INCEST

Incest is sexual activity between family members and close relatives. This typically includes sexual activity between people in a consanguineous relationship (blood relations), and sometimes those related by affinity, such as members of the same household, step relatives, those related by adoption or marriage, or members of the same clan or lineage. The incest taboo is and has been one of the most widespread of all cultural taboos, both in present and in many past societies. Most modern societies have laws regarding incest or social restrictions on closely consanguineous marriages. In societies where it is illegal, consensual adult incest is seen by some as a victimless crime. Some cultures extend the incest taboo to relatives with no consanguinity such as mil !siblings, step!siblings and adoptive siblings. Third!degree relatives (such as half!aunt, half!nephew, first cousin) share "#.$% genes, and sexual relations between them is viewed differently in various cultures, from being discouraged to being socially acceptable. The children of incestuous relationships were regarded as illegitimate, and are still so regarded in some societies today. In most cases, the parents did not have the option to marry to remove that status, as incestuous marriages were and are normally also prohibited. & common 'ustification given for the incest taboo is the impact inbreeding may have on children of incestuous sex. (hildren whose biological parents have a close genetic relationship have an increased ris of congenital disorders, death and disability at least in part due to genetic diseases caused by the inbreeding. )nintended sexual relations between genetically related persons may also arise when either or both biological parents are un nown or uncertain, as in the case of children born as a result of casual or extramarital sexual relations, anonymous sperm donation, surrogacy or adoption. *n the other hand, most prohibitions on incest extend the categories of prohibited relationships to affinity relationships such as in!law relations, step relations, relations through adoption, among others. &s such, the incest taboo is not solely based on inbreeding, and also applies to sexual activity between relatives (genetically related or otherwise) who cannot have children or to sexual activity between relatives where conception is not li ely to occur+ for example, because of the use of contraception. In some societies, such as those of &ncient ,gypt and others, brother-sister, fatherdaughter, and mother-son, cousin!cousin, aunt!nephew, uncle!niece, and other combinations of relations were practiced among royalty as a means of perpetuating the royal lineage. .rom a religious context, the marriage of (ain to his sister &wan has been described by some writers as the first instance of incest. Some societies, such as the /alinese and some Inuit tribes, have different views about what constitutes illegal and immoral incest. 0owever, sexual relations with a first!degree relative (such as a parent or sibling) who share $1% 23&, is almost universally forbidden. HISTORY OF INCEST Antiquity In ancient (hina, first cousins with the same surnames (i.e., those born to the father4s brothers) were not permitted to marry, while those with different surnames (i.e., maternal cousins and paternal cousins born to the father4s sisters) were. Several of the ,gyptian 5haraohs married their siblings and had several children with them. (for example, Tutan hamun married his half!sister &n hesenamun. Tutan hamun himself was the child of an incestuous union between & henaten and an unidentified 1

sister!wife). It is now generally accepted that sibling marriages were widespread among all classes in ,gypt during the 6raeco!7oman period. 3umerous papyri and the 7oman census declarations attest to many husbands and wives being brother and sister, of the same father and mother. The most famous of these relationships were in the royal family, the 5tolemies+ (leopatra 8II was married to her younger brother, 5tolemy 9III. 0er mother and father, (leopatra 8 and 5tolemy 9II, had also been brother and sister. &ccording to 6enesis #1:"# of the 0ebrew /ible, the 5atriarch &braham and his wife Sarah were half!siblings, both being children of Terah, but with different mothers. The fable of Oedipus, with a theme of inadvertent incest between a mother and son, ends in disaster and shows ancient taboos against incest as *edipus is punished for incestuous actions by blinding himself. In the ;se<uel; to *edipus, Antigone, his four children are also punished for their parents4 incestuousness. Incest appears in the commonly accepted version of the birth of &donis, when his mother, Myrrha has sex with her father (inyras during a festival, disguised as a prostitute. In &ncient 6reece, Spartan =ing >eonidas I, hero of the legendary /attle of Thermopylae, was married to his niece 6orgo, daughter of his half!brother (leomenes I. 6ree law allowed marriage between a brother and sister if they had different mothers. .or example, some accounts say that ,lpinice was for a time married to her half!brother (imon. Incest is mentioned and condemned in 8irgil4s Aeneid /oo 8I: hic thalamum invasit natae vetitosque hymenaeos; ;This one invaded a daughter4s room and a forbidden sex act;. Incestuous unions were discouraged and considered as nefas (against the laws of gods and man) in ancient 7ome. In &2 #?$ incest was explicitly forbidden by an imperial edict, which divided the concept of incestus into two categories of une<ual gravity: the incestus iuris gentium, which was applied to both 7omans and non!7omans in the ,mpire, and the incestus iuris civilis, which concerned only 7oman citi@ens. Therefore, for example, an ,gyptian could marry an aunt, but a 7oman could not. 2espite the act of incest being unacceptable within the 7oman ,mpire, 7oman ,mperor (aligula is rumored to have had sexual relationships with all three of his sisters (Aulia >ivilla, 2rusilla, and &grippina the Bounger). ,mperor (laudius, after executing his previous wife, married his brother4s daughter &grippina the Bounger, and changed the law to allow an otherwise illegal union. The law prohibiting marrying a sister4s daughter remained. The taboo against incest in &ncient 7ome is demonstrated by the fact that politicians would use charges of incest (often false charges) as insults and means of political disenfranchisement. In 3orse mythology there are themes of brother!sister marriage, a prominent example being between 3'CrDr and his unnamed sister (perhaps 3erthus), parents of .rey'a and .reyr. >o i in turn also accuses .rey'a and .reyr of having a sexual relationship. Middle Ages Many ,uropean monarchs were related due to political marriages, sometimes resulting in distant cousins (and even first cousins) being married. This was especially true in the 0absburg, 0ohen@ollern, Savoy and /ourbon royal houses. 0owever, relations between siblings, that may have been tolerated in other cultures, was considered abhorrent. .or example, the accusation that &nne /oleyn and her brother 6eorge /oleyn had committed incest was one of the reasons that both siblings were executed in May "$EF.

