Maths in Focus Preliminary 3 Unit

Mathematics Extension 1
Preliminary Course
maths
Margaret Grove
Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
maths
Text 2010 Grove and Associates Pty Ltd
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National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
Author: Grove, Margaret.
Title: Maths in focus: mathematics extension preliminary course/Margaret Grove.
Edition: 2nd ed.
ISBN: 9780070278585 (pbk.)
Target Audience: For secondary school age.
Subjects: MathematicsProblems, exercises, etc. MathematicsTextbooks.
Dewey Number: 510.76
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v
PREFACE ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ix
CREDITS ix
FEATURES OF THIS BOOK ix
SYLLABUS MATRIX x
STUDY SKILLS xi
Chapter 1: Basic Arithmetic 2
INTRODUCTION 3
REAL NUMBERS 3
DIRECTED NUMBERS 9
FRACTIONS, DECIMALS AND PERCENTAGES 12
POWERS AND ROOTS 19
ABSOLUTE VALUE 37
TEST YOURSELF 1 41
CHALLENGE EXERCISE 1 43
Chapter 2: Algebra and Surds 44
INTRODUCTION 45
SIMPLIFYING EXPRESSIONS 45
BINOMIAL PRODUCTS 51
FACTORISATION 55
COMPLETING THE SQUARE 69
ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS 71
SUBSTITUTION 73
SURDS 76
TEST YOURSELF 2 90
Chapter 3: Equations 94
INTRODUCTION 95
SIMPLE EQUATIONS 95
SUBSTITUTION 100
INEQUATIONS 103
EQUATIONS AND INEQUATIONS INVOLVING ABSOLUTE VALUES 107
EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS 114
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 118
FURTHER INEQUATIONS 125
QUADRATIC INEQUATIONS 129
SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS 132
TEST YOURSELF 3 138
Contents
vi
Chapter 4: Geometry 1 140
INTRODUCTION 141
NOTATION 141
TYPES OF ANGLES 142
PARALLEL LINES 149
TYPES OF TRIANGLES 153
CONGRUENT TRIANGLES 159
SIMILAR TRIANGLES 163
PYTHAGORAS THEOREM 171
TYPES OF QUADRILATERALS 177
POLYGONS 184
AREAS 188
TEST YOURSELF 4 195
Practice Assessment Task Set 1 199
Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs 204
INTRODUCTION 205
FUNCTIONS 205
GRAPHING TECHNIQUES 216
LINEAR FUNCTION 224
QUADRATIC FUNCTION 228
ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTION 234
THE HYPERBOLA 242
CIRCLES AND SEMI-CIRCLES 246
OTHER GRAPHS 254
LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 260
FURTHER GRAPHS 264
REGIONS 277
TEST YOURSELF 5 287
Chapter 6: Trigonometry 290
INTRODUCTION 291
TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS 291
RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLE PROBLEMS 299
APPLICATIONS 308
EXACT RATIOS 318
ANGLES OF ANY MAGNITUDE 322
TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS 336
TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES 342
NON-RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLE RESULTS 347
APPLICATIONS 358
AREA 362
TRIGONOMETRY IN THREE DIMENSIONS 365
SUMS AND DIFFERENCES OF ANGLES 367
FURTHER TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS 374
TEST YOURSELF 6 385
vii
Chapter 7: Linear Functions 390
INTRODUCTION 391
DISTANCE 391
MIDPOINT 396
GRADIENT 398
EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE 408
PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES 412
INTERSECTION OF LINES 417
PERPENDICULAR DISTANCE 422
ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES 426
RATIOS 430
TEST YOURSELF 7 434
Chapter 8: Introduction to Calculus 438
INTRODUCTION 439
GRADIENT 440
DIFFERENTIATION FROM FIRST PRINCIPLES 449
SHORT METHODS OF DIFFERENTIATION 465
TANGENTS AND NORMALS 471
FURTHER DIFFERENTIATION AND INDICES 476
COMPOSITE FUNCTION RULE 478
PRODUCT RULE 482
QUOTIENT RULE 485
ANGLE BETWEEN 2 CURVES 487
TEST YOURSELF 8 490
Chapter 9: Properties of the Circle 498
INTRODUCTION 499
PARTS OF A CIRCLE 499
ARCS, ANGLES AND CHORDS 500
CHORD PROPERTIES 512
CONCYCLIC POINTS 519
TANGENT PROPERTIES 525
TEST YOURSELF 9 537
Chapter 10: The Quadratic Function 542
INTRODUCTION 543
GRAPH OF A QUADRATIC FUNCTION 543
QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES 549
THE DISCRIMINANT 555
QUADRATIC IDENTITIES 562
SUM AND PRODUCT OF ROOTS 566
EQUATIONS REDUCIBLE TO QUADRATICS 571
TEST YOURSELF 10 575
viii
Chapter 11: Locus and the Parabola 578
INTRODUCTION 579
LOCUS 579
CIRCLE AS A LOCUS 587
PARABOLA AS A LOCUS 591
GENERAL PARABOLA 610
TANGENTS AND NORMALS 625
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS OF THE PARABOLA 627
CHORDS, TANGENTS AND NORMALS 634
PROPERTIES OF THE PARABOLA 643
LOCUS PROBLEMS 648
Chapter 12: Polynomials 1 662
INTRODUCTION 663
DEFINITION OF A POLYNOMIAL 663
DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS 667
REMAINDER AND FACTOR THEOREMS 672
GRAPH OF A POLYNOMIAL 681
ROOTS AND COEFFICIENTS OF POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS 706
Chapter 13: Permutations and Combinations 716
INTRODUCTION 717
FUNDAMENTAL COUNTING PRINCIPLE 717
PERMUTATIONS 730
COMBINATIONS 740
Answers 756
ix
PREFACE
This book covers the Preliminary syllabus for Mathematics and Extension 1. The extension material
is easy to see as it has green headings and there is green shading next to all extension question and
answers. The syllabus is available through the NSW Board of Studies website on www.boardofstudies.
nsw.edu.au. You can also access resources, study techniques, examination technique, sample and
past examination papers through other websites such as www.math.nsw.edu.au and www.csu.edu.
au. Searching the Internet generally will pick up many websites supporting the work in this course.
Each chapter has comprehensive fully worked examples and explanations as well as ample sets
of graded exercises. The theory follows a logical order, although some topics may be learned in any
order. Each chapter contains Test Yourself and Challenge exercises, and there are several practice
assessment tasks throughout the book.
If you have trouble doing the Test Yourself exercises at the end of a chapter, you will need to
go back into the chapter and revise it before trying them again. Dont attempt to do the Challenge
exercises until you are confdent that you can do the Test Yourself exercises, as these are more diffcult
and are designed to test the more able students who understand the topic really well.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks go to my family, especially my husband Geoff, for supporting me in writing this book.
CREDITS
Fairfax Photos: p 327
Istockphoto: p 101, p 171
Margaret Grove: p 37, p 163, p 206, p 246, p 260, p 291, p308 (bottom), p 310, p 311, p 313, p 316,
p 391, p 499, p 543, p 591, p 717, p 719, p 726, p 729, p 730, p 739
Photolibrary: p 205
Shutterstock: p 74, p 164, p 229, p 308 (top), p 580
FEATURES OF THIS BOOK
This second edition retains all the features of previous Maths in Focus books while adding in new
improvements.
The main feature of Maths in Focus is in its readability, its plentiful worked examples and
straightforward language so that students can understand it and use it in self-paced learning. The
logical progression of topics, the comprehensive fully worked examples and graded exercises are still
major features.
A wide variety of questions is maintained, with more comprehensive and more diffcult questions
included in each topic. At the end of each chapter is a consolidation set of exercises (Test yourself)
in no particular order that will test whether the student has grasped the concepts contained in the
chapter. There is also a challenge set for the more able students.
The four practice assessment tasks provide a comprehensive variety of mixed questions from
various chapters. These have been extended to contain questions in the form of sample examination
questions, including short answer, free response and multiple-choice questions that students may
encounter in assessments.
The second edition also features a short summary of general study skills that students will fnd
useful, both in the classroom and when doing assessment tasks and examinations. These study skills
are also repeated in the HSC book.
x
A syllabus matrix is included to show where each syllabus topic fts into the book. Topics are
generally arranged in a logical order. For example, arithmetic and algebra are needed in most, if not
all other topics, so these are treated at the beginning of the book.
Some teachers like to introduce particular topics before others, e.g. linear functions before more
general functions. However, part of the work on gradient requires some knowledge of trigonometry
and the topic of angles of any magnitude in trigonometry needs some knowledge of functions. So
the order of most chapters in the book have been carefully thought out. Some chapters, however,
could be covered in a different order, such as geometry which is covered in Chapter 4, and quadratic
functions and locus, which are near the end of the book.
SYLLABUS MATRIX
This matrix shows how the syllabus is organised in the chapters of this book.
Mathematics (2 Unit)
Basic arithmetic and algebra (1.1 1.4) Chapter 1: Basic arithmetic
Chapter 2: Algebra and surds
Chapter 3: Equations
Real functions (4.1 4.4) Chapter 5: Functions and graphs
Trigonometric ratios (5.1 5.5) Chapter 6: Trigonometry
Linear functions (6.1 6.5, 6.7) Chapter 7: Linear functions
The quadratic polynomial and the parabola (9.1 9.5) Chapter 10: The quadratic function
Chapter 11: Locus and the parabola
Plane geometry (2.1 2.4) Chapter 4: Geometry 1
Tangent to a curve and derivative of a function (8.1 8.9) Chapter 8: Introduction to calculus
Extension 1
Other inequalities (1.4E) Chapter 3: Equations
Circle geometry (2.6 2.10E) Chapter 9: Properties of the circle
Further trigonometry (5.6 5.9E) Chapter 6: Trigonometry
Angles between two lines (6.6E) Chapter 7: Linear functions
xi
Internal and external division of lines into given ratios (6.7E) Chapter 7: Linear functions
Parametric representation (9.6E) Chapter 11: Locus and the parabola
Permutations and combinations
(18.1E)
Chapter 13: Permutations and combinations
Polynomials (16.1 16.3E) Chapter 12: Polynomials 1
STUDY SKILLS
You may have coasted through previous stages without needing to rely on regular study, but in this
course many of the topics are new and you will need to systematically revise in order to build up your
skills and to remember them.
The Preliminary course introduces the basics of topics such as calculus that are then applied in
the HSC course. You will struggle in the HSC if you dont set yourself up to revise the preliminary
topics as you learn new HSC topics.
Your teachers will be able to help you build up and manage good study habits. Here are a few
hints to get you started.
There is no right or wrong way to learn. Different styles of learning suit different people. There
is also no magical number of hours a week that you should study, as this will be different for every
student. But just listening in class and taking notes is not enough, especially when learning material
that is totally new.
You wouldnt go for your drivers licence after just one trip in the car, or enter a dance competition
after learning a dance routine once. These skills take a lot of practice. Studying mathematics is just
the same.
If a skill is not practised within the frst 24 hours, up to 50% can be forgotten. If it is not practised
within 72 hours, up to 8590% can be forgotten! So it is really important that whatever your study
timetable, new work must be looked at soon after it is presented to you.
With a continual succession of new work to learn and retain, this is a challenge. But the good
news is that you dont have to study for hours on end!
In the classroom
In order to remember, frst you need to focus on what is being said and done.
According to an ancient proverb:
I hear and I forget
I see and I remember
I do and I understand
If you chat to friends and just take notes without really paying attention, you arent giving yourself a
chance to remember anything and will have to study harder at home.
xii
If you have just had a fght with a friend, have been chatting about weekend activities or myriad
other conversations outside the classroom, it helps if you can check these at the door and dont keep
chatting about them once the lesson starts.
If you are unsure of something that the teacher has said, the chances are that others are also not
sure. Asking questions and clarifying things will ultimately help you gain better results, especially
in a subject like mathematics where much of the knowledge and skills depends on being able to
understand the basics.
Learning is all about knowing what you know and what you dont know. Many students feel like
they dont know anything, but its surprising just how much they know already. Picking up the main
concepts in class and not worrying too much about other less important parts can really help. The
teacher can guide you on this.
Here are some pointers to get the best out of classroom learning:
Take control and be responsible for your own learning
Clear your head of other issues in the classroom
Active, not passive, learning is more memorable
Ask questions if you dont understand something
Listen for cues from the teacher
Look out for what are the main concepts
Note taking varies from class to class, but there are some general guidelines that will help when you
come to read over your notes later on at home:
Write legibly
Use different colours to highlight important points or formulae
Make notes in textbooks (using pencil if you dont own the textbook)
Use highlighter pens to point out important points
Summarise the main points
If notes are scribbled, rewrite them at home
At home
You are responsible for your own learning and nobody else can tell you how best to study. Some
people need more revision time than others, some study better in the mornings while others do better
at night, and some can work at home while others prefer a library.
There are some general guidelines for studying at home:
Revise both new and older topics regularly
Have a realistic timetable and be fexible
Summarise the main points
Revise when you are fresh and energetic
Divide study time into smaller rather than longer chunks
xiii
Study in a quiet environment
Have a balanced life and dont forget to have fun!
If you are given exercises out of a textbook to do for homework, consider asking the teacher if you
can leave some of them till later and use these for revision. It is not necessary to do every exercise at
one sitting, and you learn better if you can spread these over time.
People use different learning styles to help them study. The more variety the better, and you will
fnd some that help you more than others. Some people (around 35%) learn best visually, some (25%)
learn best by hearing and others (40%) learn by doing.
Here are some ideas to give you a variety of ways to study:
Summarise on cue cards or in a small notebook
Use colourful posters
Use mindmaps and diagrams
Discuss work with a group of friends
Read notes out aloud
Make up songs and rhymes
Do exercises regularly
Role play teaching someone else
Assessment tasks and exams
Many of the assessment tasks for maths are closed book examinations.
You will cope better in exams if you have practised doing sample exams under exam conditions.
Regular revision will give you confdence and if you feel well prepared, this will help get rid of nerves
in the exam. You will also cope better if you have had a reasonable nights sleep before the exam.
One of the biggest problems students have with exams is in timing. Make sure you dont spend too
much time on questions youre unsure about, but work through and fnd questions you can do frst.
Divide the time up into smaller chunks for each question and allow some extra time to go back
to questions you couldnt do or fnish. For example, in a 2 hour exam with 6 questions, allow around
15 minutes for each question. This will give an extra half hour at the end to tidy up and fnish off
questions.
Here are some general guidelines for doing exams:
Read through and ensure you know how many questions there are
Divide your time between questions with extra time at the end
Dont spend too much time on one question
Read each question carefully, underlining key words
Show all working out, including diagrams and formulae
Cross out mistakes with a single line so it can still be read
Write legibly
xiv
And fnally
Study involves knowing what you dont know, and putting in a lot of time into concentrating on
these areas. This is a positive way to learn. Rather than just saying, I cant do this, say instead, I cant
do this yet, and use your teachers, friends, textbooks and other ways of fnding out.
With the parts of the course that you do know, make sure you can remember these easily under
exam pressure by putting in lots of practice.
Remember to look at new work
today
tomorrow
in a week
in a month
Some people hardly ever fnd time to study while others give up their outside lives to devote their
time to study. The ideal situation is to balance study with other aspects of your life, including going
out with friends, working and keeping up with sport and other activities that you enjoy.
Good luck with your studies!
TERMINOLOGY
1
Basic Arithmetic
Absolute value: The distance of a number from zero on
the number line. Hence it is the magnitude or value of a
number without the sign
Directed numbers: The set of integers or whole
numbers 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, f f - - -
Exponent: Power or index of a number. For example 2
3

has a base number of 2 and an exponent of 3
Index: The power of a base number showing how
many times this number is multiplied by itself
e.g. 2 2 2 2.
3
# # = The index is 3
Indices: More than one index (plural)
Recurring decimal: A repeating decimal that does not
terminate e.g. 0.777777 is a recurring decimal that can
be written as a fraction. More than one digit can recur
e.g. 0.14141414 ...
Scientic notation: Sometimes called standard notation.
A standard form to write very large or very small numbers
as a product of a number between 1 and 10 and a power
of 10 e.g. 765 000 000 is 7.65 10
8
# in scientifc notation
3 Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic
INTRODUCTION
THIS CHAPTER GIVES A review of basic arithmetic skills, including knowing the
correct order of operations, rounding off, and working with fractions, decimals
and percentages. Work on signicant gures, scientic notation and indices is
also included, as are the concepts of absolute values. Basic calculator skills are
also covered in this chapter.
Real Numbers
Types of numbers

Irrational
numbers
Unreal or imaginary
numbers
Integers
Rational
numbers
Real numbers
Integers are whole numbers that may be positive, negative or zero.
e.g. , , , 4 7 0 11 - -
Rational numbers can be written in the form of a fraction
b
a

where a and b are integers, . b 0 ! e.g. , . , . , 1
4
3
3 7 0 5 5
-
Irrational numbers cannot be written in the form of a fraction
b
a
(that
is, they are not rational) e.g. , 2 r
EXAMPLE
Which of these numbers are rational and which are irrational?
, . , , , , . 3 1 3
5
3
9
4
2 65
r
-
Solution
3
4
and
r
are irrational as they cannot be written as fractions (r is irrational).
. , . 1 3 1
3
1
9
1
3
2 65 2
20
13
and
= = - = - so they are all rational.

4 Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
Order of operations
1. Brackets: do calculations inside grouping symbols rst. (For example,
a fraction line, square root sign or absolute value sign can act as a
grouping symbol.)
2. Multiply or divide from left to right.
3. Add or subtract from left to right.

EXAMPLE
Evaluate . 40 3 5 4 - + ] g
Solution

40 3(5 4) 40 3 9
40 27
13
# - + = -
= -
=

PROBLEM
What is wrong with this calculation?
Evaluate
1 2
19 4
+
-

- + Press 19 4 1 2 19 4 1 2 ' + - = '
17

What is the correct answer?
BRACKETS KEYS
Use ( and ) to open and close brackets. Always use them in pairs.
For example, to evaluate 40 5 4 3 - +
] g

press 40 3 ( 5 4 )
13
# - + =
=

To evaluate
1.69 2.77
5.67 3.49
+
-
correct to 1 decimal place

press ( ( 5.67 3.49 ) ( 1.69 2.77 ) ) ' : - + =
0.7
correct to 1decimal place
=

Rounding off
Rounding off is often done in everyday life. A quick look at a newspaper will
give plenty of examples. For example in the sports section, a newspaper may
report that 50 000 fans attended a football match.
An accurate number is not always necessary. There may have been exactly
49 976 people at the football game, but 50 000 gives an idea of the size of the
crowd.
EXAMPLES
1. Round off 24 629 to the nearest thousand.
Solution
This number is between 24 000 and 25 000, but it is closer to 25 000.

24 629 25 000 ` = to the nearest thousand
CONTINUED
MEMORY KEYS
Use STO to store a number in memory.
There are several memories that you can use at the same timeany letter from
A to F, or X, Y and M on the keypad.
To store the number 50 in, say, A press 50 STO A
To recall this number, press ALPHA A =
To clear all memories press SHIFT CLR
X
-1
KEY
Use this key to fnd the reciprocal of x . For example, to evaluate

7.6 2.1
1
# -

0.063 = -
press ( ( ) 7.6 2.1 ) x
1
# - =
-
(correct to 3 decimal places)

Different calculators use
different keys so check
the instructions for your
calculator.
2. Write 850 to the nearest hundred.
Solution
This number is exactly halfway between 800 and 900. When a number is
halfway, we round it off to the larger number.
850 900 ` = to the nearest hundred
In this course you will need to round off decimals, especially when using
trigonometry or logarithms.
To round a number off to a certain number of decimal places, look at the
next digit to the right. If this digit is 5 or more, add 1 to the digit before it and
drop all the other digits after it. If the digit to the right is less than 5, leave the
digit before it and drop all the digits to the right.
EXAMPLES
1. Round off 0.6825371 correct to 1 decimal place.
Solution

.
. .
0 6825371
0 6825371 0 7 correct to1decimal place ` =
#

2. Round off 0.6825371 correct to 2 decimal places.
Solution

.
. .
0 6825371
0 6825371 0 68 correct to 2 decimal places ` =
#

3. Evaluate . . 3 56 2 1 ' correct to 2 decimal places.
Solution

. . . 5
.
3 56 2 1 1 69 238095
1 70 correct to 2 decimal places
' =
=
#

Drop off the 2 and all digits
to the right as 2 is smaller
than 5.
Add 1 to the 6 as the 8 is
greater than 5.
Check this on your
calculator. Add 1 to the
69 as 5 is too large to just
drop off.
While using a xed number of decimal places on the display, the
calculator still keeps track internally of the full number of decimal places.
EXAMPLE
Calculate . . . . 3 25 1 72 5 97 7 32 # ' + correct to 2 decimal places.
Solution

. . . . . . .
. .
.
3 25 1 72 5 97 7 32 1 889534884 5 97 7 32
11 28052326 7 32
18 60052326
18.60 correct to 2 decimal places
' # # + = +
= +
=
=

If the FIX key is set to 2 decimal places, then the display will show
2 decimal places at each step.

3.25 1.72 5.97 7.32 1.89 5.97 7.32
. .
.
11 28 7 32
18 60
' # # + = +
= +
=

If you then set the calculator back to normal, the display will show the
full answer of 18.60052326.
Dont round off at
each step of a series of
calculations.
The calculator does not round off at each step. If it did, the answer might
not be as accurate. This is an important point, since some students round
off each step in calculations and then wonder why they do not get the same
answer as other students and the textbook.
1.1 Exercises
FIX KEY
Use MODE or SET UP to fx the number of decimal places (see the
instructions for your calculator). This will cause all answers to have a fxed number
of decimal places until the calculator is turned off or switched back to normal.
1. State which numbers are rational
and which are irrational.
(a) 169
0.546 (b)
(c) 17 -
(d)
3
r

(e) . 0 34

(f) 218
(g) 2 2
(h)
27
1

17.4% (i)
(j)
5
1

2. Evaluate
(a) 20 8 4 ' -
(b) 3 7 2 5 # # -
(c) 4 27 3 6 # ' '
] g

(d) 17 3 2 # + -
(e) . . 1 9 2 3 1 # -
(f)
1 3
14 7 '
- +

(g) 2
5
3
5
1
3
2
# -
(h)
6
5
1
4
3
8
1
-

(i)
4
1
8
1
8
5
6
5
'
+

(j)
1
4
1
2
1
3
5
1
10
7
-
-

3. Evaluate correct to 2 decimal
places.
(a) 2.36 4.2 0.3 ' +
(b) . . . 2 36 4 2 0 3 ' +
] g

(c) 12.7 3.95 5.7 # '
(d) 8.2 0.4 4.1 0.54 ' # +
(e) . . . . 3 2 6 5 1 3 2 7 # - +
] ] g g

(f)
4.7 1.3
1
+

(g)
4.51 3.28
1
+

(h)
5.2 3.6
0.9 1.4
-
+

(i)
1.23 3.15
5.33 2.87
-
+

(j) 1.7 8.9 3.94
2 2 2
+ -
4. Round off 1289 to the nearest
hundred.
5. Write 947 to the nearest ten.
6. Round off 3200 to the nearest
thousand.
7. A crowd of 10 739 spectators
attended a tennis match.
Write this gure to the nearest
thousand.
8. A school has 623 students. What
is this to the nearest hundred?
9. A bank made loans to the value
of $7 635 718 last year. Round this
off to the nearest million.
10. A company made a prot of
$34 562 991.39 last year. Write
this to the nearest hundred
thousand.
11. The distance between two cities
is 843.72 km. What is this to the
nearest kilometre?
12. Write 0.72548 correct to
2 decimal places.
13. Round off 32.569148 to the
nearest unit.
14. Round off 3.24819 to 3 decimal
places.
15. Evaluate 2.45 1.72 # correct to
2 decimal places.
16. Evaluate 8.7 5 ' correct to
1 decimal place.
17. If pies are on special at 3 for
$2.38, nd the cost of each pie.
18. Evaluate 7.48 correct to
2 decimal places.
19. Evaluate
8
6.4 2.3 +
correct to
1 decimal place.
20. Find the length of each piece
of material, to 1 decimal place,
if 25 m of material is cut into
7 equal pieces.
DID YOU KNOW?
In building, engineering and other industries where accurate measurements are used, the
number of decimal places used indicates how accurate the measurements are.
For example, if a 2.431 m length of timber is cut into 8 equal parts, according to the
calculator each part should be 0.303875 m. However, a machine could not cut this accurately.
A length of 2.431 m shows that the measurement of the timber is only accurate to the nearest
mm (2.431 m is 2431 mm). The cut pieces can also only be accurate to the nearest mm (0.304 m
or 304 mm).
The error in measurement is related to rounding off, as the error is half the smallest
measurement. In the above example, the measurement error is half a millimetre. The length of
timber could be anywhere between 2430.5 mm and 2431.5 mm.
Directed Numbers
Many students use the calculator with work on directed numbers (numbers
that can be positive or negative). Directed numbers occur in algebra and
other topics, where you will need to remember how to use them. A good
understanding of directed numbers will make your algebra skills much better.
- ^ h KEY
Use this key to enter negative numbers. For example,
press ( ) 3 - =
21. How much will 7.5 m
2
of tiles
cost, at $37.59 per m
2
?
22. Divide 12.9 grams of salt into
7 equal portions, to 1 decimal
place.
23. The cost of 9 peaches is $5.72.
How much would 5 peaches cost?
places.
(a) 17.3 4.33 2.16 # -
(b) . . . . 8 72 5 68 4 9 3 98 # # -
(c)
5.6 4.35
3.5 9.8
+
+

(d)
7.63 5.12
15.9 6.3 7.8
-
+ -

(e)
6.87 3.21
1
-

25. Evaluate
.
. . .
5 39
9 68 5 47 9 91
2
- -
] g

correct to 1 decimal place.
Adding and subtracting
To add: move to the right along the number line
To subtract: move to the left along the number line

Add Subtract
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Same signs
Different signs
= +
+ + = +
- =
= -
+ - = -
- + = -
- +

EXAMPLES
Evaluate
1. 4 3 - +
Solution
Start at 4 - and move 3 places to the right.
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
4 3 1 - + = -
2. 1 2 - -
Solution
Start at 1 - and move 2 places to the left.
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 - - = -
Multiplying and dividing
To multiply or divide, follow these rules. This rule also works if there are two
signs together without a number in between e.g. 3 2 -
-

You can also do these on a
calculator, or you may have
a different way of working
these out.
EXAMPLES
Evaluate
1. 2 7 # -
Solution
Different signs ( 2 7 and - + ) give a negative answer.
2 7 14 # - = -
2. 12 4 ' - -
Solution
Same signs ( 12 4 and - - ) give a positive answer.
12 4 3 ' - - =
3. 1 3 - -
-

Solution
The signs together are the same (both negative) so give a positive answer.

1 3
2
= - +
=
1 3 - -
-

1. 2 3 - +
2. 7 4 - -
3. 8 7 # -
4. 3 7 - -] g
5. 28 7 ' -
6. . . 4 9 3 7 - +
7. . . 2 14 5 37 - -
8. . . 4 8 7 4 # -
9. . . 1 7 4 87 - -
] g

10.
5
3
1
3
2
- -
11. 5 3 4 # -
12. 2 7 3 # - + -
13. 4 3 2 # - -
14. 1 2 - - -
15. 7 2 +
-

16. 2 1 - - ] g
17. 2 15 5 ' - +
18. 2 6 5 # # - -
19. 28 7 5 # ' - - -
20. 3
2
-
] g

1.2 Exercises
Evaluate
Start at 1 - and move 3
places to the right.
Fractions, Decimals and Percentages
EXAMPLES
1. Write 0.45 as a fraction in its simplest form.
Solution

. 0 45
100
45
5
5
20
9
' =
=

2. Convert
8
3
to a decimal.
Solution
.
.
.
8 3 000
0 375
8
3
0 375 So =
g

3. Change 35.5% to a fraction.
Solution

. %
.
35 5
100
35 5
2
2
200
71
# =
=

4. Write 0.436 as a percentage.
Solution

. . %
. %
0 436 0 436 100
43 6
# =
=

5. Write 20 g as a fraction of 1 kg in its simplest form.
Solution
1 1000 kg g =
1
20
1000
20
50
1
kg
g
g
g
=
=
Multiply by 100% to
change a fraction or
decimal to a percentage.
Conversions
You can do all these
conversions on your
calculator using the
a
c
b
or S D + key.
8
3
means 3 8. '
Sometimes decimals repeat, or recur.
Example
. 0.
3
1
0 33333333 3
f = =
There are different methods that can be used to change a recurring
decimal into a fraction. Here is one way of doing it. Later you will discover
another method when studying series. (See HSC Course book, Chapter 8.)
EXAMPLES
1. Write . 0 4
as a rational number.
Solution

. ( )
. ( )
( ) ( ):
n
n
n
n
0 44444 1
10 4 44444 2
2 1 9 4
9
4
Let
Then
f
f
=
=
- =
=

2. Change . 1 329

to a fraction.
Solution

. ( )
. ( )
( ) ( ): .
.
n
n
n
n
1 3292929 1
100 132 9292929 2
2 1 99 131 6
99
131 6
10
10
990
1316
1
495
163
Let
Then
#
f
f
=
=
- =
=
=
=

A rational number is
any number that can be
written as a fraction.
Check this on your
calculator by dividing
4 by 9.
Try multiplying n by 10.
Why doesnt this work?
6. Find the percentage of people who prefer to drink Lemon Fuzzy, if 24
out of every 30 people prefer it.
Solution

%
%
30
24
1
100
80 # =
CONTINUED
1. Write each decimal as a fraction
in its lowest terms.
0.64 (a)
0.051 (b)
5.05 (c)
11.8 (d)
2. Change each fraction into a
decimal.
(a)
5
2

(b) 1
8
7

(c)
12
5

(d)
11
7

3. Convert each percentage to a
fraction in its simplest form.
2% (a)
37.5% (b)
0.1% (c)
109.7% (d)
4. Write each percentage as a decimal.
27% (a)
109% (b)
0.3% (c)
6.23% (d)
5. Write each fraction as a
percentage.
(a)
20
7

(b)
3
1

(c) 2
15
4

(d)
1000
1

6. Write each decimal as a
percentage.
1.24 (a)
0.7 (b)
0.405 (c)
1.2794 (d)
7. Write each percentage as a
decimal and as a fraction.
52% (a)
7% (b)
16.8% (c)
109% (d)
43.4% (e)
(f) % 12
4
1

8. Write these fractions as recurring
decimals.
(a)
6
5

(b)
7
99

(c)
99
13

(d)
6
1

(e)
3
2

1.3 Exercises
Another method

Let .
. ( )
. ( )
( ) ( ):
n
n
n
n
n
1 3292929
10 13 2929292 1
1000 1329 292929 2
2 1 990 1316
990
1316
1
495
163
Then
and
f
f
f
=
=
=
- =
=
=

This method avoids decimals
in the fraction at the end.
Investigation
Explore patterns in recurring decimals by dividing numbers by 3, 6, 9, 11,
and so on.
Can you predict what the recurring decimal will be if a fraction has 3 in
the denominator? What about 9 in the denominator? What about 11?
Can you predict what fraction certain recurring decimals will be? What
denominator would 1 digit recurring give? What denominator would you
have for 2 digits recurring?
Operations with fractions, decimals and percentages
You will need to know how to work with fractions without using a calculator,
as they occur in other areas such as algebra, trigonometry and surds.
(f)
33
5

(g)
7
1

(h) 1
11
2

9. Express as fractions in lowest
terms.
(a) . 0 8

(b) . 0 2

(c) . 1 5

(d) . 3 7

(e) . 0 67

(f) . 0 54

(g) . 0 15

(h) . 0 216

(i) . 0 219

(j) . 1 074

10. Evaluate and express as a decimal.
(a)
3 6
5
+

(b) 8 3 5 ' -
(c)
12 3
4 7
+
+

(d) 1
99
31
-
(e)
7 4
13 6
+
+

11. Evaluate and write as a fraction.
(a) . . . 7 5 4 1 7 9 ' +
] g

(b)
4.5 1.3
15.7 8.9
-
-

(c)
12.3 8.9 7.6
6.3 1.7
- +
+

(d)
. .
.
11 5 9 7
4 3
-

(e)
8100
64

12. Angel scored 17 out of 23 in a
class test. What was her score as a
percentage, to the nearest unit?
13. A survey showed that 31 out of
40 people watched the news on
Monday night. What percentage
of people watched the news?
14. What percentage of 2 kg is 350 g?
15. Write 25 minutes as a percentage
of an hour.
DID YOU KNOW?
Some countries use a comma for the decimal pointfor example, 0,45 for 0.45.
This is the reason that our large numbers now have spaces instead of commas between
digitsfor example, 15 000 rather than 15,000.
EXAMPLES
1. Evaluate 1 .
5
2
4
3
-
Solution

1
5
2
4
3
5
7
4
3
20
28
20
15
20
13
- = -
= -
=

2. Evaluate 2
2
1
3 ' .
Solution

2
2
1
3
2
5
1
3
2
5
3
1
5
6
' '
#
=
=
=

3. Evaluate . . 0 056 100 #
Solution
. . 0 056 100 5 6 # =
Move the decimal point
2 places to the right.
The examples on fractions show how to add, subtract, multiply or divide
fractions both with and without the calculator. The decimal examples will
help with some simple multiplying and the percentage examples will be useful
in Chapter 8 of the HSC Course book when doing compound interest.
Most students use their calculators for decimal calculations. However, it
is important for you to know how to operate with decimals. Sometimes the
calculator can give a wrong answer if the wrong key is pressed. If you can
estimate the size of the answer, you can work out if it makes sense or not. You
can also save time by doing simple calculations in your head.
4. Evaluate . . . 0 02 0 3 #
Solution
. . . 0 02 0 3 0 006 # =
5. Evaluate
10
8.753
.
Solution
. . 8 753 10 0 8753 ' =
6. The price of a $75 tennis racquet increased by %. 5
2
1
Find the new
price.
Solution

% $ . $
$ .
5 75 0 055 75
4 13
of ` # =
=
% . % $ . $
$ .
5
2
1
0 055 105
2
1
75 1 055 75
79 13
2
1
or of # = =
=

So the price increases by $4.13 to $79.13.
7. The price of a book increased by 12%. If it now costs $18.00, what did
it cost before the price rise?
Solution
The new price is 112% (old price 100%, plus 12%)

1%
$ .
100%
$ .
$16.07
112
18 00
112
18 00
1
100
`
#
=
=
=

So the old price was $16.07.
1.4 Exercises
1. Write 18 minutes as a fraction of
2 hours in its lowest terms.
2. Write 350 mL as a fraction of
1 litre in its simplest form.
3. Evaluate
(a)
5
3
4
1
+
(b) 3
5
2
2
10
7
-
(c)
4
3
1
5
2
#
(d)
7
3
4 '
(e) 1
5
3
2
3
2
'
Multiply the numbers
and count the number
of decimal places in
the question.
Move the decimal
point 1 place to
the left.
4. Find
5
3
of $912.60.
5. Find
7
5
of 1 kg, in grams correct
to 1 decimal place.
6. Trinh spends
3
1
of her day
sleeping,
24
7
at work and
12
1

eating. What fraction of the day
is left?
7. I get $150.00 a week for a casual
job. If I spend
10
1
on bus fares,

15
2
on lunches and
3
1
on outings,
how much money is left over for
savings?
8. John grew by
200
17
of his height
this year. If he was 165 cm tall
last year, what is his height now,
to the nearest cm?
9. Evaluate
(a) 8.9 3 +
(b) 9 3.7 -
(c) . 1 9 10 #
(d) . 0 032 100 #
(e) . 0 7 5 #
(f) . . 0 8 0 3 #
(g) . . 0 02 0 009 #
(h) . 5 72 1000 #
(i)
100
8.74

(j) . . 3 76 0 1 #
10. Find 7% of $750.
11. Find 6.5% of 845 mL.
12. What is 12.5% of 9217 g?
13. Find 3.7% of $289.45.
14. If Kaye makes a proft of $5 by
selling a bike for $85, fnd the
proft as a percentage of the
selling price.
15. Increase 350 g by 15%.
16. Decrease 45 m by %. 8
2
1

17. The cost of a calculator is now
$32. If it has increased by 3.5%,
how much was the old cost?
18. A tree now measures 3.5 m, which
is 8.3% more than its previous
years height. How high was the
tree then, to 1 decimal place?
19. This month there has been a
4.9% increase in stolen cars. If
546 cars were stolen last month,
how many were stolen this
month?
20. Georges computer cost $3500. If
it has depreciated by 17.2%, what
is the computer worth now?
Powers and Roots
A power (or index ) of a number shows how many times a number is
multiplied by itself.
PROBLEM
If both the hour hand and minute hand start at the same position at
12 oclock, when is the rst time, correct to a fraction of a minute, that
the two hands will be together again?
EXAMPLES
1. 4 4 4 4 64
3
# # = =
2. 2 2 2 2 2 2 32
5
# # # # = =
In 4
3
the 4 is called the base
number and the 3 is called
the index or power.
A root of a number is the inverse of the power.
EXAMPLES
1. 36 6 = since 6 36
2
=
2. 8 2
3
= since 2 8
3
=
3. 64 2
6
= since 2 64
6
=
DID YOU KNOW?
Many formulae use indices (powers and roots).
For example the compound interest formula that you will study in Chapter 8 of the HSC
Course book is 1 A P r
n
= + ^ h
Geometry uses formulae involving indices, such as
3
4
V r
3
r = . Do you know what this
formula is for?
In Chapter 7, the formula for the distance between 2 points on a number plane is
d x x y y ( ) ( )
2 1
2
2 1
2
= - + -
See if you can fnd other formulae involving indices.
Proof

( )
( )
( )
a a
a
a
a a a
a a a m
n
a a a m n
a
1
times
times
times
m n
n
m
m n
'
# # #
# # #
# # #
f
f
f
=
=
=
-
=
-

Index laws
There are some general laws that simplify calculations with indices.
a a a
m n m n
# =
+

Proof

( ) ( ) a a a a a a a a
a a a
a
m n
m n
m n
m n
times times
times
# # # # # # # #
# # #
f f
f
=
=
=
+
+
1 2 3 4444 4444 1 2 3 4444 4444
1 2 3 4444 4444

These laws work for any m
and n , including fractions and
negative numbers.
a a a
m n m n
' =
-

a = ( ) a
m n mn

Proof

( ) ( )
( )
a a a a a n
a n
a
times
times
m n m m m m
m m m m
mn
# # # # f =
=
=
f + + + +

POWER AND ROOT KEYS
Use the x
2
and x
3
keys for squares and cubes.
Use the x
y
or ^ key to fnd powers of numbers.
Use the key for square roots.
Use the
3
key for cube roots.
Use the
x
for other roots.
( ) ab a b
n n n
=
Proof

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
ab ab ab ab ab n
a a a b b b
a b
times
n
n n
n n times times
# # # #
# # # # # # #
f
f f
=
=
=
1 2 3 4444 4444 1 2 3 4444 4444

b
a
b
a
n
n
n
= c m
Proof

( )
( )
( )
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
n
b b b b
a a a a n
n
b
a
times
times
times
n
n
n
# # # #
# # # #
# # # #
f
f
f
=
=
=
c m

EXAMPLES
Simplify
1. m m m
9 7 2
# '
Solution

m m m m
m
9 7 2 9 7 2
14
# ' =
=
+ -

2.
3
( ) y 2
4

Solution

( ) ( ) y y
y
y
2 2
2
8
4 3 3 4 3
3 4 3
12
=
=
=
#

CONTINUED
1. Evaluate without using a
calculator.
(a) 5 2
3 2
#
(b) 3 8
4 2
+
(c)
4
1
3
c m
(d) 27
3

(e) 16
4

place.
(a) 3.7
2

(b) 1.06
1.5

(c) 2.3
0.2 -

(d) 19
3

(e) . . . 34 8 1 2 43 1
3
# -
(f)
0.99 5.61
1
3
+

3. Simplify
(a) a a a
6 9 2
# #
(b) y y y
3 8 5
# #
-

(c) a a
1 3
#
- -

(d)
2 2
w w #
1 1

(e) x x
6
'
(f) p p
3 7
'
-

(g)
y
y
5
11

(h) ( ) x
7 3

(i) (2 ) x
5 2

(j) (3 ) y
2 4 -

(k) a a a
3 5 7
# '
(l)
y
x
9
2
5
f p
(m)
w
w w
3
6 7
#

(n)
( )
p
p p
9
2 3 4
#

(o)
x
x x
2
6 7
'

(p)
( )
a b
a b
4 9
2 2 6
#
#

(q)
( ) ( )
x y
x y
1 4
2 3 3 2
#
#
-
-

4. Simplify
(a) x x
5 9
#
(b) a a
1 6
#
- -

(c)
m
m
3
7

(d) k k k
13 6 9
# '
(e) a a a
5 4 7
# #
- -

(f)
5 5
x x #
2 3

(g)
m n
m n
4 2
5 4
#
#

1.5 Exercises
3.
( )
y
y y
5
6 3 4
#
-

Solution

( )
y
y y
y
y y
y
y
y
y
y
( )
5
6 3 4
5
18 4
5
18 4
5
14
9
# #
=
=
=
=
- -
+ -

(h)
2 2
p
p p
2
#
1 1

(i) (3 ) x
11 2

(j)
( )
x
x
3
4 6

5. Simplify
(a)
5
( ) pq
3

(b)
b
a
8
c m
(c)
4
b
a
4
3
d n
(7 (d) a
5
b )
2

(e)
(2 )
m
m
4
7 3

(f)
( )
xy
xy xy
3 2 4
#

(g)
3
4
( )
( )
k
k
6
2
3
8

(h) y
y
2
8
5
7
12
# _ i
(i)
a
a a
11
6 4
3
#
-
e o
(j)
x y
xy 5
8 3
9
3
#
f p
6. Evaluate a
3
b
2
when 2 a = and

4
3
b = .
7. If
3
2
x = and
9
1
, y = nd the value
of
xy
x y
5
3 2
.
8. If
2
1
,
3
1
a b = = and
4
1
, c =
evaluate
c
a b
4
2 3
as a fraction .
9. (a) Simplify
a b
a b
8 7
11 8
.
Hence evaluate (b)
a b
a b
8 7
11 8
when

5
2
a = and
8
5
b = as a fraction .
10. (a) Simplify
p q r
p q r
4 6 2
5 8 4
.
(b) Hence evaluate
p q r
p q r
4 6 2
5 8 4
as a
fraction when
8
7
,
3
2
p q = = and

4
3
r = .
11. Evaluate ( ) a
4 3
when
6
. a
3
2
=
1
c m
12. Evaluate
b
a b
4
3 6
when a
2
1
= and
b
3
2
= .
13. Evaluate
x y
x y
5 5
4 7
when x
3
1
= and
y
9
2
= .
14. Evaluate
k
k
9
5
-
-
when . k
3
1
=
15. Evaluate
( ) a b
a b
3 2 2
4 6
when a
4
3
= and
b
9
1
= .
16. Evaluate
a b
a b
5 2
6 3
#
#
as a fraction
when a
9
1
= and b
4
3
= .
17. Evaluate
a b
a b
3
2 7
as a fraction in
index form when a
5
2
4
= c m and
b
8
5
3
= c m .
18. Evaluate
( )
( )
a b c
a b c
2 4 3
3 2 4
as a fraction
when , a
3
1
= b
7
6
= and c
9
7
= .
Proof

x x x
x
x x
x
x
x
1
1
n n n n
n n
n
n
0
0
'
'
`
=
=
=
=
=
-

Negative and zero indices
Class Investigation
Explore zero and negative indices by looking at these questions.
For example simplify x x
3 5
' using (i) index laws and (ii) cancelling.
(i) x x x
3 5 2
' =
-
by index laws
(ii)
x
x
x x x x x
x x x
x
1
5
3
2
# # # #
# #
=
=

x
x
1
So
2
2
=
-

Now simplify these questions by (i) index laws and (ii) cancelling.
(a) x x
2 3
'
(b) x x
2 4
'
(c) x x
2 5
'
(d) x x
3 6
'
(e) x x
3 3
'
(f) x x
2 2
'
(g) x x
2
'
(h) x x
5 6
'
(i) x x
4 7
'
(j) x x
3
'
Use your results to complete:

x
x
0
n
=
=
-

x 1
0
=

1
x
x
n
n
=
-

Proof

x x x
x
x x
x
x
x
x
x
1
1
n n
n
n
n
n
n
n
0 0
0
0
'
'
`
=
=
=
=
=
-
-
-

EXAMPLES
1. Simplify .
abc
ab c
4
5
0
e o
Solution
1
abc
ab c
4
5
0
= e o
2. Evaluate . 2
3 -

Solution

2
2
1
8
1
3
3
=
=
-

3. Write in index form.
(a)
1
x
2

(b)
3
x
5

(c)
5
1
x

(d)
x 1
1
+

CONTINUED
1. Evaluate as a fraction or whole
number.
(a) 3
3 -

(b) 4
1 -

(c) 7
3 -

(d) 10
4 -

(e) 2
8 -

6 (f)
0

(g) 2
5 -

(h) 3
4 -

(i) 7
1 -

(j) 9
2 -

(k) 2
6 -

(l) 3
2 -

4 (m)
0

(n) 6
2 -

(o) 5
3 -

(p) 10
5 -

(q) 2
7 -

(r) 2
0

(s) 8
2 -

(t) 4
3 -

2. Evaluate
(a) 2
0

(b)
2
1
4 -
c m
(c)
3
2
1 -
c m
(d)
6
5
2 -
c m
(e)
3
2
x y
x y
0
-
+
f p
(f)
5
1
3 -
c m
(g)
4
3
1 -
c m
(h)
7
1
2 -
c m
(i)
3
2
3 -
c m
(j)
2
1
5 -
c m
(k)
7
3
1 -
c m
1.6 Exercises
Solution
(a)
1
x
x
2
2
=
-

(b)
x x
x
3
3
1
3
5 5
5
# =
=
-

(c)
x
x
x
5
1
5
1 1
5
1
1
# =
=
-

(d)
( )
x
x
x
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
+
=
+
= +
-
] g

4. Write a
3
without the negative index.
Solution
a
a
1
3
3
=
-

(l)
9
8
0
c m
(m)
7
6
2 -
c m
(n)
10
9
2 -
c m
(o)
11
6
0
c m
(p)
4
1
2
-
-
c m
(q)
5
2
3
-
-
c m
(r) 3
7
2
1
-
-
c m
(s)
8
3
0
- c m
(t) 1
4
1
2
-
-
c m
3. Change into index form.
(a)
1
m
3

(b)
1
x

(c)
1
p
7

(d)
1
d
9

(e)
1
k
5

(f)
1
x
2

(g)
2
x
4

(h)
3
y
2

(i)
2
1
z
6

(j)
5
3
t
8

(k)
7
2
x

(l)
2
5
m
6

(m)
3
2
y
7

(n)
(3 4)
1
x
2
+

(o)
( )
1
a b
8
+

(p)
2
1
x -

(q)
( ) p 5 1
1
3
+

(r)
(4 9)
2
t
5
-

(s)
( ) x 4 1
1
11
+

(t)
9( 3 )
5
a b
7
+

4. Write without negative indices.
(a) t
5 -

(b) x
6 -

(c) y
3 -

(d) n
8 -

(e) w
10 -

(f) x 2
1 -

(g) 3m
4 -

(h) 5x
7 -

(i) 2x
3 -
] g
(j) n 4
1 -
] g
(k) x 1
6
+
-
] g

(l) y z 8
1
+
-
^ h
(m) 3 k
2
-
-
] g
(n) 3 2 x y
9
+
-
^ h
(o)
1
x
5 -
b l

(p)
y
1
10 -
c m
(q)
2
p
1 -
d n
(r)
1
a b
2
+
-
c m
(s)
x y
x y
1
-
+
-
e o

(t)
3
2
x y
w z
7
+
-
-
e o
Proof

n
n
a a
a a
a a
by index laws
n
n
n
n
`
=
=
=
1
1
`
^
^
j
h
h

Fractional indices
Class Investigation
Explore fractional indices by looking at these questions.
For example simplify (i)
2
x
2 1
` j
and (ii) . x
2
^ h

2
( ) x x
x
i by index laws
2
1
=
=
1
`
^
j
h

2
2
( ) x x
x x x
x x
ii
So
2
2
2
`
=
= =
=
1
1
^
`
^
h
j
h

Now simplify these questions.
(a)
2
x
2
1
^ h

(b) x
2

(c)
3
x
3 1
` j

(d)
3
x
3
1
^ h

(e) x
3
3
^ h

(f) x
3 3

(g)
4
x
4
1
` j

(h)
4
x
4
1
^ h

(i) x
4
4
^ h

(j) x
4 4

Use your results to complete:

n
x =
1

n
a a
n
=
1

EXAMPLES
1. Evaluate
(a)
2
49
1

(b)
3
27
1

Solution
(a)
2
49 49
7
=
=
1

(b)
3
27 27
3
3
=
=
1

2. Write x 3 2 - in index form.
Solution

2
( ) x x 3 2 3 2 - = -
1

3. Write
7
( ) a b +
1
without fractional indices.
Solution

7
( ) a b a b
7
+ = +
1

Proof

n n
n
n
a a
a
a
a
m
n
m
m
m n
=
=

a =
=
m
m
1
1
`
^
^
j
h
h

Putting the fractional and negative indices together gives this rule.

