131 (3.71) 7431,570 30 260 (7.36) 1,5712,900 25 472 (13.37) 2,901 and up 20 726 (20.56)
Branch piping that serves one or two laboratory classrooms should be sized for 100% usage regardless of the number of outlets. Use factors should be modified to suit special conditions and must be used with judgment after consultation with the owner and/or user.
The Altitude Correction Factor (ACF) should be multiplied by the gas input at sea level to determine the corrected input. Sizing of the equipment is then performed utilizing this corrected input multiplied by the full load efficency.
DESIgN CONSIDERATIONS
The fact that LPG vapors are heavier than air has a practical bearing on several items. For one thing, LPG systems are located in such a manner that the hazard of escaping gas is kept at a minimum. Since the heavier-than-air gas tends to settle in low places, the vent termination of relief valves must be located at a safe distance from openings into buildings that are below the level of such valves. With many gas systems, both the gas pressure regulator and the fuel containers are installed adjacent to the building they serve. This distance must be a least 3 ft (0.91 m) measured horizontally. However, the required clearances vary according to the tank size and the adjacent activities. The designer should refer to the local code and NFPA 54 for these clearances. When LPG piping is installed in crawl spaces or in pipe tunnels, the engineer may consider a sniffer system, which automatically shuts down the gas supply, sounds an alarm, and activates an exhaust system to purge the escaping gas from the area upon detection of gas in the space due to a breach in the piping system.
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
Housing and rotor Boosters used for fuel gas must be Underwriters Laboratories (UL) listed for the specific duty intended and shall be hermetically sealed. Casings on standard boosters usually are constructed of carbon steel, depending on the equipment supplier. Booster casings are also available in stainless steel and aluminum. Inlet and outlet connections are threaded or flanged, depending on the pipe size connection and the manufacturer selected, and the casings are constructed leak tight. Drive impellers are contained within the casing and always manufactured of a spark-resistant material such as aluminum. Discharge-type check valves are furnished on the booster inlet and on the booster bypass. It is important that these valves are listed and approved for use on the gas service at hand. The fan, control panel, valves, piping, and interelectrical connections can be specified as a skid-mounted package at the discretion of the designer. This allows for UL listing of the entire package rather than of individual components. Electrical components Motor housings for gas booster systems are designed for explosion-proof (XP) construction and are rated per National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) Class 1, Division 1, Group D classification with thermal overload protection. A factory UL-listed junction box with a protected, sealed inlet is necessary for wiring connections.
GAS BOOSTERS
A gas booster is a pump that increases the pressure of gas. It is used when there is insufficient pressure available from the gas utility or LPG storage device to supply the necessary pressure to the equipment at hand. It is important to note that the gas service must be capable of the volumetric flow rate required at the boosted level. A booster cannot overcome an inadequate volumetric supply.
Figure 2Variations of a Basic Simplex Booster System: (A) Standby Generator Application with Accumulator Tank Having a Limitation on Maximum Pressure 6 Plumbing Systems & Design
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(B)
(C) Figure 2Variations of a Basic Simplex Booster System: (B) Dual Booster System for Critical Systems Like Those in Hospitals, (C) Heat Exchanger Loop ExampleRequired for High Flow Range with Low Minimum Flow.
Other electrical ancillary equipment Boosters are equipped with low pressure switches that monitor the incoming gas pressure. The switch is designed to shut down the booster should the utilitysupplied pressure fall below a preset limit. The set point is usually about 3 in. (76 mm) wc, but the designer should verify the limit with the local gas provider. The switch must be UL listed for use with the gas service at hand. When the switch opens, it de-energizes the motor control circuit and simultaneously outputs both audible and visual signals, which require manual resetting. The booster can be equipped with an optional high/low gas pressure switch. This feature equips the booster to run only when adequate supply pressure is available. The switch shuts the booster down at the maximum discharge setpoint pressure at the output line pressure. Minimum gas flow Gas boosters normally require a minimum gas flow that serves as an internal cooling medium. For example, a booster sized at a flow rate of 10,000 cfh (283.2 m3/h) has an inherent minimum turndown based on the minimum flow required to cool the unit. This rate, in the example, may be 2,000 cfh (566.3 m3/h) (see Figure 2). Should the unit be required to run below this turndown rate, additional supplemental cooling systems must be incorporated into the booster design. The heat exchangers normally rated for this use are water cooled.
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Equation 1
PV=RT where P = Pressure, psi or in. wc (kPa or mm wc) V = Volume, cfh (m3/h) R = Constant for the gas/air mixture used T = Temperature, F (C) Usually the temperature of the gas remains relatively constant and can be ignored in the relationship. Therefore, the pressure times the volume is proportional to a constant R. Further, the pressure/volume ratios before and after the booster are proportional, that is:
Equation 2
P1V1=P2V2 where P1 = Pressure at a point prior to the booster P2 = Pressure at a point after the booster For almost every case, the volumetric rating of gas-fired equipment is in Btu/h, which can readily be converted to cfh. In the booster application, sizing criteria should be approached from a standard cfh (scfh) not an actual cfh (acfh) rating. Gas temperatures and density As stated, the temperature of the gas is usually constant. However, in the event that the gas is to be heated or cooled, the previously mentioned gas laws are affected by temperature. Gas density changes affect the constant but usually do not affect the relationship since the same mixture is boosted across the fan. High-rise building issues Consideration must be given to the rise effect in available gas pressure as gas rises in the piping through a high-rise building. Therefore, if the gas system supplies a kitchen on the first level and a boiler in the penthouse of a 50-story building, it may be necessary to boost the supply to the kitchen but not to the boiler. The gas rises to the penthouse through the piping system because of the density differential; its rising is dependent on this stack effect, which is directly related to the piping system layout. Design considerations Although a gas booster is a basic mechanical piece of equipment, there are significant design considerations that should be taken into account when applying it: 1. Indoor vs. outdoor location. This may be driven by local code or the end user. An indoor location involves a lower initial cost and lower costs for long-term maintenance. Outdoor locations are inherently safer. 2. Access. The location should be accessible for installation, inspection, and maintenance. The unit should not be so accessible as to create a security issue. Keep the equipment out of traffic patterns and protect it from heavy equipment. 3. Minimum and maximum flow rates. Boosters usually have a minimum flow rate that must be maintained so that the
For some specific examples, see the schematics in Figure 2, which shows variations of a basic simplex booster system for an emergency generator. In Figure 2(A), the regulator controls maximum delivered pressure, and a combination high/low pressure switch on the tank cycles the booster to ensure emergency startup pressure within a design deadband for the generator. Oversized piping, in this case, can be substituted for the tank itself. Provide adequate volume so that the generator can fire and deliver standby power back to the booster system to continue operation during main power interrupt. In Figure 2(B), a dual booster system, the booster is controlled in a lead/lag control scenario. Should one booster fail, the second is started automatically. Unit operation is rotated automatically via the control panel to share the duty and to keep both units in operating order. The booster with a heat exchanger loop shown in Figure 2(C) has a potential of up to 15 psi (103.4 kPa) and down to 28 in. (711.2 mm) wc supply pressure. The system automatically diverts gas around the booster if there is sufficient supply pressure. While these illustrations obviously do not cover all the potential applications, they are provided to give the system designer some guidance. Sizing a gas booster A gas boosters main purpose is to elevate the pressure of a volume of gas to overcome a supply pressure deficiency. When sizing a booster, an engineer needs to understand the following terms and issues: Maximum design flow (Qmax) The sum of all gas loads at the maximum capacity rating (MCR) for all equipment downstream of the booster that could possibly be required to operate simultaneously. Minimum design flow (Qmin) The minimum volumetric flow that could exist while the booster is operating. This flow is not always associated with the smallest Btu/h-rated piece of equipment. For example, when evaluating a 75,000,000 Btu/h (22 MW) boiler with a 10:1 turndown ratio in comparison to a 1.0 Btu/h (0.3 W) hot water heater that is on/off in operation, the larger Btu/h (W)-rated boiler has the smaller flow of 0.75 Btu/h (0.2 W) at its minimum firing rate. Turndown (TD) ratio The ratio of the MCR input to the equipments minimum, or low-fire, input. For example, a 100 Btu/h (29.3 W) burner that can fire at a minimum rate of 20 Btu/h (5.9 W) has a TD ratio of 5:1. Pressure droop and peak consumption Pressure droop is the inability of a supply system to maintain a steady or consistent inlet pressure as an increase in volumetric flow is demanded. Often, in areas where boosters are applied, the supply pressure in off-peak months when gas is not in such demand can be sufficient to run a system. As the local demand for gas increases, the supply system no longer can provide the gas efficiently and the pressure falls off or droops. It is the boosters function to overcome the droop (or excessive pressure drop) of the supply system during such times. Flow rate relationships Do your flows for separate pieces of equipment relate to each other? In other words, do the three boilPSDMAGAZINE.ORG
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ers always operate in unison while another process machine always 3. The allowable friction loss through the piping system. Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com operates off peak and alone? Relationships among the equipment 4. A piping layout that shows all the connected equipment, can significantly affect both maximum and minimum flow rates. allowing determination of the measured length of piping to Test block A factor of safety added to design criteria. Typically, the furthest connection. This, in turn, gives the equivalent a minimum of 5% added volume and 10% added static pressure length of piping. should be applied to the design criteria. When specifying the equip- 5. The maximum probable demand. ment, ensure that you note both the design and test block condi- 6. A pipe sizing method acceptable to the AHJ or local code. tions. This makes other people working on the system aware and The information needed by both the utility company and the ensures that safety factors are not applied to criteria that already engineer The following are intended to be complete lists of items. include safety factors. Not all items will be necessary for all projects. Minimum inlet pressure (PI-min) What is the minimum supply The following criteria and information shall be obtained in writpressure in in. (mm) wc gauge? This must be evaluated during peak ing from the public utility company and given to the engineer: flow demands both for the equipment and for the local area. Always 1. BTU content of the gas provided. evaluate during flow, not static, conditions. It is also important to 2. Minimum pressure of the gas at the outlet of the meter. know how high the inlet pressure is expected to rise during off-peak 3. Extent of the installation work done by the utility company periods. A booster is typically rated to about 5 psi (34.5 kPa). It may and the point of connection to the meter by the facility conbe possible to exceed this rating during off-peak demand periods; struction contractor. therefore, a bypass system or other means of protection is required. 4. The location of the utility supply main and the proposed run Often this pressure can be specified by the local gas company as the of pipe on the site by the utility company. This shall be in the minimum guaranteed gas pressure from their supply system. Also, form of a marked-up plan or description of the work. Include the maximum inlet pressure (PI-max) must be determined. the expected date of installation if no gas is available. Maximum outlet pressure (PO-max) List all maximum and 5. Acceptable location of the meter and/or regulator assembly required supply pressures for the various pieces of equipment being or a request to locate the meter at a particular location. supplied gas from the booster. Determine the differential between 6. Any work required by the owner to allow the meter assembly the highest expected gas pressure supply to the booster (e.g., 8 in. to be installed (such as a meter pit or slab on grade). [203.2 mm] wc) and the lowest maximum supply pressure rating 7. Types of gas service available and the cost of each. to a piece of equipment (e.g., 18 in. [457.2 mm] wc). The boosters For the utility company to provide this data, the fol lowing inforpressure gain should not exceed this differential (for the above example, 18 8=10 in. [457.2 203.2=254 mm] wc) unless other mation must be provided to them: 1. The total connected load. The utility will use its own diversity means of protecting the downstream equipment are provided. factor to calculate the size of the service line. For the design Outlet pressure protection There are several ways to protect of the projects interior piping, the design engineer will select equipment downstream of a booster should it be necessary due the diversity factor involved. to potential over-pressurization during off-peak periods. If all the equipment being serviced operates at nominally the same pressure, 2. Minimum pressure requirements for the most demanding device. install a regulator on the inlet or outlet of the booster to maintain a controlled maximum outlet pressure. If the equipment being ser- 3. Site plan indicating the location of the proposed building on the site and the specific area of the building where the proviced operates at various inlet pressures, it may be best to supply a posed NG service will enter the building. regulator for each piece of equipment. Most often, packaged equip4. Preferred location of the meter/regulator assembly ment is supplied with its own regulator. If this is the case, review the 5. Expected date of the start of construction. equipment regulators maximum inlet pressure. To perform an evaluation of system requirements, do the following: 6. Different requirements for pressure. 7. Two site plans, one to be marked up and returned to the engi1. Establish design Qmin and Qmax per the previously discussed neer. definitions while evaluating TD requirements. 8. If any equipment has pilot lights. 2. Establish PI-min and PI-max per the previously discussed defini9. The hours of operation for the different types of equipment. tions. 10. Future equipment and capacities, if any, known at this time. 3. Define maximum inlet pressure requirements to equipment (PI-eq). The pressure available after the meter shall be established in 4. Define piping pressure losses (PPL) from the gas booster locawriting from the utility at the start of the project. If boilers or other tion to each piece of equipment. major equipment is being used, the pressure requirements and the 5. Design flow rate (QD)=Qmin to Qmax, cfh (m3/h). flow rate for that equipment must be provided to the utility. 6. Design pressure boost (DP)=PI-eq+PPL PI-min. The allowable friction loss through the entire piping system 7. Test block flow (QTB)=(1.05Qmin) to (1.05Qmax). shall be established by the engineer. This value depends on the 8. Test block pressure boost: 1.10DP=PI-eq+PPL PI-min. pressure provided by the utility company. The most often selected value under average conditions is 0.3 in. (7.6 mm) wc, with a range where of 0.20.5 in. (513 mm) wc. The residential appliances (range and PPL=Pressure losses, psi (kPa) dryer) require a pressure of 3.5 in. (89 mm) wc. If the pressure from the utility company is around 7 in. (178 mm) wc, a higher friction INTERIOR NG PIPE SIZINg To accurately size all elements of the piping system, calculate or loss allowance could be used for economy in pipe sizing. If the pressure from the utility company is 4 in. (102 mm) wc, a 0.2 in. (5 obtain the following information: mm) wc is recommended. 1. The information needed by both the utility company and the A piping layout and the equivalent length of piping A piping engineer. layout is necessary to show the run of the whole piping system and 2. The gas pressure available after the meter assembly.
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9.00 (2.74) 12.0 (3.66) 4.50 (1.37) 6.00 (1.83) 18.0 (5.49) 24.0 (7.32)
2.50 (0.76) 3.50 (1.07) 4.50 (1.37) 5.00 (1.52) 6.00 (1.83) 11.0 (3.35) 13.0 (3.96) 4.00 (1.22) 5.00 (1.52) 7.50 (2.29) 9.00 (2.74) 12.0 (3.66) 17.0 (5.18) 20.0 (6.1)
Note: The pressure drop through valves should be taken from manufacturers published data rather than using the equivalent lengths, since the various patterns of gas cocks can vary greatly.
all the connected appliances and equipment. The equivalent length of piping is calculated by measuring the actual length of proposed piping from the meter to the furthest connection and then adding 50% of the measured length to find the equivalent length. If a very accurate determination of the equivalent length is necessary, it will be necessary to count the fittings and valves and then add those to the measured length. Refer to Table 5 for the equivalent amount of pipe to be added for various valves and fittings. It is common practice not to use the vertical length in either calculation because NG is lighter than air. It expands at the rate of 1 in. (25.4 mm) wc for each 15 ft of elevation as the gas rises. The increase in pressure due to the height will offset any friction loss in the piping. The maximum probable demand is calculated by the engineer with input from the owner if necessary. The primary usage of gas is for cooking and clothes drying at residences, for Bunsen burners or heating (boilers) in laboratories, or cooling equipment in industrial projects. For residential usage, Figure 3 for large residences
and Figure 4 for smaller projects give a direct reading of the usage in cfh (m3/hr). These direct reading tables give flow rate usage by using the number of apartments. Figure 5 is a riser diagram of multiple dwellings that gives the size of gas risers used for cooking and drying for both single and back-to-back installations. For laboratories, use Table 5 for the diversity factor. For schools, use no diversity factor for individual classrooms. Use no diversity factor for groups of classrooms if information of proposed usage is not conclusive or available from the owner. For industrial usage, a diversity factor generally is not used because of the possibility that all equipment may be in use at one time. For a listing of input requirements for common appliances, refer to Table 3.
Figure 3 Gas Demand for Multiple-unit Dwellings with More Than 50 Apartments
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codes as well as in NFPA 54. The most commonly referenced forof piping is not considered due to the pressure gained as the Simpo Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com mula for gas PDF pressures under 1 psi (10.3 kPa) is the Spitzglass gas rises. This very closely approximates the friction loss in the formula. The other commonly referenced equation for pressures of piping. 1 psi (10.3 kPa) and more is the Weymouth formula. Using these 2. Select the column showing the distance that is equal to or formulas for sizing is a very cumbersome task, so they are rarely, if more than the equivalent length just calculated. ever, used. However, they were used as a basis for the sizing tables 3. Use the vertical column to locate all gas demand figures for that are included in this chapter and reproduced with permission this particular system. This is the only column to use. Startfrom the NFPA. These tables are regarded as the most conservaing at the most remote outlet, find in the vertical column the tive method for sizing NG pipe. Proprietary tables and calculators calculated gas demand for that design point. If the exact figure are available from various organizations and are considered more is not shown, choose the figure closest to or more than the accurate than those shown here. calculated demand. The tables are based on Schedule 40 steel pipe, cfh of gas, and a 4. Opposite this demand figure selected, in the column at the specific gravity of 0.60. The initial pressures are different, and the left, find the correct size of pipe. friction loss allowable is indicated. The following tables are pro- 5. Proceed for each design point and each section of pipe. For vided: each section of pipe, determine the total gas demand supplied Table 6 pressure less than 2 psi (14 kPa), loss of 0.3 in. (7.5 mm) by that section. wc If the gas used for the system has a different specific gravity than Table 7 pressure less than 2 psi (14 kPa), loss of 0.5 in. (12.5 mm) natural gas, obtain that figure from Table 12 and use this as a multiwc plier for the specific gas selected. Table 8 pressure of 5 psi (35 kPa), loss of 10 percent Table 9 pressure 10 psi (70 kPa), loss of 10 percent Table 10 pressure 20 psi (140 kPa), loss of 10 percent Figure 5 Gas Riser Pipe Sizing for Multiple Dwellings Table 11 pressure 50 psi (350 kPa), loss of 10 percent Note 1 cfh gas=0.3 m3/hr To determine the size of each section of pipe in a gas supply system using the gas pipe sizing tables, the following method should be used: 1. Measure the length of the pipe from the gas meter location to the most remote outlet on the system. Add a fitting allowance of 50% of the measured length. This now gives you the equivalent length of pipe. For natural gas, the vertical portion
Figure 4 Gas Demand for Multiple-unit Dwellings with Less than 50 Apartments
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51,300 105,000 191,000 303,000 35,300 72,400 132,000 208,000 28,300 58,200 106,000 167,000 24,200 49,800 90,400 143,000 21,500 44,100 80,100 127,000 19,500 40,000 72,600 115,000 17,900 36,800 66,800 106,000 16,700 34,200 62,100 98,400 15,600 32,100 58,300 92,300 14,800 30,300 55,100 87,200 13,100 26,900 48,800 77,300 11,900 24,300 44,200 70,000 10,900 22,400 40,700 64,400 10,100 20,800 37,900 59,900 8,990 18,500 33,500 53,100 8,150 16,700 30,400 48,100 7,490 15,400 28,000 44,300 6,970 14,300 26,000 41,200 6,540 13,400 24,400 38,600 6,180 12,700 23,100 36,500 5,870 12,100 21,900 34,700 5,600 11,500 20,900 33,100 5,360 11,000 20,000 31,700 5,150 10,600 19,200 30,400 4,960 10,200 18,500 29,300 4,790 9,840 17,900 28,300 4,640 9,530 17,300 27,400 4,500 9,240 16,800 26,600 4,370 8,970 16,300 25,800 4,250 8,720 15,800 25,100 4,030 8,290 15,100 23,800 3,850 7,910 14,400 22,700 3,680 7,570 13,700 21,800 3,540 7,270 13,200 20,900 3,410 7,010 12,700 20,100 3,290 6,770 12,300 19,500 3,190 6,550 11,900 18,800 3,090 6,350 11,500 18,300 3,000 6,170 11,200 17,700 2,920 6,000 10,900 17,200
Easy storage for relatively large quantities of energy has led to widespread acceptance and usage of LPG in all areas previously served by utilities providing NG to users, including automotive purposes. In addition, a principal use is for the heating of industrial projects. It does not take the place of NG but provides an alternative energy source when the owners want to use a low, interruptible rate for heating purposes. When used for this purpose, experience has shown that the mixing with air should produce a gas with the heating value of 1,500 Btu/cf (a specific gravity of 1.30) for ease of burning and ignition. Use Table 12 for the factor to be used for sizing.
STORAgE
LPG storage tanks can be provided by the vendor or the customer and are subject to the regulations of the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) and the local authority, as well as NFPA standards,
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Table 7 pressure less than 2 psi (14 kPa), loss of 0.5 in. (12.5 mm) wc Pipe Size (in.) 1 3 Nominal 2 4 1 114 112 2 212 3 4 5 Actual ID 0.622 0.824 1.049 1.380 1.610 2.067 2.469 3.068 4.026 5.047 Length (ft) Capacity in Cubic Feet of Gas per Hour 10 172 360 678 1,390 2,090 4,020 6,400 11,300 23,100 41,800 20 118 247 466 957 1,430 2,760 4,400 7,780 15,900 28,700 30 95 199 374 768 1150 2,220 3,530 6,250 12,700 23,000 40 81 170 320 657 985 1,900 3,020 5,350 10,900 19,700 50 72 151 284 583 873 1,680 2,680 4,740 9,660 17,500 60 65 137 257 528 791 1,520 2,430 4,290 8,760 15,800 70 60 126 237 486 728 1,400 2,230 3,950 8,050 14,600 80 56 117 220 452 677 1300 2,080 3,670 7,490 13,600 90 52 110 207 424 635 1220 1,950 3,450 7,030 12,700 100 50 104 195 400 600 1160 1,840 3,260 6,640 12,000 125 44 92 173 355 532 1020 1,630 2,890 5,890 10,600 150 40 83 157 322 482 928 1,480 2,610 5,330 9,650 175 37 77 144 296 443 854 1,360 2,410 4,910 8,880 200 34 71 134 275 412 794 1270 2,240 4,560 8,260 250 30 63 119 244 366 704 1120 1,980 4,050 7,320 300 27 57 108 221 331 638 1020 1,800 3,670 6,630 350 25 53 99 203 305 587 935 1,650 3,370 6,100 400 23 49 92 189 283 546 870 1,540 3,140 5,680 450 22 46 83 177 266 512 816 1,440 2,940 5,330 500 21 43 82 168 251 484 771 1,360 2,780 5,030 550 20 41 78 159 239 459 732 1290 2,640 4,780 600 19 39 74 152 228 438 699 1240 2,520 4,560 650 18 38 71 145 218 420 669 1180 2,410 4,360 700 17 36 68 140 209 403 643 1140 2,320 4,190 750 17 35 66 135 202 389 619 1090 2,230 4,040 800 16 34 63 130 195 375 598 1060 2,160 3,900 850 16 33 61 126 189 363 579 1020 2,090 3,780 900 15 32 59 122 183 352 561 992 2,020 3,660 950 15 31 58 118 178 342 545 963 1,960 3,550 1,000 14 30 56 115 173 333 530 937 1,910 3,460 1,100 14 28 53 109 164 316 503 890 1,810 3,280 1,200 13 27 51 104 156 301 480 849 1,730 3,130 1,300 12 26 49 100 150 289 460 813 1,660 3,000 1,400 12 25 47 96 144 277 442 781 1,590 2,880 1,500 11 24 45 93 139 267 426 752 1,530 2,780 1,600 11 23 44 89 134 258 411 727 1,480 2,680 1,700 11 22 42 86 130 250 398 703 1,430 2,590 1,800 10 22 41 84 126 242 386 682 1,390 2,520 1,900 10 21 40 81 122 235 375 662 1,350 2,440 2,000 NA 20 39 79 119 229 364 644 1,310 2,380
so the plumbing designer has little opportunity to design storage tanks and piping, per se. Normally, the designer starts at the storage supply outlet, and the piping system is generally in a low pressure range of 20 psig to 11 in wc.
suitable for site mains. The engineer shall obtain or request the pressure provided by the supplier and decide upon the pressure drop in the piping system that would be appropriate. The AHJ shall be consulted regarding acceptance of any pressure selected.
LPG SIZING
The pressure of LPG is set by the supplier or the engineer. If the piping is to be run on the site, the pressure would be set higher for economy of pipe sizing, and a regulator would be provided to lower the pressure to a value that would be compatible with equipment served. A lower pressure would be used within a building. Propane gas shall be sized in accordance with. Tables 14 and 15 that have been developed by the NFPA. Table 14 is based on an outlet pressure of 11 in. wc.(280 mm) that would be suitable for interior piping. Table 15 is based on a higher outlet pressure more
STORAGE TANKS
Small tanks (for example, those for residential cooking and heating) are allowed to be located in close proximity to buildings. Large tanks (e.g., for industrial or multiple building use), however, have strict requirements governing their locations in relation to buildings, public use areas, and property lines. If large leaks occur, the heavier-than-air gas will hug the ground and form a fog. The potential for a hazardous condition could exist. Proper safety precautions and equipment, as well as good judgment, must be utilized when
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1500 316 649 972 1,872 2,983 5,274 7,722 10,757 19,461 31,512 64,745 117,595 186,168
2000 270 555 832 1,602 2,553 4,514 6,609 9,207 16,656 26,970 55,414 100,646 159,336
Table 9 Pressure 10 psi (70 kPa), loss of 10 percent Pipe Size of Schedule 40 Internal Standard Diameter Pipe (in.) (in.) 50 100 150 1.00 1.049 3,259 2,240 1,789 1.25 1.380 6,690 4,598 3,692 1.50 1.610 10,024 6,889 5,532 2.00 2.067 19,305 13,268 10,655 2.50 2.469 30,769 21,148 16,982 3.00 3.068 54,395 37,385 30,022 3.50 3.548 79,642 54,737 43,956 4.00 4.026 110,948 76,254 61,235 5.00 5.047 200,720 137,954 110,782 6.00 6.065 325,013 223,379 179,382 8.00 7.981 667,777 458,959 368,561 10.00 10.020 1,212,861 833,593 669,404 12.00 11.938 1,920,112 1,319,682 1,059,751
Pressure 10.0 PSI (70 kPa) Pressure Drop of 10%
Total Equivalent Length of Pipe (ft) 200 1,539 3,160 4,735 9,119 14,535 25,695 37,621 52,409 94,815 153,527 315,440 572,924 907,010 250 1,364 2,801 4,197 8,082 12,882 22,773 33,343 46,449 84,033 136,068 279,569 507,772 803,866 300 1,236 2,538 3,802 7,323 11,672 20,634 30,211 42,086 76,140 123,288 253,310 460,078 728,361 400 500 1000 1500 2000 1,058 938 644 517 443 2,172 1,925 1,323 1,062 909 3,254 2,884 1,982 1,592 1,362 6,268 5,555 3,818 3,066 2,624 9,990 8,854 6,085 4,886 4,182 17,660 15,652 10,757 8,638 7,393 25,857 22,916 15,750 12,648 10,825 36,020 31,924 21,941 17,620 15,080 65,166 57,755 39,695 31,876 27,282 105,518 93,519 64,275 51,615 44,176 216,800 192,146 132,061 106,050 90,765 393,767 348,988 239,858 192,614 164,853 623,383 552,493 379,725 304,933 260,983
Table 10 Pressure 20 psi (140 kPa), loss of 10 percent Pipe Size of Total Equivalent Length of Pipe (ft) Schedule 40 Standard Internal Pipe (in.) Diameter (in.) 50 100 150 200 250 300 400 1.00 1.049 5,674 3,900 3,132 2,680 2,375 2,152 1,842 1.25 1.380 11,649 8,006 6,429 5,503 4,877 4,419 3,782 1.50 1.610 17,454 11,996 9,633 8,245 7,307 6,621 5,667 2.00 2.067 33,615 23,103 18,553 15,879 14,073 12,751 10,913 2.50 2.469 53,577 36,823 29,570 25,308 22,430 20,323 17,394 3.00 3.068 94,714 65,097 52,275 44,741 39,653 35,928 30,750 3.50 3.548 138,676 95,311 76,538 65,507 58,058 52,604 45,023 4.00 4.026 193,187 132,777 106,624 91,257 80,879 73,282 62,720 5.00 5.047 349,503 240,211 192,898 165,096 146,322 132,578 113,370 6.00 6.065 565,926 388,958 312,347 267,329 236,928 214,674 183,733 8.00 7.981 1,162,762 799,160 641,754 549,258 486,797 441,074 377,502 10.00 10.020 2,111,887 1,451,488 1,165,596 997,600 884,154 801,108 685,645 12.00 11.938 3,343,383 2,297,888 1,845,285 1,579,326 1,399,727 1,268,254 1,085,462
Pressure 20.0 PSI (140 kPa) Pressure Drop of 10%
500 1,633 3,352 5,022 9,672 15,416 27,253 39,903 55,538 100,566 162,840 334,573 607,674 962,025
1000 1,122 2,304 3,452 6,648 10,595 18,731 27,425 38,205 69,118 111,919 229,950 417,651 661,194
1500 901 1,850 2,772 5,338 8,509 15,042 22,023 30,680 55,505 89,875 184,658 335,388 530,962
2000 771 1,583 2,372 4,569 7,282 12,874 18,849 26,258 47,505 76,921 158,043 287,049 454,435
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Table Simpo 11 Pressure 50 psi (350 kPa),and loss of Split 10 percent PDF Merge Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com Pipe Size of Total Equivalent Length of Pipe (ft) Schedule 40 Internal Standard Diameter Pipe (in.) (in.) 50 100 150 200 250 300 400 500 1000 1500 2000 1.00 1.049 12,993 8,930 7,171 6,138 5,440 4,929 4,218 3,739 2,570 2,063 1,766 1.25 1.380 26,676 18,335 14,723 12,601 11,168 10,119 8,661 7,676 5,276 4,236 3,626 1.50 1.610 39,970 27,471 22,060 18,881 16,733 15,162 12,976 11,501 7,904 6,348 5,433 2.00 2.067 76,977 52,906 42,485 36,362 32,227 29,200 24,991 22,149 15,223 12,225 10,463 2.50 2.469 122,690 84,324 67,715 57,955 51,365 46,540 39,832 35,303 24,263 19,484 16,676 3.00 3.068 216,893 149,070 119,708 102,455 90,804 82,275 70,417 62,409 42,893 34,445 29,480 3.50 3.548 317,564 218,260 175,271 150,009 132,950 120,463 103,100 91,376 62,802 50,432 43,164 4.00 4.026 442,393 304,054 244,166 208,975 185,211 167,814 143,627 127,294 87,489 70,256 60,130 5.00 5.047 800,352 550,077 441,732 378,065 335,072 303,600 259,842 230,293 158,279 127,104 108,784 6.00 6.065 1,295,955 890,703 715,266 612,175 542,559 491,598 420,744 372,898 256,291 205,810 176,147 8.00 7.981 2,662,693 1,830,054 1,469,598 1,257,785 1,114,752 1,010,046 864,469 766,163 526,579 422,862 361,915 10.00 10.020 4,836,161 3,323,866 2,669,182 2,284,474 2,024,687 1,834,514 1,570,106 1,391,556 956,409 768,030 657,334 12.00 11.938 7,656,252 5,262,099 4,225,651 3,616,611 3,205,335 2,904,266 2,485,676 2,203,009 1,514,115 1,215,888 1,040,643 Table 12 Specic Gravity Multipliers Specific Gravity 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 Capacity Multiplier 1.310 1.230 1.160 1.100 1.040 1.000 0.962 0.926 Specific Gravity 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 Capacity Multiplier 0.895 0.867 0.841 0.817 0.775 0.740 0.707 0.680 Specific Gravity 1.40 1.50 1.60 1.70 1.80 1.90 2.00 2.10 Capacity Multiplier 0.655 0.633 0.612 0.594 0.577 0.565 0.547 0.535
locating large LPG storage tanks. The lines also have to be purged of air prior to the startup of the facility.
GLOSSARY
Btu Abbreviation for British thermal unit, the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit. Boiling point The temperature of a liquid at which the internal vapor pressure is equal to the external pressure exerted on the surface of the liquid. Burner A device for the final conveyance of gas, or a mixture of gas and air, to the combustion zone. Butane (C4H10) A saturated aliphatic hydrocarbon existing in two isomeric forms and used as a fuel and a chemical intermediate. Caloric value See heating value. Chimney A vertical shaft enclosing one or more flues for conveying flue gases to the outside atmosphere. Condensate The liquid that separates from a gas (including flue gas) due to a reduction in temperature. Cubic foot (meter) of gas The amount of gas that would occupy 1 cubic foot (cubic meter) when at a temperature of 60F (15.6C), saturated with water vapor, and under a pressure equivalent to that of 30 in. of mercury (101.3 kPa). Demand The maximum amount of gas per unit time, usually expressed in cubic feet per hour (liters per minute) or Btu (watts) per hour, required for the operation of the appliance(s) supplied. Dilution air Air that enters a draft hood or draft regulator and mixes with the flue gases. Diversity factor The ratio of the maximum probable demand to the maximum possible demand. Draft hood A device built into an appliance, or made a part of the vent connector from an appliance, that is designed to:
Table 13 Conversion of Gas Prcssurc to Various Designations Equivalent Pressure per Equivalent Pressure per inches square inch inches square inch kP Water Mercury Pounds Ounces Water Mercury Pounds Ounces 0.002 0.01 0.007 0.0036 0.0577 8.0 0.588 0.289 4.62 0.05 0.20 0.015 0.0072 0.115 9.0 0.662 0.325 5.20 0.07 0.30 0.022 0.0108 0.173 0.10 0.40 0.029 0.0145 0.231 10.0 0.74 0.361 5.77 11.0 0.81 0.397 6.34 0.12 0.50 0.037 0.0181 0.239 12.0 0.88 0.433 0.15 0.60 0.044 0.0217 0.346 13.0 0.96 0.469 7.50 0.17 0.70 0.051 0.0253 0.404 0.19 0.80 0.059 0.0289 0.462 13.6 1.00 0.491 7.86 0.22 0.90 0.066 0.0325 0.520 13.9 1.02 0.500 8.00 14.0 1.06 0.505 8.08 0.25 1.00 0.074 0.036 0.577 0.3 1.36 0.100 0.049 0.785 15.0 1.10 0.542 8.7 0.4 1.74 0.128 0.067 1.00 16.0 1.18 0.578 9.2 0.5 2.00 0.147 0.072 1.15 17.0 1.25 0.614 9.8 0.72 2.77 0.203 0.100 1.60 18.0 1.33 0.650 10.4 0.76 3.00 0.221 0.109 1.73 19.0 1.40 0.686 10.9 1.0 4.00 0.294 0.144 2.31 20.0 1.47 0.722 11.5 1.2 5.0 0.368 0.181 2.89 0.903 14.4 1.5 6.0 0.442 0.217 3.46 25.0 1.84 0.975 15.7 1.7 7.0 0.515 0.253 4.04 27.2 2.00 1.00 16.0 27.7 2.03
kP 2.0 2.2 2.5 2.7 3.0 3.2 3.37 3.4 3.5 3.7 4.0 4.2 4.5 4.7 5.0 6.2 6.7 6.9
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Actual Lenth (ft) 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 125 150 175 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1,000 1,100 1,200 1,300 1,400 1,500 1,600 1,700 1,800 1,900 2,000
2 212 3 0.622 0.824 1.049 1.380 1.610 2.067 2.469 3.068 Capacity in Thousands of Btu per Hour 291 608 1,150 2,350 3,520 6,790 10,800 19,100 200 418 787 1,620 2,420 4,660 7,430 13,100 160 336 632 1,300 1,940 3,750 5,970 10,600 137 287 541 1,110 1,660 3,210 5,110 9,030 122 255 480 985 1,480 2,840 4,530 8,000 110 231 434 892 1,340 2,570 4,100 7,250 101 212 400 821 1,230 2,370 3,770 6,670 94 197 372 763 1,140 2,200 3,510 6,210 89 185 349 716 1,070 2,070 3,290 5,820 84 175 330 677 1,010 1,950 3,110 5,500 74 155 292 600 899 1,730 2,760 4,880 67 140 265 543 814 1,570 2,500 4,420 62 129 243 500 749 1,440 2,300 4,060 58 120 227 465 697 1,340 2,140 3,780 51 107 201 412 618 1,190 1,900 3,350 46 97 182 373 560 1,080 1,720 3,040 42 89 167 344 515 991 1,580 2,790 40 83 156 320 479 922 1,470 2,600 37 78 146 300 449 865 1,380 2,440 35 73 138 283 424 817 1,300 2,300 33 70 131 269 403 776 1,240 2,190 32 66 125 257 385 741 1,180 2,090 30 64 120 246 368 709 1,130 2,000 29 61 115 236 354 681 1,090 1,920 28 59 111 227 341 656 1,050 1,850 27 57 107 220 329 634 1,010 1,790 26 55 104 213 319 613 978 1,730 25 53 100 206 309 595 948 1,680 25 52 97 200 300 578 921 1,630 24 50 95 195 292 562 895 1,580 23 48 90 185 277 534 850 1,500 22 46 86 176 264 509 811 1,430 21 44 82 169 253 487 777 1,370 20 42 79 162 243 468 746 1,320 19 40 76 156 234 451 719 1,270 19 39 74 151 226 436 694 1,230 18 38 71 146 219 422 672 1,190 18 37 69 142 212 409 652 1,150
4 4.026 39,000 26,800 21,500 18,400 16,300 14,800 13,600 12,700 11,900 11,200 9,950 9,010 8,290 7,710 6,840 6,190 5,700 5,300 4,970 4,700 4,460 4,260 4,080 3,920 3,770 3,640 3,530 3,420 3,320 3,230 3,070 2,930 2,800 2,690 2,590 2,500 2,420 2,350
Propane (C3H8) A gaseous hydrocarbon of the methane series, found in petroleum. Regulator, gas pressure A device for controlling and maintaining a uniform gas pressure. This pressure is always lower than the supply pressure at the inlet of the regulator. Safety shutoff device A device that is designed to shut off the gas supply to the controlled burner(s) or appliance(s) in the event that the source of ignition fails. This device may interrupt the flow of gas to the main burner(s) only or to the pilot(s) and main burner(s) under its supervision. Specific gravity The ratio of the weight of a given volume of gas to that of the same volume of air, both measured under the same conditions. Vent connector That portion of the venting system that connects the gas appliance to the gas vent, chimney, or single-wall metal pipe. Vent gases The products of combustion from a gas appliance plus the excess air and the dilution air in the venting system above the draft hood or draft regulator.