Incestuous marriages were also seen in the royal houses of ancient Aapan and =orea, Inca 5eru, &ncient 0awaii, and, at times, (entral &frica, Mexico, and Thailand. >i e the pharaohs of ancient ,gypt, the Inca rulers married their sisters. 0uayna (apac, for instance, was the son of Topa Inca Bupan<ui and the Inca4s sister and wife. 0alf!sibling marriages were found in ancient Aapan such as the marriage of ,mperor /idatsu and his half!sister ,mpress Sui o. Aapanese 5rince =inashi no =aru had sexual relationships with his full sister 5rincess =aru no Giratsume, although the action was regarded as foolish. In order to prevent the influence of the other families, a half!sister of =orean 6oryeo 2ynasty monarch 6wang'ong became his wife in the "1th century. 0er name was 2aemo . /rother!sister marriages were common during some 7oman periods as some census records have shown.

EFFECT OF INCEST
Incest is a form of chronic traumatic stress that can lead to a host of initial and long!term effects. >i e child sexual abuse in general, it poses a serious mental health ris for many victims. The chronic nature of the abuse, the nature of the family, including its dynamics and defenses, the child4s dependence on and entrapment in the family, and his or her loyalty to that family, necessitate using strong defenses to cope. 2enial and dissociation (splitting off of normal thought processes from consciousness) allow the victim to discount, minimi@e, or otherwise suppress memories of abuse. These defenses often persist into adulthood. &s a result, survivors may appear asymptomatic and not suffering from long! term effects of the abuse, when in reality they are emotionally constricted due to the trauma. Most former incest victims had little opportunity either in childhood or later to get effective assistance to end the abuse or to treat its effects. These untreated effects (immediate or long!term) become chronic or delayed and give rise to additional symptoms. These symptoms, in turn, create new problems that usually prompt the adult survivor to see treatment. Some of the most common of these problems include depression, eating disorders, substance abuse, anxiety, or dissociative disorders such as multiple personality disorder. Survivors might also see treatment for domestic abuse or other types of sexual violence. Since incest usually occurs in childhood, it inevitably influences maturation and development. .or many survivors, the incest experience, along with its aftermath and coping mechanisms, has greatly influenced and become integrated into the personality. Some survivors develop the symptoms of specific personality disorders, most commonly those associated with hysteric, borderline (difficulty maintaining a stable mood and self! image), narcissistic, avoidant, or dependent personalities. CAUSES OF INCEST >ac of self control >ac of self respect >ac of respect for others >ac of decency ,motional abuse 5ornagraphic films &ttraction:when the predator is attracted to the pry,heHshe may force that person to have sex with himHher .amily 5roblems 2rugs ie.the abuse of drugs such as cocaine etcHalcohol 3

HOMOSEXUALITY
Homose u!lity (from &ncient 6ree , meaning ;same;, and >atin sexus, meaning ;sex;) is romantic attraction, sexual attraction or sexual behavior between members of the same sex or gender. &s an orientation, homosexuality refers to ;an enduring pattern of or disposition to experience sexual, affectionate, or romantic attractions; primarily or exclusively to people of the same sex. ;It also refers to an individual4s sense of personal and social identity based on those attractions, behaviors expressing them, and membership in a community of others who share them.; &long with bisexuality and heterosexuality, homosexuality is one of the three main categories of sexual orientation within the heterosexual-homosexual continuum. There is no consensus among scientists about why a person develops a particular sexual orientation+ however, biologically!based theories for the cause of sexual orientation are favored by experts, which point to genetic factors, the early uterine environment, or both in combination. There is no substantive evidence which suggests parenting or early childhood experiences play a role when it comes to sexual orientation+ when it comes to same!sex sexual behavior, shared or familial environment plays no role for men and minor role for women. Ihile some hold the view that homosexual activity is unnatural, research has shown that homosexuality is an example of a normal and natural variation in human sexuality and is not in and of itself a source of negative psychological effects. Most people experience little or no sense of choice about their sexual orientation. There is insufficient evidence to support the use of psychological interventions to change sexual orientation. The most common terms for homosexual people are lesbian for females and gay for males, though gay is also used to refer generally to both homosexual males and females. The number of people who identify as gay or lesbian and the proportion of people who have same!sex sexual experiences are difficult for researchers to estimate reliably for a variety of reasons, including many gay people not openly identifying as such due to homophobia and heterosexist discrimination. 0omosexual behavior has also been documented and is observed in many non!human animal species. Many gay and lesbian people are in committed same!sex relationships, though only recently have census forms and political conditions facilitated their visibility and enumeration. These relationships are e<uivalent to heterosexual relationships in essential psychological respects. 0omosexual relationships and acts have been admired, as well as condemned, throughout recorded history, depending on the form they too and the culture in which they occurred. Since the end of the "?th century, there has been a global movement towards increased visibility, recognition, and legal rights for homosexual people, including the rights to marriage and civil unions, adoption and parenting, employment, military service, e<ual access to health care, and the introduction of anti! bullying legislation to protect gay minors. HISTORY OF HOMOSEXUALITY &s has been fre<uently noted, the ancient 6ree s did not have terms or concepts that correspond to the contemporary dichotomy of JheterosexualK and JhomosexualK. There is a wealth of material from ancient 6reece pertinent to issues of sexuality, ranging from dialogues of 5lato, such as the Symposium, to plays by &ristophanes, and 6ree artwor and vases. Ihat follows is a brief description of ancient 6ree attitudes, but it is important to recogni@e that there was regional variation. .or example, in parts of Ionia there were general strictures against same!sex eros, while in ,lis and /oiotia (e.g., Thebes), it was approved of and even celebrated (cf. 2over, "?L?+ 0alperin, "??1). 4