-
n
a
a
1
n
=
1

Here are some further rules.

n
( )
a a
a
m n
n m
=
=
m


b
a
a
b
n n
=
-
c
b
m
l

EXAMPLES
1. Evaluate
(a)
3
8
4

(b)
-
3
125
1

(c)
3
2
3 -
c m
Solution
(a)
3
( ) ( )

8 8 8
2
16
or
3 4 4 3
4
=
=
=
4

(b)
-
3
3
125
125
1
125
1
5
1
3
=
=
=
1
1

Proof

b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
a
b
a
b
a
b
1
1
1
1
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
'
#
=
=
=
=
=
=
-
c
c
b
m
m
l

(c)
3
2
2
3
8
27
3
8
3
3 3
=
=
=
-
c c m m

(a) x
5

(b)
( ) x 4 1
1
2 2
3
-

Solution
(a)
2
x x
5
=
5

(b)
-
3
3
( )
( )
( )
x
x
x
4 1
1
4 1
1
4 1
2 2
3
2
2
-
=
-
= -
2
2

3. Write
-
5
r
3
without the negative and fractional indices.
Solution

-
5
5
r
r
r
1
1
3 5
=
=
3
3

DID YOU KNOW?
Nicole Oresme (132382) was the frst mathematician to use fractional indices.
John Wallis (16161703) was the frst person to explain the signifcance of zero, negative
and fractional indices. He also introduced the symbol 3 for infnity.
Do an Internet search on these mathematicians and fnd out more about their work and
backgrounds. You could use keywords such as indices and infnity as well as their names to fnd
this information.
1. Evaluate
(a)
2
81
1

(b)
3
27
1

(c)
2
16
1

(d)
3
8
1

(e)
2
49
1

(f)
3
1000
1

(g)
4
16
1

(h)
2
64
1

(i)
3
64
1

(j)
7
1
1

(k)
4
81
1

(l)
5
32
1

(m)
8
0
1

(n)
3
125
1

(o)
3
343
1

(p)
7
128
1

(q)
4
256
1

(r)
2
9
3

(s)
-
3
8
1

(t)
-
3
64
2

places.
(a)
4
23
1

(b) 45.8
4

(c) 1.24 4.3
2 7
+
(d)
12.9
1
5

(e)
. .
. .
1 5 3 7
3 6 1 4
8
+
-

(f)
. .
. .
8 79 1 4
5 9 3 7
4
#
-

3. Write without fractional indices.
(a)
3
y
1

(b)
3
y
2

(c)
2
x
-
1

(d)
2
( ) x 2 5 +
1

(e)
-
2
( ) x 3 1 -
1

(f)
3
( ) q r 6 +
1

(g)
-
5
( ) x 7 +
2

(a) t
(b) y
5

(c) x
3

(d) 9 x
3
-
(e) s 4 1 +
(f)
2 3
1
t +

(g)
(5 )
1
x y
3
-

(h) ( ) x 3 1
5
+
(i)
( 2)
1
x
2
3
-

(j)
2 7
1
y +

(k)
4
5
x
3
+

(l)
y 3 1
2
2
-

(m)
5 ( 2)
3
x
2 3
4
+

5. Write in index form and simplify.
(a) x x
(b)
x
x

(c)
x
x
3

(d)
x
x
3
2

(e) x x
4

1.7 Exercises
6. Expand and simplify, and write in
index form.
(a) ( ) x x
2
+
(b) ( )( ) a b a b
3 3 3 3
+ -
(c)
1
p
p
2
+
f p

(d) (
1
) x
x
2
+
(e)
( )
x
x x x 3 1
3
2
- +

7. Write without fractional or
negative indices.
(a)
-
3
( ) a b 2 -
1

(b)
3
( ) y 3 -
-
2

(c)
-
7
( ) a 4 6 1 +
4

(d)
-
4
( ) x y
3
+
5

(e)
-
9
( ) x
7
6 3 8 +
2

Scientic notation (standard form)
Very large or very small numbers are usually written in scientic notation to
make them easier to read. What could be done to make the gures in the box
below easier to read?
DID YOU KNOW ?
The Bay of Fundy, Canada, has the largest tidal changes in the world. About 100 000 000 000
tons of water are moved with each tide change.
The dinosaurs dwelt on Earth for 185 000 000 years until they died out 65 000 000 years ago.
The width of one plant cell is about 0.000 06 m.
In 2005, the total storage capacity of dams in Australia was 83 853 000 000 000 litres and
households in Australia used 2 108 000 000 000 litres of water.
A number in scientic notation is written as a number between 1 and 10
multiplied by a power of 10.
EXAMPLES
1. Write 320 000 000 in scientic notation.
Solution
. 320 000 000 3 2 10
8
# =
2. Write . 7 1 10
5
#
-
as a decimal number.
Solution

. .
.
7 1 10 7 1 10
0 000 071
5 5
# ' =
=
-

Write the number
between 1 and 10
and count the decimal
places moved.
Count 5 places to
the left.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
The concept of signicant gures is related to rounding off. When we look
at very large (or very small) numbers, some of the smaller digits are not
signicant.
For example, in a football crowd of 49 976, the 6 people are not really
signicant in terms of a crowd of about 50 000! Even the 76 people are not
signicant.
When a company makes a prot of $5 012 342.87, the amount of
87 cents is not exactly a signicant sum! Nor is the sum of $342.87.
To round off to a certain number of signicant gures, we count from the
rst non-zero digit.
In any number, non-zero digits are always signicant. Zeros are not
signicant, except between two non-zero digits or at the end of a decimal
number.
Even though zeros may not be signicant, they are still necessary. For
example 31, 310, 3100, 31 000 and 310 000 all have 2 signicant gures but
are very different numbers!
Scientic notation uses the signicant gures in a number.
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION KEY
Use the EXP or 10
x
# key to put numbers in scientifc notation.
For example, to evaluate 3.1 10 2.5 10 ,
4 2
# ' #
-

press 3.1 EXP 4 2.5 EXP ( ) 2
1240 000
' = -
=

DID YOU KNOW ?
Engineering notation is similar to scientifc notation, except the powers of 10 are always
multiples of 3. For example,
3.5 10
3
#
15.4 10
6
#
-

EXAMPLES

. ( )
. . ( )
. . ( )
12 000 1 2 10 2
0 000 043 5 4 35 10 3
0 020 7 2 07 10 3
significant figures
significant figures
significant figures
4
5
2
#
#
#
=
=
=
-
-

When rounding off to signicant gures, use the usual rules for rounding off.
EXAMPLES
1. Round off 4 592 170 to 3 signicant gures.
Solution
4 592 170 4 590 000 = to 3 signicant gures
2. Round off 0.248 391 to 2 signicant gures.
Solution
. . 0 248 391 0 25 = to 2 signicant gures
3. Round off 1.396 794 to 3 signicant gures.
Solution
. . 1 396794 1 40 = to 3 signicant gures
1. Write in scientic notation .
3 800 (a)
1 230 000 (b)
61 900 (c)
12 000 000 (d)
8 670 000 000 (e)
416 000 (f)
900 (g)
13 760 (h)
20 000 000 (i)
80 000 (j)
2. Write in scientic notation.
0.057 (a)
0.000 055 (b)
0.004 (c)
0.000 62 (d)
0.000 002 (e)
0.000 000 08 (f)
0.000 007 6 (g)
0.23 (h)
0.008 5 (i)
0.000 000 000 07 (j)
3. Write as a decimal number.
(a) . 3 6 10
4
#
(b) . 2 78 10
7
#
(c) . 9 25 10
3
#
(d) . 6 33 10
6
#
(e) 4 10
5
#
(f) . 7 23 10
2
#
-

(g) . 9 7 10
5
#
-

(h) . 3 8 10
8
#
-

(i) 7 10
6
#
-

(j) 5 10
4
#
-

4. Round these numbers to
2 signicant gures.
235 980 (a)
9 234 605 (b)
10 742 (c)
0.364 258 (d)
1.293 542 (e)
8.973 498 011 (f)
15.694 (g)
322.78 (h)
2904.686 (i)
9.0741 (j)
1.8 Exercises
Remember to put
the 0s in!
5. Evaluate correct to 3 signicant
gures.
(a) . . 14 6 0 453 #
(b) . 4 8 7 '
(c) 4. . . 47 2 59 1 46 # +
(d)
. . 3 47 2 7
1
-

6. Evaluate . . , 4 5 10 2 9 10
4 5
# # #
giving your answer in scientic
notation.
7. Calculate
.
.
1 34 10
8 72 10
7
3
#
#
-
and write
your answer in standard form
correct to 3 signicant gures.
Investigation
A logarithm is an index. It is a way of nding the power (or index) to
which a base number is raised. For example, when solving , 3 9
x
= the
solution is . x 2 =
The 3 is called the base number and the x is the index or power.
You will learn about logarithms in the HSC course.
If a y
x
= then log y x
a
=
The expression log 1.
7
49 means the power of 7 that gives 49.
The solution is 2 since . 7 49
2
=
The expression log 2.
2
16 means the power of 2 that gives 16.
The solution is 4 since . 2 16
4
=
Can you evaluate these logarithms?
log 1.
3
27
log 2.
5
25
log 3.
10
10 000
log 4.
2
64
log 5.
4
4
log 6.
7
7
log 7.
3
1
log 8.
4
2
9.
3
1
log
3

10.
4
1
log
2

The a is called the base
number and the x is the
index or power.
Absolute Value
Negative numbers are used in maths and science, to show opposite directions.
For example, temperatures can be positive or negative.
But sometimes it is not appropriate to use negative numbers.
For example, solving 9 c
2
= gives two solutions, c 3 ! = .
However when solving 9, c
2
= using Pythagoras theorem, we only use
the positive answer, 3, c = as this gives the length of the side of a triangle. The
negative answer doesnt make sense.
We dont use negative numbers in other situations, such as speed. In
science we would talk about a vehicle travelling at 60k/h going in a negative
direction, but we would not commonly use this when talking about the speed
of our cars!
Absolute value defnitions
We write the absolute value of x as x
x
x x
x
0 when
when x 0 1
$
=
-
)

EXAMPLES
1. Evaluate . 4
Solution
4 4 0 4 since $ =
We can also defne
x as the distance
of x from 0 on the
number line. We will
use this in Chapter 3.
CONTINUED
2. Evaluate . 3 -
Solution

3 3 3 0
3
since 1 - = - - -
=
] g

The absolute value has some properties shown below.
Properties of absolute value

a 9 = = =
| | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
ab a b
a
a a
a a
a b b a
a b a b
2 3 2 3 6
3 3
5 5 5
7 7 7
2 3 3 2 1
2 3 2 3 3 4 3 4
e.g.
e.g.
e.g.
e.g.
e.g.
e.g. but
2 2 2 2
2 2
# # #
1 #
= - = - =
- -
= = =
- = - = =
- = - - = - =
+ + + = + - + - +
] g

EXAMPLES
1. Evaluate 2 1 3
2
- - + - .
Solution

2 1 3 2 1 3
2 1 9
10
2 2
- - + - = - +
= - +
=

2. Show that a b a b # + + when a 2 = - and 3 b = .
Solution

a b
2 3
1
1
LHS = +
= - +
=
=

LHS means Left Hand Side.

a b
2 3
2 3
5
RHS = +
= - +
= +
=

a b a b
1 5 Since 1
# + +

3. Write expressions for 2 4 x - without the absolute value signs.
Solution

1

x x x
x
x
x x x
x x
x
2 4 2 4 2 4 0
2 4
2
2 4 2 4 2 4 0
2 4 2 4
2
when
i.e.
when
i.e.
1
1
$
$
$
- = - -
- = - - -
= - +
] g

Class Discussion
Are these statements true? If so, are there some values for which the
expression is undefned (values of x or y that the expression cannot
have)?
1.
x
x
1 =
2. 2 2 x x =
3. 2 2 x x =
4. x y x y + = +
5. x x
2 2
=
6. x x
3 3
=
7. x x 1 1 + = +
8.
x
x
3 2
3 2
1
-
-
=
9.
x
x
1
2
=
10. x 0 $
Discuss absolute value and its defnition in relation to these statements.
RHS means Right Hand Side.
1. Evaluate
(a) 7
(b) 5 -
(c) 6 -
(d) 0
(e) 2
(f) 11 -
(g) 2 3 -
(h) 3 8 -
(i) 5
2
-
(j) 5
3
-
2. Evaluate
(a) 3 2 + -
(b) 3 4 - -
(c) 5 3 - +
(d) 2 7 #-
(e) 3 1 - + -
(f) 5 2 6
2
# - -
(g) 2 5 1 # - + -
(h) 3 4 -
(i) 2 3 3 4 - - -
(j) 5 7 4 2 - + -
3. Evaluate a b - if
(a) 5 2 a b and = =
(b) 1 2 a b and = - =
(c) 2 3 a b and = - = -
(d) 4 7 a b and = =
(e) . a b 1 2 and = - = -
4. Write an expression for
(a) a a 0 when 2
(b) 0 a a when 1
(c) 0 a a when =
(d) 0 a a 3 when 2
(e) 0 a a 3 when 1
(f) 0 a a 3 when =
(g) a a 1 1 when 2 + -
(h) 1 a a 1 when 1 + -
(i) 2 x x 2 when 2 -
(j) 2 x x 2 when 1 - .
5. Show that a b a b # + +
when
(a) 2 4 a b and = =
(b) 1 2 a b and = - = -
(c) 2 3 a b and = - =
(d) 4 5 a b and = - =
(e) . a b 7 3 and = - = -
6. Show that x x
2
= when
(a) 5 x =
(b) x 2 = -
(c) x 3 = -
(d) 4 x =
(e) . x 9 = -
7. Use the denition of absolute
value to write each expression
without the absolute value signs
(a) x 5 +
(b) 3 b -
(c) 4 a +
(d) 2 6 y -
(e) 3 9 x +
(f) 4 x -
(g) k 2 1 +
(h) 5 2 x -
(i) a b +
(j) p q -
8. Find values of x for which . x 3 =
9. Simplify
n
n
where . n 0 !
10. Simplify
2
2
x
x
-
-
and state which
value x cannot be.
1.9 Exercises
1. Convert
0.45 to a fraction (a)
14% to a decimal (b)
(c)
8
5
to a decimal
78.5% to a fraction (d)
0.012 to a percentage (e)
(f)
15
11
to a percentage
2. Evaluate as a fraction.
(a) 7
2 -

(b) 5
1 -

(c)
2
9
-
1

3. Evaluate correct to 3 signicant gures.
(a) . . 4 5 7 6
2 2
+
(b) 4.3
0.3

(c)
5.7
2
3

(d)
.
.
3 8 10
1 3 10
6
9
#
#

(e)
-
3
6
2

4. Evaluate
(a) | | | | 3 2 - -
(b) | 4 5 | -
(c) 7 4 8 # +
(d) [( ) ( ) ] 3 2 5 1 4 8 # ' + - -
(e) 4 3 9 - + -
(f) 1 2 - -
-

(g) 24 6 ' - -
5. Simplify
(a) x x x
5 7 3
# '
(b) (5 ) y
3 2

(c)
( )
a b
a b
9
5 4 7

(d)
3
2x
6
3
d n

(e)
a b
ab
5 6
4
0
e o
6. Evaluate
(a) 1
5
3
8
7
-
(b)
7
6
3
3
2
#
(c) 9
4
3
'
(d)
5
2
2
10
1
+
(e) 15
6
5
#
7. Evaluate
(a) 4 -
(b)
2
36
1

(c) 5 2 3
2
- -
(d) 4
3 -
as fraction
(e)
3
8
2

(f) 2 1 - -
(g)
2
49
-
1
as a fraction
(h)
4
16
1

(i) 3
0
- ] g
(j) 4 7 2 3
2
- - - -
8. Simplify
(a) a a
14 9
'
(b) x y
5 3
6
_ i
(c) p p p
6 5 2
# '
(d) 2b
9
4
^ h

(e)
(2 )
x y
x y
10
7 3 2

(a) n
(b)
1
x
5

(c)
1
x y +

(d) x 1
4
+
Test Yourself 1
(e) a b
7
+
(f)
2
x

(g)
2
1
x
3

(h) x
4 3

(i) (5 3) x
9
7
+
(j)
1
m
3 4

10. Write without fractional or negative
indices .
(a) a
5 -

(b)
4
n
1

(c)
2
( ) x 1 +
1

(d) ( ) x y
1
-
-

(e) (4 7) t
4
-
-

(f)
5
( ) a b +
1

(g)
3
x
-
1

(h)
4
b
3

(i)
3
( ) x 2 3 +
4

(j)
-
2
x
3

11. Show that a b a b # + + when 5 a =
and 3 b = - .
12. Evaluate a
2
b
4
when
25
9
a = and 1
3
2
b = .
13. If
3
1
a
4
=c m and
4
3
, b = evaluate ab
3
as a
fraction.
14. Increase 650 mL by 6%.
15. Johan spends
3
1
of his 24-hour day
sleeping and
4
1
at work.
How many hours does Johan spend (a)
at work?
What fraction of his day is spent at (b)
work or sleeping?
If he spends 3 hours watching TV, (c)
what fraction of the day is this?
What percentage of the day does he (d)
spend sleeping?
16. The price of a car increased by 12%. If
the car cost $34 500 previously, what is
its new price?
17. Rachel scored 56 out of 80 for a maths
test. What percentage did she score?
18. Evaluate , 21
18
and write your answer in
scientic notation correct to 1 decimal
place.
(a) x
(b)
1
y

(c) 3 x
6
+
(d)
(2 3)
1
x
11
-

(e) y
7
3

20. Write in scientic notation.
0.000 013 (a)
123 000 000 000 (b)
21. Convert to a fraction.
(a) . 0 7

(b) . 0 124

22. Write without the negative index.
(a) x
3 -

(b) ( ) a 2 5
1
+
-

(c)
b
a
5 -
c m
23. The number of people attending a
football match increased by 4% from last
week. If there were 15 080 people at the
match this week, how many attended
last week?
24. Show that | | a b a b # + + when
2 a = - and 5. b = -
1. Simplify 8
4
3
3
3
2
4 1 .
5
2
8
7
' + - c c m m
2. Simplify .
5
3
12
5
180
149
30
7
+ + -
3. Arrange in increasing order of size: 51%,
0.502, . , 0 5
.
99
51

4. Mark spends
3
1
of his day sleeping,
12
1

of the day eating and
20
1
of the day
watching TV. What percentage of the day
is left?
5. Write
-
3
64
2
6. Express . . 3 2 0 014
25
' in scientic
notation correct to 3 signicant gures.
7. Vinh scored 17
2
1
out of 20 for a maths
test, 19 out of 23 for English and 55
2
1

out of 70 for physics. Find his average
score as a percentage, to the nearest
whole percentage.
8. Write . 1 3274

9. The distance from the Earth to the moon
is . 3 84 10
5
# km. How long would it take
a rocket travelling at . 2 13 10 km h
4
# to
reach the moon, to the nearest hour?
10. Evaluate
. . .
. .
0 2 5 4 1 3
8 3 4 1
3
'
#
+
correct to
3 signicant gures.
11. Show that ( ) ( ) . 2 2 1 2 2 2 1
k k k 1 1
- + = -
+ +

12. Find the value of
b c
a
3 2
in index form if
. , a b c
5
2
3
1
5
3
and
4 3 2
= = - = c c c m m m
13. Which of the following are rational
numbers: , . , , , . , , 3 0 34 2 3 1 5 0
7
3
r - ?
14. The percentage of salt in 1 L of water is
10%. If 500 mL of water is added to this
mixture, what percentage of salt is there
now?
15. Simplify
| |
x
x
1
1
2
-
+
for . x 1 ! !
16. Evaluate
2.4 3.31
4.3 2.9
3 2
1.3
6
+
-
correct to
2 decimal places.
17. Write 15 g as a percentage of 2.5 kg.
18. Evaluate . . 2 3 5 7 10
. 1 8 2
# +
-
correct to
3 signicant gures.
19. Evaluate
( . )
. .
6 9 10
3 4 10 1 7 10
5 3
3 2
#
# # - +
- -
and
express your answer in scientic notation
correct to 3 signicant gures.
20. Prove | | | | | | a b a b # + + for all real a , b .
Challenge Exercise 1
TERMINOLOGY
2
Algebra and
Surds
Binomial: A mathematical expression consisting of
two terms such as 3 x + or x 3 1 -
Binomial product: The product of two binomial
expressions such as ( 3) (2 4) x x + -
Expression: A mathematical statement involving numbers,
pronumerals and symbols e.g. x 2 3 -
Factorise: The process of writing an expression as a
product of its factors. It is the reverse operation of
expanding brackets i.e. take out the highest common
factor in an expression and place the rest in brackets
e.g. 2 8 2( 4) y y = - -
Pronumeral: A letter or symbol that stands for a number
Rationalising the denominator: A process for replacing a
surd in the denominator by a rational number without
altering its value
Surd: From absurd. The root of a number that has an
irrational value e.g. 3. It cannot be expressed as a
rational number
Term: An element of an expression containing
pronumerals and/or numbers separated by an operation
such as , , or # ' + - e.g. 2 , 3 x -
Trinomial: An expression with three terms such as
x x 3 2 1
2
- +
45 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds
INTRODUCTION
THIS CHAPTER REVIEWS ALGEBRA skills, including simplifying expressions,
removing grouping symbols, factorising, completing the square and
simplifying algebraic fractions . Operations with surds , including rationalising
the denominator , are also studied in this chapter .
DID YOU KNOW?
One of the earliest mathematicians to use algebra was Diophantus of Alexandria . It is not known
when he lived, but it is thought this may have been around 250 AD.
In Baghdad around 700800 AD a mathematician named Mohammed Un-Musa
Al-Khowarezmi wrote books on algebra and Hindu numerals. One of his books was named
Al-Jabr wal Migabaloh , and the word algebra comes from the frst word in this title.
Simplifying Expressions
Addition and subtraction
EXAMPLES
Simplify
1. x x 7 -
Solution

7 7 1
6
x x x x
x
- = -
=

2. x x x 4 3 6
2 2 2
- +
Solution

4 3 6 6
7
x x x x x
x
2 2 2 2 2
2
- + = +
=

Here x is called a
pronumeral.
CONTINUED
3. x x x 3 5 4
3
- - +
Solution
x x x x x 3 5 4 8 4
3 3
- - + = - +
4. a b a b 3 4 5 - - -
Solution

3 4 5 3 5 4
2 5
a b a b a a b b
a b
- - - = - - -
= - -

Only add or subtract like
terms. These have the
same pronumeral (for
example, 3 x and 5 x ).
1. 2 5 x x +
2. 9 6 a a -
3. 5 4 z z -
4. 5a a +
5. b b 4 -
6. r r 2 5 -
7. y y 4 3 - +
8. x x 2 3 - -
9. 2 2 a a -
10. k k 4 7 - +
11. 3 4 2 t t t + +
12. w w w 8 3 - +
13. m m m 4 3 2 - -
14. 3 5 x x x + -
15. 8 7 h h h - -
16. b b b 7 3 + -
17. 3 5 4 9 b b b b - + +
18. x x x x 5 3 7 - + - -
19. x y y 6 5 - -
20. a b b a 8 4 7 + - -
21. 2 3 xy y xy + +
22. 2 5 3 ab ab ab
2 2 2
- -
23. m m m 5 12
2
- - +
24. 7 5 6 p p p
2
- + -
25. 3 7 5 4 x y x y + + -
26. 2 3 8 ab b ab b + - +
27. ab bc ab ac bc + - - +
28. a x a x 7 2 1
5 3 5 3
- + - +
29. 3 4 2 x xy x y x y xy y
3 2 2 2 2 3
- + - + +
30. 3 4 3 5 4 6 x x x x x
3 2 2
- - + - -
2.1 Exercises
Simplify
Multiplication
EXAMPLES
Simplify
1. x y x 5 3 2 # # -
Solution

5 3 2 30
30
x y x xyx
x y
2
# # - = -
= -

2. 3 4 x y xy
3 2 5
# - -
Solution
x y xy x y 3 4 12
3 2 5 4 7
# - - =
Use index laws
to simplify this
question.
1. b 5 2 #
2. x y 2 4 #
3. p p 5 2 #
4. z w 3 2 # -
5. a b 5 3 # - -
6. x y z 2 7 # #
7. ab c 8 6 #
8. d d 4 3 #
9. a a a 3 4 # #
10. y 3
3
- ^ h
11. 2x
2
5
^ h

12. ab a 2 3
3
#
13. a b ab 5 2
2
# -
14. pq p q 7 3
2 2 2
#
15. ab a b 5
2 2
#
16. h h 4 2
3 7
# -
17. k p p
3 2
#
18. t 3
3
4
-
^ h

19. m m 7 2
6 5
# -
20. x x y xy 2 3 4
2 3 2
# # - -
2.2 Exercises
Simplify
Division
Use cancelling or index laws to simplify divisions.
EXAMPLES
Simplify
1. v y vy 6 2
2
'
Solution
By cancelling,

v y vy
vy
v y
v y
v v y
v
6 2
2
6
2
6
3
2
2
1 1
3 1 1
'
# #
# # #
=
=
=

Using index laws,

v y vy v y
v y
v
6 2 3
3
3
2 2 1 1 1
1 0
' =
=
=
- -

2.
15
5
ab
a b
2
3

Solution

3
3
ab
a b
a b
a b
b
a
15
5
3
2
3
3 1 1 2
2 1
2
=
=
=
- -
-
1
1

1. x 30 5 '
2. y y 2 '
3.
2
8a
2

4.
8
a
a
2

5.
a
a
2
8
2

6.
x
xy
2

7. p p 12 4
3 2
'
8.
6
3
ab
a b
2 2

9.
15
20
xy
x

10.
x
x
3
9
4
7
-

2.3 Exercises
Simplify
11. ab b 15 5 ' - -
12.
6
2
a b
ab
2 3

13.
pqs
p
4
8 -

14. cd c d 14 21
2 3 3
'
15.
4
2
x y z
xy z
3 2
2 3

16.
pq
p q
7
42
3
5 4

17. a b c a b c 5 20
9 4 2 5 3 1
'
- - -

18.
a b
a b
4
2
9 2
1
5
2
4
-
-
-
^
^
h
h

19. x y z xy z 5 15
4 7 8 2
' -
-

20. a b a b 9 18
4 1
3
1 3
' - -
- -
^ h

Removing grouping symbols
The distributive law of numbers is given by
a b c ab ac + = + ] g
EXAMPLE

( ) 7 9 11 7 20
140
# # + =
=

Using the distributive law,

( ) 7 9 11 7 9 7 11
63 77
140
# # # + = +
= +
=

EXAMPLES
Expand and simplify.
1. a 2 3 + ] g
Solution

2( 3) 2 2 3
2 6
a a
a
# # + = +
= +

This rule is used in algebra to help remove grouping symbols.
CONTINUED
2. x 2 5 - - ] g
Solution

( ) ( ) x x
x
x
2 5 1 2 5
1 2 1 5
2 5
# #
- - = - -
= - - -
= - +

3. a ab c 5 4 3
2
+ - ] g
Solution

( ) a ab c a a ab a c
a a b a c
5 4 3 5 4 5 3 5
20 15 5
2 2 2 2
2 3 2
# # # + - = + -
= + -

4. y 5 2 3 - + ^ h
Solution

( ) y y
y
y
5 2 3 5 2 2 3
5 2 6
2 1
# # - + = - -
= - -
= - -

5. b b 2 5 1 - - + ] ] g g
Solution

( ) ( ) b b b b
b b
b
2 5 1 2 2 5 1 1 1
2 10 1
11
# # # # - - + = + - - -
= - - -
= -

1. x 2 4 - ] g
2. h 3 2 3 + ] g
3. a 5 2 - - ] g
4. x y 2 3 + ^ h
5. x x 2 - ] g
6. a a b 2 3 8 - ] g
7. ab a b 2 + ] g
8. n n 5 4 - ] g
9. x y xy y 3 2
2 2
+ _ i
10. k 3 4 1 + + ] g
11. t 2 7 3 - - ] g
12. y y y 4 3 8 + + ^ h
2.4 Exercises
Expand and simplify
13. b 9 5 3 - + ] g
14. x 3 2 5 - - ] g
15. m m 5 3 2 7 2 - + - ] ] g g
16. h h 2 4 3 2 9 + + - ] ] g g
17. d d 3 2 3 5 3 - - - ] ] g g
18. a a a a 2 1 3 4
2
+ - + - ] ^ g h

19. x x x 3 4 5 1 - - + ] ] g g
20. ab a b a 2 3 4 1 - - - ] ] g g
21. x x 5 2 3 - - - ] g
22. y y 8 4 2 1 - + + ^ h
23. a b a b + - - ] ] g g
24. t t 2 3 4 1 3 - - + + ] ] g g
25. a a 4 3 5 7 + + - - ] ] g g
Binomial Products
A binomial expression consists of two numbers , for example 3. x +
A set of two binomial expressions multiplied together is called a binomial
product.
Example: x x 3 2 + - ] ] g g .
Each term in the frst bracket is multiplied by each term in the second
bracket.
a b x y ax ay bx by + + = + + + ]
^
g
h
Proof

a b c d a c d b c d
ac ad bc bd
+ + = + + +
= + + +
] ] ] ] g g g g

EXAMPLES
Expand and simplify
1. 3 4 p q + - ^ ^ h h
Solution
p q pq p q 3 4 4 3 12 + - = - + - ^ ^ h h
2. 5 a
2
+ ] g
Solution

( 5)( 5)
5 5 25
10 25
a a a
a a a
a a
5
2
2
2
+ = + +
= + + +
= + +
] g

Can you see a quick
way of doing this?
The rule below is not a binomial product (one expression is a trinomial), but it
works the same way.
a b x y z ax ay az bx by bz + + + = + + + + + ]
^
g
h
EXAMPLE
Expand and simplify . x x y 4 2 3 1 + - - ]
^
g
h
Solution

( ) ( ) x x y x xy x x y
x xy x y
4 2 3 1 2 3 8 12 4
2 3 7 12 4
2
2
+ - - = - - + - -
= - + - -

1. 5 2 a a + + ] ] g g
2. x x 3 1 + - ] ] g g
3. 2 3 5 y y - + ^ ^ h h
4. 4 2 m m - - ] ] g g
5. 4 3 x x + + ] ] g g
6. 2 5 y y + - ^ ^ h h
7. 2 3 2 x x - + ] ] g g
8. 7 3 h h - - ] ] g g
9. 5 5 x x + - ] ] g g
10. a a 5 4 3 1 - - ] ] g g
11. 2 3 4 3 y y + - ^ ^ h h
12. 4 7 x y - + ]
^
g
h
13. 3 2 x x
2
+ -
^ ] h g
14. 2 2 n n + - ] ] g g
15. 2 3 2 3 x x + - ] ] g g
16. 4 7 4 7 y y - + ^ ^ h h
17. 2 2 a b a b + - ] ] g g
18. 3 4 3 4 x y x y - + ^ ^ h h
19. 3 3 x x + - ] ] g g
20. 6 6 y y - + ^ ^ h h
21. a a 3 1 3 1 + - ] ] g g
22. 2 7 2 7 z z - + ] ] g g
23. 9 2 2 x x y + - + ]
^
g
h
24. b a b 3 2 2 1 - + - ] ] g g
25. 2 2 4 x x x
2
+ - + ] ^ g h

26. 3 3 9 a a a
2
- + + ] ^ g h

27. 9 a
2
+ ] g
28. 4 k
2
- ] g
29. 2 x
2
+ ] g
30. 7 y
2
- ^ h
31. 2 3 x
2
+ ] g
32. 2 1 t
2
- ] g
2.5 Exercises
Expand and simplify
33. 3 4 a b
2
+ ] g
34. 5 x y
2
- ^ h
35. 2a b
2
+ ] g
36. a b a b - + ] ] g g
37. a b
2
+ ] g
38. a b
2
- ] g
39. a b a ab b
2 2
+ - + ] ^ g h

40. a b a ab b
2 2
- + + ] ^ g h

Some binomial products have special results and can be simplifed quickly
using their special properties. Binomial products involving perfect squares
and the difference of two squares occur in many topics in mathematics. Their
expansions are given below.
Difference of 2 squares
a b a b a b
2 2
+ - = - ] ] g g
Proof

( ) ( ) a b a b a ab ab b
a b
2 2
2 2
+ - = - + -
= -

a b a ab b 2
2 2 2
+ = + + ] g
Perfect squares
Proof

( ) ( )
2
a b a b a b
a ab ab b
a ab b
2
2 2
2 2
+ = + +
= + + +
= + +
] g

2 a b a ab b
2 2 2
- = - + ] g
Proof

( ) ( )
2
a b a b a b
a ab ab b
a ab b
2
2 2
2 2
- = - -
= - - +
= - +
] g

EXAMPLES
Expand and simplify
1. 2 3 x
2
- ] g
Solution

( ) x x x
x x
2 3 2 2 2 3 3
4 12 9
2 2 2
2
- = - +
= - +
] ] g g

2. 3 4 3 4 y y - + ^ ^ h h
Solution

(3 4) (3 4) 4
9 16
y y y
y
3
2 2
2
- + = -
= -
^ h

1. 4 t
2
+ ] g
2. 6 z
2
- ] g
3. x 1
2
-
] g

4. 8 y
2
+ ^ h
5. 3 q
2
+ ^ h
6. 7 k
2
- ] g
7. n 1
2
+
] g

8. 2 5 b
2
+ ] g
9. 3 x
2
- ] g
10. y 3 1
2
- ^ h
11. x y
2
+ ^ h
12. a b 3
2
- ] g
13. 4 5 d e
2
+ ] g
14. 4 4 t t + - ] ] g g
15. x x 3 3 - +
] ] g g

16. p p 1 1 + - ^ ^ h h
17. 6 6 r r + - ] ] g g
18. x x 10 10 - +
] ] g g

19. 2 3 2 3 a a + - ] ] g g
20. 5 5 x y x y - + ^ ^ h h
21. a a 4 1 4 1 + - ] ] g g
22. 7 3 7 3 x x - + ] ] g g
23. 2 2 x x
2 2
+ -
^ ^ h h

24. 5 x
2
2
+
^ h

25. 3 4 3 4 ab c ab c - + ] ] g g
26.
2
x
x
2
+
b l

27.
1 1
a
a
a
a
- +
b b l l

28. x y x y 2 2 + - - - _ _ i i 6 6 @ @
29. a b c
2
+ + ] g 6 @
2.6 Exercises
Expand and simplify
30. x y 1
2
+ -
] g
7 A
31. a a 3 3
2 2
+ - - ] ] g g
32. 16 4 4 z z - - + ] ] g g
33. 2 3 1 4 x x
2
+ + - ] g
34. 2 x y x y
2
+ - - ^ ^ h h
35. n n n 4 3 4 3 2 5
2
- + - + ] ] g g
36. x 4
3
-
] g

37. x
x x
1 1
2
2 2
- - +
b b l l

38. x y x y 4
2 2
2
2 2
+ - _ i
39. 2 5 a
3
+ ] g
40. x x x 2 1 2 1 2
2
- + +
] ] ] g g g

Expand (x 4) (x 4) . - -
2

PROBLEM
Find values of all pronumerals that make this true.

i i c c b
a b c
d e
f e b
i i i h g
#

Try c 9. =
Factorisation
Simple factors
Factors are numbers that exactly divide or go into an equal or larger number,
without leaving a remainder.
EXAMPLES
The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24 are all the factors of 24.
Factors of 5 x are 1, 5, x and 5 x .
To factorise an expression, we use the distributive law.
a b ax bx x + + = ] g
EXAMPLES
Factorise
1. 3 12 x +
Solution
The highest common factor is 3.
x x 3 12 3 4 + = + ] g
2. 2 y y
2
-
Solution
The highest common factor is y.
y y y y 2 2
2
- = - ^ h
3. 2 x x
3 2
-
Solution
x and x
2
are both common factors. We take out the highest common
factor which is x
2
.
x x x x 2 2
3 2 2
- = -
] g

4. x x y 5 3 3 2 + + + ] ] g g
Solution
The highest common factor is 3 x + .
x x x y y 5 3 3 3 5 2 2 + + + + + = ] ] ]
^
g g g
h
5. 8 2 a b ab
3 2 3
-
Solution
There are several common factors here. The highest common
factor is 2 ab
2
.
8 2 2 4 a b ab ab a b
3 2 3 2 2
- = -
^ h

Check answers by
expanding brackets.
Divide each term by 3 to
fnd the terms inside the
brackets.
1. 2 6 y +
2. x 5 10 -
3. 3 9 m -
4. 8 2 x +
5. y 24 18 -
6. 2 x x
2
+
7. 3 m m
2
-
8. 2 4 y y
2
+
9. 15 3 a a
2
-
10. ab ab
2
+
11. 4 2 x y xy
2
-
12. 3 9 mn mn
3
+
13. 8 2 x z xz
2 2
-
14. 6 3 2 ab a a
2
+ -
15. 5 2 x x xy
2
- +
16. 3 2 q q
5 2
-
17. 5 15 b b
3 2
+
18. 6 3 a b a b
2 3 3 2
-
19. x m m 5 7 5 + + +
] ] g g

20. y y y 2 1 1 - - - ^ ^ h h
21. 4 7 3 7 y x y + - + ^ ^ h h
22. 6 2 5 2 x a a - + - ] ] g g
23. x t y t 2 1 2 1 + - +
] ] g g

24. a x b x 3 2 2 3 2 - + -
] ] g g

c x 3 3 2 - -
] g
25. 6 9 x x
3 2
+
26. 3 6 pq q
5 3
-
27. 15 3 a b ab
4 3
+
28. 4 24 x x
3 2
-
29. 35 25 m n m n
3 4 2
-
30. 24 16 a b ab
2 5 2
+
31. r rh 2 2
2
r r +
32. 3 5 3 x x
2
- + - ] ] g g
33. 4 2 4 y x x
2
+ + + ] ] g g
34. a a a 1 1
2
+ - + ] ] g g
35. ab a a 4 1 3 1
2 2
+ - +
^ ^ h h

2.7 Exercises
Factorise
Grouping in pairs
If an expression has 4 terms, it may be factorised in pairs.

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
ax bx ay by x a b y a b
a b x y
+ + + = + + +
= + +

EXAMPLES
Factorise
1. 2 3 6 x x x
2
- + -
Solution

2 3 6 ( 2) 3( 2)
( 2) ( 3)
x x x x x x
x x
2
- + - = - + -
= - +

2. 2 4 6 3 x y xy - + -
Solution

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
x y xy x y x
x y x
x y
x y xy x y x
x y x
x y
2 4 6 3 2 2 3 2
2 2 3 2
2 2 3
2 4 6 3 2 2 3 2
2 2 3 2
2 2 3
or
- + - = - + -
= - - -
= - -
- + - = - - - +
= - - -
= - -

1. 2 8 4 x bx b + + +
2. 3 3 ay a by b - + -
3. x x x 5 2 10
2
+ + +
4. 2 3 6 m m m
2
- + -
5. ad ac bd bc - + -
6. 3 3 x x x
3 2
+ + +
7. ab b a 5 3 10 6 - + -
8. 2 2 xy x y xy
2 2
- + -
9. ay a y 1 + + +
10. 5 5 x x x
2
+ - -
11. 3 3 y ay a + + +
12. 2 4 2 m y my - + -
13. x xy xy y 2 10 3 15
2 2
+ - -
14. 4 4 a b ab a b
2 3 2
+ - -
15. x x x 5 3 15
2
- - +
16. 7 4 28 x x x
4 3
+ - -
17. 7 21 3 x xy y - - +
18. 4 12 3 d de e + - -
19. x xy y 3 12 4 + - -
20. a ab b 2 6 3 + - -
21. x x x 3 6 18
3 2
+ - -
22. pq p q q 3 3
2
+ - -
2.8 Exercises
Factorise
23. x x x 3 6 5 10
3 2
- - +
24. 4 12 3 a b ac bc - + -
25. 7 4 28 xy x y + - -
26. x x x 4 5 20
4 3
- - +
27. x x x 4 6 8 12
3 2
- + -
28. 3 9 6 18 a a ab b
2
+ + +
29. y xy x 5 15 10 30 + - -
30. r r r 2 3 6
2
r r + - -
Trinomials
A trinomial is an expression with three terms, for example 4 3. x x
2
- +
Factorising a trinomial usually gives a binomial product.
x a b x a x b x ab
2
+ + + + + = ] ] ] g g g
Proof

( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
x a b x ab x ax bx ab
x x a b x a
x a x b
2 2
+ + + = + + +
= + + +
= + +

EXAMPLES
Factorise
1. 5 6 m m
2
- +
Solution
a b 5 + = - and 6 ab = +

6
2
3
5
+
-
-
-
'

Numbers with sum 5 - and product 6 + are 2 - and 3. -

[ ] [ ] m m m m
m m
5 6 2 3
2 3
2
` - + = + - + -
= - -
] ]
] ]
g g
g g

2. 2 y y
2
+ -
Solution
1 a b + = + and 2 ab = -

2
2
1
1
-
+
-
+
'

Two numbers with sum 1 + and product 2 - are 2 + and 1 - .
y y y y 2 2 1
2
` + - = + - ^ ^ h h
Guess and check by
trying 2 - and 3 -
or 1 - and . 6 -
Guess and check by
trying 2 and 1 - or
2 - and 1.
The result x a b x a x b x ab
2
+ + + + + = ] ] ] g g g only works when the coeffcient
of x
2
(the number in front of x
2
) is 1. When the coeffcient of x
2
is not 1, for
example in the expression 5 2 4, x x
2
- + we need to use a different method to
factorise the trinomial.
There are different ways of factorising these trinomials. One method is
the cross method . Another is called the PSF method . Or you can simply guess
and check.
1. 4 3 x x
2
+ +
2. y y 7 12
2
+ +
3. m m 2 1
2
+ +
4. t t 8 16
2
+ +
5. 6 z z
2
+ -
6. 5 6 x x
2
- -
7. v v 8 15
2
- +
8. 6 9 t t
2
- +
9. x x 9 10
2
+ -
10. 10 21 y y
2
- +
11. m m 9 18
2
- +
12. y y 9 36
2
+ -
13. 5 24 x x
2
- -
14. 4 4 a a
2
- +
15. x x 14 32
2
+ -
16. 5 36 y y
2
- -
17. n n 10 24
2
+ -
18. x x 10 25
2
+ -
19. p p 8 9
2
+ -
20. k k 7 10
2
+ -
21. x x 12
2
+ -
22. m m 6 7
2
- -
23. 12 20 q q
2
+ +
24. d d 4 5
2
- -
25. l l 11 18
2
+ -
2.9 Exercises
Factorise
EXAMPLES
Factorise
1. 5 13 6 y y
2
- +
Solutionguess and check
For 5 y
2
, one bracket will have 5 y and the other y :
. y y 5 ^ ^ h h
Now look at the constant (term without y in it): . 6 +
The two numbers inside the brackets must multiply to give 6. +
To get a positive answer, they must both have the same signs.
But there is a negative sign in front of 13 y so the numbers cannot be both
positive. They must both be negative.
y y 5 - - ^ ^ h h
To get a product of 6, the numbers must be 2 and 3 or 1 and 6.
Guess 2 and 3 and check:

3 5 15 2 6
5 17 6
y y y y y
y y
5 2
2
2
- = - - +
= - +
- ^ ^ h h

This is not correct.
Notice that we are mainly interested in checking the middle two terms,
. y y 15 2 and - -
Try 2 and 3 the other way around:
. y y 5 3 2 - - ^ ^ h h
Checking the middle terms: y y y 10 3 13 - - = -
This is correct, so the answer is . y y 5 3 2 - - ^ ^ h h
Note: If this did not check out, do the same with 1 and 6.
Solution cross method
Factors of 5y
2
are 5 y and y.
Factors of 6 are 1 - and 6 - or 2 - and . 3 -
Possible combinations that give a middle term of y 13 - are
By guessing and checking, we choose the correct combination.

y 13 -
y y
y y
5 2 10
3 3
#
#
- = -
- = -
y y y y 5 13 6 5 3 2
2
` - + = - - ^ ^ h h
Solution PSF method
P: Product of frst and last terms 30y
2

S: Sum or middle term y 13 -
F: Factors of P that give S , y y 3 10 - -

y
y
y
y
30
3
10
13
2
-
-
-
)

y y y y y
y y y
y y
5 13 6 5 3 10 6
5 3 2 5 3
5 3 2
2 2
` - + = - - +
= - - -
= - -
^ ^
^ ^
h h
h h

5y
y 3 -
2 -
5y
y 2 -
3 -
5y
y 6 -
1 -
5y
y 1 -
6 -
5y
y 2 -
3 -
CONTINUED
2. 4 4 3 y y
2
+ -
Solutionguess and check
For 4 y
2
, both brackets will have 2 y or one bracket will have 4 y and the
other y .
Try 2 y in each bracket:
. y y 2 2 ^ ^ h h
Now look at the constant: . 3 -
The two numbers inside the brackets must multiply to give . 3 -
To get a negative answer, they must have different signs.
y y 2 2 + - ^ ^ h h
To get a product of 3, the numbers must be 1 and 3.
Guess and check:
y y 2 3 2 1 + - ^ ^ h h
Checking the middle terms: y y y 2 6 4 - = -
This is almost correct, as the sign is wrong but the coeffcient is right
(the number in front of y ).
Swap the signs around:

4 6 2 3
4 4 3
y y y y y
y y
2 1 2 3
2
2
+ = +
= +
- - -
-
^ ^ h h

This is correct, so the answer is . y y 2 1 2 3 - + ^ ^ h h
Solution cross method
Factors of 4y
2
are 4 y and y or 2 y and 2 y .
Factors of 3 are 1 - and 3 or 3 - and 1.
Trying combinations of these factors gives

y y
y y
y
2 1 2
2 3 6
4
#
#
- = -
=
y y y y 4 4 3 2 3 2 1
2
` + - = + - ^ ^ h h
Solution PSF method
P: Product of frst and last terms y 12
2
-
S: Sum or middle term 4 y
F: Factors of P that give S , y y 6 2 + -

y
y
y
y
12
6
2
4
2
-
+
-
+
)

y y y y y
y y y
y y
4 4 3 4 6 2 3
2 2 3 1 2 3
2 3 2 1
2 2
` + - = + - -
= + - +
= + -
^ ^
^ ^
h h
h h

2y
2y 1 -
3
Perfect squares
You have looked at some special binomial products, including
2 a b a ab b
2 2 2
+ = + + ] g and 2 . a b a ab b
2 2 2
- = - + ] g
When factorising, use these results the other way around.
Factorise
1. a a 2 11 5
2
+ +
2. 5 7 2 y y
2
+ +
3. x x 3 10 7
2
+ +
4. 3 8 4 x x
2
+ +
5. 2 5 3 b b
2
- +
6. 7 9 2 x x
2
- +
7. 3 5 2 y y
2
+ -
8. x x 2 11 12
2
+ +
9. p p 5 13 6
2
+ -
10. x x 6 13 5
2
+ +
11. y y 2 11 6
2
- -
12. x x 10 3 1
2
+ -
13. 8 14 3 t t
2
- +
14. x x 6 12
2
- -
15. 6 47 8 y y
2
+ -
16. n n 4 11 6
2
+ -
17. t t 8 18 5
2
+ -
18. q q 12 23 10
2
+ +
19. r r 8 22 6
2
+ -
20. x x 4 4 15
2
- -
21. y y 6 13 2
2
+ -
22. p p 6 5 6
2
- -
23. x x 8 31 21
2
+ +
24. b b 12 43 36
2
+ -
25. x x 6 53 9
2
- -
26. 9 30 25 x x
2
+ +
27. 16 24 9 y y
2
+ +
28. k k 25 20 4
2
+ -
29. a a 36 12 1
2
+ -
30. m m 49 84 36
2
+ +
2.10 Exercises

a ab b a b
a ab b a b
2
2
2 2 2
2 2 2
+ + = +
- + = -
]
]
g
g

EXAMPLES
Factorise
1. 8 16 x x
2
- +
Solution

8 16 2(4) 4 x x x x
x 4
2 2 2
2
- + = - +
= - ] g

2. 4 20 25 a a
2
+ +
Solution

4 20 25 2(2 ) (5) 5 a a a a
a
2
2 5
2 2 2
2
+ + = + +
= +
]
]
g
g

Factorise
1. y y 2 1
2
- +
2. 6 9 x x
2
+ +
3. m m 10 25
2
+ +
4. 4 4 t t
2
- +
5. x x 12 36
2
- +
6. x x 4 12 9
2
+ +
7. b b 16 8 1
2
- +
8. a a 9 12 4
2
+ +
9. x x 25 40 16
2
- +
10. y y 49 14 1
2
+ +
11. y y 9 30 25
2
+ -
12. k k 16 24 9
2
+ -
13. 25 10 1 x x
2
+ +
14. a a 81 36 4
2
+ -
15. 49 84 36 m m
2
+ +
16. t t
4
1
2
+ +
17. x
x
3
4
9
4
2
- +
18. y
y
9
5
6
25
1
2
+ +
19. x
x
2
1
2
2
+ +
20. k
k
25 0
4
2
2
2
- +
2.11 Exercises
In a perfect square, the
constant term is always a
square number.
Difference of 2 squares
A special case of binomial products is a b a b a b
2 2
+ - = - ] ] g g .
a b a b a b
2 2
+ - - = ] ] g g
EXAMPLES
Factorise
1. 36 d
2
-
Solution

d d
d d
36 6
6 6
2 2 2
=
= +
- -
- ] ] g g

2. b 9 1
2
-
Solution

( ) ( )
b b
b b
9 1 3 1
3 1 3 1
2 2 2
- = -
= + -
] g

3. ( ) ( ) a b 3 1
2 2
+ - -
Solution

[( ) ( )] [( ) ( )]
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
a b a b a b
a b a b
a b a b
3 1 3 1 3 1
3 1 3 1
2 4
2 2
+ - - = + + - + - -
= + + - + - +
= + + - +
] ] g g

Factorise
1. 4 a
2
-
2. 9 x
2
-
3. y 1
2
-
4. 25 x
2
-
5. 4 49 x
2
-
6. 16 9 y
2
-
7. z 1 4
2
-
8. t 25 1
2
-
9. 9 4 t
2
-
10. x 9 16
2
-
11. 4 x y
2 2
-
12. 36x y
2 2
-
2.12 Exercises
13. 4 9 a b
2 2
-
14. x y 100
2 2
-
15. 4 81 a b
2 2
-
16. 2 x y
2 2
+ - ] g
17. a b 1 2
2 2
- - - ] ] g g

18. z w 1
2 2
- + ] g
19. x
4
1
2
-
20.
y
9
1
2
-
21. x y 2 2 1
2 2
+ - + ]
^
g
h
22. x 1
4
-
23. 9 4 x y
6 2
-
24. x y 16
4 4
-
25. 1 a
8
-
Sums and differences of 2 cubes
a b a ab b a b
3 3 2 2
+ - + + = ] ^ g h

a b a b a ab b
3 3 2 2
- = - + + ] ^ g h

Proof

( ) ( ) a b a ab b a a b ab a b ab b
a b
2 2 3 2 2 2 2 3
3 3
+ - + = - + + - +
= +

Proof

( ) ( ) a b a ab b a a b ab a b ab b
a b
2 2 3 2 2 2 2 3
3 3
- + + = + + - - -
= -

EXAMPLES
Factorise
1. 8 1 x
3
+
Solution
( ) [ ( ) ( ) ]
( ) ( )
x x
x x x
x x x
8 1 2 1
2 1 2 2 1 1
2 1 4 2 1
3 3 3
2 2
2
+ = +
= + - +
= + - +
]
]
g
g
Factorise
1. b 8
3
-
2. 27 x
3
+
3. 1 t
3
+
4. 64 a
3
-
5. 1 x
3
-
6. 8 27y
3
+
7. 8 y z
3 3
+
8. 125 x y
3 3
-
9. 8 27 x y
3 3
+
10. 1 a b
3 3
-
11. 1000 8t
3
+
12.
x
8
27
3
-
13.
a b
1000 1
3 3
+
14. x y 1
3 3
+ -
] g

15. x y z 216 125
3 3 3
+
16. 2 1 a a
3 3
- - + ] ] g g
17.
x
1
27
3
-
18. 3 y x
3 3
+ + ] g
19. x y 1 2
3 3
+ + -
]
^
g
h
20. 8 3 a b
3 3
+ - ] g
2.13 Exercises
2. 27 64 a b
3 3
-
Solution
( ) [ ( ) ( ) ]
( ) ( )
a b a b
a b a a b b
a b a ab b
27 64 3 4
3 4 3 3 4 4
3 4 9 12 16
3 3 3 3
2 2
2 2
- = -
= - + +
= - + +
] ]
] ]
g g
g g

Mixed factors
Sometimes more than one method of factorising is needed to completely
factorise an expression.
EXAMPLE
Factorise 5 45. x
2
-
Solution

5 45 5( 9) (using simple factors)
5( 3)( 3) (the difference of two squares)
x x
x x
2 2
- = -
= + -

Factorise
1. x 2 18
2
-
2. p p 3 3 36
2
- -
3. y 5 5
3
-
4. 4 8 2 4 a b a b ab a b
3 2 2 2 2
+ - -
5. a a 5 10 5
2
- +
6. x x 2 11 12
2
- + -
7. z z z 3 27 60
3 2
+ +
8. ab a b 9 4
3 3
-
9. x x
3
-
10. x x 6 8 8
2
+ -
11. m n mn 3 15 5 - - +
12. x x 3 4
2 2
- - + ] ] g g
13. y y y 5 5 16
2
+ + - ^ ^ h h
14. x x x 8 8
4 3
- + -
15. x 1
6
-
16. x x x 3 10
3 2
- -
17. x x x 3 9 27
3 2
- - +
18. 4x y y
2 3
-
19. 24 3b
3
-
20. 18 33 30 x x
2
+ -
21. 3 6 3 x x
2
- +
22. 2 25 50 x x x
3 2
+ - -
23. 6 9 z z z
3 2
+ +
24. 4 13 9 x x
4 2
- +
25. 2 2 8 8 x x y x y
5 2 3 3 3
+ - -
26. 4 36 a a
3
-
27. 40 5 x x
4
-
28. a a 13 36
4 2
+ -
29. k k k 4 40 100
3 2
+ +
30. x x x 3 9 3 9
3 2
+ - -
2.14 Exercises
You will study this in
Chapter 12.
DID YOU KNOW?
Long division can be used to fnd factors of an expression. For example, 1 x - is a factor of
4 5 x x + -
3
. We can fnd the other factor by dividing 4 5 x x + -
3
by 1. x -

-
5
4
5 5
5 5
0
x x
x
x x
x x
x x
x
x
2
3
2
-
+ +
+
-
-
2
3
2
1 x -
+ 4 5 x - g

So the other factor of 4 5 x x + -
3
is 5 x x
2
+ +
4 5 ( 1) ( 5) x x x x x
3
` + - = - + +
2

Completing the Square
Factorising a perfect square uses the results
a ab b a b 2
2 2 2
! ! + = ] g
EXAMPLES
1. Complete the square on . x x 6
2
+
Solution
Using 2 : a ab b
2 2
+ +

a x
ab x 2 6
=
=

Substituting : a x =

xb x
b
2 6
3
=
=

To complete the square:

a ab b a b
x x x
x x x
2
2 3 3 3
6 9 3
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2
+ + = +
+ + = +
+ + = +
]
] ]
]
g
g g
g

2. Complete the square on . n n 10
2
-
Solution
Using : a ab b 2
2 2
+ -

a n
ab x 2 10
=
=

Substituting : a n =

nb n
b
2 10
5
=
=

To complete the square:

a ab b a b
n n n
n n n
2
2 5 5 5
10 25 5
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2
- + = -
- + = -
- + = -
]
] ]
]
g
g g
g

Notice that 3 is half of 6.
Notice that 5 is half of 10.
To complete the square on , a pa
2
+ divide p by 2 and square it.