REFERENCES
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Table 15 100% Propane for Site Mains Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Nominal 1 3 Inside 2 4 1 114 112 2 212 Actual 0.622 0.824 1.049 1.380 1.610 2.067 2.469 Lenth (ft) Capacity in Thousands of Btu per Hour 10 5,890 12,300 23,200 47,600 71,300 137,000 219,000 20 4,050 8,460 15,900 32,700 49,000 94,400 150,000 30 3,250 6,790 12,800 26,300 39,400 75,800 121,000 40 2,780 5,810 11,000 22,500 33,700 64,900 103,000 50 2,460 5,150 9,710 19,900 29,900 57,500 91,600 60 2,230 4,670 8,790 18,100 27,100 52,100 83,000 70 2,050 4,300 8,090 16,600 24,900 47,900 76,400 80 1,910 4,000 7,530 15,500 23,200 44,600 71,100 90 1,790 3,750 7,060 14,500 21,700 41,800 66,700 100 1,690 3,540 6,670 13,700 20,500 39,500 63,000 125 1,500 3,140 5,910 12,100 18,200 35,000 55,800 150 1,360 2,840 5,360 11,000 16,500 31,700 50,600 175 1,250 2.620 4,930 10,100 15,200 29,200 46,500 200 1,160 2,430 4,580 9,410 14,100 27,200 43,300 250 1,030 2,160 4,060 8,340 12,500 24,100 38,400 300 935 1,950 3,680 7,560 11,300 21,800 34,800 350 860 1,800 3,390 6,950 10,400 20,100 32,000 400 800 1,670 3,150 6,470 9,690 18,700 29,800 450 751 1,570 2,960 6,070 9,090 17,500 27,900 500 709 1,480 2,790 5,730 8,590 16,500 26,400 550 673 1,410 2,650 5,450 8,160 15,700 25,000 600 642 1,340 2,530 5,200 7,780 15,000 23,900 650 615 1,290 2,420 4,980 7,450 14,400 22,900 700 591 1,240 2,330 4,780 7,160 13,800 22,000 750 569 1,190 2,240 4,600 6,900 13,300 21,200 800 550 1,50 2,170 4,450 6,660 12,800 20,500 850 532 1,110 2,100 4,300 6,450 12,400 19,800 900 516 1,080 2,030 4,170 6,250 12,000 19,200 950 501 1,050 1,970 4,050 6,070 11,700 18,600 1,000 487 1,020 1,920 3,940 5,900 11,400 18,100 1,100 463 968 1,820 3,740 5,610 10,800 17,200 1,200 442 923 1,740 3,570 5,350 10,300 16,400 1,300 423 884 1,670 3,420 5,120 9,870 15,700 1,400 406 849 1,600 3,280 4,920 9,480 15,100 1,500 391 818 1,540 3,160 4,740 9,130 14,600 1,600 378 790 1,490 3,060 4,580 8,820 14,100 1,700 366 765 1,440 2,960 4,430 8,530 13,600 1,800 355 741 1,400 2,870 4,300 8,270 13,200 1,900 344 720 1,360 2,780 4,170 8,040 12,800 2,000 335 700 1,320 2,710 4,060 7,820 12,500
100% Propane Pressure 10 PSI (70 kPa) Pressure Loss 3.0 PSI (21 kPa)
Version - http://www.simpopdf.com systems for weldings and cuttings. NFPA 51. Boston.
3 3.068 4 4.026
10. National Fire Protection Association. Oxygen-fuel gas 11. National Fire Protection Association. Powered industrial trucks. NFPA 505. Boston. 12. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers manual. EM-1110-34-166. 13. Frankel, M., Facility Piping Systems Handbook, 2002, McGraw Hill, New York City The material reproduced from the NFPA is not the official and complete position of the NFPA on the referenced subject which is presented only by the standard in its entirety.
387,000 266,000 214,000 183,000 162,000 147,000 135,000 126,000 118,000 111,000 98,700 89,400 82,300 76,500 67,800 61,500 56,500 52,600 49,400 46,600 44,300 42,200 40,500 38,900 37,400 36,200 35,000 33,900 32,900 32,000 30,400 29,000 27,800 26,700 25,700 24,800 24,000 23,300 22,600 22,000
789,000 543,000 436,000 373,000 330,000 299,000 275,000 256,000 240,000 227,000 201,000 182,000 167,800 156,100 138,400 125,400 115,300 107,300 100,700 95,100 90,300 86,200 82,500 79,300 76,400 73,700 71,400 69,200 67,200 65,400 62,100 59,200 56,700 54,500 52,500 50,700 49,000 47,600 46,200 44,900
1. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers. Handbooks. Fundamentals and Equipment Vols. Latest ed. New York. 2. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). Fuel gas piping. ASME B31.2. 3. Ingersoll-Rand Company. 1969. Compressed air and gas data. New York. 4. International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO) Code. 5. n.a. 1994. Mechanical engineering reference manual. 9th ed. Professional Publications. 6. Mohinder Nayer ed, . 1998. Piping handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill. 7. National Fire Protection Association. Cutting and welding processes. NFPA 51B. Boston, Mass. 8. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). LP-gases at utility gas plants. NFPA 59. Boston Mass. 9. National Fire Protection Association. National fuel gas code. NFPA 54. Boston, Mass.
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Diane M. Wingard, CPD
Do you find it difficult to obtain continuing education units (CEUs)? Through this special section in every issue of PS&D, ASPE can help you accumulate the CEUs required for maintaining your Certified in Plumbing Design (CPD) status.
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The technical article you must read to complete the exam is located at www.psdmagazine.org. Just click on Plumbing Systems & Design Continuing Education Article and Exam at the top of the page. The following exam and application form also may be downloaded from the website. Reading the article and completing the form will allow you to apply to ASPE for CEU credit. If you earn a grade of 90 percent or higher on the test, you will be notified that you have logged 0.1 CEU, which can be applied toward CPD renewal or numerous regulatory-agency CE programs. (Please note that it is your responsibility to determine the acceptance policy of a particular agency.) CEU information will be kept on file at the ASPE office for three years.
Note: In determining your answers to the CE questions, use only the material presented in the corresponding continuing education article. Using information from other materials may result in a wrong answer.
7. LPG ______. a. needs to be alarmed when installed in crawl spaces b. is heavier than air c. vents shall be terminated a minimum of 3 feet horizontally from an opening d. slope on grade at the site 8. The purpose of a gas booster is ______. a. to increase the volumetric supply b. to increase the pressure c. to maintain the pressure delivered by the supplier d. none of the above
9. When providing a booster, ______. a. it is important to provide a regulator to protect the appliances from high pressure during times of low demand b. the equipment needs to be shut down during low demand periods c. it needs to be located outside of the building d. it is sized and provided by the gas supplier 10. Which of the following is required to size a system? a. allowable friction loss b. pipe layout c. probable demand d. all of the above 11. Which standard is referenced for fuel gas systems? a. NFPA 99 b. NFPA 101 c. NFPA 54 d. NFPA 13 12. Large LPG tanks must be located ______. a. away from the building in case of leaks b. near the appliances being served c. inside the building in a re-rated enclosure d. underground
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Appraisal Questions
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INtROdUctiON
Health-care facilities, nursing homes, medical schools, and medical laboratories require plumbing systems that are more complex than those for most other types of building. The plumbing designer should work closely with the architect and facility staff and be involved in meetings and discussions in order to fully understand the plumbing requirements for any new or special medical equipment. The plumbing design must be coordinated with the civil, architectural, structural, mechanical, and electrical designs to ensure that adequate provisions have been made for utility capacities, for the necessary clearances and space requirements of the piping systems and related plumbing equipment, and for compliance with applicable codes. Health-care facilities may have different requirements or be exempt from some codes and standards, such as water and energy conservation codes and regulations regarding the physically challenged. The plumbing engineer should consult with the administrative authority in order to ensure conformance with local ordinances. This chapter discusses the provisions that may be encountered by the plumbing professional in the design of a health-care facility, including the following: plumbing fixtures and related equipment, the sanitary drainage system, the water-supply sys tem, laboratory waste and vent systems, pure-water systems, and medical-gas systems.
Reprinted from American Society of Plumbing Engineers Data Book Volume 3: Special Plumbing Systems, Chapter 2: Plumbing Design for Health Care Facilities. 2000, American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 56 Plumbing Systems & Design
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Table 1 Recommended Plumbing Fixtures and Related Equipment Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com Medical-Care Areas l l l l l l l Public/Sta Restrooms l l l l l l Sta Lounge l l l l Patient Rooms l l l l Isolation Rooms l Nurse Stations l l Nursery l l l Formula Room l l l Intensive-Care Room l l l l Outpatient-Services Area l l l l l Emergency Rooms l l l Exam/Treatment Room l l l Labor Room l l l Janitors Closet l Clean Linen Holding l l Soiled Linen Holding l l l Nourishment Station l l l l l Patient Bathing Area l l l l l Critical-Care Area l Pharmacy l Surgical Scrub-up l Anesthesia Workroom l Surgical Supply Services l Surgical Cleanup Room l l l l Doctors Locker Room l l l Nurses Locker Room l l l Recovery Room l l Fracture Room l l l l Cleanup/Utility Room l Sub-Sterilizing Room l l l l l l l l l l l Medical Laboratory l l l l l l l Physical Therapy Room l l l l l l Cystoscopic Room l l l l l l l l Autopsy Room l l l l l l l l l l Dietary Services l l l l Laundry Facility l l l Family Waiting Room Sink, Triple Compartment Plaster Sink, Plaster Trap Clinic Sink, Flushing Rim Elongated Water Closet, FlushValve Drinking Fountain / Water Cooler Floor Drain, Flushing Rim Mop Service Basin Scrub-up Sink Emergency Shower Handwashing Lavatory Emergency Eyewash Waste Grinder Utility Sink Bathtub / Shower Immersion Bath Bedpan Washer Arm / Leg Bath Counter Sink, Single Compartment Counter Sink, Double Compartment Infant Bathtub Floor Drain Glass Washer Cup Sink Sitz Bath Ice Maker Urinal Shower
controls) are generally employed for staff use and for scrub-up sinks. In public areas, codes should be checked for the requirement of self-closing valves and/or metered valves. Stops should be provided for all supply lines. Aerators are not permitted; use laminar flow devices. Insulated and/or offset p-traps should be used for handicapped fixtures. Faucets Valves should be operable without hands, i.e., with wrist blades or foot controls or electronically. If wrist blades are used, blade handles used by the medical and nursing staff, patients, and food handlers shall not exceed 4 in. (11.43 cm) in length. Handles on scrub sinks and clinical sinks shall be at least 6 in. (15.24 cm) long. Water spigots used in lavatories and sinks shall have clearances adequate to avoid contaminating utensils and the contents of carafes, etc.
Urinals Vitreous china wall-hung urinals with flush valves. Flush valves should be equipped with stops and may be of the exposed or concealed design. Showers The shower enclosures and floor specified by the plumbing engineer may be constructed of masonry and tile or of prefabricated fiberglass. Showers and tubs shall have nonslip walking surfaces. The shower valve should automatically compensate for variations in the water-supply pressure and temperature to deliver the discharge water at a set temperature that will prevent scaldings. Drinking fountains and water coolers Drinking fountains are available in vitreous china, steel and stainless steel. Units for exterior installations are available in suitable materials. Refrigerated water coolers are available in steel or stainless steel. All of these materials are acceptable by most local administrative
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Cystoscopic rooms Among the various plumbing fixtures breaker. A bedpan washer should also be installed next to the Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com required in cystoscopic rooms are the following: wall-mounted clinical sink. The type of bedpan washer will depend upon the clinic sinks equipped with flush valves and bedpan washer and hospitals method of washing and sterilizing bedpans. combination faucets; lavatories provided with water-supply fitBirthing rooms Each birthing room should include a vitreous tings and gooseneck spouts; and, in a separate adjacent room, china lavatory provided with a gooseneck spout and wrist-blade specimen water closet and a lavatory. If a floor drain is installed handles or hands-free controls. Each labor room should have in cystoscopy, it shall contain a nonsplash, horizontal-flow access to a water closet and a lavatory. A shower should be proflushing bowl beneath the drain plate. vided for the labor-room patients. The shower controls, includAutopsy room The autopsy room table is usually provided ing pressure/thermostatic mixing valve, should be located outwith cold and hot-water supplies, with a vacuum breaker or side the wet area for use by the hospitals nursing staff. A water backflow preventer, and a waste line. It is necessary that the closet should be accessible to the shower facility. plumbing designer consult with the table manufacturer and Anesthesia workrooms This area is designed for the cleanthe administrative authority regarding the requirements of the ing, testing, and storing of the anesthesia equipment and should autopsy room table. Drain systems for autopsy tables shall be contain a work counter-mounted sink. The sink is usually made designed to positively avoid splatter or overflow onto floors or of stainless steel. The faucet should be of the gooseneck spout back siphonage and for easy cleaning and trap flushing. The design with wrist-blade handles and/or hands-free controls. autopsy room is also usually equipped with a stainless steel or Fracture rooms A large-size, vitreous china plaster, work vitreous china sink with hands-free fittings, a clinic sink and a sink equipped with a combination water-supply fitting and blood type floor drain. Adjacent to the autopsy room a water wrist-blade handles, gooseneck spout, and plaster trap on the closet and a shower room are usually provided. Many autopsy waste line (located for convenient access) should be provided. rooms are equipped with waste-disposal units integral with the Kitchens and Laundries sink. The plumbing designer should consult with the architect and the Nourishment stations These stations are usually provided on food-service consultant for kitchen equipment utility requireeach patient room floor near the nurse station for serving nour ments. Typically, one of these people should provide location ishment between regularly scheduled meals. A sink, equipped and rough-in drawings for all kitchen equipment. Normally for hand washing with hands-free controls, an icemaker, and a required are toilet fixtures for kitchen staff, food preparation hot-water dispenser (optional) to provide for the patients ser- sinks, hand-wash sinks, pot and pan-wash sinks, dishwashers, vice and treatment should be provided. glassware washers, floor drains, hose bibbs, mixing stations, Pharmacy and drug rooms The plumbing fixtures for these and grease interceptors. Kitchen grease traps shall be located rooms include medicine and solution sinks. These units can be and arranged to permit easy access without the necessity of counter-type or made of stainless steel or vitreous china with a entering food preparation or storage areas. Grease traps shall be mixing faucet and a swing spout. A solids interceptor should be of the capacity required and shall be accessible from outside the considered for compounding areas. building without the necessity of interrupting any services. In Operating-room areas No plumbing fixtures or floor drains dietary areas, floor drains and/or floor sinks shall be of a type are required in the hospitals operating room. However, the that can be easily cleaned by the removal of a cover. Provide scrubbing station located adjacent to the operating room should floor drains or floor sinks at all wet equipment (such as ice have at least two scrub sinks, usually made of vitreous china or machines) and as required for the wet cleaning of floors. The stainless steel, furnished with hands-free water-supply fittings, location of floor drains and floor sinks shall be coordinated to and equipped with gooseneck spouts. These sinks should be avoid conditions where the location of equipment makes the large and deep enough to allow scrubbing of hands and arms to removal of covers for cleaning difficult. Also, the kitchen equipthe elbow. A soiled workroom, designed for the exclusive use of ment may require other utility services, such as fuel gas, steam, the hospitals surgical staff, should be located near the operat- and condensate. ing room area. This workroom should contain a vitreous china, When considering laundry facilities, the plumbing designer flushing-rim clinical sink, for the disposal of solids, with the should consult with the architect and the laundry consultant for water-supply fittings consisting of a flush-valve bedpan washer equipment utility requirements. These facilities require largeand a separate faucet mounted on the wall above the fixture and capacity washers/extractors and dryers, presses, and folding hand-washing facilities consisting of a vitreous china or stain- machines. Waste-water drainage may require lint intercepters. less-steel lavatory with a gooseneck spout and equipped with These facilities are prime candidates for heat and water-recovwrist-blade handles. Substerile rooms should be equipped with ery systems. Also, the laundry equipment may require other an instrument sterilizer and general-purpose sink. The plumbing utility services, such as fuel gas, steam, and condensate. designer should consult with the instrument sterilizer manufacThe hot-water temperatures required for these areas (100, turer for any special requirements for the equipment. The gen- 140, and 180F [38, 60, and 82C]) are discussed in Data Book, eral-purpose sink can be countertop-mounted and equipped Volume 2, Chapter 6, Domestic Water-Heating Systems. with a hands-free water-supply fitting with a gooseneck spout. Recovery rooms The rooms for the post-anesthesia recovery Laboratory Rooms of surgical patients should include a hand-washing facility, such Laboratory sinks Most of the time architects provide the counas a vitreous china or stainless-steel lavatory equipped with a tertops and sinks, usually made of epoxy or other acid-resistant gooseneck spout and wrist-blade handles; and a vitreous china, materials, in their specifications. However, occasionally the flushing-rim, clinical sink for the disposal of solids, with the plumbing designer is responsible for selecting the laboratory water-supply fitting consisting of a flush valve and a separate sinks. Laboratory sinks should be acid resistant and can be of faucet mounted on the wall above the fixture with a vacuum stainless steel, stone, or plastic. Laboratory and cup sinks are
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overhead drain piping in these areas is unavoidable, special pro- sensors can be installed between the pipe walls that can pinpoint Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com visions shall be made to protect the space below from leakage, the original leak location. The latter could reduce the amount of condensation, or dust particles. excavation or exploration required to find the leak. Acid-Waste DRaiNage SYstems Acid-waste drainage systems require special design criteria because the corrosive solutions demand special handling from the actual work area to an approved point at which such acid waste (and fumes) can be safely neutralized and discharged. The plumbing engineer must exercise extreme care in this regard. Acid-resistant waste and vent systems are necessary where acids with a pH lower than 6.5 or alkalis with a pH greater than 8.5 are present. These special conditions are commonly encountered in hospitals, research facilities, and laboratories. Since acid fumes are often more corrosive than the liquid acids themselves, proper drainage and venting is imperative. Nationally recognized standards for sanitary systems that handle acid wastes and other reagents are set forth in model plumbing codes; such systems are often further regulated by local building and safety or health department requirements. For these reasons, the plumbing engineer should check for all special design conditions that may affect the project. Strong acids and caustics may enter the sanitary-waste system in large quantities and at elevated temperatures. These substances can mix to form highly corrosive and even dangerous compounds. Common laboratory procedures encourage neutral ization or flushing with copious amounts of water in order to dilute and cool these chemicals to more acceptable levels. However, the plumbing engineer must protect the acid-waste system by designing for the maximum hazard conditions that might be brought about by any human error, poor housekeeping, or acci dental spillage. CORROsiVe-Waste SYstems MateRials Borosilicate glass pipe Sizes range from 1 to 6-in. (40 to 150mm) pipe. Mechanical joint, flame resistance, and clear pipe allow for easy visual inspection and high corrosion resistance. High-silicon cast iron Sizes range from 1 to 4-in. (40 to 100-mm) pipe. Mechanical joint, flame resistance, high corrosion resistance, fire stop at floor penetration equal to cast iron. More fragile and heavier than standard-weight cast iron and easier to break in the field. Excellent application for moderate to high-budget project. Polypropylene Sizes range from 1 to 6-in. (40 to 150-mm) pipe. Mechanical or heat-fusion joints. Mechanical joints are not recommended for straight runs or sizes over 2 in. (50 mm); they should be used to access p-traps or other maintenance areas. Flame resistant and acceptable within most jurisdictions (meets 25/50 flame/smoke criteria), newer UL listed methods are close to glass in cost. Consult local authority for approval. Light weight and easy to install. Good application for moderate acids at low temperatures. Must be installed by qualified technicians. Inexpensive compared to borosilicate glass or high-silicone cast iron. Double-containment waste piping With ever-increasing pressure to protect our environment, double-containment (pipe within a pipe) systems have become a consideration. Usually made of polypropylene inside and PVC or fiberglass outside. Systems should be pitched toward a containment vault for collection of leaking fluid. Alarm systems can be employed to detect leaks at the collection basin or, if the budget and the nature of the liquid allow, DischaRge tO SeweRs Many local jurisdictions require that the buildings sanitarysewer discharge be at an acceptable pH level before it can be admitted into a sanitary-sewage system. In such cases, it is recommended that a clarifying (or neutralizing) tank be added to the sanitary system. Small ceramic or polypropylene clarifiers with limestone can be located under casework for low flow rates; however, sufficient space must be allowed above the unit for servicing. Unless properly maintained and monitored, this type of system can be rendered ineffective. Large clarifiers and neutralizers may be regulated by the requirements of a local industrial-waste department. Acidic-Waste NeUtRaliZatiON The lower the pH number, the Table 2Acidic-Waste Neutralization higher the concentration of acid. Tank Sizing Table Discharging high concentrations Number of gal (L) Lab Sinks of acid into a public sewer may 2 5 (18.9) cause considerable corrosion to 4 15 (56.8) piping systems and eventual fail8 30 (113.6) ure. Most local authorities do not 16 55 (208.2) allow acid wastes to be discharged 22 75 (283.9) to a public sewer without some 27 90 (340.7) form of treatment. 30 108 (408.8) 40 150 (567.8) The neutralization of acidic 50 175 (662.4) wastes is generally and most eco60 200 (757.0) nomically dealt with through an 75 275 (1,040.9) acid-neutralization tank. An acid110 360 (1,362.6) neutralization tank may be con150 500 (1,898.5) structed of polyethylene, molded 175 550 (2,081.8) stone, stainless steel, or another 200 650 (2,460.3) 300 1200 (4,542) acid-resistant material. Tanks are 500 2000 (7,570) sized to provide a dwell time of 2 to 600 3000 (11,355) 3 h (refer to Table 2). Limestone or Note: For commercial and industrial marble chips fill the interior of the laboratories, the number of lab sinks should be tank, helping to neutralize incom- multiplied by a 0.5 use factor. ing acid wastes. Chips may be 1 to 3 in. (25.4 to 76.2 mm) in diameter and should have a calcium carbonate content in excess of 90%. A discharge pH sensor and routine maintenance schedule must be provided to ensure that the system operates properly. Acid-Waste SOlids INteRceptOR As with many sewer systems, it is impossible to control all materials discarded to the drain system. Unless building effluent is controlled, many unwanted items, such as glass fragments and needles, will find their way to the neutralization tank, thereby clogging the limestone or marble chips. When this happens, replacement of the chips is required. One way to prolong chip life is to install an acid-waste solids interceptor immediately upstream of the neutralization tank, although maintenance of the interceptor may have to be done quite frequently. Acid-Waste MeteRiNg Detail Many local authorities require some means of sampling effluent from industrial, institutional, and laboratory buildings. An example of a device used for this purpose is a sampling manhole. This unit is installed as the last component before neutralMARCH/APRIL 2006
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for in-depth explanations of design methods for hot-water sys- are usually required in the hospitals pharmacy, central-supply Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com tems and a discussion of the various hot-water systems avail- room, laboratories, and laboratory-glassware washing facilities. able. When large dump loads are anticipated (kitchens and There are two basic types of pure water available in hospital laundries), storage of hot water is recommended. Hot-water facilities: bio-pure water (water containing no bugs or other usage in patient-care areas requires consideration of water tem- life forms) and high-purity water (pure water that is free from perature and bacterial growth. The most common water-borne minerals, dissolved gases, and most particulate matters). Refer bacterium of concern is Legionella pneumophila. to ASPE Data Book, Volume 2, Chapter 11, Water Treatment, Recommended water temperatures for specific applications Conditioning, and Purification, for additional information on are as follows: water purity. Water purity is most easily measured as specific resistance (in 1. Patient-care and hospital general usage requires water temohm-centimeter [-cm] units) or expressed as parts per milperatures between 105 and 120F (40.5 and 49C), except where the local plumbing codes or other regulations require lion (ppm) of an ionized salt (NaCl). The theoretical maximum specific resistance of the pure water is given as 18.3 M-cm at other maximum temperatures. Hotwater distribution 77F (25C). This water purity is difficult to produce, store, and systems serving patient-care areas shall be under constant distribute. This water is starved for impurities and constantly recirculation to provide continuous hot water at each attempts to absorb contaminants. It is important to note that hot-water outlet. The temperature of hot water for bathing the specific resistance of the pure water is indicative only of its fixtures and hand-wash lavatories shall be appropriate for mineral contents and in no way shows the level of bacterial, comfortable use but shall not exceed 120F (49C). pyrogenic, or organic contamination. An independent labora2. Kitchen general usage requires 140F (60C) to fixtures, tory analysis should be made, whenever possible. except the dishwashers sanitizing cycle. The sanitizing The five basic methods of producing pure water are as follows: cycle requires 180 to 190F (82 to 88C) to the dishwasher, distillation, demineralization, reverse osmosis, filtration, and with 180F (82C) minimum required at the dish rack. recirculation. Depending upon the type of pure water required (Consult local health-department regulations.) Also, some in the facility, one (or more) of these methods will be needed. health departments set a maximum temperature of 105 to Under certain conditions, a combination of several methods 120F (40.5 to 49C) for hand-washing lavatories. may be necessary. 3. Laundry facilities should be supplied with two water tem1. Distillation produces bio-pure water, which is completely peratures, 140F (60C) for general usage and 160F (71C) free from particulate matters, minerals, organics, bacteminimum to washers/extractors for laundry sterilizations. ria, pyrogens, and most of the dissolved gases and has a Providing a point-of-use booster heater for high-temperature minimum specific resistance of 300,000 . An important applications instead of a central water-heater system is often more consideration in this case is that the water is free from baceconomical. teria and pyrogen contamination, which is dangerous to A closed system of chilled water may be required for the coolthe patients, particularly where intravenous solutions are ing of electron microscopes and x-ray tubes and should be of a concerned. Bio-pure water is needed in the hospitals pharrecirculating design. macy, central-supply room, and other areas where there Film processors operate at a normal range of 40 to 30F (4.4 may be patient contact. Bio-pure water may also be desired to 1.1C). Some models do require controlled water temperain certain specific laboratories at the owners request and as ture for film processing. Depending on the quality of the water a final rinse in the laboratorys glassware washer. supply, a 5 to 75- filter may be required. The typical water-distillation apparatus consists of an A thermometer should also be provided on the outlets of evaporator section, an internal baffle system, a waterwater heaters and thermostatically controlled valves. A pressure cooled condenser, and a storage tank. The best material for regulator, gauge, and flow meter may also be desired on the inlet its construction is a pure block-tin coating for both the still side of pressure-sensitive equipment. and the tank. The heat sources, in order of preference based NON-POtable WateR SYstems on economy and maintenance, are as follows: steam, gas, Non-potable water systems are usually employed in areas and electricity. The still may be operated manually or autohaving multiple water requirements that could contaminate the matically. The distilled water may be distributed from the potable-water supply. Areas in this category include: flushingstorage tank by gravity or by a pump. A drain is required for rim floor drains in animal rooms, all outlets in autopsy rooms, system drainage and flushing. On stills larger than 50 gph outlets in isolation rooms, and all outlets in infectious-disease (189.3 L/h), a cooling tower should be considered for the and tissue-culture rooms. These systems normally use reducedcondenser water. pressure-type backflow preventers as the means to protect the 2. Demineralization, sometimes called deionization, propotable-water system. Hot water, when required, may be produces high-purity water that is completely free from minervided by a separate generator supplied from the non-potable als, most particulate matters, and dissolved gases. Dependwater system. ing upon the equipment used, it can have a specific resisPURe-WateR SYstems tance ranging from 50,000 to nearly 18 M. However, it Pure water is the term generally used to describe water that could be contaminated with bacteria, pyrogens, and organis free from particulate matters, minerals (soluble ions), bacteics (these contaminants may be produced inside the deminria, pyrogens, organic matters, and dissolved gases, which freeralizer itself ). Demineralized water can be employed in quently exist in the potable water supply. Pure-water systems
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debris-collecting or microorganism-breeding sites, not to menABS has some of the same contamination leach problems as Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com tion the contribution of PVC particles and the potential release PVC. In its manufacture, pigment dispersants, surfactants, styof organic dispersants, stabilizers, etc., originally trapped in rene, and other additives are used that can leach into water over these bubbles (holes). time. Hydrogen peroxide (used for system cleaning) will also Joints, either solvent welded or threaded, can leave crevices attack ABS plastic. for the accumulation of particles and bacteria. Solvents from the PVDF There are numerous types of high-molecular-weight weld can also leach into the water. fluorocarbon pipes on the market, SYGEF, KYNAR, and HALAR, Premium grades of PVC, which reportedly have fewer leach- to name a few. Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) plastic can be ables than standard PVC, are now being marketed. extruded without the use of additives that can leach out later. CPVC is a special high-temperature PVC that has similar ero- The different polymerization techniques used by each manusion and leachable characteristics. facturer can produce slightly different properties. Polypropylene Polypropylene is a very inert, strong piping PVDF pipe is currently considered to be the state of the art material. However, in the manufacture of the pipe antioxidants in pure-water piping systems. It has exceptional chemical resisand other additives are used to control embrittlement. These tance; temperature range, 40 to 320F (40 to 160C); impact additives are potential sources of contaminants that can leach strength; resistance to UV degradation; abrasion resistance; and into the water. However, a virgin material with no leachable smooth, clean, inside surfaces that discourage the collection of products is now available. bacteria and particles. Most laboratory test reports show virtuPolypropylene pipe shows good ability to withstand both cor- ally zero leachables from PVDF piping systems. rosive chemicals and high temperatures, up to 220F (104C). PVDF pipe is joined by the butt-fusion method, resulting in The natural toughness of the material minimizes damage to clean, smooth joints. pipe during installation and service. When system pressures exceed 70 psig (482.6 kPa) or temPolypropylene is generally joined by the butt-fusion method, peratures exceed 75F (24C), plastic piping system manufacresulting in smooth joints. turers should be consulted for compatibility. Polypropylene ABS Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic pipe has or PVDF-lined metal piping systems may be incorporated to been used in the primary stages of water-treatment systems meet pressures up to 150 psig (1034.2kPa). because of relatively low cost and ease of installation.
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CONTINUING EDUCATION
Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com Continuing Education from Plumbing Systems & Design
Kenneth G.Wentink, PE, CPD, and Robert D. Jackson
Do you find it difficult to obtain continuing education units (CEUs)? Is it hard for you to attend technical seminars? Through Plumbing Systems & Design (PS&D), ASPE can help you accumulate the CEUs required for maintaining your Certified in Plumbing Design (CPD) status. ASPE features a technical article in every issue of PS&D, excerpted from its own publications. Each article is followed by a multiplechoice test and a simple reporting form. Reading the article and completing the form will allow you to apply to ASPE for CEU credit. For most people, this process will require approximately 1 hour. A nominal processing fee is charged$25 for ASPE members and $35 for nonmembers (until further notice, the member fee is waived). If you earn a grade of 90% or higher on the test, you will be notified that you have logged 0.1 CEU, which can be applied toward the CPD renewal requirement or numerous regulatory-agency CE programs. (Please note that it is your responsibility to determine the acceptance policy of a particular agency.) CEU information will be kept on file at the ASPE office for 3 years. No certificates will be issued in addition to the notification letter. You can apply for CEU credit on any technical article that has appeared in PS&D within the past 12 months. However, CEU credit only can be obtained on a total of eight PS&D articles in a 12-month period. Note: In determining your answers to the CE questions, use only the material presented in the continuing education article. Using other information may result in a wrong answer.
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Payment: Personal Check (payable to ASPE) $____________ Business or government check $____________ DiscoverCard VISA MasterCard AMEX $____________ If rebilling of a credit card charge is necessary, a $25 processing fee will be charged. ASPE is hereby authorized to charge my CE examination fee to my credit card. Account Number Expiration date
Signature Expiration date: Continuing education credit will be given for this examination through March 31, 2007. Applications received after that date will not be processed.
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Appraisal Questions
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Plumbing Design for Health Care Facilities (PSD 132) Was the material new information for you? Yes No Was the material presented clearly? Yes No Was the material adequately covered? Yes No Did the content help you achieve the stated objectives? Yes No Did the CE questions help you identify specic ways to use ideas presented in the article? Yes No How much time did you need to complete the CE oering (i.e., to read the article and answer the post-test questions)?___________________
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PSD 141
Irrigation Systems
CONTINUING EDUCATION
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Irrigation Systems
INTRODUCTiON
The function of an automatic irrigation system is to provide and distribute a predetermined amount of water to economically produce and maintain ornamental shrubs, cultivated lawns, and other large turf areas. Other benefits of an automatic irrigation system include convenience, full landscape coverage, easy control for overnight and early morning watering, and minimized plant loss during drought. This chapter discusses the basic design criteria and components of irrigation systems for ornamental lawns and turf. Among the factors considered are water quality and requirements, soil considerations, system concepts, and system components. A design information sheet is also provided, as Appendix A, to assist the plumbing engineer in the orderly collection of the required field information and other pertinent data.
WATER QUALiTY AND REqUiREMENTS In urban areas, where the source of the water supply is often the municipal water system, the plumbing engineer does not need to be concerned with the quality of the water. In cases where private sources are used and the water quality is unknown, the water should be analyzed by the appropriate local health authority having jurisdiction prior to use. The three main areas of concern are as follows: 1. Any silt content that, if high, may result in the baking and sealing of soils 2. Any industrial waste that may be harmful to good growth 3. Any soluble salts that may build up in the root area
The most common solution currently available for handling excessive amounts of silt is the construction of a settling basin, usually in the form of a decorative lake or pond. In those areas where the salt
Table 1 Net Amount of Water to Apply per Irrigation Cycle Soil Profile Amount, in. (mm) Coarse, sandy soils 0.45 (11.43) Fine, sandy loams 0.85 (21.59) Silt loams 1.10 (27.94) Heavy clay or clay loams 0.90 (22.86)
Note: Net amount of moisture required based on 12 in. (304.8 mm) root depth.
content is excessive, 1,000 parts per million (ppm) and above, the inability of the soil to cope with the problem may require the use of special highly salt-tolerant grasses. The quantity of water required for an effective irrigation system is a function of the type of grass, the soil, and local weather conditions. The quantity of water is usually expressed as the depth of the water applied during a given period over the area to be covered. The amount of water applied to a given area can be controlled easily by adjusting the irrigation systems length and frequency of opera-
Reprinted from ASPE Data Book Volume 3: Special Plumbing Systems, Chapter 4: Irrigation Systems. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 2 Plumbing Systems & Design
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tion. An efficient irrigation system takes to be operated at any given time. Figure 3 Figure 2 Quick-Coupling Valve Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com into consideration the rate of the appliillustrates this design. cation of the water, usually expressed in SYSTEM COMPONENTS inches per hour, and the attempt to match SPRiNKLERS the application rate with the absorption One of the most important considerations rate of the soil. Often, this condition is for the plumbing engineer when designachieved through frequent short watering an irrigation system is the selection of ing cycles. the sprinklers. Sprinklers are mechanical SOiL CONSiDERATiONS devices with nozzles used to distribute Sandy, porous soils have relatively high water by converting water pressure to a absorption rates and can handle the high high-velocity discharge stream. Many output of the sprinklers. Steep slopes different types of sprinklers are manufacand very tight, nonporous soils require tured for a variety of system applications. low precipitation rates to avoid erosion The plumbing engineer should become damage and wasteful runoff. knowledgeable of the various types before A sufficient amount of water must be selecting the sprinklers, as the flow rates applied during each irrigation period to and operating pressures must be nearly ensure penetration to the root zone. Table the same in each of the irrigation systems 1 suggests guidelines for several soil procircuits. files (net amount of water to apply per Spray Sprinklers Surface-type spray irrigation cycle). In the absence of any and pop-up spray sprinklers (see Figure specific information on the soil and local 4) produce a single sheet of water and weather conditions, the irrigation system cover a relatively small area, about 10 to 20 may be designed for 1 inches (38.1 milfeet (3.05 to 6.10 meters) in radius. These limeters) of water per week. The plumbsprinklers can operate on a low-pressure ing engineer should consult with the local range of 15 to 35 pounds per square inch administrative authority to determine (psi) (103.4 to 241.3 kPa). They apply the compliance with the applicable codes in water at a high rate of application1 to the jurisdiction. The engineer can obtain 2 inches/hour (25.4 to 50.8 mm/hour) specific information on the soil and local and are most economical in small turf weather conditions by contacting a local or shrub areas and in irregularly shaped weather bureau, university, or state engiareas. neer. Due to the fine spray design, the pattern be considered by the engineer. An examSYSTEM CONCEPTS can be easily distorted by the wind; thereple of a quick-coupling valve is illustrated The three basic system concepts that can in Figure 2. be used by the engineer in the design The last concept in of an irrigation network are the block sprinkler system design Figure 3 Valve-in-Head System method, the quick-coupling method, and is the valve-per-sprinkler the valve-per-sprinkler method. method. Small actuator The block system is an approach in valves, operated at low voltwhich a single valve controls the flow of age, provide great flexibilwater to several sprinklers. It is ideal for ity and control. Sprinklers residential and other small turf areas. in diverse areas having the Either manual or automatic valves may same (or similar) water be used in the block system. As the irriga- requirements may be tion area increases or where high-volume operated concurrently. In sprinklers are employed, the block system other applications, such as becomes less attractive to the engineer quarter applications covbecause of the large valves and pipelines ering quarter circles or half required. Examples of the block system circles, the irrigation sprinare shown in Figure 1. klers may be piped, wired, The quick-coupling irrigation system and operated together is an answer to the high cost incurred on through system programlarge block system projects. Development mers. The valve-per-sprinof the quick-coupling valve provided a kler system provides the more flexible irrigation system. The valve opportunity to standardize is located underground but can be acti- the pipe sizes by selecting vated from the surface. Where manpower the appropriate sprinklers is not critical and security is reasonable, the quick-coupling irrigation system may
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Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com double-nozzle designs.