5robably the most fre<uent assumption of sexual orientation is that persons can respond erotically to beauty in either sex. 2iogenes >aeurtius, for example, wrote of &lcibiades, the &thenian general and politician of the $ th century /.(., Min his adolescence he drew away the husbands from their wives, and as a young man the wives from their husbands.N (Ouoted in 6reenberg, "?LL, "PP) Some persons were noted for their exclusive interests in persons of one gender. .or example, &lexander the 6reat and the founder of Stoicism, Qeno of (itium, were nown for their exclusive interest in boys and other men. Such persons, however, are generally portrayed as the exception. .urthermore, the issue of what gender one is attracted to is seen as an issue of taste or preference, rather than as a moral issue. & character in 5lutarch4s roti!os ("ialogue on #ove) argues that Mthe noble lover of beauty engages in love wherever he sees excellence and splendid natural endowment without regard for any difference in physiological detail.N ( $bid., "PF) 6ender 'ust becomes irrelevant MdetailN and instead the excellence in character and beauty is what is most important. ,ven though the gender that one was erotically attracted to (at any specific time, given the assumption that persons will li ely be attracted to persons of both sexes) was not important, other issues were salient, such as whether one exercised moderation. Status concerns were also of the highest importance. 6iven that only free men had full status, women and male slaves were not problematic sexual partners. Sex between freemen, however, was problematic for status. The central distinction in ancient 6ree sexual relations was between ta ing an active or insertive role, versus a passive or penetrated one. The passive role was acceptable only for inferiors, such as women, slaves, or male youths who were not yet citi@ens. 0ence the cultural ideal of a same!sex relationship was between an older man, probably in his #14s or E14s, nown as the erastes, and a boy whose beard had not yet begun to grow, the eromenos or paidi!a. In this relationship there was courtship ritual, involving gifts (such as a rooster), and other norms. The erastes had to show that he had nobler interests in the boy, rather than a purely sexual concern. The boy was not to submit too easily, and if pursued by more than one man, was to show discretion and pic the more noble one. There is also evidence that penetration was often avoided by having the erastes face his beloved and place his penis between the thighs of the eromenos, which is nown as intercrural sex. The relationship was to be temporary and should end upon the boy reaching adulthood (2over, "?L?). To continue in a submissive role even while one should be an e<ual citi@en was considered troubling, although there certainly were many adult male same!sex relationships that were noted and not strongly stigmati@ed. Ihile the passive role was thus seen as problematic, to be attracted to men was often ta en as a sign of masculinity. 6ree gods, such as Qeus, had stories of same!sex exploits attributed to them, as did other ey figures in 6ree myth and literature, such as &chilles and 0ercules. 5lato, in the Symposium, argues for an army to be comprised of same!sex lovers. Thebes did form such a regiment, the Sacred /and of Thebes, formed of $11 soldiers. They were renowned in the ancient world for their valor in battle. &ncient 7ome had many parallels in its understanding of same!sex attraction, and sexual issues more generally, to ancient 6reece. This is especially true under the 7epublic. Bet under the ,mpire, 7oman society slowly became more negative in its views towards sexuality, probably due to social and economic turmoil, even before (hristianity became influential. ,xactly what attitude the 3ew Testament has towards sexuality in general, and same!sex attraction in particular, is a matter of sharp debate. Aohn /oswell argues, in his fascinating %hristianity, Social &olerance, and 'omosexuality , that many passages ta en today as 5

condemnations of homosexuality are more concerned with prostitution, or where same! sex acts are described as MunnaturalN the meaning is more a in to Jout of the ordinaryK rather than as immoral (/oswell, "?L1, ch.P+ see also /oswell, "??P). Bet others have critici@ed, sometimes persuasively, /oswell4s scholarship (see 6reenberg, "?LL, ch.$). Ihat is clear, however, is that while condemnation of same!sex attraction is marginal to the 6ospels and only an intermittent focus in the rest of the 3ew Testament, early (hristian church fathers were much more outspo en. In their writings there is a horror at any sort of sex, but in a few generations these views eased, in part due no doubt to practical concerns of recruiting converts. /y the fourth and fifth centuries the mainstream (hristian view allowed for procreative sex. This viewpoint, that procreative sex within marriage is allowed, while every other expression of sexuality is sinful, can be found, for example, in St. &ugustine. This understanding leads to a concern with the gender of one4s partner that is not found in previous 6ree or 7oman views, and it clearly forbids homosexual acts. Soon this attitude, especially towards homosexual sex, came to be reflected in 7oman >aw. In Austinian4s (ode, promulgated in $#?, persons who engaged in homosexual sex were to be executed, although those who were repentant could be spared. 0istorians agree that the late 7oman ,mpire saw a rise in intolerance towards sexuality, although there were again important regional variations. Iith the decline of the 7oman ,mpire, and its replacement by various barbarian ingdoms, a general tolerance (with the sole exception of 8isigothic Spain) of homosexual acts prevailed. &s one prominent scholar puts it, M,uropean secular law contained few measures against homosexuality until the middle of the thirteenth century.N (6reenberg, "?LL, #F1) ,ven while some (hristian theologians continued to denounce nonprocreative sexuality, including same!sex acts, a genre of homophilic literature, especially among the clergy, developed in the eleventh and twelfth centuries (/oswell, "?L1, chapters L and ?). The latter part of the twelfth through the fourteenth centuries, however, saw a sharp rise in intolerance towards homosexual sex, alongside persecution of Aews, Muslims, heretics, and others. Ihile the causes of this are somewhat unclear, it is li ely that increased class conflict alongside the 6regorian reform movement in the (atholic (hurch were two important factors. The (hurch itself started to appeal to a conception of MnatureN as the standard of morality, and drew it in such a way so as to forbid homosexual sex (as well as extramarital sex, nonprocreative sex within marriage, and often masturbation). .or example, the first ecumenical council to condemn homosexual sex, >ateran III of ""R?, stated that MIhoever shall be found to have committed that incontinence which is against natureN shall be punished, the severity of which depended upon whether the transgressor was a cleric or layperson (<uoted in /oswell, "?L1, #RR). This appeal to natural law (discussed below) became very influential in the Iestern tradition. &n important point to note, however, is that the ey category here is the Jsodomite,K which differs from the contemporary idea of JhomosexualK. & sodomite was understood as act!defined, rather than as a type of person. Someone who had desires to engage in sodomy, yet did not act upon them, was not a sodomite. &lso, persons who engaged in heterosexual sodomy were also sodomites. There are reports of persons being burned to death or beheaded for sodomy with a spouse (6reenberg, "?LL, #RR). .inally, a person who had engaged in sodomy, yet who had repented of his sin and vowed to never do it again, was no longer a sodomite. The gender of one4s partner is again not of decisive importance, although some medieval theologians single out same!sex sodomy as the worst type of sexual crime.