2 2
a pa
p
a
p
2
2 2
+ + = +
d d n n

EXAMPLES
1. Complete the square on . x x 12
2
+
Solution
Divide 12 by 2 and square it:

x x x x
x x
x
12
2
12
12 6
12 36
6
2
2
2 2
2
2
+ + = + +
= + +
= +
c
]
m
g

2. Complete the square on . y y 2
2
-
Solution
Divide 2 by 2 and square it:

y y y y
y y
y
2
2
2
2 1
2 1
1
2
2
2 2
2
2
+ = +
= +
=
- -
-
-
c
^
m
h

Complete the square on
1. x x 4
2
+
2. 6 b b
2
-
3. 10 x x
2
-
4. 8 y y
2
+
5. 14 m m
2
-
6. 18 q q
2
+
7. 2 x x
2
+
8. 16 t t
2
-
9. 20 x x
2
-
10. 44 w w
2
+
11. 32 x x
2
-
12. y y 3
2
+
13. 7 x x
2
-
14. a a
2
+
15. 9 x x
2
+
16. y
y
2
5
2
-
17. k
k
2
11
2
-
18. 6 x xy
2
+
19. a ab 4
2
-
20. p pq 8
2
-
2.15 Exercises
Simplify
1.
a
5
5 10 +

2.
t
3
6 3 -

3.
y
6
8 2 +

4.
d 4 2
8
-

5.
x x
x
5 2
2
2
-

6.
y y
y
8 16
4
2
- +
-

7.
a a
ab a
3
2 4
2
2
-
-

8.
s s
s s
5 6
2
2
2
+ +
+ -

9.
b
b
1
1
2
3
-
-

10.
p
p p
6 9
2 7 15
2
-
+ -

11.
a a
a
2 3
1
2
2
+ -
-

12.
x
x x y
8
2 2 3
3
-
- - + ] ] g g

13.
x x
x x x
6 9
3 9 27
2
3 2
+ +
+ - -

14.
p
p p
8 1
2 3 2
3
2
+
- -

15.
2 2 ay by ax bx
ay ax by bx
- - +
- + -

2.16 Exercises
Algebraic Fractions
Simplifying fractions
EXAMPLES
Simplify
1.
2
4 2 x +

Solution

x x
x
2
4 2
2
2 1
2 1
2 +
=
+
= +
] g

2.

8
2 3 2
x
x x
3
2
-
- -

Solution

x
x x
x x x
x x
x x
x
8
2 3 2
2 2 4
2 1 2
2 4
2 1
3
2
2
2
-
- -
=
- + +
+ -
=
+ +
+
] ^
] ]
g h
g g

Factorise frst, then cancel.
Operations with algebraic fractions
EXAMPLES
Simplify
1.
x x
5
1
4
3 -
-
+

Solution

x x x x
x x
x
5
1
4
3
20
4 1 3
20
4 4 5 15
20
19
5 -
-
+
=
- +
=
- - -
=
- -
- ] ] g g

2.
b
a b ab
b
a
27
2 10
4 12
25
3
2 2
'
+
+
+
-

Solution

b
a b ab
b
a
b
a b ab
a
b
b b b
ab a
a a
b
a b b
ab
27
2 10
4 12
25
27
2 10
25
4 12
3 3 9
2 5
5 5
4 3
5 3 9
8
3
2 2
3
2
2
2
2
' #
#
+
+
+
-
=
+
+
-
+
=
+ - +
+
+ -
+
=
- - +
] ^
]
] ]
]
] ^
g h
g
g g
g
g h

3.
5
2
2
1
x x -
+
+

Solution

x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x x
x
5
2
2
1
5 2
2 5
5 2
2 4 5
5 2
3 1
2 1
-
+
+
=
- +
+ -
=
- +
+ + -
=
- +
-
+
] ]
] ]
] ]
] ]
g g
g g
g g
g g

Do algebraic fractions
the same way as ordinary
fractions.
1. Simplify
(a)
2 4
3 x x
+
(b)
5
1
3
2 y y +
+
(c)
3
2
4
a a +
-
(d)
6
3
2
2 p p -
+
+

(e)
2
5
3
1 x x -
-
-

2. Simplify
(a)
2
3
6 3
2
b a
b b
2
#
+ -
+

(b)
2 1
4
2
1
q q
p
p
q
2
2 3
#
+ +
-
+
+

(c)
xy
ab
x y xy
ab a
5
3
2
12 6
2
2 2
'
+
-

(d)
x y
ax ay bx by
ab a b
x y
2 2 2 2
3 3
#
-
- + -
+
+

(e)
x
x x
x x
x x
25
6 9
4 5
5 6
2
2
2
2
'
-
- +
+ -
- +

3. Simplify
(a)
2 3
x x
+
(b)
1
1 2
x
x
-
-
(c) 1
3
a b
+
+

(d)
2
x
x
x
2
-
+

(e)
1
p q
p q
- +
+

(f)
1
1
3
1
x x +
+
-

(g)
4
2
2
3
x
x
2
-
-
+

(h)
2 1
1
1
1
a a
a
2
+ +
+
+

(i)
2
2
3
1
1
5
y y y +
-
+
+
-

(j)
16
2
12
7
x x x
2 2
-
-
- -

4. Simplify
(a)
y
x
x
y
y
x x
4 12
3
6 24
9
27
2 8
2
2
3
2
# #
- -
-
+
- -

(b)
y y
a a
y
a
ay
y y
4 4
5
4
3 15
5
2
2
2
2
2
' #
- +
-
-
-
- -

(c)
x
x
x
x
x x
3
3
9
2 8
4 16
3
2
2
#
-
+
-
+
-
+

(d)
b
b
b b
b
b
b
2 6
5
6
1
2
2
'
+
+ -
-
+

(e)
x x
x x
x
x
x
x x
5 10
8 15
10
9
2 10
5 6
2
2
2
2 2
' #
+
- + -
-
+ +

5. Simplify
(a)
7 10
1
2 15
2
6
4
x x x x x x
2 2 2
- +
-
- -
+
+ -

(b)
4
5
2
3
2
2
x
x x
2
-
-
-
-
+

(c)
2 3
p pq pq q
2 2
+
+
-

(d)
1
a b
a
a b
b
a b
2 2
+
-
-
+
-

(e)
x y
x y
y x
x
y x
y
2 2 -
+
+
-
-
-

2.17 Exercises
Substitution
Algebra is used in writing general formulae or rules. For example, the formula
A lb = is used to fnd the area of a rectangle with length l and breadth b . We
can substitute any values for l and b to fnd the area of different rectangles.
EXAMPLES
1. P l b 2 2 = + is the formula for fnding the perimeter of a rectangle
with length l and breadth b . Find P when . l 1 3 = and . . b 3 2 =
Solution

. .
. .
P l b 2 2
2 1 3 2 3 2
2 6 6 4
9
= +
= +
= +
=
] ] g g

2. V r h
2
r = is the formula for fnding the volume of a cylinder with
radius r and height h . Find V (correct to 1 decimal place) when 2.1 r =
and 8.7. h =
Solution
. ( . )
120.5
V r h
2 1 8 7
correct to1decimal place
2
2
r
r
=
=
=
] g

3. If F
C
5
9
32 = + is the formula for changing degrees Celsius C
] g
into
degrees Fahrenheit F
] g
fnd F when 25. C =
Solution

F
C
5
9
32
5
25
32
5
225
32
5
225 160
5
385
77
9
= +
= +
= +
=
+
=
=
] g

This means that 25 C is the same as . 77 F

1. Given 3.1 a = and 2.3 b = - fnd,
(a) ab
3 (b) b
(c) a 5
2

(d) ab
3

(e) a b
2
+ ] g
(f) a b -
(g) b
2
-
2. T a n d 1 = + -
] g
is the formula
for fnding the term of an
arithmetic series. Find T when
, a n 4 18 = - = and . d 3 =
3. Given , y mx b = + the equation
of a straight line, fnd y if
, m x 3 2 = = - and 1. b = -
4. If 100 5 h t t
2
= - is the height of
a particle at time t , fnd h when
5. t =
5. Given vertical velocity , v gt = -
fnd v when 9.8 g = and 20. t =
6. If 2 3 y
x
= + is the equation of
a function, fnd y when 1.3, x =
7. S r r h 2r = +
] g
is the formula for
the surface area of a cylinder.
Find S when 5 r = and 7, h =
correct to the nearest whole
number.
8. A r
2
r = is the area of a circle with
radius r . Find A when 9.5, r =
correct to 3 signifcant fgures.
9. Given u ar
1
n
n
=
-
is the n th term
of a geometric series, fnd u
n
if
5, a = 2 r = - and 4. n =

10. Given
3
V lbh =
1
is the volume
formula for a rectangular
pyramid, fnd V if . , . l b 4 7 5 1 = =
and 6.5. h =
11. The gradient of a straight line is
given by . m
x x
y y
2 1
2 1
=
-
-
Find m
if , , x x y 3 1 2
1 2 1
= = - = - and
5. y
2
=
12. If
2
A h a b = +
1
] g gives the area
of a trapezium, fnd A when
, . h a 7 2 5 = = and 3.9. b =
13. Find V if
3
V r
3
r =
4
is the volume
formula for a sphere with radius r
and 7.6, r = to 1 decimal place.

14. The velocity of an object at a
certain time t is given by the
formula . v u at = + Find v when

4 5
, u a = =
1 3
and
6
. t =
5

15. Given
1
, S
r
a
=
-
fnd S if 5 a =
and
3
. r =
2
S is the sum to infnity
of a geometric series.
16. , c a b
2 2
= + according to
Pythagoras theorem. Find the
value of c if 6 a = and 8. b =
17. Given 16 y x
2
= - is the
equation of a semicircle, fnd the
exact value of y when 2. x =

2.18 Exercises
18. Find the value of E in the energy
equation E mc
2
= if 8.3 m = and
1.7. c =
19. 1
100
A P
r
n
= + c m is the formula
for fnding compound interest.
Find A when , P r 200 12 = = and
5, n = correct to 2 decimal places.
20. If S
r
r a
1
1
=
-
-
n
^ h
is the sum of
a geometric series, fnd S if
, a r 3 2 = = and 5. n =
c
a b
2
3 2
if

4 3
, a b
2 3
= =
3 2
c c m m and . c
2
1
4
=c m
Surds
An irrational number is a number that cannot be written as a ratio or fraction
(rational). Surds are special types of irrational numbers, such as 2, 3 and 5 .
Some surds give rational values: for example, 9 3. = Others, like 2, do
not have an exact decimal value. If a question involving surds asks for an exact
answer, then leave it as a surd rather than giving a decimal approximation.
Simplifying surds

a b ab
a b
b
a
b
a
#
'
=
= =

Class Investigations
Is there an exact decimal equivalent for 1. 2 ?
Can you draw a line of length exactly 2. 2 ?
Do these calculations give the same results? 3.
(a) 9 4 # and 9 4 #
(b)
9
4
and
9
4

(c) 9 4 + and 9 4 +
(d) 9 4 - and 9 4 -
Here are some basic properties of surds.
x x x
2
2
= =
^ h

EXAMPLES
1. Express in simplest surd form 45 .
Solution

45 9 5
9 5
3 5
3 5
#
#
#
=
=
=
=

2. Simplify 3 40 .
Solution

3 3
3
3 2
6
40 4 10
4 10
10
10
#
# #
# #
=
=
=
=

3. Write 5 2 as a single surd.
Solution

5 2 25 2
50
# =
=

5 4 also equals
3 15 # but this will
not simplify. We look
for a number that is a
perfect square.
Find a factor of 40 that
is a perfect square.
1. Express these surds in simplest
surd form.
(a) 12
(b) 63
(c) 24
(d) 50
(e) 72
(f) 200
(g) 48
(h) 75
(i) 32
(j) 54
(k) 112
(l) 300
(m) 128
(n) 243
(o) 245
(p) 108
(q) 99
(r) 125
2. Simplify
(a) 2 27
(b) 5 80
2.19 Exercises
(c) 4 98
(d) 2 28
(e) 8 20
(f) 4 56
(g) 8 405
(h) 15 8
(i) 7 40
(j) 8 45
3. Write as a single surd.
(a) 3 2
(b) 2 5
(c) 4 11
(d) 8 2
(e) 5 3
(f) 4 10
(g) 3 13
(h) 7 2
(i) 11 3
(j) 12 7
4. Evaluate x if
(a) 3 5 x =
(b) 2 3 x =
(c) 3 7 x =
(d) 5 2 x =
(e) 2 11 x =
(f) 7 3 x =
(g) 4 19 x =
(h) 6 23 x =
(i) 5 31 x =
(j) 8 15 x =
Addition and subtraction
Calculations with surds are similar to calculations in algebra. We can only add
or subtract like terms with algebraic expressions. This is the same with surds.
EXAMPLES
1. Simplify 3 2 4 2 . +
Solution
3 4 7 2 2 2 + =
2. Simplify 3 12 . -
Solution
First, change into like surds.

3 12 3 4 3
3 2 3
3
# - = -
= -
= -

3. Simplify 2 2 2 3 . - +
Solution
2 2 2 3 2 3 - + = +
Multiplication and division
Simplify
1. 5 2 5 +
2. 3 2 2 2 -
3. 3 5 3 +
4. 7 3 4 3 -
5. 5 4 5 -
6. 4 6 6 -
7. 2 8 2 -
8. 5 4 5 3 5 + +
9. 2 2 2 3 2 - -
10. 5 45 +
11. 8 2 -
12. 3 48 +
13. 12 27 -
14. 50 32 -
15. 28 63 +
16. 2 8 18 -
17. 3 54 2 24 +
18. 90 5 40 2 10 - -
19. 4 48 3 147 5 12 + +
20. 3 2 8 12 + -
21. 28 63 50 - -
22. 12 45 48 5 - - -
23. 150 45 24 + +
24. 32 243 50 147 - - +
25. 80 3 245 2 50 - +
2.20 Exercises
To get a b c d ac bd , # =
multiply surds with surds and
rationals with rationals.

a b ab
a b c d ac bd
a a a a
2
#
#
#
=
=
= =

EXAMPLES
Simplify
1. 2 2 5 7 #-
Solution
2 2 5 7 10 14 #- = -

b
a
b
a
=
CONTINUED
2. 4 2 5 18 #
Solution

4 2 5 18 20 36
20 6
120
#
#
=
=
=

3.
4 2
2 14

Solution

4 2
2 14
4 2
2 2 7
2
7
#
=
=

4.
15 2
3 10

Solution

15 2
3 10
15 2
3 5 2
5
5
# #
=
=

5.
3
10
2
d n
Solution

3
3
3
10
3
10
3
10
2
2
2
=
=
=
1
d
^
^
n
h
h

Simplify
1. 7 3 #
2. 3 5 #
3. 2 3 3 #
4. 5 7 2 2 #
5. 3 3 2 2 # -
6. 5 3 2 3 #
7. 4 5 3 11 # -
8. 2 7 7 #
9. 2 3 5 12 #
10. 6 2 #
11. 2 8 6 #
12. 3 2 5 14 #
13. 10 2 2 #
14. 2 6 7 6 #-
15. 2
2
^ h

16. 2 7
2
^ h

17. 3 5 2 # #
18. 2 3 7 5 # #-
19. 2 6 3 3 # #
20. 2 5 3 2 5 5 # # - -
21.
2 2
4 12

22.
3 6
12 18

23.
10 2
5 8

24.
2 12
16 2

25.
5 10
10 30

26.
6 20
2 2

27.
8 10
4 2

28.
3 15
3

29.
8
2

30.
6 10
3 15

31.
5 8
5 12

32.
10 10
15 18

33.
2 6
15

34.
3
2
2
d n
35.
7
5
2
d n

2.21 Exercises
Expanding brackets
The same rules for expanding brackets and binomial products that you use in
algebra also apply to surds.
Simplifying surds by removing grouping symbols uses these general rules.
b c ab ac a + = +
^ h

Proof

a b c a b a c
ab ac
# # + = +
= +
^ h

Binomial product:
a b c d ad bd ac bc + + = + + +
^ ^ h h

Proof

a b c d a c a d b c b d
ac ad bc bd
# # # # + + = + + +
= + + +
^ ^ h h

Perfect squares:
a b a ab b 2
2
+ = + +
^ h

Proof

a b a b a b
a ab ab b
a ab b 2
2
2 2
+ = + +
= + + +
= + +
^
^ ^
h
h h

a b a ab b 2
2
- = - +
^ h

Proof

a b a b a b
a ab ab b
a ab b 2
2
2 2
- = - -
= - - +
= - +
^
^ ^
h
h h

Difference of two squares:
a b a b a b + - = -
^ ^ h h

Proof

a b a b a ab ab b
a b
2 2
+ - = - + -
= -
^ ^ h h

EXAMPLES
Expand and simplify
1. 2 5 2 +
^ h

Solution

( ) 2 5 2 2 5 2 2
10 4
10 2
# # + = +
= +
= +

2. 3 7 2 3 3 2 -
^ h

Solution

( ) 3 7 2 3 3 2 3 7 2 3 3 7 3 2
6 21 9 14
# # - = -
= -

3. 2 3 5 3 2 + -
^ ^ h h

Solution

( ) ( ) 2 3 5 3 2 2 3 2 2 3 5 3 3 5 2
6 2 3 15 3 10
# # # # + - = - + -
= - + -

4. 5 2 3 5 2 3 + -
^ ^ h h

Solution

( 2 ) ( 2 ) 2 2 2 2
5 2 2 4 3
5 12
7
5 3 5 3 5 5 5 3 3 5 3 3
15 15
# # # #
#
+ - = - + -
= - + -
= -
= -

Another way to do this question is by using the difference of two squares.

( ) ( ) 5 2 3 5 2 3 5 2 3
5 4 3
7
2 2
#
+ - = -
= -
= -
^ ^ h h

Notice that using the
difference of two
squares gives a rational
answer.
1. Expand and simplify
(a) 5 3 2 +
^ h

(b) 2 2 5 3 -
^ h

(c) 3 3 2 5 4 +
^ h

(d) 5 2 2 3 7 -
^ h

(e) 3 2 4 6 - -
^ h

(f) 3 5 11 3 7 +
^ h

(g) 3 2 2 4 3 - +
^ h

(h) 5 5 3 5 -
^ h

(i) 3 12 10 +
^ h

(j) 2 3 18 3 +
^ h

(k) 4 2 3 6 2 - -
^ h

(l) 7 3 20 2 3 5 - - +
^ h

(m) 10 3 2 2 12 -
^ h

(n) 5 2 2 + -
^ h

(o) 2 3 2 12 -
^ h

(a) 2 3 5 3 3 + +
^ ^ h h

(b) 5 2 2 7 - -
^ ^ h h

(c) 2 5 3 2 5 3 2 + -
^ ^ h h

(d) 3 10 2 5 4 2 6 6 - +
^ ^ h h

(e) 2 5 7 2 5 3 2 - -
^ ^ h h

(f) 5 6 2 3 5 3 + -
^ ^ h h

(g) 7 3 7 3 + -
^ ^ h h

(h) 2 3 2 3 - +
^ ^ h h

(i) 6 3 2 6 3 2 + -
^ ^ h h

(j) 3 5 2 3 5 2 + -
^ ^ h h

(k) 8 5 8 5 - +
^ ^ h h

(l) 2 9 3 2 9 3 + -
^ ^ h h

(m) 2 11 5 2 2 11 5 2 + -
^ ^ h h

(n) 5 2
2
+
^ h

(o) 2 2 3
2
-
^ h

(p) 3 2 7
2
+
^ h

(q) 2 3 3 5
2
+
^ h

(r) 7 2 5
2
-
^ h

(s) 2 8 3 5
2
-
^ h

(t) 3 5 2 2
2
+
^ h

3. If 3 2 a = , simplify
(a) a
2

2 (b) a
3

(2 (c) a )
3

(d) 1 a
2
+ ] g
(e) a a 3 3 + ] ] g g
4. Evaluate a and b if
(a) 2 5 1 a b
2
+ = +
^ h

(b) 2 2 5 2 3 5 - -
^ ^ h h

a b 10 = +
(a) a a 3 2 3 2 + - + +
^ ^ h h

(b) 1 p p
2
- - _ i
6. Evaluate k if
. k 2 7 3 2 7 3 - + =
^ ^ h h

7. Simplify . x y x y 2 3 + - _ _ i i
8. If 2 3 5 a b
2
- = -
^ h
, evaluate
a and b.
9. Evaluate a and b if
. a b 7 2 3 2
2
- = +
^ h

10. A rectangle has sides 5 1 + and
2 5 1 - . Find its exact area.
2.22 Exercises
Rationalising the denominator
Rationalising the denominator of a fractional surd means writing it with a
rational number (not a surd) in the denominator. For example, after
rationalising the denominator,
5
3
becomes
5
3 5
.
Squaring a surd in the denominator will rationalise it since . x x
2
=
^ h

DID YOU KNOW?
A major reason for rationalising the denominator used to be to make it easier to evaluate the
fraction (before calculators were available). It is easier to divide by a rational number than an
irrational one; for example,

5
3
3 2.236 ' =

5
3 5
3 2.236 5 # ' =
This is hard to do
without a calculator.
This is easier to calculate.

b
a
b
b
b
a b
# =
Multiplying by
b
b

is the same as
multiplying by 1.
Proof

b
a
b
b
b
a b
b
a b
2
# =
=

EXAMPLES
1. Rationalise the denominator of
5
3
.
Solution

5
3
5
5
5
3 5
# =
5 3
2
.
Solution

5 3
2
3
3
5 9
2 3
5 3
2 3
15
2 3
#
#
=
=
=

Dont multiply by

5 3
5 3
as it takes
longer to simplify.
When there is a binomial denominator, we use the difference of two
squares to rationalise it, as the result is always a rational number.
To rationalise the denominator of
c d
a b
+
+
, multiply by
c d
c d
-
-

Proof

c d
a b
c d
c d
c d
a b c d
c d
a b c d
c d
a b c d
c d
2 2
#
+
+
-
-
=
+ -
+ -
=
-
+ -
=
-
+ -
^
^
^
^
^ ^
^ ^
^ ^
h
h
h
h
h h
h h
h h

EXAMPLES
1. Write with a rational denominator
.
2 3
5
-

Solution

2 3
5
2 3
2 3
2 3
5 2 3
2 9
10 3 5
7
10 3 5
7
10 3 5
2
2
#
- +
+
=
-
+
=
-
+
=
-
+
= -
+
^
^
h
h

2. Write with a rational denominator

3 4 2
2 3 5
.
+
+

Solution

3 4 2
2 3 5
3 4 2
3 4 2
3 4 2
2 3 5 3 4 2
3 16 2
2 3 8 6 15 4 10
2 2
#
#
#
+
+
-
-
=
-
+ -
=
-
- + -
^ ^
^
^
h h
h
h

Multiply by the conjugate
surd 2 3. +
29
6 8 6 15 4 10
29
6 8 6 15 4 10
=
-
- + -
=
- + - +

3. Evaluate a and b if . a b
3 2
3 3
-
= +
Solution

3 2
3 3
3 2
3 2
3 2 3 2
3 3 3 2
3 2
3 9 3 6
3 2
3 3 3 6
1
9 3 6
9 3 6
9 9 6
9 54
2 2
#
#
#
- +
+
=
- +
+
=
-
+
=
-
+
=
+
= +
= +
= +
^ ^
^
^ ^
h h
h
h h

. a b 9 54 So and = =
4. Evaluate as a fraction with rational denominator

3 2
2
3 2
5
.
+
+
-

Solution

3 2 2
3 2
2
3 2
5
3 2 3 2
3 2
3 2
2 3 4 15 2 5
3 4
2 3 4 15 2 5
1
2 3 4 15 2 5
2 3 4 15 2 5
5
2
2
+
+
-
=
+ -
- +
=
-
- + +
=
-
- + +
=
-
- + +
= - + - -
+
^ ^
^
^
^
h h
h
h
h

1. Express with rational
denominator
(a)
7
1

(b)
2 2
3

(c)
5
2 3

(d)
5 2
6 7

(e)
3
1 2 +

(f)
2
6 5 -

(g)
5
5 2 2 +

(h)
2 7
3 2 4 -

(i)
4 5
8 3 2 +

(j)
7 5
4 3 2 2 -

2. Express with rational
denominator
(a)
3 2
4
+

(b)
2 7
3
-

(c)
5 2 6
2 3
+

(d)
3 4
3 4
+
-

(e)
3 2
2 5
-
+

(f)
2 5 3 2
3 3 2
+
+

3. Express as a single fraction with
rational denominator
(a)
2 1
1
2 1
1
+
+
-

(b)
2 3
2
2 3
3
-
-
+

(c)
5 2
1
3 2 5
3
+
+
-

(d)
2 3
2 7
2 3 2
2
#
+
-
+

(e) t
t
1
+ where t 3 2 = -
(f) z
z
1
2
2
- where z 1 2 = +
(g)
6 3
3 2 4
6 3
2 1
6 1
2
-
+
+
+
-
-
-

(h)
2
2 3
3
1 +
+
(i)
2 3
3
3
2
+
+
(j)
6 2
5
5 3
2
+
-
(k)
4 3
2 7
4 3
2
+
+
-
-

(l)
3 2
5 2
3 1
2 3
-
-
-
+
+

4. Find a and b if
(a)
b
a
2 5
3
=
(b)
b
a
4 2
3 6
=
(c) a b
5 1
2
5
+
= +
(d) a b
7 4
2 7
7
-
= +
(e) a b
2 1
2 3
-
+
= +
2.23 Exercises
5. Show that
2 1
2 1
2
4
+
-
+ is
rational.
6. If x 3 2 = + , simplify
(a)
1
x
x
+
(b)
1
x
x
2
2
+
(c)
1
x
x
2
+
b l

7. Write
5 2
2
5 2
1
+
+
-
-

3
5 1 +
as a single fraction with
rational denominator .
8. Show that
3 2 2
2
2
8
+
+ is
rational .
9. If
x
2
1
3 + = , where , x 0 !
fnd x as a surd with rational
denominator .

2 b
b 2
-
+
b 4 !
] g

1. Simplify
(a) y y 5 7 -
(b)
a
3
3 12 +

(c) k k 2 3
3 2
# -
(d)
x
y
3 5
+
(e) 4 3 5 a b a b - - -
(f) 8 32 +
(g) 3 5 20 45 - +
2. Factorise
(a) 36 x
2
-
(b) 2 3 a a
2
+ -
(c) 4 8 ab ab
2
-
(d) y xy x 5 15 3 - + -
(e) 4 2 6 n p - +
(f) 8 x
3
-
(a) b b 2 3 - +
] g

(b) x x 2 1 3 - +
] ] g g

(c) m m 5 3 2 + - -
] ] g g

(d) 4 3 x
2
- ] g
(e) 5 5 p p - + ^ ^ h h
(f) a a 4 7 2 5 + - - ] g
(g) 2 2 5 3 -
^ h

(h) 3 7 3 2 + -
^ ^ h h

4. Simplify
(a)
b
a
a
b
5
4 12
27
10
3 3
#
-
-

(b)
m m
m
m
m
2
5 10
3 3
4
2
2
'
- -
+
+
-

5. The volume of a cube is . V s
3
=
Evaluate V when 5.4. s =
6. (a) Expand and simplify
. 2 5 3 2 5 3 + -
^ ^ h h

Rationalise the denominator of (b)
.
2 5 3
3 3
+

7. Simplify .
x x
x x
2
3
3
1
6
2
2
-
+
+
-
+ -

8. If , a b 4 3 = = - and , c 2 = - fnd the
value of
(a) ab
2

(b) a bc -
(c) a
(d) bc
3
] g
(e) c a b 2 3 + ] g
9. Simplify
(a)
6 15
3 12

(b)
2 2
4 32

10. The formula for the distance an object
falls is given by 5 . d t
2
= Find d when
1.5. t =
(a)
5 3
2

(b)
2
1 3 +

(a) 3 2 4 3 2 - -
^ ^ h h

(b) 7 2
2
+
^ h

13. Factorise fully
(a) 3 27 x
2
-
(b) x x 6 12 18
2
- -
(c) 5 40 y
3
+
Test Yourself 2
14. Simplify
(a)
9
3
xy
x y
5
4

(b)
15 5
5
x -

15. Simplify
(a) 3 11
2
^ h

(b) 2 3
3
^ h

(a) a b a b + - ] ] g g
(b) a b
2
+ ] g
(c) a b
2
- ] g
17. Factorise
(a) 2 a ab b
2 2
- +
(b) a b
3 3
-
18. If 3 1, x = + simplify
1
x
x
+ and
give your answer with a rational
denominator.
19. Simplify
(a)
4 3
a
b
+
(b)
2
3
5
2 x x -
-
-

20. Simplify
5 2
3
2 2 1
2
,
+
-
-
writing
your answer with a rational denominator.
21. Simplify
(a) 3 8
(b) 2 2 4 3 # -
(c) 108 48 -
(d)
2 18
8 6

(e) 5 3 2 a b a # # - -
(f)
6
2
m n
m n
2 5
3

(g) 3 2 x y x y - - -
(a) 2 3 2 2 +
^ h

(b) 5 7 3 5 2 2 3 - -
^ ^ h h

(c) 3 2 3 2 + -
^ ^ h h

(d) 4 3 5 4 3 5 - +
^ ^ h h

(e) 3 7 2
2
-
^ h

(a)
7
3

(b)
5 3
2

(c)
5 1
2
-

(d)
3 2 3
2 2
+

(e)
4 5 3 3
5 2
-
+

24. Simplify
(a)
x x
5
3
2
2
-
-

(b)
a a
7
2
3
2 3 +
+
-

(c)
x
x
1
1
1
2
2
-
-
+

(d)
2 3
4
3
1
k k
k
2
+ -
+
+

(e)
2 5
3
3 2
5
+
-
-

25. Evaluate n if
(a) 108 12 n - =
(b) 112 7 n + =
(c) 2 8 200 n + =
(d) 4 147 3 75 n + =
(e) n 2 245
2
180
+ =
26. Evaluate x
x
1
2
2
+ if x
1 2 3
1 2 3
=
-
+

2 7
3

(there may be more than one answer).
(a)
28
21

(b)
28
2 21

(c)
14
21

(d)
7
21

28. Simplify .
x x
5
3
4
1 -
-
+

(a)
x
20
7 + -
] g

(b)
20
7 x +

(c)
x
20
17 +

(d)
x
20
17 - +
] g

29. Factorise 4 4 x x x
3 2
- - + (there may be
more than one answer).
(a) x x 1 4
2
- -
^ ] h g

(b) x x 1 4
2
+ -
^ ] h g

(c) x x 4
2
-
] g

(d) x x x 4 1 1 - + -
] ] ] g g g

30. Simplify . 3 2 2 98 +
(a) 5 2
(b) 5 10
(c) 17 2
(d) 10 2
31. Simplify .
x
x x
4
3
2
2
2
1
2
-
+
-
-
+

(a)
2 2
5
x x
x
+ -
+
] ] g g

(b)
2 2
1
x x
x
+ -
+
] ] g g

(c)
2 2
9
x x
x
+ -
+
] ] g g

(d)
2 2
3
x x
x
+ -
-
] ] g g

32. Simplify . ab a ab a 5 2 7 3
2 2
- - -
(a) 2ab a
2
+
(b) ab a 2 5
2
- -
(c) a b 13
3
-
(d) 2 5 ab a
2
- +
33. Simplify .
27
80

(a)
3 3
4 5

(b)
9 3
4 5

(c)
9 3
8 5

(d)
3 3
8 5

34. Expand and simplify . x y 3 2
2
- ^ h
(a) x xy y 3 12 2
2 2
- -
(b) x xy y 9 12 4
2 2
- -
(c) 3 6 2 x xy y
2 2
- +
(d) x xy y 9 12 4
2 2
- +
35. Complete the square on . a a 16
2
-
(a) a a a 16 16 4
2 2
- + = - ^ h
(b) a a a 16 64 8
2 2
- + = - ^ h
(c) a a a 16 8 4
2 2
- + = - ^ h
(d) a a a 16 4 2
2 2
- + = - ^ h
(a) ab a b b a a 4 2 3 2
2
- - - ] ] g g
(b) 2 2 y y
2 2
- + _ _ i i
(c) x 2 5
3
-
] g

2. Find the value of x y + with rational
denominator if x 3 1 = + and

2 5 3
1
. y =
-

3. Simplify .
7 6 54
2 3
-

4. Complete the square on . x
a
b
x
2
+
5. Factorise
(a) ( ) ( ) x x 4 5 4
2
+ + +
(b) 6 x x y y
4 2 2
- -
(c) 125 343 x
3
+
(d) 2 4 8 a b a b
2 2
- - +
6. Complete the square on . x x 4 12
2
+
7. Simplify .
x x
xy x y
4 16 12
2 2 6 6
2
- +
+ - -

8.
| |
d
a b
ax by c
2 2
1 1
=
+
+ +
is the formula for
the perpendicular distance from a
point to a line. Find the exact value
of d with a rational denominator if
, , , a b c x 2 1 3 4
1
= = - = = - and 5. y
1
=
9. Simplify
1
.
a
a
1
3
3
+
+ ^ h

10. Factorise .
x b
a 4
2 2
2
-
11. Simplify .
x
x y
x
x y
x x
x y
3
2
3
6
3 2
2
-
+
+
+
-
-
+ -
+

12. (a) Expand . x 2 1
3
- ^ h
Simplify (b) .
x x x
x x
8 12 6 1
6 5 4
3 2
2
- + -
+ -

13. Expand and simplify 3 x x 1
2
- -
]
^
g
h .
14. Simplify and express with rational
denominator .
3 4
2 5
2 1
5 3
+
+
-
-

15. Complete the square on
3
. x x
2
+
2

16. If , x
k l
lx kx
1 2
=
+
+
fnd the value of x when
, , k l x 3 2 5
1
= = - = and 4. x
2
=
17. Find the exact value with rational
denominator of x x
x
2 3
1
2
- + if 2 5 . x =
18. Find the exact value of
(a) x
x
1
2
2
+ if x
1 2 3
1 2 3
=
-
+

(b) a and b if a b
2 3 3
3 4
3
+
-
= +
19.
2
A r
2
i =
1
is the area of a sector of a
circle. Find the value of i when A 12 =
and 4. r =
20. If V r h
2
r = is the volume of a cylinder,
fnd the exact value of r when 9 V = and
16. h =
21. If
2
, s u at
2
= +
1
fnd the exact value of s
when , u a 2 3 = = and 2 3 . t =
TERMINOLOGY
3
Equations
Absolute value: the distance of a number from zero on a
number line.
Equation: A mathematical statement that has a
pronumeral or unknown number and an equal sign. An
equation can be solved to fnd the value of the unknown
number e.g. 2 3 5 x - =
Exponential equation: Equation where the unknown
pronumeral is the power or index e.g. 2 8
x
=
Inequation: A mathematical statement involving an
inequality sign, , , or 1 2 # $ that has an unknown
pronumeral that is solved to fnd values that make the
statement true e.g. 2 3 4 x 2 -
Quadratic equation: An equation involving x
2
as the
highest power of x that may have two, one or no
solutions
Simultaneous equations: Two or more independent
equations that can be solved together to produce a
solution that makes each equation true at the same time.
The number of equations required is the same as the
number of unknowns
95 Chapter 3 Equations
INTRODUCTION
EQUATIONS ARE FOUND IN most branches of mathematics. They are also
important in many other elds, such as science, economics, statistics and
engineering. In this chapter you will revise basic equations and inequations.
Equations involving absolute values, exponential equations, quadratic
equations and simultaneous equations are also covered here.
DID YOU KNOW?
Algebra was known in ancient civilisations. Many equations were known in Babylonia, although
general solutions were diffcult because symbols were not used in those times.
Diophantus , around 250 AD, frst used algebraic notation and symbols (e.g. the minus sign).
He wrote a treatise on algebra in his Arithmetica , comprising 13 books. Only six of these books
survived. About 400 AD, Hypatia of Alexandria wrote a commentary on them.
Hypatia was the daughter of Theon, a mathematician who ensured that she had the best
education. She was the frst female mathematician on record, and was a philosopher and teacher.
She was murdered for her philosophical views by a fanatical Christian sect.
In 1799 Carl Friedrich Gauss proved the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra: that every
algebraic equation has a solution.
PROBLEM
The age of Diophantus at his death can be calculated from this epitaph:
Diophantus passed one-sixth of his life in childhood, one-twelfth in youth, and
one-seventh more as a bachelor; ve years after his marriage a son was born
who died four years before his father at half his fathers nal age. How old
was Diophantus?
Simple Equations
Here are the four rules for changing numbers or pronumerals from one side of
an equation to the other.
If a number is added, subtract it from both sides
If a number is subtracted, add it to both sides
If a number is multiplied, divide both sides by the number
If a number is divided, multiply both sides by the number
Do the opposite operation
to take a number to the
other side of an equation.
ch3.indd 95 8/11/09 10:59:40 AM
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. x 3 5 17 + =
Solution

x
x
x
x
x
3 5 17
3 5 17
3 12
3 12
4
5 5
3 3
+ =
+ =
=
=
=
- -

You can check the solution by substituting the value into the equation.

3 5
( )
x
3 4 5
12 5
17
LHS
RHS
= +
= +
= +
=
=

Since , 4 x LHS RHS = = is the correct solution.
2. 4 3 8 21 y y - = +
Solution

y y
y y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y y
4 3 8 21
4 3 8 21
3 4 21
3 4 21
24 4
24
4
6
6
4 4
21 21
4 4
`
- = +
- = +
- = +
- = +
- =
-
=
- =
= -
- -
- -

3. x x 2 3 7 6 1 + = - - ] ] g g
Solution

( ) ( ) x x
x x
x
x x
x
x x
2 3 7 6 1
6 14 6 1
7
6 14 7
7 14 7
+ = - -
+ = - +
= -
+ = -
+ =
+ +

Check these solutions
by substituting them
into the equation.
x
x
x
x
7 14 7
7 7
7 7
1
14 14
7 7
+ =
= -
=
-
= -
- -

1. t 4 1 + = -
2. . . z 1 7 3 9 + = -
3. y 3 2 - = -
4. . . w 2 6 4 1 - =
5. x 5 7 = -
6. 1.5 6 x =
7.
3
5y =
1

8.
7
5
b
=
9.
n
2
8
- =
10.
6 3
2 r
=
11. y 2 1 19 + =
12. 33 4 9 k = +
13. d 7 2 12 - =
14. x 2 5 27 - = -
15.
y
3
4 9 + =
16.
x
2
3 7 - =
17.
m
5
7 11 + =
18. x 3 5 17 + =
19. a 4 7 21 + = -
20. y 7 1 20 - =
21. b 8 4 36 - = -
22. 3( 2) 15 x + =
23. ( ) a 2 3 1 8 - + =
24. t t 7 4 3 12 + = -
25. 3 6 9 x x - = -
26. 2( 2) 4 3 a a - = -
27. 5 2 3( 1) b b + = - -
28. 3( 7) 2(2 9) t t + = -
29. ( ) ( ) p p p 2 5 1 5 2 + - = - -
30. . . . . x x 3 7 1 2 5 4 6 3 + = -
3.1 Exercises
Solve
A STARTLI NG FACT!

Half full half empty
full empty `
=
=

Equations involving fractions
There are different ways to solve this type of equation. One way is to multiply
both sides of the equation by the common denominator of the fractions.
EXAMPLES
Solve
1.
m
3
4
2
1
- =
Solution

2
2
( )
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
3
4
2
1
3
4
2 24 3
2 24 3
2 27
2 27
2
27
13
6 6 6
24 24
2 2
- =
- =
- =
- =
=
=
=
=
+ +
1
1
c c m m

2.
x x
3
1
4
5
+
+ =
Solution

(5)
( )
12 12 12
x x
x x
x x
x x
x
x
x
x
x
3
1
4
5
3
1
4
4 1 3 60
4 4 3 60
7 4 60
7 4 60
7 56
7 56
8
4 4
7 7
+
+ =
+
+ =
+ + =
+ + =
+ =
+ =
=
=
=
- -
c c m m

Multiply by
the common
denominator, 6.
The common
denominator of
3 and 4 is 12.
3.
y y
5
1
3
2
6
5
+
-
-
=
Solution

4
( ) ( )
y y
y y
y y
y y
y
y
y
y
y
5
1
3
2
6
5
5
1
3
2
6
5
6 1 10 2 25
6 6 10 20 25
4 26 25
4 26 25
4 1
4
1
30 30 30
26 26
4 4
+
-
-
=
+
-
-
=
+ - - =
+ - + =
- + =
- + =
- = -
-
=
-
=
- -
- -
1
e e
c
o o
m

When there is a fraction on either side of the equation, multiplying by
the common denominator is the same as cross multiplying.
The common
denominator of 5, 3
and 6 is 30.
EXAMPLES
1. Solve ( )
x
x
5
3
8
0 ! =
Solution

=
x
x
x
x
5
3
8
8 15
8 15
1
8
7
8 8
=
=
=

2. Solve 0
n
n
5
8
2
3
! = ^ h
Solution

n
n
n
n
5
8
2
3
16 15
16 15
16
15
16 16
=
=
=
=

1.
b
5 3
2
=
2. ( )
x
x
7
5
1
0 ! =
3. ( )
y
y
4
10
9
0 ! =
4.
4
5
7
11 x
=
5. ( )
k
k
5
4
2
9
0 ! =
6.
x
3
4 8 - =
7.
4
5
4
3 t
=
8.
7
5
7
2 x +
=
9.
y
2 5
3
= -
10.
x
9 3
2
7 - =
11.
2
3
5
w -
=
12.
t t
5
2
3
2 - =
13.
x
4 2
1
4 + =
14.
x x
5 2 10
3
- =
15.
3
4
2
1
x x +
+ =
16.
p p
2
3
3
2
2
-
+ =
17.
t t
7
3
3
1
4
+
+
-
=
18.
x x
9
5
5
2
1
+
-
+
=
19.
q q
3
1
4
2
2
-
-
-
=
20.
x x
5
3
2
2
7 +
+ =
+

21.
b b
4
3
5
1
2
- =
22.
a
3 4
3
8
5
+ =
23.
x
x
2
5 3
+
= , x 0 2 ! - ^ h
24.
y y 1
1
3 1
1
+
=
-
, y 1
3
1
! - c m
25.
t t 3
2
4
1
0
-
+
+
= , t 3 4 ! - ^ h
3.2 Exercises
Solve
Substitution
Sometimes substituting values into a formula involves solving an equation.
Investigation
Body mass index (BMI) is a formula that is used to measure body fatness
and is used by health professionals to screen for weight categories that
may lead to health problems.
This is not the only measure that is used when looking for health
problems, however. For example, there are other factors in cardiac (heart)
disease. Research these to nd out what other things doctors look for.
The BMI is used in a different way with children and teens, and is taken
in relation to the childs age.
The formula for BMI is
h
w
BMI
2
= where w is weight in kg and h is height
in metres.
For adults over 20, a BMI under
18.5 means that the person
is underweight and over 25 is
overweight. Over 30 is obese.
The BMI may not always be
reliable in measuring body fat. Can
you think of some reasons?
Is it important where the body fat
is stored? Does it make a difference if it is on the hips or the stomach?
Research these questions and nd out more about BMI generally.
EXAMPLES
1. The formula for the surface area of a rectangular prism is given by
( ) . S lb bh lh 2 = + + Find the value of b when 180, 9 6. S l h and = = =
Solution

( )
( )
( )
.
S lb bh lh
b b
b
b
b
b
b
b
2
180 2 9 6 9 6
2 15 54
30 108
30 108
72 30
72 30
2 4
108 108
30 30
180
#
= + +
= + +
= +
= +
= +
=
=
=
- -

CONTINUED
Another way of doing
this would be to change
the subject of the
formula frst.
2. The volume of a cylinder is given by V r h
2
r = . Evaluate the radius r,
correct to 2 decimal places, when 350 V = and . . h 6 5 =
Solution

( . )
( . )
.
.
.
.
. .
V r h
r
r
r
r
r
r
350 6 5
350
6 5
6 5
350
6 5
350
6 5
350
4 14
6 5 6 5
2
2
2
2
2
r
r
r
r
r
r
r r
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

1. Given that u at v = + is the
formula for the velocity of
a particle at time t, nd the
value of t when . , u 17 3 =
. . . v a 100 6 9 8 and = =
2. The sum of an arithmetic series is
given by ( ) . S
n
a l
2
= + Find l if
3, 26 1625. a n S and = = =
3. The formula for nding the area
of a triangle is
2
. A bh =
1
Find b
when 36 9. A h and = =
4. The area of a trapezium is given
by
2
( ) . A h a b = +
1
Find
the value of a when 120, A =
. h b 5 7 and = =
5. Find the value of y when 3, x =
given the straight line equation
5 2 7 0. x y - - =
6. The area of a circle is given
by . A r
2
r = Find r correct to 3
signicant gures if 140. A =
7. The area of a rhombus is given by
the formula
2
A xy =
1
where x and
y are its diagonals. Find the value
of x correct to 2 decimal places
when 7.8 25.1. y A and = =
8. The simple interest formula is
.
Pr n
I
100
= Find n if 14.5, r =
150 326.25. P I and = =
9. The gradient of a straight
line is given by .
x x
y y
m
2 1
2 1
-
-
=
Find y
1
when
6
, m = -
5
, . y x x 7 3 1 and
2 2 1
= = - =
10. The surface area of a cylinder
is given by the formula
. S r r h 2r = + ] g Evaluate h
correct to 1 decimal place if
232 4.5. S r and = =
3.3 Exercises
11. The formula for body mass index
is
h
w
BMI
2
= . Evaluate
the (a) BMI when 65 w = and
1.6 h =
(b) w when 21.5 BMI = and
1.8 h =
(c) h when 19.7 BMI = and
. . w 73 8 =
12. A formula for depreciation
is . D P r 1
n
= - ] g Find r if
, D P 12 000 15 000 = = and 3. n =
13. The x -value of the midpoint is
given by
x x
x
2
1 2
+
= . Find x
1

when 2 x = - and . x 5
2
=
14. Given the height of a particle at
time t is , h t 5
2
= evaluate t when
. h 23 =
15. If , y x 1
2
= + evaluate x when
. y 5 =
16. If the surface area of a sphere
is , S r 4
2
r = evaluate r to 3
signicant gures when . . S 56 3 =
17. The area of a sector of a circle
is . A r
2
2
1
i = Evaluate r when
24.6 A = and . . 0 45 i=
18. If
x
y
1
2
3
-
= , nd the value of x
when . y 3 =
19. Given 2 5, y x = + evaluate x
when . y 4 =
20. The volume of a sphere is
V r
3
3
4
r = . Evaluate r to 1 decimal
place when . V 150 =
There are two solutions to
this question.
Inequations
2 means greater than
1 means less than
$ means greater than or equal to
# means less than or equal to
In order to solve inequations, we need to see what effect one operation applied
to both sides has on the inequality sign.
If a b 2 then a c b c 2 + + for all c
For example, 3 2 2 and 3 1 2 1 2 + + are both true.
If a b 2 then a c b c 2 - - for all c
For example, 3 2 2 and 3 1 2 1 2 - - are both true.
If a b 2 then ac bc 2 for all c 0 2
For example, 3 2 2 and 3 2 2 2 # # 2 are both true.
If a b 2 then ac bc 1 for all c 0 1
On the number plane, we graph inequalities using arrows and circles
(open for greater than and less than and closed in for greater than or
equal to and less than or equal to)
1
2
#
$
If a b 2 then a c b c ' ' 2 for all 0 c 2
If a b 2 then a c b c ' ' 1 for all c 0 1
If a b 2 then
a
b
1 1
1 for all positive numbers a and b
The inequality sign reverses when:
multiplying by a negative
dividing by a negative
taking the reciprocal of both sides
For example, 3 2 2 but . 3 2 2 2 # # 1 - -
For example, 6 4 2 and 6 2 4 2 ' ' 2 are both true.
For example, 6 4 2 but . 6 2 4 2 ' ' 1 - -
For example, 3 2 2 but .
3
1
2
1
1
EXAMPLES
Solve and show the solutions on a number line
1. x 5 7 17 $ +
Solution

x
x
x
x
x
5 7 17
5 7 17
5 10
5 10
2
7 7
5 5
$
$
$
$
$
+
+ - -

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

2. t t 3 2 5 4 2 - +
Solution

t t
t t
t
t
t
t
t
t t
t t
t
t
t
t
t
t t
t t
3 2 5 4
3 2 5 4
2 2 4
2 2 4
6 2
6 2
3
3 2 5 4
3 2 5 4
2 2 4
2 2 4
2 6
2 6
3
3 3
4 4
2 2
5 5
2 2
2 2
or
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
- +
- +
- +
- +
-
-
-
- +
- +
- -
- -
-
-
-
- -
- -
- -
+ +
- -

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

CONTINUED
Remember to change
the inequality sign when
dividing by -2.
3. Solve . z 1 2 7 11 1 # +
Solution
Method 1: Separate into two separate questions.
(i) z
z
z
z
z
1 2 7
1 2 7
6 2
6 2
3
7 7
2 2
1
1
1
1
1
+
+
-
-
-
- -

(ii) z
z
z
z
z
2 7 11
2 7 11
2 4
2 4
2
7 7
2 2
#
#
#
#
#
+
+ - -

Putting these together gives the solution . z 3 2 1 # -
Method 2: Do as a single question.

z
z
z
z
z
1 2 7 11
1 2 7 11
6 2 4
6 2 4
3 2
7 7 7
2 2 2
1
1
1
1
1
#
#
#
#
#
+
+
-
-
-
- - -

Solving this inequation as a
single question is quicker than
splitting it into two parts.
Notice that the circle is not
flled in for 1 and flled in
for #.
1. Solve and plot the solution on a
number line
(a) x 4 7 2 +
(b) y 3 1 # -
2. Solve
(a) t 5 35 2
(b) x 3 7 2 $ -
(c) 2( 5) 8 p 2 +
(d) 4 ( 1) 7 x # - -
(e) y y 3 5 2 4 2 + -
(f) a a 2 6 5 3 # - -
(g) 3 4 2(1 ) y y $ + - -
(h) 2 9 1 4 ( 1) x x 1 + - +
(i)
a
2
3 # -
(j)
y
8
3
2
2
(k)
b
2
5 4 1 + -
(l)
x
3
4 6 2 -
(m)
x
4
1
5
1 # +
(n)
m
4
3
3
2
2 -
3.4 Exercises
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
(o)
b
5
2
2
1
6 $ -
(p)
r
2
3
6 #
-
-
(q)
z
9
1
2 3 2
+
+
(r)
w w
6 3
2 5
4 1 +
+

(s)
x x
2
1
3
2
7 $
+
-
-

(t)
t t
7
2
2
3
2 #
+
-
+

(u)
q q
3
2
2
4
3
1
-
+
(v)
x x
3
2
2
1
9
2
2 -
-

(w)
b b
8
2 5
3
12
6
#
-
+
+

3. Solve and plot the solutions on a
number line
(a) 3 2 9 x 1 1 +
(b) p 4 2 10 1 # -
(c) 2 3 1 11 x 1 1 -
(d) y 6 5 9 34 # # - +
(e) 2 3(2 1) 7 y 1 1 - -
PROBLEM
Find a solution for this sum. Is it a unique solution?