These devices can operate at a higher pressure (25 to 100 psi [172.3 to 689.5 kPa]) and cover larger areas (40 to 100 feet [12.2 to 30.5 meters] in radius). The water is applied at a lower rate (0.20 to 0.5 inches/hour [5.08 to 12.7 mm/hour]). Because of its larger, more compact stream of water, this sprinkler is not easily distorted by the wind and is most economical in large, open turf areas. Freestanding sprinklers are not desirable where they are exposed. In such cases, the pop-up, rotary-type sprinklers shown in Figure 6 may be used. These nozzles rise above the ground level only when the water is being delivered to the unit. Half-circle, rotary sprinklers can discharge the same volume of water as full-circle units. A half-circle, rotary sprinkler can provide the same amount of water as a full-circle unit over half the area, doubling the application rate. Quarter-circle sprinklers will quadruple the application rate. Some equipment manufacturers use different nozzles to compensate for the reduced area and to provide a uniform application rate. If compensating nozzles are not used in halfcircle sprinklers, these units must be valved and operated separately for a balanced application of the water. Shrub Sprinklers Several types of shrub sprinklers are available, including bubblers (see Figure 7), flat-spray sprinklers, and stream-spray sprinklers. Shrub sprinklers can be mounted on risers to spray over plants. If the plants are tall and not dense near the ground, shrub
Photo courtesy of Rain Bird Corporation Photo courtesy of Rain Bird Corporation
sprinklers can be used on short risers, and the spray can be directed under the plants. The spray can also be kept below the plant. Flat-spray shrub heads are best employed for these applications. Trickle Irrigation Trickle irrigation is commonly used in vineyards and orchards and routed through tubing with special emitters installed at each planting. Most emitters have flexible orifices and may have provisions for adding fertilizer. These irrigation systems have a low-volume usage and usually are not installed in conjunction with conventional lawn sprinkler systems. VALvES Remote-control valves are generally classified into three basic categories: electric, hydraulic, and thermal-hydraulic. The electrically operated valve receives an electric signal from the controller and actuates a solenoid in the valve. This solenoid opens and closes the control valve. The hydraulic control valve is operated with the water pressure and has control tubing from the controller to the valve. The thermal-hydraulic control valve uses an electric signal from the controller to heat up the components of the valve to open the unit. The most common use of this valve is to control the water usage to the different zones. These devices should be installed with access for maintenance. Most control valves have some provisions for manual operation. In some systems, manual control valves are installed in pits or vaults
fore, these sprinklers should be installed in protected areas. Impact Sprinklers Impact sprinklers (see Figure 5) can be permanent or movable and either the riser-mounted type (see Figure 2) or the pop-up rotary type (see Figure 6). Impact sprinklers have an adjustable, revolving water stream and are available 4 Plumbing Systems & Design
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Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com pedestal mounted. Figure 9 shows a typiPhoto courtesy of Rain Bird Corporation
DESiGN INFORMATiON
When designing an underground sprinkler system, the plumbing engineer should consider the following factors: the site plan, type of plants, type of soil, type and source of water, and system location. SiTE PLAN An accurate site plan, preferably laid out to scale and showing all buildings, shrubs, trees, hedges, walks, drives, and parking, should be drawn as accurately as possible. Areas where overspray is undesirable, such as walkways and buildings, should be clearly noted. Property lines also should be shown on the site plan. The heights and diameters of shrubs and hedges should be indicated. TYPES OF PLANTiNGS The engineer should show the areas that will be irrigated on the site plan as well as the areas that will be omitted. Those areas that require a different style of sprinkler and separate zoning also should be indicated. Some plantings require more frequent watering than others; therefore, they will require a separate zone and control valve. The engineer should determine whether the plantings allow spray on their leaves (or any other special type of spray) and should select the sprinklers accordingly.
with a long T-handle wrench used for the activation of each circuit. An irrigation system may be installed with an automatic check valve on the sprinkler heads. When a zone is installed on sloping terrain, these valves will close when they sense a low pressure at turnoff, preventing the drainage of the supply pipe through a sprinkler head installed in a lower area. Atmospheric vacuum breakers (see Figure 8) must be installed on every sprinkler circuit downstream of the control valve to eliminate the possibility of back-siphonage into the potable water system. Many (if not all) local jurisdictions have codes that require this type of valve. The plumbing designer should consult with the local administrative authority and check all applicable codes for their requirements. Pressure-reducing valves are installed where higher street pressures are involved and also are commonly used to maintain a constant pressure where the inlet pressures may vary. Some manufacturers offer remote-control valves with pressure regulation. Low-flow control valves may be installed to avoid damage to the piping or tubing from pressure surges during the filling of a (dry) system. This control valve allows a slow filling of the piping or tubing until the pressure is established. In climates where freezing conditions may occur, automatic-type drain valves should be installed at the low points of the system to allow for drainage of the system. This control valve will open automatically when the water pressure drops below a set point. In heavy or dense soils, a pit of gravel should be provided for quick drainage. BACKFLOw DEviCES An irrigation system may be installed with an automatic check valve on the sprinklers. When a zone is installed on sloping terrain, these valves will close when they sense a low pressure at turnoff, prevent-
ing drainage of the supply pipe through a sprinkler head installed in a low area. The use of pressure vacuum breakers to eliminate the possibility of backsiphonage into the potable water system is the minimum level of backflow prevention accepted by most jurisdictions. The plumbing engineer should consult with the local administrative authority and check all applicable codes for their requirements. CONTROLLERS Presently, many types of controllers for irrigation systems are available. Selection of this device is based on the specific application involved. Controllers are programmed to activate each irrigation zone at a specific time and also will control the length of time that each zone is activated. Some controllers have a calendar that allows the irrigation system to be used only on certain days. Other types of controllers have manual (or automatic) overrides to shut down all systems during rain or to turn on specific zones for extra water. Some controllers have soil moisture monitors, which turn on zones only when needed. Controller panels can be
SEPTEMBER 2007
REFERENCES
The ABCs of Lawn Sprinkler Systems. Irrigation Association, Fairfax, Virginia. Pair, Claude H., ed. Sprinkler Irrigation, 4th edition. Sprinkler Irrigation Association, Silver Spring, Maryland. Architect-engineers Turf Sprinkler Manual. The Rainbird Company, Glendora, California. Design Information for Large Turf Irrigation Systems. The Toro Company, Riverside, California. Young, Virgil E. Sprinkler Irrigation Systems. Mister Rain, Inc., Auburn, Washington.
TYPE OF SOiL The type of soil determines the proper rate of application of water to the soil. The length and frequency of the applications can be determined by considering the soil and the types of plants. A sufficient amount of water must be applied during each irrigation period to ensure penetration to the root zone. Table 1 recommends acceptable guidelines for several types of soil profiles. Where available, the engineer should secure local soil and weather conditions by contacting the local state extension engineer, a university, or the weather bureau. The local weather bureau usually publishes an evapotranspiration guide, which shows the deficit water required to maintain turf grass. This value is compiled by measuring the rainfall minus the evaporation taking place during a particular period. The balance is the amount of water required. In the absence of any specific information on local soil and weather conditions, the irrigation system should be designed for
a minimum of 1 inches (38.1 mm) of water per week. Sandy, porous soils (as previously indicated) have relatively high absorption rates and can handle the high output of sprinklers. Steep slopes and very tight, nonporous soils require low precipitation rates to avoid erosion damage and runoffs. TYPE AND SOURCE OF WATER The source of the water should be located on the site plan. If the water source is a well, the pump capacity, well depth, pump discharge pressure, and other pertinent data should also be recorded. If the water source is a city water main, the locations, size, service-line material, and length of piping from the service line to the meter should be researched by the plumbing engineer. The water meter size and the static water pressure of the city main are also needed. The engineer should determine whether special meter pits or piping arrangements are required by the utility company.
RESOURCES
The Irrigation Association, www.irrigation.org
SEPTEMBER 2007
PSDMAGAZINE.ORG
APPENDiX A
All available information should be contained on this sheet, plot plan, or both. 1. Project name_______________________________ Address_______________________________________ 2. Water supply: a. Location and size of existing tap, meter, pump, or other __________________________________ 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. b. Existing meter, pump, or tap capacity: Residual pressure _______________GPM _____________ c. Power supply: Location _________________________________________ Voltage _________________
d. Length, type, location, and size of existing supply line (identify on plan) Area to be watered. Identify all planted areas whether shrubbery or trees; indicate clearance under trees. (Identify on plan.) Soil type: Light _______________________ Medium _____________________ Heavy __________________ Hours per day and night allowed for irrigation __________________________________________________ Amount of precipitation required per week __________________________________________________ Area to be bordered or not watered (identify on plan) Elevations and prevailing wind conditions (identify on plan) Type of system: (a) Automatic electric _________________ (b) Automatic hydraulic _______________ (c) Manual pop-up ______________ (d) Manual quick-coupling _____________ (e) Other____________ Indicate equipment preference _____________________________________________________________ Indicate preferred location for valves and controllers _________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ Indicate vacuum breaker and/or drain valve requirement ____________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ Indicate pipe material preference: 2 and larger ______________ 2 and smaller _______________ Indicate any preference for sprinkler riser types ____________________________________________
SEPTEMBER 2007
Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com Continuing Education from Plumbing Systems & Design
Kenneth G.Wentink, PE, CPD, and Robert D. Jackson
Do you find it difficult to obtain continuing education units (CEUs)? Through this special section in every issue of PS&D, ASPE can help you accumulate the CEUs required for maintaining your Certified in Plumbing Design (CPD) status.
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The technical article you must read to complete the exam is located at www.psdmagazine.org. The following exam and application form also may be downloaded from the website. Reading the article and completing the form will allow you to apply to ASPE for CEU credit. For most people, this process will require approximately one hour. If you earn a grade of 90 percent or higher on the test, you will be notified that you have logged 0.1 CEU, which can be applied toward the CPD renewal requirement or numerous regulatory-agency CE programs. (Please note that it is your responsibility to determine the acceptance policy of a particular agency.) CEU information will be kept on file at the ASPE office for three years.
Note: In determining your answers to the CE questions, use only the material presented in the corresponding continuing education article. Using information from other materials may result in a wrong answer.
7. The last concept in sprinkler system design is _________. a. plant type, b. soil type, c. the valve-in-head method, d. slope of grade at the site 8. One of the most important considerations for the plumbing engineer when designing an underground sprinkler system is _________. a. the selection of the sprinkler heads b. the system controller c. using a sucient quantity of water d. using the least amount of water 9. Windy areas require _________. a. more water due to evaporation b. closer spacing of sprinklers c. increased outlet pressure d. both a and c
10. Atmospheric vacuum breakers must be installed _________. a. only if required by code b. on every sprinkler circuit downstream of the control valve c. when the designer does not want to use a backow preventer d. below grade 11. Trickle irrigation is commonly used in _________. a. vineyards and orchards b. where water is scarce c. foreign countries d. less auent areas
12. In climates where freezing conditions may occur, _________. a. manual drain valves should be installed b. reduced-pressure backow preventers should not be installed c. automatic-type drain valves should be installed d. the piping system must be heat traced
SEPTEMBER 2007
PSD 141
PSDMAGAZINE.ORG
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This form is valid up to one year from date of publication. The PS&D Continuing Education program is approved by ASPE for up to one contact hour (0.1 CEU) of credit per article. Participants who earn a passing score (90 percent) on the CE questions will receive a letter or certication within 30 days of ASPEs receipt of the application form. (No special certicates will be issued.) Participants who fail and wish to retake the test should resubmit the form along with an additional fee (if required). 1. Photocopy this form or download it from www.psdmagazine.org. 2. Print or type your name and address. Be sure to place your ASPE membership number in the appropriate space. 3. Answer the multiple-choice continuing education (CE) questions based on the corresponding article found on www.psdmagazine.org and the appraisal questions on this form. 4. Submit this form with payment ($35 for nonmembers of ASPE) if required by check or money order made payable to ASPE or credit card via mail (ASPE Education Credit, 8614 W. Catalpa Avenue, Suite 1007, Chicago, IL 60656) or fax (773-695-9007). Please print or type; this information will be used to process your credits. Name _ __________________________________________________________________________________________________ Title _ ______________________________________________ ASPE Membership No.____________________________________ Organization _ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ Billing Address ____________________________________________________________________________________________ City_ _______________________________________ State/Province________________________ Zip _ ____________________ Country____________________________________________ E-mail_ ________________________________________________ Daytime telephone_ _________________________________ Fax___________________________________________________ ASPE Member Each examination: $25
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Signature Expiration date: Continuing education credit will be given for this examination through September 30, 2008. Applications received after that date will not be processed.
Payment: Personal Check (payable to ASPE) $____________ Business or government check $ _________ DiscoverCard VISA MasterCard AMEX $____________ If rebilling of a credit card charge is necessary, a $25 processing fee will be charged. ASPE is hereby authorized to charge my CE examination fee to my credit card. Account Number Expiration date
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Irrigation Systems (PSD 141) Was the material new information for you? Yes No Was the material presented clearly? Yes No Was the material adequately covered? Yes No Did the content help you achieve the stated objectives? Yes No Did the CE questions help you identify specic ways to use ideas presented in the article? Yes No 6. How much time did you need to complete the CE oering (i.e., to read the article and answer the post-test questions)?___________________ 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Appraisal Questions
SEPTEMBER 2007
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2005
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PSD 129
Continuing Education
Hot Water Demand The usual fixtures requiring hot water found in housing units are showers and lavatories. Some units also have small kitchens or serving areas, which may have additional sinks and small dishwashers. Such serving areas are project specific. In jails, very often one or two residential type washing machines are required for each housing unit pod (a group of 10 to 20 cells). The typical housing unit is composed of multiple pods, with each cell opening onto a day room. Currently it is recom mended that there be one shower for every eight inmates and a lavatory in each cell.2 The number and location of the showers are decided by the architect in coordination with the owner and according to specific code requirements. The shower operation is the factor that determines the required sizes of the water heater and storage tank. Primary considerations 1. The standard recommendation of eight inmates per shower was made so that all inmates could shower during a 1-h period. This arrangement allows an average of 7 min for each inmate to shower. About half that time is taken up by drying and switching inmates, leaving only about 3.5 min of actual water usage per inmate. 2. Showers are the main factor affecting water heater size. Allowance should be made for the many lavatories in housing units when sizing the storage tank. 3. The efficiency of storage systems varies from manu facturer to manufacturer, but 65 to 80% is a good efficiency range to use until you have actual data on the tank and system specified. JAIL EXAMPLE This is an example of a jail housing unit with six pods of 24 cells each (one inmate per cell) and three showers per pod. Assume that the hot water generated is 140F (60C) and the incoming water temperature is 50F (10C). Questions 1. Will the inmates be required to shower at a specific time? No 2. Will all the cell pods release their inmates for showering within the same hour? Yes. (This means that the design must accommodate a 1-h recovery period.) 3. Will the shower duration per inmate be limited? Yes, to 7 min per inmate, with 3.5 min of water usage 4. Does the facility anticipate double bunking inmates, either now or in the future? No Calculations for Jail Housing Units The ratio of 140 to 50F (60 to 10C) water flowing at the shower can be calculated using the mixed-water formula, Equation 1.7, from Chapter 1:
1
2
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore, the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers shown in the metric equations.
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With each shower flowing 2.5 gpm (0.13 L/sec), 2.5 gpm 0.61 = 1.53 gpm will be 140F hot water (0.13 L/sec 0.61 = 0.08 L/sec will be 60C hot water) 8 inmates 3.5 min = 28 min of water flowing per shower during the peak hour 6 pods 3 showers per pod = 18 showers total 18 showers 28 min = 504 min 504 min 1.53 gpm = 771.12 gal 140F hot water per peak hour demand (504 min 0.10 L/sec 60 sec/min = 3024 L 60C hot water per peak hour demand) At this time a judgment will have to be made by the designer as to whether or not the auxiliary equipment will be operating during the peak hour. For this example, we will assume it will not. Auxiliary Equipment Demand Door type dishwasher with internal heater = 69 gph (261.17 L/h) Single compartment sink = 30 gph (113.55 L/h) Clothes washing machines, 1 per pod 6 pods = 6 6 2 loads @ 20 gal/load = 240 gph (6 2 loads @ 75.7 L/load = 908.40 L/h) Auxiliary equipment demand for 140F water = 339 gph (Auxiliary equipment demand for 60C water = 1283.12 L/h) Assuming that operation of the auxiliary equipment does not coincide with the peak hour demand, sizing the heater and storage tank to handle the additional load will not be necessary. The heater size required for inmate showering is more than twice the size needed for the auxiliary equipment demand. Recommendation Heater sizing Two heaters should be selected, each sized to serve between 60 and 100% of the total demand. In prison housing units some redundancy in the water heating system is necessary. The level of redundancy should be discussed with the facilitys owners. Storage tank sizing If the water heater is sized to meet the recovery required to handle the peak shower demand, the storage tank may be
The auxiliary equipment demand of 339 gph (1283.12 L/h) will have the greatest influence on the amount of cycling done by the heater during off-peak hours. 339 gph = 5.56 gpm average flow of 140F water 60 1283.12 L/h = 0.36 L/sec average flow of 60C water 60 60 5.56 gpm 15 min = 83.4 gal (0.36 L/sec 60 sec/min 15 min = 324 L) 83.4 = 104.25 gal storage 0.80 324 L = 405 L storage 0.80
The selected size of a 481.6-gal (1837.5-L) storage tank is more than adequate to meet this demand. PRISON EXAMPLE This is an example of a housing facility for 384 inmates. It has four wings (96 inmates per wing) and each wing has four stories (24 inmates per wing per story). A central kitchen and laundry are located in a separate building. Shower areas are provided on every floor of every wing, and each of these areas has three shower heads. Design Criteria and Assumptions 1. Inmate lavatories and showers will be supplied with 105F (41C) circulated hot water. Showers are to have 2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec) flow restrictors and lavatories 2.0 gpm (0.13 L/sec) flow restrictors. 2. There will be separate systems for the kitchen and laundry areas. 3. The water temperature for the laundry area will be 180F (82C) and for the kitchen area 140F (60C), plus there will be a separate loop of 105F (41C) water for the hand washing lavatories and toilets located in the kitchen area . 4. Water at 140F (60C) will be supplied to the dishwasher. The dishwasher will have a separate booster heater to raise water temperature to the 180F (82C) required for the final rinse cycle. 5. The storage tank capacity varies considerablyfrom 0% for instantaneous heaters to more than100%. Check
Reprinted from Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, 2nd ed. 2003. Chicago: American Society of Plumbing Engineers. Chapter 9, Jail and Prison Housing Units (pp. 179-188). 2003, American Society of Plumbing Engineers.
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to determine if the owner has a preference. Remember, most owners already operate existing jails or prisons; they may have established design parameters. The initial cost of equipment, the unit performance, and operating costs are also factors to be considered when sizing the storage tank. 6. Look for additional support facilities, such as the barber shop, pantries, or an emergency medical clinic. 7. Although operating hours for the laundry area are generally from 8:00 A.M. to 5:00 P.M., review operational times and schedules with the owner. 8. Sources of heat: The selection of steam, natural gas, or electricity will have an enormous impact on the type of heater and on energy consumption. Note: A central steam generation plant may favor an instan-taneous type steam-to-hot-water converter with minimum hot water storage for surges. Remember, redun dancy in heaters is always required for jails and prisons to allow for problems created by inmates. The cost of generating and distributing steam is also a factor to be consid ered. 9. The method to use for sizing the water heater and storage tank may be determined by the owner/operator of the facility. 10. One inmate per cell equals 384 inmates. A question that should be asked is whether the owner plans to expand in the future by putting more than one inmate in each cell. Questions 1. Will the inmates be required to shower at a specific time? No 2. Will the shower duration per inmate be limited or do inmates have control over when they shower? Showers are limited to 7 min per inmate, with 3.5 min of water usage per shower. 3. Will all of the cell pods release their inmates for showering within the same hour? Yes. (This means that the design must accommodate a 1-h recovery period.) 4. Does the facility anticipate double bunking the inmates now or in the future? No 5. Does the facility have a work-release program? Yes 6. What is the time allocated for the work-release inmates to shower prior to leaving for their duties in the work release program? One hour, at the same approximate time as the other inmates. Calculations for Inmate Housing Units Refer to the calculations done for the jail example for the methodology for determining the 1.53 gpm (0.1 L/sec) flow per shower head and the operation time of 28 min per shower. 48 showers 28 min = 1344 min
1344 min 1.53 gpm = 2056 gal of 140F hot water for peak hour demand (1344 min 0.096 L/sec 60 sec/min = 7741.44 L/h of 60C hot water for peak hour demand)
Storage Tank Sizing In this example, inmate lavatories will have the only impact on tank sizing because the kitchen and laundry will have separate systems. If the water heater is sized to meet the recovery required to handle the peak shower demand, the storage tank may be sized to handle approximately 50% of the shower demand during the period of peak use. The storage tank should be large enough to prevent the heater from cycling on and off more than four times per hour during off-peak hours. This requirement necessitates finding a balance between excessive tank size and short cycling. Calculation 2056 gph 0.50 = 1028 gal 140F hot water (7.74 m3/h 0.50 = 3.87 m3 60C hot water) 1028 gal = 1285 gal storage tank size 0.80 eff. 3870 L = 4837.5 L storage tank size [ 0.80 ] eff. Kitchen Considerations 1. The item that has the greatest effect on hot water demand is the dishwasher. Some central kitchens do not have dining areas, in which case all meals are shipped to the housing units in bulk for distribution and the dishwashers are in the housing units. 2. The temperature of the hot water going to kitchen lavatories should not exceed 110F (43C) for safety reasons. 3. Check to see if the dishwasher has a booster heater and determine the type of energy used (steam or electricity). This information will help you decide whether or not to generate 180F (82C) water. Note: Some dishwashers on the market use chemicals for disinfecting, thus the higher water temperature is not required. 4. After dishwashers, compartment sinks are the next largest user of 140F (60C) hot water. The higher temperature is required to cut through grease on pots and pans. Some three-compartment sinks have booster heaters in the rinse tank to maintain the higher temperature. 5. Other kitchen items that use hot water are the prerinse for the dishwasher, the vegetable sinks, and the cart washdown hose bibs. 6. Always check the kitchen consultants plans for hot water requirements. 7. Refer to the Hospitals chapter for additional information on kitchens. Laundry Considerations 1. Review the laundry consultants plans and determine the type of washing machine/extractor used. Prison laundries are similar to hospital laundries in that they process sheets, pillow cases, and uniforms. The size and number Sept/Oct 2005 Plumbing Systems & Design 59
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Continuing Education
Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com
Payment: Personal Check (payable to ASPE) $____________ Business or government check $____________ DiscoverCard VISA MasterCard AMEX $____________ If rebilling of a credit card charge is necessary, a $25 processing fee will be charged. ASPE is hereby authorized to charge my CE examination fee to my credit card. Account Number Expiration date
Signature Expiration date: Continuing education credit will be given for this examination through September 30, 2006. Applications received after that date will not be processed.
Signature
Appraisal Questions
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Jail and Prison Housing Units (PSD 129) Was the material new information for you? Yes No Was the material presented clearly? Yes No Was the material adequately covered? Yes No Did the content help you achieve the stated objectives? Yes No Did the CE questions help you identify specic ways to use ideas presented in the article? Yes No How much time did you need to complete the CE oering (i.e., to read the article and answer the post-test questions)?___________________
JULY/AUGUST 2006
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PSD 134
Life-Safety Systems
CONTINUING EDUCATION
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Life-Safety Systems
INTRODUCTiON
A threat to personnel safety often present in pharmaceutical facilities is accidental exposure and possible contact with toxic gases, liquids, and solids. This chapter describes water-based emergency drench equipment and systems commonly used as a first-aid measure to mitigate the effects of such an accident, Also described are the breathing-air systems that supply air to personnel for escape and protection when they are exposed to either a toxic environment resulting from an accident or normal working conditions that make breathing the ambient air hazardous.
3. The Safety Equipment Institute (SEI) certifies that equipment meets ANSI standards. 4. Applicable plumbing codes. For the purposes of the discussion in this section on drench equipment, the word code shall refer to ANSI Z-358.1. TYPes OF DReNCH EQUiPMeNT Emergency drench equipment consists of showers, eyewash units, face-wash units, and drench hoses, along with interconnecting piping and alarms if required. All of these units are available either singly or in combination with each other. Ancillary components include thermostatic mixing systems, freeze protection systems and enclosures. Each piece of equipment is designed to perform a specific function. One piece is not intended to be a substitute for another, but rather, to complement the others by providing additional availability of water to specific areas of the body as required. Emergency Showers Plumbed Showers Plumbed emergency showers are permanently connected to the potable water piping and designed to continuously supply enough water to drench the entire body. A unit consists of a large-diameter shower head intended to distribute water over a large area. The most commonly used type has a control valve with a handle extending down from the valve on a chain or rod that is used to turn the water on and off manually. Code requires the shower be capable of delivering a minimum of 30 gpm (113.6 L/min) of evenly dispersed water at a velocity low enough so as not to be injurious to the user. Where this flow rate is not available, 20 gpm (75.7 L/min) is acceptable if the shower-head manufacturer can show the same spray pattern required for 30 gpm can be achieved at the lower flow rate. The minimum spray pattern shall have a diameter of 20 in. (58.8 cm), measured at 60 in. (152.4 cm) above the surface on which the user stands. This requires a minimum pressure of approximately 30 psi (4.47 kPa). Emergency showers can be ceiling mounted, wall mounted or floor mounted on a pipe stand, with the center of the spray at least 16 in. (40.6 cm) from any obstruction. Showers should be chosen for the following reasons: 1. When large volumes of potentially dangerous materials are present. 2. Where a small volume of material could result in large affected areas, such as in laboratories and schools. A typical emergency shower head mounted in a hung ceiling is illustrated in Figure 1. Self-Contained Showers Self-contained emergency showers have a storage tank for water. Often this water is heated. The shower shall be capable of delivering a minimum of 20 gpm (75.5 L/min) for 15 min. The requirements for mounting height and spray pattern are the same as they are for plumbed showers.
Reprinted from Pharmaceutical Facilities Plumbing Systems, Chapter 8: Life-Safety Systems, by Michael Frankel. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 2 Plumbing Systems & Design
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Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com The face wash is an enhanced version of the eyewash.
It has the same design requirements and configuration, except the spray heads are specifically designed to deliver a larger water pattern and volume will flush the whole face and not just the eyes. The face wash should deliver approximately 8 gpm (55 L/min). The stream configuration is illustrated in Figure 2. Very often, the face wash is chosen for combination units. In general, the face wash is more desirable than the eyewash because it is very likely an accident will affect more than just the eyes. All dimensions and requirements of the free-standing face wash are similar to those for the eyewash. Drench Hoses A drench hose is a single-head unit connected to a water supply with a flexible hose. The head is generally the same size as a single head found on an eye/ face wash. Code requires the drench hose be capable of delivering a minimum of 0.4 gpm (1.5 L/min). It is controlled either by a squeeze handle near the head or a push-plate ball valve located at the connection to the water source. It is used as a supplement to showers and eye/face washes to irrigate specific areas of the body. Drench hoses are selected for the following reasons: 1. To spot drench a specific area of the body when the large volume of water delivered by a shower is not called for. 2. To allow irrigation of an unconscious person or a victim who is unable to stand. 3. To irrigate under clothing prior to the clothings removal.
Emergency Eyewash Plumbed Eyewash Emergency eyewashes are specifically designed to irrigate and flush both eyes simultaneously with dual streams of water. The unit consists of dual heads in the shape of a U, each specifically designed to deliver a narrow stream of water, and a valve usually controlled by a large push plate. Code requires the eyewash to be capable of delivering a minimum of 0.4 gpm (1.5 L/min). Many eyewashes of recent manufacture deliver approximately 3 gpm (11.4 L/min). Once started, the flow must be continuous and designed to operate without the use of the hands, which shall be free to hold open the eyelids. The flow of water must be soft to avoid additional injury to sensitive tissue. To protect against airborne contaminants, each dual stream head must be pro- Figure 2 Combination Emergency Shower, Eye/Face Wash, and Drench Hose Unit tected with a cover that is automatically discarded when the unit is activated. The head covers shall be attached to the heads by a chain to keep them from being lost. The eyewash can be mounted on a counter or wall, or as a free stranding unit attached to the floor. The eyewash could be provided with a bowl. The bowl does not increase the efficiency or usefulness of the unit but aids in identification by personnel. It is common practice to mount a swivel type eyewash on a laboratory sink faucet, installed so it can be swung out of the way during normal use of the sink but can be swung over the sink bowl in order to be operated in an emergency. The code recommends (but does not require) the use of a buffered saline solution to wash the eyes. This could be accomplished with a separate dispenser filled with concentrate that will introduce the proper solution into the water supply prior to reaching the device head. A commonly used device is a wallmounted, 5 to 6-gal (20 to 24-L) capacity solution tank connected to the water inlet dispenses a measured amount of solution when flow to the eyewash is activated. A backflow device shall be installed on the water supply. Self-Contained Eyewash A typical self-contained eyewash has a storage tank with a minimum 15-min water supply. The mounting height and spray pattern requirements are the same as those for a plumbed eyewash.
JULY/AUGUST 2006
JULY/AUGUST 2006
Appropriate pressure loss calculations should be made to ensure Water-Supply Pressure and Flow Rates Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com Emergency showers require between 20 and 30 gpm (76 to 111 the hydraulically most remote unit is supplied with adequate L/min), with 30 gpm recommended. The minimum pressure pressure with the size selected. Adjust sizes accordingly to meet required is 30 psig (4.5 kPa) at the farthest unit, with a generally friction loss requirements. The pipe material should be copper to minimize clogging the accepted maximum pressure of 70 psi (485 kPa). Code mentions a high pressure of 90 psig (612 kPa), which is generally consid- heads of the units in time with the inevitable corrosion products ered to be excessive. Most plumbing codes do not permit water released by steel pipe. Plastic pipe (PVC) should be considered pressures as high as 90 psig. Generally accepted practice limits where excessive heat and the use of closely located supports will the high water pressure to between 70 and 80 psig (480 and 620 not permit the pipe to creep in time. Emergency drench equipment shall be sized based on the kPa). Most eyewash units require a minimum operating pressure single highest flow rate, usually 30 gpm (115 L/min) for an of 15 psig (105 kPa) with a flow rate minimum of 3 gpm (12 L/ emergency shower. Piping is usually a 1-in. header of copper min) at the farthest unit. Maximum pressure is similar to that pipe for the entire length of a plumbed system. for showers. Face washes and drench hoses require a minimum Flushing Water Disposal operating pressure of 15 psig (105 kPa) with a minimum flow Water from emergency drench equipment is mainly discharged rate of 8 gpm (30 L/min) at the farthest unit. onto the floor. Individual eye/face washes mounted on sinks System Selection Plumbed System discharge most of the water into the adjacent sink. Combination units have an attached eye/face wash also discharge water on the floor. There are different methods of disposing of the water resulting from an emergency device depending on the facility. The basic consideration is whether to provide a floor drain adjacent to a device to route that water from the floor to a drainage system. It is accepted practice not to provide a floor drain at an emergency shower. Experience has shown in most cases, particularly in schools and laboratories, it is easier to mop up water from the floor in the rare instances emergency devices are used rather than add the extra cost of a floor drain, piping and a trap primer. Considerations include: 1. If the drain is not in an area where frequent cleaning is done, the trap may dry out, allowing odors to be emitted. 2. Is there an available drainage line in the area of the device? 3. Can the chemical, even in a diluted state, be released into the sanitary sewer system or must it be routed to a chemical waste system for treatment? 4. Must purification equipment be specially purchased for this purpose? INsTALLATiON ReQUiReMeNTs FOR DReNCH EQUiPMeNT The need to provide emergency drench equipment is determined by an analysis of the hazard by design professionals or health or safety personnel and by the use of common sense in conformance with OSHA, CFR, and other regulations for specific occupations. Judgment is necessary in the selection and location of equipment. Very often, facility owners have specific regulations for its need and location. Dimensional Requirements The mounting height of all equipment, as illustrated in ANSI Z358.1, is shown in Figure 2. If the shower head is free-standing, the generally accepted dimension for the mounting height is 7 ft 0 in. (2.17 m) above the floor. Generally accepted clearance around showers and eye/face washes is illustrated in Figure 3. A wheelchair-accessible, free-standing, combination unit is illustrated in Figure 4. Equipment Location The location of the emergency drench equipment is crucial to the immediate and successful first-aid treatment of an accident victim. It should be located as close to the potential hazard as is practical without being affected by the hazard itself or potential accidental conditions, such as a large release or spray of chemiJULY/AUGUST 2006
1. Permanent connection to a fresh supply of water, requiring no maintenance and only minimum testing of the devices to ensure proper operation. 2. It provides an unlimited supply of water often at larger volumes than self-contained units. Disadvantages include: 1. Higher first cost than a self-contained system. 2. Maintenance is intensive. Such systems require weekly flushing, often into a bucket, to remove stagnant water in the piping system and replace it with fresh water. Self-Contained System
1. Lower first cost compared to a plumbed system. 2. Can be filled with a buffered, saline solution, which is recommended for washing eyes. 3. Available with a container to catch waste water. 4. Portable units can be moved to areas of greatest hazard with little difficulty. 5. A gravity eyewash is more reliable. The water supply can be installed where there is room above the unit. If not, a pressurized unit mounted remotely should be selected. Disadvantages include: 1. Only a limited supply of water at a lesser flow rate is available. 2. The stored liquid must be changed on a regular basis to maintain purity. The plumbed system is the type of system selected most often because of the unlimited water supply. Pipe Sizing and Material In order to supply the required flow rate to a shower, a minimum pipe size of 1 in. (25 mm) is required by code, with 1 in. (30 mm) recommended. If the device is a combination unit, a 1-in. size should be considered as minimum. An emergency eye/face wash requires a minimum in. (13 mm) pipe size. Except in rare cases where multiple units are intended to be used at once, the piping system size should be based on only one unit operating. The entire piping system is usually a single size pipe based on the requirements of the most remote fixture.
Version - http://www.simpopdf.com reach equipment shall be avoided, except placing emergency showers in a common corridor, such as outside individual laboratory rooms, is accepted practice. Care should be taken to avoid locating the shower in the path of the swinging door to the protected room to prevent personnel coming to the aid of the victims from knocking them over. Emergency eye/face washes should be located close to the potential source of hazard. In laboratories, accepted practice is to have 1 sink in a room fitted with an eyewash on the counter adjacent to the sink. The sink cold-water supply provides water to the unit. The eyewash could be designed to swing out of the way of the sink if desired. Visibility of Devices High visibility must be considered in the selection of any device. The recognition methods usually selected are high-visibility signs mounted at or on the device; having the surrounding floors and walls painted a contrasting, bright color; and having the device in a bright, well lit area on the plant floor to help a victim identify the area and help in first-aid activities. Number of Stations The number of drench-equipment devices provided in a facility is a function of the number of people in rooms and areas with potential exposure to any particular hazard at any one time, based on a worst-case scenario. It is rare for more than one combination unit to be installed. It is important to consider if a group of individuals has potential exposure to a specific hazard, more than one drench unit may be required. Consulting with the end user and the safety officer will provide a good basis for the selection of the type and number of equipment. Generally, one shower can be provided between an adjacent pair of laboratories, with emergency eye/face washes located inside each individual laboratory. In open areas, it is common practice to locate emergency equipment adjacent to columns for support. Water Temperature Code now requires tempered water of approximately 85F be supplied to equipment. A comfortable range of 60 to 95F (15 to 35C) is mentioned in the code. For most indoor applications, this temperature range is achieved because the interior of a facility is heated in the winter and cooled in the summer to approximately 70F (20 C). Since the water in the emergency drench system is stagnant, it assumes the temperature of the ambient air. A generally accepted temperature of between 80 and 85F (27 and 30C) has been established as a comfort zone and is now the recommended water temperature. The body will attempt to generate body heat lost if the drenching fluid is at a temperature below the comfort zone. The common effect is shivering and increased heart rate. In fact, most individuals are uncomfortable taking a shower with water at about 60F (15C). With the trauma induced by an accident, the effect is escalated. Another consideration is the potential chemical reaction and/or acceleration of reaction with flushing water or water at
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cals resulting from an explosion or a pipe and tank rupture. Another location problem is placement adjacent to electrical equipment. Location on normal access and egress paths in the work area will reinforce the location to personnel, who will see it each time they pass. There are no requirements in any code pertaining to the location of any drench equipment in terms of specific, definitive dimensions. ANSI code Z-358.1 requires emergency showers be located a maximum distance of either 10 seconds travel time by an individual or no more than 75 ft (22.5 m) from the potential protected hazard, whichever is shorter. If strong acid or caustic is used, the equipment should be located within 10 ft (3 m) of the potential source of the hazard. The path to the unit from the hazard shall be clear and unobstructed, so impaired sight or panic will not prevent clear identification and access. There is no regulation as to what distance could be covered by an individual in 10 seconds. There are also no specific provisions for the physically challenged. Since there are no specific code requirements for locating drench equipment, good judgment is required. Accepted practice is to have the equipment accessible from three sides. Anything less generally creates a tunnel effect that makes it more difficult for the victim to reach the equipment. It should be located on the same level as the potential hazard when possible. 6 Plumbing Systems & Design
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a particular temperature. Where the hazard is a solid, such as the respirator. The most common operating range for systems is Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com radioactive particles, that can enter the body through the pores, between 90 and 110 psig (620 and 760 kPa). a cold-water shower shall be used in spite of its being uncomMuch of the equipment used in the generation, treatment, fortable. It is necessary to obtain the opinions of medical and and distribution of compressed air for breathing-air systems is hygiene personnel where any doubt exists about the correct use common to that for medical/surgical air discussed in the Comof water or water temperature in specific facilities. pressed-Gas Systems chapter. Where showers are installed outdoors, or indoors where heatCODes AND STANDARDs ing is not provided, the water supplying the showers must be 1. OSHA: 29 CFR 1910. tempered if the air temperature is low. Manufacturers offer a 2. CGA: commodity specifications G-7 and G-7.1. variety of tempering methods, including water-temperature 3. Canadian Standards Association (CSA). maintenance cable similar to that used for domestic hot-water 4. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health systems for this purpose and mixing valves with hot and cold(NIOSH). water connections. In remote locations, complete self-contained 5. Mine Safety and Health Act (MSHA). units are available with storage tanks holding and maintaining 6. NFPA: NFPA-99, Medical Compressed Air. heated water. 7. DOD (Department of Defense): Where applicable. Protection Against Temperature Extremes 8. ANSI: Z-88.2, Standard for Respiratory Protection. In areas where freezing is possible and water drench equipment 9. Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). is connected to an above-ground, plumbed water supply, freeze protection is required. This is most often accomplished by using BReATHiNG-AiR PURiTY electric heating cable and providing insulation around the Air for breathing purposes supplied from a compressor or a entire water-supply pipe and the unit itself. It is recommended pressurized tank must comply, as a minimum, with quality the water temperature be maintained at 85F (20C). verification level grade D in CGA G-7.1 (ANSI Z-86.1). Table 1, For exterior showers located where freezing is possible, the from ANSI/CGA G-7.1, lists the maximum contaminant levels water supply shall be installed below the frost line and a freeze- for various grades of air. proof shower shall be installed. This type of shower has a method For grade D quality air, individual limits exist for condensed of draining the water above the frost line when the water to the hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide. Particudrench equipment is turned off. When a number of drench-equipment Table 1Maximum Contaminant Levels for Various Grades of Air (in ppm [mole/mole] unless shown otherwise) devices are located where low temperature is common, a circulating tempered-water supply Limiting Characteristics A K L D E G J M N should be considered. This uses a water heater atm/ atm/ atm/ atm/ atm/ atm/ atm/ atm/ atm/ and a circulating pump to supply the drench Percent O2 balancea 19.5 - 19.5 - 19.5 - 19.5 - 20 - 19.5 - 19.5 - 19.5 - 19.5 23.5 23.5 23.5 23.5 22 23.5 23.5 23.5 23.5 equipment. The heater shall be capable of gen- predominantly N2b Water, ppm (v/v) 200 50 1 3 erating water from 40 to 80F at a rate of 30 gpm Dew point, Fb -33 -54 -104 -92 (or more if more than one shower could oper- Oil (condensed) (mg/m3 ate simultaneously). at NTP) 5c 5c Noned e,f Carbon monoxid 10 10 5 1 1 10 In areas where the temperature may get too None high, it is accepted practice to insulate the Odor f Carbon dioxide 1000 500 500 0.5 1 500 water-supply piping. Total hydrocarbon content (as methane) 25 25 15 0.5 1 BReATHiNG-AiR SYsTeMs Nitrogen dioxide Nitric 2.5 0.1 0.5 2.5 oxide GeNeRAL Sulfur dioxide 2.5 0.1 5 Breathing-air systems supply air of a specific Halogenated Solvents 10 0.1 minimum purity to personnel for purposes Acetylene 0.05 of escape and protection after exposure to Nitrous oxide 0.1 a toxic environment resulting from an acci- USP Yes dent or during normal work where conditions Source: ANSI/CGA G-7.1.ANSI 2-86.1, Table 1. make breathing the ambient air dangerous. Note: The 1973 edition of CGA G-7.1 listed nine quality verication levels of gaseous air, lettered A to J, and two quality verication levels As defined by 30 CFR 10, a toxic environment of liquid air, lettered A and B. Some of those letter designations were dropped from the 1989 edition, since they no longer represent major has air that may produce physical discomfort volume usage by industry. Four new letter designations, K, L, M, and N, have been added to reect current specications. To get a listing of immediately, chronic poisoning after repeated quality verication levels dropped, see CGA-7-1-1973 or contact the Compressed Gas Association. aThe term atmospheric (atm) denotes the oxygen content normally present in atmospheric air; the numerical values denote the oxygen exposure, or acute adverse physiological symplimits for synthesized air. toms after prolonged exposure. bThe water content of compressed air required for any particular quality verication level may vary with the intended use from saturated to very dry. For breathing air used in conjunction with a self-contained breathing apparatus in extreme cold where moisture can This section discusses the production, puricondense and freeze, causing the breathing apparatus to malfunction, a dew point not to exceen -50F (63 ppm v/v), or 10 lower fication, and distribution of a low-pressure than the coldest temperature expected in the area, is required. If a specic water limit is required, it should be specied as a limiting breathing air and individual breathing devices concentration in ppm (v/v) or dew point. Dew point is expressed in F at 1 atmosphere pressure absolute, 101 kPa abs. (760 mm Hg). used to provide personnel protection only cNot required for synthesized air whose oxygen and nitrogen components are produced by air liquefaction. when used with supplied air systems. Low pres- dIncludes water. sure for breathing air refers to compressed air eNot required for synthesized air when the nitrogen component was previously analyzed and meets National Formulary (NF) specication. pressures up to 250 psig (1725 kPa) delivered to fNot required for synthesized air when the oxygen component was produced by air liquefaction and meets United States Pharmacopeia
(USP) specication.