.or the next several centuries in ,urope, the laws against homosexual sex were severe in their penalties. ,nforcement, however, was episodic. In some regions, decades would pass without any prosecutions. Bet the 2utch, in the "RE14s, mounted a harsh anti!sodomy campaign (alongside an anti!6ypsy pogrom), even using torture to obtain confessions. &s many as one hundred men and boys were executed and denied burial (6reenberg, "?LL, E"E!P). &lso, the degree to which sodomy and same!sex attraction were accepted varied by class, with the middle class ta ing the narrowest view, while the aristocracy and nobility often accepted public expressions of alternative sexualities. &t times, even with the ris of severe punishment, same!sex oriented subcultures would flourish in cities, sometimes only to be suppressed by the authorities. In the "? th century there was a significant reduction in the legal penalties for sodomy. The 3apoleonic code decriminali@ed sodomy, and with 3apoleon4s con<uests that (ode spread. .urthermore, in many countries where homosexual sex remained a crime, the general movement at this time away from the death penalty usually meant that sodomy was removed from the list of capital offenses. In the "Lth and "?th centuries an overtly theological framewor no longer dominated the discourse about same!sex attraction. Instead, secular arguments and interpretations became increasingly common. 5robably the most important secular domain for discussions of homosexuality was in medicine, including psychology. This discourse, in turn, lin ed up with considerations about the state and its need for a growing population, good soldiers, and intact families mar ed by clearly defined gender roles. 2octors were called in by courts to examine sex crime defendants (.oucault, "?L1+ 6reenberg, "?LL). &t the same time, the dramatic increase in school attendance rates and the average length of time spent in school, reduced transgenerational contact, and hence also the fre<uency of transgenerational sex. Same!sex relations between persons of roughly the same age became the norm. (learly the rise in the prestige of medicine resulted in part from the increasing ability of science to account for natural phenomena on the basis of mechanistic causation. The application of this viewpoint to humans led to accounts of sexuality as innate or biologically driven. The voluntarism of the medieval understanding of sodomy, that sodomites chose sin, gave way to the modern notion of homosexuality as a deep, unchosen characteristic of persons, regardless of whether they act upon that orientation. The idea of a Jlatent sodomiteK would not have made sense, yet under this new view it does ma e sense to spea of a person as a Jlatent homosexual.K Instead of specific acts defining a person, as in the medieval view, an entire physical and mental ma eup, usually portrayed as somehow defective or pathological, is ascribed to the modern category of Jhomosexual.K &lthough there are historical precursors to these ideas (e.g., &ristotle gave a physiological explanation of passive homosexuality), medicine gave them greater public exposure and credibility (6reenberg, "?LL, ch."$). The effects of these ideas cut in conflicting ways. Since homosexuality is, by this view, not chosen, it ma es less sense to criminali@e it. 5ersons are not choosing evil acts. Bet persons may be expressing a diseased or pathological mental state, and hence medical intervention for a cure is appropriate. 0ence doctors, especially psychiatrists, campaigned for the repeal or reduction of criminal penalties for consensual homosexual sodomy, yet intervened to MrehabilitateN homosexuals. They also sought to develop techni<ues to prevent children from becoming homosexual, for example by arguing that childhood masturbation caused homosexuality, hence it must be closely guarded against. In the #1th century sexual roles were redefined once again. .or a variety of reasons, premarital intercourse slowly became more common and eventually acceptable. Iith the decline of prohibitions against sex for the sa e of pleasure even outside of marriage, it 7

became more difficult to argue against gay sex. These trends were especially strong in the "?F14s, and it was in this context that the gay liberation movement too off. &lthough gay and lesbian rights groups had been around for decades, the low! ey approach of the Mattachine Society (named after a medieval secret society) and the 2aughters of /ilitis had not gained much ground. This changed in the early morning hours of Aune #L, "?F?, when the patrons of the Stonewall Inn, a gay bar in 6reenwich 8illage, rioted after a police raid. In the aftermath of that event, gay and lesbian groups began to organi@e around the country. 6ay 2emocratic clubs were created in every ma'or city, and one fourth of all college campuses had gay and lesbian groups (Shilts, "??E, ch.#L). >arge gay urban communities in cities from coast to coast became the norm. The &merican 5sychiatric &ssociation removed homosexuality from its official listing of mental disorders. The increased visibility of gays and lesbians has become a permanent feature of &merican life despite the two critical setbac s of the &I2S epidemic and an anti!gay bac lash (see /erman, "??E, for a good survey). The post!Stonewall era has also seen mar ed changes in Iestern ,urope, where the repeal of anti!sodomy laws and legal e<uality for gays and lesbians has become common.