D A N GE R
C R OS S
R O A DS +
Equations and Inequations Involving Absolute Values
On a number line, x means the distance of x from zero in either direction.
EXAMPLES
Plot on a number line and evaluate x
1. x 2 =
Solution
x 2 = means the distance of x from zero is 2 (in either direction).
x 2 ! =
CONTINUED
2 2
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Class Discussion
What does a b - mean as a distance along the number line?
Select different values of a and b to help with this discussion.
The solution of
| x | 2 1 would be
2 x 2. 1 1 -
The solution of
| x | 2 $ would be
x 2, x 2. # $ -
x a = means x a ! =
x a 1 means a x a 1 1 -
x a 2 means , x a x a 2 1 -
We use absolute value as a distance on a number line to solve equations
and inequations involving absolute values.
2. x 2 #
Solution
x 2 # means the distance of x from zero is less than or equal to 2 (in
either direction).
2 2
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Notice that there is one region on the number line. We can write this as
the single statement . x 2 2 # # -
3. 2 x 2
Solution
2 x 2 means the distance of x from zero is greater than 2 (in either
direction).
2 2
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
There are two regions on the number line, so we write two separate
inequalities , . x x 2 2 1 2 -
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. 4 x 7 + =
Solution
This means that the distance from 4 x + to zero is 7 in either direction.
So . x 4 7 ! + =
4 x 7 + =

7 -
7 4
=
- - =
x
x
x
4
4
11
4
+
+
= -
-
x
x
x
4 7
4 7
3
4 4
or + =
+ =
=
- -
2. 2 1 y 5 1 -
Solution
This means that the distance from 2 1 y - to zero is less than 5 in either
direction. So it means . y 5 2 1 5 1 1 - -

y
y
y
y
5 2 1 5
5 2 1 5
4
2
6
2 3
1 1 1
2 2 2
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
- -
- -
-
-
+ + +

3. 5 7 b 3 $ -
Solution
b 5 7 3 $ - means that the distance from 5 7 b - to zero is greater than
or equal to 3 in either direction.

.
b b
b b
b b
b b
5 7 3 5 7 3
5 4 5 10
5 4 5 10
5
4
2
5
4
5 5 5 5
# $
# $
# $
# $
- - -
+ + + +
,
b b
b b
5 7 3 5 7 3
2
7 7 7 7
So
# $
# $
- - -

You could solve these as
two separate inequations.
These must be solved
and written as two
separate inequations.
While it is always a good habit to check solutions to equations and
inequations by substituting in values, in these next examples it is essential to
check, as some of the solutions are impossible!
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. x x 2 1 3 2 + = -
Solution
x x 2 1 3 2 + = - means that x 2 1 + is at a distance of x 3 2 - from zero.
x x 2 1 3 2 ! + = - ] g
This question is impossible if x 3 2 - is negative. Can you see why? If
x 2 1 + is equal to a negative number, this is impossible as the absolute
value is always positive.
Case (i)

x x
x
x
x x x x
x
2 1 3 2
1 2
3
2 2
2 2
2 1 3 2
1 2
+ = -
= -
=
- -
+ +
+ = -
= -

Check solution is possible:
Substitute x 3 = into . x x 2 1 3 2 + = -

3 3 2
2 3 1
7
7
9 2
7
LHS
RHS
#
#
= +
=
= -
= -
=
=

Since , 3 x LHS RHS = = is a solution.
Case (ii)

( ) x x
x
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
2 1 3 2
3 2
2 1 3 2
5 1 2
5 1 2
5 1
5 1
5
1
3 3
1 1
5 5
+ = - -
= - +
+ = - +
+ =
+ =
=
=
=
+ +
- -

Check:
Substitute x
5
1
= into . x x 2 1 3 2 + = -

3 2
2
5
1
1
1
5
2
1
5
2
5
1
5
3
2
5
2
LHS
RHS
#
#
= +
=
= -
= -
1
=
= -

Since , x
5
1
LHS RHS ! = is not a solution.
So the only solution is . x 3 =
2. x x 2 3 1 9 - + + =
Solution
In this question it is diffcult to use distances on the number line, so we
use the defnition of absolute value.

( )
( )
x
x x
x x
x
x x
x x
2 3
2 3 2 3 0
2 3 2 3 0
1
1 1 0
1 1 0
when
when
when
when
1
1
$
$
- =
- -
- - -
+
+ +
- + +
=
'
'

This gives 4 cases:
(i) ( ) ( ) x x 2 3 1 9 - + + =
(ii) ( ) ( ) x x 2 3 1 9 - - + =
(iii) ( ) ( ) x x 2 3 1 9 - - + + =
(iv) ( ) ( ) x x 2 3 1 9 - - - + =
Case (i)

( ) ( ) x x
x x
x
x
x
x
x
2 3 1 9
2 3 1 9
3 2 9
3 2 9
3 11
3 11
3
3
2
2 2
3 3
- + + =
- + + =
- =
- =
=
=
=
+ +
Check by substituting x 3
3
2
= into . x x 2 3 1 9 - + + =
CONTINUED
It is often easier to solve
these harder equations
graphically. You will do
this in Chapter 5.

2 3
3
2
3 3
3
2
1
4
3
1
4
3
2
4
3
1
4
3
2
9
LHS # = - + +
= +
=
RHS
= +
=

So x 3
3
2
= is a solution.
Case (ii)

( ) ( ) x x
x x
x
x
x
2 3 1 9
2 3 1 9
4 9
4 9
13
4 4
- - + =
- - - =
- =
- =
=
+ +

Check by substituting x 13 = into . x x 2 3 1 9 - + + =

2 13 3 13 1
23 14
23 14
37
LHS
RHS
#
!
= - + +
= +
= +
=

So x 13 = is not a solution.
Case (iii)

( ) ( ) x x
x x
x
x
x
x
x
2 3 1 9
2 3 1 9
4 9
4 9
5
5
5
4 4
1 1
- - + + =
- + + + =
- + =
- + =
- =
-
=
= -
- -
- -

Check by substituting x 5 = - into . x x 2 3 1 9 - + + =

2 5 3 5 1
13 4
13 4
17
LHS # = - - + - +
- -
= +
=
RHS !
= +

So x 5 = - is not a solution.
Case (iv)

( ) ( ) x x
x x
x
x
x
2 3 1 9
2 3 1 9
3 2 9
3 2 9
3 7
2 2
- - - + =
- + - - =
- + =
- + =
- =
- -
x
x
3 7
2
3
1
3 3
-
=
= -
- -
Check by substituting x 2
3
1
= - into . x x 2 3 1 9 - + + =

2 2
3
1
3 2
3
1
1
7
3
2
1
3
1
7
3
2
1
3
1
9
LHS # = - - + - +
- -
= +
=
RHS
= +
=

So x 2
3
1
= - is a solution.
So solutions are , . x 3
3
2
2
3
1
= -
While you should always check solutions, you can see that there are some
cases where this is really important.
You will learn how to
solve equations involving
absolute values graphically
in Chapter 5. With
graphical solutions it is
easy to see how many
solutions there are.
1. Solve
(a) x 5 =
(b) y 8 =
(c) a 4 1
(d) k 1 $
(e) x 6 2
(f) p 10 #
(g) x 0 =
(h) a 14 2
(i) y 12 1
(j) b 20 $
2. Solve
(a) x 2 7 + =
(b) n 1 3 - =
(c) 2a 4 2
(d) 5 x 1 # -
(e) x 9 2 3 = +
(f) x 7 1 34 - =
(g) y 4 3 11 1 +
(h) x 2 3 15 $ -
(i)
x
3
4 =
(j)
a
2
3 2 # -
3. Solve
(a) x x 2 5 3 + = -
(b) a a 2 1 2 - = +
(c) b b 3 2 4 - = -
(d) k k 3 2 4 - = -
(e) y y 6 23 7 + = -
(f) x x 4 3 5 4 + = -
(g) m m 2 5 - =
(h) d d 3 1 6 + = +
(i) y y 5 4 1 - = +
(j) t t 2 7 3 - = -
4. Solve
(a) x x 3 3 1 + = -
(b) y y 2 5 2 - = -
(c) a a 3 1 2 9 + = -
(d) x x 2 5 17 + + =
(e) d d 3 2 4 18 - + + =
5. (a) Solve . t t 4 3 1 11 - + - =
By plotting the solutions on (b)
a number line and looking at
values in between the solutions,
solve . t t 4 3 1 11 1 - + -
3.5 Exercises
Remember to check solutions
in questions 3, 4 and 5.
To solve equations, use inverse operations:
For squares, take the square root
For cubes, take the cube root
For square roots, take the square
For cube roots, take the cube
You have previously used these rules when substituting into formulae
involving squares and cubes.
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. x 9
2
=
Solution

x
x
x
9
9
3
2
2
!
` !
=
=
=

2. n 5 40
3
=
Solution

n
n
n
n
n
5 40
5 40
8
8
2
5 5
3
3
3
3 3 3
=
=
=
=
=

There are two possible
solutions for x one
positive and one
negative since 3 9
2
=
and ( 3) 9.
2
- =
There is only one
answer for this
question since 2 8
3
=
but ( 2) 8.
3
- = -
Exponential Equations
An exponential equation involves an unknown index or power e.g. . 2 8
x
=
We can also solve other equations involving indices. In order to solve
these, you need to understand their relationship. For example, squares and
square roots are the reverse of each other (we call them inverse operations).
Similarly cubes and cube roots are inverses, and this extends to all indices.
Investigation
Investigate equations of the type x k
n
= where k is a constant, for
example, . x 9
n
=
Look at these questions:
What is the solution when 1. ? n 0 =
What is the solution when 2. ? n 1 =
How many solutions are there when 3. ? n 2 =
How many solutions are there when 4. ? n 3 =
How many solutions are there when 5. n is even?
How many solutions are there when 6. n is odd?
3.
3
a 4 =
2

Solution
We use the fact that
3
2
2
3
. a a a = =
2
3
3
2
` ` j j

3
3
2
2
2
a
a
a
a
4
4
4
4
2
8
3
3
`
=
=
=
=
=
=
2
2
3
3
3
^
`
h
j

In other types of equations, the pronumeral (or unknown variable) is in
the index. We call these exponential equations , and we use the fact that
if the base numbers are equal, then the powers (or indices or exponents)
must be equal.
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. 3 81
x
=
Solution
3 81
x
=
Equating indices:

x
3 3
4
x 4
`
=
=

CONTINUED
2. 5 25
k 2 1
=
-

Solution

5 5
k
k
k
k
5 25
2
2 1 2
2 3
2 3
1
2
1
1 1
2 2
k
k
2 1
2 1 2
=
=
=
- =
=
=
=
+ +
-
-
2 1 k ` -

3. 8 4
n
=
Solution
It is hard to write 8 as a power of 4 or 4 as a power of 8, but both can be
written as powers of 2.

( )
n
n
n
8 4
2 2
2 2
3 2
3 2
3
2
3 3
n
n
n
3 2
3 2
`
=
=
=
=
=
=

We can check this solution
by substituting k 1
2
1
= into
the equation 5 25.
2k 1
=
-
1. Solve
(a) x 27
3
=
(b) y 64
2
=
(c) n 16
4
=
(d) ( ) x 20 give the exact answer
2
=
(e) p 1000
3
=
(f) x 2 50
2
=
(g) y 6 486
4
=
(h) w 7 15
3
+ =
(i) n 6 4 92
2
- =
(j) q 3 20 4
3
+ = -
2. Solve and give the answer correct
to 2 decimal places.
(a) p 45
2
=
(b) x 100
3
=
(c) n 240
5
=
(d) x 2 70
2
=
(e) y 4 7 34
3
+ =
(f)
d
3
14
4
=
(g)
k
2
3 7
2
- =
(h)
x
5
1
2
3
-
=
(i) y 2 9 20
2
- =
(j) y 7 9 200
3
+ =
3.6 Exercises
3. Solve
(a)
3
n 9 =
2

(b)
4
t 8 =
3

(c)
5
x 4 =
2

(d)
3
t 16 =
4

(e)
5
p 27 =
3

(f)
4
m 2 250 =
3

(g)
3
b 3 39 + =
2

(h)
3
y 5 405 =
4

(i)
7
a 3 2 10 - =
2

(j)
4
t
3
9 =
3

4. Solve (all pronumerals ! 0)
(a) x 5
1
=
-

(b) a 8
3
=
-

(c) y 32
5
=
-

(d) x 1 50
2
+ =
-

(e) n 2 3
1
=
-

(f) a
8
1
3
=
-

(g) x
4
1
2
=
-

(h) b
9
1
1
=
-

(i) x 2
4
1
2
=
-

(j) b
81
16
4
=
-

5. Solve (all pronumerals ! 0)
(a)
3
x 8 =
-
1

(b)
-
2
x
125
8
=
3

(c)
4
a 3 =
-
1

(d)
-
4
k 125 =
3

(e)
3
x 3 12 =
-
2

(f)
2
x
8
1
=
-
3

(g)
-
3
y
4
1
=
2

(h)
5
n
9
4
=
-
2

(i)
3
b
32
1
=
-
5

(j)
-
3
m
49
36
=
2

6. Solve
(a) 2 16
n
=
(b) 3 243
y
=
(c) 2 512
m
=
(d) 10 100 000
x
=
(e) 6 1
m
=
(f) 4 64
x
=
(g) 4 3 19
x
+ =
(h) ) ( 5 3 45
x
=
(i) 4 4
x
=
(j)
2
6
18
k
=
7. Solve
(a) 3 81
x 2
=
(b) 2 16
x 5 1
=
-

(c) 4 4
x 3
=
+

(d) 3 1
n 2
=
-

(e) 7 7
x 2 1
=
+

(f) 3 27
x 3
=
-

(g) 5 125
y 3 2
=
+

(h) 7 49
x 3 4
=
-

(i) 2 256
x 4
=
(j) 9 9
a 3 1
=
+

8. Solve
(a) 4 2
m
=
(b) 27 3
x
=
(c) 125 5
x
=
(d)
49
1
7
k
= c m
(e)
1000
1
100
k
= c m
(f) 16 8
n
=
(g) 25 125
x
=
(h) 64 16
n
=
(i)
4
1
2
k 3
= c m
(j) 8 4
x 1
=
-

9. Solve
(a) 2 8
x x 1 4
=
+

(b) 3 9
x x 5 2
=
-

(c) 7 7
k k 2 3 1
=
+ -

(d) 4 8
n n 3 3
=
+

(e) 6 216
x x 5
=
-

(f) 16 4
x x 2 1 4
=
- -

(g) 27 3
x x 3
=
+

(h)
2
1
64
1
x x 2 3
=
+
c c m m
PUZZLE
Test your logical thinking and that of your friends.
How many months have 28 days? 1.
If I have 128 sheep and take away all but 10, how many 2.
do I have left?
A bottle and its cork cost $1.10 to make. If the bottle costs $1 more 3.
than the cork, how much does each cost?
What do you get if you add 1 to 15 four times? 4.
On what day of the week does Good Friday fall in 2016? 5.
Quadratic Equations
A quadratic equation is an equation involving a square. For example, . x 4 0
2
- =
Solving by factorisation
When solving quadratic equations by factorising, we use a property of zero.
For any real numbers a and b , if ab 0 = then a 0 = or b 0 =
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. x x 6 0
2
+ - =
Solution

( ) ( )
x x
x x
6 0
3 2 0
2
+ - =
+ - =

(i)
4
3
64
27
x x 2 3
=
-
c c m m
(j) 5
25
1
x
x 9
=
-
-
] c g m
10. Solve
(a) 4 2
m
=
(b)
25
9
5
3
k 3
=
+
c m
(c)
2
1
4
x 2 5
=
-

(d) 3 3 3
k
=
(e)
27
1
81
3
n 3 1
=
+
c m
(f)
5
2
2
5
n n 3 1
=
+ -
c c m m
(g) 32
16
1
x
=
-

(h) 9 3 3
b b 2 5
=
+

(i) 81 3
x x 1
=
+

(j) 25
5
1
m
m 3 5
=
-
-
c m
0
0
2
=
=
=
x x
x x
x
3 0 2
3 0 2
3
3 3 2 2
or
or
` + = -
+ = -
= -
- - + +
x
So the solution is . x 3 2 or = -
2. y y 7 0
2
- =
Solution
( )
y y
y y
y y
7 0
7 0
0 7 0 or
2
`
- =
- =
= - =

y
y
7 0
7
7 7 - =
=
+ +
So the solution is y 0 = or 7.
3. a a 3 14 8
2
- = -
Solution

( ) ( )
a a
a a
a a
a a
a a
a a
a a
a
a
3 14 8
3 14 8
3 14 8 0
3 2 4 0
3 2 0 4 0
3 2 0 4 0
3 2 4
3 2
3
2
8 8
2 4 4
3 3
or
or
2
2
2
`
- = -
- = -
- + =
- - =
- = - =
- = - =
= =
=
=
+ +
+ + +

So the solution is . a 4 or
3
2
=
Solve
3.7 Exercises
1. y y 0
2
+ =
2. b b 2 0
2
- - =
3. p p 2 15 0
2
+ - =
4. t t 5 0
2
- =
5. x x 9 14 0
2
+ + =
6. q 9 0
2
- =
7. x 1 0
2
- =
8. a a 3 0
2
+ =
9. x x 2 8 0
2
+ =
10. x 4 1 0
2
- =
11. x x 3 7 4 0
2
+ + =
12. y y 2 3 0
2
+ - =
13. b b 8 10 3 0
2
- + =
14. x x 3 10
2
- =
15. x x 3 2
2
=
16. x x 2 7 5
2
= -
17. x x 5 0
2
- =
18. y y 2
2
= +
19. n n 8 15
2
= +
20. x x 12 7
2
= -
21. m m 6 5
2
= -
22. ( ) ( ) x x x 1 2 0 + + =
23. ( ) ( ) ( ) y y y 1 5 2 0 - + + =
24. ( ) ( ) x x 3 1 32 + - =
25. ( ) ( ) m m 3 4 20 - - =
Application
A formula for displacement s at time t is given by
2
1
s ut at
2
= + where u is the
initial velocity and a is the acceleration. Find the time when the displacement will
be zero, given 12 u = - and 10. a =

2
2
0 12 (10)
12 5
( 12 5 )
0 or 12 5 0
s ut at
t t
t t
t t
t t
2
2
2
`
= +
= - +
= - +
= - +
= - + =
1
1

12 5 0
5 12
5 12
2.4
12 12
5 5
t
t
t
t
+ = + + -
=
=
=
So displacement will be zero when 0 t = or 2.4.
Solving by completing the square
Not all trinomials will factorise, so other methods need to be used to solve
quadratic equations.
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. x 7
2
=
Solution

.
x
x
7
7
2 6
2
!
!
=
=
=

2. x 3 11
2
+ = ] g
Solution

. , .
x
x
x
x
3 11
3 11
3 11
11 3
0 3 6 3
3 3
2
!
!
!
+ =
+ =
+ =
= -
= -
- -
] g

3. y 2 7
2
- = ^ h
Solution

. , .
y
y
y
y
2 7
2 7
2 7
7 2
4 6 0 6
2 2
2
!
!
!
- =
- =
- =
= +
= -
+ +
^ h

Take the square root of
both sides.
To solve a quadratic equation like , x x 6 3 0
2
- + = which will not factorise, we
can use the method of completing the square.
You learnt how to
complete the square in
Chapter 2.
EXAMPLES
Solve by completing the square
1. x x 6 3 0
2
- + = (give exact answer)
Solution

2
x x
x x
6 3 0
6 3 3 9
2
2
2
2
- + =
- = - = =
6
c m

Halve 6, square it and
add to both sides of the
equation.
CONTINUED
x x
x
x
x
x
6 3
3 6
3 6
3 6
6 3
9 9
3 3
2
2
` !
!
!
- = -
- =
- =
- =
= +
+ +
+ +
] g
2. y y 2 7 0
2
+ - = (correct to 3 signifcant fgures)
Solution

2
. .
y y
y y
y y
y
y
y
y
y
2 7 0
2 7 1 1
2 7
1 8
1 8
1 8
8 1
2 2 1
1 83 3 83
1 1
1 1
or
2
2
2
2
2
2
` !
!
!
!
+ - =
+ = = =
+ =
+ =
+ =
+ =
= -
= -
= -
+ +
- -
2
c
^
m
h

1. Solve by completing the square,
giving exact answers in simplest
surd form
(a) x x 4 1 0
2
+ - =
(b) a a 6 2 0
2
- + =
(c) y y 8 7 0
2
- - =
(d) x x 2 12 0
2
+ - =
(e) p p 14 5 0
2
+ + =
(f) x x 10 3 0
2
- - =
(g) y y 20 12 0
2
+ + =
(h) x x 2 1 0
2
- - =
(i) n n 24 7 0
2
+ + =
(j) y y 3 1 0
2
- + =
2. Solve by completing the square
and write your answers correct to
3 signifcant fgures
(a) x x 2 5 0
2
- - =
(b) x x 12 34 0
2
+ + =
(c) q q 18 1 0
2
+ - =
(d) x x 4 2 0
2
- - =
(e) b b 16 50 0
2
+ + =
(f) x x 24 112 0
2
- + =
(g) r r 22 7 0
2
- - =
(h) x x 8 5 0
2
+ + =
(i) a a 6 0 1
2
+ - =
(j) y y 40 3 0
2
- - =
3.8 Exercises
Solving by formula
Completing the square is diffcult with harder quadratic equations, for
example . x x 2 5 0
2
- - = Completing the square on a general quadratic
equation gives the following formula.
For the equation ax bx c 0
2
+ + =
x
a
b b ac
2
4
2
!
=
- -

Proof
Solve ax b c 0
2
+ + = by completing the square.

ax bx c
ax bx c
x
a
bx
a
c
x
a
bx
a
c
x
a
bx
a
c
a
b
a
b
a
b
x
a
bx
a
c
x
a
b
a
c
a
b
a
ac b
x
a
b
a
ac b
a
b ac
x
a
b
a
b ac
x
a
b
a
b ac
a
b b ac
a a a a
a
c
a
c
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
0
0
0
0
2
2
4
2
4
4
4
2
4
4
2
4
2 2
4
2 2
4
2
4
4 4
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
'
!
!
!
!
!
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
+ = - = =
+ = -
+ = - +
=
- +
+ =
- +
=
-
+ =
-
=
- -
=
- -
- -
+ +
- -
b
c
c
l
m
m
EXAMPLES
1. Solve x x 2 0
2
- - = by using the quadratic formula.
Solution

, ,
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
a b c
x
a
b b ac
1 1 2
2
4
2 1
1 1 4 1 2
2
1 1 8
2
2
!
!
!
= = - = -
=
- -
=
- - - - -
=
+

CONTINUED
2
1 9
2
1 3
2 1 or
!
!
=
=
= -
2. Solve y y 2 9 3 0
2
- + = by formula and give your answer correct to
2 decimal places.
Solution

, ,
. .
a b c
x
a
b b ac
y
2 9 3
2
4
2 2
9 9 4 2 3
4
9 81 24
4
9 57
4 14 0 36 or
2
2
!
!
!
!
Z
= = - =
=
- -
=
- - - -
=
-
=
]
] ] ] ]
g
g g g g

x
2
1 3 !
= gives two
separate solutions,
2
1 3 +

and .
2
1 3 -

These solutions are
irrational.
1. Solve by formula, correct to 3
signifcant fgures where necessary
(a) y y 6 2 0
2
+ + =
(b) x x 2 5 3 0
2
- + =
(c) b b 9 0
2
- - =
(d) x x 2 1 0
2
- - =
(e) x x 8 3 0
2
- + + =
(f) n n 8 2 0
2
+ - =
(g) m m 7 10 0
2
+ + =
(h) x x 7 0
2
- =
(i) x x 5 6
2
+ =
(j) y y 3 1
2
= -
2. Solve by formula, leaving the
answer in simplest surd form
(a) x x 4 0
2
+ - =
(b) x x 3 5 1 0
2
- + =
(c) q q 4 3 0
2
- - =
(d) h h 4 12 1 0
2
+ + =
(e) s s 3 8 2 0
2
- + =
(f) x x 11 3 0
2
+ - =
(g) d d 6 5 2 0
2
+ - =
(h) x x 2 7
2
- =
(i) t t 1
2
= +
(j) x x 2 1 7
2
+ =
3.9 Exercises
Class Investigation
Here is a proof that . 1 2 = Can you see the fault in the proof?

( ) ( ) ( )
x x x x
x x x x x x x
x x x
x x 2
1 2
2 2 2 2
`
- = -
- = + -
= +
=
=

EXAMPLES
1. Solve .
x
1
3 1
Solution
x 0 !

.
x
x
x
x
x
x x
1
3
1
3
1 3
1 3
3
1
3 3
Solve
# #
=
=
=
=
=

. x
x
3
1 1
3 is not a solution of the inequation 1 =
Place 0 x = and x
3
1
= on a number plane and test x values on either side
of these values in the inequation.

Test for 0, x 1 say x 1 = -
Substitute into the inequation:

( )
x
1
3
1
1
3
1 3 true
1
1
1
-
-

So 0 x 1 is part of the solution.
Test for , x
3
1
0 1 1 say x
10
1
=

10
1
1
3 1
( ) 10 3 false 1

So x
3
1
0 1 1 is not part of the solution.
Test for , x
3
1
2 say 1 x =
0
1
is undefned.
Circle these values as they
are not included in the
solution.
CONTINUED
Further Inequations
Inequations involving pronumerals in the denominator can be
solved in several ways. Here is one method. You will use a different
method in Chapter 10.
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 1
3

( )
1
1
3
1 3 true
1
1

So x
3
1
2 is part of the solution.
Solution is . , x x
3
1
0 1 2

2. Solve .
x 3
6
1 $
+

Solution
x 3 ! -

.
( ) ( )
x
x
x
x
x
x x
3
6
1
3
6
1
6 3
6 3
3
3 3
3 3
Solve
# #
+
=
+
=
= +
= +
=
+ +
- -

3 x = is a solution of the inequation .
x 3
6
1 $
+

Place 3 x = - and 3 x = on a number plane and test values on either side
in the inequation.
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Test for , x 3 1 - say 4 x = -

( )
x 3
6
1
4 3
6
1
6 3 false
$
$
$
+
- +
-

So x 3 1 - is not part of the solution.
Test for , x 3 3 1 # - say x 0 =

( )
0 3
6
1
2 1 true
$
$
+
So x 3 3 1 # - is part of the solution.
Test for , x 3 $ say x 4 =

( )
4 3
6
1
7
6
1 false
$
$
+

So x 3 $ is not part of the solution.
0
6
is undefned.
Circle x 3 - = and fll in
x 3 = since it is a part of
the solution.
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 1
3
Solution is 3 3 x 1 # -
3. Solve .
y
y 6
1
2
#
-

Solution
0 y !

.
y
y
y
y
y y
y y
y y
y y
y y
y y
6
1
6
1
6
6
6 0
3 2 0
Solve
2
2
2
2
2
# #
-
=
-
=
- =
- =
- - =
- + =
- -
^ ^ h h

,
,
,
y y
y y
y y
3 0 2 0
3 0 2 0
3 2
3 3 2 2
- = + =
- = + =
= = -
+ + - -
Sketch these on a number line and test values on either side.

Test for , y 2 # - say y 3 = -

( )
y
y 6
1
3
3 6
1
1 1 true
2
2
#
#
#
-
-
- -
-
] g

So y 2 # - is part of the solution.
Test for , y 2 0 1 # - say y 1 = -

( )
1
1 6
1
5 1 false
2
#
#
-
- - ] g

So y 2 0 1 # - is not part of the solution.
Test , y 0 3 1 # say y 1 =

( )
1
1 6
1
5 1 true
2
#
#
-
-

So y 0 3 1 # is part of the solution.
Test 3, y $ say y 4 =
CONTINUED
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

( )
4
4 6
1
2
2
1
1 false
2
#
#
-

So y 3 $ is not part of the solution.
The solution is , y y 2 0 3 1 # # -
1.
y
1
1 1
2.
x
1
2 2
3.
x
3
2 1
4.
m
2
7 $
5.
x
3
5 2 -
6.
b
2
1 # -
7.
x 1
1
4 2
-

8.
z 3
1
5 1
+
-
9.
x 2
3
4 $
-

10.
x 2
1
6 1
-
-

11.
x 4
5
9 #
+
-
12.
x 3 4
2
5 2
-

13.
a 2 5
3
2 1
+
-

14.
x
x
2 1
5 2
-

15.
y
y
1
2 1
+

16.
x
x
4
3 1
3
1
$
-
+

17.
p
p
2 9
8 7
5 2
-
+

18.
x
x
5 1
2
4
3
#
+
-

19.
t
t
3 8
7 4
1 $
-
+
-
20.
m
m
2
5 4
4
1
1
+

21.
x
x 5
4
2
1
-
-
22.
n
n 8
6
2
$
+

23.
x
x 15
2
2
2
-

24.
m
m
1
8
4
2
#
+
-

25.
x
x
3
4
$
-

26.
x
x
3 2
2
1
2
#
-
-
27.
x
x
2
3
#
-

28.
n
n
n
3
5
2
-
+

29.
x
x
7 4
3
2
2
1
+
-
30.
( )
x
x x
1
2 4
7 #
-
-

3.10 Exercises
Solve
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
In Chapter 10 you will look at how to use the number plane to solve
these quadratic inequations. Here are some examples of solving quadratic
inequations using the number line.
Quadratic Inequations
Solving quadratic inequations is similar to solving quadratic equations, but
you need to do this in two stages. The rst is to solve the equation and then
the second step is to look at either the number line or the number plane for
the inequality.
To solve a quadratic inequation:
Factorise and solve the quadratic equation 1.
Test values in the inequality 2.
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. x x 6 0
2
2 + -
Solution
( ) ( )
x x
x x
x
6 0
2 3 0
2 3
First solve
or
2
`
+ - =
- + =
= -

Now look at the number line.
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Choose a number between 3 - and 2, say . x 0 =
Substitute x 0 = into the inequation.

x x 6 0
0 0 6 0
6 0 (false)
2
2
2
2
2
+ -
+ -
-

So the solution is not between 3 - and 2.
` the solution lies either side of 3 - and 2.
Check by choosing a number on either side of the two numbers.
Choose a number on the RHS of 2, say . x 3 =
Be careful: x x 6 0
2
2 + -
does not mean x 2 0 2 -
and x 3 0. 2 +
CONTINUED

6 0
3 3 6 0
(true)
2
2
2
+ -

So the solution is on the RHS of 2.
Choose a number on the LHS of , 3 - say x 4 = -
Substitute x 4 = - into the inequation

( ) ( ) 4 4 6 0
6 0 (true)
2
2
2
- + - -

So the solution is on the LHS of . 3 -
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
This gives the solution , . x x 3 2 1 2 -
2. x 9 0
2
$ -
Solution
( ) ( )
x
x x
x
9 0
3 3 0
3
First solve
2
` !
- =
- + =
=

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Choose a number between 3 - and 3, say . x 0 =

x 9 0
9 0 0
9 0 (true)
2
2
$
$
$
-
-
So the solution is between 3 - and 3, that is x 3 3 # # - .
On the number line:
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Check numbers on the
RHS and LHS to verify this.
Earlier in the chapter you learned how to solve inequations with the
unknown in the denominator. Some people like to solve these using quadratic
inequations. Here are some examples of how to do this.
EXAMPLES
Solve
1.
x
1
3 1
Solution
x 0 !
First, multiply both sides by . x
2

x
x x
x x
1
3
3
0 3
2
2
1
1
1 -

( )
x x
x x
x
3 0
3 1 0
0
3
1
Now, solve
or
2
- =
- =
=

By checking on each side of 0 and
3
,
1
for , x x 0 3
2
1 - the solution is

3
0, . x x 1 2
1

2.
x 5
3
2 $
+

Solution
x 5 ! -
First, multiply both sides by ( ) . x 5
2
+

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) [ ( ) ]
( ) ( )
x
x x
x x
x x
x x
5
3
2
3 5 2 5
0 2 5 3 5
0 5 2 5 3
0 5 2 7
2
2
$
$
$
$
$
+
+ +
+ - +
+ + -
+ +

( ) ( ) x x
x x
x x
5 2 7 0
5 0 2 7 0
5 3
Now, solve
or
2
`
+ + =
+ = + =
= - = -
1

Check by choosing a number on each side of 5 - and 3
2
1
- for
( ) ( ) x x 0 5 2 7 $ + + that the solution is . x 5 3
2
1
1 # - -
( ) x 5
2
+ is positive, so the
inequality sign does not
change.
Check this factorisation
carefully.
x cannot be -5 as this would
give 0 in the denominator.
x
2
is positive, so the inequality
sign does not change.
-2 -1 1 2 0 1
3
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2
1
2
-3
Solve
1. x x 3 0
2
1 +
2. y y 4 0
2
1 -
3. n n 0
2
$ -
4. x 4 0
2
$ -
5. n 1 0
2
1 -
6. n n 2 15 0
2
# + -
7. c c 2 0
2
2 - -
8. x x 6 8 0
2
# + +
9. x x 9 20 0
2
1 - +
10. b b 4 10 4 0
2
$ + +
11. a a 1 2 3 0
2
1 - -
12. y y 2 6 0
2
2 - -
13. x x 3 5 2 0
2
$ - +
14. b b 6 13 5 0
2
1 - -
15. x x 6 11 3 0
2
# + +
16. y y 12
2
# +
17. x 16
2
2
18. a 1
2
#
19. x x 6
2
1 +
20. x x 2 3
2
$ +
21. x x 2
2
1
22. a a 2 5 3 0
2
# - +
23. y y 5 6 8
2
$ +
24. m m 6 15
2
2 -
25. x x 3 7 4
2
# -
26.
x
1
2 2
27.
x
3
6 #
28.
y 1
1
5 1
+

29.
n 3
1
2 $
-

30.
x 5
3
1 $
+
-
31.
x 5 2
1
7 1
-

32.
x 5
4
5 $
-
-
33.
x
x
1
5 #
+

34.
x
x
2
2 1
1 2
-
+

35.
x
x
5 3
2 3
6 $
+
-

3.11 Exercises
Simultaneous Equations
Two equations, each with two unknown pronumerals, can be solved together
to nd one solution that satises both equations.
There are different ways of solving simultaneous equations. The
elimination method adds or subtracts the equations. The substitution
method substitutes one equation into the other.
EXAMPLES
Solve simultaneously
1. a b 3 2 5 + = and a b 2 6 - = -
Solution

( )
( )
: ( )
( ): ( )
a b
a b
a b
a b
a
a
3 2 5 1
2 6 2
2 2 4 2 12 3
1 3 3 2 5 1
7 7
1
#
+ =
- = -
- = -
+ + =
= -
= -
]
]
g
g

( ) a 1 1 Substitute in = -

( ) b
b
b
b
3 1 2 5
3 2 5
2 8
4
- + =
- + =
=
=
, a b 1 4 solution is ` = - =
2. x y 5 3 19 - = and x y 2 4 16 - =
Solution

( )
( )
( ) : ( )
( ) : ( )
( ) ( ):
x y
x y
x y
x y
x
x
5 3 19 1
2 4 16 2
1 4 20 12 76 3
2 3 6 12 48 4
3 4 14 28
2
#
#
- =
- =
- =
- =
- =
=

( ) x 2 2 Substitute in =

( ) y
y
y
y
2 2 4 16
4 4 16
4 12
3
- =
- =
- =
= -
Linear equations
These equations can be solved by either method. Many students prefer the
elimination method.
1. a b a b 2 4 and - = - + =
2. x y x y 5 2 12 3 2 4 and + = - =
3. p q p q 4 3 11 5 3 7 and - = + =
4. y x y x 3 1 2 5 and = - = +
5. x y x y 2 3 14 3 4 and + = - + = -
6. t v t v 7 22 4 13 and + = + =
7. x y 4 5 2 0 and + + =
x y 4 10 0 + + =
8. x y x y 2 4 28 2 3 11 and - = - = -
9. x y x y 5 19 2 5 14 and - = + = -
10. m n m n 5 4 22 5 13 and + = - = -
11. w w w w 4 3 11 3 2 and
1 2 1 2
+ = + =
12. a b a b 3 4 16 2 3 12 and - = - + =
13. p q 5 2 18 0 and + + =
p q 2 3 11 0 - + =
14. x x x x 7 3 4 3 5 2 and
1 2 1 2
+ = + = -
15. x y x y 9 2 1 7 4 9 and - = - - =
16. s t 5 3 13 0 and - - =
s t 3 7 13 0 - - =
17. a b a b 3 2 6 3 2 and - = - - = -
18. k h 3 2 14 and - = -
k h 2 5 13 - = -
19. v v 2 5 16 0 and
1 2
+ - =
v v 7 2 6 0
1 2
+ + =
20. . . . x y 1 5 3 4 7 8 and + =
. . . x y 2 1 1 7 1 8 - =
3.12 Exercises
PROBLEM
A group of 39 people went to see a play. There were both adults and
children in the group. The total cost of the tickets was $939, with
children paying $17 each and adults paying $29 each. How many in
the group were adults and how many were children? (Hint: let x be the
number of adults and y the number of children.)
Non-linear equations
In questions involving non-linear equations there may be more than one set
of solutions. In some of these, the elimination method cannot be used. Here
are some examples using the substitution method.
EXAMPLES
1. xy 6 = and x y 5 + =
Solution

( )
( )
( ): ( )
xy
x y
y x
6 1
5 2
2 5 3 From
=
+ =
= -

Substitute (3) in (1)

( )
( ) ( )
x x
x x
x x
x x
x x
x x
5 6
5 6
0 5 6
0 2 3
2 0 3 0
2 3
or
or
2
2
`
- =
- =
= - +
= - -
- = - =
= =

Substitute x 2 = in (3)
y 5 2 3 = - =
Substitute x 3 = in (3)
y 5 3 2 = - =
` solutions are , x y 2 3 = = and , x y 3 2 = =
2. x y 16
2 2
+ = and x y 3 4 20 0 - - =
Solution

( )
( )
:
( )
x y
x y
x y
x
y
16 1
3 4 20 0 2
2 3 20 4
4
3 20
3
From
2 2
+ =
- - =
- =
-
=
] g
Substitute (3) into (1)

( )
.
x
x
x
x x
x x x
x x
x
x
x
x
4
3 20
16
16
9 120 400
16
16 9 120 400 256
25 120 144 0
5 12 0
5 12 0
5 12
2 4
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
`
+
-
=
+
- +
=
+ - + =
- + =
- =
- =
=
=
c
d
m
n

.
( . )
.
. , . .
x
y
x y
2 4 3
4
3 2 4 20
3 2
2 4 3 2
Substitute into
So the solution is
=
=
-
= -
= = -
] g
Equations with 3 unknown variables
Three equations can be solved simultaneously to nd 3 unknown
pronumerals.
Solve the simultaneous equations.
1. y x
2
= and y x =
2. y x
2
= and x y 2 0 + =
3. x y 9
2 2
+ = and x y 3 + =
4. x y 7 - = and xy 12 = -
5. y x x 4
2
= + and x y 2 1 0 - - =
6. y x
2
= and x y 6 9 0 - - =
7. x t
2
= and x t 2 0 + - =
8. m n 16
2 2
+ = and m n 4 0 + + =
9. xy 2 = and y x 2 =
10. y x
3
= and y x
2
=
11. y x 1 = - and y x 3
2
= -
12. y x 1
2
= + and y x 1
2
= -
13. y x x 3 7
2
= - + and y x 2 3 = +
14. xy 1 = and x y 4 3 0 - + =
15. h t
2
= and h t 1
2
= + ] g
16. x y 2 + = and x xy y 2 8
2 2
+ - =
17. y x
3
= and y x x 6
2
= +
18. | | y x = and y x
2
=
19. y x x 7 6
2
= - + and
x y 24 4 23 0 + - =
20. x y 1
2 2
+ = and x y 5 12 13 0 + + =
3.13 Exercises
Four unknowns need 4
equations, and so on.
EXAMPLE
Solve simultaneously , a b c a b c 7 2 4 - + = + - = - and . a b c 3 3 - - =
Solution
b 2
b
b
b
b
b
=
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ):
( )
( ) ( ):
( )
( ) ( ):
4 8
a c
a b c
a c
a
a b c
a c
a
or a
a
a
7 1
2 4 2
3 3 3
1 2 7
2 3 4
1 3 7
3
4 10
2 5 5
4 5 2
2
- + =
+ - = -
- - =
+ =
+
+ - + =
- -
- =
- =
+ +
=
=
b
a
b a c
3
- +
=
=
a b c 2
3
+ - 4 = -

Substitute a 2 = in (4)

( ) b
b
b
2 2 3
4 3
1
+ =
+ =
= -

Substitute a 2 = and b 1 = - in (1)

( ) c
c
c
c
2 1 7
2 1 7
3 7
4
- - + =
+ + =
+ =
=

` solution is , , a b c 2 1 4 = = - =
Solve the simultaneous equations.
1. , x x y 2 2 4 = - - = and
x y z 6 0 - + =
2. , a a b 2 2 3 1 = - - = - and
a b c 5 9 - + =
3. , a b c a b 2 1 2 + + = + = -
and c 7 =
4. , a b c a b c 0 4 + + = - + = - and
a b c 2 3 1 - - = -
5. , x y z x y z 7 2 1 + - = + + = and
x y z 3 2 19 + - =
6. , x y z x y z 1 2 9 - - = + - = -
and x y z 2 3 2 7 - - =
7. , p q r 2 5 25 + - =
p q r 2 2 24 - - = - and
p q r 3 5 4 - + =
8. , x y z 2 3 9 - + =
x y z 3 2 2 + - = - and
x y z 3 5 14 - + =
9. , h j k 3 3 + - = -
h j k 2 3 + + = - and
h j k 5 3 2 13 - - = -
10. , a b c 2 7 3 7 - + =
a b c 3 2 4 + + = - and
a b c 4 5 9 + - =
3.14 Exercises
You will solve
3 simultaneous
equations in later
topics (for example,
in Chapter 10).
Test Yourself 3
1. Solve
(a) b 8 3 22 = -
(b)
a a
4 3
2
9 -
+
=
(c) ( ) x x 4 3 1 11 3 + = -
(d)
x 3
4
3 #
+
-

(e) p p 3 1 9 # + +
2. The compound interest formula is
. A P
r
1
100
n
= + c m Find correct to 2
decimal places.
(a) A when , P r 1000 6 = = and n 4 =
(b) P when , . A r 12 450 5 5 = = and n 7 =
3. Complete the square on
(a) x x 8
2
-
(b) k k 4
2
+
4. Solve these simultaneous equations.
(a) x y 7 0 - + = and x y 3 4 26 0 - + =
(b) xy 4 = and x y 2 7 0 - - =
5. Solve
(a) 3 81
x 2
=
+

(b) 16 2
y
=
6. Solve
(a) b 3 1 5 - =
(b) g g 5 3 3 1 - = +
(c) x 2 7 1 $ -
7. The area of a trapezium is given by

2
( ) A h a b = +
1
. Find
(a) A when , h a 6 5 = = and b 7 =
(b) b when , A h 40 5 = = and . a 4 =
8. Solve x x 2 3 1 0
2
- + = by
factorisation (a)
quadratic formula. (b)
9. Solve , y 2 3 1 10 1 # - + and plot your
solution on a number line.
10. Solve correct to 3 signifcant fgures
(a) x x 7 2 0
2
+ + =
(b) y y 2 9 0
2
- - =
(c) n n 3 2 4 0
2
+ - =
11. The surface area of a sphere is given by
. A r 4
2
r = Evaluate to 1 decimal place
(a) A when . r 7 8 =
(b) r when . A 102 9 =
12. Solve .
x
7
3
4
3
9 2
-
-
13. Solve . x x 11 18 0
2
2 - +
14. Solve the simultaneous equations
x y 16
2 2
+ = and . x y 3 4 20 0 + - =
15. The volume of a sphere is . V r
3
4
3
r =
Evaluate to 2 signifcant fgures
(a) V when r 8 =
(b) r when V 250 =
16. Which of the following equations has
(i) 2 solutions (ii) 1 solution
(iii) no solutions?
(a) x x 6 9 0
2
- + =
(b) x 2 3 7 - =
(c) x x 2 7 - = -
(d) x x 4 0
2
- + =
(e) x x 2 1 2 + = -
17. Solve simultaneously
, , . a b a b c a b c 5 2 4 5 + = + + = - - =
18. Solve , n 3 5 5 2 + and plot the solution
on a number line.
19. Solve , .
x
x
x
1
3 4
0 1 !
+
= - ^ h
20. Solve . 9 27
x x 2 1
=
+

21. Solve
(a) y y 2 3 5 5 2 - + ^ h
(b) n n 3 0
2
# +
(c) 3 27
x 2 1
=
-

(d) x 5 1 39
3
- =
(e) x 5 4 11 - =
(f) t 2 1 3 $ +
(g) x x 2 8 0
2
# + -
(h) 8 4
x x 1
=
+

(i) y 4 0
2
2 -
(j) x 1 0
2
# -
(k) 27 9
x 2 1
=
-

(l) b 4 3 5 # -
(m) x x 3 2 2 3 + = -
(n) t t 4 5 2 - = +
(o) x x 2 3
2
1 +
(p) m m 6
2
$ +
(q)
t
t 2 3
5 1
-

(r)
y
y
1
1
2 2
-
+

(s)
n
n
2 4
3 $
-

(t)
x
x
2 1
3 2
1 #
+
-
-
1. Find the value of y if . a
a
1
y 3 5
2
=
-

2. Solve . x a
2 2
2
3. The solutions of x x 6 3 0
2
- - = are in
the form . a b 3 + Find the values of
a and b .
4. Solve
x x 1
2
1
1
1
-
-
+
= correct to 3
signicant gures. ( ) x 1 ! !
5. Solve .
y
y 6
1
2
#
-

6. Factorise . x x x 9 8 72
5 3 2
- - + Hence
solve . x x x 9 8 72 0
5 3 2
- - + =
7. Solve simultaneous equations y x x
3 2
= +
and . y x 1 = +
8. Find the value of b if x x b 8
2 2
- +
is a perfect square. Hence solve
x x 8 1 0
2
- - = by completing the
square.
9. Considering the denition of absolute
value, solve ,
x
x
x
3
3
-
-
= where . x 3 !
10. Solve . t t 2 3 1 5 1 + + -
11. Solve . x x 4 1 28 # - - ] ] g g
12. Solve
2
. x
8
1
=
3