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Demand-Flow System The demand-flow system delivers purified air to personnel respirators only as the individual inhales. Upon exhalation, the flow of air is shut off until the next breath. Demand-flow systems automatically adjust to an individuals breathing rate. This system requires tight-fitting respirators. Its application is generally limited to less harmful areas because the negative pressure in the respirator during inhalation may permit leakage of external contaminants. This system is designed for economy of air use during relatively short-duration tasks and is usually supplied from cylinders. Pressure-Demand System A pressure-demand system delivers purified air continuously through personnel respirators with increased air flow during inhalation. By continuously providing a flow of air above atmospheric pressure, leakage of external contaminants is minimized. This system also uses tight-fitting respirators, but the positive pressure aspect allows them to be used in more toxic applications. SYsTeM COMPONeNTs The breathing-air system consists of a compressed-air source, purification devices and filters to remove unwanted contaminants from the source airstream, humidifiers to introduce water vapor into the breathing air, the piping distribution network, respirator outlet manifolds, respirator hose, and the individual respirators used by personnel. Alarms are needed to monitor the quantity of contaminants and other parameters of the system as a whole and to notify personnel if necessary. Compressed-Air Source The source of air for the breathing-air system is an air compressor and/or high-pressure air stored in cylinders. Cylinders use ambient air, which is purified to reduce or eliminate impurities to the required level, and compress it to the desired pressure. A typical schematic detail is shown in Figure 5. Air Compressor The standard for air compressors used to supply breathing air shall comply with the requirement for oilfree medical gas discussed in the Compressed-Gas Systems chapter. Medical-gas type compressors are used because these systems as a whole generate far fewer contaminants than other types of system. When a liquid-ring compressor is used, it has the advantage of keeping the temperature of the air leaving the unit low. It is also possible to use any type of compressor for this service, provided the purification system is capable of producing air meeting all the requirements of code. The air-compressor assembly consists of the intake assembly (including the inlet filter), the compressor and receiver, the aftercooler, and the interconnecting water-seal supply and the other ancillary piping. All of these components are discussed in the Specialty Gases for Laboratories section.
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Figure 5 System with Standby High-Pressure Breathing Air Reserve Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered
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Air compressors have a high first cost and are selected if the use of air for breathing is constant and continuous, making the use of cylinders either too costly or too maintenance intensive because of the frequent changing of cylinders. Storage Cylinder When high-pressure cylinders are used either as a source or as an emergency supply of breathing air, they shall be filled with air conforming to breathing-air standards. The regulator should be set to about 50 psi (340 kPa) depending on the pressure required to meet system demands and losses. The cylinders have a low initial cost and are not practical to use if there is continuous demand. Cylinders are best suited to intermittent use for short periods of time or as an emergency escape backup for a compressor. Aftercooler Some components of the purification system require a specific temperature in order to function properly. Depending on the type of compressor selected and the type of purification necessary, the temperature of the air leaving the compressor may have to be reduced. This is done with an aftercooler. Aftercoolers can be supplied with cooling water or use air as the cooling medium. Water, if recirculated, is the preferred method. The manufacturer of both the compressor and purification system should be consulted as to the criteria used and the recommended size of the unit. Purification Devices The contaminants that are problematic for breathing-air systems must be removed. This can be done with separate devices used to remove individual contaminants or with a prepiped assembly of all the necessary purification devices, commonly referred to as a purification system, which requires only an inlet and
outlet air connection. For breathing-air systems it is commonly done with a purification system. The individual purification methods used to remove specific contaminants are the same as those discussed in the Compressed-Gas Systems chapter. For breathing air, oil and particulates are removed by coalescing and other filters, water is removed by desiccant or refrigerated dryers, and carbon monoxide is removed by chemical conversion to carbon dioxide using a catalytic converter. Carbon Monoxide Converter The purpose of the converter is to oxidize carbon monoxide and convert it into carbon dioxide, which is tolerable in much greater quantities. This is typically accomplished by the use of a catalyst usually consisting of manganese dioxide, copper oxide, cobalt, and silver oxide in various combinations and placed inside a single cartridge. The material is not consumed but does become contaminated. The conversion rate greatly decreases if any oil or moisture is present in the airstream. Therefore, moisture must be removed before air enters the converter. Catalyst replacement is recommended generally once a year since it is not possible to completely control all contaminants that contribute to decreased conversion. Moisture Separator Water and water vapor are removed by two methods, desiccant and refrigerated dryers. The most common desiccant drying medium is activated alumina. For a discussion of air-drying methods, refer to the Compressed-Gas Systems systems. Odor Remover Activated, granular charcoal in cartridges is used for the removal of odors. Particulates Remover Particulates are removed by means of in-line filters. Generally accepted practice eliminates particulates 1 and larger from the piping system .
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3. Up to 16 scfm (453 L/min) for flooded-hood respirators. The converter is sized based on the flow rate of the system. Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version -Coalescing http://www.simpopdf.com Filter/Separator The coalescing filter/separa4. Up to 35 scfm (990 L/min) for flooded suits. tor is a single unit that removes large oil and water drops and 5. Add 15 scfm (425 L/min) of air for suit cooling if used. particulates from the airstream before the air enters the rest of High-Pressure Storage Cylinder High pressure cylinders the system. It is selected on the basis of maximum system presare used either to supply air for normal operation to a limited sure, flow rate, and the expected level of contaminants leaving number of personnel for short periods of time or as an emerthe air compressor, using manufacturers recommendations. If gency supply to provide a means of escape from a hazardous an oil-free compressor is used, a simple particulate filter could area if the air compressor fails. The main advantage to using be substituted for the coalescing filter. cylinders is the air in the cylinders is prepurified, and no further Dryers (Moisture Separators) purification of the air is necessary. The number of cylinders is based on the simultaneous use of Desiccant DryersThe two types of desiccant media dryer most respirators, the cfm (L/min) of each and the duration, in min, commonly used are the single-bed dryer, which is a disposable the respirators are expected to be used, plus a 10% safety factor. cartridge, and the continuous-duty, two-bed dryer. When two-bed dryers are used, a portion of the air from the The total amount of compressed air in the cylinders should not be allowed to decrease too low. A low-pressure alarm should compressor is used for drying one bed while the other is in sersound when pressure falls to 500 psig (3450 kPa) in a cylinder vice. The compressor must be capable of producing enough air normally pressurized to 2400 psig (16 500 kPa) when filled to for both the system and dryer use. The single-bed dryer has a lower first cost but a higher operatcapacity. ing cost. The disposable cartridge often is combined with other Example 9-1 purification devices into a single, prepiped unit. An indicator is Establish the number of cylinders required for an emergency often added to the media so the need for replacement is indisupply of air for 8 people using constant-flow respirators require cated by a color change. 15 min to escape the area. Disposable units are best suited for short durations or occa1. 8 6 15 = 720 scfm + 72 (10%) = 792 scfm total required sional use, such as for replacement of a main unit during peri2. Next, find the actual capacity of a single cylinder at the ods of routine service. Because of their generally small size, only selected high pressure, generally 2400 psi (16 500 kPa), a limited number of respirators can be supplied from a single and divide the capacity of each cylinder into the total scfm unit. Other considerations are that these disposable units have required to find the number of cylinders required. a limited capacity, in total cfh, they can process. Manufacturers 3. If 1 cylinder has 225 scf, 792 225 = 3.5. Use 4 cylinders. recommendations must be used in the selection of the size and number of replacement cartridges required for any application. Purification Components The two-bed unit, commonly called a heatless dryer, is simiThe air used to fill breathing-air cylinders is purified before being compressed. Breathing air produced by air compressors lar in principle to that discussed in the Compressed-Gas Sysrequires purification to meet minimum code standards for tems chapter. Such units are used for continuous duty. The two factors contributing to the breakdown of media are breathing air. Prior to the selection of the purification equipment, several fast-drying cycles and high air velocity. If a desiccant dryer is samples of the air where the compressor intake is to be located selected, the velocity of air through the unit shall conform to should be taken so specific contaminants and their amounts manufacturers recommendations. Velocity should be as low can be identified. The ideal situation is to have the tests taken at as is practical to avoid fluidizing the bed. High velocity requires different times of the year and different times of the day. These more cycles for drying, which means wasting more air. If the tests quantify the type and amount of contaminants present at size of the dryer is a concern, more drying cycles means smaller the intake. With this information known, the purification sys- dryer beds. Longer drying cycles reduce component wear. Refrigerated DryersRefrigerated dryers are used if there is tems needed to meet code criteria can be chosen. The other no requirement for a nitrous oxide converter and if the 3539F requirement is the highest flow rate that can be expected. With dew point produced is 10F below the lowest ambient air temthese criteria, the appropriate size and types of purifier can be perature where any pipe will be installed. The refrigerated dryer selected. is less efficient than the desiccant dryer. Its advantages are that The most commonly used method of purification is an assemall the air produced by the compressor is available to the system bly of devices called a purification system specifically chosen and it has a lower pressure loss. and based on the previously selected criteria. Manufacturers When refrigerated dryers are preferred, several purification recommendations are commonly followed in the selection and devices are often combined into a single unit, including the sizing of the assembly. Carbon-Monoxide Converter The requirement for installa- refrigeration unit, filter/separator for oil and water, and a chartion of a carbon-monoxide converter is rare. The need for a con- coal filter for odor removal. This unit produces air that is lower verter is based on tests of the air at the proposed location of the in temperature than the inlet air. If the breathing-air distribution piping is to be routed through compressor intake. Another source of information is the EPA, which has conducted tests in many urban areas throughout the an area of lower temperature, the pressure dew point of the air country. Another indication that installation may be necessary must be reduced to 10F lower than the lowest temperature is the use of a non-oil-free compressor. Good practice requires expected. Odor Remover Odors are not usually a problem, but their the installation of a converter if there is an outside chance the level of carbon monoxide may rise above the 10 ppm limit set removal is provided for as a safeguard. The activated charcoal cartridges remove odors are selected using manufacturers recby code.
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CONTINUING EDUCATION
Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com Continuing Education from Plumbing Systems & Design
Kenneth G.Wentink, PE, CPD, and Robert D. Jackson
Do you find it difficult to obtain continuing education units (CEUs)? Through this special section in every issue of PS&D, ASPE can help you accumulate the CEUs required for maintaining your Certified in Plumbing Design (CPD) status.
Now Online!
Starting with this issue, the technical article you must read to complete the exam will be located at www.psdmagazine.org. The following exam and application form also may be downloaded from the Web site. Reading the article and completing the form will allow you to apply to ASPE for CEU credit. For most people, this process will require approximately one hour. If you earn a grade of 90 percent or higher on the test, you will be notified that you have logged 0.1 CEU, which can be applied toward the CPD renewal requirement or numerous regulatory-agency CE programs. (Please note that it is your responsibility to determine the acceptance policy of a particular agency.) CEU information will be kept on file at the ASPE office for three years.
Note: In determining your answers to the CE questions, use only the material presented in the corresponding continuing education article. Using information from other materials may result in a wrong answer.
8. The code-required flow rate from an emergency shower is ___________ gpm. a. 25, b. 30, c. 35, d. 40
9. How many cylinders of air are required for an emergency supply of air for eight people using pressure demand respirators needing 15 minutes to escape the area? a. 2.3 use 3 cylinders b. 3.5 use 4 cylinders c. 4.7 use 5 cylinders d. cannot be determined 10. Refrigerated dryers are used ___________. a. when money is of no concern b. when order removal is not required c. when system pressure is high enough to accommodate them d. none of the above 11. The minimum diameter of the spray pattern from an emergency shower, measured at 60 inches above the surface on which the user stands, is ___________ inches. a. 18, b. 20, c. 22, d. 24
12. An oxygen content below 12.5 percent and/or a pressure of 8.6 psi should be considered ___________. a. as a Level A hazard as established by the EPA b. as a Level C hazard as established by the EPA c. as a Level E hazard as established by the EPA d. as an immediate danger to life and health
PSD 134
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Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com Plumbing Systems & Design Continuing Education Application Form
This form is valid up to one year from date of publication. The PS&D Continuing Education program is approved by ASPE for up to one contact hour (0.1 CEU) of credit per article. Participants who ear a passing score (90 percent) on the CE questions will receive a letter or certification within 30 days of ASPEs receipt of the application form. (No special certificates will be issued.) Participants who fail and wish to retake the test should resubmit the form along with an additional fee (if required). 1. Photocopy this form or download it from www.psdmagazine.org. 2. Print or type your name and address. Be sure to place your ASPE membership number in the appropriate space. 3. Answer the multiple-choice continuing education (CE) questions based on the corresponding article found on www.psdmagazine.org and the appraisal questions on this form. 4. Submit this form with payment ($35 for nonmembers of ASPE) if required by check or money order made payable to ASPE or credit card via mail (ASPE Education Credit, 8614 W. Catalpa Avenue, Suite 1007, Chicago, IL 60656) or fax (773-695-9007). Please print or type; this information will be used to process your credits. Name _ __________________________________________________________________________________________________ Title _ ______________________________________________ ASPE Membership No.____________________________________ Organization _ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ Billing Address ____________________________________________________________________________________________ City_ _______________________________________ State/Province________________________ Zip _ ____________________ Country____________________________________________ E-mail_ ________________________________________________ Daytime telephone_ _________________________________ Fax___________________________________________________ I am applying for the following continuing education credits: I certify that I have read the article indicated above. ASPE Member Each examination: $25
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Payment: Personal Check (payable to ASPE) $____________ Business or government check $____________ DiscoverCard VISA MasterCard AMEX $____________ If rebilling of a credit card charge is necessary, a $25 processing fee will be charged. ASPE is hereby authorized to charge my CE examination fee to my credit card. Account Number Expiration date
Signature Expiration date: Continuing education credit will be given for this examination through July 31, 2007. Applications received after that date will not be processed.
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Appraisal Questions
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Life-Safety Systems (PSD 134) Was the material new information for you? Yes No Was the material presented clearly? Yes No Was the material adequately covered? Yes No Did the content help you achieve the stated objectives? Yes No Did the CE questions help you identify specic ways to use ideas presented in the article? Yes No How much time did you need to complete the CE oering (i.e., to read the article and answer the post-test questions)?___________________
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PSD 131
CONTINUING EDUCATION
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GeneRaL
Health care is in a constant state of change, which forces the plumbing engineer to keep up with new technology to provide innovative approaches to the design of medical-gas systems. In designing medical-gas and vacuum systems, the goal is to provide a safe and sufficient flow at required pressures to the medical-gas outlet or inlet terminals served. System design and layout should allow convenient access by the medical staff to outlet/inlet terminals, valves, and equipment during patient care or emergencies. This section focuses on design parameters and current standards required for the design of nonflammable medical-gas and vacuum systems used in therapeutic and anesthetic care. The plumbing engineer must determine the needs of the health-care staff. Try to work closely with the medical staff to seek answers to the following fundamental design questions at the start of a project: 1. How many outlet/inlets are requested by staff? 2. How many outlet/inlets are required? 3. Based on current conditions, how often is the outlet/inlet used? 4. Based on current conditions, what is the average duration of use for each outlet/inlet? 5. What is the proper usage (diversity) factor to be used?
NUmbeR Of StatiOns
The first step is to locate and count the outlet/inlets, often called stations, for each respective medical-gas system. This is usually done by consulting a program prepared by the facility planner or architect. This program is a list of all the rooms and areas in the facility and the services that are required in each. If a program has not been prepared, the floor plans for the proposed facility shall be used. There is no code that specifically mandates the exact number of stations that must be provided in various areas or rooms for all health-care facilities. In fact, there is no clear consensus of opinion among medical authorities or design professionals as to how many stations are actually required in the facility areas. Guidelines are
Reprinted from American Society of Plumbing Engineers Data Book Volume 3: Special Plumbing Systems, Chapter 2: Medical Gas and Vacuum Systems. 2000, American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 44 Plumbing Systems & Design
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published by the American Institute of Architects Table 1 Outlet Rating Chart for Medical-Vacuum Piping Systems Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com (AIA), Simpo NationalPDF Fire Protection Association (NFPA), Zone Allowances Corridors, Free-Air Allowance, cfm Risers, Main Supply Line, and ASPE that recommend the minimum number (L/min) at 1 atmosphere Valves of stations for various services in specific areas. Simultaneous Air to Be The most often-used recommendations in deter Location of Medical-Surgical Vacuum Usage Factor Transported, Per Room Per Outlet (%) cfm (L/min)a mining the number of stations for hospitals are those Outlets Operating rooms: necessary to be accredited by the Joint Commission Major A (Radical, open heart; organ for the Accreditation of Hospitals Organization transplant; radical thoracic) 3.5 (100) 100 3.5 (100) 2.0 (60) 100 2.0 (60) (JCAHO). Accreditation is required for Medicare and Major B (All other major ORs) 1.0 (30) 100 1.0 (30) Medicaid compensation. The JCAHO publishes a Minor 1.0 (30) 100 1.0 (30) manual that refers to the AIA guidelines for the mini- Delivery rooms Recovery room (post anesthesia) and mum number of stations for oxygen, medical air, intensive-care units (a minimum of 2 and vacuum that must be installed in order to obtain outlets per bed in each such department): 3 (85) 50 1.5 (40) accreditation. If this is a factor for the facility, these 1st outlet at each bed 2nd outlet at each bed 1.0 (30) 50 0.5 (15) requirements are mandatory. Other jurisdictions, 3rd outlet at each bed 1.0 (30) 10 0.1 (3) such as state or local authorities, may require plans All others at each bed 1.0 (30) 10 0.1 (3) to be approved by local health or building officials. Emergency rooms 1.0 (30) 100 1.0 (30) These approvals may require adhering to the state Patient rooms: 1.0 (30) 50 0.5 (15) or local requirements and/or NFPA 99, Health-Care Surgical Medical 1.0 (30) 10 0.1 (3) Facilities. 1.0 (30) 10 0.1 (3) If accreditation or the approval of authorities is Nurseries Treatment & examining rooms 0.5 (15) 10 0.05 (1) not a factor, the number and area locations of sta- Autopsy 2.0 (60) 20 0.04 (1) tions are not mandated. The actual count then will Inhalation therapy, central supply & 1.0 (30) 10 0.1 (3) depend upon requirements determined by each instructional areas individual facility or another member of the design a Free air at 1 atmosphere. team using both past experience and anticipated Table 2 Color Coding for Piped Medical Gases future use, often using the guideline recommendaGas Intended for Medical Use United States Color Canada Color tions as a starting point. Oxygen Green Green on whitea MedicaL-Gas FLOW Rates Carbon dioxide Gray Black on gray Each station must provide a minimum flow rate for the Nitrous oxide Blue Silver on blue proper functioning of connected equipment under Cyclopropane Orange Silver on orange design and emergency conditions. The flow rates and Helium Brown Silver on brown diversity factors vary for individual stations in each Nitrogen Black Silver on black system depending on the total number of outlets and Air Yellow* White and black on black and white the type of care provided. Vacuum White Silver on yellowa The flow rate from the total number of outlets, withGas mixtures (other than Color marking of mixtures shall be a combination of color out regard for any diversity, is called the total conmixtures of oxygen and nitrogen) corresponding to each component gas. nected load. If the total connected load were used for Gas mixtures of oxygen and sizing purposes, the result would be a vastly oversized nitrogen system, since not all of the stations in the facility will 19.5 to 23.5% oxygen Yellowa Black and white All other oxygen concentrations Black and green Pink be used at the same time. A diversity, or simultane-
Source: Compressed Gas Association, Inc. ous-use factor, is used to allow for the fact that not all a Historically, white has been used in the United States and yellow has been used in Canada to identify vacuum systems. of the stations will be used at once. It is used to reduce Therefore, it is recommended that white not be used in the United States and yellow not be used in Canada as a marking the system flow rate in conjunction with the total conto identify containers for use with any medical gas. Other countries may have diering specic requirements. nected load for sizing mains and branch piping to all parts of the distribution system. This factor varies for MedicaL-Gas SYstem Dispensing EQUipment different areas throughout any facility. Medical-gas outlet/inlet terminals Most manufacturers of The estimated flow rate and diversity factors for various systems, medical-gas system equipment offer various types of medicalarea stations, and pieces of equipment are found in Table 1. gas outlets. These medical-gas outlets are available in various gas Total demand for medical-gas systems varies as a function of orders (e.g., O2-N2O-Air), center-line spacing, and for exposed and time of day, month, patient-care requirements, and facility type. concealed mountings. Outlet types and configurations must meet The number of stations needed for patient care is subjective and the requirements of the local jurisdictional authority and NFPA cannot be qualified based on physical measurements. Knowing 99. All outlets must be properly identified and confirmed. Care the types of patient care and/or authority requirements will allow should also be taken to accurately coordinate the various pieces of placement of stations in usage groups. These groups can establish medical-gas dispensing equipment with the architect and medical demand and simultaneous-use factors (diversities), which are staff involved in the given project. If the project is a renovation, the used in the calculation for sizing a particular system. All medical- outlet types should match existing equipment. With prefabricated gas piping systems must be clearly identified using an approved patient headwall units, the medical-gas outlets are generally furcolor-coding system similar to that shown in Table 2. nished by the equipment manufacturer, and it is very important that coordination be maintained by the engineer so that unnecesJANUARY/FEBRUARY 2006
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areas. The ceiling gas-service outlets are generally located at MedicaL-Gas StORage Simpo PDF and Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com both the head and Merge the foot of the Split operating table in order to After deciding the medical-gas services to be provided at the facilprovide alternate positioning of the operating table. ity, the engineer should determine the storage capacity and the pipe sizing required and possible locations for the source. Local 2. Surgical ceiling columns Surgical ceiling columns are usucodes and references as well as the administrative authority having ally available in two designs: rigid (a predetermined length jurisdiction should be consulted for each medical-gas system. from the ceiling height above the floor) and retractable. Both Because of the unique characteristics of each medical-gas surgical ceiling columns provide medical-gas services within source, the gases are described separately in this section. Also, an enclosure that projects down from the ceiling. The ceiling an explanation of the techniques currently employed to exhaust columns are usually located at opposite ends of the operating anesthetic gases is provided. table in order to provide convenient access to the medical-gas Oxygen (O ) Several factors must be known when estimating outlets by the anesthesiologist. In addition to the medical-gas 2 the monthly consumption of oxygen in new or existing healthoutlets, these ceiling columns can be equipped with electricare facilities: cal outlets, grounding receptacles, physiological monitor 1. Type of medical care provided. receptacles, and hooks for hanging intravenous-solution bottles. 2. Number of oxygen outlets or Most manufacturers offering surgical ceiling columns allow for 3. Number of patient beds. many variations in room arrangements of medical-gas services 4. Future expansion of facility. and related accessories, depending upon the specific customers 5. In existing facilities, approximate consumption. needs and the engineers specifications. When specifying this Two methods can be used by the plumbing engineer to estitype of equipment, it is necessary to specify carefully all medicalmate the consumption of oxygen. The more accurate method is to gas service requirements and their desired arrangement(s). Also, obtain a detailed consumption record from the health-care facility the engineer must coordinate all other required services with the or obtain monthly oxygen shipment invoices from the supplier. If electrical engineer and medical staff. inventory records are not available from the health-care facility or 3. Surgical gas tracks Surgical gas tracks are forms of ceiling the supplier, use consumption records from a comparably sized outlet and hose-drop arrangements that allow the movement facility, with good judgment. of the hose drops from one end of the operating table to the The second method is to apply the following rule of thumb to other on sliding tracks mounted on the ceiling. These prodestimate the monthly supply of oxygen. This estimating method ucts are currently available from various manufacturers and should be used with good judgment. Always coordinate estimated all provide the same basic services. The proper selection and demand with the oxygen supplier during the design process. specification of specific types are based on individual cus1. In non-acute-care areas, allow 500 ft3 (14 m3) per bed per tomer preference. Many variations in products and particular month for supply and reserve oxygen storage. product applications are available in critical (intensive) care 2. In acute-care areas, allow 1000 ft3 (28 m3) per bed per month areas. Consultation with appropriate manufacturers for rec for supply and reserve oxygen storage. ommendations is always advisable. Oxygen supply sources are divided into two categories: (1)bulk4. Articulating ceiling-service center Articulated ceiling-seroxygen systems and (2)cylinder-manifold-supply systems. Bulkvice centers are moved by pneumatic drive systems and are oxygen systems should be considered for health-care facilities designed for the convenient dispensing of medical-gas and with an estimated monthly demand above 35,000 ft3 (991 m3) or electrical services in operating rooms. The medical-gas and equal to 70 oxygen outlets. Manifold systems are used in small electrical systems are complete for single-point connection to general hospitals or clinics. each outlet at the mounting support platform. Bulk-oxygen systems When selecting and placing bulk-oxygen High-pressure nitrogen (N2) dispensing equipment Special systems, there are several factors to be considered: Oxygen transconsideration must be given by the plumbing engineer to the port truck size, truck access to bulk-storage tanks, and NFPA 50, placement of the nitrogen outlets. The primary use of nitrogen gas Standard for Bulk Oxygen Systems at Consumer Sites. Bulk-oxygen in hospitals is for driving turbo-surgical instruments. Variations of equipment, construction, installation, and location must comply these turbo-surgical instruments, in both their manufacture and with NFPA 50 recommendations. If liquid oxygen is spilled or their intended use, will require that several different nitrogen-gas leaked, an extreme fire or explosive hazard could occur. NFPA has pressure levels be available. For this reason, it is necessary that design standards to minimize fire exposure to and from surroundthe engineer provide an adjustable pressure-regulating device ing structures. near the nitrogen gas outlet. A nitrogen control panel is usually Bulk-storage systems consist of cryogenic tanks that store liquid located on the wall (in the surgery room) opposite the operating oxygen at low pressures (225 psi [1551.3 kPa] or less). Cryogenic area sterile field. The installation should allow for the access and tanks are ASME unfired, double-walled, vacuum-insulated, presadjustment of pressure settings by a surgical nurse. sure vessels. Liquid oxygen has a boiling point (nbp) of 297.3F Piping from the nitrogen control panel to a surgical ceiling outlet (182.9C) and a liquid density of 71.27 lb/ft3 (1141.8 kg/cm3). will provide a convenient source of nitrogen for surgical tools. This When vaporized into gas, it produces 900 times its liquid volume. will prevent hoses from being located on the floor or between the Furthermore, since the tank is changed less often, process stabil wall outlet and the operating table. Excess hose can be obstructive ity is maximized and the introduction of atmospheric impurities to the surgical team. is reduced. Tank systems are furnished with an integral pressurerelief valve vented to the atmosphere should the liquid oxygen convert to a gas.
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Most bulk-oxygen storage systems are furnished with vaporizers. Vaporizers are banks of finned-tube heat exchangers that convert the liquid to its gaseous state. The vaporizers come in several stylesincluding atmospheric, powered (forced-air, steam, and electric), waste-heat, and hybridand sizes. The selection of vaporizers should be based on demand, intermittent or continuous usage, energy costs, and temperature zones. Poorly ventilated sites or undersized heat exchangers can cause ice to form on vaporizers during the conversion process. Excessive ice formations can clog and damage the vaporizer. Also, ice could allow extremely cold gas or the cryogenic liquid to enter the piped system; damage the valves, alarms, and medical components; and even injure patients. Figure 1 illustrates a typical bulk-oxygen system schematic. Automatic controls furnished with the tanks regulate the flow of liquid through the vaporizers. When there is a demand for oxygen, the supply system draws liquid from the bottom of the cryogenic storage tank through the vaporizers. The gas moves through a final line regulator. Thus, a constant supply of oxygen at a regulated pressure is provided. In case of mechanical difficulty or the depletion of the liquidoxygen supply, the reserve supply will begin to feed into the distribution system automatically. An alarm signal should alert appropriate hospital personnel when the liquid in the oxygen storage tank reaches a predetermined level. The alarm signals should indicate low liquid levels, reserve in use, and reserve low. Cylinder-manifold supply systems Compressed-oxygen systems are comprised of cylinder manifolds that allow a primary supply source of oxygen cylinders to be in use and an equal number of oxygen cylinders to be connected as a reserve supply. 48 Plumbing Systems & Design JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2006
The controls of the cylinder manifold will automatically shift the flow of the oxygen gas from the service side to the reserve side when the service side is depleted. Manifold systems can be located indoors or outdoors. When manifolds are located indoors, the engineer should observe the following: Location Preferably, the manifold should be in a dedicated room on an outside wall near a loading dock and have adequate ventilation and service convenience. Adjacent areas There should be no doors, vents, or other direct communications between the anesthetizing location or the storage location and any combustible agents. If locating near or adjacent to an elevated temperature area is unavoidable, the engineer should specify sufficient insulation to pre vent cylinder overheating; Fire rating The fire-resistance rating of the room should be at least 1 h. Ventilation Outside ventilation is required. Security The room (or area) must be provided with a door or a gate that can be locked and labeled. Oxygen manifolds are sized taking into consideration the following: 1. The size of the cylinders, 244 ft3 (6909 L) H-cylinder (see Table 4 for a sizing chart). 2. The hospitals usage of oxygen, in ft3 (L) per month.
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Table 4 Selection Chart for Oxygen Manifolds Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version -a http://www.simpopdf.com as minimum, with Grade D in ANSI ZE86.I, Commodity SpecifiHospital Usage Duplex Manifold Size 3 Cu. Ft. (10 L) per month Total Cylinders Cylinders per Side 5,856 (165.8) 6 3 9,760 (276.4) 10 5 13,664 (386.9) 14 7 17,568 (497.5) 18 9 21,472 (608.0) 22 11 25,376 (718.6) 26 13 29,280 (829.1) 30 15 33,154 (938.8) 34 17 cation for Air. Medical compressed air can be produced on site from atmospheric air using air compressors designed for medical applications. There are three major types of air compressor in the marketplace today: the centrifugal, reciprocating, and rotary screw. The reciprocating and rotary screw are positive-displacement type units, while the centrifugal compressor is a dynamic type compressor. The medical air compressor shall be designed to prevent the introduction of contaminants or liquid into the pipeline by one of two methods: Type 1 air compressors eliminate oil anywhere in the compressor. Type 2 air compressors separate the oil-containing section from the compression chamber. Examples of a type 1 compressor are the liquid ring, rotary screw, and permanently sealed bearing compressor. Type 2 compressors have extended heads. A positive-displacement compressor is normally rated in actual cubic feet per minute (acfm). This is the amount of air taken from atmospheric conditions that the unit will deliver at its discharge. Within a broad range, changes in inlet air temperature, pressure, and humidity do not change the acfm rating of either the reciprocating or the rotary screw compressor. The centrifugal compressors capacity, however, is affected slightly by the inlet air conditions due to the nature of the compression process. For example, as the air temperature decreases, the capacity of the dynamic compressor will increase. The capacity of a centrifugal compressor is normally defined in inlet cubic feet per minute (icfm) . In an effort to obtain an apples to apples comparison of various compressors, many manufacturers specify their capacity requirements in standard cubic feet per minute (scfm). This sometimes causes much confusion because many people do not fully understand how to convert from acfm or icfm to scfm. The design engineer specifying scfm must define a typical inlet air condition at the building site and their set of standard conditions (normally 14.7 psia [101.4 kPa], 60F [15.6C], and 0% relative humidity). Typically, the warmest normal condition is specified because as the temperature goes up scfm will go down. To convert from acfm to scfm, the following equation is used. Equation 1 scfm = acfm where Pi = Initial pressure Ppi = Partial initial pressure of water vapor in 100% humid air at the temperature in question RH = Relative humidity Pstd = Pressure under standard conditions Pp std = Partial standard pressure of water vapor in 100% humid air at the temperature in question RHstd= Relative humidity at standard conditions Tstd = Temperature at standard conditions, F (C) Ti = Inlet temperature, F (C) Pi (Ppi %RH) Tstd Pstd (Pp std %RHstd) Ti
Nitrous oxide (N2O) The common source of nitrous oxide is a cylinder-manifold system. High-pressure manifold systems consist of two banks of cylinders, primary and reserve. (See discussion under Oxygen, above.) System demands for nitrous oxide can be more difficult to determine than they are for other medical gases. The number of surgeries scheduled, the types and lengths of surgery, and the administering techniques used by the anesthesiologists cause extreme variations in the amount of nitrous oxide used. Because of this variation, considerations must be given to the size and selection of the nitrous-oxide manifold system. Avoid locating the nitrous-oxide manifold system outdoors in areas with extremely cold climates. Nitrous oxide is supplied liquefied at its vapor pressure of 745 psi (5136.6 kPa) at 70F (21.1C). At extremely cold temperatures, the cylinder pressure will drop dramatically, reducing the cylinder pressure to a point where it is impossible to maintain an adequate line pressure. This is due to a lack of heat for vaporization. For nitrous-oxide manifolds located indoors, the same precautions previously listed for oxygen systems must be observed. The following should be considered when selecting and sizing nitrous-oxide manifolds and determining the number of cylinders required: 1. The size of the cylinders: 489 ft3 (13 847 L) K-cylinders (see Table 5). 2. The number of anesthetizing locations or operating rooms. 3. Provide of 1 cylinder per operating room for in-service and reserve supplies. Table 5 Sizing Chart for Nitrous Oxide Cylinder Manifolds Duplex Manifold Size Indoor Outdoor Number of Operating Cylinders per Cylinders per Rooms Total Cylinders Side Total Cylinders Side 4 4 2 4 2 8 8 4 10 5 10 10 5 12 5 12 12 6 14 7 16 16 8 20 10
Note: Based on use of 489 ft3 (13.85 103 L) K-cylinders.
Medical compressed air Medical compressed air may be supplied by two types of system: (1) a high-pressure cylindermanifold system; and (2) a medical air-compressor system. The manifold systems for compressed air are similar in configuration to those for oxygen and nitrous oxide (see discussion under Oxygen, above). Air supplied from cylinders or that has been
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CONTINUING EDUCATION
Continuing Education from Plumbing Systems & Design Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com
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Do you find it difficult to obtain continuing education units (CEUs)? Is it hard for you to attend technical seminars? Through Plumbing Systems & Design (PS&D), ASPE can help you accumulate the CEUs required for maintaining your Certified in Plumbing Design (CPD) status. ASPE features a technical article in every issue of PS&D, excerpted from its own publications. Each article is followed by a multiple-choice test and a simple reporting form. Reading the article and completing the form will allow you to apply to ASPE for CEU credit. For most people, this process will require approximately 1 hour. A nominal processing fee is charged$25 for ASPE members and $35 for nonmembers (until further notice, the member fee is waived). If you earn a grade of 90% or higher on the test, you will be notified that you have logged 0.1 CEU, which can be applied toward the CPD renewal requirement or numerous regulatory-agency CE programs. (Please note that it is your responsibility to determine the acceptance policy of a particular agency.) CEU information will be kept on file at the ASPE office for 3 years. No certificates will be issued in addition to the notification letter. You can apply for CEU credit on any technical article that has appeared in PS&D within the past 12 months. However, CEU credit only can be obtained on a total of eight PS&D articles in a 12-month period. Note: In determining your answers to the CE questions, use only the material presented in the continuing education article. Using other information may result in a wrong answer.
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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Medical Gas and Vacuum Systems (PSD 131) Was the material new information for you? Yes No Was the material presented clearly? Yes No Was the material adequately covered? Yes No Did the content help you achieve the stated objectives? Yes No Did the CE questions help you identify specic ways to use ideas presented in the article? Yes No How much time did you need to complete the CE oering (i.e., to read the article and answer the post-test questions)?___________________
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PSD 133
CONTINUING EDUCATION
Pool DesigN
GeNeral CoNsideratioNs A number of general items of information should be kept in mind when designing a fountain. For an engineer or designer, the most important issue surrounding any body of water is safety. There is always a risk attached to a water feature. It is not the intent of this chapter to acquaint the engineer with drowning and entrapment issues, but the engineer is encouraged to study the available codes
Reprinted from American Society of Plumbing Engineers Data Book Volume 3: Special Plumbing Systems, Chapter 5: Reflecting Pools and Fountains. 2000, American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 62 Plumbing Systems & Design
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to accommodate this extra water. For the water in the air, the actually measure the depth over a weir. If the client desires an Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com depth over the weir times the height of the water is sufficiently unbroken sheet of water over the weir into the pool, a rule of accurate to calculate the volume. thumb is about in. (6.35 mm) of water over the weir per 4 ft of Multilevel pools should have some method of draining the vertical drop. upper pools. A small drain line with a screw plug at the upper The four most common types of weir are the rounded edge; pool can be used. The drain line should be a maximum of 1 in. the upward-tapered weir; the downward-tapered weir; and the (31.75 mm) to restrict the discharge rate into the lowest pool. downward-tapered, metal-edge weir. The rounded-edge weir For multiple pools with different elevations, a common refer- is used when it is desired to have the water run down the wall ence must be established to drain the basins. An example would surface. The upward-tapered weir requires more water than the be waterfalls at several different elevations with basins at sev- other types and should not be used for waterfalls exceeding 5 ft in eral different elevations served by a single pump system. If the height. The downward-tapered weir is very effective in creating pumps were turned off, the water in the basins would all drain smooth sheets for waterfalls up to 15 ft in height. The downwardto the lowest basin through the common suction header. To pre- tapered, metal-edge weir achieves the same effect as the downvent this, either check valves must be installed in all suction and ward-tapered weir with the added advantage of being easier to discharge lines or all basins must drain to a surge pit. The surge level. pit provides a common reference for the pumps and allows The waterfall or weir is normally supplied from a trough each basin to drain independently of the others. The surge pit behind the weir edge. The trough can be supplied with water method is also much easier to balance than the method with by many methods as long as the surface disturbance is kept to check valves. (See Figure 1.) a minimum. A header can be installed with holes drilled along the length of the header to supply water equally along the length of Figure 1 Multilevel Pools with a Surge Pit the trough. Hydrophilic well piping, precut with slots along the length of the pipe, makes a very smooth supply method. Oversized inlets (to lower the water velocity) in the bottom of the trough with diverter plates can also be used. Weir lips must be level. This is difficult to achieve with poured concrete, therefore, a metal or plastic lip should be provided. If the spill lip is in the shape of an overhang, a drip lip in the shape of a in. (6.35 mm) deep rectangular slot should be provided under the slot. This will prevent the water from running down the wall. Filtration turnover The filtration turnover rate is determined by the For multiple pools at the same elevation, an equalizer line volume of the pool and the desired number of hours per comshould be run between the pools. No matter how accurate the plete water change. The filtration turnover can vary from 4 to calculations and installation, two identical pools will have vary- 12 h per complete water change. This needs to be determined ing flow rates. The equalizer line should not tie into any other by the engineer. For areas with blowing dust and debris, a line except a valved drain. The equalizer should be sized so that faster water change is needed. For cleaner areas, such as those it is as large as the largest line coming into the pools. If each pool indoors, a slower water change can be used. The filtration flow receives the discharge through a 4-in. (100-mm) line, the equal- rate is determined by dividing the pool water volume, in gallons izer should be a 4-in. (100-mm) line. (liters), by the turnover time, in minutes. Example 1 PrelimiNarY DisplaY SelectioN aNd DetermiNatioN of An 8000-gal pool divided by (12 h x 60 min) equals 11.1 gpm Flow Rates flow rate. Spray jets and nozzles The flow rates for spray jets and nozzles (A 30 283-L pool divided by [12 h x 60 min] equals 45.42 L/min should be determined by the manufacturers data. Most manuflow rate.) facturers publish catalogs showing the various types of jet in operation. The client should be given the opportunity to select Therefore, a filtration system sized for a flow rate of 12 gpm the jets from a subjective standpoint; the selection should then (45.42 L/min) would be adequate. be reviewed by the engineer for practicality. Weirs Weirs are normally sized by the length of the weir and the depth of the water flowing over the weir edge. The engineer may have to assist the client in determining the effect desired. It is useful to have the client see an existing water feature then INlet/OUtlet aNd Device LocatioN By convention, an inlet is defined as a device allowing water to flow into the pool. An outlet is defined as a device allowing water to leave the pool.