CAUSES OF HOMOSEXUALITY
"ene#!l /iology and sexual orientation and ,nvironment and sexual orientation Science has loo ed at the causes of homosexuality, and more generically the causes of human sexual orientation, with the general conclusions being related to biological and environmental factors. The biological factors that have been researched are genetic and hormonal, particularly during the fetal developmental period, that influence the resulting brain structure, and other characteristics such as handedness. SETSPT There are a wide range of environmental factors (sociological, psychological, or early uterine environment), and various biological factors, that may influence sexual orientation+ though many researchers believe that it is caused by a complex interplay between nature and nurture, they favor biological models for the cause. The &merican &cademy of 5ediatrics stated in (ediatrics in #11P: Sexual orientation probably is not determined by any one factor but by a combination of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences) $n recent decades, biologically based theories have been favored by experts) *)))+ Although there continues to be controversy and uncertainty as to the genesis of the variety of human sexual orientations, there is no scientific evidence that abnormal parenting, sexual abuse, or other adverse life events influence sexual orientation) %urrent !no,ledge suggests that sexual orientation is usually established during early childhood) The &merican 5sychological &ssociation, &merican 5sychiatric &ssociation, and 3ational &ssociation of Social Ior ers stated in #11F: %urrently, there is no scientific consensus about the specific factors that cause an individual to become heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual-including possible biological, psychological, or social effects of the parents. sexual orientation) 'o,ever, the available evidence indicates that the vast ma/ority of lesbian and gay adults ,ere raised by heterosexual parents and the vast ma/ority of children raised by lesbian and gay parents eventually gro, up to be heterosexual) 8

The 7oyal (ollege of 5sychiatrists stated in #11R: "espite almost a century of psychoanalytic and psychological speculation, there is no substantive evidence to support the suggestion that the nature of parenting or early childhood experiences play any role in the formation of a person.s fundamental heterosexual or homosexual orientation) $t ,ould appear that sexual orientation is biological in nature, determined by a complex interplay of genetic factors and the early uterine environment) Sexual orientation is therefore not a choice) The &merican 5sychological &ssociation states ;there are probably many reasons for a person4s sexual orientation and the reasons may be different for different people;, and says most people4s sexual orientation is determined at an early age. 7esearch into how sexual orientation in males may be determined by genetic or other prenatal factors plays a role in political and social debates about homosexuality, and also raises concerns about genetic profiling and prenatal testing. 5rofessor Michael =ing states: ;The conclusion reached by scientists who have investigated the origins and stability of sexual orientation is that it is a human characteristic that is formed early in life, and is resistant to change. Scientific evidence on the origins of homosexuality is considered relevant to theological and social debate because it undermines suggestions that sexual orientation is a choice.; 6arcia!.algueras and Swaab state in the abstract of their #1"1 study, ;The fetal brain develops during the intrauterine period in the male direction through a direct action of testosterone on the developing nerve cells, or in the female direction through the absence of this hormone surge. In this way, our gender identity (the conviction of belonging to the male or female gender) and sexual orientation are programmed or organi@ed into our brain structures when we are still in the womb. There is no indication that social environment after birth has an effect on gender identity or sexual orientation.; EFFECT OF HOMOSEXUALITY 2id you now that men who have sex with men are "R times more li ely to develop anal cancer than heterosexual menU This is according to the (2(. &s a matter of fact, people who participate in anal sex andHor have multiple sex partners are far more li ely to contract diseases such as &I2S and infections that can lead to anal cancer. (ertain cancers are more common among lesbians, specifically breast cancer and cancers of the reproductive organs. Studies and research show that 0epatitis &, / and ( (contagious liver diseases) are more prominent in men who have male partners andHor multiple partners. 0epatitis & and / can be treated with drugs and medicine. 0epatitis ( has no vaccine and is not curable. /oth men and women suffer from STIKs (socially transmitted infections) as a result of participating in anal or oral sex and sex with multiple partners. This infections and diseases are too many to list here, but can cause permanent damage to the reproductive organs. ,ven if a person does not get cancer or the deadly diseases, the prospect of contracting the viruses and bacteria from people who have had sex with other people, who have had sex with other people (you get the idea) is frightening. 5articipating in homosexuality is ta ing a huge gamble with your physical body and oneKs future health and happiness.

RA$E
R!%e is a type of sexual assault usually involving sexual intercourse, which is initiated by one or more people against another person without that person4s consent. The act may be carried out by physical force, coercion, abuse of authority or against a person who is incapable of valid consent, such as one who is unconscious, incapacitated, or below the legal age of consent. The term rape is sometimes used interchangeably with the term sexual assault) Internationally, the incidence of rapes recorded by the police during #1"1 varied between 1.# in &@erbai'an per "11,111 people and ?#.? per "11,111 people in /otswana with F.E per "11,111 people in >ithuania as the median. &ccording to the &merican Medical &ssociation ("??$), sexual violence, and rape in particular, is considered the most underreported violent crime. The rate of reporting, prosecution and convictions for rape varies considerably in different 'urisdictions. The ).S. /ureau of Austice Statistics ("???) estimated that ?"% of ).S. rape victims are female and ?% are male. 7ape by strangers is usually less common than rape by persons the victim nows, and several studies argue that male!male and female!female prison rape are <uite common and may be the least reported forms of rape. Ihen part of a widespread and systematic practice during international conflict, rape and sexual slavery are recogni@ed as crimes against humanity and war crimes. 7ape is also recogni@ed as an element of the crime of genocide when committed with the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a targeted ethnic group. 5eople who have been raped can be severely traumati@ed and may suffer from posttraumatic stress disorder+ in addition to psychological harm resulting from the act, rape may cause physical in'ury, or have additional effects on the victim, such as ac<uiring of a sexually transmitted infection or becoming pregnant. .urthermore, following a rape, a victim may face violence or threats thereof from the rapist, and, in some cultures, from the victim4s own family and relatives. HISTORY The word rape itself originates from the >atin verb rapere: to sei@e or ta e by force. The word originally had no sexual connotation and is still used generically in ,nglish. The history of rape, and the alterations of its meaning, is complex. In 7oman law, rape, or raptus was classified as a form of crimen vis, ;crime of assault.; The concept of raptus was applied to the abduction of a woman against the will of the man under whose authority she lived, and sexual intercourse was not a necessary element. >i e theft or robbery, rape was originally considered a ;private wrong; iniuria privita, a crime between the abductor and the legal guardian of the woman in <uestion. It was made into a ;public wrong; (iniuria publica) by the 7oman ,mperor (onstantine. &ugustus (aesar enacted reforms for the crime of rape under the assault statute #ex $ulia de vi publica, which bears his family name, $ulia. It was under this statute rather than the adultery statute of #ex $ulia de adulteriis that 7ome prosecuted this crime. ,mperor Austinian confirmed the continued use of the statute to prosecute rape during the Fth century in the ,astern 7oman ,mpire. /y late anti<uity, the general term raptus had referred to abduction, elopement, robbery, or rape in its modern meaning. (onfusion over the term led ecclesial commentators on the law to differentiate it into raptus seductionis 10