13. The volume of a sphere is given by
. V r
3
4
3
r = Find the value of r when
. V 51 8 = (correct to three signicant
gures).
14. Solve . x x x 3 4 2 - + + = -
15. Find the solutions of x ax b 2 0
2
- - = by
completing the square.
16. Solve .
y
y
3 2
6
3
2
#
-
-
17. Given , A P
r
1
100
n
= + c m nd P
correct to 2 decimal places when
. , . A r 3281 69 1 27 = = and . n 30 =
18. Solve ( ) x x 3 8 2 1
2
= - and write the
solution in the simplest surd form.
19. Solve .
x
x
x
4
5 3
2 2
+
+

20. Solve . y y 3 1 2 3 5 2 - + +
TERMINOLOGY
4
Geometry 1
Altitude: Height. Any line segment from a vertex to the
opposite side of a polygon that is perpendicular to that side
Congruent triangles: Identical triangles that are the same
shape and size. Corresponding sides and angles are
equal. The symbol is /
Interval: Part of a line including the endpoints
Median: A line segment that joins a vertex to the
opposite side of a triangle that bisects that side
Perpendicular: A line that is at right angles to another
line. The symbol is =
Polygon: General term for a many sided plane fgure. A
closed plane (two dimensional) fgure with straight sides
Quadrilateral: A four-sided closed fgure such as a square,
rectangle, trapezium etc.
Similar triangles: Triangles that are the same shape but
different sizes. The symbol is y z
Vertex: The point where three planes meet. The corner of
a fgure
Vertically opposite angles: Angles that are formed
opposite each other when two lines intersect
141 Chapter 4 Geometry 1
INTRODUCTION
GEOMETRY IS USED IN many areas, including surveying, building and graphics.
These elds all require a knowledge of angles, parallel lines and so on, and
how to measure them. In this chapter, you will study angles, parallel lines,
triangles, types of quadrilaterals and general polygons.
Many exercises in this chapter on geometry need you to prove something
or give reasons for your answers. The solutions to geometry proofs only give
one method , but other methods are also acceptable .
DID YOU KNOW?
Geometry means measurement of the earth and comes from Greek. Geometry was used in ancient
civilisations such as Babylonia. However, it was the Greeks who formalised the study of geometry,
in the period between 500 BC and AD 300.
Notation
In order to show reasons for exercises, you must know how to name gures
correctly.
B
The point is called B .
The interval (part of a line) is called AB or BA .
If AB and CD are parallel lines, we write . AB CD <
This angle is named BAC + or . CAB + It can sometimes be named . A +
Angles can also be written as BAC
^
or BAC.
This triangle is named . ABC 3
This quadrilateral is called ABCD .
Line AB is produced to C .
DB bisects . ABC +
AM is a median of . ABC D
AP is an altitude of . ABC D
Types of Angles
Acute angle
0 90 x c c c 1 1
To name a quadrilateral,
go around it: for example,
BCDA is correct, but ACBD
is not.
Producing a line is the same
as extending it.
ABD + and DBC + are
equal.
Right angle
A right angle is . 90c
Complementary angles are angles whose sum is . 90c
Obtuse angle
x 90 180 c c c 1 1
Straight angle

A straight angle is . 180c
Supplementary angles are angles whose sum is . 180c
Refex angle

x 180 360 c c c 1 1
Angle of revolution
An angle of revolution is . 360c
Vertically opposite angles
AEC + and DEB + are called vertically opposite angles . AED + and CEB + are
also vertically opposite angles.
Proof

( )
( ) ( )
( )

AEC x
AED x CED
DEB x AEB
x
CEB x CED
AEC DEB AED CEB
180 180
180 180 180
180 180
Let
Then straight angle,
Now straight angle,
Also straight angle,
and `
c
c c c
c c c c
c
c c c
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + + +
=
= -
= - -
=
= -
= =

EXAMPLES
Find the values of all pronumerals, giving reasons.
1.
Solution

( ) x ABC
x
x
154 180 180
154 180
26
154 154
is a straight angle,
`
c + + =
+ =
=
- -
2.
Solution

( ) x
x
x
x
x
x
2 142 90 360 360
2 232 360
2 232 360
2 128
2 128
64
232 232
2 2
angle of revolution, c + + =
+ =
+ =
=
=
=
- -

Vertically opposite angles are equal.
That is, AEC DEB + + = and . AED CEB + + =
3.
Solution

( ) y y
y
y
y
y
y
2 30 90 90
3 30 90
3 30 90
3 60
3
60
20
30 30
3 3
right angle, c + + =
+ =
+ =
=
=
=
- -

4.
Solution

(
( )
(
x WZX YZV
x
x
y XZY
w WZY XZV
50 165
50 165
115
180 165 180
15
15
50 50
and vertically opposite)
straight angle,
and vertically opposite)
c
+ +
+
+ +
+ =
+ =
=
= -
=
=
- -

5.
CONTINUED
Solution

( )
( )
( )
( )
a
b
b
b
b
d
c
90
53 90 180 180
143 180
143 180
37
37
53
143 143
vertically opposite angles
straight angle,
similarly
c
=
+ + =
+ =
+ =
=
=
=
- -
6. Find the supplement of . 57 12 c l
Solution
Supplementary angles add up to . 180c
So the supplement of 57 12 c l is
. 180 57 12 1 2 48 2 c c c - = l l
7. Prove that AB and CD are straight lines.
Solution

x x x x
x
x
x
x
6 10 30 5 30 2 10 360
14 80 360
14 280
14 280
20
80 80
14 14
angle of revolution + + + + + + + =
+ =
=
=
=
- -
^ h

( )
( )
AEC
DEB
20 30
50
2 20 10
50
#
c
c
c
c
+
+
= +
=
= +
=

These are equal vertically opposite angles .
` AB and CD are straight lines
C
D
A
B
E
(2x 22 +10)
c
(6x +10)
c
(5x +30)
c
(x +30)
c
4.1 Exercises
1. Find values of all pronumerals,
giving reasons.
y
c
133
c
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
2. Find the supplement of
(a) 59c
(b) 107 31 c l
(c) 45 12 c l
3. Find the complement of
(a) 48c
(b) 34 23 c l
(c) 16 57 c l
4. Find the (i) complement and
(ii) supplement of
(a) 43c
81c (b)
27c (c)
(d) 55c
(e) 38c
(f) 74 53 c l
(g) 42 24 c l
(h) 17 39 c l
(i) 63 49 c l
(j) 51 9 c l
5. (a) Evaluate x .
Find the complement of (b) x .
Find the supplement of (c) x.
(2x +30)
c
142
c
6. Find the values of all
pronumerals, giving reasons for
each step of your working.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

7.
Prove that AC and DE are straight
lines.
8.
Prove that CD bisects . AFE +
9. Prove that AC is a straight line.

A
B
C
D
(110 -3x)
c
(3x +70)
c
10. Show that + AED is a right angle.
A
B
C
D E
(50 -8y)
c
(5y -20)
c
(3y +60)
c
Parallel Lines
When a transversal cuts two lines, it forms pairs of angles. When the two
lines are parallel, these pairs of angles have special properties.
Alternate angles

Alternate angles form
a Z shape. Can you
fnd another set of
alternate angles?
Corresponding angles form
an F shape. There are 4 pairs
of corresponding angles. Can
you fnd them?
If the lines are parallel, then alternate angles are equal.
Corresponding angles
If the lines are parallel, then corresponding angles are equal.
Cointerior angles
Cointerior angles form
a U shape. Can you fnd
another pair?
If AEF EFD, + + =
then AB CD. <
If BEF DFG, + + =
then AB CD. <
If BEF DFE 180 , c + + + =
then AB CD. <
If the lines are parallel, cointerior angles are supplementary (i.e. their sum
is 180c ).
Tests for parallel lines
If alternate angles are equal, then the lines are parallel.
If corresponding angles are equal, then the lines are parallel.
If cointerior angles are supplementary, then the lines are parallel.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of y , giving reasons for each step of your working.
Solution

( )
55 ( , )
AGF FGH
y AGF CFE AB CD
180 125
55
is a straight angle
corresponding angles, `
c c
c
c
+ +
+ + <
= -
=
=

2. Prove . EF GH <
Solution

( ) CBF ABC
CBF HCD
180 120
60
60
is a straight angle
`
c c
c
c
+ +
+ +
= -
=
= =

But CBF + and HCD + are corresponding angles
EF GH ` <
Can you prove this
in a different way?
If 2 lines are both parallel to a third line, then the 3 lines are parallel to
each other. That is, if AB CD < and , EF CD < then . AB EF <
1. Find values of all pronumerals.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
2. Prove . AB CD <
(a)
(b)
A
B C
D
E
104
c
76
c
(c)
4.2 Exercises
Think about the reasons for
each step of your calculations.
Types of Triangles
Names of triangles
A scalene triangle has no two sides or angles equal.
A right (or right-angled) triangle contains a right angle.
The side opposite the right angle (the longest side) is called the
hypotenuse.
An isosceles triangle has two equal sides.
A
B
C
D
E
F
52
c
128
c
(d) A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
138
c
115
c
23
c
(e)
The angles (called the base angles) opposite the equal sides in an
isosceles triangle are equal.
An equilateral triangle has three equal sides and angles.
All the angles are acute in an acute-angled triangle.
An obtuse-angled triangle contains an obtuse angle.
Angle sum of a triangle
The sum of the interior angles in any triangle is 180c ,
that is, a b c 180 + + =
Proof
, YXZ a XYZ b YZX c Let and c c c + + + = = =

( , , )
( )
( )
AB YZ
BXZ c BXZ XZY AB YZ
AXY b
YXZ AXY BXZ AXB
a b c
180
180
Draw line
Then alternate angles
similarly
is a straight angle
`
c
c
c
+ + +
+
+ + + +
<
< =
=
+ + =
+ + =

Exterior angle of a triangle
Class Investigation
Could you prove the base angles in an isosceles triangle are equal? 1.
Can there be more than one obtuse angle in a triangle? 2.
Could you prove that each angle in an equilateral triangle is 3. ? 60c
Can a right-angled triangle be an obtuse-angled triangle? 4.
Can you fnd an isosceles triangle with a right angle in it? 5.
The exterior angle in any triangle is equal to the sum of the two opposite
interior angles. That is,
x y z + =
Proof

,

ABC x BAC y ACD z
CE AB
Let and
Draw line
c c c + + +
<
= = =

( , , )
( , , )
z ACE ECD
ECD x ECD ABC AB CE
ACE y ACE BAC AB CE
z x y
corresponding angles
alternate angles
`
c
c
c
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
<
<
= +
=
=
= +

EXAMPLES
Find the values of all pronumerals, giving reasons for each step.
1.
CONTINUED
Solution

( ) x
x
x
x
53 82 180 180
135 180
135 180
45
135 135
angle sum of c D + + =
+ =
+ =
=
- -

2.
Solution
( ) A C x base angles of isosceles + + D = =

( ) x x
x
x
x
x
x
48 180 180
2 48 180
2 48 180
2 132
2 132
66
48 48
2 2
angle sum in a c D + + =
+ =
+ =
=
=
=
- -

3.
Solution

) y
y
y
35 141
35 141
106
35 35
(exterior angle of
`
D + =
+ =
=
- -
This example can be done using the interior sum of angles.

( )
( )
BCA BCD
y
y
y
y
180 141 180
39
39 35 180 180
74 180
74 180
106
74 74
is a straight angle
angle sum of
`
c c c
c
c
+ +
D
= -
=
+ + =
+ =
+ =
=
- -

pronumerals.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
2. Show that each angle in an
equilateral triangle is . 60c
3. Find ACB + in terms of x .
4.3 Exercises
Think of the reasons
for each step of your
calculations.
4. Prove . AB ED <
5. Show ABC D is isosceles.
6. Line CE bisects . BCD + Find the
value of y , giving reasons.
7. Evaluate all pronumerals, giving
reasons for your working.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
8. Prove IJL D is equilateral and
JKL D is isosceles.
9. In triangle BCD below, . BC BD =
Prove AB ED .
A
B
C
D
E
88
c
46
c
10. Prove that . MN QP
P
N
M
O
Q
32
c
75
c
73
c
Congruent Triangles
Two triangles are congruent if they are the same shape and size. All pairs of
corresponding sides and angles are equal.
For example:
We write . ABC XYZ / D D
Tests
To prove that two triangles are congruent, we only need to prove that certain
combinations of sides or angles are equal.
Two triangles are congruent if
SSS : all three pairs of corresponding sides are equal
SAS : two pairs of corresponding sides and their included angles are
equal
AAS : two pairs of angles and one pair of corresponding sides are equal
RHS : both have a right angle, their hypotenuses are equal and one
other pair of corresponding sides are equal
EXAMPLES
1. Prove that OTS OQP / D D where O is the centre of the circle.
CONTINUED
The included angle
is the angle between
the 2 sides.
Solution

:
:
:
,
S
A
S
OS OQ
TOS QOP
OT OP
OTS OQP
(equal radii)
(vertically opposite angles)
(equal radii)
by SAS `
+ +
/ D D
=
=
=

2. Which two triangles are congruent?
Solution
To fnd corresponding sides, look at each side in relation to the angles.
For example, one set of corresponding sides is AB , DF , GH and JL .
ABC JKL A (by S S) / D D
3. Show that triangles ABC and DEC are congruent. Hence prove that
. AB ED =
Solution

: ( )
: ( )
: ( )
( )
A
A
S
BAC CDE AB ED
ABC CED
AC CD
ABC DEC
AB ED
alternate angles,
similarly
given
by AAS,
corresponding sides in congruent s
`
`
+ +
+ +
<
/ D D
D
=
=
=
=

1. Are these triangles congruent?
If they are, prove that they are
congruent.
(a)

(b)
X
Z
Y
B
C
A
4
.7
m
2
.
3

m
2
.3
m
4
.
7

m
110
c 1
1
0
c
(c)
(d)

(e)

(e)
2. Prove that these triangles are
congruent.
(a)
(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)
4.4 Exercises
3. Prove that
(a) ABD is congruent to ACD
(b) AB bisects BC , given ABC D is
isosceles with . AB AC =
4. Prove that triangles ABD and CDB
are congruent. Hence prove that
. AD BC =
5. In the circle below, O is the centre
of the circle.
O
A
B
D
C
Prove that (a) OAB T and OCD T
are congruent.
Show that (b) . AB CD =
6. In the kite ABCD, AB AD = and
. BC DC =
A
B
D
C
Prove that (a) ABC T and ADC T
are congruent.
Show that (b) . ABC ADC + + =
7. The centre of a circle is O and AC
is perpendicular to OB .
O
A
B
C
Show that (a) OAB T and OBC T
are congruent.
Prove that (b) . ABC 90c + =
8. ABCF is a trapezium with
AF BC = and . FE CD = AE and BD
are perpendicular to FC.
D
A B
C F
E
Show that (a) AFE T and BCD T
are congruent.
Prove that (b) . AFE BCD + + =
9. The circle below has centre O and
OB bisects chord AC .
O
A
B
C
Prove that (a) OAB T is congruent
to . OBC T
Prove that (b) OB is perpendicular
to AC.
10. ABCD is a rectangle as shown
below.
D
A
B
C
Prove that (a) ADC T is
congruent to BCD T .
Show that diagonals (b) AC and
BD are equal .
Investigation
The triangle is used in many
structures, for example trestle
tables, stepladders and roofs.
Find out how many different ways
the triangle is used in the building
industry. Visit a building site, or
interview a carpenter. Write a
report on what you fnd.
Similar Triangles
Triangles, for example ABC and XYZ , are similar if they are the same shape but
different sizes .
As in the example, all three pairs of corresponding angles are equal.
All three pairs of corresponding sides are in proportion (in the same ratio).
Application
Similar fgures are used in many areas, including maps, scale drawings, models
and enlargements.
EXAMPLE
1. Find the values of x and y in similar triangles CBA and XYZ .
Solution
First check which sides correspond to one another (by looking at their
relationships to the angles).
YZ and BA , XZ and CA , and XY and CB are corresponding sides.

. .
.
. . .
CA
XZ
CB
XY
y
y
4 9 3 6
5 4
3 6 4 9 5 4
`
#
=
=
=

We write: XYZ ; D ABC < D
XYZ D is three times larger than . ABC D

AB
XY
AC
XZ
BC
YZ
AB
XY
AC
XZ
BC
YZ
2
6
3
4
12
3
5
15
3
`
= =
= =
= =
= =

This shows that all 3 pairs
of sides are in proportion.
.
. .
.
. .
.
. . .
.
. .
.
y
BA
YZ
CB
XY
x
x
x
3 6
4 9 5 4
7 35
2 3 3 6
5 4
3 6 2 3 5 4
3 6
2 3 5 4
3 45
#
#
#
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Two triangles are similar if:
three pairs of corresponding angles are equal
three pairs of corresponding sides are in proportion
two pairs of sides are in proportion and their included angles
are equal
If 2 pairs of angles are
equal then the third
pair must also be equal.
EXAMPLES
1.
Prove that triangles (a) ABC and ADE are similar.
Hence fnd the value of (b) y , to 1 decimal place.
Solution
(a) A + is common

ADE ; D
( )
( )
( )
ABC ADE BC DE
ACB AED
ABC
corresponding angles,
similarly
3 pairs of angles equal `
+ +
+ +
<
< D
=
=
(b)
CONTINUED
Tests
There are three tests for similar triangles.

. .
.
. .
. . .
.
. .
.
.
AE
BC
DE
AC
AE
y
y
y
2 4 1 9
4 3
3 7 2 4
2 4 3 7 4 3
2 4
3 7 4 3
6 6
4 3
#
#
= +
=
=
=
=
=
=

2. Prove . WVZ D ; XYZ < D
Solution

( )
ZV
XZ
ZW
YZ
ZV
XZ
ZW
YZ
XZY WZV
35
15
7
3
14
6
7
3
`
+ +
= =
= =
=
=

` since two pairs of sides are in proportion and their included angles are
equal the triangles are similar
Ratio of intercepts
The following result comes from similar triangles.
When two (or more) transversals cut a series of parallel lines, the
ratios of their intercepts are equal.

: : AB BC DE EF
BC
AB
EF
DE
That is,
or
=
=

Proof
Draw DG and EH parallel to AC .

`
EHF D ;
`
`
( )
( )
( , )
( , )
( )

( )
DG AB
EH BC
BC
AB
EH
DG
GDE HEF DG EH
DEG EFH BE CF
DGE EHF
DGE
EH
DG
EF
DE
BC
AB
EF
DE
1
2
Then opposite sides of a parallelogram
Also (similarly)
corresponding s
corresponding s
angle sum of s
So
From (1) and (2):
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
<
<
<
D
D
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of x , to 3 signifcant fgures.
Solution

. .
.
. . .
.
. .
.
x
x
x
8 9 9 3
1 5
9 3 8 9 1 5
9 3
8 9 1 5
1 44
ratios of intercepts on parallel lines
#
#
=
=
=
=
^ h

CONTINUED
2. Evaluate x and y , to 1 decimal place.
Solution
Use either similar triangles or ratios of intercepts to fnd x . You must use
similar triangles to fnd y .

. .
.
.
. .
.
. .
. .
.
. .
.
x
x
y
y
5 8 3 4
2 7
3 4
2 7 5 8
4 6
7 1 3 4
2 7 3 4
3 4
6 1 7 1
12 7
#
#
=
=
=
=
+
=
=

1. Find the value of all pronumerals,
to 1 decimal place where
appropriate.
(a)
(b)

(c)

(d)
(e)
4.5 Exercise s
These ratios come
from intercepts on
parallel lines.
These ratios come from
similar triangles.
Why?
(f)
14.3
a
4
6
c
1
9
c
1
1
5
c
4
6
c
x
c
9.1
25.7
8.9
y
(g)
2. Evaluate a and b to 2 decimal
places.
3. Show that ABC D and CDE D are
similar.
4. EF bisects . GFD + Show that
DEF D and FGE D are similar.
5. Show that ABC D and DEF D are
similar. Hence fnd the value of y .
4.2
4.9
6.86
1.3
5.88
1.82
A
C
B
D
E F
y
c
87
c
52
c
6. The diagram shows two
concentric circles with centre O .
Prove that (a) D . OCD ; OAB < D
If radius (b) . OC 5 9 cm = and
radius . OB 8 3 cm, = and the
length of . CD 3 7 cm, = fnd the
length of AB , correct to 2 decimal
places.
7. (a) Prove that . ADE D ; ABC < D
Find the values of (b) x and y ,
correct to 2 decimal places.
8. ABCD is a parallelogram, with
CD produced to E . Prove that
. CEB D ; ABF < D

9. Show that . ABC ; D AED < D Find
the value of m .

10. Prove that ABC D and ACD D are
similar. Hence evaluate x and y .
pronumerals, to 1 decimal place.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
12. Show that
(a)
BC
AB
FG
AF
=
(b)
AC
AB
AG
AF
=
(c)
CE
BD
EG
DF
=

13. Evaluate a and b correct to
1 decimal place.
14. Find the value of y to 2
signifcant fgures.
15. Evaluate x and y correct to
2 decimal places.
Pythagoras Theorem
DID YOU KNOW?
The triangle with sides in the
proportion 3:4:5 was known to be
right angled as far back as ancient
Egyptian times. Egyptian surveyors
used to measure right angles by
stretching out a rope with knots tied
in it at regular intervals.
They used the rope for forming
right angles while building and
dividing felds into rectangular plots.
It was Pythagoras (572495 BC)
who actually discovered the
relationship between the sides of the
right-angled triangle. He was able to
generalise the rule to all right-angled triangles.
Pythagoras was a Greek mathematician,
philosopher and mystic. He founded the Pythagorean
School, where mathematics, science and philosophy
were studied. The school developed a brotherhood and
performed secret rituals. He and his followers believed
that the whole universe was based on numbers.
Pythagoras was murdered when he was 77, and the
brotherhood was disbanded.
The square on the hypotenuse in any right-angled triangle is equal to the
sum of the squares on the other two sides.
c a b
c a b
That is,
or
2 2 2
2 2
= +
= +

Proof
Draw CD perpendicular to AB
Let , AD x DB y = =
Then x y c + =
In ADC D and , ABC D
A + is common

D
D
;
;
( ) ABC
ABC
equal corresponding s +

ADC ACB
ADC
AB
AC
AC
AD
c
b
b
x
b xc
BDC
BC
DB
AB
BC
a
y
c
a
a yc
a b yc xc
c y x
c c
c
90
Similarly,
Now
2
2
2 2
2
`
c + +
<
<
D
D
= =
=
=
=
=
=
=
+ = +
= +
=
=
^
]
h
g

EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of x , correct to 2 decimal places.
Solution

c a b
x 7 4
49 16
65
2 2 2
2 2 2
= +
= +
= +
=

, c a b ABC If then must be right angled
2 2 2
D = +
.
x 65
8 06 to 2 decimal places
=
=
2. Find the exact value of y .
Solution

c a b
y
y
y
y
8 4
64 16
48
48
16 3
4 3
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
2
`
#
= +
= +
= +
=
=
=
=

3. Find the length of the diagonal in a square with sides 6 cm. Answer to
1 decimal place.
Solution
6 cm
6 cm

.
c a b
c
6 6
72
72
8 5
2 2 2
2 2
= +
= +
=
=
=

So the length of the diagonal is 8.5 cm.
Leave the answer in
surd form for the exact
answer.
CONTINUED
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
2. Find the exact value of all
pronumerals.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

4.6 Exercises
4. A triangle has sides 5.1 cm, 6.8 cm and 8.5 cm. Prove that the triangle
is right angled.
Solution

6.8 cm
8.5 cm
5.1 cm
Let . c 8 5 = (largest side) and a and b the other two smaller sides.

. .
.
.
.
a b
c
c a b
5 1 6 8
72 25
8 5
72 25
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2
`
+ = +
=
=
=
= +

So the triangle is right angled .
3. Find the slant height s of a
cone with diameter 6.8 m and
perpendicular height 5.2 m, to
1 decimal place.
4. Find the length of CE , correct
to 1 decimal place, in this
rectangular pyramid. 8.6 AB cm =
and 15.9 . CF cm =
5. Prove that ABC D is a right-angled
triangle.
6. Show that XYZ D is a right-angled
isosceles triangle.
X
Y Z
1
1
2
7. Show that . AC BC 2 =
8. (a) Find the length of diagonal
AC in the fgure.
Hence, or otherwise, prove (b)
that AC is perpendicular to DC .
9. Find the length of side AB in
terms of b .
10. Find the exact ratio of
YZ
XY
in
terms of x and y in . XYZ D
11. Show that the distance squared
between A and B is given by
. d t t 13 180 625
2 2
= - +
12. An 850 mm by 1200 mm gate
is to have a diagonal timber
brace to give it strength. To what
length should the timber be cut,
to the nearest mm?

13. A rectangular park has a length of
620 m and a width of 287 m. If I
walk diagonally across the park,
how far do I walk?
14. The triangular garden bed below
is to have a border around it.
How many metres of border are
needed, to 1 decimal place?
15. What is the longest length of
stick that will ft into the box
below, to 1 decimal place?
16. A ramp is 4.5 m long and 1.3 m
high. How far along the ground
does the ramp go? Answer correct
to one decimal place .
4.5 m
1.3 m
17. The diagonal of a television
screen is 72 cm. If the screen is
58 cm high, how wide is it?
18. A property has one side 1.3 km
and another 1.1 km as shown
with a straight road diagonally
through the middle of the
property. If the road is 1.5 km
long, show that the property is
not rectangular.
1.3 km
1.1 km
1.5 km
19. Jodie buys a ladder 2 m long and
wants to take it home in the boot
of her car. If the boot is 1.2 m by
0.7 m, will the ladder ft?
Types of Quadrilaterals
A quadrilateral is any four-sided fgure
In any quadrilateral the sum of the interior angles is 360c
20. A chord AB in a circle with
centre O and radius 6 cm has a
perpendicular line OC as shown
4 cm long.
A
B
O
C
6 cm
4 cm
By fnding the lengths of (a) AC
and BC , show that OC bisects the
chord .
By proving congruent (b)
triangles, show that OC bisects
the chord .
Proof
Draw in diagonal AC

180 ( )
( )
,
ADC DCA CAD
ABC BCA CAB
ADC DCA CAD ABC BCA CAB
ADC DCB CBA BAD
180
360
360
angle sum of
similarly
That is
`
c
c
c
c
+ + +
+ + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + +
D + + =
+ + =
+ + + + + =
+ + + =

opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal
opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal
diagonals in a parallelogram bisect each other
each diagonal bisects the parallelogram into two
congruent triangles
A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if:
both pairs of opposite sides are equal
both pairs of opposite angles are equal
one pair of sides is both equal and parallel
the diagonals bisect each other
These properties can
all be proven.
Parallelogram
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with opposite sides parallel
EXAMPLE
Find the value of . i
Solution

120 56 90 360
266 360
94
angle sum of quadrilateral i
i
i
+ + + =
+ =
=
^ h

PROPERTIES
TESTS
Rhombus

A rectangle is a parallelogram with one angle a right angle
the same as for a parallelogram, and also
diagonals are equal
A quadrilateral is a rectangle if its diagonals are equal
Application
Builders use the property of equal diagonals to check if a rectangle is accurate.
For example, a timber frame may look rectangular, but may be slightly slanting.
Checking the diagonals makes sure that a building does not end up like the
Leaning Tower of Pisa!
It can be proved that
all sides are equal.
If one angle is a right
angle, then you can
prove all angles are
right angles.
A rhombus is a parallelogram with a pair of adjacent sides equal
the same as for parallelogram, and also
diagonals bisect at right angles
diagonals bisect the angles of the rhombus
Rectangle

PROPERTIES
PROPERTIES
TEST
Square
A square is a rectangle with a pair of adjacent sides equal
the same as for rectangle, and also
diagonals are perpendicular
diagonals make angles of 45c with the sides
Trapezium
A trapezium is a quadrilateral with one pair of sides parallel
Kite
A kite is a quadrilateral with two pairs of adjacent sides equal
A quadrilateral is a rhombus if:
all sides are equal
diagonals bisect each other at right angles
TESTS
PROPERTIES
EXAMPLES
1. Find the values of , i x and y , giving reasons.
Solution

( )
. ( )
. ( )
x
y
83
6 7
2 3
opposite s in gram
cm opposite sides in gram
cm opposite sides in gram
c + <
<
<
i =
=
=

2. Find the length of AB in square ABCD as a surd in its simplest form if
6 . BD cm =
Solution
( )
( )
AB x
ABCD AB AD x
A 90
Let
Since is a square, adjacent sides equal
Also, by definition c +
=
= =
=

By Pythagoras theorem:

3
c a b
x x
x
x
x
6
36 2
18
18
2 cm
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
2
`
= +
= +
=
=
=
=

CONTINUED
giving reasons.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
4.7 Exercises
3.
Two equal circles have centres (a) O and P respectively. Prove that OAPB
is a rhombus.
Hence, or otherwise, show that (b) AB is the perpendicular bisector
of OP .
Solution
(a) ( )
( )
OA OB
PA PB
OA OB PA PB
equal radii
similarly
Since the circles are equal,
=
=
= = =

` since all sides are equal, OAPB is a rhombus
The diagonals in any rhombus are perpendicular bisectors. (b)
Since OAPB is a rhombus, with diagonals AB and OP , AB is the
perpendicular bisector of OP .
2. Given , AB AE = prove CD is
perpendicular to AD .
3. (a) Show that C xc + = and
( ) . B D x 180 c + + = = -
Hence show that the sum of (b)
angles of ABCD is . 360c
4. Find the value of a and b .
pronumerals, giving reasons.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
7
y
3
x
x
+
6
(f)
6. In the fgure, BD bisects
. ADC + Prove BD also bisects
. ABC +

7. Prove that each fgure is a
parallelogram.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
8. Evaluate all pronumerals.
(a)
(b)
ABCD is a kite
(c)
(d)
(e)
9. The diagonals of a rhombus
are 8 cm and 10 cm long. Find
the length of the sides of the
rhombus.
10. ABCD is a rectangle with
. EBC 59c + = Find , ECB EDC + +
and . ADE +
11. The diagonals of a square are
8 cm long. Find the exact length
of the side of the square.
12. In the rhombus, . ECB 33c + =
Find the value of x and y .
Polygons
A polygon is a closed plane fgure with straight sides
A regular polygon has all sides and all interior angles equal
Proof
Draw any n -sided polygon and divide it into n triangles as
shown. Then the total sum of angles is n 180 # c or 180 . n
But this sum includes all the angles at O . So the sum of
interior angles is 180 360 . n c -
That is, S n
n
180 360
2 180 # c
= -
= -
] g

EXAMPLES

4-sided
(square)
3-sided
(equilateral
triangle)
5-sided
(pentagon)
6-sided
(hexagon)
8-sided
(octagon)
10-sided
(decagon)
DID YOU KNOW?
Carl Gauss (17771855) was a famous German mathematician, physicist and astronomer. When
he was 19 years old, he showed that a 17-sided polygon could be constructed using a ruler and
compasses. This was a major achievement in geometry.
Gauss made a huge contribution to the study of mathematics and science, including
correctly calculating where the magnetic south pole is and designing a lens to correct
astigmatism.
He was the director of the Gttingen Observatory for 40 years. It is said that he did not
become a professor of mathematics because he did not like teaching.
The sum of the interior angles of an n -sided polygon is given by

( 2) 180
S n
S n
180 360
or # c
= -
= -

The sum of the exterior angles of any polygon is 360c
Proof
Draw any n -sided polygon. Then the sum of both the
exterior and interior angles is . n 180 # c

n
n n
n n
180
180 180 360
180 180 360
360
Sum of exterior angles sum of interior angles # c
c
c
c
= -
= - -
= - +
=
] g

EXAMPLES
1. Find the sum of the interior angles of a regular polygon with 15 sides.
How large is each angle?
Solution

( )
( )
n
S n
15
0
15 0
0
2340
2 18
2 18
13 18
#
#
#
c
c
c
c
=
= -
= -
=
=

Each angle has size . 2340 15 156 ' c c =
2. Find the number of sides in a regular polygon whose interior angles
are . 140c
Solution
Let n be the number of sides
Then the sum of interior angles is 140n

( )
( )
S n
n n
n
n
n
2 180
140 2 180
180 360
360 40
9
But
So
#
#
c
c
= -
= -
= -
=
=

So the polygon has 9 sides.
There are n sides and so n
angles, each 140 . c
1. Find the sum of the interior
angles of
a pentagon (a)
a hexagon (b)
an octagon (c)
a decagon (d)
a 12-sided polygon (e)
an 18-sided polygon (f)
2. Find the size of each interior
angle of a regular
pentagon (a)
octagon (b)
12-sided polygon (c)
20-sided polygon (d)
15-sided polygon (e)
3. Find the size of each exterior
angle of a regular
hexagon (a)
decagon (b)
octagon (c)
15-sided polygon (d)
4. Calculate the size of each
interior angle in a regular 7-sided
polygon, to the nearest minute.
5. The sum of the interior angles of
a regular polygon is . 1980c
How many sides has the (a)
polygon?
Find the size of each interior (b)
angle, to the nearest minute.
4.8 Exercises
6. Find the number of sides of a
regular polygon whose interior
angles are . 157 30 c l
7. Find the sum of the interior
angles of a regular polygon whose
exterior angles are . 18c
8. A regular polygon has interior
angles of . 156c Find the sum of its
interior angles.
9. Find the size of each interior
angle in a regular polygon if
the sum of the interior angles is
. 5220c
10. Show that there is no regular
polygon with interior angles of
. 145c
11. Find the number of sides of a
regular polygon with exterior
angles
(a) 40c
(b) 0 3 c
(c) 45c
(d) 36c
(e) 12c
12. ABCDEF is a regular hexagon.
F
E D
A B
C
Show that triangles (a) AFE and
BCD are congruent .
Show that (b) AE and BD are
parallel .
13. A regular octagon has a
quadrilateral ACEG inscribed as
shown.
D
A
B
E
C
F
G
H
Show that ACEG is a square .
14. In the regular pentagon below,
show that EAC is an isosceles
triangle .
D
A
B E
C
15. (a) Find the size of each exterior
angle in a regular polygon with
side p .
Hence show that each interior (b)
angle is
( )
p
p 180 2 -
.
Areas
Most areas of plane fgures come from the area of a rectangle.
Rectangle
A lb =
Square
A x
2
=
Triangle
A bh
2
1
=
Proof
h
b
Draw rectangle ABCD , where b length = and h breadth = .
A square is a
special rectangle.
The area of a triangle
is half the area of a
rectangle.

bh area
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
` =

DEF AEFD CEF EBCF Area area and area area D D = =
CDE ABCD area ` D =
A bh That is, =
area

A bh =
Proof
In parallelogram ABCD , produce DC to E and draw BE perpendicular to CE .
Then ABEF is a rectangle.
Area ABEF bh =
In ADF D and , BCE D

( )
( )

AFD BEC
AF BE h
AD BC
ADF BCE
ADF BCE
ABCD ABEF
bh
90
opposite sides of a rectangle
opposite sides of a parallelogram
by RHS,
area area
So area area
`
`
c + +
D D
D D
= =
= =
=
=
=
=
/
Rhombus
The area of a
parallelogram is the
same as the area of
two triangles.
A xy
2
1
=
( x and y are lengths of diagonals)
Parallelogram
( ) A h a b
2
1
= +
Proof

DE x
DF x a
FC b x a
b x a
Let
Then
`
=
= +
= - +
= - -
] g

Proof

Let AC x = and BD y =
By properties of a rhombus,
AE EC x
2
1
= = and DE EB y
2
1
= =
Also AEB 90c + =

ABC x y
xy
ADC x y
xy
xy xy
xy
Area
Area
total area of rhombus
2
1
2
1
4
1
2
1
2
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
2
1
:
:
`
D
D
=
=
=
=
= +
=

Trapezium
A r
2
r =
EXAMPLES
1. Find the area of this trapezium.
Solution

( )
( ) ( )
24
A h a b
4 7 5
2 12
m
2
2
1
2
1
#
= +
= +
=
=

2. Find the area of the shaded region in this fgure.
8
.
9

c
m
3
.
7

c
m
12.1 cm
4.2 cm
CONTINUED

( )
( )
( )
ADE ABFE BFC
xh ah b x a h
h x a b x a
h a b
2
Area trapezium area area rectangle area
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
D D = + +
= + + - -
= + + - -
= +

Circle

You will study the circle in
more detail in Chapter 9.
Solution

. .
.
. .
.
. .
.
lb
lb
8 9 12 1
107 69
3 7 4 2
15 54
107 69 15 54
92 15
Area large rectangle
cm
Area small rectangle
cm
shaded area
cm
2
2
2
#
#
`
=
=
=
=
=
=
= -
=

3 . A park with straight sides of length 126 m and width 54 m has semi-
circular ends as shown. Find its area, correct to 2 decimal places.
126 m
5
4

m
Solution
- Area of 2 semi circles area of 1 circle =

2
( )
.
r
A r
2
54
27
27
2290 22 m
2
2
r
r
=
=
=
=
=

.
.
126 54
6804
2290 22 6804
9094 22
Area rectangle
Total area
m
2
# =
=
= +
=

1. Find the area of each fgure.
(a)
(b)
4.9 Exercises
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
2. Find the area of a rhombus with
diagonals 2.3 m and 4.2 m.
3. Find each shaded area .
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
6

c
m

2 cm
4. Find the area of each fgure.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
5. Find the exact area of the fgure.
6. Find the area of this fgure,
The arch is a semicircle.
7. Jenny buys tiles for the foor of
her bathroom (shown top next
column) at $45.50 per . m
2
How
much do they cost altogether?
8. The dimensions of a battleaxe
block of land are shown below.
Find its area. (a)
A house in the district where (b)
this land is can only take up 55%
of the land. How large (to the
nearest m
2
) can the area of the
house be?
If the house is to be a (c)
rectangular shape with width
8.5 m, what will its length be?
9. A rhombus has one diagonal
25 cm long and its area is
600 . cm
2
Find the length of
its other diagonal and (a)
its side, to the nearest cm. (b)
10. The width w of a rectangle is
a quarter the size of its length.
If the width is increased by 3
units while the length remains
constant, fnd the amount of
increase in its area in terms of w .
Test Yourself 4
The perimeter
is the distance
around the outside
of the fgure.
1. Find the values of all pronumerals
(a)
(b)
(c)
x
(d)
(O is the centre
of the circle.)
(e)
(f)
(g)
2. Prove that AB and CD are parallel lines.
3. Find the area of the fgure, to 2 decimal
places.
4. (a) Prove that triangles ABC and ADE are
similar.
Evaluate (b) x and y to 1 decimal place.
5. Find the size of each interior angle in a
regular 20-sided polygon.
6. Find the volume of a cylinder with radius
5.7 cm and height 10 cm, correct to
1 decimal place.
7. Find the perimeter of the triangle below.
8. (a) Prove triangles ABC and ADC are
congruent in the kite below.
Prove triangle (b) AOB and COD are
congruent. ( O is the centre of the circle.)
9. Find the area of the fgure below.
10. Prove triangle ABC is right angled.
11. Prove .
AG
AF
AC
AB
=

12. Triangle ABC is isosceles, and AD bisects
BC .
Prove triangles (a) ABD and ACD are
congruent.
Prove (b) AD and BC are perpendicular.
13. Triangle ABC is isosceles, with . AB AC =
Show that triangle ACD is isosceles.
14. Prove that opposite sides in any
parallelogram are equal.
15. A rhombus has diagonals 6 cm and 8 cm.
Find the area of the rhombus. (a)
Find the length of its side. (b)
16. The interior angles in a regular polygon
are . 140c How many sides has the
polygon?
17. Prove AB and CD are parallel.
18. Find the area of the fgure below.
10 cm
2 cm
5 cm
6 cm
8 cm
19. Prove that z x y = + in the triangle
below.
20. (a) Prove triangles ABC and DEF are
similar.
Evaluate (b) x to 1 decimal place.
1. Find the value of x .
2. Evaluate x , y and z .
3. Find the sum of the interior angles of a
regular 11-sided polygon. How large is
each exterior angle?
4. Given , BAD DBC + + = show that ABD D
and BCD D are similar and hence fnd d .
5. Prove that ABCD is a parallelogram.
. AB DC =
6. Find the shaded area.
7. Prove that the diagonals in a square
make angles of 45c with the sides.
8. Prove that the diagonals in a kite are
perpendicular.
9. Prove that MN is parallel to XY .
10. Evaluate x .
11. The letter Z is painted on a billboard.
Find the area of the letter. (a)
Find the exact perimeter of the letter. (b)
12. Find the values of x and y correct to
1 decimal place.
13. Find the values of x and y , correct to
2 decimal places.
14. ABCD is a square and BD is produced to
E such that . DE BD
2
1
=
Show that (a) ABCE is a kite.
Prove that (b) DE
x
2
2
= units when
sides of the square are x units long.
TERMINOLOGY
5
Functions and
Graphs
Arc of a curve: Part or a section of a curve between two
points
Asymptote: A line towards which a curve approaches but
never touches
Cartesian coordinates: Named after Descartes. A system of
locating points (x, y) on a number plane. Point (x, y) has
Cartesian coordinates x and y
Curve: Another word for arc. When a function consists
of all values of x on an interval, the graph of y f x =
] g
is
called a curve y f x =
] g
Dependent variable: A variable is a symbol that can
represent any value in a set of values. A dependent
variable is a variable whose value depends on the value
chosen for the independent variable
Direct relationship: Occurs when one variable varies
directly with another i.e. as one variable increases, so
does the other or as one variable decreases so does
the other
Discrete: Separate values of a variable rather than a
continuum. The values are distinct and unrelated
Domain: The set of possible values of x in a given domain
for which a function is defned
Even function: An even function has line symmetry
(refection) about the y-axis, and f x f x = - -
] ] g g
Function: For each value of the independent variable x,
there is exactly one value of y, the dependent variable.
A vertical line test can be used to determine if a
relationship is a function
Independent variable: A variable is independent if it may
be chosen freely within the domain of the function
Odd function: An odd function has rotational symmetry
about the origin (0, 0) and where f x f x = - -
] ] g g
Ordered pair: A pair of variables, one independent and
one dependent, that together make up a single point in
the number plane, usually written in the form (x, y)
Ordinates: The vertical or y coordinates of a point are
called ordinates
Range: The set of real numbers that the dependent
variable y can take over the domain (sometimes called
the image of the function)
Vertical line test: A vertical line will only cut the graph of
a function in at most one point. If the vertical line cuts
the graph in more than one point, it is not a function

205 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs
INTRODUCTION
FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS are used in many areas, such as mathematics,
science and economics. In this chapter you will study functions, function
notation and how to sketch graphs. Some of these graphs will be studied in
more detail in later chapters.
DID YOU KNOW?
The number plane is called the Cartesian plane after Rene
Descartes (15961650). He was known as one of the rst
modern mathematicians along with Pierre de Fermat
(16011665). Descartes used the number plane to develop
analytical geometry. He discovered that any equation
with two unknown variables can be represented by a line.
The points in the number plane can be called Cartesian
coordinates.
Descartes used letters at the beginning of the
alphabet to stand for numbers that are known, and letters
near the end of the alphabet for unknown numbers. This is
why we still use x and y so often!
Do a search on Descartes to nd out more details of
his life and work.
Descartes
Functions
Denition of a function
Many examples of functions exist both in mathematics and in real life. These
occur when we compare two different quantities. These quantities are called
variables since they vary or take on different values according to some pattern.
We put these two variables into a grouping called an ordered pair.
EXAMPLES
1. Eye colour

Name Anne Jacquie Donna Hien Marco Russell Trang
Colour Blue Brown Grey Brown Green Brown Brown

Ordered pairs are (Anne, Blue), (Jacquie, Brown), (Donna, Grey), (Hien,
Brown), (Marco, Green), (Russell, Brown) and (Trang, Brown).
2. y x 1 = +

x 1 2 3 4
y 2 3 4 5

The ordered pairs are (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4) and (4, 5).
3.
A
B
C
D
E
1
2
3
4
The ordered pairs are (A, 1), (B, 1), (C, 4), (D, 3) and (E, 2).
Notice that in all the examples, there was only one ordered pair for each
variable. For example, it would not make sense for Anne to have both blue
and brown eyes! (Although in rare cases some people have one eye thats a
different colour from the other.)
A relation is a set of ordered points ( x , y ) where the variables x and y are
related according to some rule.
A function is a special type of relation. It is like a machine where for
every INPUT there is only one OUTPUT.
INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT
The frst variable (INPUT) is called the independent variable and the
second (OUTPUT) the dependent variable. The process is a rule or pattern.
For example, in , y x 1 = + we can use any number for x (the independent
variable), say x 3 = .

When x
y
3
3 1
4
=
= +
=

As this value of y depends on the number we choose for x , y is called the
dependent variable.
A function is a relationship between two variables where for
every independent variable, there is only one dependent variable.
This means that for every x value, there is only one y value.
While we often call the
independent variable
x and the dependent
variable y, there are other
pronumerals we could
use. You will meet some
of these in this course.
Investigation
When we graph functions in mathematics, the independent variable
(usually the x -value) is on the horizontal axis while the dependent
variable (usually the y -value) is on the vertical axis.
In other areas, the dependent variable goes on the horizontal axis. Find
out in which subjects this happens at school by surveying teachers or
students in different subjects. Research different types of graphs on the
Internet to fnd some examples.
Here is an example of a relationship that is NOT a function. Can you see the
difference between this example and the previous ones?
A
B
C
D
E
1
2
3
4
In this example the ordered pairs are (A, 1), (A, 2), (B, 1), (C, 4), (D, 3)
and (E, 2).
Notice that A has two dependent variables, 1 and 2. This means that it is
NOT a function.
Here are two examples of graphs on a number plane.
1.
x
y
2.
x
y
There is a very simple test to see if these graphs are functions. Notice that
in the frst example, there are two values of y when x 0 = . The y -axis passes
through both these points.
x
y
If a vertical line cuts a graph only once anywhere along the graph, the
graph is a function.
y
x
If a vertical line cuts a graph in more than one place anywhere along the
graph, the graph is not a function.
x
y
There are also other x values that give two y values around the curve. If
we drew a vertical line anywhere along the curve, it would cross the curve in
two places everywhere except one point. Can you see where this is?
In the second graph, a vertical line would only ever cross the curve in one
place.
So when a vertical line cuts a graph in more than one place, it shows that
it is not a function.
EXAMPLES
1. Is this graph a function?

Solution

A vertical line only cuts the graph once. So the graph is a function.
2. Is this circle a function?

Solution
A vertical line can cut the curve in more than one place. So the circle is
not a function.
You will learn how to sketch these
graphs later in this chapter.
3. Does this set of ordered pairs represent a function?
, , , , , , , , , 2 3 1 4 0 5 1 3 2 4 - - ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ h h h h h
Solution
For each x value there is only one y value, so this set of ordered pairs is a
function.
4. Is this a function?

y
x
3

Solution

y
x
3

Although it looks like this is not a function, the open circle at x 3 = on
the top line means that x 3 = is not included, while the closed circle on
the bottom line means that x 3 = is included on this line.
So a vertical line only touches the graph once at x 3 = . The graph is
a function.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9. , , , , , , , 1 3 2 1 3 3 4 0 - ^ ^ ^ ^ h h h h
10. , , , , , , , 1 3 2 1 2 7 4 0 - ^ ^ ^ ^ h h h h
11.

1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5

12.
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5

13.