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of a simulated storm scenario. For either type of display, the SYstem aNd CompoNeNt SelectioN aNd DesigN Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com typical system consists of the following components: suction Criteria outlets and suction piping, pump(s), return piping, and disFilter SYstems charge device(s). The display system for each type of effect, e.g., Types of filter There are many types of filter on the market nozzles, weirs, whirlpools, and waves, should have a different today. Some of these are specialty filters for water treatment, pump system dedicated to it. RO systems and the like. For fountains, swimming pool and spa PipiNg SYstem filters best fit the application. Mechanical filtration is required Two separate types of piping systems are defined for any foun- to remove suspended particulates down to about 50 . In this tain. These are the display systems and the filter system. The range, cartridge filters and high-rate, pressure sand filters are piping for these systems can normally share suction outlets but the best choice for fountains. should remain separate from there until returning to the pool. An There is a division in filter sizes that occurs around the 120 example of a poor design is a fountain system where the display gpm (454.25 L/min) flow rate. Above that rate are the commerwater and the filter water are combined such that a single pump cial filters used on larger pools and fountains and below are the draws from the pool and pumps through the filter then back to residential filters used on smaller pools and fountains. Many the nozzle. When the filter is clean, this system will work fine. As manufacturers do not make a distinction regarding quality at soon as the filter gets dirty, however, the flow from the nozzle will the different levels, but some do. Check with the distributors gradually drop until the filter is backwashed. Then the cycle will and pool contractors as to which filters cause the least trouble. begin again. When sizing filters, it is good practice to use more than one filter when the flow rate is above 120 gpm (454.25 L/min). For examWater-TreatmeNt SYstem ple, a system that requires 280 gpm (1059.92 L/min) of filtration The water-treatment system consists of two separate processes. would do better with two filters sized at 140 gpm (529.96 L/min) First, mechanical filtration removes the solids and some of the each than one filter sized at 280 gpm (1059.92 L/min). The reason suspended organics from the water. Second, the chemical filtrais cleaning time. Whether the filter selected is a cartridge, sand, tion disinfects and balances the water to provide clean, sparor diatomaceous earth (DE), it will have to be cleaned at some kling clear, odor-free water that is pleasing to the eye and not time. With multiple filters, the filtration process continues while detrimental to the pool and equipment. one filter is being cleaned. In the case of sand filters, the filter type MakeUp-Water SYstem of choice for most large systems, the backwash flow rate is lower, It is essential to maintain the proper water level in the pool. necessitating a smaller backwash pit and sewer line. The reasons are threefold. First, certain spray nozzles require With multiple filters, use multiple pumps. Although the pumps that the water level vary no more than in. (12.7 mm) in are not to be piped individually to each filter, a pump can be order to achieve the desired display. A variation in the water shut down while a filter is serviced. This will prevent overrunlevel causes the nozzle display to become erratic and to differ ning the other filters while one filter is down. from the original design. Second, underwater lights must be Cartridge filters Cartridge filters are lower in first cost than submerged to a specific depth to both protect the lights and to the other types of filters and are relatively easy to maintain. The remove heat. Third, a substantial water-level drop could cause filter consists of a body constructed of plastic or stainless steel the suction line to entrain air, resulting in pump cavitation and that contains a polyester element. The cartridge filter element is possible damage. cleaned by removing the filter top and pulling out the element. It can then be hosed clean and reinstalled in the body. These filOverflow aNd DraiNage SYstem The fountain must be equipped with an overflow system ters are available in sizes ranging from 150 gpm down to 5 gpm. to handle storm water and the possible malfunction of the The small-size filters are of the inline type made for filtering spas makeup-water system. In addition, mundane reasons, such as and are excellent for small fountains. Cartridge filters must be removed from the body to be cleaned draining the pool for winter and cleaning, mandate that a drain and require some space to be hosed down. This is a considersystem be installed. ation when the fountain is indoors and requires that the carWater-HeatiNg SYstem tridges be taken away to be cleaned. A second set of cartridges If a fountain is to be kept in operation during the winter months will be necessary for a swap. and it is possible for the water to freeze, an aquastat-controlled Cartridges should be sized at 0.375 gpm/ft2 maximum flow pool heater should be provided. The heater should be sized to rate. maintain pool water at about 35 to 40F (1.67 to 4.44C). High-rate, pressure sand filters A pressure sand filter consists of a body constructed of plastic, fiberglass, or stainless steel LightiNg SYstem Underwater lights are used to provide illumination for the vari- that contains sand to filter the water. The term high rate comes ous displays. The number of lights depends on the overall size from the flow rate per square foot of sand bed. If the flow rate of the pool, the depth of the water, the height and width of the is above about 10 gpm (37.85 L/min), the filter is classified as water display, and possible interference from ambient lighting. high rate. There are sand filters that are considered low or slow rate, but they are seldom specified today. Water enters Lights can be white or another color as desired. the filter at the top and is pumped down through the sand to an underdrain manifold with slots narrow enough so that the water will pass but the sand will not. The water is piped to the sand filter through a series of valves (see Figure 3) or a multiport valve. A multiport valve is a single-handle control with four ports
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that can be configured to either filter, backwash, rinse, shutoff, bypass, or drain. They are limited to filters with 3-in. (80-mm) or smaller connections. Either the valve series or the multiport valve may be automated. As the filter accumulates debris, the differential pressure across the filter will increase. When the differential pressure has increased to a specific point, normally about 15 psi, the filter has reached the limit of its effective filter run and requires cleaning. Cleaning is accomplished by backwashing. Backwashing a sand filter is exactly what it sounds like. Backwashing reverses the flow so that the pump now forces water through the underdrain manifold with enough flow to lift the sand bed and stir it around. The debris is floated out of the sand and flows out the inlet pipe to a drain. A backwash sight glass should be installed to allow the operator to see when the effluent is clear. Provisions must be made with the project plumbing engineer if a sand filter is to be used. Many jurisdictions require that a sand filter be backwashed into a sand trap to prevent sand from entering the sewer system. Some jurisdictions require that a sand filter backwash as an indirect waste into a pit. The ultimate destination of the backwash effluent must also be determined. Some jurisdic66 Plumbing Systems & Design
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some projects where a horizontal, split-case, centrifugal pump filter. There can be a substantial difference between these two Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com is necessary. This can occur where the flow rate is high and the conditions in pump flow, and a variable flow-control device required pump head is low. In all cases, the pump selection might be considered for evening out the flow rates. should be made using the manufacturers pump curves. Mul- Pump strainers and suction screens As a general rule, suction tiple pumps in parallel are preferred to one large pump. Redun- strainers protect the pumps and discharge strainers protect the dancy, wind control, and opportunities for different displays nozzles. Display pumps are not as likely to pick up waterborne are excellent reasons for multiple pumps. Some fountains have debris as are filter pumps, which are connected to skimmers displays that require high-pressure, low-flow nozzles; low-pres- and main drains. Provisions can be made for display pumps to sure, high-flow nozzles; and waterfall discharges. Where there have gratings over their suction outlets in the fountain. are multiple types of display, a separate pumping system should Basket strainers on the pump suction protect the pump be used for each type. from waterborne debris, which could get caught in the impelDisplay pumps are sized according to the hydraulic calcu- ler. Although display pumps can be protected somewhat from lations for friction loss and flow rate. Pumps can be cast iron, debris large enough to damage the pump, filter pumps should bronze or plastic. Pump materials should be suitable for contact always have basket strainers. with fresh water. Since vaults and mechanical spaces are freY-type strainers are mostly used to protect nozzles with small quently tight, it should be possible to remove the pumps motors openings. They are installed on the discharge side of display and impellers without disconnecting the piping. Pumps should pumps to intercept waterborne debris before it jams inside an be equipped with suction basket strainers with removable bas- actuator or orifice. The strainer should be equipped with a valve kets, suction and discharge gauge taps, isolation and balancing and hose connection to allow for easy blowdown. valves, eccentric and concentric reducers as required, and flexSuction diffusers are installed on the suction inlet to the pump ible connectors. Proper pump piping practices, as described and allow for rapid changes in the direction of piping close to elsewhere in the Data Book, should be followed. the pump. The diffuser slows the water down and straightens To size the display pump the following steps should be fol- it so that it enters the pump with less turbulence. Suction diflowed: fusers are also equipped with screens but they are very difficult to remove for cleaning and should probably not be used when 1. Determine the static head required between the lowest other methods are available. water level and the highest water level. This is important for multilevel fountains. PipiNg aNd Valves 2. Determine the head required at the discharge point. ManuMost piping for fountains is made of Schedule 40 PVC plastic. facturers provide charts that give the gpm and pressure Easy handling, light weight, and low friction losses make it the required at the nozzle. If the discharge is for a waterfall piping of choice in most fountains. Although PVC seems to be effect with the discharge point submerged, use 10 ft of head. the perfect choice, there are some caveats pertaining to its use. Piping installed through pool walls and floors and into the pool 3. Calculate the friction loss in the piping, fittings, and valves. should be copper or brass. PVC piping exposed to sunlight will 4. Add the results to obtain the required pump head. become brittle, unless it is specifically made to withstand the 5. Determine the total gpm as required for the nozzles, using effects of ultraviolet rays. Pump suction and discharge piping the manufacturers charts (or the gpm for a weir, as calcuinstalled underground or within a building can be PVC where lated using the weir length and depth). allowed by the local authorities. Be aware that smooth holes 6. Select the pump using the manufacturers pump curves. have been found in plastic piping installed underground. The If the exact flow rate and head cannot be obtained, select University of Illinois and the University of Florida both deterthe next larger size pump. In almost all cases, the pump mined that the holes were caused by termites. They do not eat selected should have a flat pump curve. Select the motor the PVC; they chew through it when it gets in the way of their that will provide a nonoverloading condition for the entire continued foraging for food. Also, be aware that most codes do length of the pump curve. Wide-open conditions are not allow plastic piping to be installed in a plenum. Ductile iron, common in water effects. galvanized steel pipe, or stainless-steel pipe can be used if large Filter pumps Filter pumps may be of the same type as the dis- pipe sizes are required and PVC cannot be used. Carbon-steel play pumps. (See discussion above.) There are few reasons why piping should never be used in a fountain due to the highly oxygenated water running through the piping. all the pumps cannot be of the same type. All buried piping should be treated as a water-service applicaFilter pumps are sized to match the gpm (L/min) required for a proper filtration rate and the head required to give that rate with tion. Specifically, piping needs to be bedded in sand or clean, a dirty filter. Components in the filter system that contribute to rock-free backfill. All changes of direction in piping 3 in. (76.2 head loss include: skimmers and main drains (piped in paral- mm) and larger need to be restrained with poured concrete thrust lel so that the longest run must be determined), valves, basket blocks. Starts and stops in fountain systems can cause severe strainers, face piping (the piping connecting the pump to the water hammer and resultant failure in unrestrained systems. All piping penetrations into the pool wall should be water filter), return piping, and return inlets. Elevation changes need to be accounted for and added or subtracted. Generally, since stopped in some fashion. A common method is to use a puddle return inlets are below the water level, there is no net elevation flange attached to the pipe itself. For penetrating walls into mechanical rooms, a mechanical pipe seal can be used. (See change. It is important that the pump be sized to give the proper flow Figure 4.) Unions or flanges should be used at the final connection to rate with a dirty filter, but it is also important that the engineer calculate the operating point on the pump curve with a clean all equipment so that the equipment can be easily removed for
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repairs. Drainage lines from the overflow and drain lines should be either PVC or cast iron, as required by local code. Water makeup and fill lines should be copper tubing. Different metal pipes carrying water or installed underground must not come into contact with each other (dielectric isolation). All piping systems should be pressure tested immediately after installation, and the test should be left on until the piping is ready to be connected to the inlet and outlet devices and equipment. This way, a glance at a pressure gauge can indicate immediately if a pipe has been broken during another phase of the construction. The test pressure should be limited to 50 psi (344.74 kPa), since the fountain piping systems are operated at relatively low pressures. If the system requires higher pressure, the pressure test should be made at a pressure that is 25 psi (172.37 kPa) higher than the operating pressure. Make sure that plastic piping is tested within the pressures recommended by the manufacturer. Prior to connecting the devices and equipment, piping systems should be flushed and cleaned. Caps should be left on until ready to make the final connection to prevent debris from entering the piping. More than one pump has been damaged or had reduced flow due to debris that was in the pipe before the pump was connected. Suction-line piping Size the suction line at a velocity not to exceed 6 fps for copper piping and 10 fps (3.05 m/s) for plastic piping. Provide a suction inlet designed so that the drain will not trap a person in the pool. This is accomplished by having dual drains spaced at least 4 ft apart or dual drains located in different planes (such as a bottom drain and a sidewall drain) or by using anti-vortex drains. Some means of preventing vortexing should be used to prevent cavitation of the pumps. If a minimum of 18 in. (457.2 mm) of water cannot be provided over a suction drain, size the drain for of the manufacturers recommended maximum flow and add more drains as necessary. Suction-line piping should be installed without vertical loops, which can become air bound. In addition, it is critical that suction piping pass a 25 psi (172.37 kPa) pressure test because a void as small as a pinhole can prevent a self-priming pump from pumping. Return piping Return piping should be sized at 6 fps maximum for copper piping and 10 fps maximum for plastic piping. Return piping, especially piping close to the discharge of the 68 Plumbing Systems & Design
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C = Orifice discharge coefficient (usually = 0.61 for holes throttling. Since adjusting the fountain is very subjective, almost Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com drilled in the field) every valve in the system could be involved in the final adjustD = Diameter of orifice, in. (mm) ments. This limits the selection to ball-and-globe valves for the g = Acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ft/s2 (9.81 m/s2) smaller pipe and butterfly valves for the larger pipe. Lug-type, hn = Head on orifice n, ft. (m) butterfly valves are normally used in applications where equipment needs to be disconnected while still under water pressure. The head on orifice n is equal to: A pump room that is much lower than the fountain will be best Equation 2 served by lug valves at the equipment connections so that the 1 2 equipment can be serviced without draining the fountain. hn= (2.45CD q 2 2 n ) 2g Check valves There are several types of check valve, but 2 = kqn most are of two types: gravity and spring loaded. The gravity, or = k(mq1)2 swing-check, valve must be installed in a prescribed manner. The gravity check should be installed where water pressure will 2 = m h1 help provide a positive closure. Where a check valve must be where installed on a horizontal line, a spring check should be installed. k = Constant A foot valve is a special type of check valve that is installed in h1 = Head on orifice 1, ft (m) the pump-suction line. The purpose of a foot valve is to prevent m = Mass flow rate the suction line from draining back into the pool and causing The head loss between orifice 1 and n, which corresponds to the the pump to lose prime. A valved line from the makeup system should be installed between the pump and the foot valve to aid head loss in the distribution pipe between orifice 1 and n, is: in priming. It would be prudent also to install a drain in that secEquation 3 tion of pipe. h(1n)=h1hn Pressure-regulating valves Dynamic fountains are designed Now it can be shown that the head loss between the first orifice using pressure-regulating valves. The regulating valve maintains and the last orifice in a distribution pipe with multiple, evenly a selected downstream pressure regardless of the changes in spaced orifices is approximately equal to one-third of the head the upstream pressure. Therefore, when the spray height of one loss that would occur if the total flow were to pass through the set of nozzles is raised or lowered, the regulating valve keeps a same length of distribution piping without orifices. Thus, second set of nozzles at the same spray height. Actuator-control valves In addition, actuator-controlled, Equation 4 motorized, or pneumatic valves can be controlled using a 4 to hfdp= 13 hfp 20-milliamp (mA) electrical signal. The valve can be set to be = h(1n) fully closed at 4 mA and fully open at 20 mA. At any point in where between, the valve will be open an amount corresponding to the hfdp = Actual head loss through distribution pipe, ft (m) position of the point within this range. For example, at 6 mA, the hfp = Head loss through pipe without orifices, ft (m) valve will be slightly open and at 15 mA it will be almost fully The head loss through the pipe can be computed using the open. A computer can be programmed to provide signals to Hazen-Williams equation: open and close the valves in any pattern desired. Materials A sample schedule of piping materials is shown in Equation 5 Table 1. hfp = 10.5 (L1n) Q 1.85D 4.87 C Discharge Devices where Many return methods are used to return the water into the pool. hfp = Head loss through the pipe from orifice 1 to orifice n, ft The designer must choose which method either creates the least (m) disturbance to the desired water effect or creates the desired L1n = Length of pipe between orifice 1 and n, ft (m) water effect. Q = Pipe discharge, gpm (L/min) Weir pools Common methods of return into upper weir pools C = Hazen-Williams coefficient (150 for plastic pipe) are: diverter plates (often anti-vortex drains used on the return D = Inside diameter of pipe, in. (mm) side), well screens, and double tees. (See Figure 6.) The difference in discharge between orifice 1 and n for a given Spray jets Numerous types of nozzle are manufactured. The distribution pipe and orifice size can now be determined using designer should select the type of that will provide the desired Equations 5-1 through 5-5. If the computed value of m is too low (<0.98), Table 1 Sample Schedule of Materials Indoor/ Abv/Blw Size, in. the size of the distribution pipe can System Outdoor Grade (mm) Pipe Material Fittings Joints be increased. The percent difference Static display piping Either Either 24 Sch. 40 PVC Socket Solvent weld in flow between 1 and n will be [(1 (12.5600) n)100]. A good value would be less Dynamic display piping Either Either 16 Sch. 80 PVC Socket Solvent weld (12.5400) than 2%. Filtration piping Either Either 24 Sch. 40 PVC Socket Solvent weld Valves (12.5600) Shutoff valves Most valves for Makeup water Either Either 4 Type L copper Wrot copper Solder (12.5100) fountains are of a type that allows Makeup water Either Either 6+ (150+) Type 302 Type 302 Mechanical stainless steel stainless steel groove
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spray effect. This can only be done by referring to the data listed in the manufacturers catalogs. Nozzles are available to provide solid or aerated columns of water, pyramid-like columns of water, aerated mounds of water, mushroom shapes, floating dandelion effects, fan-shaped sprays, finger-like fan sprays, belllike shapes, twirling jets, and numerous other effects. All aerating jets of various types fall into two categories: waterlevel dependent and water-level independent. The water-level dependent type of jet relies on the water level in the pool being constant. This constant level allows the jet to aspirate air into the water to give a pleasing, frothing effect. There is a range of depths 70 Plumbing Systems & Design
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Total Btu/h heat loss = [203surface area of the pool in ft2 LightiNg Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version http://www.simpopdf.com (m2)] + [34sidewall area in ft2 (m2)] Lights are available in low-voltage as well as normal line voltage. Some jurisdictions, such as the City of New York, require only 20 mph wind velocity low-voltage lighting and approval of all lights and transformers Total Btu/h heat loss = [176surface area of the pool in ft2 used in the jurisdiction. Most lights can be obtained with col(m2)] + [33sidewall area in ft2 (m2)] ored lenses if desired. Rock guards are required. Maintain the water level over the lights as required by the manufacturer. The 15 mph wind velocity Total Btu/h heat loss = [145surface area of the pool in ft2 National Electrical Code (NEC) must be followed when install(m2)] + [32sidewall area in ft2 (m2)] ing underwater lights, transformers, and submersible pumps. All electrical systems that supply power to equipment or lights It is also necessary to include the heat loss from the piping. in the pool must have ground-fault interrupter circuit breakers. Select a heater with an output equal to the Btu/h heat loss. In Fountain lights should be installed directly under the water many large buildings, the heating medium can be the heating hot display to illuminate the general pool area as well as the water water or steam. The heater is controlled by a temperature condisplay. The number of lights and the wattage depend on the trol with the sensing bulb located in the inlet pipe to the heater. overall size of the pool, the height and width of the water dis- The control will turn on the heater if the incoming water from the play, and possible interference from ambient lighting. pool is below 35F (1.67C) and shut it off if the temperature is Free-standing lights are wired through a bronze, underwater above 37F (2.78C). A flow switch in the inlet to the heater will junction box. The box must be listed by a nationally recognized prevent operation of the heater if there is insufficient or no flow. testing agency and approved for underwater use. The cable from The heater should be located on a bypass line, as shown in Figure the light is fed through a compression seal that is connected 7. The piping within 3 ft of the heater should be Type L copper to the junction box. When the architect wants to conceal the tubing. cable, the cable is fed through a compression seal to an adjacent Water-TreatmeNt SYstem brass conduit to a remote junction box. The cable must be long A properly engineered water-treatment system will allow the enough to reach the remote junction box without splices. operator to maintain a sparkling clear, odor- and algae-free pool. Niche lights that are installed in pool walls have conduit Certain water-treatment methods should be engineered into directly connected to the niche and extended to a remotely the system and certain water-treatment methods can be adminlocated switch box. The cable must be long enough to reach the istered by the operator. Water-treatment parameters include: remote junction box without splices. 1. Disinfectant residualmeasured in parts per million (ppm). Lights are usually controlled by either astronomical time switches or regular time switches and a photocell. It is advisable 2. Oxidation reduction potential (ORP)a measure of the cleanliness of the water. Measured in millivolts (mV). to design the control system so that maintenance personnel are not required to adjust the light timers for daylight savings time 3. pHa measure of the acidity or causticity of the water. and changing sunset times. In general, selecting colors for the lights should be done with care Figure 7 Piping Schematics because of the subjective nature with which each person views the fountain. If blue, red, amber, and other dark colors are used, the lights should have a higher wattage. Water HeatiNg EQUipmeNt If a fountain is to be kept in operation during the winter months and it is possible for the water to freeze, a pool water heater should be provided. The pool heater can be a steam heat exchanger, a hot-water heat exchanger, an electric water heater, or a gas-fired water heater. The heater should be sized to maintain the pool water at a minimum of 35F (1.67C). Overall heat loss due to surface evaporation, radiation, conduction, and convection for concrete pools where the water temperature is 35F (1.67C) and the air temperature is 10F (12.2C) can be obtained as follows: 25 mph wind velocity
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In all cases, backflow preventers are required on makeup-water piping to float valves. They are also required on solenoid-operated, makeup lines unless the inlet pipe is at least 2 pipe diameters or more above the pool wall. Verify all methods of backflow prevention with the local authority having jurisdiction. Multilevel pools require that a water-level sensor (not a float valve) be located in the lowest pool and the makeup inlet be located in the highest pool. Low-water cutoff sensors are required in the lowest pool and, if the underwater lights do not have individual low-water cutoffs, then every pool level must have a low-water cutoff.
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Makeup-Water Devices Figure 9 Electronic Makeup-Water Device Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com Stilling wells or chambers Stilling wells or chambers are an important part of any makeup-water system. With a stilling well, the level in the well is an accurate representation of the level in the pool. The advantage to the stilling well is that it remains relatively calm inside the well and does not reflect the surface disturbances that may occur in the pool itself. A stilling well can also incorporate an overflow drain. Mechanical methods Mechanical water makeup is the cheapest method and is least prone to maintenance problems. In this method, a float valve installed in the wall of the pool provides automatic makeup. The top of the pool water must be at least 5 in. above the water level for the float box to fit in the pool wall. A method of remotely maintaining the water level is to install a float valve in an open tank or connected to the pool by a pipe and rooted to a remote location. There should be no connection to this pipe except for a valved drain. With the pipe open at either end, the water level in the tank will be the same as the water level in the pool. The problem encountered with this be 2 in. If the makeup-water line is larger than 1 in., increase the size of the overflow drain to prevent flooding. Sizing for an application is finding a location for the tank. Another method, commonly used on large pools, uses a pilot- outdoor pool should be based on the area of the pool, in ft2 (m2), operated makeup valve. With this method, a small float valve is as required by the local plumbing code for storm drainage. The preferred location for an overflow drain is in the pool installed in a stilling well and the pilot water for the larger valve is routed through it. When the level drops, the pilot float valve opens wall, because it is less obtrusive there. There are times though and water is allowed to open the larger valve. The advantage to this when the pool wall is insufficient for the installation of an overmethod is that a small stilling chamber can be located near the flow drain. In such cases, a removable overflow standpipe can pool while the larger valve can be located near the pumps in the be provided. A dome or screen should be placed on top of the standpipe. The overflow drain also acts as the main drain when mechanical room. Electrical method Where the above methods cannot be the standpipe is removed. Overflow standpipes are subject to used, water makeup can be provided by using electrical sensors vandalism and should be located so that they are not easily that open or close a solenoid valve on the makeup-water line. A accessible to the public. Another method is to install an overmanual fill valve is ordinarily installed in a bypass around the flow pipe on a bypass around a main drain valve. The overflow solenoid valve. The sensors use low voltage or induced voltage pipe invert must be slightly higher than the high water level and that precludes any electrical danger. Sensors that utilize a reed have an air opening to prevent siphonage. switch, activated by a permanent magnet, are also available. The Emergency drains Emergency drains are needed to drain sensors can be mounted in the wall of the pool, accessible from the pool if the outside temperature drops below freezing. This is the front. (See Figure 9.) They can also be located in the top of achieved by providing an aquastat that controls a solenoid valve the wall with the sensors hanging down into a 1-in. (32-mm) located in the drain line. The aquastat should be set to open the brass pipe that has an air vent and a horizontal leg extending solenoid valve if the temperature drops too low. The solenoid into the pool water. Where it is not feasible to mount the sensors valve must have a manual override in the event of a power failure in the pool wall, they can be located anywhere in the pool water and must not require differential pressure to open the valve. An by mounting the sensor box on top of a brass conduit wherever Ongontz valve is another emergency drain valve that mechaniit enters the pool. The sensor will generate a small amount of cally starts to open when the temperature drops to 38F (3.33C) current from the sensor tip, through the water and into the brass and fully opens at 34F (1.11C). In the above cases, electrical pipe. If water is not present, the current flow stops and the con- sensors, as described above under Makeup-Water Devices, trol panel opens the solenoid valve. Brass piping must be used should be provided to shut off the electrical power to the pumps as it provides the electrical ground path. Electrical wiring has and lights. The makeup-water valve should be wired to close if to be extended to the sensors in the pool area as well as to the the emergency drain valve is open. It may also be advisable to have an alarm ring to indicate that the emergency drain valve control panel and the solenoid valve. Dual sensors are available that will provide for water makeup has opened. and low-water cutoff (so that pumps will be shut off in the event RefereNces of low water level). They can also shut off the underwater lights, 1. American National Standards Institute/National Spa and which can be damaged by operation without adequate water Pool Institute. 1991. Standard for public swimming pools, cover. ANSI/NSPI-1 1991. Alexandria, VA: National Spa and Pool Overflow aNd DraiNage SYstem Institute. Overflow drains Overflow drains are required for two rea- 2. Kowalsky, L. 1990. Pool/spa operators handbook. San Antosons: to provide a means to remove water if the makeup-water nio, TX: National Swimming Pool Foundation. valve malfunctions and to provide a means to remove storm 3. Tchobanoglous, George, and Franklin L. Burton. 1991. water and maintain a fixed water level so that nozzles will work Wastewater engineering: Treatment, disposal, and reuse. 3d properly. The size of an overflow drain for an indoor pool should ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
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CONTINUING EDUCATION
Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com Continuing Education from Plumbing Systems & Design
Kenneth G.Wentink, PE, CPD, and Robert D. Jackson
Do you find it difficult to obtain continuing education units (CEUs)? Is it hard for you to attend technical seminars? Through Plumbing Systems & Design (PS&D), ASPE can help you accumulate the CEUs required for maintaining your Certified in Plumbing Design (CPD) status. ASPE features a technical article in every issue of PS&D, excerpted from its own publications. Each article is followed by a multiplechoice test and a simple reporting form. Reading the article and completing the form will allow you to apply to ASPE for CEU credit. For most people, this process will require approximately 1 hour. A nominal processing fee is charged$25 for ASPE members and $35 for nonmembers (until further notice, the member fee is waived). If you earn a grade of 90% or higher on the test, you will be notified that you have logged 0.1 CEU, which can be applied toward the CPD renewal requirement or numerous regulatory-agency CE programs. (Please note that it is your responsibility to determine the acceptance policy of a particular agency.) CEU information will be kept on file at the ASPE office for 3 years. No certificates will be issued in addition to the notification letter. You can apply for CEU credit on any technical article that has appeared in PS&D within the past 12 months. However, CEU credit only can be obtained on a total of eight PS&D articles in a 12-month period. Note: In determining your answers to the CE questions, use only the material presented in the continuing education article. Using other information may result in a wrong answer.
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Payment: Personal Check (payable to ASPE) $____________ Business or government check $____________ DiscoverCard VISA MasterCard AMEX $____________ If rebilling of a credit card charge is necessary, a $25 processing fee will be charged. ASPE is hereby authorized to charge my CE examination fee to my credit card. Account Number Expiration date
Signature Expiration date: Continuing education credit will be given for this examination through May 31, 2007. Applications received after that date will not be processed.
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Appraisal Questions
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Reecting Pools and Fountains (PSD 133) Was the material new information for you? Yes No Was the material presented clearly? Yes No Was the material adequately covered? Yes No Did the content help you achieve the stated objectives? Yes No Did the CE questions help you identify specic ways to use ideas presented in the article? Yes No How much time did you need to complete the CE oering (i.e., to read the article and answer the post-test questions)?___________________
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PSD 139
CONTINUING EDUCATION
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With the ever-increasing cost of land located in proximity to urban centers, more and more construction is being implemented in outlying areas. Sanitary sewers are not usually available in these remote locations and it becomes necessary for the plumbing engineer to design private sewage systems to handle the wastes from buildings. Before the rapid escalation of land values, most private sanitary disposal systems were used almost exclusively for private residences. It is estimated that 15 million such systems are presently in use in the United States. Of greater significance, roughly 25% of all new home construction now employs the septic tanksoil absorption sewage disposal system. Where the concentration of population is not sufficient to economically justify the installation of public sewer systems, installation of a septic tank in conjunction with a subsurface soil absorption field has proven to be an exceptionally satisfactory method of sewage disposal. When properly designed, installed, operated, and maintained, it compares very favorably with the most sophisticated municipal sewage treatment plants. In 1946, the U.S. Public Health Service, in cooperation with other federal agencies involved in housing, embarked upon a five-year study to establish criteria for the design, installation, and maintenance of the septic tank. Most of the information in this chapter is freely drawn from that study and a later report issued in 1967.
CEssPOOLs
A cesspool is nothing more than a covered pit with an openjointed or perforated lining into which raw sewage is discharged. The liquid portion of the sewage is disposed by seepage or leaching into the porous soil surrounding the cesspool. The solids (sludge) are retained in the pit. A cesspool finds its greatest application in receiving the effluent from one-family homes and it is not recommended even for this use. The raw sewage tends to seal the openings in the pit lining as well as the surrounding soil, thus necessitating frequent visits from the honey dippers (cesspool cleaning services). Cloggage may become so severe that complete abandonment of the existing cesspool and the construction of a new pit is often necessary. A cesspool should never be recommended as a substitute for a septic tank with a soil absorption field. A seepage pit (discussed in another portion of this chapter) should never be confused with a cesspool. Although the construction is the same for both, a seepage pit receives the effluent from a septic tank (where the solids have been liquified), whereas a cesspool receives raw sewage.
SEPTIc TANKs
A septic tank is a liquid-tight structure, with inlet and outlet connections, which receives raw sewage. It is basically a sewage settling tank in which raw sewage is retained for a specified period of time, usually 24 hr. The primary purpose of the septic tank is to act as a settling tank and to break up solids so that the resulting effluent will not clog the pores of the soil in the leaching field. Very little purification is accomplished in the tank; the actual treatment and digestion of harmful waste materials takes place in the ground after discharge from the tank. Three functions are performed by a septic tank to produce an effluent suitable for acceptance by a subsoil absorption system of sewage disposal: (1) removal of solids, (2) biological treatment, and (3) sludge and scum storage. REMOVAL OF SOLIDs Clogging of the soil varies directly with the amount of suspended solids in the liquid. The rate of flow entering the septic tank is reduced within the tank so that solids sink to the bottom or rise to the surface of the liquid in the tank. These solids are retained and the clarified effluent is discharged.
Reprinted from Engineered Plumbing Design II, Chapter 21: Private Sewage Disposal Systems, by A. Calvin Laws, PE, CPD. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 2 Plumbing Systems & Design
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Solids and liquid in the tank are exposed to bacterial and Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version natural processes, which decompose them. The bacteria present in the wastes are of the anaerobic type, which thrives in the absence of oxygen. Decomposition of the sewage under anaerobic conditions is termed septic and it is from this the tank derives its name. After such biological action, the effluent causes less clogging of the soil than untreated sewage containing the same quantity of suspended solids. SLUDGE AND ScUM STORAGE Sludge is an accumulation of solids at the bottom of the tank. Scum is a partially submerged floating mat of solids that forms at the surface of the liquid in the tank. The sludge is digested and compacted into a smaller volume. The same action occurs with the scum but to a lesser degree. Regardless of the efficiency of the operation of the septic tank, a residual of inert solid material will always remain. Adequate space must be provided in the tank to store this residue during the intervals between cleanings. Sludge and scum will flow out of the tank with the effluent and clog the disposal field in a very short period of time if pumping out of the residue is not performed when required. Septic tanks are eminently effective in performing their purpose when adequately designed, constructed, operated, and maintained. They do not accomplish a high degree of bacteria removal. Although the sewage undergoes some treatment in passing through the tank, infectious agents present in the sewage are not removed. The effluent of a septic tank cannot be considered safe. In many respects, the discharged liquid is more objectionable than the influent because it is septic and malodorous. This should not be construed in any way as detracting from the value of the tank because its primary purpose is simply to condition the raw sewage so that it will not clog the disposal field. Continued treatment and the removal of pathogens are accomplished by percolation through the soil. Disease-producing bacteria will die out after a time in the unfavorable environment of the soil. Bacteria are also removed by physical forces during filtration through the soil. This combination of factors achieves the eventual purification of the septic tank effluent. SEPTIc TANK LOcATION The location of the septic tank should be chosen so as not to cause contamination of any well, spring, or other source of water supply. Underground contamination can travel in any direction for considerable distances unless effectively filtered. Tanks should never be closer than 50 ft to any source of water supply and, where possible, greater distances are preferable. They should be located where the largest possible area will be available for the disposal field and should never be located in swampy areas subject to flooding. Ease of maintenance and accessibility for cleaning are important factors to be considered. When it is anticipated that public sewers will be available in the future, provisions should be made for the eventual connection of the house sewer to such a public source. TANK CAPAcITY Studies have proven that liberal tank capacity is not only desirable from a functional viewpoint but is good economical design practice. The liquid capacities recommended in Table 1 make allowances for all household appliances including garbage grinders.
Recommended Equivalent Number of Minimum Tank Capacity per Bedrooms Capacity Bedroom 2 or less 750 375 3 900 300 4a 1000 250
aFor each additional bedroom, add 250 gal.
TANK MATERIAL Septic tanks must be watertight and constructed of materials not subject to excessive corrosion or decay. Acceptable materials are concrete, coated metal, vitrified clay, heavyweight concrete blocks, or hard-burned bricks. Properly cured precast and cast-in-place, reinforced concrete are believed to be acceptable everywhere. Local codes should be checked as to the acceptability of the other materials. Steel tanks conforming to U.S. Department of Commerce Standard 177-62 are generally acceptable. Precast tanks should have a minimum wall thickness of 3 in. and should be adequately reinforced to facilitate handling. When precast slabs are used as covers, they should be watertight, at least 3 in. thick and adequately reinforced. All concrete surfaces should be coated with a bitumastic paint or similar compound to minimize corrosion. TANK AccEss Access should be provided to each compartment of the tank for cleaning and inspection by means of a removable cover or a 20in. minimum size manhole. When the top of the tank is more than 18 in. below grade, manholes and inspection holes should be extended to approximately 8 in. below grade. They can be extended to grade if a seal is provided to prevent the escape of odors. TANK INLET The invert elevation of the inlet should be at least 3 in. above the liquid level in the tank. This will allow for momentary surges during discharge from the house sewer into the tank and also prevent the backup and stranding of solids in the piping entering the tank. A vented inlet tee or baffle should be provided to direct the influent downward. The outlet of the tee should terminate at least 6 in. below the liquid level but in no case should it be lower than the bottom of the outlet fitting or device. TANK OUTLET The outlet fitting or device should penetrate the liquid level just far enough to provide a balance between the sludge and scum storage volumes. This will assure usage of the maximum available tank capacity. A properly operating tank divides itself into three distinct layers: scum at the top, a middle layer free of solids (clear space), and sludge at the bottom layer. While the outlet tee or device retains the scum in the tank, it also limits the amount of sludge that can be retained without passing some of the sludge out with effluent. Data collected from field observation of sludge accumulations indicate that the outlet device should extend to a distance below the liquid level equal to 40% of the liquid depth. For horizontal cylindrical tanks the percentage should be 35. The outlet device or tee should extend up to within 1 in. of the top of the tank for venting purposes. The space between the top of the tank and
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The retention period of the sewage in a septic tank should be SUbsURFAcE SOIL AbsORPTION SYsTEM Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com 24 hr. Table 2 gives the gallons per person per day (24 hr). The CRITERIA FOR DEsIGN required liquid capacity of the tank can then be determined by The first step in the design of a subsurface soil absorption multiplying the values given in the table by the estimated popusewage disposal system is to determine whether the soil is suitlation. able for the absorption of the septic tank effluent. If it is, the next Tables 3 and 4 give daily gallonages in terms of fixtures for step is to determine the area required for the disposal field. The country clubs and public parks, respectively. soil must have an acceptable percolation rate and should have adequate clearance from ground water. In general, two criteria must be met: Table 2 Quantities of Sewage Flows
Type of Establishment Airports (per passenger) Apartmentsmultiple family (per resident) Bathhouses and swimming pools Camps: Campground with central comfort stations With ush toilets, no showers Construction camps (semi-permanent) Day camps (no meals served) Resort camps (night and day) with limited plumbing Luxury camps Cottages and small dwellings with seasonal occupancy Country clubs (per resident member) Country clubs (per non-resident member present) Dwellings: Boarding houses additional for non-resident boarders Luxury residences and estates Multiple-family dwellings (apartments) Rooming houses Single-family dwellings Factories (gallons/person/shift, exclusive of industrial wastes) Hospitals (per bed space) Hotels with private baths (2 persons per room) Hotels without private baths Institutions other than hospitals (per bed space) Laundries, self service (gal/wash, i.e., per customer) Mobile home parks (per space) Motels with bath, toilet, and kitchen wastes (per bed space) Motels (per bed space) Picnic parks (toilet wastes only) (per picknicker) Picnic parks with bathrooms, showers, and ush toilets Restaurants (toilet and kitchen wastes per patron) Restaurants (kitchen wastes per meal served) Restaurants, additional for bars and cocktail lounges Schools: Boarding Day, without gyms, cafeterias, or showers Day, with gyms, cafeterias, and showers Day, with cafeterias, but without gyms or showers Service stations (per vehicle served) Swimming pools and bathhouses Theaters: Movie (per auditorium seat) Drive-in (per car space) Travel trailer parks Without individual water and sewer hookups (per space) With individual water and sewer hookups (per space) Workers: Construction (at semi-permanent camps) Day, at schools and oces (per shift) Gallons Per Person Per Day (unless otherwise noted) 5 60 10 35 25 50 15 50 100 50 100 25 50 10 150 60 40 75 35 250 60 50 125 50 250 50 40 5 10 10 3 2 100 15 25 20 10 10 5 5 50 100 50 15
1. The percolation rate should be within the range shown in Table 5 or Table 6. 2. The maximum elevation of the groundwater table should be at least 4 ft below the bottom of the trench or seepage pit. Rock formation or other impervious strata should be at a depth of more than 4 ft below the bottom of the trench or seepage pit.