(elopement without parental consent) and raptus violentiae (ravishment). /oth of these forms of raptus had a civil penalty and possible excommunication for the family and village receiving the abducted woman, although raptus violentiae also incurred punishments of mutilation or death. The legal view of the concept of rape began changing gradually in the late Middle &ges. "#th century (odex of 6ratian clearly distinguished between abduction and rape, and considered forced sexual intercourse a necessary element. /y the mid!"$11s, ,uropean courts began recogni@ing the concept of age of consent, namely, that minors under a certain age, such as "#, would be incapable of consenting to intercourse. 8irtually all societies have had a concept of the crime of rape. &lthough what constituted this crime has varied by historical period and culture, until <uite recently, the definitions tended to focus around an act of forced vaginal intercourse perpetrated through physical violence or imminent threat of death or severe bodily in'ury, by a man, on a woman or a girl, not his wife. These definitions differ significantly from the modern definitions of rape in Iestern countries today. .or example, the actus reus of the crime, was, in most societies, the insertion of the penis into the vagina, and, until the "?th century, many 'urisdictions re<uired e'aculation for the act to constitute the offense of rape. &cts other than vaginal intercourse did not constitute rape in common law countries and in many other societies. In many cultures, such acts were illegal, even if they were consensual and performed between married couples (see sodomy laws). In ,ngland, for example, the /uggery &ct "$EE, which remained in force until "L#L, provided for the death penalty for ;buggery;. Today, in many countries, the definition of the actus reus has been extended to all forms of penetration of the vagina and anus (e.g. penetration with ob'ects, fingers or other body parts) as well as insertion of the penis in the mouth. Throughout much of the history, rape was a crime that could only be perpetrated by a male on a female. The way sexuality was conceptuali@ed in many societies re'ected the very notion that a woman could force a man into sex ! women were often seen as passive while men were deemed to be assertive and aggressive. Sexual penetration of a male by another male fell under the legal domain of ;sodomy;. *ne of the most distinctive feature of rape historically was the fact that not all incidents of forced intercourse constituted this crime. &n incident could be excluded from the definition of rape due to the relation between the parties, such as marriage (until a few decades ago wives were nearly universally excluded, and in many countries they continue to be so) or due to the bac ground of the victim (in many cultures forced sex on prostitute, slave, war enemy, member of a racial minority, etc., was not rape). .or instance, in "Rth century Scandinavia, (hristian 84s law of "FLR stipulated that rape could only be committed on three categories of women: somebody else4s wife, a widow, or an honest virgin. Iomen who did not fit in any of these categories were not considered legal victims of the crime of rape. &merican radio host, author, and political commentator Thom 0artmann has asserted that, during the coloni@ation of the &mericas, the rape of native women was not held to be a crime under Spanish >aw as the persons in <uestion were pagan and not (hristian. In "L"P, Swiss explorer Aohann /urc hardt wrote of his travels in ,gypt and 3ubia, where he saw the practice of slave trading: ;I fre<uently witnessed scenes of the most shameless indecency, which the traders, who were the principal actors, only laughed at. I may venture to state, that very few female slaves who have passed their tenth year, reach ,gypt or &rabia in a state of virginity.;

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7ape historically was understood as a very violent attac , the victim had to offer the utmost resistance+ threats of violence, if accepted, had to be of a very severe nature. *ther forms of non consensual intercourse, such as sex with a victim who cannot defend herself, various forms of threats other than the most extreme threats of violence (even these were often not accepted by themselves in absence of physical resistance of the victim), or other forms of coercion or exploitation were not considered rape, and most often were not covered by other laws either (although the traditional crime of seduction could be applied in some circumstances, provided the victim was of ;good morals;). In the )nited States, the "?F# Model 5enal (ode defined rape as follows: ;& male who has sexual intercourse with a female not his wife is guilty of rape if:(a) he compels her to submit by force or by threat of imminent death, serious bodily in'ury, extreme pain or idnapping, to be inflicted on anyone+ or (b) he has substantially impaired her power to appraise or control her conduct by administering or employing without her nowledge drugs, intoxicants or other means for the purpose of preventing resistance+ or (c) the female is unconscious+ or (d) the female is less than "1 years old.; 7ape was classified as a felony in the second degree. If aggravated circumstances existed, which were defined as either inflicting serious bodily in'ury upon anyone, or when the victim was not a voluntary social companion of the actor upon the occasion of the crime and had not previously permitted him sexual liberties, then rape was a felony in the first degree. EFFECTS OF RA$E 8ictims of rape can be severely traumati@ed by the assault and may have difficulty functioning as well as they had been used to prior to the assault, with disruption of concentration, sleeping patterns and eating habits, for example. They may feel 'umpy or be on edge. &fter being raped, it is common for the victim to experience acute stress disorder, including symptoms similar to those of posttraumatic stress disorder, such as intense, sometimes unpredictable emotions, and they may find it hard to deal with their memories of the event. In the months immediately following the assault, these problems may be severe and upsetting and may prevent the victim from revealing their ordeal to friends or family, or see ing police or medical assistance. &dditional symptoms of &cute Stress 2isorder include:

2epersonali@ation or dissociation (feeling numb and detached, li e being in a da@e or a dream, or feeling that the world is strange and unreal) 2ifficulty remembering important parts of the assault 7eliving the assault through repeated thoughts, memories, or nightmares &voidance of things, places, thoughts, andHor feelings that remind the victim of the assault &nxiety or increased alertness (difficulty sleeping, concentrating, etc.) &voidance of social life or place of rape