1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5

5.1 Exercises
Which of these curves are functions?
14.
Name Ben Paul Pierre Hamish Jacob Lee Pierre Lien
Sport Tennis Football Tennis Football Football Badminton Football Badminton

15.
A 3
B 4
C 7
D 3
E 5
F 7
G 4
Function notation
If y depends on what value we give x in a function, then we can say that y is a
function of x . We can write this as y f x =
] g
.
Notice that these two examples are asking for the same value and f (3) is
the value of the function when x 3 = .
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of y when x 3 = in the equation y x 1 = + .
Solution

When : x
y x
3
1
3 1
4
=
= +
= +
=

2. If f x x 1 = +
] g
, evaluate f (3).
Solution

f x x
f
1
3 3 1
4
= +
= +
=
]
]
g
g

If y f x =
] g
then f ( a ) is the value of y at the point on the function where x a =
EXAMPLES
1. If , f x x x 3 1
2
= + +
] g
fnd . f 2 -
] g

Solution

( ) ( ) f 2 2 3 2 1
4 6 1
1
2
- = - + - +
= - +
= -
] g

2. If , f x x x
3 2
= -
] g
fnd the value of . f 1 -
] g

Solution

( )
( )
f x x x
f 1 1 1
1 1
2
3 2
3
= -
- = - - -
= - -
= -
2
] ] g g

3. Find the values of x for which , f x 0 =
] g
given that . f x x x 3 10
2
= + -
] g

Solution

( )
i.e.
( ) ( )
,
f x
x x
x x
x x
x x
0
3 10 0
5 2 0
5 0 2 0
5 2
2
=
+ - =
+ - =
+ = - =
= - =

4. Find , , f f f 3 2 0
] ] ] g g g
and if f f x 4 -
] ] g g
is defned as

when
when .
f x
x x
x x
3 4 2
2 2 1
$
=
+
-
] g
)
Solution

since 4 2 1 -
( ) ( ) since
( ) ( ) since
( ) ( ) since
( ) ( )
f
f
f
f
3 3 3 4 3 2
13
2 3 2 4 2 2
10
0 2 0 0 2
0
4 2 4
8
1
$
$
= +
=
= +
=
= -
=
- = - -
=

5. Find the value of g g g 1 2 3 + - -
] ] ] g g g
if

when
when
when
x
x
x
2
1 2
1
2
1
# # -
-
g x
x
x 2 1
5
2
= -
] g
*

This is the same as fnding y
when 2. x - =
Putting (x) 0 = f is different
from fnding (0) . f Follow
this example carefully.
Use f (x) 3x 4 = + when
x is 2 or more, and use
f (x) 2x = - when x is less
than 2.
Solution

( ) ( )
( )
( )
g
g
g
1 2 1 1 1 1 2
1
2 5 2 1
3 3 3 2
9
since
since
since
2
1
2
# # = - -
=
- = - -
=
=

( ) ( ) ( ) g g g 1 2 3 1 5 9
3
So + - - = + -
= -

DID YOU KNOW?
Leonhard Euler (170783), from Switzerland, studied functions and invented the term
f (x) for function notation. He studied theology, astronomy, medicine, physics and oriental
languages as well as mathematics, and wrote more than 500 books and articles on
mathematics. He found time between books to marry and have 13 children, and even when
he went blind he kept on having books published.
1. Given , f x x 3 = +
] g
fnd f 1
] g
and
. f 3 -
] g

2. If , h x x 2
2
= -
] g
fnd , h h 0 2
] ] g g

and . h 4 -
] g

3. If , f x x
2
= -
] g
fnd , , f f f 5 1 3 -
] ] ] g g g

and . f 2 -
] g

4. Find the value of f f 0 2 + -
] ] g g
if
. f x x x 1
4 2
= - +
] g

5. Find f 3 -
] g
if . f x x x 2 5 4
3
= - +
] g

6. If , f x x 2 5 = -
] g
fnd x when
. f x 13 =
] g

7. Given , f x x 3
2
= +
] g
fnd any
values of x for which . f x 28 =
] g

8. If , f x 3
x
=
] g
fnd x when
. f x
27
1
=
] g

9. Find values of z for which
f z 5 =
] g
given . f z z 2 3 = +
] g

10. If , f x x 2 9 = -
] g
fnd f p ^ h and
. f x h +
] g

11. Find g x 1 -
] g
when
. g x x x 2 3
2
= + +
] g

12. If , f x x 1
3
= -
] g
fnd f k
] g
as a
product of factors.
13. Given , f t t t 2 1
2
= + +
] g
fnd
t when . f t 0 =
] g
Also fnd any
values of t for which . f t 9 =
] g

14. Given , f t t t 5
4 2
= + -
] g
fnd the
value of . f b f b - -
] ] g g

15. f x
x x
x x
1
1
for
for
3
2
#
=
] g
)
Find , f f 5 1
] ] g g
and . 1 -
] g

16. f x
x x
x x
x x
2 4 1
3 1 1
1
if
if
if
2
1 1
$
#
=
-
+ -
-
] g
Z
[
\
]
]
]]

Find the values of
. f f f 2 2 1 - - + -
] ] ] g g g

5.2 Exercises
We can use pronumerals
other than f for functions.
17. Find g g g 3 0 2 + + -
] ] ] g g g
if
g x
x x
x x
1 0
2 1 0
when
when 1
$
=
+
- +
] g
)
f f f 3 2 2 3 - + -
] ] ] g g g
when
f x
x x
x x
x
2
2 2
4 2
for
for
for
2
2
1
# # = -
-
] g
*
19. Find the value of f f 1 3 - -
] ] g g

if ( )
1 2
2 3 1 2
f x
x x
x x x
for
for
3
2
1
$
=
-
+ -
*
20. If f x
x
x x
3
2 3
2
=
-
- -
] g

evaluate (a) f (2)
explain why the function (b)
does not exist for x 3 =
by taking several (c) x values
close to 3, fnd the value of y that
the function is moving towards
as x moves towards 3.
21. If f x x x 5 4
2
= +
] g
, fnd
f x h f x + -
] ] g g
in its simplest
form.
22. Simplify
h
f x h f x + -
] ] g g
where
f x x x 2
2
= +
] g

23. If f x x 5 4 = -
] g
, fnd f x f c -
] ] g g

in its simplest form.
24. Find the value of f k
2
^ h
if
f x
x x
x x
3 5 0
0
for
for
2
1
$
=
+
] g
*
25. If
f x
x x
x x x
3
2 0
when
when
3
2
$
#
=
- +
x 5 0 3 when 1 1
] g
Z
[
\
]
]
]]

evaluate
(a) f (0)
(b) f f 2 1 -
] ] g g

(c) f n
2
-
^ h

Graphing Techniques
You may have previously learned how to draw graphs by completing a table
of values and then plotting points. In this course, you will learn some other
techniques that will allow you to sketch graphs by showing their important
features.
Intercepts
One of the most useful techniques is to fnd the x- and y -intercepts.
For x -intercept, y 0 =
For y -intercept, x 0 =
Everywhere on the x-axis,
0 = y and everywhere on
the y-axis 0 = x .
EXAMPLE
Find the x - and y -intercepts of the function . f x x x 7 8
2
= + -
] g

Solution
For x -intercept: y 0 =

,
,
x x
x x
x x
x x
0 7 8
8 1
8 0 1 0
8 1
2
= + -
= + -
+ = - =
= - =
] ] g g

For y -intercept: x 0 =

y 0 7 0 8
8
2
= + -
= -
] ] g g

This is the same as
. y x x 7 8
2
= + -
You will use the intercepts
to draw graphs in the next
section in this chapter .
Domain and range
You have already seen that the x -coordinate is called the independent variable
and the y -coordinate is the dependent variable.
The set of all real numbers x for which a function is defned is called the
domain .
The set of real values for y or f ( x ) as x varies is called the range (or
image) of f .
EXAMPLE
Find the domain and range of . f x x
2
=
] g

Solution
You can see the domain and range from the graph, which is the parabola . y x
2
=
x
y
CONTINUED
Notice that the parabola curves outwards gradually, and will take on any
real value for x . However, it is always on or above the x -axis.
Domain: {all real x }
Range: { y : y 0 $ }
You can also fnd the domain and range from the equation y x
2
= . Notice
that you can substitute any value for x and you will fnd a value of y .
However, all the y -values are positive or zero since squaring any number
will give a positive answer (except zero).
Odd and even functions
When you draw a graph, it can help to know some of its properties, for
example, whether it is increasing or decreasing on an interval or arc of the
curve (part of the curve lying between two points) .
If a curve is increasing, as x increases, so does y , and the curve is moving
upwards, looking from left to right.

If a curve is decreasing, then as x increases, y decreases and the curve
moves downwards from left to right.

EXAMPLES
1. State the domain over which each curve is increasing and decreasing .
x
x
3
x
2
x
1
y

Solution
The left-hand side of the parabola is decreasing and the right side is
increasing.
So the curve is increasing for x 2 x
2
and the curve is decreasing when
x 1 x
2
.
2.
x
x
3
x
2
x
1
y
Solution
The left-hand side of the curve is increasing until it reaches the y -axis
(where x 0 = ). It then turns around and decreases until x
3
and then
increases again.
So the curve is increasing for , x x x 0
3
1 2 and the curve is
decreasing for . x x 0
3
1 1
The curve isnt increasing or
decreasing at x
2
. We say that it is
stationary at that point. You will
study stationary points and further
curve sketching in the HSC Course.
Notice that the curve is
stationary at x 0 = and . x x
3
=
Functions are odd if they have point symmetry about the origin. A graph
rotated 180 about the origin gives the original graph.
This is an odd function:
x
y
For even functions, f x f x = -
] ] g g
for all values of x .
For odd functions, f x f x - = -
] ] g g
for all values of x in the domain.
As well as looking at where the curve is increasing and decreasing, we can
see if the curve is symmetrical in some way. You have already seen that the
parabola is symmetrical in earlier stages of mathematics and you have learned
how to fnd the axis of symmetry. Other types of graphs can also be symmetrical.
Functions are even if they are symmetrical about the y -axis. They have
line symmetry (refection) about the y -axis.
This is an even function:

x
y

EXAMPLES
1. Show that f x x 3
2
= +
] g
is an even function.
Solution

f x x
x
f x
f x x
3
3
3 is an even function
2
2
2
`
- = - +
= +
=
= +
] ]
]
]
g g
g
g

2. Show that f x x x
3
= -
] g
is an odd function.
Solution

f x x x
x x
x x
f x
f x x x is an odd function
3
3
3
3
`
- = - - -
= - +
= - -
= -
= -
] ] ]
^
]
]
g g g
h
g
g

Investigation
Explore the family of graphs of f x x
n
=
] g
.
For what values of n is the function even?
For what values of n is the function odd?
Which families of functions are still even or odd given k ? Let k take on
different values, both positive and negative.
1. f x kx
n
=
] g

2. f x x k
n
= +
] g

3. f x x k
n
= +
] ] g g

k is called a parameter.
Some graphics calculators
and computer programs use
parameters to show how
changing values of k change the
shape of graphs .
1. Find the x - and y -intercept of
each function.
(a) y x 3 2 = -
(b) x y 2 5 20 0 - + =
(c) x y 3 12 0 + - =
(d) f x x x 3
2
= +
] g

(e) f x x 4
2
= -
] g

(f) p x x x 5 6
2
= + +
] g

(g) y x x 8 15
2
= - +
(h) p x x 5
3
= +
] g

5.3 Exercises
(i) y
x
x
x
3
0 ! =
+
] g

(j) g x x 9
2
= -
] g

2. Show that f x f x = -
] ] g g
where
f x x 2
2
= -
] g
. What type of
function is it?
3. If f x x 1
3
= +
] g
, fnd
(a) f x
2
^ h

(b) ( ) f x
2
6 @
(c) f x -
] g

Is it an even or odd function? (d)
4. Show that g x x x x 3 2
8 4 2
= + -
] g
is
an even function .
5. Show that f ( x ) is odd, where
. f x x =
] g

6. Show that f x x 1
2
= -
] g
is an even
function.
7. Show that f x x x 4
3
= -
] g
is an
odd function.
8. Prove that f x x x
4 2
= +
] g
is an
even function and hence fnd
. f x f x - -
] ] g g

9. Are these functions even, odd or
neither?
(a) y
x x
x
4 2
3
=
-

(b) y
x 1
1
3
=
-

(c) f x
x 4
3
2
=
-
] g

(d) y
x
x
3
3
=
+
-

(e) f x
x x
x
5 2
3
=
-
] g

10. If n is a positive integer, for
what values of n is the function
f x x
n
=
] g

even? (a)
odd? (b)
11. Can the function f x x x
n
= +
] g

ever be
even? (a)
odd? (b)
12. For the functions below, state
(i) the domain over which the
graph is increasing
(ii) the domain over which
the graph is decreasing
(iii) whether the graph is odd,
even or neither.
x
y
(a)
x
4
y
(b)
2 -2
x
y
(c)
Investigation
Use a graphics calculator or a computer with graphing software to sketch
graphs and explore what effect different constants have on each type of
graph.
If your calculator or computer does not have the ability to use parameters
(this may be called dynamic graphing), simply draw different graphs by
choosing several values for k . Make sure you include positive and negative
numbers and fractions for k .
Alternatively, you may sketch these by hand.
Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter 1. k.

y kx
y kx
y kx
y kx
y
x
k
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
2
3
4
=
=
=
=
=

What effect does the parameter k have on these graphs? Could you give a
general comment about y k f x =
] g
?
y x k
y x k
y x k
y x k
y
x
k
1
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
2
2
3
4
= +
= +
= +
= +
= +
] g

general comment about y f x k = +
] g
?
-2
1 2
-4
-1 -2
2
4
y
x
(d)
y
x
(e)
CONTINUED
Gradient form:
y mx b = + has gradient m and y -intercept b
General form:
ax by c 0 + + =
Investigation
Are straight line graphs always functions? Can you fnd an example of a
straight line that is not a function?
Are there any odd or even straight lines? What are their equations?
For the family of functions y k f x =
] g
, as k varies, the function changes
its slope or steepness.
For the family of functions , y f x k = +
] g
as k varies, the graph moves up
or down (vertical translation).
For the family of functions y f x k = +
] g
, as k varies, the graph moves left
or right (horizontal translation).

y x k
y x k
y x k
y x k
y
x k
1
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
2
3
4
= +
= +
= +
= +
=
+
]
]
]
g
g
g

general comment about y f x k = +
] g
?
When 0, k 2 the graph
moves to the left and when
0, k 1 the graph moves to
the right.
Notice that the shape of most graphs is generally the same regardless of the
parameter k . For example, the parabola still has the same shape even though it
may be narrower or wider or upside down.
This means that if you know the shape of a graph by looking at its
equation, you can sketch it easily by using some of the graphing techniques in
this chapter rather than a time-consuming table of values. It also helps you to
understand graphs more and makes it easier to fnd the domain and range.
You have already sketched some of these graphs in previous years.
Linear Function
A linear function is a function whose graph is a straight line.
EXAMPLE
Sketch the function f x x 3 5 = -
] g
and state its domain and range.
Solution
This is a linear function. It could be written as . y x 3 5 = -
Find the intercepts

0 3 5
5 3
1
x
x
x
3
2
=
=
=
-


3 5
5
y 0 =
= -
-
] g

-1
-2
y
5
4
3
2
1
1
2
3
6
-3
-4
-5
1 4 -1 -2 3 2 -3 -4
x
Notice that the line extends over the whole of the number plane, so that
it covers all real numbers for both the domain and range.
Range: {all real y }
Notice too, that you can
substitute any real number
into the equation of the
function for x, and any real
number is possible for y.
The linear function ax by c 0 + + = has domain {all real x }
and range {all real y } where a and b are non-zero
Special lines
Horizontal and vertical lines have special equations.
Use a graphics calculator or a computer with dynamic graphing capability
to explore the effect of a parameter on a linear function, or choose
different values of k (both positive and negative).
Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k
1. y kx =
2. y x k = +
3. y mx b = + where m and b are both parameters
What effect do the parameters m and b have on these graphs?
EXAMPLES
1. Sketch y 2 = on a number plane. What is its domain and range?
Solution
x can be any value and y is always 2.
Some of the points on the line will be (0, 2), (1, 2) and (2, 2).
This gives a horizontal line with y -intercept 2.

-1
-3
y
4
3
2
1
5
-2
-4
-5
1 4 -1 -2
x
3 2 -3 -4
Domain: x all real " ,
Range: : 2 y y = " ,
2. Sketch x 1 = - on a number plane and state its domain and range.
Solution
y can be any value and x is always . 1 -
Some of the points on the line will be , , , 1 0 1 1 - - ^ ^ h h and , . 1 2 - ^ h
This gives a vertical line with x -intercept . 1 -
Domain: : 1 x x = - " ,
Range: y all real " ,
-1
-3
4
3
2
1
5
-2
-4
-5
1 4 --1 -2 3 -3 -4
y
x
x a = is a vertical line with x -intercept a
Domain: : x x a = ! +
Range: {all real y }
y b = is a horizontal line with y -intercept b
Range: : y y b = " ,
5.4 Exercises
1. Find the x - and y -intercepts of
each function.
(a) y x 2 = -
(b) f x x 2 3 = +
] g

(c) x y 2 1 0 + = -
(d) x y 3 0 + = -
(e) x y 3 6 2 0 = - -
2. Draw the graph of each straight
line.
(a) x 4 =
(b) x 3 0 = -
(c) y 5 =
(d) y 1 0 + =
(e) f x x 2 1 = -
] g

(f) y x 4 = +
(g) f x x 3 2 = +
] g

(h) x y 3 + =
(i) x y 1 0 = - -
(j) x y 2 3 0 + = -
3. Find the domain and range of
(a) x y 3 2 7 0 + = -
(b) y 2 =
(c) x 4 = -
(d) x 2 0 = -
(e) y 3 0 = -
4. Which of these linear functions
are even or odd?
(a) y x 2 =
(b) y 3 =
(c) x 4 =
(d) y x = -
(e) y x =
5. By sketching x y 4 0 = - - and
x y 2 3 3 0 + = - on the same set
of axes, fnd the point where they
meet.
Applications
The parabola shape is used in many different applications as it has special
properties that are very useful. For example if a light is placed inside the parabola
at a special place (called the focus), then all light rays coming from this light and
bouncing off the parabola shape will radiate out parallel to each other, giving a
strong light. This is how car headlights work. Satellite dishes also use this property
of the parabola, as sound coming in to the dish will bounce back to the focus.
The pronumeral
a is called the
coeffcient of . x
2
Quadratic Function
The quadratic function gives the graph of a parabola.
f x ax bx c
2
= + +
] g
is the general equation of a parabola.
If a 0 2 the parabola is concave upwards

If a 0 1 the parabola is concave downwards
The lens in a camera and glasses are also parabola shaped. Some bridges look
like they are shaped like a parabola, but they are often based on the catenary.
Research the parabola and catenary on the Internet for further information.
Investigation
Is the parabola always a function? Can you fnd an example of a parabola
that is not a function?
to explore the effect of a parameter on a quadratic function, or choose
different values of k (both positive and negative).
Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k .
1. y kx
2
=
2. y x k
2
= +
3. y x k
2
= +
] g

4. y x kx
2
= +
What effect does the parameter k have on these graphs?
Which of these families are even functions? Are there any odd quadratic
functions?
EXAMPLES
1. (a) Sketch the graph of , y x 1
2
= - showing intercepts.
(b) State the domain and range.
Solution
This is the graph of a parabola. Since (a) , a 0 2 it is concave upward

x
x
x
0 1
1
1
2
2
!
= -
=
=


0 1
1
y
2
= -
= -

From the graph, the curve is moving outwards and will extend (b)
to all real x values. The minimum y value is . 1 -
Range: : y y 1 $ - " ,
2. Sketch . f x x 1
2
= +
] ] g g

Solution
This is a quadratic function. We nd the intercepts to see where the
parabola will lie.
Alternatively, you may know from your work on parameters that
f x x a
2
= +
] ] g g will move the function f x x
2
=
] g
horizontally a units to the
left.
So f x x 1
2
= +
] ] g g
moves the parabola f x x
2
=
] g
1 unit to the left.

0
1 0
1
x
x
x
1
2
= +
+ =
= -
] g


1
y 0 1
2
= +
=
] g

-1
-3
4
3
2
1
5
-2
-4
-5
-6
1 4 -1 -2 5 3 -3 -4
y
x
3. For the quadratic function f x x x 6
2
= + -
] g

Find the (a) x - and y -intercepts
Find the minimum value of the function (b)
State the domain and range (c)
For what values of (d) x is the curve decreasing?
Solution
For (a) x -intercept: y 0 =
This means f x 0 =
] g

,
,
x x
x x
x x
x x
0 6
3 2
3 0 2 0
3 2
2
= + -
= + -
+ = - =
= - =
] ] g g


f 0 0 0 6
6
2
= + -
= -
] ] ] g g g

Since (b) , a 0 2 the quadratic function has a minimum value.
Since the parabola is symmetrical, this will lie halfway between the
x -intercepts.
Halfway between 3 x = - and 2: x =

2
3 2
2
1 - +
= -
Minimum value is f
2
1
- c m
f
2
1
2
1
2
1
6
4
1
2
1
6
6
4
1
2
- = - + - -
= - -
= -
c c c m m m
So the minimum value is . 6
4
1
-
CONTINUED
You will learn more
about this in Chapter 10.
-1
-3
4
3
2
1
5
-2
-4
-5
1 4 -1 -2 3 2 -3 -4
y
x
Sketching the quadratic function gives a concave upward parabola. (c)
From the graph, notice that the parabola is gradually going outwards and
will include all real x values.
Since the minimum value is
6
4
1
-
, all y values are greater than this.
Range: : 6 y y
4
1
$ - ' 1
The curve decreases down to the minimum point and then (d)
increases. So the curve is decreasing for all . x
2
1
1-
4. (a) Find the x - and y -intercepts and the maximum value of the
quadratic function . f x x x 4 5
2
= - + +
] g

(b) Sketch the function and state the domain and range.
(c) For what values of x is the curve increasing?
Solution
For (a) x -intercept:
0 y =

So f x 0 =
] g

0 4 5
4 5 0
0
x x
x x
x x 5 1
2
2
= - + +
=
+ =
- -
-
] ] g g

,
,
x x
x x
5 0 1 0
5 1
- = + =
= = -
For y -intercept: 0 x =
f 0 0 4 0 5
5
2
= - + +
=
] ] ] g g g

-1
-3
4
3
2
1
5
-2
-4
-5
-6
y
1 4 -1 -2 5 3 -3 -4
x
- 6 -
1
2
1
4
,
Since , a 0 1 the quadratic function is concave downwards and has a
maximum value halfway between the x -intercepts 1 x = - and . x 5 =

2
1 5
2
- +
=

f 2 2 4 2 5
9
= - + +
=
2
] ] ] g g g

So the maximum value is 9.
Sketching the quadratic function gives a concave downward parabola. (b)
From the graph, the function can take on all real numbers for x , but the
maximum value for y is 9.
Range: : 9 y y # " ,
From the graph, the function is increasing on the left of the (c)
maximum point and decreasing on the right.
So the function is increasing when . x 2 1
each function.
(a) 2 y x x
2
= +
(b) 3 y x x
2
= - +
(c) f x x 1
2
= -
] g

(d) y x x 2
2
= - -
(e) y x x 9 8
2
= + -
2. Sketch
(a) 2 y x
2
= +
(b) y x 1
2
= - +
(c) f x x 4
2
= -
] g

(d)
2 y x x
2
= +

(e) y x x
2
= - -
(f) f x x 3 = -
2
] ] g g

5.5 Exercises
-1
9
8
7
5
4
3
2
6
1
-2
-3
-4
-5
y
2 5 1 6 4 3 -1 -2 -3 -4
x
EXAMPLES
1. Sketch f x x 1 = -
] g
Solution
Method 1: Table of values
When sketching any new graph for the frst time, you can use a table of
values. A good selection of values is x 3 3 # # - but if these dont give
enough information, you can fnd other values.
Absolute Value Function
You may not have seen the graphs of absolute functions before. If you are not
sure about what they look like, you can use a table of values or look at the
defnition of absolute value.
(g) f x x 1
2
= +
] ] g g

(h) y x x 3 4
2
= + -
(i) y x x 2 5 3
2
= - +
(j) f x x x 3 2
2
= - + -
] g
3. For each parabola, fnd
the (i) x - and y -intercepts
the domain and range (ii)
(a) y x x 7 12
2
= +
(b) f x x x 4
2
= +
] g

(c) y x x 2 8
2
= - -
(d) y x x 6 9
2
= + -
(e) f t t 4
2
= -
] g

(a) y x 5
2
= -
(b) f x x x 6
2
= -
] g

(c) f x x x 2
2
= - -
] g

(d) y x
2
= -
(e) f x x 7
2
= -
] ] g g

5. Find the range of each function
over the given domain.
(a) y x
2
= for x 0 3 # #
(b) y x 4
2
= - + for x 1 2 # # -
(c) f x x 1
2
= -
] g
for x 2 5 # # -
(d) y x x 2 3
2
= + - for x 2 4 # # -
(e) y x x 2
2
= - + - for x 0 4 # #
6. Find the domain over which each
function is
increasing (i)
decreasing (ii)
(a) y x
2
=
(b) y x
2
= -
(c) f x x 9
2
= -
] g

(d) y x x 4
2
= - +
(e) f x x 5
2
= +
] ] g g

7. Show that f x x
2
= -
] g
is an even
function.
8. State whether these functions are
even or odd or neither.
(a) y x 1
2
= +
(b) f x x 3
2
= -
] g

(c) y x 2
2
= -
(d) f x x x 3
2
= -
] g

(e) f x x x
2
= +
] g

(f) y x 4
2
= -
(g) y x x 2 3
2
= - -
(h) y x x 5 4
2
= + -
(i) p x x 1
2
= +
] ] g g

(j) y x 2 = -
2
] g

CONTINUED
e.g. When : x 3 = -

| | y 3 1
3 1
2
= - -
= -
=

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 2 1 0 -1 0 1 2
This gives a v-shaped graph.
y
-2
4
3
2
1
5
-1
-3
-4
-5
1 4 -1 -2 3 2 -3 -4
x

Method 2: Use the defnition of absolute value
| | y x
x x
x x
1
1 0
1 0
when
when 1
$
= - =
-
- -
&

This gives 2 straight line graphs:
y x x 1 0 $ = -
] g

-3
4
3
2
1
5
-2
-1
-4
-5
y
3 -1 -2 4 2 1 -3 -4
x
y = x - 1
y x 1 = - - x 0 1
] g

-3
4
3
2
1
5
-2
-1
-4
-5
y
3 -1 -2 4 2 1 -3 -4
x
y =-x - 1
Draw these on the same number plane and then disregard the dotted
lines to get the graph shown in method 1.

-3
4
3
2
1
5
-2
-1
-4
-5
yy
3 -1 -2 4 2 1 -3 -4
x
y = -x - 1
y = x - 1
Method 3: If you know the shape of the absolute value functions, fnd the
intercepts.
For x -intercept: 0 y =
So f x 0 =
] g

| |
| |
x
x
x
0 1
1
1 ` !
= -
=
=


( ) | | f 0 0 1
1
= -
= -

The graph is V -shaped, passing through these intercepts.

-3
4
3
2
1
5
-2
-1
-4
-5
y
4 -2 5 3 2 1 -1 -3 -4
x

From the graph, notice that x values can be any real number while the
minimum value of y is . 1 -
Range: { y : y 1 $ - }
2. Sketch . | | y x 2 = +
Solution
Method 1: Use the defnition of absolute value.
| |
( )
y x
x x
x x
2
2 2 0
2 2 0
when
when 1
$
= + =
+ +
- + +
'
This gives 2 straight lines:
2 y x = + when x 2 0 $ +
x 2 $ -

-3
4
3
2
1
5
-2
-1
-4
-5
y
3 -1 -2 4 2 1 -3 -4
x
y = x + 2
If you already know how
to sketch the graph of
y | x | = , translate the
graph of y | x | 1 = -
down 1 unit, giving it a
y -intercept of . 1 -
CONTINUED
2 y x = - +
] g
when x 2 0 1 +
i.e. y x 2 = - - when x 2 1 -
-3
4
3
2
1
5
-2
-1
-4
-5
y
3 -1 -2 4 2 1 -3 -4
x
y = -x - 2

Draw these on the same number plane and then disregard the dotted lines.

-3
4
3
2
1
5
-2
-1
-4
-5
y
3 -1 -2 4 2 1 -3 -4
x
y = -x - 2
y = x + 2
Method 2: Find intercepts
For x -intercept: 0 y =
So 0 f x =
] g

0 | 2 |
0 2
2
x
x
x
= +
= +
- =


(0) | 0 2 |
2
f = +
=

There is only one
solution for the
equation | x 2 | 0. + =
Can you see why?
The graph is V -shaped, passing through these intercepts.

-3
4
3
2
1
5
-2
-1
-4
-5
y
3 -1 -2 4 2 1 -3 -4
x

If you know how to
sketch the graph of
y | x | = , translate it 2
places to the left for the
graph of . y | x 2 | = +
Investigation
Are graphs that involve absolute value always functions? Can you fnd an
example of one that is not a function?
Can you fnd any odd or even functions involving absolute values? What
are their equations?
to explore the effect of a parameter on an absolute value function, or
choose different values of k (both positive and negative).
1. | | f x k x =
] g

2. | | f x x k = +
] g

3. | | f x x k = +
] g

The equations and inequations involving absolute values that you studied in
Chapter 3 can be solved graphically.
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. | 2 1 | 3 x - =
Solution
Sketch | 2 1 | y x = - and 3 y = on the same number plane.

The solution of | 2 1 | 3 x - = occurs at the intersection of the graphs, that
is, , . x 1 2 = -
2. | 2 1 | 3 2 x x = - +
Solution
Sketch | 2 1 | y x = + and 3 2 y x = - on the same number plane.

The solution is 3. x =
3. | 1 | 2 x 1 +
Solution
Sketch | 1 | y x = + and 2 y = on the same number plane.
The graph shows that
there is only one solution.
Algebraically, you need to
fnd the 2 possible solutions
and then check them.

The solution of | 1 | 2 x 1 + is where the graph | 1 | y x = + is below the
graph 2, y = that is, . x 3 1 1 1 -
each function.
(a) | | y x =
(b) | | f x x 7 = +
] g

(c) | | f x x 2 = -
] g

(d) 5 | | y x =
(e) | | f x x 3 = - +
] g

(f) | 6 | y x = +
(g) | | f x x 3 2 = -
] g

(h) | 5 4 | y x = +
(i) | 7 1 | y x = -
(j) | | f x x 2 9 = +
] g

2. Sketch each graph on a number
plane.
(a) | | y x =
(b) | | f x x 1 = +
] g

(c) | | f x x 3 = -
] g

(d) 2 | | y x =
(e) | | f x x = -
] g

(f) | 1 | y x = +
(g) | | f x x 1 = - -
] g

(h) | 2 3 | y x = -
(i) | 4 2 | y x = +
(j) | | f x x 3 1 = +
] g

each function.
(a) | 1 | y x = -
(b) | | f x x 8 = -
] g

(c) | | f x x 2 5 = +
] g

(d) 2 | | 3 y x = -
(e) | | f x x 3 = - -
] g

4. Find the domain over which each
function is
increasing (i)
decreasing (ii)
(a) | 2 | y x = -
(b) | | f x x 2 = +
] g

(c) | | f x x 2 3 = -
] g

(d) 4 | | 1 y x = -
(e) | | f x x = -
] g

5. For each domain, fnd the range
of each function.
(a) | | y x = for x 2 2 # # -
(b) | | f x x 4 = - -
] g
for
x 4 3 # # -
(c) | | f x x 4 = +
] g
for x 7 2 # # -
(d) | 2 5 | y x = - for x 3 3 # # -
(e) | | f x x = -
] g
for x 1 1 # # -
6. For what values of x is each
function increasing?
(a) | 3 | y x = +
(b) | | f x x 4 = - +
] g

(c) | | f x x 9 = -
] g

(d) | | y x 2 1 = - -
(e) | | f x x 2 = - +
] g

5.6 Exercises
7. Solve graphically
(a) | | 3 x =
(b) | | x 1 2
(c) | | x 2 #
(d) | 2 | 1 x + =
(e) | 3 | 0 x - =
(f) | 2 3 | 1 x - =
(g) | | x 1 4 1 -
(h) | | x 1 3 # +
(i) | | x 2 2 2 -
(j) | | x 3 1 $ -
(k) | | x 2 3 5 # +
(l) | | x 2 1 1 $ -
(m) | 3 1 | 3 x x - = +
(n) | 3 2 | 4 x x - = -
(o) | 1 | 1 x x - = +
(p) | 3 | 2 2 x x + = +
(q) | 2 1 | 1 x x + = -
(r) | 2 5 | 3 x x - = -
(s) | 1 | 2 x x - =
(t) | 2 3 | 3 x x - = +
The Hyperbola
A hyperbola is a function with its equation in the form . xy a y
x
a
or = =
EXAMPLE
Sketch
1
. y
x
=
Solution

1
y
x
= is a discontinuous curve since the function is undefned at . x 0 =
Drawing up a table of values gives:

x -3 -2 -1
2
1
-
4
1
-
0
4
1
2
1
1 2 3
y
3
1
-
2
1
- -1 -2 -4 4 2 1
2
1
3
1

Class Discussion
What happens to the graph as x becomes closer to 0? What happens as x
becomes very large in both positive and negative directions? The value of
y is never 0. Why?
To sketch the graph of a more general hyperbola, we can use the domain and
range to help nd the asymptotes (lines towards which the curve approaches
but never touches).
The hyperbola is an example of a discontinuous graph, since it has a gap
in it and is in two separate parts.
Investigation
Is the hyperbola always a function? Can you nd an example of a
hyperbola that is not a function?
Are there any families of odd or even hyperbolas? What are their
equations?
to explore the effect of a parameter on a hyperbola, or choose different
values of k (both positive and negative).
1. y
x
k
=
2.
1
y
x
k = +
3.
1
y
x k
=
+

EXAMPLES
1. (a) Find the domain and range of . f x
x 3
3
=
-
] g

Hence sketch the graph of the function. (b)
Solution
This is the equation of a hyperbola.
To nd the domain, we notice that . x 3 0 ! -
So x 3 !
Also y cannot be zero (see example on page 242).
Domain: {all real x : x 3 ! }
Range: {all real y : y 0 ! }
The lines 3 x = and 0 y = (the x -axis) are called asymptotes.
The denominator cannot
be zero.
CONTINUED
To make the graph more accurate we can fnd another point or two. The
easiest one to fnd is the y -intercept.
For y -intercept, 0 x =

1
y
0 3
3
=
-
= -

-3
4
3
2
1
5
-2
-1
-4
-5
y
-1 -2 4 5 2 1 -3 -4
x
x = 3
y = 0
Asymptotes
3

2. Sketch . y
x 2 4
1
= -
+

Solution
This is the equation of a hyperbola. The negative sign turns the hyperbola
around so that it will be in the opposite quadrants. If you are not sure
where it will be, you can fnd two or three points on the curve.
To fnd the domain, we notice that . x 2 4 0 ! +
x
x
2 4
2
!
!
-
-
For the range, y can never be zero.
Domain: {all real x : x 2 ! - }
Range: {all real y : y 0 ! }
So there are asymptotes at x 2 = - and y 0 = (the x -axis).
To make the graph more accurate we can fnd the y -intercept.
For y -intercept, x 0 =
( )
y
2 0 4
1
4
1
= -
+
= -

Notice that this graph is
a translation of
3
y
x
=
three units to the right.
y
-2
x
-
1
4
The function f x
bx c
a
=
+
] g
is a hyperbola with
domain : x x
b
c
all real ! -
& 0
and
range {all real : y y 0 ! }
1. For each graph
State the domain and range. (i)
Find the (ii) y -intercept if it
exists.
Sketch the graph. (iii)
(a)
2
y
x
=
(b)
1
y
x
= -
(c) f x
x 1
1
=
+
] g

(d) f x
x 2
3
=
-
] g

(e)
3 6
1
y
x
=
+

(f) f x
x 3
2
= -
-
] g

(g) f x
x 1
4
=
-
] g

(h)
1
2
y
x
= -
+

(i) f x
x 6 3
2
=
-
] g

(j)
2
6
y
x
= -
+

2. Show that f x
x
2
=
] g
is an odd
function.
3. Find the range of each function
over the given domain.
(a) f x
x 2 5
1
=
+
] g
for x 2 2 # # -
(b)
3
1
y
x
=
+
for x 2 0 # # -
(c) f x
x 2 4
5
=
-
] g
for x 3 1 # # -
5.7 Exercises
(d) f x
x 4
3
= -
-
] g
for x 3 3 # # -
(e)
3 1
2
y
x
= -
+
for x 0 5 # #
4. Find the domain of each function
over the given range.
(a)
3
y
x
= for y 1 3 # #
(b)
2
y
x
= - for y 2
2
1
# # - -
(c) f x
x 1
1
=
-
] g
for y 1
7
1
# # - -
(d) f x
x 2 1
3
= -
+
] g
for
y 1
3
1
# # - -
(e)
3 2
6
y
x
=
-
for y 1
2
1
6 # #
Circles and Semi-circles
The circle is used in many applications, including building and design.
Circle gate
A graph whose equation is in the form 0 x ax y by c
2 2
+ + + + = has the
shape of a circle.
There is a special case of this formula:
The graph of x y r
2 2 2
+ = is a circle, centre 0, 0 ^ h and radius r
Proof
r
y
x
(x, y)
y
x
Given the circle with centre (0, 0) and radius r :
Let ( x , y ) be a general point on the circle, with distances from the origin x
on the x -axis and y on the y -axis as shown.

c a b
r x y
2 2 2
2 2 2
`
= +
= +

EXAMPLE
Sketch the graph of (a) 4. x y
2 2
+ = Is it a function?
State its domain and range. (b)
Solution
This is a circle with radius 2 and centre (0, 0). (a)
y
x
-2
-2 2
2
The circle is not a function since a vertical line will cut it in more than
one place.
y
x
2
2
-2
-2
The radius is . 4
CONTINUED
Notice that the (b) x -values for this graph lie between 2 - and 2 and
the y -values also lie between 2 - and 2.
Domain: : 2 2 { } x x # # -
Range: : 2 2 { } y y # # -
The circle x y r
2 2 2
+ = has domain: : x r x r # # - ! + and
range: : y r y r # # - " ,
The equation of a circle, centre ( a , b ) and radius r is x a y b r
2 2 2
+ = ]
^
g
h
We can use Pythagoras theorem to fnd the equation of a more general circle.
Proof
Take a general point on the circle, ( x , y ) and draw a right-angled triangle as
shown.
y
x
(a, b)
x
y
r
(x, y)
a
b
x - a
y - b
Notice that the small sides of the triangle are x a and y b and the
hypotenuse is r , the radius.

c a b
r x a y b
2 2 2
2 2 2
= +
= + ]
^
g
h

EXAMPLES
1. (a) Sketch the graph of . x y 81
2 2
+ =
(b) State its domain and range.
Solution
The equation is in the form (a) . x y r
2 2 2
+ =
This is a circle, centre (0, 0) and radius 9.
y
x
9
9
-9
-9
From the graph, we can see all the values that are possible for (b) x
and y for the circle.
Domain: : 9 9 { } x x # # -
Range: : 9 9 { } y y # # -
2. (a) Sketch the circle . x y 1 2 4
2 2
+ + =
]
^
g
h
(b) State its domain and range.
Solution
The equation is in the form (a) . x a y b r
2 2 2
+ = ]
^
g
h

x y
x y
1 2 4
1 2 2
2
2 2
+ + =
+ - =
2
2
]
^
] ] _
g
h
g gi

So 1, 2 a b = = - and 2 r =
CONTINUED
This is a circle with centre , 1 2 - ^ h and radius 2.
To draw the circle, plot the centre point , 1 2 - ^ h and count 2 units up,
down, left and right to fnd points on the circle.
y
x
1
1
-2 2 3 4
-1
-3
-4
-5
2
3
4
5
-1
-2
-3 -4
(1, -2)
From the graph, we can see all the values that are possible for (b) x
and y for the circle.
Domain: : 1 3 { } x x # # -
Range: : 4 0 { } y y # # -
3. Find the equation of a circle with radius 3 and centre , 2 1 - ^ h in
expanded form.
Solution
This is a general circle with equation x a y b r
2 2 2
+ = ]
^
g
h where
, a b 2 1 = - = and . r 3 =
Substituting:

x a y b r
x y
x y
2 1 3
2 1 9
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2
+ =
- - + =
+ + =
]
^
] ]
^
]
^
g
h
gg
h
g
h

Remove the grouping symbols.

a b a ab b
x x x
x x
a b a ab b
y y y
y y
2
2 2 2 2
4 4
2
1 2 1 1
2 1
So
So
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
+ = + +
+ = + +
= + +
= - +
= - +
= - +
]
] ] ]
]
^ ^
]
g
g g g
g
h h
g

The equation of the circle is:

x x y y
x x y y
x x y y
x x y y
4 4 2 1 9
4 2 5 9
4 2 5 9
4 2 4 0
9 9
2
2
2
2
+ + + - + =
+ + - + =
+ + + =
+ + - - =
- -

You may need to revise this
in Chapter 2.
Investigation
The circle is not a function. Could you break the circle up into
two functions?
Change the subject of this equation to y .
What do you notice when you change the subject to y ? Do you get two
functions? What are their domains and ranges?
If you have a graphics calculator, how could you draw the graph of a
circle?
The equation of the semi-circle above the x -axis with centre (0, 0)
and radius r is y r x
2 2
= -
The equation of the semi-circle below the x -axis with centre (0, 0)
and radius r is y r x
2 2
= - -
y r x
2 2
= - is the semi-circle above the x -axis since its range is y $ 0
for all values.
y
x
r
r
-r
The domain is { : x r x r # # - } and the range is { : y y r 0 # # }
Proof

x y r
y r x
y r x
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2
!
+ =
=
= -

This gives two functions:
By rearranging the equation of a circle, we can also fnd the equations of
semi-circles.
y r x
2 2
= - - is the semi-circle above the x -axis since its range is
y 0 # for all values.
y
x
r
-r
-r
The domain is { : x r x r # # - } and the range is { : } y r y 0 # # -
EXAMPLES
Sketch each function and state the domain and range.
1. f x x 9
2
= -
] g

Solution
This is in the form f x r x
2 2
= -
] g
where . r 3 =
It is a semi-circle above the x -axis with centre (0, 0) and radius 3.
y
x
3
3
-3
Domain: : 3 3 { } x x # # -
Range: : 0 3 { } y y # #
2. y x 4
2
= - -
Solution
This is in the form y r x
2 2
= - - where . r 2 =
It is a semi-circle below the x -axis with centre (0, 0) and radius 2.
y
x
2
-2
-2
Domain: : 2 2 { } x x # # -
Range: : 2 0 { } y y # # -
1. For each of the following
sketch each graph (i)
state the domain and (ii)
range.
(a) 9 x y
2 2
+ =
(b) x y 16 0
2 2
+ = -
(c) x y 2 1 4
2 2
+ =
]
^
g
h
(d) 1 9 x y
2 2
+ + =
] g

(e) x y 2 1 1
2 2
+ + =
]
^
g
h
2. For each semi-circle
state whether it is above or (i)
below the x -axis
sketch the function (ii)
state the domain and (iii)
range.
(a) 25 y x
2
= - -
(b) 1 y x
2
= -
(c) 36 y x
2
= -
(d) 64 y x
2
= - -
(e) 7 y x
2
= - -
3. Find the length of the radius and
the coordinates of the centre of
each circle.
(a) 100 x y
2 2
+ =
(b) 5 x y
2 2
+ =
(c) x y 4 5 16
2 2
+ =
]
^
g
h
(d) x y 5 6 49
2 2
+ + =
]
^
g
h
(e) x y 3 81
2 2
+ = ^ h
5.8 Exercises
4. Find the equation of each circle
in expanded form (without
grouping symbols).
Centre (0, 0) and radius 4 (a)
Centre (3, 2) and radius 5 (b)
Centre (c) , 1 5 - ^ h and radius 3
Centre (2, 3) and radius 6 (d)
Centre (e) , 4 2 - ^ h and radius 5
Centre (f) , 0 2 - ^ h and radius 1
Centre (4, 2) and radius 7 (g)
Centre (h) , 3 4 - - ^ h and radius 9
Centre (i) , 2 0 - ^ h and radius 5
Centre (j) , 4 7 - - ^ h and radius 3
Other Graphs
There are many other different types of graphs. We will look at some of these
graphs and explore their domain and range.
Exponential and logarithmic functions
EXAMPLES
1. Sketch the graph of f x 3
x
=
] g
Solution
If you do not know what this graph looks like, draw up a table of values.
You may need to revise the indices that you studied in Chapter 1.
e.g. When 0: x =

y 3
1
c =
=

: x
y
1
3
3
1
3
1
When
1
1
= -
=
=
=
-

x 3 - 2 - 1 - 0 1 2 3
y
27
1
9
1
3
1
1 3 9 27
If you already know what the shape of the graph is, you can draw it
just using 2 or 3 points to make it more accurate.
You will meet these
graphs again in the
HSC Course.
This is an exponential function with y -intercept 1. We can fnd one
other point.

When

x
y
1
3
3
1
=
=
=

y
x
1
2
1
3
From the graph, x can be any real value (the equation shows this as well
since any x value substituted into the equation will give a value for y ).
From the graph, y is always positive, which can be confrmed by
substituting different values of x into the equation.
Range: : y y 0 2 " ,
2. Sketch log f x x =
] g
and state the domain and range.
Solution
Use the LOG key on your calculator to complete the table of values.
Notice that you cant fnd the log of 0 or a negative number.
x 2 1 0 0.5 1 2 3 4
y
# # #
0.3 0 0.3 0.5 0.6
y
x
1
2
1 2 3 4
-1
From the graph and by trying different values on the calculator, y can be
any real number while x is always positive.
Domain: : x x 0 2 ! +
You learned about
exponential graphs in earlier
stages of maths.
The exponential function y a
x
= has domain {all real x } and
range { : y y 0 2 }
The logarithmic function log y x
a
= has domain : x x 0 2 ! + and
range {all real y }
Cubic function
A cubic function has an equation where the highest power of x is . x
3

EXAMPLE
1. Sketch the function f x x 2
3
= +
] g
Solution
Draw up a table of values.
x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
y 25 6 1 2 3 10 29
y
x
1
1
-2 2 3 4
-1
-3
-4
-5
2
3
4
5
-1
-2
-3 -4
The function can have any real x or y value:
If you already
know the shape of
, ( ) y x f x x 2
3
= = +
3
has
the same shape as ( ) f x x =
3

but it is translated 2 units up
(this gives a y-intercept of 2).
Domain and range
Sometimes there is a restricted domain that affects the range of a function.
EXAMPLE
1. Find the range of f x x 2
3
= +
] g
over the given domain of . x 1 4 # # -
Solution
The graph of f x x 2
3
= +
] g
is the cubic function in the previous example.
From the graph, the range is {all real y }. However, with a restricted
domain of x 1 4 # # - we need to see where the endpoints of this
function are.

f
f
1 1 2
1 2
1
4 4 2
64 2
66
3
3
- = - +
= - +
=
= +
= +
=
] ]
] ]
g g
g g

Sketching the graph, we can see that the values of y all lie between
these points.
y
x
(-1, 1)
(4, 66)
Range: 1 66 : y y # # " ,
You may not know what a function looks like on a graph, but you can still
fnd its domain and range by looking at its equation.
When fnding the domain, we look for values of x that are impossible.
For example, with the hyperbola you have already seen that the denominator
of a fraction cannot be zero.
For the range, we look for the results when different values of x are
substituted into the equation. For example, x
2
will always give zero or a
positive number.
EXAMPLE
Find the domain and range of . f x x 4 = -
] g

Solution
We can only fnd the square root of a positive number or zero.

4 0 x
x 4
So $
$

When you take the square root of a number, the answer is always positive
(or zero). So y 0 $
Domain: : x x 4 $ ! +
Range: : y y 0 $ " ,
5.9 Exercises
(a) 4 3 y x = +
(b) f x 4 = -
] g

(c) 3 x =
(d) f x x 4 1
2
=
] g

(e) p x x 2
3
=
] g

(f) f x x x 12
2
= - -
] g

(g) 64 x y
2 2
+ =
(h) f t
t 4
3
=
-
] g

(i) ( ) g
2
5 z
z
= +
(j) | | f x x =
] g

(a) y x =
(b) 2 y x = -
(c) | | f x x 2 3 = -
] g

(d) | | 2 y x = -
(e) f x x 2 5 = - +
] g

(f) | | y x 5 = -
(g) 2 y
x
=
(h) y 5
x
= -
(i) f x
x
x 1
=
+
] g

(j)
2
4 3
y
x
x
=
-

3. Find the x -intercepts of
(a) y x x 5
2
= -
] g

(b) f x x x x 1 2 3 = +
] ] ] ] g g g g

(c) y x x x 6 8
3 2
= + -
(d) g x x x 16
4 2
= -
] g

(e) 49 x y
2 2
+ =
You may like to
simplify the function
by dividing by x.
4. (a) Solve . x 1 0
2
$ -
(b) Find the domain of
. f x x 1
2
= -
] g

5. Find the domain of
(a) 2 y x x
2
= - -
(b) g t t t 6
2
= +
] g

6. Each of the graphs has a
restricted domain. Find the range
in each case.
(a) y x 2 3 = - in the domain
x 3 3 # # -
(b) y x
2
= in the domain
x 2 3 # # -
(c) f x x
3
=
] g
in the domain
x 2 1 # # -
(d)
1
y
x
= in the domain
x 1 5 # #
(e) | | y x = in the domain
0 4 x # #
(f) y x x 2
2
= - in the domain
x 3 3 # # -
(g) y x
2
= - in the domain
x 1 1 # # -
(h) y x 1
2
= - in the domain
x 2 3 # # -
(i) y x x 2 3
2
= - - in the domain
x 4 4 # # -
(j) y x x 7 6
2
= - + - in the
domain 0 7 x # #
7. (a) Find the domain for the
function . y
x 1
3
=
+

Explain why there is no (b)
x - intercept for the function.
State the range of the (c)
function.
8. Given the function f x
x
x
=
] g

fnd the domain of the (a)
function
fnd its range. (b)
9. Draw each graph on a number
plane
(a) f x x
4
=
] g

(b) y x
3
= -
(c) y x 3
4
= -
(d) 2 p x x
3
=
] g

(e) 1 g x x
3
= +
] g

(f) 100 x y
2 2
+ =
(g) 2 1 y
x
= +
10. (a) Find the domain and range of
. y x 1 = -
(b) Sketch the graph of . y x 1 = -
11. Sketch the graph of . y 5
x
=
12. For each function, state
its domain and range (i)
the domain over which the (ii)
function is increasing
the domain over which the (iii)
function is decreasing.
(a) y x 2 9 = -
(b) f x x 2
2
= -
] g

(c)
1
y
x
=
(d) f x x
3
=
] g

(e) f x 3
x
=
] g

13. (a) Solve . x 4 0
2
$ -
(b) Find the domain and range of
(i) 4 y x
2
= -
(ii) . y x 4
2
= - -
DID YOU KNOW?
A lampshade can produce a hyperbola
where the light meets the fat wall.
Can you fnd any other shapes made by
a light?
Lamp casting its light
Limits and Continuity

Limits
The exponential function and the hyperbola are examples of functions that
approach a limit. The curve y a
x
= approaches the x -axis when x approaches
very large negative numbers, but never touches it.
That is, when , . x a 0
x
" " 3 -
Putting a
3 -
into index form gives

a
a
1
1
0
3
Z
=
=
3
3
-

We say that the limit of a
x
as x approaches 3 - is 0. In symbols, we write
. lim a 0
x
=
x " 3 -

A line that a graph approaches
but never touches is called an
asymptote.
EXAMPLES
1. Find . lim
x
x x 5
x 0
2
+
"

Solution
Substituting 0 x = into the function gives
0
0
, which is undened.
Factorising and cancelling help us nd the limit.
( )
lim lim
lim
x
x x
x
x x
x
5
5
5
5
x x
x
0
2
0
1
1
0
+
=
+
= +
=
" "
"
] g

2. Find . lim
x
x
4
2
2
-
-
x 2 "

Solution
Substituting 2 x = into the function gives
0
0
, which is undefned.

lim lim
lim
x
x
x x
x
x
4
2
2 2
2
2
1
4
1
2 1
1
-
-
=
+ -
-
=
+
=
x x 2 2 " "
x 2 "
^ _ h i

3. Find . lim
h
h x hx h 2 7
2 2
+ -
h 0 "

Solution

lim lim
lim
h
h x hx h
h
h hx x
hx x
x
2 7 2 7
2 7
7
2 2 2
2
2
+ -
=
+ -
= + -
= -
h 0 "
h h 0 0 " "
^ h

Continuity
Many functions are continuous. That is, they have a smooth, unbroken curve
(or line). However, there are some discontinuous functions that have gaps in
their graphs. The hyperbola is an example.
If a curve is discontinuous at a certain point, we can use limits to fnd the
value that the curve approaches at that point.
EXAMPLES
1. Find lim
x
x
1
1
2
-
-
x 1 "
and hence describe the domain and range of the curve

1
1
. y
x
x
2
=
-
-
Sketch the curve.
Solution
Substituting 1 x = into
1
1
x
x
2
-
-
gives
0
0

CONTINUED
( )
lim lim
lim
x
x
x
x x
x
1
1
1
1 1
1
2
x x
x
1
2
1
1
-
-
=
-
+ -
= +
=
"
"
-
] ] g g

1
1
y
x
x
2
=
-
-
is discontinuous at 1 x = since y is undefned at that point.
This leaves a gap in the curve. The limit tells us that y 2 " as 1, x " so
the gap is at , . 1 2 ^ h
Domain: : , 1 x x x all real ! " ,
Range: : , 2 y y y all real ! " ,

y
x
x
x
x x
x
1
1
1
1 1
1
2
=
-
-
=
+
= +
-
- ^ ^ h h
` the graph is y x 1 = + where x 1 !