Percolation Rate (time required for water to fall 1 in.), in minutes 1 or less 2 3 4 5 10 15 30c, e 45c, e 60c, e, f
Required Absorption Area, in ft2/bedroomb, standard trenchc, seepage bedsc, and seepage pitsd 70 85 100 115 125 165 190 250 300 330
aIt is desirable to provide sucient land area for an entire new absorption system if needed in the future. bIn every case, sucient land area should be provided for the number of bedrooms (minimum of two) that can be reasonably anticipated, including the unnished space available for conversion as additional bedrooms. cAbsorption area is gured as trench bottom area and includes a statistical allowance for vertical side wall area. dAbsorption area for seepage pits is gured as eective side wall area beneath the inlet. eUnsuitable for seepage pits if over 30. fUnsuitable for absorption systems if over 60
Table 3 Sewage Flow from Country Clubs Gallons per Day Type of Fixture per Fixture Showers 500 Baths 300 Lavatories 100 Toilets 150 Urinals 100 Sinks 50
Table 4 Sewage Flow at Public Parks (during hours when park is open) Gallons per Day Type of Fixture per Fixture Flush toilets 36 Urinals 10 Showers 100 Faucets 15
Table 6 Allowable Rate of Sewage Application to a Soil Absorption System Percolation Rate Maximum Rate of Sewage Application (time for water to fall (gal/ft2/day)a for Absorption Trenchesb, 1 in.), in minutes Seepage Beds, and Seepage Pitsc 1 or less 5.0 2 3.5 3 2.9 4 2.5 5 2.2 10 1.6 15 1.3 30d 0.9 45d 0.8 60d, e 0.6
aNot including euents from septic tanks that receive wastes from garbage grinders and automatic washing machines. bAbsorption area is gured as trench bottom area, and includes a statistical allowance for vertical sidewall area. cAbsorption area for seepage pits is eective sidewall area. dOver 30 unsuitable for seepage pits. eOver 60 unsuitable for absorption systems. MAY/JUNE 2007
AbsORPTION AREA For locations where the percolation rates and soil characteristics prove to be satisfactory, the next step is to determine the required absorption area from Table 5 for residences or from Table 6 for other types of buildings. As noted in the tables, soil in which the percolation rate is slower than 1 in. in 30 min is not suitable for seepage pits and a rate slower than 1 in. in 60 min is not satisfactory for any type of soil absorption system. There are three types of soil absorption systems: 1. Absorption trenches 2. Seepage beds 3. Seepage pits. The selection of the system will be affected by the location Table 7 Minimum Distance Between Components of Sewage Disposal System Horizontal Distance (ft) Component of Well or Water Supply Stream Dwelling Property System Suction Line Line (pressure) Line Building sewer 50 10a 50 Septic tank 50 10 50 5 10 Disposal eld 100 25 50 20 5 and seepage bed Seepage pit 100 50 50 20 10 Cesspoolb 100 50 50 20 15
aWhere the water supply line must cross the sewer line, the bottom of the water service within 10 ft of the point of crossing shall be at least 12 in. above the top of the sewer line. The sewer line shall be of cast iron with leaded or mechanical joints at least 10 ft on either side of the crossing. bNot recommended as a substitute for a septic tank. To be used only when found necessary and approved by the health authority.
of the system in the area under consideration. A safe distance must be maintained between the site and the source of any water supply. No specific distance can be absolutely safe in all localities because of the many variables involved in the underground travel of pollution. Table 7 can be used as a guide for establishing minimum distances between various components of a sewage disposal system. Seepage pits should never be installed in areas of shallow wells or where there are limestone formations and sinkholes
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with connection to underground channels through Figure 2 Section through Typical Absorption Trench Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com which pollution could travel to water sources. AbsORPTION TRENcHEs The drain pipe for a soil absorption field may be 12-in. lengths of 4-in. agricultural drain tile, 23 ft lengths of open-joint vitrified clay sewer pipe, or perforated nonmetallic pipe. Individual laterals should not exceed 100 ft in length and the trench bottom and piping should be level. Use of more and shorter laterals is recommended because if a breakdown should occur in any one lateral, most of the field would still be operative. The space between laterals should be at least twice the depth of gravel to prevent overtaxing the percolative capacity of the adjacent soil. The depth of the absorption trenches should be at least 24 in. to provide the minimum required gravel depth and earth cover. Additional depth may be required for ground contour adjustment, for extra aggregate specified under the pipe, or for other design purposes. The minimum distance of 4 ft between the bottom of the trench and the water table is essential to minimize groundwater contamination. Freezing is an extremely rare occurrence in a well-constructed system that is kept in continuous operation. It is of course extremely important that the pipe be completely surrounded by the gravel to provide for free movement of the waste water. The required absorption area is based upon the results of the percolation tests and may be selected from Table 5 or 6.
Example 1
For a three-bedroom house and a percolation rate of 1 in. in 15 min, the necessary absorption area will be 3 bedrooms190 ft2 per bedroom (Table 5)=570 ft2. For 2-ft-wide trenches with 6 in. of gravel below the drain pipe the total length of trench will be: 5702=285 ft. If this length is divided into three portions (3 laterals), the length of each lateral will be 2853=95 ft. If this length is too long for the site, the number of laterals must be increased. Using 5 laterals, the length of each lateral will be 57 ft. If the trenches are separated by 6 ft, the width of the field will be 2-ft-wide trenches5 trenches=10 ft plus 6 ft between trenches4 spaces=24 ft. The total field will then be 57 ft in length by 34 ft. in width for a total area of 1938 ft2 plus the additional land required to keep the field an acceptable distance from property lines, wells, etc. Construction Careful construction is extremely important in achieving a satisfactory soil absorption system. Care must be exercised so as not to seal the surfaces on the bottom and sides of the trenches. Trenches should not be excavated when the soil is wet enough to smear or compact easily. Open trenches should always be protected from surface runoff to prevent entrance of silt and debris. All smeared or compacted surfaces should be raked to a depth of 1 in. and loose material removed before placing gravel in the trench. The pipe should be completely surrounded by clean, graded gravel ranging in size from to 2 in. Cinders, broken shells, or similar materials are unsuitable as they are too fine and will lead to premature clogging of the soil. The gravel should extend at least 2 in. above the top of the pipe, at least 6 in. below the bottom of the pipe and fill the entire width of the trench. The top
of the gravel should be covered with untreated building paper or a 2-in. layer of hay, straw, or similar pervious material to prevent the earth backfill from clogging the gravel. If an impervious covering is used, it will interfere with evapotranspiration at the surface. This is an important factor in the operation of a disposal field and, although evapotranspiration is not generally taken advantage of in the calculations, it provides an added factor of safety. If tile pipe is used, the upper half of the joint openings should be covered. Drain tile connectors, collars, clips or other spacers with covers for the upper half of the joints may be used to assure uniform spacing, proper alignment, and protection of the joints. They are available in galvanized iron, copper, and plastic. The problem of root penetration can be avoided by the use of a liberal quantity of gravel around the pipe. There should be at least 12 in. of gravel beneath the pipe when a trench is within 10 ft of large trees or dense shrubbery. Backfilling of the trench should be hand tamped and the trench should be overfilled at least 4 to 6 in. This will prevent settlement to a point lower than the surface of the adjacent ground where storm water could collect and cause premature saturation of the absorption field and possible complete washout of the trench. Machine tamping or hydraulic backfilling should never be permitted. Figure 2 illustrates a typical absorption trench. SEEPAGE BEDs The use of seepage beds in lieu of standard trenches has been around for over twenty-five years. Common design practice for soil absorption fields is for trenches with widths varying from 12 to 36 in. When trenches are wider than 3 ft they are called seepage beds. Typically rectangular in shape, seepage beds are compact and used when less land is available for system design. Dry climates prove to be a better environment for use than climates having wet, humid conditions. Keep in mind, seepage beds do not have the sidewall area to provide oxygen to the center of a bed and long-term performance depends on the condition of the sidewall area. Slopes greater than 5% are not suitable for this absorption system application. Care must be taken during conMAY/JUNE 2007
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All connecting piping should be laid on a firm bed of undisSimpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version turbed soil throughout their length and at a minimum grade of 2% ( in./ft). The pit inlet pipe should extend at least 1 ft into the pit with a tee or ell to direct the flow downward to prevent washing and eroding of the sidewalls. When more than one pit is utilized they should be connected in series.
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CONTINUING EDUCATION
Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com Continuing Education from Plumbing Systems & Design
Kenneth G.Wentink, PE, CPD, and Robert D. Jackson
Do you find it difficult to obtain continuing education units (CEUs)? Through this special section in every issue of PS&D, ASPE can help you accumulate the CEUs required for maintaining your Certified in Plumbing Design (CPD) status.
Now Online!
The technical article you must read to complete the exam is located at www.psdmagazine.org. The following exam and application form also may be downloaded from the website. Reading the article and completing the form will allow you to apply to ASPE for CEU credit. For most people, this process will require approximately one hour. If you earn a grade of 90 percent or higher on the test, you will be notified that you have logged 0.1 CEU, which can be applied toward the CPD renewal requirement or numerous regulatory-agency CE programs. (Please note that it is your responsibility to determine the acceptance policy of a particular agency.) CEU information will be kept on file at the ASPE office for three years.
Note: In determining your answers to the CE questions, use only the material presented in the corresponding continuing education article. Using information from other materials may result in a wrong answer.
7. The absorption area to be provided for an individual residence containing three bedrooms with a percolation rate of three minutes is recommended to be _________. a. 100 square feet b. 200 square feet c. 300 square feet d. 600 square feet
8. A covered pit with an open-jointed or perforated lining into which raw sewage is discharged is called a ________. a. septic tank b. cesspool c. seepage pit d. none of the above 9. The drain lines for distributing the effluent from the septic tank should be spaced no grater than _________ apart. a. 3 feet, b. 6 feet, c. 9 feet, d. a and b 10. The quantity of sewage flow from a single-family dwelling per person is _________ gallons per day. a. 50 b. 75 c. 100 d. 125
11. The primary purpose of a septic tank is to _________. a. distribute raw sewage to the leaching field b. chemically treat raw sewage c. vent odors to atmosphere d. act as a settling tank 12. Sewage pit connecting piping _________. a. should be laid at a minimum grade of 2 percent b. must be 6 inches in diameter minimum c. must be a least 5 feet deep d. none of the above
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PSD 139
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The May/June 2007 continuing education article is Private Sewage Disposal Systems, Chapter 13 of Engineered Plumbing Design II by A. Cal Laws, PE, CPD. With the ever-increasing cost of land located in proximity to urban centers, more and more construction is being implemented in outlying areas. Sanitary sewers are not usually available in these remote locations and it becomes necessary for the plumbing engineer to design private sewage systems to handle the wastes from buildings. Where the concentration of population is not sufficient to economically justify the installation of public sewer systems, installation of a septic tank in conjunction with a subsurface soil absorption field has proven to be an exceptionally satisfactory method of sewage disposal. This chapter explains the different types of private sewage disposal systems for residential and commercial applications as well as criteria for their design and construction. You may locate this article at www.psdmagazine.org. Read the article, complete the following exam, and submit your answer sheet to the ASPE office to potentially receive 0.1 CEU.
Payment: Personal Check (payable to ASPE) $____________ Business or government check $____________ DiscoverCard VISA MasterCard AMEX $____________ If rebilling of a credit card charge is necessary, a $25 processing fee will be charged. ASPE is hereby authorized to charge my CE examination fee to my credit card. Account Number Expiration date
Signature Expiration date: Continuing education credit will be given for this examination through May 31, 2008. Applications received after that date will not be processed.
Signature
Appraisal Questions
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Private Sewage Disposal Systems (PSD 139) Was the material new information for you? Yes No Was the material presented clearly? Yes No Was the material adequately covered? Yes No Did the content help you achieve the stated objectives? Yes No Did the CE questions help you identify specic ways to use ideas presented in the article? Yes No How much time did you need to complete the CE oering (i.e., to read the article and answer the post-test questions)?___________________
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PSD 142
CONTINUING EDUCATION
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INTRODUCTION
The purpose of the sanitary drainage system is to remove effluent discharged from plumbing fixtures and other equipment to an approved point of disposal. A sanitary drainage system generally consists of horizontal branches, vertical stacks, a building drain inside the building, and a building sewer from the building wall to the point of disposal. To economically design a sanitary drainage system, use the smallest pipes according to the code that can rapidly carry away the soiled water from individual fixtures without clogging the pipes, leaving solids in the piping, generating excessive pneumatic pressures at points where the fixture drains connect to the stack (which might cause the reduction of trap water seals and force sewer gases back through inhabitable areas), and creating undue noise. Since vents and venting systems are described in Chapter 3 of this volume, the following discussion centers only on the design of drain and waste systems.
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Reprinted from Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook, Volume 2: Plumbing Systems, Chapter 1: Sanitary Drainage Systems. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 2 Plumbing Systems & Design
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sure reduction is negligible; it amounts to only a small fraction Flow in Building Drains Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com When the sheet of water reaches the bend at the base of the of an inch (a millimeter) of water. What causes appreciable presstack, it turns at approximately right angles into the building sure reductions is the partial or complete blocking of the stack drain. Flow enters the horizontal drain at a relatively high veloc- by water flowing into the stack from a horizontal branch. A small increase in pneumatic pressure will occur in the ity compared to the velocity of flow in a horizontal drain under uniform flow conditions. The slope of the building drain is not building drain even if there is no complete blocking of the airadequate to maintain the velocity that existed in the vertical flow by a hydraulic jump or by submergence of the outlet and sheet when it reached the base of the stack and must flow hori- the building sewer. This is due to the decrease in cross-sectional zontally. The velocity of the water flowing along the building area available for airflow when the water flowing in the drain drain and sewer decreases slowly then increases suddenly as has adapted itself to the slope and diameter of the drain. the depth of flow increases and completely fills the cross section FIXTURE DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS of the drain. This phenomenon is called a hydraulic jump. The discharge characteristic curvesflow rates as a function of The critical distance at which the hydraulic jump may occur timefor most water closet bowls have the same general shape, varies from immediately at the stack fitting to 10 times the diambut some show a much lower peak and a longer period of diseter of the stack downstream. Less hydraulic jump occurs if the charge. The discharge characteristics for various types of water horizontal drain is larger than the stack. After the hydraulic closet bowls, particularly low-flow water closets, have a sigjump occurs and water fills the drain, the pipe tends to flow full nificant impact on estimating the capacity of a sanitary drainuntil the friction resistance of the pipe retards the flow to that of age system. Other plumbing fixtures, such as sinks, lavatories, uniform flow conditions. and bathtubs, may produce similar surging flows in drainage systems, but they do not have as marked of an effect as water Flow in Fixture Drains Determination of the required drain size is a relatively simple closets. Drainage Loads Single-family dwellings contain certain matter, since the fixture drain must be adequate only to carry the discharge from the fixture to which it is attached. Because of plumbing fixturesone or more bathroom groups, each consistthe problem of self-siphonage, however, it is advisable to select ing of a water closet, a lavatory, and a bathtub or shower stall; a the diameter of the drain so that the drain flows little more than kitchen sink, dishwasher, and washing machine; and, possibly, half full under the maximum discharge conditions likely to be a set of laundry trays. Large buildings also have other fixtures, such as slop sinks and drinking water coolers. The important imposed by the fixture. For example, a lavatory drain capable of carrying the flow dis- characteristic of these fixtures is that they are not used continucharged from a lavatory may still flow full over part or all of its ously. Rather, they are used with irregular frequencies that vary length. There are several reasons for this. The vertical compo- greatly during the day. In addition, the various fixtures have nent of the flow out of the trap into the drain tends to make the quite different discharge characteristics regarding both the averwater attach itself to the upper elements of the drain, and a slug age rate of flow per use and the duration of a single discharge. of water is formed, filling the drain at that point. If there is not Consequently, the probability of all the fixtures in the building sufficient air aspirated through the overflow, the pipe will flow operating simultaneously is small. Assigning drainage fixture full for part of its length, with the average velocity of flow being unit (dfu) values to fixtures to represent their load-producing less than the normal velocity for the rate of flow in the drain at effect on the plumbing system was originally proposed in 1923 by Dr. Roy B. Hunter. The fixture unit values were designed for a given slope. If the fixture considered is a water closet, the surge of water application in conjunction with the probability of simultaneous from the closet will continue almost without change even use of fixtures to establish the maximum permissible drainage along a very long drain until it reaches the stack. Thus, it can be loads expressed in fixture units rather than in gallons per minute assumed, for all practical purposes, that the surge caused by the (gpm, L/s) of drainage flow. Table 1 gives the recommended fixdischarge of a water closet through a fixture drain reaches the ture unit values. The plumbing engineer must conform to local stack or horizontal branch with practically the same velocity it code requirements. had when it left the fixture.
PNEUMATIC PRESSURES IN A SANITARY DRAINAGE SYSTEM Because of the pressure conditions in a stack and a building drain, the wastewater does not fill the cross section anywhere, so the air can flow freely along with the water. The water flowing down the wall of the stack drags air with it by friction and carries it through the building drain to the street sewer. The air is then vented through the main street sewer system so dangerous pressures do not build up. The generally accepted pressure is plus or minus 1 inch of water column. If air is to enter the top of the stack to replace the air being carried along with the water, there must be a pressure reduction inside the stack. Because of the head loss necessary to accelerate the air and to provide for the energy loss at the entrance, however, this pres-
Table 1 Residential Drainage Fixture Unit (dfu) Loads Fixture Drainage Fixture Units (dfu) Bathtub Clothes washer Dishwasher Floor drain Laundry tray Lavatory, single Lavatory, in sets of 2 or 3 Shower (each head) Sink (including dishwasher and garbage disposer) Water closet (1.6-gpf gravity tank) Water closet (1.6-gpf flushometer tank) Water closet (1.6-gpf flushometer valve)
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IPC 2 3 2 3 2 1 2 2 3 4 5 4
UPC 3 3 2 * 2 1 2 2 3 4 5 4
* Trap loadings 1" 1 dfu 1" 3 dfu 2 4 dfu 3" 6 dfu 4" 8 dfu
aDoes not include branches of the building drain. bNo more than two water closets or bathroom groups within each branch interval or more than six water closets or bathroom groups on the stack.
1 2 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 15
(40) (50) (65) (80) (100) (125) (150) (200) (250) (300) (380)
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each branch and size in accordance with Figure 1 Procedure for Sizing an Oset Stack Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com column 2 in Table 3. Next, total all the fixture units connected to the stack and determine the size from the same table, under column 4. Immediately check the next column, Total at One Branch Interval, and determine if this maximum is exceeded by any of the branches. If it is exceeded, the size of the stack as originally determined must be increased at least one size, or the loading of the branches must be redesigned so maximum conditions are satisfied. Take, for example, a 4-in. (100-mm) stack more than three stories in height. The maximum loading for a 4-in. (100-mm) branch is 160 fu, as shown in column 2 of Table 3. This load is limited by column 5 of the same table, which permits only 90 fu to be introduced into a 4-in. (100-mm) stack in any onebranch interval. The stack would have to be increased in size to accommodate any branch load exceeding 90 fu. To illustrate clearly the requirements of a stack with an offset of more than 45 from the vertical, Figure 1 shows the sizing of a stack in a 12-story building where there is one offset between the fifth and sixth floors and another offset below the street floor. Sizing is computed as follows: Step 1. Compute the fixture units connected to the stack. In this case, assume 1,200 fixture units are connected to the stack from the street floor through the top floor. Step 2. Size the portion of the stack above the fifth-floor offset. There are 400 fixture units from the top floor down through the sixth floor. According to Table 3, column 4, 400 fixture units require a 4-in. (100-mm) stack. Step 3. Size the offset on the fifth floor. An offset is sized and sloped like a building drain. Step 4. Size the lower portion of the stack from the fifth floor down through the street floor. The lower portion of the stack must be large enough to serve all fixture units connected to it, from the top floor down (in this case 1,200 fixture units). According to Table 3, 1,200 fixture units require a 6-in. (150-mm) stack. Step 5. Size and slope the offset below the street floor the same as a building drain. The fixture on the sixth floor should be connected to the stack at least 2 ft (0.6 m) above the offset. If this is not possible, then connect them separately to the stack at least 2 ft (0.6 m) below the offset. If this is not possible either, run the fixture drain down to the fifth or fourth floor and connect to the stack at that point.
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Table 5 Approximate Discharge Rates and Velocities in Sloping Drains, n=0.015a Actual Inside Half-full Flow Discharge Rate and Velocity Actual Inside 1 1 1 1 16 in./ft (1.6 mm/m) Slope 8 in./ft (3.2 mm/m) Slope 4 in./ft (6.4 mm/m) Slope 2 in./ft (12.7 mm/m) Slope Diameter of Pipe, Disch., Velocity, fps Disch., Velocity, fps Disch., Velocity, fps Disch., Velocity, fps in. (mm) gpm (L/s) (mm/s) gpm (L/s) (mm/s) gpm (L/s) (mm/s) gpm (L/s) (mm/s) 1 (31.8) 3.40 (0.21) 1.78 (45.5) 138 (34.9) 3.13 (0.20) 1.34 (0.41) 4.44 (0.28) 1.90 (48.3) 1 (38.9) 3.91 (0.247) 1.42 (0.43) 5.53 (0.35) 2.01 (51.1) 158 (41.28) 4.81 (0.30) 1.50 (0.46) 6.80 (0.38) 2.12 (53.9) 2 (50.8) 8.42 (0.53) 1.72 (0.52) 11.9 (0.75) 2.43 (61.8) 2 (63.5) 10.8 (0.68) 1.41 (0.43) 15.3 (0.97) 1.99 (0.61) 21.6 (1.36) 2.82 (71.7) 3 (76.3) 17.6 (1.11) 1.59 (0.49) 24.8 (1.56) 2.25 (0.69) 35.1 (2.21) 3.19 (81.1) 4 (101.6) 26.70 (1.68) 1.36 (34.6) 37.8 (2.38) 1.93 (0.59) 53.4 (3.37) 2.73 (0.83) 75.5 (4.76) 3.86 (98.2) 5 (127) 48.3 (3.05) 1.58 (40.2) 68.3 (4.30) 2.23 (0.68) 96.6 (6.10) 3.16 (0.96) 137 (8.64) 4.47 (113.7) 6 (152.4) 78.5 (4.83) 1.78 (45.3) 111 (7.00) 2.52 (0.77) 157 (10) 3.57 (1.09) 222 (14.0) 5.04 (128.2) 8 (203.2) 170 (10.73) 2.17 (55.2) 240 (15.14) 3.07 (0.94) 340 (21.5) 4.34 (1.32) 480 (30.3) 6.13 (155.9) 10 (256) 308 (19.43) 2.52 (64.1) 436 (27.50) 3.56 (1.09) 616 (38.9) 5.04 (1.54) 872 (55.0) 7.12 (181.0) 12 (304.8) 500 (31.55) 2.83 (72.0) 707 (44.60) 4.01 (1.22) 999 (63.0) 5.67 (1.73) 1413 (89.15) 8.02 (204.0)
n=Manning coefficient, which varies with the roughness of the pipe. For full flow: Multiply discharge by 2.00. For full flow: Multiply velocity by 1.00. For smoother pipe: Multiply discharge and velocity by 0.015 and divide by n of another pipe.
a
Table 6 Slopes Of Cast Iron Soil Pipe Sanitary Sewers Required To Obtain Self-cleansing Velocities Of 2.0 And 2.5 Ft./sec. (Rased On Mannings Formula With N=.012) 1/4 Full 1/2 Full 3/4 Full Full Pipe Velocity Slope Flow Slope Flow Slope Flow Slope Flow Size (in.) (ft./sec.) (ft./ft.) (Gal./min.) (ft./ft.) (Gal./min.) (ft./ft.) (Gal./min.) (ft./ft.) (Gal./min.) 2.0 2.0 0.0313 4.67 0.0186 9.34 0.0148 14.09 0.0186 18.76 2.5 0.0489 5.04 0.0291 11.67 0.0231 17.62 0.0291 23.45 3.0 2.0 0.0178 10.71 0.0107 21.46 0.0085 32.23 0,0107 42.91 2.5 0.0278 13.47 0.0167 26.62 0.0133 40.29 0.0167 53.64 4.0 2.0 0.0122 19.03 0.0073 38.06 0.0058 57.01 0.0073 76.04 2.5 0.0191 23.79 0.0114 47.58 0.0091 71.26 0.0114 95.05 5.0 2.0 0.0090 29.89 0.0054 59.79 0.0043 89.59 0.0054 119.49 2.5 0.0141 37.37 0.0085 74.74 0.0067 111.99 0.0085 149.36 6.0 2.0 0.0071 43.18 0.0042 86.36 0.0034 129.54 0.0042 172.72 2.5 0.0111 53.98 0.0066 101.95 0.0053 161.93 0.0066 215.90 8.0 2.0 0.0048 77.20 0.0029 154.32 0.0023 231.52 0.0029 308.64 2.5 0.0075 96.50 0.0045 192.90 0.0036 289.40 0.0045 385.79 10.0 2.0 0.0036 120.92 0.0021 241.85 0.0017 362.77 0.0021 483.69 2.5 0.0056 151.15 0.0033 302.31 0.0026 453.46 0.0033 604.61 12.0 2.0 0.0028 174.52 0.0017 349.03 0.0013 523.55 0.0017 678.07 2.5 0.0044 218.15 0.0026 436.29 0.0021 654.44 0.0026 612.58 15.0 2.0 0.0021 275.42 0.0012 550.84 0.0010 826.26 0.0012 1101.68 2.5 0.0032 344.28 0.0019 688.55 0.0015 1032.83 0.0019 1377.10 pended solids no larger than sand grains. An ejector pump is designed to transport sanitary waste and larger solids suspended in the effluent. All effluent is a liquid with solids suspended in it but has the same hydraulic characteristics as water. Building drains that cannot flow directly into a sewer by gravity must be discharged into a covered basin from which fluid is lifted into the buildings gravity drainage system by automatic pump equipment or by any equally efficient method approved by the administrative authority. An ejector basin must be of airtight construction and must be vented. It is airtight to prevent the escape of foul odors generated by sanitary waste from the subdrainage system. Since it is airtight, a vent is required to relieve the air in the basin as wastes discharge into it and also to supply air to the basin while the contents are being discharged to the sanitary gravity drainage system. A duplex pump system shall be used. If one pump breaks down, the control system will alert the second pump to start. The system will remain in operation and no damage will be caused by the cessation of system operation. When a Table 7 Building Drains and Sewersa Maximum Permissible Fixture Units for Sanitary Building Drains and Runouts From Stacks Diameter Slope, in./ft (mm/m) of Pipe, in. (mm) 116 (1.6) 18 (3.2) 14 (6.4) 12 (12.7) 2 (50) 21 26 2 (65) 24 31 3 (80) 20 42b 50b 4 (100) 180 216 250 5 (125) 390 480 575 6 (150) 700 840 1,000 8 (200) 1400 1600 1,920 2,300 10 (250) 2500 2900 3,500 4,200 12 (300) 2900 4600 5,600 6,700 15 (380) 7000 8300 10,000 12,000
On-site sewers that serve more than one building may be sized according to the current standards and specifications of the administrative authority for public sewers. b No more than two water closets or two bathroom groups, except in single-family dwellings, where no more than three water closets or three bathroom groups may be installed. Check the local codes in the area served for exact requirements or restrictions.
a
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intended for use primarily in locations where the flow reaches Floor Drains and Floor Sinks Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com A large-diameter drain with a deep sump connected to a large- high rates, such as malls, wash-down areas, and certain indusdiameter pipe passes more water faster than a smaller drain. trial applications. Table 8, which shows minimum ratios of open However, economics do not allow the designer arbitrarily to grate area based on pipe diameter, is offered as a guide for the select the largest available drain when a smaller, less-expen- selection of drains where the drain pipe diameter is known. The only drawback to using the open-area-pipe-diametersive unit will do a satisfactory job. High-capacity drains are ratio method is that all drain manufacturers do not list the total Table 8 Recommended Grate Open Areas for Various open areas of grates in their catalogs. This information usually Floor Drains With Outlet Pipe Sizes can be obtained upon request, however. Recommended Minimum Grate For the sizing of floor drains for most indoor applications, the Open Area for Floor Drains capacity of a drain is not extremely critical because the drains Transverse Area Minimum Inside Nominal Pipe of Pipe, in.2a Area, in.2 primary function is to handle minor spillage or fixture overflow. Size, in. (mm) (10 mm2) (10 mm2) The exceptions are, of course, cases where equipment discharges 1 (40) 2.04 (1.3) 2.04 (1.3) to the drain, where automatic fire sprinklers may deluge an area 2 (50) 3.14 (2.0) 3.14 (2.0) with large amounts of water, and where flushing of the floor is 3 (80) 7.06 (4.6) 7.06 (4.6) 4 (100) 12.60 (8.1) 12.06 (8.1) required for sanitation. 5 (125) 19.60 (12.7) 19.60 (12.7) Generally located floor drains or drains installed to anticipate 6 (150) 28.30 (18.3) 28.30 (18.3) a failure may not receive sufficient water flow to keep the pro8 (200) 50.25 (32.4) 50.24 (32.4) tective water seal or plumbing trap from evaporating. If it does aBased on extra-heavy soil pipe, nominal internal diameter. evaporate, sewer gases will enter the space. Automatic or manual trap primers should be installed Figure 3 Typical Submerged Sump Pump Installation to maintain a proper trap seal. (A small amount of vegetable oil will dramatically reduce the evaporation rate of infrequently used floor drains and floor sinks.) Figure 4 shows the basic components of a floor drain. Grates/Strainers The selection of grates is based on use and the amount of flow. Light-traffic areas may have a nickelbronze-finished grate, while mechanical areas may have a large, heavy-duty, ductile iron grate. The wearing of spike-heeled shoes prompted the replacement of grates with a heel-proof, -in.-square (6.4-mm) grate design in public toilet rooms, corridors, passageways, promenade decks, patios, stores, theaters, and markets. Though this type of grating has less drainage capacity than the previous one, its safety feature makes it well worth the change. Grates or strainers should be secured with stainless-steel screws in nickel-bronze tops. Vandal-proof fasteners are available from most manufacturers. Vandal-proofing floor drain grates is advisable. If there is public access to the roof, consideration must be given to protecting the vent openings from vandals. In school gymnasium shower rooms, where the blocking of flat-top shower drains with paper towels can cause flooding, dome grates in the corners of the room or angle grates against the walls can be specified in addition to the regular shower drains. Shower-room gutters and curbs have become undesirable because of code requirements and the obvious dangers involved. Therefore, the passageways from shower areas into locker areas need extendedlength drains to prevent runoff water from entering the locker areas. Where grates are not secured and are subject to vehicular traffic, it is recommended that non-tilting and/or tractor-type grates be installed. When a grate
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(A) Removable Grate; (B) Rust-Resistant Bolts; (C) Integral, One-Piece, Flashing Ring; (D) Cast Drain Body with Sump; (E) Sediment Bucket (optional). starts to follow a wheel or is hit on one edge and starts to tilt, the skirt catches the side of the drain body and the grate slides back into its original position. Ramp-drain gratings should be slightly convex because rapidly flowing ramp water has a tendency to flow across the grate. A better solution to this problem is to place flat-top grates on a level surface at the bottom of the ramp, rather than on the ramp slope. A technique in casting grates is the reversal of pattern draft, which removes the razor-sharp edges created when grates are buffed. See Figure 5. The prevalent buffing technique is called scuff-buff because it gives the grate a slightly used appearance. The use of slots in grates is becoming obsolete because of the slicing edges they create, which cause excess wear and tear on the wheels of hand-trucks and other vehicles. Square openings are more desirable because they shorten this edge and provide greater drainage capacity than round holes. Flashing Ring This component makes an effective seal, which prevents water from passing around the drain to the area below. Sediment Bucket A sediment bucket is an additional internal strainer designed to collect debris that gets by the regular strainer. It is required wherever the drain can receive solids, trash, or grit that could plug piping, such as the following locations: 1. Toilet rooms in commercial buildings should be equipped with floor drains with sediment buckets to facilitate cleaning. 2. Floor drains with sediment buckets must be provided in mechanical equipment rooms, where pumps, boilers, water chillers, heat exchangers, and HVAC equipment regularly discharge and/or must be periodically drained for maintenance and repairs. HVAC equipment requires the drainage of condensate from cooling coils using indirect drains. 3. Boilers require drains with sediment buckets. Strategically located floor drains are also required in buildings with wet fire-protection sprinkler systems to drain water in case sprinkler heads are activated. The maximum temperature of liquids discharged should be 140F (60C). Floor drains shall connect to a trap so constructed that it can be readily cleaned and sized to serve efficiently the purpose for which it is intended. A deep-seal-type trap or an approved automatic priming device should be provided. The trap shall be accessible either from the floor-drain inlet or by a separate cleanout within the drain. Figure 6 illustrates several types of drains that meet these conditions. Figure 6 Types of Floor Drain (a)
(b) (a) Sharp Edge, (b) Reverse Pattern 10 Plumbing Systems & Design
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(A) Typical Drain with Integral Trap that May Be Cleaned Through Removable Strainer at Floor Level; (B) Floor Drain with Combination Cleanout and Backwater Valve, for Use Where Possibility of Backow Exists; (C) Drain with Combined Cleanout, Backwater Valve, and Sediment Bucket.
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discharged through a tailpiece and are typically protected from Accessories Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com A variety of accessories are available to make the basic drain back-siphonage by the vacuum breaker mounted at the tailpiece adaptable to various types of structures. The designer must entrance. Fixture wastewater type. These devices are mounted on the know the construction of the building, particularly the floor and trap of frequently used fixtures. A tapping at the overflow line deck structures, to specify the appropriate drain. will allow small amounts of wastewater to enter an adjacent, Backwater Valves infrequently used drain as the trap surges during use. A backwater valve can be installed on a building sewer/house Automatic trap primers can be obtained as pre-engineered drain when the drain is lower than the sewer line, when unusual devices, which have widely accepted approval. All direct consewer surcharges may occur due to combined storm water and nections between the sewer system and the potable water sanitary sewer systems, or when old municipal sewers incur high system must be protected from potential contamination. The rates of infiltration. A backwater valve reacts similarly to a check above-referenced primers can be manufactured, or fitted with, valve. The device consists of a mechanical flapper or disc, which devices that are approved to prevent cross-contamination. requires a certain amount of maintenance; therefore, attention must be given during the placement of these devices to a free Supports area and access for maintenance. Sediment can accumulate The location of pipe supports is usually specified by code. They on the flapper valve seat, preventing the flapper from closing are located to maintain a slope that is as uniform as possible tightly. Also, many valves employ a spring or mechanical device and will not change with time. In this regard, the rigidity of pipe to exert a positive pressure on the flapper device, which requires and joints and the possibility of creep and bedding settlement occasional lubrication. Most manufacturers of backwater valves are primary considerations. When building settlement may be provide an access cover plate for maintenance, which may also significant, special hanging arrangements may be necessary. Underground piping should be continuously and firmly supbe used as a building sewer cleanout. Figure 7 illustrates various types of backwater valves that may ported, but blocking below metal pipe is usually acceptable. Consult the manufacturer for recommendations for piping be installed where there is a possibility of backflow. materials not covered in the code and for special problems. Figure 7 Various Types of Backwater Valve Hangers should be designed adequately. To protect from damage by building occupants, allow at least a 250-lb (113.4-kg) safety factor when designing hangers. See Data Book, Volume 4, Chapter 6 for further information. Seismic restraint must also be considered. Figure 8 Combination Floor Drain and Indirect Waste Receptor
Oil Interceptors In commercial establishments such as service stations, garages, auto repair shops, dry cleaners, laundries, industrial plants, and process industries having machine shops, metal-treating process rooms, chemical process or mixing rooms, etc., there is always the problem of flammable or volatile liquids entering the drainage system, which can contaminate the sewer line and cause a serious fire or explosive condition. Oil interceptors are designed to separate and collect oils and other light-density, volatile liquids, which would otherwise be discharged into the drainage system. An oil interceptor is required wherever lubricating oil, cutting oil, kerosene, gasoline, diesel fuel, aircraft fuel, naphtha, paraffin, trisodium phosphate, or other light-density and volatile liquids are present in or around the drainage system. The interceptor is furnished with a sediment bucket, which collects debris, small parts, chips, particles, and other sediment that are frequently present in industrial waste from these types of facilities and could clog the drainage system. A gasketed, removable cover permits access for cleaning the interceptor. To eliminate pressure buildup inside the interceptor, a connection on each side of the body allows venting of the interceptor. Oil interceptors are sized in accordance with the maximum anticipated gpm (L/s) flow rate of wastewater that could be
MATERIALS
Piping Materials recommended for soil and waste piping, installed aboveground within buildings, are copper alloy, copper, cast iron (hub-and-spigot or hubless), galvanized steel, or PVC plastic pipe. Underground building drains should be cast-iron soil pipe, hard-temper copper tube, ABS or PVC, PVDF, DWV pattern Schedule 40 plastic pipe with compression joints or couplings,
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hub or bell of the downstream pipe or fitting. See Figure 110. Push-seal gasketed outlet. This type utilizes a neoprene gasket similar to standard ASTM C564 neoprene gaskets approved for hub-and-spigot, cast-iron soil pipe. A ribbed neoprene gasket is applied to the accepting pipe, thus allowing the drain outlet to be pushed onto the pipe. No-hub. This type utilizes a spigot (with no bead on the end) that is stubbed into a neoprene coupling with a stainless-steel bolting band (or other type of clamping device), which, in turn, accepts a downstream piece of pipe or headless fitting. See Figure 11. Figure 11 No-Hub-Outlet Drain Body
Joining Methods
Drain and cleanout outlets are manufactured in five basic types: 1. Inside caulk. In this arrangement, the pipe extends up into the drain body and oakum is packed around the pipe tightly against the inside of the outlet. Molten lead is then poured into this ring and later stamped or caulked to correct for lead shrinkage. Current installation methods use a flexible gasket for a caulking material. See Figure 9. Figure 9 Inside-Caulk Drain Body
5. IPS or threaded. This type is a tapered female thread in the drain outlet designed to accept the tapered male thread of a downstream piece of pipe or fitting. See Figure 12. Figure 12 IPS or ThreadedOutlet Drain Body
2. Spigot outlet. This type utilizes the caulking method as outlined above, except that the spigot outlet is caulked into the 12 Plumbing Systems & Design
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Noise Transmission Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version Avoiding direct metal-to-metal connections may reduce noise transmission along pipes. Using heavier materials generally 4. reduces noise transmission through pipe walls. Isolating piping with resilient materials, such as rugs, belts, plastic, or insulation may reduce noise transmission to the building. See Table 9 for relative noise-insulation absorption v alues. Table 9 Relative Properties of Selected Plumbing Materials for Drainage Systems Noise Corrosion Materials Absorption Resistancea ABS Fair Good Cast iron Excellent Good b Clay Excellent c Concrete Faird Copper Fair Good b Glass borosilicate Excellent Polypropylene Fair Excellent PVC Fair Excellent c Silicon iron Excellent Steel, galvanized Good Fair
his refers to domestic sewage. Consult manufacturer for resistance to particular T chemicals. b Since these materials are used only aboveground for chemical waste systems, this is not applicable. c This material is usually allowed only belowground. d Susceptible to corrosion from hydrogen sulfide gas.
a
ing existing fill by physical means or removing existing fill Backfilling. Backfilling of the trench is just as critical as the compaction of the trench bed and the strength of existing soils. Improper backfill placement can dislodge pipe and cause uneven sewer settlement, with physical depressions in the surface. The type of backfill material and compaction requirements need to be reviewed to coordinate with the type of permanent surface. Landscaped areas are more forgiving of improper backfill placement than hard surface areas such as concrete or bituminous paving.