.or one!third to one!half of the victims, these symptoms continue beyond the first few months and meet the conditions for the diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder. In general, rape and sexual assault are among the most common causes of 5TS2 in women. 5regnancy can also result from rape. HI&'AI(S & street sign in South &frica, appealing to men not to rape children in the belief that it will cure them of 0I8H&I2S. 12

7ape may result in the transmission of 0I8H&I2S, and this is especially a problem in parts of the world where the disease is endemic, such as Sub!Saharan &frica. The extent of the problem is disputed. In #11$, some aid industry organi@ations stated that around F1% of combatants in the Second (ongo Iar were 0I8!infected, and that the disease was being spread by systematic rape perpetrated by these soldiers. In the 2emocratic 7epublic of the (ongo 2emographic and 0ealth Survey (,2S!72() in #11R, ".E percent of the population age "$-P? years is 0I8!positive. The prevalence is ".F percent for women and 1.? percent for men. 7ape acts both as a direct factor, as the virus can be transmitted through the forced sexual intercourse, and as an indirect factor, as victims of rape are at higher ris of suffering psychological problems, which may lead to victims being more li ely to engage in behaviors that create ris of contracting 0I8H&I2S, such as in'ecting drugs. In parts of &frica, there is a myth that sex with a virgin can cure 0I8H&I2S+ as such, girls and women are raped because of it. It is not nown how common the myth is and to what degree rapes happen because of the belief in it. The claim that the myth drives either 0I8 infection or child sexual abuse in South &frica is disputed by researchers 7achel Aew es and 0elen ,pstein. &ictim )l!ming ;8ictim blaming; is holding the victim of a crime to be in whole or in part responsible for the crime. In the context of rape, this concept refers to the Aust Iorld Theory and popular attitudes that certain victim behaviours (such as flirting, or wearing sexually provocative clothing) may encourage rape. In extreme cases, victims are said to have ;as ed for it;, simply by not behaving demurely. In most Iestern countries, the defense of provocation is not accepted as a mitigation for rape. & global survey of attitudes toward sexual violence by the 6lobal .orum for 0ealth 7esearch shows that victim!blaming concepts are at least partially accepted in many countries. In some countries, victim!blaming is more common, and women who have been raped are sometimes deemed to have behaved improperly. *ften, these are countries where there is a significant social divide between the freedoms and status afforded to men and women. &my M. /uddie and &rthur 6. Miller, in a review of studies of rape myths, state: 7ape victims are blamed more when they resist the attac later in the rape encounter rather than earlier (=opper, "??F), which seems to suggest the stereotype that these women are engaging in to en resistance (Malamuth V /rown, "??P+ Muehlenhard V 7ogers, "??L) or leading the man on because they have gone along with the sexual experience thus far. .inally, rape victims are blamed more when they are raped by an ac<uaintance or a date rather than by a stranger (e.g., /ell, =uriloff, V >ottes, "??P+ /ridges, "??"+ /ridges V Mc6r ail, "?L?+ (hec V Malamuth, "?LE+ =ane ar, Shaherwalla, .ranco, =un'u, V 5into, "??"+ >4&rmand V 5epitone, "?L#+ Tetreault V /arnett, "?LR), which seems to evo e the stereotype that victims really want to have sex because they now their attac er and perhaps even went out on a date with him. The underlying message of this research seems to be that when certain stereotypical elements of rape are in place, rape victims are prone to being blamed. They also state that ;individuals may endorse rape myths and at the same time recogni@e the negative effects of rape.; & number of gender role stereotypes can play a role in rationali@ation of rape. In the case of male!on!female rape, these include the idea that power is reserved to men whereas women are meant for sex and ob'ectified, that women want forced sex and to be pushed around, and that male sexual impulses and behaviors 13

are uncontrollable and must be satisfied. In the case of female!on!male rape, the victim may either be perceived as wea or, in cultures where men ac<uire status by sexual con<uest, as fortunate. It has been proposed by 2r. 7oxanne &gnew!2avies, a clinical psychologist and an expert on the effects of sexual violence, that victim!blaming correlates with fear. ;It is not surprising when so many rape victims blame themselves. .emale 'urors can loo at the woman in the witness stand and decide she has done something 4wrong4 such as flirting or having a drin with the defendant. She can therefore reassure herself that rape won4t happen to her as long as she does nothing similar.; Hono# *illings !nd +o#ced m!##i!ges In many cultures, those who are raped are at very high ris of suffering additional violence or threats of violence after the rape. These acts may be perpetrated by the rapist or by friends and relatives of the rapist, as a way of preventing the victims from reporting the rape, of punishing them for reporting it, or of forcing them to withdraw the complaint+ or they may be perpetrated by the relatives of the victim as a punishment for ;bringing shame; to the family. This is especially the case in cultures where female virginity is highly valued and considered mandatory before marriage+ in extreme cases, rape victims are illed in honor illings. In some places, girls and women who are raped are often forced by their families to marry their rapist. /ecause being the victim of rape and losing virginity carry extreme social stigma, and the victims are deemed to have their ;reputation; tarnished, a marriage with the rapist is arranged. This is claimed to be in the advantage of both the victim ! who does not remain unmarried and doesn4t lose social status ! and of the rapist, who avoids punishment. In #1"#, the suicide of a "F!year!old Moroccan girl ! who, after having been forced by her family to marry her rapist at the suggestion of the prosecutor, and who subse<uently endured abuse by the rapist after they married ! spar ed protests from activists against the law which allows the rapist to marry the victim in order to escape criminal sanctions, and against this social practice which is common in Morocco. Condom use Ihile penetrative rape generally does not involve the use of a condom, in some cases a condom is used. This significantly reduces the li elihood of pregnancy and disease transmission, both to the victim and to the rapist. 7ationales for condom use include: avoiding contracting diseases (particularly 0I8), particularly in cases of rape of sex wor ers or in gang rape (to avoid contracting diseases from fellow rapists)+ eliminating evidence, ma ing prosecution more difficult (and giving a sense of invulnerability)+ giving the appearance of consent (in cases of ac<uaintance rape)+ and thrill from planning and the use of the condom as an added prop. (oncern for the victim is generally not considered a factor. CAUSES OF RA$E The causes of rape involved the process of sociali@ation within society. &ccording to research conducted by 5eggy 7eeves Sanday, higher incidence of rape occurred in societies that tolerated masculine violence where young boys are taught to be aggressive and used physical force if necessary to get what they want. 14