2. Find lim
x
x x
2
2
x 2
2
+
+ -
"-
and hence sketch the curve . y
x
x x
2
2
2
=
+ -
+

Solution
Substituting x 2 = - into
x
x x
2
2
2
+
+ -
gives
0
0

lim lim
lim
x
x x
x
x x
x
2
2
2
1 2
1
3
x x
x
2
2
2
2
+
+ -
=
+
- +
=
= -
-
" "
"
- -
-
^
^ ^
^
h
h h
h
2 y
x
x x
x
y
x
x
x
x
2
2
2
2
1
1
is discontinuous at
2
=
+
+ -
= -
=
+
= -
+ - ^ ^ h h
So the function is y x 1 = - where . x 2 ! - It is discontinuous at , . 2 3 - - ^ h
Remember that . x 1 !
1. Find
(a) lim x 5
2
+
x 4 "

(b) lim t 7 -
t 3 "-

(c) lim x x 2 4
3
+ -
x 2 "

(d) lim
x
x x 3
2
+
x 0 "

(e) lim
h
h h
2
2
2
-
- -
h 2 "

(f) lim
y
y
5
125
3
-
-
y 5 "

(g) lim
x
x x
1
2 1
2
+
+ +
x 1 "-

(h) lim
x
x x
4
2 8
2
+
+ -
x 4 "-

(i) lim
c
c
4
2
2
-
-
c 2 "

(j) lim
x x
x 1
2
-
-
x 1 "

(k) lim
h
h h h 2 7
3 2
+ -
h 0 "

(l) lim
h
hx hx h 3
2 2
- +
h 0 "

(m) lim
h
hx h x hx h 2 3 5
3 2 2
- + -
h 0 "

(n) lim
x c
x c
3 3
-
-
x c "

2. Determine which of these
functions are discontinuous and
fnd x values for which they are
discontinuous.
(a) 3 y x
2
= -
(b)
1
1
y
x
=
+

(c) f x x 1 = -
] g

(d)
4
1
y
x
2
=
+

(e)
4
1
y
x
2
=
-

3. Sketch these functions, showing
any points of discontinuity.
(a)
3
y
x
x x
2
=
+

(b)
3
3
y
x
x x
2
=
+
+

(c)
1
5 4
y
x
x x
2
=
+
+ +

5.10 Exercises
A special limit is lim
x
1
0 =
x "3

EXAMPLES
1. Find . lim
x x
x
2 3
3
2
2
- +
x "3

Solution

lim lim
lim
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
2 3
3
2 3
3
1
2 3
3
1 0 0
3
3
(dividing by the highest power of )
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
- +
=
- +
=
- +
=
- +
=
x x
x
" "
"
3 3
3

2. Find
(a) lim
x x
x
4 4
2
+ +
x "3

(b) lim
x x
x
4 4
2
+ +
x " 3 -

Solution
(a) lim lim
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
4 4 4 4
2
2
2
2 2
2
+ +
=
+ +
x x " " 3 3

lim
x
x
x
1
4 4
1
1 0 0
0
0
2
=
+ +
=
+ +
=
x "3

Further Graphs
Graphs of functions with asymptotes can be diffcult to sketch. It is important
to fnd the limits as the function approaches the asymptotes.

Since
1
0
x
" from the positive side when , x " 3 + we can write
0 lim
x x
x
4 4
2
+ +
=
+
x "3

(b) lim lim
x x
x
x
x
x
4 4
1
4 4
1
0
2
2
+ +
=
+ +
=
x x " " 3 3 - -

Since
1
0
x
" from the negative side when , x " 3 - we can write
0 lim
x x
x
4 4
2
+ +
=
-
x " 3 -

3. Find . lim
x
x
1
3
2
-
x "3

Solution
Dividing by x
2
will give
0
3
.
Divide by x .

lim lim
lim
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
1
3
1
3
1
1
3
1 0
3
3
2
2
-
=
-
=
-
=
-
=
x x
x
" "
"
3 3
3

1
x
4
x
4
2
+ + is positive
whether x is or . - + Can
you see why?
General graphs
It is not always appropriate to sketch graphs, for example, a hyperbola or
circle, from a table of values. By restricting the table of values, important
features of a graph may be overlooked.
Other ways of exploring the shape of a graph include:
intercepts
The x -intercept occurs when 0. y =
The y -intercept occurs when 0. x =
even and odd functions
Even functions ( ) f x f x - = ^ h 6 @ are symmetrical about the y -axis.
Odd functions ( ) f x f x - = - ^ h 6 @ are symmetrical about the origin.
asymptotes
Vertical asymptotes occur when f x 0 !
] g
and , h x 0 =
] g
given
. f x
h x
g x
=
]
]
]
g
g
g

Horizontal and other asymptotes are found (if they exist) when
fnding . lim f x
x "!3
] g

domain and range
The domain is the set of all possible x values for a function.
The range is the set of all possible y values for a function.
EXAMPLES
1. Sketch . y
x
x
9
2
2
=
-

Solution
Intercepts:
For x -intercept, 0 y =
0
0
x
x
x
x
0
9
2
2
2
=
-
=
=

So the x -intercept is 0 .

y
0 2
0
0
2
=
-
=

So the y -intercept is 0
Type of function:

( )
( )
f x
x
x
x
x
f x
9
9
2
2
2
2
- =
- -
-
=
-
=
]
]
g
g

The function is even so it is symmetrical about the y -axis .
Vertical asymptotes:

0
3 0, 3 0
3, 3
x
x x
x x
x x
9 0
3 3
2
!
! !
! !
! -
+ -
+ -
-
] ] g g

So there are asymptotes at x 3 ! = .
As x " 3 from LHS :

(3 ) f
3 9
3
2
2
=
-
=
-
+
= -
-
-
-
^
^
h
h

So y " 3 -
As x " 3 from RHS :

(3 ) f
3 9
3
2
2
=
-
=
+
+
= +
+
+
+
^
^
h
h

So y "3
As x " 3 - from LHS :

( ) f 3
3 9
3
2
2
- =
- -
-
=
+
+
= +
-
-
-
^
^
h
h

So y "3
As 3 x "- from RHS :

( ) f 3
3 9
3
2
2
- =
- -
-
=
-
+
= -
+
+
+
^
^
h
h

So y " 3 -
Horizontal asymptotes:

lim lim
lim
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
9 9
1
9
1
1 0
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
-
=
-
=
-
=
-
=
x x
x
" "
"
3 3
3

As x "3

( ) f
9
1
2
2
3
3
3
2
=
-

So as x "3 , y " 1 from above
You could substitute values
close to 3 on either side into
the equation, say 2.9 on LHS
and 3.1 on RHS.
You could substitute values
close to 3 - on either side
into the equation, say . 3 1 -
on LHS and . 2 9 - on RHS.
CONTINUED
As x " 3 -

( ) f
9
1
3
3
3
2
- =
- -
-
2
2
]
]
g
g

So as x " 3 - , y " 1 from above
Domain: { x : all real x 3 ! ! }
Range:
When 3, 1 x y 2 2
When , x y 3 3 0 1 1 # -
When , x y 3 1 1 2 -
So the range is { y : y 2 1, y # 0}.
All this information put together gives the graph below.

2. Sketch . ( ) f x
x
x
2
2
=
-

Solution
Intercepts:
For x -intercept, 0 y =

0
0
0
x
x
x
x
2
2
2
=
-
=
=

So the x -intercept is 0

0
y
0 2
0
2
=
-
=

So the y -intercept is 0 .
Type of function:

( )
( )
f x
x
x
x
x
x
x
f x
2
2
2
2
2
2
!
- =
-
-
=
- -
= -
+
-
-
]
]
g
g

The function is neither even nor odd.
You could substitute
values such as 1000 and
1000 - to see what
y does as x
approaches . !3
Vertical asymptotes:

x
x
2 0
2
!
!
-

So there is an asymptote at 2 x = .
As x " 2 from LHS :

(2 ) f
2 2
2
2
=
-
=
-
+
= -
-
-
-
^ h

So y " 3 -
As x " 2 from RHS :

(2 ) f
2 2
2
2
=
-
=
+
+
= +
+
+
+
^ h

So y "3
You could substitute values close to 2 on either side into the equation, say
1.9 on LHS and 2.1 on RHS.
e.g. When 2.1 x =

(2.1)
.
.
44.1
f
2 1 2
2 1
2
=
-
=
] g

Horizontal asymptotes:

lim lim
lim
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
2 2
1
2
1 0
2
2
-
=
-
=
-
=
-
=
x x
x
" "
"
3 3
3

This means that as x approaches !3 , the function approaches y x = .
As x "3

( ) f
x
2
2
3
3
3
2
=
-

So as x "3 , y " x from above .
As x " 3 -

( ) f
x
2
3
3
3
1
- =
- -
-
2
] g

So as x " 3 - , y " x from above .
Note: If we divide everything
by , x
2
we get .
0
1
Divide by x .
CONTINUED
This is not easy to see, so substitute values such as 1000 and 1000 - to see
what y does as x approaches 3 .
e.g. When 1000 x = -

( ) f 1000
1000 2
1000
998
2
- =
- -
-
= -
] g

The point , 1000 998 - - ^ h is just above the line y x = .
Domain: { x : all real x 2 ! }
Range:
When x 2 2 we fnd that an approximate range is y 35 2 (substituting
different values of x )
When , x y 2 0 1 #
So the range is { : , y y y 35 0 2 # }
Putting all this information together gives the graph below.
y
x
2

There is a method that combines all these features to make sketching easier.
EXAMPLES
1. Sketch . y
x
x
9
2
2
=
-

Solution
First fnd the critical points ( x -intercepts and vertical asymptotes).

3 3
y
x x
x x #
=
+ -
] ] g g


- 0
0
0
x
x
x
x
x
y
9
0
intercepts:
2
2
2
=
=
-
=
=

( 3) ( 3) 0 x x
x 3
asymptotes:
!
+ - =
=

These critical points, , , x 0 3 ! = divide the number plane into four regions.

Then sketch , y x y x 3 = = + and 3 y x = - on your graph.

Look at the sign of the curve in each region.

gion : Re y x
y x
y x
y
x x
x x
1
3
3
3 3
`
#
#
#
= +
= + +
= - +
=
+ -
=
+ +
+ +
= +
] ] g g

gion : Re y x
y x
y x
y
x x
x x
2
3
3
3 3
`
#
#
#
= +
= + +
= - -
=
+ -
=
+ -
+ +
=
-
+
= -
] ] g g

The curve is above the x -axis
in this region.
The curve is below the x -axis
in this region.
A graph is positive if it is
above the x -axis.
These are straight lines at the
critical points.
CONTINUED

gion : Re y x
y x
y x
y
x x
x x
3
3
3
3 3
`
#
#
#
= -
= + +
= - -
=
+ -
=
+ -
- -
=
-
+
= -
] ] g g

gion : Re y x
y x
y x
y
x x
x x
4
3
3
3 3
`
#
#
#
= -
= + -
= - -
=
+ -
=
- -
- -
=
+
+
= +
] ] g g

Find any horizontal asymptotes.
fromabove
1 fromabove
lim lim
lim
x
x
x
x
x
9
1
9
1
1
9
2
2
2
2
2
-
=
-
=
-
=
x x
x
" "
"
3 3
3 -

All this information put together gives the following graph.

2. Sketch . y
x x
x
2 1
1
=
+ -
+
] ] g g

Solution
Find the critical points.

1 ( )
vertical asymptotes
x x
x
x
2
1
intercept = - -
= -
=
^ h
0

The curve is below the
x -axis in this region.
The curve is above the
x -axis in this region.
Check these!
Use these to divide the number plane into 4 regions and sketch
1, 2 1. y x y x y x and = + = + = -

gion : Re y
x x
x
1
2 1
1
#
=
+ -
+
=
+ +
+
= +
] ] g g

gion : Re y
x x
x
3
2 1
1
#
=
+ -
+
=
+ -
-
= +
] ] g g

gion : Re y
x x
x
2
2 1
1
#
=
+ -
+
=
+ -
+
= -
] ] g g

gion : Re y
x x
x
4
2 1
1
#
=
+ -
+
=
- -
-
= -
] ] g g

For horizontal asymptotes

lim lim
lim
lim
x x
x
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
2 1
1
2
1
1
1 2
1 1
0
2 1
1
0
2
2
2
+ -
+
=
+ -
+
=
+ -
+
=
+ -
+
=
+
-
x " 3 -
x x
x
" "
"
3 3
3
] ]
] ]
g g
g g

All this information put together gives the following graph.

The y -intercept is .
2
1
-
Class Investigation
You can explore graphs of this type on a graphical calculator or by using
computer software designed to draw graphs.
5.11 Exercises
1. Find
lim
x
x
2
x "3
(a)
(b) lim
x 4
2
+
x "3

(c) lim
x
x
1
5
2
+
x "3

(d) lim
x x
x 2
3
3
-
x "3

(e) lim
x x
x
7 1
2
2
+ +
x "3

(f) lim
x x
x
2 7
6
5
5
- -
x "3

(g) lim
x
x x
3 1
2 3 6
3
3
+
- -
x "3

(h) lim
x x
x
4 27 9
3
2
+ -
x "3

(i) lim
x
x
2
5
2
+
x "3

(j) lim
x
x
1
3
-
x "3

2. (a) Show that

3
1
1 3
x
x x
x
x
2
2
2
+ +
= + +
Find (b) lim
x
x x 3
2
2
+ +
x "3

Find (c) lim
x
x x 3
2
2
+ +
x " 3 -

3. Find
(a) lim
x
x
5
2
+
x "3

(b) lim
x
x
5
2
+
x " 3 -

4. Find
(a) lim
x x
x
3 7
3
4
+
x "3

(b) lim
x
x
4 3
5
3
+
x "3

5. Sketch
(a)
1
1
y
x
2
=
+

(b)
1
1
y
x
2
=
-

(c)
1
y
x
x
=
+

(d)
1
y
x
x
2
2
=
+

(e)
4
y
x
x
2
2
=
-

(f) 1
1
y
x
x
2
= +
+

(g)
4
2
y
x
x
2
=
-
+

(h)
4
4
y
x
x
2
2
=
+
-

(i)
1
y x
x
= +
(j)
4
3
y
x
2
=
-

EXAMPLES
1. Solve
x 1
1
2 $
+
graphically .
Solution
Sketch
1
1
y
x
=
+
and 2 y = on the same number plane.
The hyperbola has domain {all real : x x 1 ! - } and range {all real : y y 0 ! }.
1
y
0 1
1
=
+
=
y
x
1 2
-2
1
2
-1
-2 -
1
2
y =2
y =
1
x +1
-1
The solution of
x 1
1
2 $
+
occurs when the hyperbola
1
1
y
x
=
+
is on or
above the line 2. y =
CONTINUED
Solving inequations graphically
There are different methods of solving inequations involving pronumerals in
the denominator. You learned how to solve these using the number line in
Chapter 3.
The two graphs intersect where
1
1
2
x +
= .

( ) ( )
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
1
1
2
1 2 1
2 2
1 2
2
1
2
2
2
1
1 1 # #
+
=
= +
= +
- =
-
=
- =
+ +
] g

The solution is x 1
2
1
1 # - - (from the graph).
2. Solve
x 2
1
1 1
-
graphically.
Solution
Sketch
2
1
y
x
=
-
and 1 y = on the same number plane .
The hyperbola has domain {all real x : x 2 ! } and range {all real y : y 0 ! } .

y
0 2
1
2
1
=
-
= -

y
x
1 2
-2
1
2
-1
y =1
3 4
y =
1
x -2
1
22
- -1 --22
The solution of
x 2
1
1 1
-
occurs when the hyperbola
2
1
y
x
=
-
is below
the line 1. y =
The two graphs intersect where
2
1
1
x -
=

( ) ( )
x
x
x
x x
2
1
1
1 2
3
2 2 # #
-
=
= -
=
- -

The solution is , x x 2 3 1 2

1.
x
1
2 1 -
2.
x
1
3 2
3.
x
1
1 $
4.
x
1
2 $ -
5.
x 1
1
3 2
-

6.
x 2
1
1 #
+

7.
x 2
2
5 $
-

8.
x 3
3
1 2
+
-
9.
x 1
1
3 #
-
-

10.
x
x
2
4 $
+

5.12 Exercises
Solve graphically and algebraically .
Regions
Class Investigation
How many solutions are there for ? y x 2 $ + How would you record
them all?
Inequalities can be shown as regions in the Cartesian plane.
You can shade regions on a number plane that involve either linear or
non-linear graphs. This means that we can have regions bounded by a circle or
a parabola, or any of the other graphs you have drawn in this chapter.
Regions can be bounded or unbounded.
A bounded region means that the line or curve is included in the region.
EXAMPLE
Sketch the region x 3 # .
Solution
x 3 # includes both 3 x = and x 3 1 in the region.
Sketch 3 x = as an unbroken or flled in line, as it will be included in the
region. Shade in all points where x 3 1 as shown.

y
x =3
x
1
1
-2 2 3 4
-1
-3
-4
-5
2
3
4
5
-1
-2
-3 -4
An unbounded region means that the line or curve is not included in the
region.
EXAMPLE
Sketch the region y 1 2 - .
Solution
y 1 2 - doesnt include . y 1 = - When this happens, it is an unbounded
region and we draw the line y 1 = - as a broken line to show it is not
included.
Remember that x 3 = is a
vertical line with x -intercept 3.
Sketch y 1 = - as a broken line and shade in all points where y 1 2 - as
shown.

y
x
1
1
-2 2 3 4
-3
-4
-5
2
3
4
5
-1
-2
-3 -4
-1 y = -1

Remember that y 1 = - is a
horizontal line with
y -intercept . 1 -
For lines that are not horizontal or vertical, or for curves, we need to
check a point to see if it lies in the region.
CONTINUED
EXAMPLES
Find the region defned by
1. y x 2 $ +
Solution
First sketch 2 y x = + as an unbroken line.
On one side of the line, y x 2 2 + and on the other side, . y x 2 1 +
To fnd which side gives , y x 2 2 + test a point on one side of the
line (not on the line).
For example, choose 0, 0 ^ h and substitute into

y x 2
0 0 2
0 2 (false)
$
$
$
+
+
This means that 0, 0 ^ h does not lie in the region . y x 2 $ + The
region is on the other side of the line.

2. x y 2 3 6 1 -
Solution
First sketch 2 3 6 x y - = as a broken line, as it is not included in the
region.
To fnd which side of the line gives , x y 2 3 6 1 - test a point on one
side of the line.
For example, choose 0, 1 ^ h and substitute into
( )
x y 2 3 6
2 0 3 1 6
3 6 (true)
1
1
1
-
-
-
] g

This means that 0, 1 ^ h lies in the region . x y 2 3 6 1 -
3. x y 1
2 2
2 +
Solution
The equation 1 x y
2 2
+ = is a circle, radius 1 and centre , . 0 0 ^ h
Draw 1 x y
2 2
+ = as a broken line, since the region does not include
the curve.
Any point in the region will
make the inequality true.
Test one to see this.
2x 22 -3y =6
Choose a point inside the circle, say 0, 0 ^ h

x y 1
0 0 1
0 1 (false)
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
+
+
So the region lies outside the circle.

4. y x
2
$
Solution
The equation y x
2
= is a parabola. Sketch this as an unbroken line, as it is
included in the region.
Choose a point inside the parabola, say 1, 3 ^ h .

3 1
y x
3 1
(true)
2
2
2
2
$

So 1, 3 ^ h lies in the region.

y =x
2
Sometimes a region includes two or more inequalities . When this
happens, sketch each region on the number plane, and the fnal region is
where they overlap (intersect).
EXAMPLE
Sketch the region , x y 4 2 2 # - and . y x
2
#
Solution
Draw the three regions, either separately or on the same set of axes, and
see where they overlap.
.

Put the three regions together.

If you are given a region, you should also be able to describe it
algebraically.
EXAMPLES
Describe each region .
1.
y
x
1
1
-2 2 3 4
-1
-3
-4
2
3
4
5
-1
-2
-3 -4
6

Solution
The shaded area is below and including 6 y = so can be described as
y 6 # .
It is also to the left of, but not including the line 4, x = which can be
described as . x 4 1
The region is the intersection of these two regions:
y 6 # and x 4 1
2.

y
x
2
2
-2
-2

CONTINUED
Solution
The shaded area is the interior of the circle, centre (0, 0) and radius 2 but
it does not include the circle.
The equation of the circle is 2 4. x y x y or
2 2 2 2 2
+ = + =
You may know (or guess) the inequality for the inside of the circle.
If you are unsure, choose a point inside the circle and substitute into the
equation e.g. (0, 0) .

x y
0 0
0
4
LHS
RHS
2 2
2 2
1
= +
= +
=
] g

So the region is x y 4
2 2
1 + .
5.13 Exercises
1. Shade the region defned by
(a) x 2 #
(b) x 1 2
(c) y 0 $
(d) y 5 1
(e) y x 1 # +
(f) y x 2 3 $ -
(g) x y 1 2 +
(h) 3 6 0 x y 1 - -
(i) x y 2 2 0 $ + -
(j) x 2 1 0 1 -
2. Write an inequation to describe
each region .
(a)
y
x
1
1
-2 2 3 4
-1
-3
-4
2
3
4
5
-1
-2
-3 -4
6
(b)
y
x
1
1
-2 2 3 4
-1
-3
-4
2
3
4
5
-1
-2
-3 -4
6
(c)
y
x
1
1
-2 2 3 4
-1
-3
-4
2
3
4
5
-1
-2
-3 -4
6
y = x + 1
(d)
y
1
1
-2 2 3 4 5
-1
-3
-4
-5
2
3
4
5
-1
-2
-3 -4
y = x
2
- 4
(e)
y
x
1
1
2
3
y = 2
x
3. Shade each region described .
(a) y x 1
2
2
(b) x y 9
2 2
# +
(c) x y 1
2 2
$ +
(d) y x
2
#
(e) y x
3
1
4. Describe as an inequality
the set of points that lie (a)
below the line y x 3 2 = -
the set of points that lie (b)
inside the parabola 2 y x
2
= +
the interior of a circle with (c)
radius 7 and centre (0, 0)
the exterior of a circle with (d)
radius 9 and centre (0, 0)
the set of points that lie to (e)
the left of the line 5 x = and
above the line 2 y =
5. Shade the region
(a) x y 2 4
2 2
# - +
] g

(b) x y 1 2 1
2 2
# - + -
]
^
g
h
(c) 1 x y 2 9
2 2
2 + + -
]
^
g
h
6. Shade the intersection of these
regions .
(a) , x 3 # y 1 $ -
(b) , x y x 3 3 2 $ - -
(c) , y 1 # y x 3 5 $ -
(d) , y x y x 1 3 2 # + -
(e) , y x y 1 9
2 2
# # +
(f) , x x y 1 4
2 2
2 1 - +
(g) , y y x 4
2
# $
(h) , , x y y x 2 3
3
1 2 # -
(i) , y x y 0 1
2 2
# $ +
(j) x y 1 2 1 # - -
7. Shade the region bounded by
the curve (a) , y x
2
= the x -axis
and the lines 1 x = and 3 x =
the curve (b) , y x
3
= the y -axis
and the lines 0 y = and 1 y =
the curve (c) 4, x y
2 2
+ = the
x -axis and the lines 0 x = and
1 x = in the frst quadrant
the curve (d)
2
, y
x
= the x -axis
and the lines 1 x = and 4 x =
the curve (e)
2
1
, y
x
=
+
the
x -axis and the lines 0 x = and
2 x =
8. Shade the regions bounded by
the intersection of
(a) , x y 2 5 1 1 and y x
2
#
(b) , , x y y x 3 1 2 1 $ # - -
(c) , , y x y x x y 1 2 1 2 3 6 # # # - + -
(d) , , x y x y 3 2 9
2 2
$ # $ - +
(e) , , | | x y y x 2 3 1 # $
The frst quadrant is
where x and y values
are both positive.
Application
Regions are used in business applications to fnd optimum proft. Two (or more)
equations are graphed together, and the region where a proft is made is shaded.
The optimum proft occurs at the endpoints (or vertices) of the region.
EXAMPLE
A company makes both roller skates ( X ) and ice skates ( Y ). Roller skates make a
$25 proft, while ice skates make a proft of $21. Each pair of roller skates spends
2 hours on machine A (available 12 hours per day) and 2 hours on machine B
(available 8 hours per day). Each pair of ice skates spends 3 hours on machine A
and 1 hour on machine B.
How many skates of each type should be made each day to give the greatest
proft while making the most effcient use of the machines?
SOLUTION

Profit P $25 $21
Machine A: 2 3 12
Machine B: 2 8
X Y
X Y
X Y
+
+
+
#
#
=

Sketch the regions and fnd the
point of intersection of the lines.
The shaded area shows all possible ways of making a proft. Optimum proft
occurs at one of the endpoints of the regions.

(0, 4): $25 0 $21 4 $84
(4, 0): $25 4 $21 0 $100
(3, 2): $25 3 $21 2 $117
P
P
P
= + =
= + =
= + =
] ]
] ]
] ]
g g
g g
g g

3, 2 ^ h gives the greatest proft, so 3 pairs of roller skates and 2 pairs of ice
skates each day gives optimum proft.
Test Yourself 5
1. If , f x x x 3 4
2
= - -
] g
fnd
(a) f 2 -
] g

(b) f a ] g
(c) x when f x 0 =
] g

2. Sketch each graph
(a) 3 4 y x x
2
= - -
(b) f x x
3
=
] g

(c) 1 x y
2 2
+ =
(d) 1 y x
2
= -
(e) 1 y x
2
= - -
(f)
2
y
x
=
(g) 2 5 10 0 x y - + =
(h) | 2 | y x = +
3. Find the domain and range of each graph
in question 2.
4. If f x
x x
x x
2 1
3 1
if
if
2
1
$
=
-
] g
*
fnd f f f 5 0 1 - +
] ] ] g g g

5. Given f x
x
x x
x x
3 3
1 3
2 1
if
if
if
2
2
1
# # =
-
] g
*
fnd
(a) f 2
] g

(b) f 3 -
] g

(c) f 3
] g

(d) f 5
] g

(e) f 0
] g

6. Shade the region y x 2 1 $ + .
7. Shade the region where x y 3 1 and 1 $ - .
8. Shade the region given by x y 1
2 2
$ + .
9. Shade the region given by
2 3 6 0 2 x y x and # $ + - - .
10. Shade the region y x 1 2 + and
x y 2 # + .
11. Describe each region
(a)
(b)
(c)
12. (a) Write down the domain and range of
the curve
3
2
y
x
=
-
.
(b) Sketch the graph of
3
2
y
x
=
-
.
13. (a) Sketch the graph | 1 | y x = + .
From the graph, solve (b)
(i) | 1 | 3 x + =
(ii) | | x 1 3 1 +
(iii) | | x 1 3 2 +
14. If , f x x 3 4 = -
] g
fnd
(a) f 2
] g

(b) x when f x 7 =
] g

(c) x when f x 0 =
] g

(a) 2 5 20 0 x y - + =
(b) 5 14 y x x
2
= - -
16. State which functions are (i) even
(ii) odd (iii) neither even nor odd .
(a) 1 y x
2
= -
(b) 1 y x = +
(c) y x
3
=
(d) y x
4
=
(e) 2 y
x
=
17. Find
(a) lim
x
x x
3
2 3
x 3
2
-
- -
"

(b) lim
x x
x
5
2
x 0
2
+
"

(c) lim
x
x
1
1
x 1
2
3
-
+
"-

(d) lim
h
xh h 2 3
h 0
2
+
"

18. Sketch 10 , log y y x y x and
x
= = = on the
same number plane.
19. (a) State the domain and range of
2 4 y x = - .
Sketch the graph of (b) 2 4 y x = - .
20. Show that
(a) f x x x 3 1
4 2
= + -
] g
is even
(b) f x x x
3
= -
] g
is odd.
21. Sketch the following graphs showing
asymptotes and other features .
(a)
5
5
y
x
2
=
+

(b)
1
y
x
x
2
=
-

(c) f x
x
x
16
2
2
2
-
=
] g

(d)
3
y
x
x
2
2
=
+

(e) f x
x x
x
2 8
2
2
- -
=
+
] g

1. Find the values of b if f x x x 3 7 1
2
= - +
] g

and . f b 7 =
] g

2. Sketch 2 1 y x
2
= + -
] g
in the domain
. x 3 0 # # -
3. Sketch the curve
4
2
y
x
x
2
3
=
-
.
4. Sketch the region y x 4
2
2 - in the frst
quadrant.
5. Draw the graph of | | 3 4. y x x = + -
6. f x
x x
x
x x
2 3 2
1 2 2
2
when
when
when
2
2
1
# # =
+
-
-
] g
Z
[
\
]
]
]]

Find , , f f f 3 4 0 -
] ] ] g g g
and sketch the
curve.

1
1
. y
x
2
=
-

8. Sketch the region , , x y x y 2 6 1 1 +
2 4 0. x y $ + -
9. Find the domain and range of x y
2
= in
the frst quadrant.
10. If , f x x x x 2 2 12
3 2
= - -
] g
fnd x when
. f x 0 =
] g

11. Sketch the region defned by y
x 2
1
2
+

in the frst quadrant.
12. If h t
t t
t t
1 1
1 1
if
if
2
2
2
#
=
-
-
] g
)
fnd the value of h h h 2 1 0 - + -
] ] ] g g g
and
sketch the curve.
13. Sketch 1 y x
2
= - in the frst quadrant.
14. Sketch the region , . y x y x x 5
2
1 $ - +
15. If , f x x 2 1 = -
] g
show that

2
( ) f a f a
2
= -
^ _ h i for all real a .
16. Find the values of x for which f x 0 =
] g

when f x x x 2 5
2
= - -
] g
(give exact
answers).
17. (a) Show that
3
2 7
2
3
1
.
x
x
x +
+
= +
+

(b) Find the domain and range of

3
2 7
. y
x
x
=
+
+

(c) Hence sketch the graph of

3
2 7
. y
x
x
=
+
+

18. Sketch 2 . y
1 x
=
-

19. Sketch
| |
. y
x
x
2
=
. x f x 2 6 = -
] g

21. What is the domain of
4
1
? y
x
2
=
-

22. Sketch . f x
x
1
1
2
= -
] g

23. (a) Find . lim
x
x
1
2
-
x "3

(b) Sketch
1
2
. y
x
x
=
-

24. Sketch
1
1
. y
x
x
2
=
-
+

TERMINOLOGY
6
Trigonometry
Angle of depression: The angle between the horizontal
and the line of sight when looking down to an object
below
Angle of elevation: The angle between the horizontal and
the line of sight when looking up to an object above
Angles of any magnitude: Angles can be measured around
a circle at the centre to fnd the trigonometric ratios of
angles of any size from 0c to 360c and beyond
Bearing: The direction relative to north. Bearings may
be written as true bearings (clockwise from North) or as
compass bearings (using N, S, E and W)
Complementary angles: Two or more angles that add up
to 90c
Cosecant: The reciprocal ratio of sine (sin). It is the
hypotenuse over the opposite side in a right triangle
Cotangent: The reciprocal ratio of tangent (tan). It is the
adjacent over the opposite side in a right triangle
Secant: The reciprocal ratio of cosine (cos). It is the
hypotenuse over the adjacent side in a right triangle
Trigonometric identities: A statement that is true for
all trigonometric values in the domain. Relationships
between trigonometric ratios
291 Chapter 6 Trigonometry
INTRODUCTION
TRIGONOMETRY IS USED IN many elds, such as building, surveying and
navigating. Wave theory also uses trigonometry.
This chapter revises basic right-angled triangle problems and applies them
to real-life situations. Some properties of trigonometric ratios, angles greater
than 90c and trigonometric equations are introduced. You will also study
trigonometry in non-right-angled triangles.
Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus), in the second century, wrote He mathe matike syntaxis (or
Almagest as it is now known) on astronomy. This is considered to be the frst treatise on
trigonometry, but was based on circles and spheres rather than on triangles. The notation chord
of an angle was used rather than sin, cos or tan.
Ptolemy constructed a table of sines from 0c to 90c in steps of a quarter of a degree. He also
calculated a value of r to 5 decimal places, and established the relationship for sin ( ) X Y ! and
cos ( ) . X Y !
DID YOU KNOW?
Trigonometric Ratios
In similar triangles, pairs of corresponding angles are equal and sides are in
proportion. For example:
the hypotenuse is the longest side, and is always opposite
the right angle
the opposite side is opposite the angle marked in the
triangle
the adjacent side is next to the angle marked
In any triangle containing an angle of , 30c the ratio of : : . AB AC 1 2 =
Similarly, the ratios of other corresponding sides will be equal. These ratios of
sides form the basis of the trigonometric ratios.
In order to refer to these ratios, we name the sides in relation to the angle
being studied:
You studied similar triangles in
Geometry in Chapter 4.
ch6.indd 291 8/11/09 10:58:08 AM
The opposite and adjacent sides vary according to where the angle is
marked. For example:
The trigonometric ratios are
You can learn these by their
initials SOH , CAH , TOA .
What about S ome O ld H ags
C ant A lways H ide T heir O ld
A ge?
DID YOU KNOW?
Trigonometry, or triangle measurement , progressed from the study of geometry in ancient
Greece. Trigonometry was seen as applied mathematics. It gave a tool for the measurement of
planets and their motion. It was also used extensively in navigation, surveying and mapping,
and it is still used in these felds today.
Trigonometry was crucial in the setting up of an accurate calendar, since this involved
measuring the distances between the Earth, sun and moon.

sin
cos
tan
hypotenuse
opposite
hypotenuse
adjacent
adjacent
opposite
Sine
Cosine
Tangent
i
i
i
=
=
=

As well as these ratios, there are three inverse ratios,

cosec
sin
sec
cos
cot
tan
1
1
1
opposite
hypotenuse
adjacent
hypotenuse
opposite
adjacent
Cosecant
Secant
Cotangent
i
i
i
i
i
i
= =
= =
= =
f
f
f
p
p
p

EXAMPLES
1. Find , sina tana and . seca
Solution

sin
tan
sec
cos
AB
BC
AC
5
3
4
5
3
4
3
1
4
5
hypotenuse
opposite side
adjacent side
hypotenuse
opposite
adjacent
opposite
adjacent
hypotenuse
a
a
a
a
= =
= =
= =
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

2. If
7
2
, sini = fnd the exact ratios of , cos i tani and . cot i
Solution

7 2
49 4
45
c a b
a
a
a
a 45
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
2
`
= +
= +
= +
=
=

CONTINUED
To fnd the other ratios
you need to fnd the
adjacent side.

cos
tan
cot
tan
7
45
45
2
1
2
45
hypotenuse
adjacent
adjacent
opposite
i
i
i
i
=
=
=
=
=
=

Complementary angles
, , ABC B A 90 In if then c + + i i D = = -

sin
cos
tan
sec
cosec
cot
c
b
c
a
a
b
a
c
b
c
b
a
i
i
i
i
i
i
=
=
=
=
=
=

(angle sum of a )

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
sin
cos
tan
sec
cosec
cot
c
a
c
b
b
a
b
c
a
c
a
b
90
90
90
90
90
90
c
c
c
c
c
c
i
i
i
i
i
i
- =
- =
- =
- =
- =
- =

From these ratios come the results.

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
sin cos
cos sin
sec cosec
cosec sec
tan cot
cot tan
90
90
90
90
90
90
i i
i i
i i
i i
i i
i i
= -
= -
= -
= -
= -
= -

1. Write down the ratios of
, cos sin i i and . tani
2. Find , sin cot b b and . secb
3. Find the exact ratios of
, sin tan b b and . cos b
4. Find exact values for , cos tan x x
and . cosecx
EXAMPLES
1. Simplify 50 40 . tan cot c c -
Solution

tan cot
cot
tan cot tan tan
50 90 50
40
50 40 50 50
0
`
c c c
c
c c c c
= -
=
- = -
=
] g

2. Find the value of m if . sec cosec m 55 2 15 c c = -
] g

Solution

90 55
35
sec cosec
cosec
m
m
m
55
2 15 35
2 50
25
`
c c c
c
= -
=
- =
=
=
] g

Check this by substituting
m into the equation.
6.1 Exercises
Check this answer on
your calculator.
5. If , tan
3
4
i = fnd cos i and . sin i
6. If
3
2
, cos i = fnd exact values for
, tani seci and . sini
7. If
6
1
, sini = fnd the exact ratios
of cos i and . tani
8. If 0.7, cos i = fnd exact values
for tani and . sini
9. ABC D is a right-angled isosceles
triangle with ABC 90c + = and
1. AB BC = =
Find the exact length of (a) AC .
Find (b) . BAC +
From the triangle, write down (c)
the exact ratios of 45 , 45 sin cos c c
and . c tan45
10.
Using Pythagoras theorem, (a)
fnd the exact length of AC .
Write down the exact ratios of (b)
30 , 30 sin cos c c and 30 . tan c
Write down the exact ratios of (c)
60 , 60 sin cos c c and 60 . tan c
11. Show . sin cos 67 23 c c =
12. Show . sec cosec 82 8 c c =
13. Show . tan cot 48 42 c c =
14. Simplify
(a) cos sin 61 29 c c +
(b) 90 sec cosec c i i - - ] g
(c) 70 20 2 70 tan cot tan c c c + -
(d)
35
55
cos
sin
c
c

(e)
25
25 65
cot
cot tan
c
c c +

15. Find the value of x if
. sin cos x 80 90 c c = -
] g

16. Find the value of y if
. tan cot y 22 90 c c = - ^ h
17. Find the value of p if
. cos sin p 49 10 c c = + ^ h
18. Find the value of b if
. sin cos b 35 30 c c = +
] g

19. Find the value of t if
. cot tan t t 2 5 3 15 c c + = -
] ] g g

20. Find the value of k if
. tan cot k k 15 2 60 c c - = +
] ] g g

Hint: Change 0.7 to a fraction.
Trigonometric ratios and the calculator
Angles are usually given in degrees and minutes. In this section you will
practise rounding off angles and fnding trigonometric ratios on the calculator.
Angles are usually given in degrees and minutes in this course. The
calculator uses degrees, minutes and seconds, so you need to round off.

utes ree
onds ute
( )
60 1 (60 1)
min deg
sec min
60 1 60 1c = =
= =
l
m l

In normal rounding off, you round up to the next number if the number
to the right is 5 or more. Angles are rounded off to the nearest degree by
rounding up if there are 30 minutes or more. Similarly, angles are rounded off
to the nearest minute by rounding up if there are 30 seconds or more.
EXAMPLES
Round off to the nearest minute.
1. 23 12 22 c l m
Solution
23 12 22 23 12 c c = l m l
2. 59 34 41 c l m
Solution
59 34 41 59 35 c c = l m l
3. 16 54 30 c l m
Solution
16 54 30 16 55 c c = l m l

, ,,
% KEY
This key changes decimal angles into degrees, minutes and seconds
and vice versa.
Some calculators have
deg or dms keys.
EXAMPLES
1. Change 58 19 c l into a decimal.
Solution

, ,, , ,, , ,,
% % % 58 19 Press =
So . 58 19 58 31666667 c = l
2. Change 45.236c into degrees and minutes.
Solution

, ,,
% . 45 236 Press SHIFT =
So . 45 236 45 14 c c = l
If your calculator does not
give these answers, check
the instructions for its use.
Because 30 seconds is
half a minute, we round
up to the next minute.
In order to use trigonometry in right-angled triangle problems, you need
to fnd the ratios of angles on your calculator.
EXAMPLES
1. Find , cos 58 19 c l correct to 3 decimal places.
Solution

, ,, , ,,
% % 58 19 Press COS =
So . cos 58 19 0 525 c = l
2. Find , sin 38 14 c l correct to 3 decimal places.
Solution

, ,, , ,,
% % 38 14 Press SIN =
So . sin 38 14 0 619 c = l
3. If 0.348, tani = fnd i in degrees and minutes.
Solution
This is the reverse of fnding trigonometric ratios.
To fnd the angle, given the ratio, use the inverse key . tan
1 -
^ h

, ,,
% TAN . 0 348 Press SHIFT SHIFT
1
=
-

.
( . )
tan
tan
0 348
0 348
19 11
1
c
i
i
=
=
=
-
l

4. Find i in degrees and minutes if . . cos 0 675 i =
Solution

, ,,
% . 0 675 Press SHIFT COS SHIFT
1
=
-

.
( . )
cos
cos
0 675
0 675
47 33
1
c
i
i
=
=
=
-
l

6.2 Exercises
1. Round off to the nearest degree.
(a) 47 13 12 l m
(b) 81 45 43 l m
(c) 19 25 34 l m
(d) 76 37 19 l m
(e) 52 29 54 l m
2. Round off to the nearest minute.
(a) 47 13 12 l m
(b) 81 45 43 l m
(c) 19 25 34 l m
(d) 76 37 19 l m
(e) 52 29 54 l m
If your calculator
doesn't give this
answer, check that it
is in degree mode.
3. Change to a decimal.
(a) 77 45 c l
(b) 65 30 c l
(c) 24 51 c l
(d) 68 21 c l
(e) 82 31 c l
4. Change into degrees and minutes.
(a) 59.53c
(b) 72.231c
(c) 85.887c
(d) 46.9c
(e) 73.213c
5. Find correct to 3 decimal places.
(a) 39 25 sin c l
(b) cos 45 51 c l
(c) 18 43 tan c l
(d) 68 06 sin c l
(e) 54 20 tan c l
6. Find i in degrees and minutes if
(a) . sin 0 298 i =
(b) . tan 0 683 i =
(c) . cos 0 827 i =
(d) . tan 1 056 i =
(e) . cos 0 188 i =
Right-angled Triangle Problems
Trigonometry is used to fnd an unknown side or angle of a triangle.
Finding a side
We can use trigonometry to fnd a side of a right-angled triangle.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of x , correct to 1 decimal place.
Solution

.
.
.
. .
cos
cos
cos
cos
x
x
x
x
23 49
11 8
23 49
11 8
11 8 23 49
10 8 1
11 8 11 8
hypotenuse
adjacent
cm to decimal point `
# #
i =
=
=
=
=
l
l
l
^ h

CONTINUED
2. Find the value of y , correct to 3 signifcant fgures.
Solution

c 15 c
15
15
15
c
c
c
c
15
15
c
.
.
.
.
.
.
sin
sin
sin
sin
sin
sin
sin sin
y
y
y
y
y
y y
41 15
9 7
41
9 7
41 9 7
41
9 7
41
9 7
14 7 3
41 41
hypotenuse
opposite
m to significant figures
# #
i =
=
=
=
=
=
=
l
l
l
l
l
l l
^ h

6.3 Exercises
1. Find the values of all pronumerals,
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)

x
31
c
12l
5.4 cm

(l)
x
4.7 cm
37
c
22l

(m)
x
6.3 cm
72
c
18l

(n)
23 mm
63
c
14l
x

(o)
3.7 m
39
c
47l
y

(p)
14.3 cm
46
c
5l
k

(q)
4.8 m
74
c
29l
h

(r)
0.45 m
68
c
41l
d

(s)
5.75 cm
19
c
17l
x

(t) 17.3 m
6
c
3l
b

2. A roof is pitched at 60c. A room
built inside the roof space is to
have a 2.7 m high ceiling. How
far in from the side of the roof
will the wall for the room go?

60
c
2.7 m
x
3. A diagonal in a rectangle with
breadth 6.2 cm makes an angle
of 73c with the vertex as shown.
Find the length of the rectangle

73
c
6.2 cm
4. Hamish is standing at an angle of
67c from a goalpost and 12.8 m
away as shown. How far does he
need to kick a football for it to
reach the goal?

x
67
c
12.8 m
5. Square ABCD with side 6 cm has
line CD produced to E as shown
so that EAD 64 12 c + = l . Evaluate
the length, correct to 1 decimal
place, of
(a) CE
(b) AE

E
6 cm
64
c
12l
B
A
C
D
6. A right-angled triangle with
hypotenuse 14.5 cm long has one
interior angle of 43 36 c l. Find the
lengths of the other two sides of
the triangle.
7. A right-angled triangle ABC
with the right angle at A has
B 56 44 c + = l and 26 AB = mm.
Find the length of the
hypotenuse.
8. A triangular fence is made for a
garden inside a park. Three holes
A , B and C for fence posts are
made at the corners so that A and
B are 10.2 m apart, AB and CB are
perpendicular, and angle CAB is
59 54 c l. How far apart are A and C ?
9. Triangle ABC has 46 BAC c + =
and . ABC 54c + = An altitude
is drawn from C to meet AB at
point D . If the altitude is 5.3 cm
long, fnd, correct to 1 decimal
place, the length of sides
(a) AC
(b) BC
(c) AB
10. A rhombus has one diagonal
12 cm long and the diagonal
makes an angle of 28 23 c l with
the side of the rhombus.
Find the length of the side of (a)
the rhombus.
Find the length of the other (b)
diagonal.
11. Kite ABCD has diagonal
15.8 BD = cm as shown.
If ABD + = 57 29 and c l
72 51 DBC c + = l, fnd the length
of the other diagonal AC.
B
A
C
D
72
c
51l
57
c
29l
15.8 cm
Finding an angle
Trigonometry can also be used to fnd one of the angles in a right-angled
triangle.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of , i in degrees and minutes.
CONTINUED
Solution

.
.
7.3
5.8
cos
7 3
5 8
hypotenuse
adjacent
1
i =
-
cos
37 23
`
c
i =
=
=
l
c m

2. Find the value of , a in degrees and minutes.
Solution

.
.
.
.
tan
tan
2 1
4 9
2 1
4 9
66 48
adjacent
opposite
1
`
c
a
a
=
=
=
=
-
l
c m

6.4 Exercises
1. Find the value of each pronumeral,
in degrees and minutes.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
2.4 cm
3.8 cm
a

(l)
8.3 cm
5.7 cm
i

(m)
6.9 mm
11.3 mm
i

(n)
3 m
7 m
i

(o)
5.1 cm
11.6 cm
b

(p)
15 m
13 m
a

(q)
7.6 cm
4.4 cm
i

(r)
14.3 cm
8.4 cm
a

(s)
3 m
5 m
i

(t)
10.3 cm
18.9 cm
c

2. A kite is ying at an angle of i
above the ground as shown. If the
kite is 12.3 m above the ground and
has 20 m of string, nd angle i .

12.3 m
20 m
i
3. A eld is 13.7 m wide and Andre is
on one side. There is a gate on the
opposite side and 5.6 m along from
where Andre is. At what angle will
he walk to get to the gate?

Gate
Andre
5.6 m
13.7 m
i
4. A 60 m long bridge has an opening
in the middle and both sides open
up to let boats pass underneath.
The two parts of the bridge oor
rise up to a height of 18 m.
Through what angle do they move?

18 m
i
60 m
5. An equilateral triangle ABC with
side 7 cm has an altitude AD that
is 4.5 cm long. Evaluate the angle
the altitude makes with vertex A
DAB +
] g
.
6. Rectangle ABCD has dimensions
18 cm # 7 cm. A line AE is drawn
so that E bisects DC .
How long is line (a) AE ? (Answer
to 1 decimal place).
Evaluate (b) DEA + .
7. A 52 m tall tower has wire stays
on either side to minimise wind
movement. One stay is 61.3 m
long and the other is 74.5 m long
as shown. Find the angles that
the tower makes with each stay.

52 m
61.3 m 74.5 m
b a
8. (a) The angle from the ground up
to the top of a pole is 41c when
standing 15 m on one side of it.
Find the height h of the pole, to
the nearest metre.
If Seb stands 6 m away on the (b)
other side, fnd angle i .

41
c
h
6 m 15 m
i
9. Rectangle ABCD has a line BE
drawn so that AEB 90c + = and
1 DE = cm. The width of the
rectangle is 5 cm.
5 cm
B A
C
E
D
1 cm
Find (a) BEC + .
Find the length of the (b)
rectangle.
10. A diagonal of a rhombus with
side 9 cm makes an angle of 16c
with the side as shown. Find the
lengths of the diagonals.

16
c
9 cm
11. (a) Kate is standing at the side of
a road at point A , 15.9 m away
from an intersection. She is at an
angle of 39c from point B on the
other side of the road. What is
the width w of the road?
(b) Kate walks 7.4 m to point
C . At what angle is she from
point B ?

w
B
C
A
7.4 m
15.9 m
39
c
i
Applications
DID YOU KNOW?
The Leaning Tower of Pisa was built as a belfry for the cathedral nearby. Work started on the
tower in 1174, but when it was only half completed the soil underneath one side of it subsided.
This made the tower lean to one side. Work stopped, and it wasnt until 100 years later that
architects found a way of completing the tower. The third and ffth storeys were built close to
the vertical to compensate for the lean. Later a vertical top storey was added.
The tower is about 55 m tall and 16 m in diameter. It is tilted about 5 m from the vertical, and
tilts by an extra 0.6 cm each year.
Class Investigation
Discuss some of the problems with the Leaning Tower of Pisa.
Find the angle at which it is tilted from the vertical.
Work out how far it will be tilted in 10 years.
Use research to fnd out if the tower will fall over, and if so, when.
Angle of elevation
The angle of elevation is used to measure the
height of tall objects that cannot be measured
directly, for example a tree, cliff, tower or
building.

Class Exercise
Stand outside the school building and look up to the top of the building.
Think about which angle your eyes pass through to look up to the top of
the building.
The angle of elevation, , i is the angle measured when
looking from the ground up to the top of the object. We
assume that the ground is horizontal.
EXAMPLE
The angle of elevation of a tree from a point 50 m out from its base is
. 38 14 c l Find the height of the tree, to the nearest metre.

Solution
We assume that the tree is vertical!

tan
tan
tan
h
h
h
h
38 14
50
38 14
50
50 38 14
39
50 50 # #
c
c
c
Z
=
=
=
l
l
l

So the tree is 39 m tall, to the nearest metre.
A clinometer is used to
measure the angle of
elevation or depression.
Angle of depression
The angle of depression is the angle
formed when looking down from a high
place to an object below.

Class Exercise
If your classroom is high enough, stand at the window and look down to
something below the window. If the classroom is not high enough, fnd
a hill or other high place. Through which angle do your eyes pass as you
look down?
The angle of depression, , i is the angle measured when
looking down from the horizontal to an object below.
EXAMPLES
1. The angle of depression from the top of a 20 m building to a boy
below is . c 9 61 3 l How far is the boy from the building, to 1 decimal place?
Solution

39
39 c
39
39
39
39
39
c
c
c
c
c
c c
( , )
61 39
.
61
tan
tan
tan
tan
tan
tan tan
DAC ACB
AD BC
x
x
x
x
x
x x
61
61
20
61
20
61 20
61 20
20
10 8
61
alternate angles
# #
+ +
<
Z
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
l
l
l
l
l
l
l l

So the boy is 10.8 m from the building.
2. A bird sitting on top of an 8 m tall tree looks down at a possum 3.5 m
out from the base of the tree. Find the angle of elevation to the nearest
minute.