Care must be taken when using mechanical means to compact soils above piping. Mechanical compaction of the first layer above the pipe by vibrating or tamping devices should be done with caution. Compacting the soil in 6-in. (150-mm) layers is recommended for a good backfill. Proper sewer bedding and trench backfill will result in an installation that can be counted upon for long, trouble-free service.
Sanitation
All drains should be cleaned periodically, particularly those in markets, hospitals, food-processing areas, animal shelters, morgues, and other locations where sanitation is important. Where sanitation is important, an acid-resisting enameled interior in floor drains is widely accepted. The rough surfaces of either brass or iron castings collect and hold germs, fungusladen scum, and fine debris that usually accompany drain waste. There is no easy or satisfactory way to clean these rough surfaces. The most practical approach is to enamel them. The improved sanitation compensates for the added expense. However, pipe threads cannot be cut into enameled metals because the enameling will chip off in the area of the machining. Also, pipe threads themselves cannot be enameled; therefore, caulked joints should be specified on enameled drains. Most adjustable floor drains utilize threaded adjustments. The drains cannot be enameled because of this adjusting thread. However, there are other adjustable drains that use sliding lugs on a cast thread and may be enameled. Another point to remember is that a grate or the top ledge of a drain can be enameled, but the enamel will not tolerate traffic abrasion without showing scratches and, eventually, chipping. The solution to this problem is a stainless-steel or nickelbronze rim and grate over the enameled drain body, a common practice on indirect waste receptors, sometimes referred to as floor sinks. Specifiers seem to favor the square, indirect waste receptor, but the round receptor is easier to clean and has better anti-splash characteristics. For cases where the choice of square or round is influenced by the floor pattern, round sinks with square tops are available. In applications such as hospital morgues, cystoscopic rooms, autopsy laboratories, slaughterhouses, and animal dens, the enameled drain is fitted with a flushing rim. This is most advisable where blood or other objectionable materials might cling to the sidewalls of the drain. Where the waste being drained can create a stoppage in the trap, a heel inlet on the trap with a flushing connection is recommended in addition to the flushing rim, which merely keeps the drain sides clean. (This option may not be allowed by certain codes.) A 2-in. (50-mm) trap flushes more effectively than a 3-in. (80-mm) trap because it allows the flushing stream to drill through the debris rather than completely flush it out. A
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Waterproofing
Whenever a cast-iron drain is cemented into a slab, separation due to expansion and contraction occurs and creates several problems. One is the constant wet area in the crevice around the drain that promotes mildew odor and the breeding of bacteria. Seepage to the floor below is also a possibility. A seepage or flashing flange can correct this problem. Weep holes in the flashing flange direct moisture into the drain. Also, this flange accepts membrane material and, when used, the flashing ring should lock the membrane to the flange. One prevalent misconception about the flashing flange is that it can have weep holes when used with cleanouts. In this case, there can be no weep holes into the cleanout to which the moisture can run. Weep holes should also be eliminated from the flashing flanges of drains, such as reflection-pool drains, where an overflow standpipe to maintain a certain water level shuts off the drain entrance. The term non-puncturing, used in reference to membraneflashing, ring-securing methods, is now obsolete, as securing bolts have been moved inboard on flashing L flanges and the membrane need not be punctured to get a seal. Of the various arrangements, this bolting method allows the greatest squeeze pressure on the m embrane.
Nails Seismic
Using ferrous pipe, steel sleeves, steel plates, or space pipe away from possible nail penetration zone. Bracing pipe and providing flexible joints at the connection between piping braced to walls or structure and piping braced to the ceiling and between stories (where there will be differential movements). Sleeves or flexible joints. When embedded in concrete, covering with three layers of 15-lb (6.8-kg) felt. Protecting thermoplastic pipe by insulation and jacket or shading to avoid warping. Installing pipe above reach or in areas protected by building construction. Piping needs to be supported well enough to withstand 250 lb (113.4 kg) hanging on the moving pipe. Providing slip joints and shrinkage clearance for pipe when wood shrinks. Approximately 58 in. (16 mm)/floor is adequate for usual frame construction, based on 4% shrinkage perpendicular to wood grain. Shrinkage along the grain does not usually exceed 0.2%.
Wood Shrinkage
Floor Leveling
A major problem in setting floor drains and cleanouts occurs when the concrete is poured level with the top of the unit, ignoring the fact that the addition of tile on the floor will cause the drain or cleanout to be lower than the surrounding surface. To solve the problem, cleanouts can be specified with tappings in 14 Plumbing Systems & Design
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2. Submit enough technical data to support the proposed al- conventional systems. The maximum fixture units that may be Simpo PDF and Unregistered - http://www.simpopdf.com ternative designMerge and prove theSplit system conforms to the Version intent connected to a branch or stack are also similar to that of convenof the code. This shall include suitability for the intended tional systems. Branch sizes must be increased one size where purpose, strength, equivalent level of performance compared the following exists: to traditional installations, safety, and quality of materials. 1. A second vertical drop or a vertical drop of more than 3 ft 3. The design documents shall include floor plans, riser dia(0.9 m) requires an increase in the downstream side of the grams, and an indication of the proposed flow. connection. 4. Assurance that manufacturers installation instructions will be adhered to. Figure 13 (A) Traditional Two-Pipe System, (B) Typical Sovent Single-Stack Plumbing System. 5. If approval is given, the permit and all construction applications shall indicate an alternative engineered design is part of the approved installation. The alternative systems are characterized by, but not limited to, using a single stack for both sanitary and vent or no vent at all. One exception is a conventional drainage, reduced vent system. All of the following described systems have been successfully used in the United States and in other parts of the world for many years and have proven effective in actual use. All of the alternative systems to be discussed have combined sanitary and vent. Because it is considered appropriate, they have been included in the sanitary drainage system chapter.
sovent system
The Sovent system was developed in 1959 in Switzerland. It is a patented, single-stack, combination drainage and vent system that uses a single stack instead of a conventional two-pipe drainage and vent stack. The Sovent system uses copper pipe and is suitable only for multistory buildings because it will allow substantial economy in piping installation. Although installed in many countries throughout the world, it remains an alternative, unconventional system with only limited usage in the United States. It shall conform to ANSI B-16.45 and CISMA Standard 177. It is not the intent of this chapter to provide specific design criteria for a Sovent system, but rather to discuss the individual component characteristics that will enable a plumbing engineer to obtain a working knowledge of how the Sovent system works. A typical Sovent-Stack system is illustrated in Figure 13. The entire Sovent system consists of three principal parts: copper DWV piping for all branch wastes and stacks, an aerator fitting at each floor level where the branch waste line connects to the stack, and a deaerator fitting at the base of a stack where a stack enters the house drain. The starting point is the horizontal soil and waste branches. The fixture units and branch sizes are similar to those figures found in
(A)
(B)
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(4065 kPa) and is generally fabricated from PVC, copper, or Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version other nonporous, smooth-bore material. Horizontal piping shall slope at a rate of 1/8 in. per foot (1.18 mm) toward the vacuum center. This piping slope is just as it is in conventional systems. If this slope cannot be maintained, the traps created in the piping runs when routed around obstacles would be cleared because of the differential pressure that exists between the vacuum center and the point of origin. The discharge of the piping system is into the waste storage tanks. The vacuum generation system includes the vacuum pumps that create a vacuum in the piping and storage tanks that collect and discharge the waste into the sewer system. The vacuum pumps run only on demand and redundancy is provided. They also have sewage pumps that pump the drainage from the storage tank(s) into the sewer. The vacuum interface is different for sanitary drainage than for clear waste similar to that of supermarkets. Water closet and gray water waste are separate. The vacuum toilets operate instantly upon flushing. When a vacuum toilet is cycled, a discharge control panel assembly is activated sending the discharge to the tank. A valve acts as an interface between the vacuum and the atmosphere controls gray water. It is designed to collect a given amount of the water and then activate, sending the drainage into the tank. The tank will discharge into the sewer when a predetermined level is reached. When clear water is discharged from a project like a supermarket, the water from cases, etc. goes into an accumulator. When a controller senses sufficient waste is present, it opens the normally closed extraction valve, which separates the atmospheric pressure from the vacuum, and removes the waste from the accumulator. Because the vacuum toilets use 0.5 gallon/flush as compared to 3.5 gallons/flush (1.9 L to 13 L) from a conventional system, the holding tanks could be smaller. There is also a flush control panel designed to provide all the control functions associated with vacuum toilets. The control panel consists of a flush valve, flush controller, water valve, and vacuum breaker. All controls are pneumatically operated. The flush controller controls the opening of the flush valve and the rinse valve as well as the duration of the time the flush valve is open.
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References
1. Daugherty, Robert L., Joseph B. Franzini, and E. John Finnemore. 1985. Fluid mechanics with engineering applications. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. 2. Dawson, F.M., and A.A. Kalinske. 1937. Report on hydraulics and pneumatics of plumbing drainage systems. State University of Iowa Studies in Engineering, Bulletin no. 10. 3. Wyly and Eaton. 1950. National Bureau of Standards, Housing and Home Finance Agency.
NOVEMBER 2007
Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com Continuing Education from Plumbing Systems & Design
Kenneth G.Wentink, PE, CPD, and Robert D. Jackson
Do you find it difficult to obtain continuing education units (CEUs)? Through this special section in every issue of PS&D, ASPE can help you accumulate the CEUs required for maintaining your Certified in Plumbing Design (CPD) status.
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The technical article you must read to complete the exam is located at www.psdmagazine.org. The following exam and application form also may be downloaded from the website. Reading the article and completing the form will allow you to apply to ASPE for CEU credit. For most people, this process will require approximately one hour. If you earn a grade of 90 percent or higher on the test, you will be notified that you have logged 0.1 CEU, which can be applied toward the CPD renewal requirement or numerous regulatory-agency CE programs. (Please note that it is your responsibility to determine the acceptance policy of a particular agency.) CEU information will be kept on file at the ASPE office for three years.
Note: In determining your answers to the CE questions, use only the material presented in the corresponding continuing education article. Using information from other materials may result in a wrong answer.
7. Cleanouts should be provided _________. a. at the base of all stacks b. at every change in direction greater than 45 degrees c. at the roof stack terminal d. all of the above 8. Which of the following is not a basic oor drain component? a. sediment bucket b. removable grate c. air-admittance valve d. cast drain body with sump
9. In a basic oor drain assembly, the _________ pre vents water from passing around the drain to the area below. a. ashing ring b. sediment bucket c. grate d. strainer 10. The recommended material for a sediment bucket is _________. a. bronze b. galvanized steel c. stainless steel d. all of the above
11. Which of the following pipe materials oers excellent noise absorption? a. ABS b. cast iron c. PVC d. galvanized steel 12. The single-stack system is also referred to as the _________ system. a. Sovent b. Philadelphia c. vacuum drainage d. none of the above
PSD 142
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Simpo PDFSystems Merge and Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com Plumbing &Split Design Continuing Education Application Form
This form is valid up to one year from date of publication. The PS&D Continuing Education program is approved by ASPE for up to one contact hour (0.1 CEU) of credit per article. Participants who earn a passing score (90 percent) on the CE questions will receive a letter or certication within 30 days of ASPEs receipt of the application form. (No special certicates will be issued.) Participants who fail and wish to retake the test should resubmit the form along with an additional fee (if required). 1. Photocopy this form or download it from www.psdmagazine.org. 2. Print or type your name and address. Be sure to place your ASPE membership number in the appropriate space. 3. Answer the multiple-choice continuing education (CE) questions based on the corresponding article found on www.psdmagazine.org and the appraisal questions on this form. 4. Submit this form with payment ($35 for nonmembers of ASPE) if required by check or money order made payable to ASPE or credit card via mail (ASPE Education Credit, 8614 W. Catalpa Avenue, Suite 1007, Chicago, IL 60656) or fax (773-695-9007). Please print or type; this information will be used to process your credits. Name _ __________________________________________________________________________________________________ Title _ ______________________________________________ ASPE Membership No.____________________________________ Organization _ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ Billing Address ____________________________________________________________________________________________ City_ _______________________________________ State/Province________________________ Zip _ ____________________ Country____________________________________________ E-mail_ ________________________________________________ Daytime telephone_ _________________________________ Fax___________________________________________________ ASPE Member Each examination: $25
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Sanitary Drainage Systems (PSD 142) Was the material new information for you? Yes No Was the material presented clearly? Yes No Was the material adequately covered? Yes No Did the content help you achieve the stated objectives? Yes No Did the CE questions help you identify specic ways to use ideas presented in the article? Yes No 6. How much time did you need to complete the CE oering (i.e., to read the article and answer the post-test questions)?___________________ 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Appraisal Questions
NOVEMBER 2007
Valves
NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2005
PSDMAGAZINE.ORG
PSD 130
Continuing Education
Valves
Functions
Valves serve the purpose of controlling the fluids in building service piping. They come in many shapes, sizes, design types, and materials to accommodate different fluids, piping, pressure ranges, and types of service. Proper selection is important to ensure the most efficient, cost-effective, and long-lasting systems. No single valve is best for all services. This chapter is limited to manually operated valves that start, stop, and regulate flow, and prevent its reversal. Valves are designed to perform four principal functions: 1. Starting and stopping flow 2. Regulating (throttling) flow 3. Preventing the reversal of flow 4. Regulating or relieving the flow pressure.
Service Considerations
1. Pressure 2. Temperature 3. Type of fluid A. Liquid B. Gas, i.e., steam or air C. Dirty or abrasive (erosive) D. Corrosive 4. Flow A. On-off B. Throttling C. Need to prevent flow reversal D. Concern for pressure drop E. Velocity 5. Operating conditions A. Frequency of operation B. Accessibility C. Overall space/size available D. Manual or automated control E. Need for bubble-tight shut-off F. Concerns about body joint leaks G. Fire safe design H. Speed of closure.
Approvals
1. 2. 3. 4. Manufacturers Standardization Society (MSS) Fire protection: UL and Factory Mutual (FM) State and local codes American Petroleum Industries (API).
a partially open gate valve cre- Figure 1 Gate Valve ates vibration and chattering and subjects the disc and seat to inordinate wear. There is a wide variety of seats and discs to suit the conditions under which the valve is to operate. For relatively low pressures and temperatures and for ordinary fluids, seating materials are not a particularly difficult problem. Bronze and iron valves usually have bronze or bronze-faced seating surfaces; iron valves may be all iron. Nonmetallic composition discs are available for tight seating or hard-to-hold fluids, such as air and gasoline. Gate discs can be classified as solid-wedge discs, double discs or split-wedge discs. In the solid-wedge design, a single tapered disc, thin at the bottom and thicker at the top, is forced into a similarly shaped seat. In the double and split-wedge disc designs, two discs are employed back to back, with a spreading device between them. As the valve wheel is turned, the gate drops into its seat (as with any other gate valve), but on the final turns of the wheel, the spreader forces the discs outward Figure 2 Globe Valve against the seats, effecting tighter closure. Bypass valves should be provided where the differential pressure exceeds 200 psi (1378 kPa) on valves sized 4 to 6 in. (101.6 to 152.4 mm), and 100 psi (689 kPa) on valves 8 in. (203.2 mm) or larger. Bypass valves should be in. (12.7 mm) for 4-in. (101.6-mm) valves, and in. (19.1 mm) for 5-in. (127-mm) valves or larger.
Globe Valve
The globe valve (which is named for the shape of its body) is much more resistant to flow than the gate valve, as can be seen by examining the path of flow through it (Figure 2). Its main advantages over the gate valve are
Reprinted from American Society of Plumbing Engineers Data Book Volume 4: Plumbing Components and Equipment, Chapter 3: Valves. 2003, American Society of Plumbing Engineers.
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Simpo PDF Merge Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com its use as a throttling valve toand regulate flow required. It is manufactured in nominal diamAngle Valve and its ease of repair. Very much akin to the globe valve, the angle eters from 1 to 72 in. (25.4 to 1828.8 mm). Because all contact between seat and valve (Figure 3) can cut down on piping In addition to its tight closing, one of the disc ends when flow begins, the effects of installation time, labor, and materials by valves advantages is that it can be placed wire drawing (seat erosion) are minimized. serving as both valve and 90 elbow. It is into a very small space between pipe flanges. The valve can operate just barely open or less resistant to flow than the globe valve, as It is available with several types of operator, fully open with little change in wear. Also, flow must change direction twice instead of motorized and manual, and a variety of combecause the disc of the globe valve travels a three times. It is also available with conven- ponent material combinations. relatively short distance between fully open tional, plug type, or composition discs. Screwed-lug type valves should be proand fully closed, with fewer turns of the vided so that equipment may be removed Ball Valve wheel required, an operator can gauge the without draining down the system. The ball valve derives its name from the rate of flow by the number of turns of the drilled ball that swivels on its vertical axis Check Valve wheel. and is operated by a handle, as shown in Swing checks and lift checks are the most As with the gate valve, there are a number Figure 4. Its advantages are its straight- common forms of check valve. Both are of disc and seat arrangements. These are through flow, minimum turbulence, low designed to prevent reversal of flow in a classified as conventional disc, plug type, torque, tight closure, and compactness. Also, pipe. The swing check, Figure 6, permits and composition disc. a quarter turn of the handle makes it a quick- straight-through flow when open and is, The conventional disc is relatively flat, therefore, less resistant to flow than with beveled edges. On closure it the lift check. is pushed down into a beveled, cir- Figure 4 Ball Valve Note: A word of caution regardcular seat. ing the swing check: There have Plug type discs differ only been instances when a swing check in that they are far more tapered, stayed open a few seconds after the thereby increasing the contact surreversal of flow began, allowing the face between disc and seat. This velocity of backflow to rise to such characteristic has the effect of a point that, when closure finally increasing their resistance to the did occur, it was instantaneous and cutting effects of dirt, scale, and the resulting shock to the valve other foreign matter. and system caused serious damage. The composition disc differs Good insurance against such a posfrom the others in that it does not sibility is a lever and weight or a fit into the seat opening but over closing or -opening valve. Reliability, ease of spring to ensure immediate closure upon it, much as a bottle cap fits over the bottle maintenance, and durability have made the reversal of flow. opening. This seat adapts the valve to many ball valve popular in industrial, chemical, services, including use with hard-to-hold Figure 6 Swing Check and gas transmission applications. substances such as compressed air, and makes it easy to repair. Butterfly Valve Figure 5 illustrates a butterfly valve, the valve most commonly used in place of a gate valve Figure 3 Angle Valve in cases where absolute, bubble-free shut-off is
Figure 5 Buttery Valve
The lift check, Figure 7, is primarily for use with gases or compressed air or in fluid systems where pressure drop is not critical.
Valve Materials
A single valve may be constructed of several materials. It may have a bronze body, a monel seat, and an aluminum wheel. Material specifications depend on the operating conditions.
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Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com valuable for piping subjected to stresses and Bonnets
shocks.
Stainless Steel
For highly corrosive fluids, stainless steel valves provide the maximum corrosion resistance, high strength, and good wearing properties. Seating surfaces, stems, and discs of stainless steel are suitable where foreign materials in the fluids handled could have adverse effects.
Valve Ratings
Most valve manufacturers rate their products in terms of saturated steam pressure; or pressure of nonshock cold water, oil, or gas (WOG); or both. These ratings usually appear on the body of the valve. For instance, a valve with the markings 125 with 200 WOG will operate safely at 125 psi (861.3 kPa) of saturated steam or 200 psi (1378 kPa) cold water, oil, or gas. The engineer should be familiar with the markings on the valves specified and should keep them in mind during construction inspection. A ruptured valve can do much damage.
Iron
Iron used in valves usually conforms to ASTM Standard A26. Although iron-bodied valves are manufactured in sizes as small as -in. (6.4-mm) nominal diameter, they are most commonly stocked in sizes of 2 in. (50.8 mm) and above. In these larger sizes, they are considerably less expensive than bronze. The higher weight of iron valves, as compared to bronze valves, should be considered when guring hanger spacing and loads. A typical 2-in. (50.8-mm) screwed, bronze, globe valve rated at 125 psi (861.3 kPa) weighs about 13 lb (5.9 kg). The same valve in iron weighs 15 lb (6.8 kg) and, if specied with a yoke bonnet, about 22 lb (10 kg).
In choosing valves, the service characteristics of the bonnet joint should not be overlooked. Bonnets and bonnet joints must provide a leakproof closure for the body. There are many modifications, but the three most common types are screwed-in bonnet, screwed union-ring bonnet, and bolted bonnet. Screwed-in bonnet This is the simplest and least expensive construction, frequently used on bronze gate, globe, and angle valves and recommended where frequent dismantling is not needed. When properly designed with running threads and carefully assembled, the screwed-in bonnet makes a durable, pressure-tight seal that is suited for many services. Screwed union-ring bonnet This construction is convenient where valves need frequent inspection or cleaningalso for quick renewal or changeover of the disc in composition disc valves. A separate union ring applies a direct load on the bonnet to hold the pressure-tight joint with the body. The turning motion used to tighten the ring is split between the shoulders of the ring and bonnet. Hence, the point of seal contact between the bonnet and the body is less subject to wear from frequent opening of the joint. Contact faces are less likely to be damaged in handling. The union ring gives the body added strength and rigidity against internal pressure and distortion. While ideal on smaller valves, the screwed, union-ring bonnet is impractical on large sizes. Bolted bonnet joint A practical and commonly used joint for larger size valves or for higher-pressure applications, the bolted bonnet joint has multiple boltings with smaller diameter bolts that permit equalized sealing pressure without the excessive torque needed to make large threaded joints. Only small wrenches are needed.
End Connections
Valves are available with screwed, welded, brazed, soldered, flared, flanged, and hub ends.
Screwed End
This is by far the most widely used type of end connection. It is found in brass, iron, steel, and alloy piping materials. It is suited for all pressures but is usually confined to smaller pipe sizes. The larger the pipe size, the more difficult it is to make up the screwed joint.
Malleable Iron
Malleable iron valves are stronger, stiffer, and tougher than iron-bodied valves and hold tighter pressures. Toughness is most
Welded End
This type of end is available only in steel valves and fittings and is mainly for higherpressure and -temperature services. It is rec-
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Simpofor PDF and Split Unregistered Version ommended linesMerge not requiring frequent ASME American Society ofhttp://www.simpopdf.com Mechanical Clapper A common term that is used dismantling. There are two types of welded Engineers to describe the disc of a swing type, check end materials: butt end socket welding. Butt- ASTM American Standard for Testing and valve. welding valves and fittings come in all sizes; Material Disc The disc-shaped device that is socket-welding ends are usually limited to AWWA American Water Works Association attached to the bottom of the stem and that smaller sizes. BUNA-N Butadiene and acryloniis brought into contact with or lifted off the trile (nitrile rubber) seating surfaces to close or open a globe Brazed End CSA Canadian Standards Association (also valve or butterfly valve. This is available on brass materials. The ends CSA International) (approval agency for Flanged bonnet A type of bonnet so of such materials are specially designed for AGA) constructed that it attaches to the body the use of brazing alloys to make the joint. CWP Cold working pressure by means of a flanged, bolted connection. When the equipment and brazing material EPDM Ethylene-propylene diene monomer The whole bonnet assembly, including the are heated with a welding torch to the temIBBM Iron body, bronze mounted (trim) hand wheel, stem, and disc, may be quickly perature required by the alloy, a tight seal IS Inside screw removed by unscrewing the nuts from the is formed between the pipe and valve or MSS Manufacturers Standardization Society bonnet stud bolts. fitting. While made in a manner similar to of the Valve and Fittings Industry Gate valve A valve that is used to open a solder joint, a brazed joint can withstand NBR Acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber or close off the flow of fluid through a pipe. higher temperatures due to the brazing NFPA National Fire Protection Association It is so named because of the wedge (gate) materials used. NRS Nonrising stem that is either raised out of or lowered into a Soldered Joint OS&Y Outside screw and yoke double-seated sluice to permit full flow or This is used with copper tubing for plumb- PSI Pounds per square inch completely shut off flow. The passageway ing and heating lines and for many low-pres- PTFE Polytetrafluoroethylene plastic through a gate valve is straight through, sure industrial services. The joint is soldered RS Rising stem uninterrupted, and is the full size of the by applying heat. Because of close clearance SWP Steam working pressure pipeline into which the valve is installed. between the tubing and the socket of the fit- TFE Tetrafluoroethylene plastic Gland bushing A metal bushing installed ting or valve, the solder flows into the joint WCB Wrought carbon, grade B between the packing nut and the packing to by capillary action. The use of soldered joints WOG Water, oil, gas (cold working prestransmit the force exerted by the packing nut under high temperatures is limited because sure) against the packing. of the low melting point of the solder. Silver WWP Water working pressure Globe valve A valve that is used for throtsolder or silfos are used for higher pressures tling or regulating the flow through a pipe. Glossary and temperatures. It is so named because of the globular shape Ball A valve consisting of a single drilled of the body. The disc is raised off a horizonFlared End ball that is operated by a handle attached tal seating surface to permit flow or lowered This is commonly used on valves and fit- to the vertical axis of the ball, which peragainst the horizontal seating surface to shut tings for metal and plastic tubing up to 2 in. mits fluid flow in a straight-through direcoff flow. The disc may be lifted completely (50.8 mm) diameter. The end of the tubing tion. The ball within the valve body may be to permit full flow or lifted only slightly to is skirted or flared and a ring nut is used to rotated fully opened or fully closed by one throttle or regulate flow. The flow through a make a union type joint. quarter turn of the handle. globe valve has to make two 90 turns. Body That part of the valve that attaches Flanged End Hand wheel The wheel-shaped turning to the pipeline or equipmentwith screwed This is generally used when screwed ends device by which the stem is rotated, thus liftends, flanged ends, or soldered/welded joint become impractical because of cost, size, ing or lowering the disc or wedge. endsand encloses the working parts of the strength of joint, etc. Flanged ends are genHinge pin The valve part that the disc or valve. erally used for larger-diameter lines due to clapper of a check valve swings. Bonnet The part of the valve housing ease of assembly and dismantling. Flanged Outside screw and yoke A type of through which the stem extends. It provides facings are available in various designs bonnet so constructed that the operating support and protection to the stem and depending on service requirements. One threads of the stem are outside the valve houses the stem packing. It may be screwed important rule is to match facings. When housing, where they may be easily lubrior bolted to the body. bolting iron valves to forged steel flanges, cated and do not come into contact with the Butterfly A type of valve consisting of the facing should be of the flat face design fluid flowing through the valve. a single disc that is operated by a handle on both surfaces. Packing A general term describing any attached to the disc, which permits fluid flow yielding material used to affect a tight joint. Hub End in a straight-through direction. The valve is This is generally limited to valves for water- bidirectional. The disc within the valve body Valve packing is generally jam packing; it is supply and sewage piping. The joint is may be rotated fully open or fully closed by pushed into a stuffing box and adjusted from time to time by tightening down a packing assembled on the socket principle, with the one quarter turn of the handle. gland or packing nut. pipe inserted in the hub end of the valve or Cap The top part of the housing of a Packing gland A device that holds and fitting then caulked with oakum and sealed check valve (equivalent to the bonnet of a compresses the packing and provides for with molten lead. gate or globe valve), which may be either additional compression by manual adjustscrewed or bolted onto the main body. Abbreviations ment of the gland as wear of the packing Check valve An automatic, self-closing AGA American Gas Association occurs. A packing gland may be screwed or valve that permits flow in only one direcAISI American Iron and Steel Institute bolted in place. ANSI American National Standards Institute tion. It automatically closes by gravity when Packing nut A nut that is screwed into liquid ceases to flow in that direction. API American Petroleum Institute place and presses down upon a gland bushing, which transmits the force exerted by
Nov/Dec 2005 Plumbing Systems & Design 53
Disadvantages
Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com in. copper tubing. Care must be taken Design Detail: Quarter-Turn Ball
Valves Advantages and Recommendations
1. Bubble-tight shut-off from resilient (TFE) seats 2. Quick, 90 open/close, not torque dependent for seating 3. Straight-through, unobstructed flow, bidirectional 4. Easier to automate than multiturn valves 5. More compact than multiturn valves 6. Offer long cycle life.
1. Flow path causes a significant pressure drop. 2. Globe valves are more costly than alternative valves.
not to overheat and damage the valves during the soldering process.
Handle Extensions
1. Insulated handle extensions or extended handles should be used to keep insulated piping systems intact.
Disadvantages
1. Temperature and pressure range limited by seat material. 2. Cavity around ball traps media and does not drain entrapped media. Susceptible to freezing, expansion, and increased pressure due to increased temperature.
Body Styles
1. One-piece valves have no potential body leak path but have a double reduced port, thus, significant pressure drop occurs. Not repairable, they are used primarily by chemical and refining plants. 2. Two-piece end entries are used most commonly in building services. They are the best value valves and are available in full- or standard-port balls. They are recommended for on-off or throttling service and not recommended to be repaired. 3. Three-piece type valves are more costly but are easier to disassemble and offer the possibility of in-line repair. They are available in full- or standard-port balls.
Disadvantages
1. Not to be used with steam. 2. Gear operators are needed for 8 in. and larger valves to aid in operation and protect against operating too quickly and causing destructive line shock.
Body Styles
1. Wafer style valves are held in place between two pipe flanges. They are easy to install but cannot be used as isolation valves. 2. Lug-style valves have wafer bodies but tapped lugs matching up to bolt circles of class 125/150-lb flanges. They are easily installed with cap screws from either side. Lug style designs from some manufacturers permit dropping the pipe from one side while the valve holds full pressure if needed. 3. Groove butterfly valves directly connect to pipe using iron-pipe-size, grooved couplings. While more costly than wafer valves, grooved valves are the easiest to install.
Port Size
1. Full-port ball valves provide a pressure drop equal to the equivalent length of the pipe, slightly better than gate valves. 2. Standard- (conventional-) port balls are up to one pipe size smaller than the nominal pipe size but still have significantly better flow characteristics than globe valves. 3. Reduced-port ball valves have greater than one pipe size flow restriction and are not recommended in building services piping but rather are used for process piping for hazardous material transfer.
Design Detail: Quarter-Turn Valves, Lubricated Plug Cocks Advantages and Recommendations
1. Bubble-tight shut-off from stem seal of reinforced Teflon. Leakproof, springloaded ball and lubricated, sealed check valve and combination lubricant screw and button head fitting prevent foreign matter from being forced into the lubrication system. 2. Quick, 90 open/close, not dependent on torque for seating.
End Connections
1. Threaded ball valves with ANSI female taper threads are most commonly used with pipe up to 2 in. 2. Soldered-end valves permit the direct connection of bronze ball valves to 2-
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Simpo PDF aMerge Split Unregistered Version http://www.simpopdf.com When required, vertical and indicator post iron, with flanged ends for use with class 175 psig working pressure, UL listed, FM may be used on underground valves. Posts 250/300 flanges. They shall be UL listed, FM approved and in compliance with MSS SPmust provide a means of knowing if the approved, and in compliance with MSS SP- 67. valve is open or shut. Indicator posts must 71. Valves furnished shall have ductile-iron be UL listed and FM approved. Note: In New York City, valves are to be ASTM A-536 body, and may have ductile-iron approved by the New York City Materials ASTM A-395 (nickel-plated) discs or alumiHigh-Rise Service and Equipment Acceptance Division (MEA), num bronze discs, depending upon the local in addition to the above specifications. water conditions. In addition, wafer style for Gate valves installation between class 125/150 flanges or 2- to 12-in. Gate valves 2 to 10 in. Ball valves lug style or grooved body may be specified, shall be rated 300 psi WWP or greater, 12 2 in. and smaller Valves 2 in. and smaller depending upon the system needs. in. shall be rated 250 psi WWP, and have an shall be constructed of commercial bronze, Valves shall be equipped with weatheriron body, bronze mounted, with body and ASTM B 584, rated 175 psi WWP or higher, proof gear operator rated for indoor/outbonnet conforming to ASTM A-126, class B, with reinforced TFE seats. Valves shall have door use, with hand wheel and raised posicast iron, OS & Y, with flanged ends for use a gear operator with a raised position indi- tion indicator with two internal supervisory with class 250/300 flanges. They shall be UL cator and two internal supervisory switches. switches. listed, FM approved, and in compliance with Valves shall have threaded or IPS grooved Check valves Valves 2 in. and larger MSS SP-70. ends and shall have blowout-proof stems shall be 500 psi WWP, bolted bonnet, with and chrome-plated balls. They shall be UL body and bonnet conforming to ASTM ACheck valves 2- to 12-in. Check valves 2 to 10 in. listed, FM approved, and in compliance with 126, class B cast iron, flanged end with comshall be rated 300 psi WWP or greater, 12 in. MSS SP-110 for fire-protection service. position y-pattern, horizontal, swing type shall be rated 250 psi WWP, and have an iron disc. They shall be UL listed, FM approved, Butterfly valves body, bronze mounted, with a horizontal 4 to 12 in. Butterfly valves may be sub- and in compliance with MSS SP-71 type 1 for swing check design, with body and bonnet stituted for gate valves, where appropri- fire-protection service. n conforming to ASTM A 126 Class B, cast ate. Valves shall be rated for 250 psi WWP,
57
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Appraisal Questions
Valves (PSD 130) Was the material new information for you? Yes No Was the material presented clearly? Yes No Was the material adequately covered? Yes No Did the content help you achieve the stated objectives? Yes No Did the CE questions help you identify specic ways to use ideas presented in the article? Yes No 6. How much time did you need to complete the CE oering (i.e., to read the article and answer the post-test questions)?___________________ 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
59
JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2007
PSDMAGAZINE.ORG
PSD 137
Vent Systems
CONTINUING EDUCATION
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Vent Systems
Flow of air is the primary consideration in the design of a venting system for the ventilation of the piping and protection of the fixture trap seals of a sanitary drainage system. Since air is of such primary importance, it is essential that the plumbing engineer be familiar with certain physical characteristics that are pertinent to its behavior in a plumbing system. Density of any substance is its mass per unit volume. The density of air is its weight in pounds per cubic foot of volume. The density of air is affected by temperature, moisture content, and pressure. The density of standard air is taken at atmospheric pressure and 68.4F. It is equal to 0.075 lbm/ft3. With a rise in temperature, the density of air decreases and with a lowering of temperature its density increases. The moisture content of air in the plumbing system has a negligible effect on its density and can be disregarded in all calculations. Pressure has an appreciable effect; the higher the pressure the greater the density, and the lower the pressure the less the density. Specific Weight of a fluid is not an absolute property, but depends upon the local gravitational field (gravitational acceleration on earth is g=32.2 ft/sec2) and the properties of the fluid itself. Commonly called density when concerning gravitational force, the numerical value of specific weight (lbf/ft3) is equal to density (lbm/ft3). Elasticity is the ability of a substance to assume its original characteristics after the removal of a force that has been applied. Air is a perfectly elastic substance. From the scientific definition of elasticity it becomes clear that a rubber band is really a very inelastic material. If a weight is suspended from a rubber band and left for a few hours, then the weight is removed, the rubber band will spring back, but definitely not to its original length. If a force is applied to air, the force can be applied for days or years, and when it is removed, the air will return exactly to its original condition. Air is compressible. There is an increase in pressure when air is compressed. In the plumbing system, only an extremely small change in pressure can be tolerated. For a pressure of 1 in. of water column (0.036 psi), the volume of air will be compressed by 1400 of its original volume. Assuming an original volume of 400 ft3 of air at atmospheric pressure and the application of a pressure of 1 in. of water column, the air will be compressed by 400 1400= 1 ft3. It is obvious that a comparatively small change in volume can very easily cause the accepted design limitation of 1 in. of pressure to be exceeded with the consequent danger of destroying the trap seals. The vent piping must be designed to permit the air to flow freely without compression or expansion except for the small amount necessary to overcome friction.
h and h= 144p p= 144 where p = Pressure, lbf./in2 = Specific weight of substance, lbf/ft3 h = Static head, ft
(1)
STATIC HEAD
Static head is the pressure exerted at any point by the weight of the substance above that point. The pressure can be stated in feet of the substance, i.e., when the substance is water the static head is 100 ft of water, or if the substance is air, 100 ft of air. To convert from feet of head to pounds-force per square inch:
Reprinted from Engineered Plumbing Design II, Chapter 8: Vent Systems, by A. Calvin Laws, PE, CPD. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 2 Plumbing Systems & Design
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dO D Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com tables of vent sizing for each particular design. Recognizing this,
2
q =13.17
The design criterion of maintaining pneumatic pressure fluctuations within l in. of water column is constantly stressed throughout this book. It should prove interesting to state this pressure in terms of an equivalent column of air. The formula for any substance is, per Equation 1: P= then P= h 144 (6) where W = Specific weight of water, lbf/ft3 hW = Static head of water, ft A = Specific weight of air, lbf/ft3 hA = Static head of air, ft W hW A hA = 144 144
Transposing and using 1 in. of water column, hW (62.408) (112) hA= W A = 0.07512 (at 70 F.) hA=69.23 ft of air column A column of air 69.23 ft will exert the same pressure as a column of water 1 in. high. Stated another way, a static head of 1 in. of water will support a column of air 69.23 ft high. The rate of discharge from a vent outlet can now be determined when the pressure at the outlet is 1 in. of water or 69.23 ft of air. qD =13.17 dO2 h =13.17 dO2 (69.23) =(13.17) (8.32) dO2 =109.57 dO2 The gallons per minute (cubic feet per minute) discharge rate for various diameters of vent pipe at a flow pressure of 1 in. of water column is given in Table 1. Table 1Discharge Rates of Air (1 Inch Water Pressure) Outlet Diam, Air Discharge, dO inches qD gpm (cfm) 2 438.3 (58.6) 2 684.8 (91.5) 3 986.1 (131.8) 4 1753.0 (234.3) 5 2739.0 (366.1)
authorities base the formulation of venting tables for vent stacks and horizontal branches on the worst conditions that may reasonably be expected. To determine the maximum lengths and minimum diameters for vent stacks it would be valuable to review the conditions of flow in the drainage stack. At maximum design flow, the water flows down the stack as a sheet of water occupying 724 of the crosssectional area of the stack. The remaining 1724 is occupied by a core of air. As the water falls down the stack, it exerts a frictional drag on the core of air and as this air is dragged down it must be replaced by an equivalent quantity of air so as not to develop negative pressures in excess of -1 in. of water. This is accomplished by extending the soil stack through the roof so that air may enter the stack to replenish the air being pulled down the stack. This is why stacks must be extended full size through the roof and also why soil stacks may not be reduced in size even though the load is less on the upper portions of the stack than it is at the lower portions. Any restriction in the size before terminating at the atmosphere would cause violent pressure fluctuations. As the water flows down the stack and enters the horizontal drain there is a severe restriction to the flow of air as the hydraulic jump occurs. The air is compressed and pressure buildup may become very high. A vent stack is provided in this area of high pressure to relieve the pressure by providing an avenue for the flow of air. Obviously, the vent stack must be large enough to permit the maximum quantity of air dragged down the drainage stack to discharge through it and to the atmosphere without exceeding 1 in. of water fluctuation The rate of air discharge that must be accommodated for various sizes of drainage stacks flowing at design capacity is tabulated in Table 2. Table 2Air Required by Attendant Vent Stacks (Drainage Stack Flowing 724 Full) Diameter of Drainage Stack, inches Water Flow, gpm Air Flow, gpm (cfm) 2 23.5 57.1 (7.6) 3 70.0 170.1 (22.7) 4 145.0 352.4 (47.1) 5 270.0 656.1 (87.7) 6 435.0 1057.1 (141.3) 8 920.0 2235.6 (298.9) 10 1650.0 4009.5 (536) 12 2650.0 6439.5 (860.8)
where h = friction head loss, ft. of air column f = coefficient of friction L = length of pipe, ft. D = diameter of pipe, ft. V = velocity of air, ft/sec g = gravitational acceleration 32.2 ft./sec2
(8) (9)
q=2.448 d2V q V= 2.448d2 Substituting V in the Darcy equation, f Lq2 h= d ( 12)(64.4)(2.448)2(d)4 Solving for L,
5 h d5 L= = 22262d 0.013109 f q2 fq
(10)
where L = Length of pipe, ft d = Diameter of pipe, in. f = Coefficient of friction q = Quantity rate of flow, gpm
GRAvITY CIRCULATION
The principle of gravity circulation of air is utilized to keep the entire sanitary system free of foul odors and the growth of slime and fungi. The circulation is induced by the difference in head (pressure) between outdoor air and the air in the vent piping. This difference of head is due to the difference in temperature, and thus the difference in density, of each and the height of the air column in the vent piping. The cool air, being more dense, tends to displace the less dense air of the system and circulation of the air is induced. The formula is (11) H= 0.1925 (O-1) HS where H = Natural draft pressure, in. of water O = Specific weight of outside air, lbf/ft3 1 = Specific weight of air in pipe, lbf/ft3 HS = Height of air column or stack, ft Under conditions of natural draft, the rate of flow will be just great enough to overcome losses due to friction.