&ccording to 5eggy, in societies where men and women share e<ual power and authority, young boys and girls that were taught to avoid aggression and violence tend to experience no incidence of rape activity. The process of sociali@ation may be the reason )S have the highest incidence of rape in western nations. Several causes of rape factors are the result of the ways society influence men to use power, aggression, and physical force if necessary to get what they want. Therefore, the same sociali@ation process influences men to use aggression and physical force if necessary to get sexual gratification from women. Society plays a ma'or part influencing and reinforcing gender roles that are learned through peers, school, and media. .rom early ages young boys are taught to be aggressive and young girls are taught to be passive. Society influences women to become passive and nurturing who are less li ely to challenge menKs aggression. The fact is any women are at ris of being rape because men are physically stronger and no matter how hard women try to resist men can overpower women. The rapist also tends to select victims they can intimidate into submission by using threat and weapons. &ccording to research conducted by /oeringer indicates that viewing hard!core pornography with violent rape scene can also lead to the causes of rape. Iatching hard! core pornography is capable of leading menKs aggression towards sex and women that may also increase his desire to engage in such acts. Many researches indicate that not all rapes are sexually motivated as some are motivated by desire for power and domination and some are motivated by desire for sexual gratification. 7apists that are motivated by power and domination usually have strong anger towards women tend to engaged more often in stranger rape in an attempt to express power and domination. 7apists that are motivated by desire for sexual gratification tend to engaged more often in ac<uaintance rape or date rape to achieve gratification. &ccording to research conducted by &bel, some rapist may engage in more violent sexual offenses such as child sexual abuse, exhibitionism, voyeurism, and sexual sadism. &bel also discovered that some rapists fantasi@ed about rape and violence long before committing the actual act and many of them also masturbated to rape fantasy in their mid! teens. 7eport indicates most rapists come from lower socioeconomic status with lac of education and unemployed. 7eport indicates women of all ages are raped. Iomen with lower socioeconomic status are more often victims of rape because of poor living condition. Iomen living in poverty are more li ely to be sub'ect to these types of crime.

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REFERENCES ;Incest;. *xford )niversity 5ress. #1"E. 7etrieved &ugust #R, #1"E. ;Incest;. 7ape, &buse V Incest 3ational 3etwor (7&I33). #11?. 7etrieved &ugust #R, #1"E. /ittles, &lan 0olland (#1"#). %onsanguinity in %ontext. (ambridge )niversity 5ress. pp. "RL-"LR. IS/3 1$#"RL"LFL. 7etrieved &ugust #R, #1"E. 0ipp, 2ietmar (#11L!1E!""). ;6erman 0igh (ourt Ta es a >oo at Incest;. "er Spiegel. 7etrieved #11L!1P!"#. Iolf, &rthur 5.+ 2urham, Iilliam 0. (#11P). $nbreeding, $ncest, and the $ncest &aboo0 &he State of 1no,ledge at the &urn of the %entury . Stanford )niversity 5ress. p. "F?. IS/3 1!L1PR!$"P"!#. 0ope, 2ebra &, ed. (#11?). %ontemporary (erspectives on #esbian, 2ay, and 3isexual $dentities. 3ebras a Symposium on Motivation ,-. doi:"1."11RH?RL!1!ELR!1?$$F!". IS/3 ?RL!1!ELR!1?$$$!P. edit ;Measuring Sexual Identity : ,valuation 7eport, #1"1;. *ffice for 3ational Statistics. #E September #1"1. Smith, 2avid M.+ 6ates, 6ary A. (## &ugust #11"). ;6ay and >esbian .amilies in the )nited States: Same!Sex )nmarried 5artner 0ouseholds;. 7etrieved #F Aanuary #1"". Staff report (&ugust "#, "??L). 6ay Is * ay Iith &5&W.orum 0onors >andmar "?RE ,vents. 4A5A. "??L+#L1(F):P?R!P??. doi:"1."11"H'ama.#L1.F.P?R ;Stop discrimination against homosexual men and women;. Iorld 0ealth *rganisation W ,urope. "R May #1"". 7etrieved L March #1"#. 5errin, ,. (. (#11#). Sexual Orientation in %hild and Adolescent 'ealth %are . 3ew Bor : =luwer &cademicH5lenum 5ublishers. IS/3 1!E1F!PFRF"!$. 6arcia!.algueras &, Swaab 2. (#1"1). ;Sexual 0ormones and the /rain: &n ,ssential &lliance for Sexual Identity and Sexual *rientation;. ndocrine "evelopment ./: ##-E$. doi:"1.""$?H111#F#$#$. 5MI2 "??$$R$E. ;There is no indication that social environment after birth has an effect on gender identity or sexual orientation.; ;The Secretary 6enerals database on violence against women;. )3 Secretary 6eneral4s 2atabase on 8iolence &gainst Iomen. #11?!1R!#P. 7etrieved #1"E!1#!1E. & 3ational 5rotocol for Sexual &ssault Medical .orensic ,xaminations 3ational (riminal Austice 7eference Service (3(A7S). September #11P Smothers M.=.+ Smothers, 2. /rian (#1""). ;& Sexual &ssault 5rimary 5revention Model with 2iverse )rban Bouth;. 4ournal of %hild Sexual Abuse 01 (F): R1L-#R. doi:"1."1L1H"1$ELR"#.#1"".F##E$$. 5MI2 ##"#F""#. 16