VENT STACKs
Every drainage stack should be extended full size through the roof. The pipe from the topmost drainage branch connection through the roof to atmosphere is called the vent extension. The vent extension provides the air that is dragged down the stack and also provides means for the gravity circulation of air throughout the system. Vent extensions may be connected with the vent stack before extending through the roof or may be connected together with other vent extensions or vent stacks in a vent header and the header extended through the roof as a single pipe. 4 Plumbing Systems & Design
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Every drainage stack should have an attendant vent stack. The purpose of installing a vent stack is to prevent the development of excessive pressures in the lower regions of the drainage stack by relieving the air as rapidly as it is carried down by the discharge of the drainage stack. The most effective location for the vent stack is below all drainage branch connections and preferably at the top of the horizontal drain immediately adjacent to the stack base fitting. It is at this location that pressure is at its maximum and the danger of closure due to fouling is at its minimum. Figure 1 illustrates acceptable methods of vent stack connections. The vent stack should extend undiminished in size through the roof or connect with the vent extension of the drainage stack at least 6 in. above the overflow of the highest fixture or connect to a vent header.
VENT TERMINALs
Vent terminals should not be located within 10 ft of any door, window, or ventilation intake unless they are extended at least 2 ft above such openings. Terminals should be at least 6 in. above roof level and at least 5 ft above when the roof is used for other
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purposes. When it is impractical to extend the vent through the Some of the conclusions drawn by French and Eaton as a result Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com roof, it is permissible to terminate through a wall, but the ter- of their investigations are very illuminating and are quoted minal must turn down and be covered with a wire screen. The herewith: terminal should never be located beneath a building overhang. 1. Increasing the diameter of the outlet orifice of a lavatory
The water seal of all fixture traps should be protected against siphonage or blowout by the proper installation of a venting system. When drainage stacks are provided with an adequate supply of air at the terminal and an adequate vent stack is provided to relieve excess pressures at the base of the drainage stack, the only additional vent protection required to prevent water seal loss in fixture traps is that necessary to prevent selfsiphonage when the fixture discharges and to relieve excessive pneumatic effects in the branch drains when other fixtures discharge into the branch. Some municipalities require that every fixture trap be individually vented, but most localities permit alternate methods such as 1. 2. 3. 4. Wet venting Stack venting Circuit and loop venting Combination waste and vent venting
from 118 in. to 1 in. increases the trap seal loss greatly, frequently more than 100%, owing to the increased discharge rate. 2. Flatbottomed fixtures cause smaller trap seal losses than do round fixtures, owing to the greater trail discharge from the former. 3. With a 1-in. fixture trap and drain, an 1in. by 20-in. lavatory gave greater trapseal losses than did a 20-in. by 24-in. lavatory, presumably owing to the greater trail discharge of the latter. When a 1 in. trap and drain were used, no particular difference was noted in the trap seal losses caused by the two lavatories. 4. The elimination of the overflow in lavatories will increase the trap seal losses substantially. 5. The effect on trap seal losses of varying the vertical distance from the fixture to the trap from 6 in. to 12 in. appears to be negligible. 6. For a given rate of discharge from a lavatory, decreasing the diameter of the drain will increase trap seal losses. 7. An increase in slope or a decrease in diameter of the fixture drain will tend to cause increased losses due to selfsiphonage, and these two dimensions are fully as important as the length of fixture drain in causing selfsiphonage. 8. Trap seal losses are usually much greater when a longturn stack fitting is used than when a shortturn or straighttee fitting is used. No significant difference between the behavior of shortturn and straighttee fittings was observed. Thus, since it is known that a longturn fitting is more effective in introducing water from a horizontal branch into the stack than is either the shortturn or straighttee fitting, the characteristics of these fittings are contradictory in these respects. The fitting that is most advantageous from the standpoint of introducing the water into the stack is the least advantageous from the standpoint of selfsiphonage. 9. Trap seal losses are increased if the internal diameter of a Ptrap is less than that of the fixture drain. Thus, if we are to prevent excessive trap seal losses for a Ptrap due to selfsiphonage, we should use a trap having a fairly large internal diameter. Furthermore, siphonage of the trap due to pressure reductions caused by the discharge of other fixtures on the system can be rendered less harmful by using a trap with a large depth of seal. While increasing the depth of seal may lead to greater trap seal losses, it also results in a greater remaining trap seal than if a trap with a shallow seal were used. 10. The test results on the selfsiphonage of water closets have indicated that the unvented length of drain for these fixtures need not be limited because of selfsiphonage. 11. Standardization of the dimensions of fixture traps and especially of lavatory traps, with regard to internal diameter and depth of trap seal is highly desirable. Minor restrictions on these dimensions can lead to substantially increased lengths of fixture drains.
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more than 45 from the vertical. The horizontal run of the vent should be at least 6 in. above the overflow level of the fixture. (See Figure 4.) Figure 4 Horizontal Run of Vent
RELIEF VENTs
Pressures in the drainage and vent stacks of a multistory building are constantly fluctuating. The vent stack connection at the base of the drainage stack and the branch vent connections to the branch drains cannot always eliminate these fluctuations. It then becomes extremely important to balance pressures throughout the drainage stack by means of relief vents located at various intervals. The fluctuations in pressure may be caused by the simultaneous discharge of branches on various separated floors. Drainage stacks in buildings having more than ten branch intervals should be provided with a relief vent at each tenth interval, counting from the topmost branch downward. The lower end of the relief vent should connect to the drainage stack below the drainage branch connection and the upper end should connect to the vent stack at least 3 ft above the floor level. (See Figure 5.) Relief vents are required where a drainage stack offsets at an angle of more than 45 to the vertical. Such offsets are subject to high pneumatic pressure increases and extreme surging flow
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connection level or below. (See Figure 7.) At lower floors: The rules are the same except that the water closets must be vented and the wet vent must be 2 in. minimum. Water closets below the top story need not be individually vented if a 2-in. wet vented waste pipe connects directly to the upper half of the horizontal water closet drain at an angle no greater than 45 from the angle of flow. (See Figure 8.) Stack venting finds its general application in onefamily homes and the top floor of multistory buildings. (See Figures 7 and 9.)
CONTINUOUs VENTING
A system of individual or common vents for every trap is called continuous venting. Every fixture trap is provided with a vent. It is the most expensive system but provides positive protection of all trap seals.
WET VENTING A wet vent is a vent that vents a particular fixture and at the same time serves as a waste to receive the discharge from other fixtures. The objective of using wet vents is to minimize the vent piping required by employing one pipe to serve two functions. There are three fundamental rules to follow when utilizing a wet vent:
At top floor: 1. No more than 1 FU is discharged into a 1-in. wet vent nor more than 4 FU into a 2-in. wet vent. 2. Length of drain does not exceed maximum permissible distance between trap and vent. 3. Branch connects to the stack at the water closet
extension of the drainage stack instead of to the vent stack. (See Figure 10.) When wall outlet fixtures are connected to the branch drain serving the floor outlet fixtures, the former must be provided with individual vents that can connect to the circuit vent or loop vent.
COMMON VENTs
Where two fixtures are connected to a vertical branch at the same level, a common vent may be employed. When one of the fixtures connects at a different level than the other, observe the following procedure. If fixture drains are the same size, increase the vertical drain one size. If fixture drains are of different sizes, connect the smaller above the larger connection and maintain the vertical size up to the top connection.
SUDs PREssURE
The prevalent use of highsudsing detergents in washing machines, dishwashers, laundry trays, and kitchen sinks has created serious problems in all residential buildings and especially in highrise buildings. Until manufacturers are forced to market only detergents without sudsing characteristics, the plumbing engineer must understand and cope with the dangers created Figure 10 Circuit and Loop Venting
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watersupplied receptacle. The stack should extend through An individual vapor vent drip can be connected through an air gap to the inlet of the trap serving the fixture. Vapor vents for bedpan washers and bedpan sterilizers must not connect with the vapor vents of other fixtures. Sizing of the vapor vent stack may be by empirical methods or the rational approach may be used. The minimum size of the stack should be 1 in.
d ( fq )
2 2
and using Table 1, which gives air discharge in gpm for various pipe diameters. It has been found in practice that 3 in. is adequate except for extremely large installations.
FROsT CLOsURE
upper stack section. A pressure zone also exists 40 stack diameters upstream from the top fitting of the lower stack section. 2. At the base of a soil or waste stack: The suds pressure zone extends 40 stack diameters upward from the base fitting. 3. In the horizontal drain from the base of a stack: The suds pressure zone extends 10 stack diameters from the base fitting, and where an offset greater than 45 in the horizontal occurs, the pressure zones extend 40 stack diameters upstream and 10 diameters downstream from the offset fitting. 4. In a vent stack connected to a suds pressure zone: The suds pressure zone exists from the vent stack base connection upward to the level of the suds pressure zone in the soil or waste stack. Figure 11 illustrates all the above zones. Where the danger of frost closure of vent terminals is present, the minimum size of the vent stack or vent extension through the roof should be 3 in. When a vent stack must be increased in size going through the roof, the increase should be made inside the building at least 1 ft below the roof. The National Bureau of Standards has investigated the problem of frost closure both theoretically and experimentally. It was demonstrated that a 3-in. vent terminal froze up solidly at -30F only over an extended period of time. Closure occurs at the rate of 1 in. for every 24 hr. that the temperature remains at -30F. It can be seen that frost closure presents a real problem only in the far northern regions. The problem is serious in Canada, and they have devised various methods of overcoming it: 1. Vent terminal to extend only 1 in. or 2 in. above the roof. The more pipe exposed to the atmosphere, the greater the problem. Snow covering the vent terminal has proven to cause no trouble. The snow is porous enough for the passage of air and melts rather rapidly at the outlet. 2. Enlargement of the stack below the roof. The increased diameter decreases the chance of complete closure and the stream of air tends to flow through the enlarged portion without touching the walls of the enlarged pipe. 3. Install cap flashing at the terminal and counterflashing to leave an air space from the heated building. Frost closure depends upon the: (1) outside temperature, (2) temperature and humidity of inside air, (3) wind velocity, (4) length of exposed pipe, (5) diameter of exposed pipe, and (6) velocity of air flow. There is very little danger of frost closure unless the outside temperature falls below -10F and remains
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Kenneth G.Wentink, PE, CPD, and Robert D. Jackson
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c. connect 10 pipe diameters from any high pressure suds zone d. be 20 percent to 80 percent larger in diameter 7. What is the primary consideration in the design of a venting system? a. removing odors from the sewer system b. correctly sizing the vent piping to match the size of the waste piping c. the flow of air in the vent system d. none of the above
8. For a given rate of discharge from a lavatory, decreasing the diameter of the drain will ___________. a. increase the water discharge velocity from the fixture b. decrease the water discharge velocity from the fixture c. increase trap seal losses d. prevent trap seal losses 9. Smoke tests and peppermint air tests ___________. a. can detect the location of a leak in a vent system b. are no longer allowed by OSHA and the EPA c. are not practical and seldom used d. may not be used where frost closure is expected
10. A column of air 69.23 feet high exerts the same pressure as a column of water ___________ high. a. 1 inch, b. 10 inches, c. 100 inches, d. 1,000 inches 11. A branch vent interval is ___________. a. determined by the floor-to-floor height of the building b. dependent on the arrangement of the fittings connecting at each floor c. at least 8 feet between branches d. of no importance in modern plumbing systems 12. The maximum distance of a vent to a 2-inch-diameter trap is ___________. a. 30 inches, b. 42 inches, c. 60 inches, d. 72 inches
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The objective in designing the water supply systems for any project is to ensure an adequate water supply at adequate pressure to all fixtures and equipment at all times and to achieve the most economical sizing of the piping. There are at least six important reasons that proper design of water distribution systems is absolutely essential: 1. Health. This is of irrefutable and paramount importance. Inadequate or improper sizing can cause decreases in pressure in portions of the piping system, which in turn can cause contamination of the potable water supply by backflow or siphonage. There are too many well-documented deaths attributable to this cause. Pressure. It is essential to maintain the required flow pressures at fixtures and equipment or improper operation will result. Flow. Proper and adequate quantities of flow must be maintained at fixtures and equipment for obvious reasons. Water Supply. Improper sizing can cause failure of the water supply due to corrosion or scale buildup. Pipe Failure. Pipe failure can occur due to the relation of the rate of corrosion with excessive velocities. Noise. Velocities in excess of 10 ft/sec will cause noise and increase the danger of hydraulic shock.
reading the gauge while flow is occurring. With the flow pressure known, the following formula can be used: (1)
q=20d2 p
where q = rate of flow at the outlet, gpm d = actual inside diameter (ID) of outlet, in. p = flow pressure, psi Assume a faucet with a 38-in. supply and the flow pressure is 16 psi. Then: q = 20(38)2(16) = 209644 = 11.25 gpm The flow for a -in. and 18-in. supply at the same pressure would be 5 gpm and 1.25 gpm, respectively.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
CONSTANT FLOW
Pressures in the various parts of the piping system are constantly fluctuating depending upon the quantity of flow at any moment. Under these conditions the rate of flow from any one outlet will vary with the change of pressure. In industrial and laboratory projects there is some equipment that must be supplied with a fixed and steady quantity of flow regardless of line pressure fluctuations. This feature is also desirable in any type of installation. This criterion can easily be achieved by the utilization of an automatic flow-control orifice. A flow control is a simple, selfcleaning device designed to deliver a constant volume of water over a wide range of inlet pressures. (See Figures 1 and 2.) The automatic controlling mechanism consists of a flexible orifice that varies its cross-sectional area inversely with the pressure so that a constant flow rate is maintained under all conditions. Until the inlet pressure reaches the threshold pressure (1215 psi), the flexible insert acts as a fixed orifice. When the threshold pressure is exceeded, the cross-sectional area of the orifice is decreased by the flexure of the insert. This causes a pressure drop that is equal to whatever pressure is necessary to absorb the energy not required to overcome system friction and to
Of all the complaints resulting from improperly designed water systems, the two that occur most frequently are (1) lack of adequate pressure and (2) noise. Noise may not be detrimental to the operation of a water distribution system but it is very definitely a major nuisance. The lack of adequate pressure, however, can have very serious repercussions in the operation of any water system.
FLOW PRESSURE
It is essential that the term flow pressure be thoroughly understood and not confused with static pressure. Flow pressure is that pressure that exists at any point in the system when water is flowing at that point. It is always less than the static pressure. To have flow, some of the potential energy is converted to kinetic energy and additional energy is used in overcoming friction, which results in a flow pressure that is less than the static pressure. Figure 1 Flow Control When a manufacturer lists the minimum pressure required for the proper operation of a flush valve as 25 psi, it is the flow pressure requirement that is being indicated. The flush valve will not function at peak efficiency (if at all) if the engineer has erroneously designed the system so that a static pressure of 25 psi exists at the inlet to the flush valve.
FLOW AT AN OUTLET There are many times when the engineer must determine how many gallons per minute are being delivered at an outlet. This can easily be determined by installing a pressure gauge in the line adjacent to the outlet and
Reprinted from Engineered Plumbing Design II, Chapter 13: Water System Design, by A. Calvin Laws, PE, CPD. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 2 Plumbing Systems & Design
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these problems because they automatically comrate of water delivery from all outlets to a preselected number of gallons per minute. One very important word of cautiona flow control is not designed to perform the function of pressure regulation and should never be used where a pressure-regulating valve is required.
MATERIAL SELEcTION
Before the type of material for the piping of a water distribution system can be selected, certain factors must be evaluated: 1. The characteristics of the water supply must be known. What is the degree of alkalinity or acidity? A pH above 7 is alkaline and below 7 is acidic. A pH of 7 represents neutral water. What is the air, carbon dioxide, and mineral content? The municipal water supply department can usually furnish all this information. If it is not available, a water analysis should be made by a qualified laboratory. 2. What are the relative costs of the various suitable materials? 3. Ease of replacementcan the material be obtained in a reasonable time or must it be shipped from localities that might delay arrival for months? 4. Actual inside dimensions of the same nominal size of various materials differ. This variation in ID can have a significant effect on sizing because of the variation in quantity rates of flow for the same design velocity. Table 1 shows the actual ID for various materials. 5. The roughness or smoothness (coefficient of friction) of the pipe will have a marked effect on pipe sizes.
Table 1 Actual Inside Diameter of Piping,in Inches Nominal Iron or Steel Brass or Copper Water Copper Water Pipe Size, Pipe, Sch. Copper Pipe Tube, Type K Tube, Type L In. 40 0.622 0.625 0.527 0.545 0.824 0.822 0.745 0.785 1 1.049 1.062 0.995 1.025 1 1.380 1.368 1.245 1.265 1 1.610 1.600 1.481 1.505 2 2.067 2.062 1.959 1.985 2 2.469 2.500 2.435 2.465 3 3.068 3.062 2.907 2.945 4 4.026 4.000 3.857 3.905 5 5.047 5.062 4.805 4.875 6 6.065 6.125 5.741 5.845 8 7.981 8.001 7.583 7.725 10 10.020 10.020 9.449 9.625
PARALLEL CIRcUITS
There are many parallel pipe circuits in the water distribution system of any job. An arrangement of parallel pipe circuits is one in which flow from a single branch divides and flows in two or more branches which again join in a single pipe. Figure 3 illustrates a simple two-circuit system. The total flow entering point A is the same leaving point A with a portion flowing through branch 1 and the rest through branch 2. Flows q1 and q2 must equal q and the total pressure drop from A to B is the same
sustain the rated flow. The curve shown in Figure 2 is typical of most flow controls regardless of the rated flow, which is why no figures are shown for the gallons per minute axis. It is possible to approximate the flow of a specific flow control by using the line marked Nominal Flow Rate as the desired rate. Assume a piece of equipment requires the fixed Figure 3 Typical Parallel Pipe Circuit flow of 40 gpm and there is considerable line pressure fluctuation. A flow control would be specified to deliver 40 gpm. By use of the curve in Figure 2 the deviation from 40 gpm at various pressures can be read by assigning a value of 40 to the nominal flow rate line on the vertical scale and zero to the baseline. Standard flow controls are available in sizes from in. to 2 in. and flow rates from to 90 gpm. They are ideal for use in limiting the maximum rate of flow to any fixture. It is not unusual in a water distribution system to experience fluctuating discharges at fixtures and equipment due to other fixtures and equipment starting up or shutting down. Flow controls will minimize
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must also be analyzed. If large housing, commercial, or industrial development is anticipated, the pressure available will certainly decrease as these loads are added to the public mains. It is good practice to assume a pressure available for design purposes as 10 psi less than the utility quotes. If the pressure from the public mains is inadequate for building operation, other means must be provided for increasing the pressure to an adequate level. There are three basic methods available: 1. Gravity tank system 2. Hydropneumatic tank system 3. Booster pump system Each system has its own distinct and special advantages and disadvantages. All three should be evaluated in terms of capital expenditure, operating costs, maintenance costs, and space requirements. Depending upon which criteria are the most important, this will dictate which system is selected.
whichever branch is traversed. The rate of flow through each branch becomes such as to produce this equal pressure drop. The division of flow in each branch can then be expressed as: (2)
FLOW DEfINITIONS
Maximum flow or maximum possible flow is the flow that will occur if the outlets on all fixtures are opened simultaneously. Average flow is that flow likely to occur in the piping under normal conditions. Maximum probable flow is the maximum flow that will occur in the piping under peak conditions. It is also called peak demand or peak flow.
q1 = q2
Assume there is a flow in a 3in. pipe of 160 gpm entering point A and leaving point B as shown in Figure 4. The length of branch 1 is 20 ft and branch 2 is 100 ft. The size of branch 1 is 2 in. and branch 2 is 3 in. To determine the quantity of flow in each branch, the basic formula is applied, and: q1 100 2 5 q2 = 20 3
d ( d) L2 L1
1 2
DEmAND TYpES
Some outlets impose what is called a continuous demand on the system. They are differentiated from outlets that impose an intermittent demand. Outlets such as hose bibbs, lawn irrigation, air-conditioning makeup, water cooling, and similar flow requirements are considered to be continuous demands. They occur over an extended period of time. Plumbing fixtures draw water for a relatively short period of time and are considered as imposing an intermittent demand. Each fixture has its own singular loading effect on the system, which is determined by the rate of water supply required, the duration of each use, and the frequency of use. The water demand is related to the number of fixtures, type of fixtures, and probable simultaneous use.
( )
INADEQUATE PRESSURE
As previously noted, lack of adequate pressure is one of the most frequent complaints and could be the cause of serious troubles. The pressure available for water distribution within a building can come from various sources. Municipalities usually maintain water pressure in their distribution mains within the range of 3545 psi. There are localities where the pressure maintained is much less or greater. The local utility will furnish the information as to their minimum and maximum operating pressures. When utilizing only the public water main pressure for the water distribution system within a building, it is very important to determine the pressure available in the mains during the summer months. Huge quantities of water are used during this period for sprinkling of lawns and for air-conditioning cooling tower 4 Plumbing Systems & Design
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ESTImATING DEmAND The basic requirements for estimating demand call for a method that 1. Produces estimates that are greater than the average demand for all fixtures or inadequate supply will result during periods of peak demand. 2. Produces an accurate estimate of the peak demand to avoid oversizing. 3. Produces estimates for demand of groups of the same type of fixtures as well as for mixed fixture types. DESIGN LOADS
Arriving at a reasonably accurate estimate of the maximum probable demand is complicated due to the intermittent operation and irregular frequency of use of fixtures. Different kinds of fixtures are not in uniform use. Bathroom fixtures are most frequently used on arising or retiring and, not surprisingly, during television commercials. Kitchen sinks find heavy usage
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before and after meals. Laundry trays and washing machines WATER SUppLY FIXTURE UNITS Simpo PDF and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com are most likely to beMerge used in the late morning. During the period A standard method for estimating the water demand for a buildfrom midnight to 6 P.M. there is very little fixture use. Luckily, ing has evolved through the years and has been accepted almost fixtures are used intermittently and the total time in operation is unanimously by plumbing designers. It is a system based on relatively small so it is not necessary to design for the maximum weighting fixtures in accordance with their water supply loadpotential load. Maximum flow is therefore of no real interest to producing effects on the water distribution system. The National the designer. Average flow is also of no concern, for if a system Bureau of Standards has published report BMS 65, Methods of were designed to meet this criterion it would not satisfy the con- Estimating Loads in Plumbing Systems, by the late Dr. Roy B. ditions under peak flow. It is therefore necessary to consider Hunter, which gives tables of load-producing characteristics only the maximum probable demand (peak demand) imposed (fixture unit weights) of commonly used fixtures, along with by the fixtures on a system. probability curves that make it possible to apply the method Two methods have evolved in the United States that, when easily to actual design problems. used where applicable, have proven to give satisfactory results. The method of probability should not be used for a small They are the empirical method and method of probability. The number of fixtures. Although the design load, as computed by empirical method is based upon arbitrary decisions arrived at this method, has a certain probability of not being exceeded, from experience and judgment. It is useful only for small groups it may nevertheless be exceeded on rare occasions. When a of fixtures. The method of probability is based upon the theory system contains only a few fixtures, the additional load imposed of probabilities and is most accurate for large groups of fixtures. by one fixture more than has been calculated by the theory of In the past, certain demand rates became generally accepted probability can easily overload the system. When a system conas standard. These rates are tabulated in Table 2 for the common tains a large number of fixtures, one or several additional fixture types of fixtures and the average pressure necessary to deliver loadings will have an insignificant effect on the system. this rate of flow. The actual pressure for a specific fixture will In developing the application of the theory of probability to vary with each manufacturers design, some requiring a greater determine design loads on a domestic water distribution system, or lesser pressure than others. Hunter assumed that the operation of the fixtures in a plumbAlthough the flow rates shown in Table 2 have been used by ing system could be viewed as purely random events. He then engineers, they are hopelessly outdated. Water conservation determined the maximum frequencies of use of the fixtures. He measures being mandated by federal regulations and model obtained the values of the frequencies from records collected codes make the flow rates shown in Table 2 unreasonable for in hotels and apartment houses during the periods of heaviest use in the design of systems. The federal Energy Policy Act usage. He also determined characteristic values of the average (EPACT92) established the following criteria for water use by rates of flow for different fixtures and the time span of a single fixture: operation of each. If only one type of fixture were used in a building, the appli Water closets: 1.6 gal/flush cation of the theory of probability would be very simple and Urinals: 1.5 gal/flush straightforward. When dealing with systems composed of Showers: 2.5 gpm various types of fixtures that must be combined, the process Lavatories: 2.5 gpm becomes extremely involved and too complicated to be of any Sinks: 2.5 gpm Manufacturers offer fixtures meeting these and more stringent practical use. Faced with this dilemma, Hunter devised an ingerequirements. Lavatories with 0.5 gpm flow rates and urinals nious method to circumvent the problem by a simple process with 1.0 gal/flush have been installed in thousands of buildings which yields results within % accuracy of the more involved with satisfactory results. However, there is a need for research and laborious calculations required. He conceived the idea of to determine the actual minimum flow required, for each type assigning fixture loading factors or fixture unit weights to of fixture, to satisfy psychological requirements of the user and the different kinds of fixtures to represent the degree to which they loaded a system when used at their maximum assumed provide the necessary sanitary requirements. frequency. A fixture unit weight of 10 was arbitrarily assigned by Hunter to a flush valve, and all other fixtures were assigned values based on their load-producing effect in relation to the flush valve. All fixtures have been converted, in essence, to one fixture type and the application of the theory of probability is Table 2Demand at Individual Fixtures and Required greatly simplified. Pressure Hunter assigned water supply fixture unit (FU) values for difFixture Flow Pressure, Flow Rate, ferent kinds of fixtures, which are given in Table 3. Conversion psi gpm of fixture unit values to equivalent gallons per minute, based on Ordinary lavatory faucet 8 3.0 the theory of probability of usage developed by Hunter, is given Self-closing lavatory faucet 12 2.5 in Table 4. A graphic representation of this table is shown by Sink faucet, 38 in. 10 4.5 Sink faucet, in. 5 4.5 Figures 5 and 6 (Hunters Curve). Figure 7 gives a graphic repBathtub faucet 5 6.0 resentation of the conversion from fixture units to gallons per Laundry tub faucet, in. 5 5.0 minute for a mixed system. An examination of the curves and Shower head 12 5.0 tables reveals that demand for a system utilizing flush valves is Water closet ush tank 15 3.0 much greater than that for flush tanks for small quantities. The Water closet ush valve, 1 in. 1025 1545 difference in demand for each system decreases as the fixture Urinal ush valve, in. 15 15.0 unit load increases until 1,000 FUs are reached. At this loading Hose bibb or sill cock, in. 30 5.0 and beyond, the demand for both types of systems is the same.
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Type of Supply Occupancy Control Public Flush valve Public Flush tank Public Flush valve Public Flush valve Public Flush tank Public Faucet Public Faucet Public Mixing valve Oce, etc. Faucet Hotel or restaurant Faucet Private Flush valve Private Flush tank Private Faucet Private Faucet Private Mixing valve Private Flush valve W.C. Private Flush tank W.C. Private Mixing valve Private Faucet Private Faucet Private Faucet Hot 1.5 3 3 3 3 .75 1.5 1.5 2.25 2.25 1.5 1.5 2 2 Fixture Units Cold Total 10 10 5 5 10 10 5 5 3 3 1.5 2 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 6 6 3 3 .75 1 1.5 2 1.5 2 6 8 4.5 6 1.5 2 1.5 2 2 3 2 3 Demand (Load) Fixture Units 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200 225 250 275 300 400 500 750 1,000 1,250 1,500 1,750 2,000 2,250 2,500 2,750 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000
Table 4Conversion of Fixture Units to Demand (Load), gpm System with Flush Tanks 0 1 3 4 6 5 6.5 8 9 11 12 13 14 17 20 23 25 27 29 32 35 38 41 44 48 53 57 61 65 70 75 80 85 105 125 170 208 240 267 294 321 348 375 402 432 525 593 643 685 718 745 769 Demand (Load), gpm System with Flush Valves 27 29 30 32 33 35 38 41 44 47 49 52 55 59 62 65 68 73 78 83 87 92 97 101 106 110 126 142 178 208 240 267 294 321 348 375 402 432 525 593 643 685 718 745 769
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Simpo PDF Merge and Split Unregistered Version - http://www.simpopdf.com tain fixtures are entirely different from the rate at which
water is supplied, e.g., bathtubs. The loading effect is therefore different on the drainage system than it is on the water supply system for specific fixtures. For supply outlets that are likely to impose continuous demands, estimate the continuous demand separately from the intermittent demand and add this amount in gallons per minute to the demand of the fixtures in gallons per minute. It should be kept in mind when calculating maximum probable demands that, except for continuous demands, fixture unit values are always added, never gpm values. For example, if the maximum probable demand for two branches is required and one branch has a load of 1250 FU and the other 1750 FU, it would be wrong to add 240 gpm+294 gpm to obtain 534 gpm for the total demand. The correct procedure is to add 1250 FU+1750 FU to obtain a total FU value of 3000 and then from Table 4 determine the correct peak demand as 432 gpm. The 432 gpm value reflects the proper application of the theory of probability. The following example illustrates the procedure for sizing a system.
Example 1
Determine the peak demands for hot and cold and total water for an office building that has 60 flush valve water closets, 12 wall hung urinals, 40 lavatories, and 2 hose bibbs and requires 30 gpm for air-conditioning water makeup. From Table 3 determine the FU values: Hot Water Cold Water Total (Hot & Cold) 60 WC10 600 600 12 UR5 60 60 40 Lavs2 80 40 Lavs1.5 60 60 60 FU 720 FU 740 FU From Table 4 or Figure 5: 60 FU=32 gpm hot water demand 720 FU=174 gpm cold water demand 740 FU=177 gpm total water demand To the cold water and total water demand must be added the continuous demand: 2 hose bibbs5 (from Table 2) = 10 gpm Air-conditioning makeup = 30 gpm 40 gpm Then: Hot water demand: Cold water demand: 174+40 Total water demand: 177+40 = 32 gpm = 214 gpm = 217 gpm
For hot water piping and where there are no flush valves on the cold water piping, the demand corresponding to a given number of fixture units is determined from the values given for the flush tank system. The accuracy of Hunters curve, however, has come into serious question. Results utilizing the curve have proven to be as much as 100% inflated in some instances. The consistent overdesign, however, should in no way be interpreted as indicating that Hunters basic research and approach are incorrect. His method is demonstrably accurate, but it must be remembered that his basic assumptions and criteria were promulgated more than 60 years ago. Many things have changed, and changed drastically, in the interim. Improvements have been made in flush valve design as well as in faucets and fixtures. Social customs and living patterns have changed. The public emphasis on water and energy conservation has altered many basic criteria. It is now necessary to change some of Hunters basic assumptions (but not his concept). It has been demonstrated by thousands of projects operating satisfactorily that it is safe to reduce the values obtained by use of Hunters curve by 40%. It is stressed again that this reduction can be applied only for systems with a large number of fixtures. The opposite is true for water use in toilet facilities where large numbers of people gather, such as sport facilities and auditoriums. In these types of facilities, demand flow rates will exceed those determined by Hunters curve because many people will use the toilet rooms during breaks in the game or performance. The student is again warned to use the table of fixture unit values in the code applicable to the locality of the project. The values vary slightly from code to code. The student is also alerted to the fact that water supply fixture units are not the same as
The conversion of fixture unit loads to equivalent gallons per minute demand was obtained from Table 4 using straight line interpolations to obtain intermediate values. Total water demand is required for sizing the water service line for the building and also for the cold water piping inside the building up to the point where the connection is taken off to the hot water heater supply.
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CONTINUING EDUCATION
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Kenneth G.Wentink, PE, CPD, and Robert D. Jackson
Do you find it difficult to obtain continuing education units (CEUs)? Through this special section in every issue of PS&D, ASPE can help you accumulate the CEUs required for maintaining your Certified in Plumbing Design (CPD) status.
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The technical article you must read to complete the exam is located at www.psdmagazine.org. The following exam and application form also may be downloaded from the website. Reading the article and completing the form will allow you to apply to ASPE for CEU credit. For most people, this process will require approximately one hour. If you earn a grade of 90 percent or higher on the test, you will be notified that you have logged 0.1 CEU, which can be applied toward the CPD renewal requirement or numerous regulatory-agency CE programs. (Please note that it is your responsibility to determine the acceptance policy of a particular agency.) CEU information will be kept on file at the ASPE office for three years.
Note: In determining your answers to the CE questions, use only the material presented in the corresponding continuing education article. Using information from other materials may result in a wrong answer.
The March/April 2007 continuing education article is Water System Design, Chapter 13 of Engineered Plumbing Design II by A. Cal Laws, PE, CPD. The objective in designing the water supply systems for any project is to ensure an adequate water supply at adequate pressure to all fixtures and equipment at all times and to achieve the most economical sizing of the piping. There are at least six important reasons why proper design of water distribution systems is absolutely essential: health, pressure, flow, water, pipe failure, and noise. This chapter describes how to design an effective water system keeping these factors in mind, focusing on pressure, flow, and demand. You may locate this article at www.psdmagazine.org. Read the article, complete the following exam, and submit your answer sheet to the ASPE office to potentially receive 0.1 CEU.
7. The empirical method is _________. a. based on arbitrary decisions b. cannot be duplicated c. allowed only by the most out-of-date codes d. used only by the most senior and the most junior of designers
8. Research is required to _________. a. determine the actual minimum flow required for each fixture type b. satisfy the psychological requirements of the users c. provide the necessary sanitary requirements d. all of the above
9. The pressure that exists in a piping network at any point when water is flowing is considered _________. a. static Pressure b. residual Pressure c. flow pressure d. none of the above 10. The probability method _________. a. works for all plumbing systems b. unanimously accepted by plumbing engineers c. should not be used for small numbers of fixtures d. a and b
11. The two methods of sizing domestic water, empirical method and method of probability, _________. a. are contradictory b. give satisfactory results c. cannot be relied upon d. have been replaced by computer-based methods
12. An automatic flow control orifice is designed to _______. a. regulate pressure b. deliver constant flow c. restrict pressure d. increase pressure
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PSD 138
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This form is valid up to one year from date of publication. The PS&D Continuing Education program is approved by ASPE for up to one contact hour (0.1 CEU) of credit per article. Participants who ear a passing score (90 percent) on the CE questions will receive a letter or certification within 30 days of ASPEs receipt of the application form. (No special certificates will be issued.) Participants who fail and wish to retake the test should resubmit the form along with an additional fee (if required). 1. Photocopy this form or download it from www.psdmagazine.org. 2. Print or type your name and address. Be sure to place your ASPE membership number in the appropriate space. 3. Answer the multiple-choice continuing education (CE) questions based on the corresponding article found on www.psdmagazine.org and the appraisal questions on this form. 4. Submit this form with payment ($35 for nonmembers of ASPE) if required by check or money order made payable to ASPE or credit card via mail (ASPE Education Credit, 8614 W. Catalpa Avenue, Suite 1007, Chicago, IL 60656) or fax (773-695-9007). Please print or type; this information will be used to process your credits. Name _ __________________________________________________________________________________________________ Title _ ______________________________________________ ASPE Membership No.____________________________________ Organization _ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ Billing Address ____________________________________________________________________________________________ City_ _______________________________________ State/Province________________________ Zip _ ____________________ Country____________________________________________ E-mail_ ________________________________________________ Daytime telephone_ _________________________________ Fax___________________________________________________ I am applying for the following continuing education credits: I certify that I have read the article indicated above. ASPE Member Each examination: $25
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Signature Expiration date: Continuing education credit will be given for this examination through March 31, 2008. Applications received after that date will not be processed.
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Appraisal Questions
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Water System Design (PSD 138) Was the material new information for you? Yes No Was the material presented clearly? Yes No Was the material adequately covered? Yes No Did the content help you achieve the stated objectives? Yes No Did the CE questions help you identify specic ways to use ideas presented in the article? Yes No How much time did you need to complete the CE oering (i.e., to read the article and answer the post-test questions)?___________________
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