Solution
3.5 m
8 m
A B
C D
i
The angle of depression is i

AB DC
BDC
Since horizontal lines
alternate angles +
<
i =
]
^
g
h

.
.
tan
tan
3 5
8
3 5
8
66
1
`
c
i
i
=
=
=
-
22l
c m

Bearings
Bearings can be described in different ways:
For example, N70 W c :

Start at north and
measure 70o around
towards the west.
True bearings measure angles clockwise from north
EXAMPLES
1. Sketch the diagram when M is on a bearing of 315c from P .
Solution
2. X is on a bearing of 030c from Y . Sketch this diagram.
Solution

3. A house is on a bearing of 305c from a school. What is the bearing of
the school from the house?
Measure clockwise,
starting at north.
All bearings have 3 digits
so 30 becomes 030 for
a bearing.
We could write
315o T for true bearings.
Solution
The diagram below shows the bearing of the house from the school.
North
School
House
305
c
To fnd the bearing of the school from the house, draw in North from the
house and use geometry to fnd the bearing as follows:
S
H
N
1
N
2
NN
305
c
The bearing of the school from the house is N HS
2
+ .

360 305
180 55 ( )
N SH
N HS N H N S
55
125
angle of revolution
cointerior angles,
1
2 2 1
c c
c
c c
c
+
+ <
= -
=
= -
=
^ h

So the bearing of the school from the house is 125c .
4. A plane leaves Sydney and fies
100 km due east, then
125 km due north. Find the
bearing of the plane from Sydney,
to the nearest degree.
CONTINUED
Solution
c
.
( . )
51 ( )
tan
tan
x
x
x
100
125
1 25
1 25
90
90 51
39
to the nearest degree
1
c c
c c
c
i
=
=
=
=
= -
= -
=
-

So the bearing of the plane from Sydney is . 039
5. A ship sails on a bearing of 140 from Sydney for 250 km. How far
east of Sydney is the ship now, to the nearest km?
Solution

cos
cos
cos
x
x
x
x
140 90
50
50
250
50
250
250 50
161
250 250 # #
c c
c
c
c
c
Z
i = -
=
=
=
=

So the ship is 161 km east of Sydney, to the nearest kilometre.
A navigator on a ship
uses a sextant to
measure angles.
Could you use a
different triangle for
this question?
6.5 Exercises
1. Draw a diagram to show the
bearing in each question .
A boat is on a bearing of 100 (a) c
from a beach house.
Jamie is on a bearing of 320 (b) c
from a campsite.
A seagull is on a bearing of (c)
200c from a jetty.
Alistair is on a bearing of (d)
050c from the bus stop.
A plane is on a bearing of (e)
285c from Broken Hill .
A farmhouse is on a bearing (f)
of 012c from a dam.
Mohammed is on a bearing of (g)
160c from his house.
A mine shaft is on a bearing (h)
of 080c from a town.
Yvonne is on a bearing of (i)
349c from her school.
A boat ramp is on a bearing of (j)
280c from an island.
2. Find the bearing of X from Y in
each question in 3 fgure (true)
bearings .
X
Y
North
112
c
(a)
X
35
c
Y
North
South
East West
(b)
X
10
c
Y
North
South
East West
(c)
23
c
X
Y
North
South
East West
(d)
X
Y
North
South
East West
(e)
3. Jack is on a bearing of 260c from
Jill. What is Jills bearing from
Jack?
4. A tower is on a bearing of 030c
from a house. What is the bearing
of the house from the tower?
5. Tamworth is on a bearing of
340c from Newcastle. What is
the bearing of Newcastle from
Tamworth?
6. The angle of elevation from a
point 11.5 m away from the base
of a tree up to the top of the tree
is 42 12 c l. Find the height of the
tree to one decimal point.
7. Geoff stands 25.8 m away from
the base of a tower and measures
the angle of elevation as . 39 20 c l
Find the height of the tower to
the nearest metre.
8. A wire is suspended from the
top of a 100 m tall bridge tower
down to the bridge at an angle of
elevation of 52c. How long is the
wire, to 1 decimal place?

9. A cat crouches at the top of a
4.2 m high cliff and looks down
at a mouse 1.3 m out from the
foot (base) of the cliff. What is
the angle of depression, to the
nearest minute?
10. A plane leaves Melbourne and
fies on a bearing of 065c for
2500 km.
How far north of Melbourne (a)
is the plane?
How far east of Melbourne (b)
is it?
What is the bearing of (c)
Melbourne from the plane?
11. The angle of elevation of a tower
is 39 44 c l when measured at a
point 100 m from its base. Find
the height of the tower, to
1 decimal place.
12. Kim leaves his house and walks
for 2 km on a bearing of . 155c
How far south is Kim from his
house now, to 1 decimal place?
13. The angle of depression from
the top of an 8 m tree down to
a rabbit is . 43 52 c l If an eagle is
perched in the top of the tree,
how far does it need to fy to
reach the rabbit, to the nearest
metre?
14. A girl rides a motorbike through
her property, starting at her
house. If she rides south for
1.3 km, then rides west for
2.4 km, what is her bearing from
the house, to the nearest degree?
15. A plane fies north from Sydney
for 560 km, then turns and
fies east for 390 km. What is
its bearing from Sydney, to the
nearest degree?
16. Find the height of a pole, correct
to 1 decimal place, if a 10 m rope
tied to it at the top and stretched
out straight to reach the ground
makes an angle of elevation of
. 67 13 c l
17. The angle of depression from the
top of a cliff down to a boat
100 m out from the foot of the
cliff is . 59 42 c l How high is the
cliff, to the nearest metre?
18. A group of students are
bushwalking. They walk north
from their camp for 7.5 km, then
walk west until their bearing
from camp is . 320c How far are
they from camp, to 1 decimal
place?
19. A 20 m tall tower casts a shadow
15.8 m long at a certain time
of day. What is the angle of
elevation from the edge of the
shadow up to the top of the
tower at this time?
15.8 m
20 m
20. A fat verandah roof 1.8 m deep
is 2.6 m up from the ground. At a
certain time of day, the sun makes
an angle of elevation of . 72 25 c l
How much shade is provided on
the ground by the verandah roof
at that time, to 1 decimal place?
21. Find the angle of elevation of a
. 15 9 m cliff from a point 100 m
out from its base.
22. A plane leaves Sydney and fies
for 2000 km on a bearing of 195 . c
How far due south of Sydney
is it?
top of a 15 m tree down to a pond
is . 25 41 c l If a bird is perched in
the top of the tree, how far does it
need to fy to reach the pond, to
the nearest metre?
24. A girl starting at her house, walks
south for 2.7 km then walks east
for 1.6 km. What is her bearing
from the house, to the nearest
degree?
top of a tower down to a car
250 m out from the foot of the
tower is . 38 19 c l How high is the
tower, to the nearest metre?
26. A hot air balloon fies south for
3.6 km then turns and fies east
until it is on a bearing of 127c
from where it started. How far
east does it fy?
27. A 24 m wire is attached to the
top of a pole and runs down to
the ground where the angle of
elevation is . 22 32 c l Find the
height of the pole.
28. A train depot has train tracks
running north for 7.8 km where
they meet another set of tracks
going east for 5.8 km into a
station. What is the bearing of
the depot from the station, to the
nearest degree?
29. Jessica leaves home and walks for
4.7 km on a bearing of . 075c She
then turns and walks for 2.9 km
on a bearing of 115c and she is
then due east of her home.
How far north does Jessica (a)
walk?
How far is she from home? (b)
30. Builder Jo stands 4.5 m out from
the foot of a building and looks
up at to the top of the building
where the angle of elevation is
71c. Builder Ben stands at the top
of the building looking down at
his wheelbarrow that is 10.8 m
out from the foot of the building
on the opposite side from where
Jo is standing.
Find the height of the (a)
building.
Find the angle of depression (b)
from Ben down to his
wheelbarrow.
Exact Ratios
A right-angled triangle with one angle of 45 is isosceles. The exact length of
its hypotenuse can be found.

c a b
AC
AC
1 1
2
2
2 2 2
2 2 2
= +
= +
=
=

This means that the trigonometric ratios of 45c can be written as exact ratios.
Pythagoras theorem is used
to fnd the length of the
hypotenuse.

sin
cos
tan
45
2
1
45
2
1
45 1
c
c
c
=
=
=

This angle is commonly used; for example, 45 is often used for the pitch of
a roof. The triangle with angles of 60 and 30 can also be written with exact
sides.

2 1
3
AD
AD 3
2 2 2
= -
=
=

Halve the equilateral
triangle to get . ABD T

60
60
60
sin
cos
tan
2
3
2
1
3
=
=
=

30 sin
cos
tan
2
1
30
2
3
30
3
1
c
c
c
=
=
=

It may be easier to
remember the triangle
rather than all these ratios.
DID YOU KNOW?
The ratios of all multiples of these angles follow a pattern:
A 0c 30c 45c 60c 90c 120c 135c 150c
sin A
2
0

2
1

2
2

2
3

2
4

2
3

2
2

2
1

cos A
2
4

2
3

2
2

2
1

2
0

2
1 -

2
2 -

2
3 -

The rules of the pattern are:
for sin A , when you reach 4, reverse the numbers
for cos A , when you reach 0, change signs and reverse
EXAMPLES
1. Find the exact value of . sec 45
Solution

sec
cos
45
45
1
2
1
1
2
=
=
=

2. A boat ramp is to be made with an angle of 30c and base length 5 m.
What is the exact length of the surface of the ramp?
Solution

cos
cos
cos
x
x
x
30
5
30 5
30
5
2
3
5
5
3
2
3
10
3
10 3
#
c
c
c
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

So the exact length of the ramp is .
3
10 3
m
6.6 Exercises
Find the exact value in all questions,
with rational denominator where
relevant.
1. Evaluate
(a) sin cos 60 60 c c +
(b) cos sin 45 45
2 2
c c +
(c) cosec 45c
(d) sec 2 60c
(e) cot cot 30 60 c c +
(f) tan tan 60 30 c c -
(g) sin sin 60 45
2 2
c c +
(h) sin cos cos sin 45 30 45 30 c c c c +
(i) tan 3 30c
(j)
tan tan
tan tan
1 45 60
45 60
c c
c c
-
+

(k) cos cos sin sin 30 60 30 60 c c c c -
(l) cos sin 30 30
2 2
c c +
sec cosec 2 45 30 c c - (m)
(n)
sin
sin
45
2 60
c
c

(o) tan 1 30
2
c +
(p)
cos
cos
1 45
1 45
c
c
+
-

(q)
sec
cot
60
30
c
c

(r) sin 45 1
2
c -
(s) cosec 5 60
2
c
(t)
sec
tan
45
2 60
2
c
c -

2. Find the exact value of all
pronumerals
(a)
(b)
(c)
3. A 2.4 m ladder reaches 1.2 m up
a wall. At what angle is it resting
against the wall?
4. A 2-person tent is pitched at an
angle of . 45c Each side of the
tent is 2 m long. A pole of what
height is needed for the centre of
the tent?

5. If the tent in the previous
question was pitched at an angle
of , 60c how high would the pole
need to be?
6. The angle of elevation from a
point 10 m out from the base of
a tower to the top of the tower
is . 30c Find the exact height
of the tower, with rational
denominator.
cos 45 ( ) cos 45
2 2
c c =
7. The pitch of a roof is 45c and
spans a length of 12 . m

What is the length (a) l of the
roof?
If a wall is placed inside the (b)
roof one third of the way along
from the corner, what height will
the wall be?
8. A 1.8 m ladder is placed so that it
makes a 60c angle where it meets
the foor. How far out from the
wall is it?
9. Find the exact length of AC .

top of a 100 m cliff down to a
boat at the foot of the cliff is 30 . c
How far out from the cliff is the
boat?
Angles of Any Magnitude
The angles in a right-angled triangle are always acute. However, angles greater
than 90c are used in many situations, such as in bearings. Negative angles are
also used in areas such as engineering and science.
We can use a circle to fnd trigonometric ratios of angles of any magnitude
(size) up to and beyond 360 . c
Investigation
(a) Copy and complete the table for these acute angles 1.
(between 0c and 90c).
x 0c 10c 20c 30c 40c 50c 60c 70c 80c 90c
sin x
cos x
tan x
(b) Copy and complete the table for these obtuse angles
x 100c 110c 120c 130c 140c 150c 160c 170c 180c
sin x
cos x
tan x
(c) Copy and complete the table for these refex angles
x 190c 200c 210c 220c 230c 240c 250c 260c 270c
sin x
cos x
tan x
(d) Copy and complete the table for these refex angles
x 280c 290c 300c 310c 320c 330c 340c 350c 360c
sin x
cos x
tan x
What do you notice about their signs? Can you see any patterns? 2.
Could you write down any rules for the sign of sin, cos and tan for
different angle sizes?
Draw the graphs of 3. sin y x = , cos y x = and tan y x = for
. x 0 360 c c # # For tan y x = , you may need to fnd the ratios of
angle close to and either side of 90c and 270c.
Drawing the graphs of the trigonometric ratios can help us to see the
change in signs as angles increase.
We divide the domain 0c to 360c into 4 quadrants:
1 st quadrant: 0c to 90c
2 nd quadrant: 90c to 180c
3 rd quadrant: 180c to 270c
4 th quadrant: 270c to 360c
EXAMPLES
1. Describe the sign of sin x in each section (quadrant) of the graph . sin y x =
Solution
We can sketch the graph using the table below or using the values from
the tables in the investigation above for more accuracy.
x 0c 90c 180c 270c 360c
y 0 1 0 -1 0
CONTINUED
y
90
c
180
c
270
c
360
c
1
-1
y = sin x
x
The graph is above the x -axis for the frst 2 quadrants, then below for the
3 rd and 4 th quadrants.
This means that sin x is positive in the 1 st and 2 nd quadrants and
negative in the 3 rd and 4 th quadrants.
2. Describe the sign of cos x in each section (quadrant) of the graph of
. cos y x =
Solution
x 0c 90c 180c 270c 360c
y 1 0 -1 0 1
y
90
c
180
c
270
c
360
c
1
-1
y = cos x
x
The graph is above the x -axis in the 1 st quadrant, then below for the 2 nd
and 3 rd quadrants and above again for the 4 th quadrant.
This means that cos x is positive in the 1 st and 4 th quadrants and
negative in the 2 nd and 3 rd quadrants.
3. Describe the sign of tan x in each section (quadrant) of the
graph tan y x = .
Solution
x 0c 90c 180c 270c 360c
y 0 No result 0 No result

0
Neither tan 90c nor tan 270c exists (we say that they are undefned).
Find the tan of angles close to these angles, for example tan 89c 59l and
tan 90c 01l, tan 279c 59l and tan 270 . 01 c l
There are asymptotes at 90c and 270 . c On the left of 90c and 270c,
tan x is positive and on the right, the ratio is negative.
y
x
90
c
180
c
270
c
360
c
y =tanx
The graph is above the x -axis in the 1 st quadrant, below for the 2 nd ,
above for the 3 rd and below for the 4 th quadrant.
This means that tan x is positive in the 1 st and 3 rd quadrants and
negative in the 2 nd and 4 th quadrants.
You will see why these
ratios are undefned later
on in this chapter.
To show why these ratios have different signs in different quadrants, we
look at angles around a unit circle (a circle with radius 1 unit).
We use congruent triangles when fnding angles of any magnitude.
Page 326 shows an example of congruent triangles all with angles of 20c inside
a circle with radius 1 unit.
y
x
1 unit 1 unit
20
c
20
c
20
c
20
c
1 unit 1 unit
If we divide the circle into 4 quadrants, we notice that the x - and y -values
have different signs in different quadrants. This is crucial to notice when
looking at angles of any magnitude and explains the different signs you get
when fnding sin, cos and tan for angles greater than 90c.
Quadrant 1
Looking at the frst quadrant (see diagram below), notice that x and y are both
positive and that angle i is turning anticlockwise from the x -axis.
(x, y)
1 unit
First quadrant
y
x
y
x
i
Point ( x , y ) forms a triangle with sides 1, x and y , so we can fnd the
trigonometric ratios for angle i .
The angle at the x -axis is 0 and
the angle at the y -axis is 90c,
with all other angles in this
quadrant between these two
angles .
Investigation
Since cos x i = and sin y i = , we can write the point ( x , y ) as (cos i , sin i ) .
The polar coordinates (cos i , sin i ) give a circle.
The polar coordinates , sin sin A a c B b i i + ] ] g g
6 @ form a shape called a
Lissajous fgure. These are sometimes called a Bowditch curve and they
are often used as logos, for example the ABC logo.
Use the Internet to research these and other similar shapes.
Use a graphics calculator or a computer program such as Autograph to draw
other graphs with polar coordinates using variations of sin i and cos i .
These are called polar
coordinates.
Quadrant 2
In the second quadrant, angles are between 90c and 180 . c
If we take the 1 st quadrant coordinates ( x , y ), where x 0 2 and 0 y 2 and
put them in the 2 nd quadrant, we notice that all x values are negative in the
second quadrant and y values are positive.
So the point in the 2 nd quadrant will be (- x , y )
x
y
0
c
90
c
180
c
(-x, y)
1 unit
Second quadrant
y
x
180
c
-i
i

sin
y
y
1
i =
=

cos
x
x
1
i =
=

tan
x
y
i =
Since cos x i = , cos i will negative in the 2 nd quadrant.
Since sin y i = , sin i will be positive in the 2 nd quadrant.
tan
x
y
i = so it will be negative (a positive number divided by a negative
number).
To have an angle of i in the triangle, the angle around the circle is 180c - i .
Quadrant 3
In the third quadrant, angles are between 180c and 270 . c
90
c
270
c
x
y
0
c 180
c
(-x, -y)
1 unit
Third quadrant
i
y
x
180
c
+ i
Notice that x and y are both negative in the third quadrant, so cos i and
sin i will be both negative.
tan
x
y
i = so will be positive (a negative divided by a negative number).
To have an angle of i in the triangle, the angle around the circle is 180c + i .
Quadrant 4
In the fourth quadrant, angles are between 270c and 360 . c
90
c
270
c
x
y
0
c 180
c
(x, -y)
1 unit
Fourth quadrant
y
x
360
c
- i
360
c
i
While y remains negative in the fourth quadrant, x is positive again, so
sin i is negative and cos i is positive.
tan
x
y
i = so will be negative (a negative divided by a positive number)
For an angle i in the triangle, the angle around the circle is 360c - i .
ASTC rule
Putting all of these results together gives a rule for all four quadrants that we
usually call the ASTC rule.
4th quadrant
1st quadrant
3rd quadrant
2nd quadrant
S A
T C
180
c
+ i 360
c
- i
360
c
180
c
- i i
90
c
270
c
0
c 180
c
y
x

You could remember
this rule as A ll S tations
T o C entral or A S illy
T rigonometry C oncept, or
you could make up your
own!
This rule also works for the reciprocal trigonometric ratios. For example,
where cos is positive, sec is also positive, where sin is positive, so is cosec and
where tan is positive, so is cot.
We can summarise the ASTC rules for all 4 quadrants:
A: ALL ratios are positive in the 1 st quadrant
S: Sin is positive in the 2 nd quadrant (cos and tan are negative)
T: Tan is positive in the 3 rd quadrant (sin and cos are negative)
C: Cos is positive in the 4 th quadrant (sin and tan are negative)
First quadrant:
Angle i :
sin i is positive
cos i is positive
tan i is positive
Second quadrant:
Angle 180c i - :
sin sin 180c i i - = ] g
cos cos 180c i i - = - ] g
tan tan 180c i i - = - ] g
Third quadrant:
Angle 180c i + :
sin sin 180c i i + = - ] g
cos cos 180c i i + = - ] g
tan tan 180c i i + = ] g
Fourth quadrant:
Angle 360c i - :
sin sin 360c i i - = - ] g
cos cos 360c i i - = ] g
tan tan 360c i i - = - ] g
EXAMPLES
1. Find all quadrants where
(a) sin 0 2 i
(b) cos 0 1 i
(c) tan cos 0 0 and 1 2 i i
Solution
(a) sin 0 2 i means sin i is positive.
Using the ASTC rule, sin i is positive in the 1 st and 2 nd quadrants.
cos (b) i is positive in the 1 st and 4 th quadrants, so cos i is negative in
the 2 nd and 3 rd quadrants.
tan (c) i is positive in the 1 st and 3 rd quadrants so tan i is negative
in the 2 nd and 4 th quadrants. Also cos i is positive in the 1 st and 4 th
quadrants.
So tan i 1 0 and cos i 2 0 in the 4 th quadrant.
2. Find the exact ratio of tan 330c .
Solution
First we fnd the quadrant that 330c is in. It is in the 4 th quadrant.
The angle inside the triangle in the 4 th quadrant is 30c and tan is
negative in the 4 th quadrant.

tan tan 330 30
3
1
c c = -
= -

3. Find the exact value of sin 225c .
Solution
The angle in the triangle in the 3 rd quadrant is 45c and sin is negative in
the 3 rd quadrant.
CONTINUED
Notice that
30 3 0 . 360 3 c c c = -
Notice that
1 0 . 45 225 8 c c c = +
330
c 30
c
y
x
60
c
30
c
2
1
:3
225
c
45
c
y
x

sin sin 225 45
2
1
c c = -
= -

4. Find the exact value of cos 510c .
Solution
To fnd cos 510c, we move around the circle more than once.
510
c
150
c
30
c
y
x

510 360 150
510 360 150
So
c c c
c c c
- =
= +

45
c
45
c
1
1
:2
The angle is in the 2 nd quadrant where cos is
negative. The triangle has 30c in it.

cos cos 510 30
2
3
c c = -
= -

5. Simplify cos (180c + x ) .
Solution
180c + x is an angle in the 3 rd quadrant where cos is negative.
So cos cos x x 180c + = -
] g

6. If sin
5
3
x = - and cos x 2 0, fnd the value of tan x and sec x .
Solution
sin x 1 0 in the 3 rd and 4 th quadrants and cos x 2 0 in the 1 st and 4 th
quadrants.
So sin x 1 0 and cos x 2 0 in the 4 th quadrant.
This means that tan x 1 0 and sec x 2 0.

sin x
hypotenuse
opposite
=
So the opposite side is 3 and the hypotenuse is 5.
3
5
y
x
x
By Pythagoras theorem, the adjacent side is 4.
sec x is the reciprocal of
cos x so is positive in the
4 th quadrant .
This is a 3-4-5 triangle .
Notice that
180 . 30 150 c c c = -
CONTINUED
60
c
30
c
2
1
:3
So tan x
4
3
= -

sec
cos
x
x
1
4
5
=
=

The ASTC rule also works for negative angles. These are measured in the
opposite way (clockwise) from positive angles as shown.
4th quadrant
1st quadrant
3rd quadrant
2nd quadrant
S A
T C
-i
0
-(180
c
+ i)
-(180
c
- i)
-(360
c
- i)
-180
c
y
x
-90
c
-270
c
-360
c
The only difference with this rule is that the angles are labelled differently.
EXAMPLE
Find the exact value of tan (-120c) .
Solution
Moving around the circle the opposite way, the angle is in the 3 rd
quadrant, with 60c in the triangle.
y
x
120
c
60
c
Notice that
180 0 1 0 . ( 6 ) 2 c c c = - - -
Tan is positive in the 3 rd quadrant.

tan tan 120 60
3
c c - =
=
] g

6.7 Exercises
1. Find all quadrants where
(a) cos 0 2 i
(b) tan 0 2 i
(c) sin 0 2 i
(d) tan 0 1 i
(e) sin 0 1 i
(f) cos 0 1 i
(g) sin 0 1 i and tan 0 2 i
(h) cos 0 1 i and tan 0 2 i
(i) sin 0 2 i and tan 0 1 i
(j) sin 0 1 i and tan 0 1 i
2. (a) Which quadrant is the angle
240c in?
Find the exact value of cos (b) 240c .
315c in?
Find the exact value of sin (b) 315c .
120c in?
Find the exact value of (b)
tan 120c .
-225c in?
sin (-225c) .
-330c in?
cos (-330c) .
7. Find the exact value of each ratio.
tan 225 (a) c
cos 315 (b) c
tan 300 (c) c
sin 150 (d) c
cos 120 (e) c
sin 210 (f) c
cos 330 (g) c
tan 150 (h) c
sin 300 (i) c
cos 135 (j) c
8. Find the exact value of each ratio.
cos ( (a) -225c)
cos ( (b) -210c)
tan ( (c) -300c)
cos ( (d) -150c)
sin ( (e) -60c)
tan ( (f) -240c)
cos ( (g) -300c)
tan ( (h) -30c)
cos ( (i) -45c)
sin ( (j) -135c)
60
c
30
c
2
1
:3
Trigonometric Equations
Whenever you fnd an unknown angle in a triangle, you solve a trigonometric
equation e.g. . cos x 0 34 = . You can fnd this on your calculator.
Now that we know how to fnd the trigonometric ratios of angles of any
magnitude, there can be more than one solution to a trigonometric equation if
we look at a larger domain.
cos 570 (a) c
tan 420 (b) c
sin 480 (c) c
cos 660 (d) c
sin 690 (e) c
tan 600 (f) c
sin 495 (g) c
cos 405 (h) c
tan 675 (i) c
sin 390 (j) c
10. If tan
4
3
i = and cos 0 1 i , fnd
sin i and cos i as fractions.
11. Given sin
7
4
i = and tan 0 1 i ,
fnd the exact value of cos i and
tan i .
12. If sin x 1 0 and tan x
8
5
= - , fnd
the exact value of cos x and cosec x.
13. Given cos
5
2
x = and , tan x 0 1
fnd the exact value of cosec x ,
cot x and tan x .
14. If cos x 1 0 and sin x 1 0, fnd
cos x and sin x in surd form with
rational denominator if tan x
7
5
= .
15. If sin
9
4
i = - and
270 360 c c 1 1 i , fnd the exact
value of tan i and sec i .
16. If cos
8
3
i = - and
180 270 1 1 i , fnd the exact
value of tan x , sec x and cosec x .
17. Given sin 0.3 x = and tan x 1 0,
express sin (a) x as a fraction
fnd the exact value of cos (b) x
and tan x .
18. If tan 1.2 a = - and
270 360 1 1 i , fnd the exact
values of cot a , sec a and cosec a .
19. Given that 0.7 cos i = - and
90 180 c c 1 1 i , fnd the exact
value of sin i and cot i .
20. Simplify
(a) sin 180c i - ] g
(b) cos x 360c -
] g

(c) tan 180c b + ^ h
(d) sin 180c a +
] g

(e) tan 360c i - ] g
(f) sin i - ] g
(g) cos a -
] g

(h) tan x -
] g

Use Pythagoras theorem to
fnd the third side .
This is called the principle
solution.
EXAMPLES
1. Solve cos x
2
3
= in the domain x 0 360 # # .
Solution

2
3
is a positive ratio and cos is positive in the 1 st and 4 th quadrants .
So there are two possible answers.
In the 1 st quadrant, angles are in the form of i and in the 4 th quadrant
angles are in the form of 360c - i .
cos 30
2
3
c =
But there is also a solution in the 4 th quadrant where
the angle is 360c - i .

cos x
2
3
For =
,
,
x 30 360 30
30 330
c c c
c c
= -
=

2. Solve sin x 2 1 0
2
= - for . x 0 360 c c # #
Solution

sin
sin
sin
sin
x
x
x
x
2 1 0
2 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
!
!
- =
=
=
=
=

Since the ratio could be positive or negative, there are solutions in all
4 quadrants.
1 st quadrant: angle i
2 nd quadrant: angle 180c - i
3 rd quadrant: angle 180c + i
4 th quadrant: angle 360c - i
60
c
30
c
2
1
:3
This is called the principle
solution.
CONTINUED
, , ,
, , ,
sin
x
45
2
1
45 180 45 180 45 360 45
45 135 225 315
c
c c c c c c c
c c c c
=
= - + -
=

3. Solve tan x 3 = for x 180 180 c c # # - .
Solution
3 is a positive ratio and tan is positive in the 1 st and 3 rd quadrants .
So there are two possible answers.
In the domain x 180 180 c c # # - , we use positive angles for
x 0 180 c c # # and negative angles for . x 180 0 c c # # -
In the 1 st quadrant, angles are in the form of i and in the 3 rd quadrant
angles are in the form of 180c i - - ^ h .
tan 60 3 c =
But there is also a solution in the 3 rd quadrant where the angle is
180c i - - ^ h .

120c
,
,
tan x
x
3
60 180 60
30
For
c c c
c
=
= - -
= -
] g

45
c
45
c
1
1
:2
60
c
30
c
2
1
:3
4th quadrant
1st quadrant
3rd quadrant
2nd quadrant
S A
T C
-(180
c
- i) -i
180
c
- i
90
c
-90
c
0
c
0
c
180
c
-180
c
y
x
i
4. Solve sin x 2 2 1 0 - = for 0 360 x c c # # .
Solution
Notice that the angle is 2 x but the domain is for x .
If 0 360 x c c # # then we multiply each part by 2 to get the domain for 2 x .
0 2 720 x c c # #
This means that we can fnd the solutions by going
around the circle twice!

sin
sin
sin
sin
x
x
x
2 2 1 0
2 2 1
2
2
1
30
2
1
c
- =
=
=
=

Sin is positive in the 1 st and 2 nd quadrants.
First time around the circle, 1 st quadrant is i and the 2 nd quadrant is 180c i - .
Second time around the circle, we add 360c to the angles.
So 1 st quadrant answer is 360c i + and the 2 nd quadrant answer is
360 180 c c i + - ] g or 540c i - .

, , ,
, , ,
, , ,
x
x
2 30 180 30 360 30 540 30
30 150 390 510
15 75 195 255
So c c c c c c c
c c c c
c c c c
= - + -
=
= `

The trigonometric graphs can also help solve some trigonometric equations.
EXAMPLE
Solve cos x 0 = for 0 360 x c c # # .
cos 90 0 c =
However, looking at the graph of cos y x = shows that there is another
solution in the domain 0 360 x c c # # .

0
90 , 270
cos x
x
For
c c
=
=

Notice that these solutions lie
inside the original domain of
. 0 x 360 c c # #
60
c
30
c
2
1
:3
y
90
c
180
c
270
c
360
c
1
-1
x
Investigation
Here are the 3 trigonometric graphs that you explored earlier in the chapter.
sin y x =
cos y x =
tan y x =
Use the values in the sin, cos and tan graphs to fnd values for the inverse
trigonometric functions in the tables below and then sketch the inverse
trigonometric functions.
For example sin 270 1 = -

cosec 270
1
1
1
So c =
-
= -

Some values will be undefned, so you will need to fnd values near them
in order to see where the graph goes.
cosec y x =
x 0c 90c 180c 270c 360c
sin x
cosec x
Here are the graphs of the inverse trigonometric functions.
cosec y x =
sec y x =
cot y x =
sec y x =
x
0c 90c 180c 270c 360c
cos x
sec x
cot y x =
x 0c 90c 180c 270c 360c
tan x
cot x
y
y =cotx
x
90
c
180
c
270
c
360
c
360
c
-1
1
0
1. Solve for . 0 360 c c # # i
(a) . sin 0 35 i =
(b) cos
2
1
i = -
(c) tan 1 i = -
(d) sin
2
3
i =
(e) tan
3
1
i = -
(f) cos 2 3 i =
(g) tan 2 3 i =
(h) sin 2 3 1 i = -
(i) cos 2 2 1 0 i - =
(j) tan 3 1
2
i =
2. Solve for . 180 180 c c # # i -
(a) . cos 0 187 i =
(b) sin
2
1
i =
(c) tan 1 i =
(d) sin
2
3
i = -
(e) tan
3
1
i = -
(f) tan 3 1
2
i =
(g) tan 2 1 i =
(h) sin 2 3 1
2
i =
(i) 1 0 tani + =
(j) tan 2 3
2
i =
3. Sketch cos y x = for
0 360 . x c c # #
4. Evaluate . sin 270c
5. Sketch tan y x = for
0 360 . x c c # #
6. Solve 0 tanx = for
0 360 . x c c # #
7. Evaluate . cos 180c
8. Find the value of . sin90c
9. Solve cos x 1 = for
. x 0 360 c c # #
10. Sketch sin y x = for
. x 180 180 c c # # -
11. Evaluate . cos 270c
12. Solve sin x 1 0 + = for
. x 0 360 c c # #
13. Solve cos x 1
2
= for
. x 0 360 c c # #
14. Solve sin x 0 = for
. x 0 360 c c # #
15. Solve sin x 1 = for
. x 360 360 c c # # -
16. Sketch sec y x = for
. x 0 360 c c # #
17. Sketch cot y x = for
. x 0 360 c c # #
6.8 Exercises
Trigonometric Identities
Trigonometric identities are statements about the relationships of
trigonometric ratios. You have already met some of thesethe reciprocal
ratios, complementary angles and the rules for the angle of any magnitude.

cosec
sin
sec
cos
cot
tan
1
1
1
i
i
i
i
i
i
=
=
=

Reciprocal ratios
Complementary angles

sin cos
cosec sec
tan cot
90
90
90
c
c
c
i i
i i
i i
= -
= -
= -
]
]
]
g
g
g

Angles of any magnitude

sin sin
cos cos
tan tan
180
180
180
c
c
c
i i
i i
i i
- =
- = -
- = -
]
]
]
g
g
g

( )
( )
( )
sin sin
cos cos
tan tan
180
180
180
c
c
c
i i
i i
i i
+ = -
+ = -
+ =

( )
( )
( )
sin sin
cos cos
tan tan
360
360
360
c
c
c
i i
i i
i i
- = -
- =
- = -

)
)
cos
tan
i i
i i
=
= -
) sin i i = - (
(
(
sin
cos
tan
-
-
-

In this section you will learn some other identities, based on the unit circle.
In the work on angles of any magnitude, we defned
sin i as the y -coordinate of P and cos i as the x -coordinate of P .

tan
cos
sin
x
y
i
i
i
=
=

tan
cos
sin
i
i
i
=

cot
tan
sin
cos
1
i
i
i
i
=
=

cot
sin
cos
i
i
i
=
Pythagorean identities
The circle has equation . x y 1
2 2
+ =
Substituting cos x i = and sin y i = into 1 x y
2 2
+ = gives
cos sin 1
2 2
i i + =
This is an equation so can be rearranged to give

sin cos
cos sin
1
1
2 2
2 2
i i
i i
=
=
-
-

There are two other identities that can be derived from this identity.
tan sec 1
2 2
i i + =
Remeber that cos
2
i
means (cos )
2
i .
Proof

cos sin
cos
cos
cos
sin
cos
tan sec
1
1
1
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
i i
i
i
i
i
i
i i
+ =
+ =
+ =

This identity can be rearranged to give

tan sec
sec tan
1
1
2 2
2 2
i i
i i
=
=
-
-

cot cosec 1
2 2
i i + =
Proof

cos sin
sin
cos
sin
sin
sin
cot cosec
1
1
1
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
i i
i
i
i
i
i
i i
+ =
+ =
+ =

This identity can be rearranged to give

cot cosec
cosec cot
1
1
2 2
2 2
i i
i i
= -
= -

These are called Pythagorean
identities since the equation
of the circle comes from
Pythagoras rule (see Chapter 5).
EXAMPLES
1. Simplify . sin cot i i
Solution

sin cot sin
sin
cos
cos
# i i i
i
i
i
=
=

2. Simplify sin sec 90c b b - ^ h where b is an acute angle .
Solution

1
sin sec cos
cos
90
1
# c b b b
b
- =
=
^ h

CONTINUED
3. Simplify . sin sin cos
4 2 2
i i i +
Solution

sin sin cos sin sin cos
sin
sin
sin
1
4 2 2 2 2 2
2
2
i i i i i i
i
i
i
+ = +
=
=
=
^
]
h
g

4. Prove . cot tan cosec sec x x x x + =
Solution

cot tan
sin
cos
cos
sin
sin cos
cos sin
sin cos
sin
cos
cosec sec
x x
x
x
x
x
x x
x x
x x
x
x
x x
1
1 1
LHS
RHS
2 2
#
= +
= +
=
+
=
=
=
=

cot tan cosec sec x x x x + = `
5. Prove that .
sin
cos
cos
x
x
x
1
1
1
2
-
=
+

Solution

sin
cos
cos
cos
cos cos
cos
cos
x
x
x
x
x x
x
x
1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1
LHS
RHS
2
2
=
-
=
-
-
=
+ -
-
=
+
=
] ] g g
1
1
sin
cos
cos
x
x
x
1
2
`
-
+
=

6.9 Exercises
1. Simplify
(a) sin 90c i - ] g
(b) tan 360c i - ] g
(c) cos i - ] g
(d) cot 90c i - ] g
(e) sec 180c a +
] g

2. Simplify
(a) tan cos i i
(b) tan cosec i i
(c) sec cot x x
(d) sin x 1
2
-
(e) cos 1
2
a -
(f) cot x 1
2
+
(g) tan x 1
2
+
(h) 1 sec
2
i -
(i) cot 5 5
2
i +
(j)
cosec x
1
2

(k) sin cosec
2 2
a a
(l) cot cot cos
2
i i i -
3. Prove that
(a) cos sin x x 1
2 2
- = -
(b) sec tan
cos
sin 1
i i
i
i
+ =
+

(c) tan
sin
3 3
1
3
2
2
a
a
+ =
-

(d) sec tan x x
2 2
-
cosec cot x x
2 2
= -
(e) sin cos x x
3
-
] g

+2sin cos x x
sin cos sin cos x x x x 2
2
2
= - -
(f) cot sec 2 i i +
sin cos
sin sin 1 2
2
i i
i i
=
- +
(g) cos cot 90
2
c i i - ] g

= sin i cos i
(h) ( ) ( ) cosec cot cosec cot x x x x 1 + - =
( )
cos
sin cos
tan cos
1
i
2
2 2
2 2
i
i i
i i
-
= +

( )
cosec
cot
cos
tan cot
sec
1
j
b
b
b
b b
b
+
-
=
+

4. If cos x 2 i = and sin y 2 i = ,
show that 4 x y
2 2
+ = .
5. Show that 81 x y
2 2
+ = if

cos x 9 i = and y = 9 sin i.
Non-right-angled Triangle Results
A non-right-angled triangle is named so that its angles and opposite sides have
the same pronumeral. There are two rules in trigonometry that refer to non-
right-angled triangles. These are the sine rule and the cosine rule .
Proof
In , ABC T draw perpendicular AD and call it h .
From , ABD T

sin
sin
B
c
h
h c B `
=
=

(1)
From , ACD T

sin
sin
C
b
h
h b C `
=
=

(2)
From (1) and (2),

sin sin
sin sin
c B b C
b
B
c
C
=
=

Similarly, drawing a perpendicular from C it can be proven that
.
sin sin
a
A
b
B
=
or

sin sin sin
a
A
b
B
c
C
= =
Use this rule for fnding an angle.
Use this rule for fnding a
side.
sin sin sin A
a
B
b
C
c
= =
Sine rule
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of x , correct to 1 decimal place.

Solution
Name the sides a and b, and angles A and B.

.
.
.
.
sin sin
sin sin
sin sin
sin
sin
sin sin
A
a
B
b
x
x
x
43 21 79 12
10 7
43 21 79 12
10 7
79 12
10 7 43 21
7 5
43 21 43 21
cm
# #
c c
c c
c
c
c c
Z
=
=
=
=
l l
l l
l
l
l l
2. Find the value of y , to the nearest whole number.
Solution

( )
sin sin
sin sin
sin sin
sin
sin
sin sin
Y
A
a
B
b
y
y
y
180 53 24
103
103 53
8
103 53
8
53
8 103
10
103 103 # #
c c c
c
c c
c c
c
c
c c
+
Z
= - +
=
=
=
=
=

You can rename the
triangle ABC or just make
sure you put sides with
their opposite angles
together.
The sine rule uses 2 sides
and 2 angles, with 1
unknown.
You need to fnd Y + frst, as it
is opposite y .
CONTINUED
3. Find the value of , i in degrees and minutes.
Solution

1 -
. .
. .
86 11
.
.
.
.
6.7 6.7
sin sin
sin sin
sin sin
sin
sin
sin
sin
a
A
b
B
6 7 8 3
86 11
6 7 8 3
8 3
6 7 86 11
8 3
6 7 86 11
53 39
# #
c
c
c
c
c Z
i
i
i
i
=
=
=
=
=
l
l
l
l
l
c m

Since sin x is positive in the frst 2 quadrants, both acute angles (between 0c
and 90c) and obtuse angles (between 90c and 180c) give positive sin ratios.
e.g. . sin50 0 766 c =
and . sin130 0 766 c =
This affects the sine rule, since there is no way of distinguishing between an
acute angle and an obtuse angle. When doing a question involving an obtuse
angle, we need to use the 2 nd quadrant angle of 180c - i rather than relying
on the calculator to give the correct answer.
EXAMPLE
Angle i is obtuse. Find the value of , i in degrees and minutes.
6.10 Exercises
1. Evaluate all pronumerals, correct
to 1 decimal place.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Solution

. .
. .
.
.
.
.
. .
sin sin
sin sin
sin sin
sin
sin
sin
sin
a
A
b
B
11 9 5 4
15 49
11 9 5 4
15 49
5 4
11 9 15 49
5 4
11 9 15 49
36 55
180 36 55
143 05
11 9 11 9
acute angle
But is obtuse
1
`
# #
c
c
c
c
c
c c
c
i
i
i
i
i
i
=
=
=
=
=
=
= -
=
-
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
c
^
m
h

in degrees and minutes.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
( (e) i is obtuse)

3. Triangle ABC has an obtuse angle
at A . Evaluate this angle to the
nearest minute if AB = 3.2 cm,
BC = 4.6 cm and
. ACB 33 47 c + = l
4. Triangle EFG has FEG 48c + = ,
EGF 32c + = and FG = 18.9 mm.
Find the length of
the shortest side (a)
the longest side. (b) .
5. Triangle XYZ has , XYZ 51c + =
YXZ 86c + = and XZ = 2.1 m.
Find the length of
the shortest side (a)
the longest side . (b)
6. Triangle XYZ has XY = 5.4 cm,
ZXY 48c + = and . XZY 63c + =
Find the length of XZ .
7. Triangle ABC has BC = 12.7 m,
ABC 47c + = and ACB 53c + = as
shown. Find the lengths of
(a) AB
(b) AC.

53
c
47
c
12.7 m
C B
A
8. Triangle PQR has sides
PQ = 15 mm, QR = 14.7 mm
and PRQ 62 29 c + = l . Find to the
nearest minute
(a) QPR +
(b) . PQR +
9. Triangle ABC is isosceles with
AB = AC . BC is produced to
D as shown. If AB = 8.3 cm,
BAC + = 52c and ADC 32c + =
fnd the length of
4.9
3.7
21
c
31l i
The shortest side is opposite
the smallest angle and the
longest side is opposite the
largest angle .
(a) AD
(b) BD.
32
c
52
c
8.3 cm
D B
C
A
10. Triangle ABC is equilateral with
side 63 mm. A line is drawn from
A to BC where it meets BC at D
and . DAB 26 15 c + = l Find the
length of
(a) AD
(b) DC.
Cosine rule
cos c a b ab C 2
2 2 2
= + -
Similarly
cos a b c bc A 2
2 2 2
= + -
cos b a c ac B 2
2 2 2
= + -
Proof
B C
D
c
b
p
x a - x
A
In triangle ABC , draw perpendicular CD with length p and let CD = x .
Since BC = a , BD = a - x
From triangle ACD
b x p
2 2 2
= + (1)

cos
cos
C
b
x
b C x `
=
=

(2)
From triangle DAB

c p a x
p a ax x
p x a ax
2
2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
= + -
= + - +
= + + -
] g

(3)
Substitute (1) into (3):
c b a ax 2
2 2 2
= + - (4)
Substituting (2) into (4):

cos
cos
c b a a b C
b a ab C
2
2
2 2 2
2 2
= + -
= + -
] g

DID YOU KNOW?
Pythagoras theorem is a special case of the cosine rule when the triangle is right angled.
cos c a b 2ab C
2 2 2
= - +
When C = 90c

2 cos 90
2 0
c a b ab
a b ab
a b
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
=
=
- c +
+ -
= +
] g
EXAMPLE
Find the value of x , correct to the nearest whole number.
Solution
. 99 79 Z
10 Z
5.6 6.4 2(5.6) (6.4) 112 32
.
cos
cos
c a b ab C
x
x
2
99 79
2 2 2
2 2 2
c
= + -
= + -
=
l

The cosine rule uses 3 sides
and 1 angle, with 1 unknown.
, ,, , ,,
% %
Press 5.6 6.4 2 5.6 6.4
cos 112 32
x x
2 2
# #
#
+ -
= =
When fnding an unknown angle, it is easier to change the subject of
this formula to cos C.

cos
cos
cos
cos
cos
cos
cos cos
c a b ab C
c a b ab C
c ab C a b
c ab C a b
ab C a b c
ab C a b c
ab C ab C
c c
ab ab
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2
= + -
= + -
+ = +
+ = +
= + -
=
+ -
+ +
- -

Subtract the square of
the side opposite the
unknown angle.
EXAMPLES
1. Find , i in degrees and minutes.
Solution

cos
cos
cos
C
ab
a b c
2
2 5 6
5 6 3
60
52
60
52
29 56
2 2 2
2 2 2
1
c Z
i
i
=
+ -
=
+ -
=
=
-
l
] ]
c
g g
m

2. Evaluate BAC + in degrees and minutes .
C
4.5 cm
A
B
8.4 cm
6.1 cm
CONTINUED
cos C
ab
a b c
2
2 2 2
=
+ -
Similarly
cos A
bc
b c a
2
2 2 2
=
+ -

cos B
ac
a c b
2
2 2 2
=
+ -

Solution

1 -
. .
. . .
.
.
cos
cos
cos
C
ab
a b c
BAC
BAC
2
2 4 5 6 1
4 5 6 1 8 4
0 2386
0 2386
103 48
2 2 2
2 2 2
c
+
+
=
+ -
=
+ -
= -
= -
= l
] ]
]
g g
g

Notice that the negative sign
tells us that the angle will be
obtuse.
6.11 Exercises
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

(e)

2. Evaluate all pronumerals correct
to the nearest minute
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
3. Kite ABCD has AB = 12.9 mm,
CD = 23.8 mm and
ABC 125c + = as shown. Find the
length of diagonal AC.

12.9 mm
125
c
23.8 mm
A
B
C
D
4. Parallelogram ABCD has sides
11 cm and 5 cm, and one interior
angle . 79 25 c l Find the length of
the diagonals .
5. Quadrilateral ABCD has sides
AB = 12 cm, BC = 10.4 cm,
CD = 8.4 cm and AD = 9.7 cm
with . ABC 63 57 c + = l
Find the length of diagonal (a) AC
Find (b) DAC +
Find (c) . ADC +
6. Triangle XYZ is isosceles with
XY = XZ = 7.3 cm and
YZ = 5.9 cm. Find the value of all
angles, to the nearest minute .
7. Isosceles trapezium MNOP
has MP = NO = 12 mm,
MN = 8.9 mm, OP = 15.6 mm
and 11 15 . NMP 9c l + =
Find the length of diagonal (a) NP.
Find (b) . NOP +
8. Given the fgure below, fnd the
length of
(a) AC
(b) AD.

8.4 cm
42
c
8l
A
B
C
D
101
c
38l
3.7 cm
9.9 cm
9. In a regular pentagon ABCDE
with sides 8 cm, fnd the length
of diagonal AD .
10. A regular hexagon ABCDEF has
sides 5.5 cm.
Find the length of (a) AD.
Find (b) . ADF +
Application s
The sine and cosine rules can be used in solving problems.
Use the sine rule to fnd:
a 1. side, given one side and two angles
an 2. angle, given two sides and one angle
Use the cosine rule to fnd:
a 1. side, given two sides and one angle
an 2. angle, given three sides
EXAMPLES
1. The angle of elevation of a tower from point A is . 72c From point B ,
50 m further away from the tower than A , the angle of elevation is . 47c
Find the exact length of (a) AT .
Hence, or otherwise, fnd the height (b) h of the tower to 1 decimal place.
Solution

)
(a)
(
sin sin
sin sin
sin
sin
BAT
BTA
A
a
B
b
AT
AT
180 72
108
180 47 108
25
47 25
50
25
50 47
straight angle
angle sumof
`
c c
c
c c c
c
c c
c
c
+
+ T
= -
=
= - +
=
=
=
=
^
]
h
g

Use BTA T to fnd AT.
( )
50 47
.
sin
sin
sin
sin
sin
AT
h
h AT
72
72
25
72
82 3
b
m
`
#
c
c
c
c
c
Z
=
=
=

2. A ship sails from Sydney for 200 km on a bearing of , 040c then sails
on a bearing of 157c for 345 km.
How far from Sydney is the ship, to the nearest km? (a)
What is the bearing of the ship from Sydney, to the nearest degree? (b)
Solution

)
( )
(
SAN
SAB
180 40
140
360 140 157
63
a cointerior angles
angle of revolution `
c c
c
c c c
c
+
+
= -
=
= - +
=
^
^
h
h

( ) ( )
.
.
cos
cos
c a b ab C
x
x
2
200 345 2 200 345 63
96374 3
96374 3
310
2 2 2
2 2 2
c
Z
Z
= + -
= + -
=

So the ship is 310 km from Sydney.

( )
.
sin sin
sin sin
sin
sin
b
a
A
b
B
345 310
63
310
345 63
0 99
82
`
c
c
c
Z
Z
i
i
i
=
=
=

40 82
122
The bearing fromSydney c c
c
= +
=

Use right-angled ATO T
to fnd h . Do not use the
sine rule.
To fnd the bearing,
measure TSB. +
6.12 Exercises
1. Find the lengths of the diagonals
of a parallelogram with adjacent
sides 5 cm and 8 cm and one of
its angles . 32 42 c l
2. A car is broken down to the north
of 2 towns. The car is 39 km from
town A and 52 km from town B .
If A is due west of B and the 2
towns are 68 km apart, what is the
bearing of the car from (a) town A
(b) town B , to the nearest degree?
3. The angle of elevation to the top
of a tower is 54 37 c l from a point
12.8 m out from its base. The
tower is leaning at an angle of
85 58 c l as shown. Find the height
of the tower.

54
c
37l 85
c
58l
12.8 m
4. A triangular park has sides 145.6 m,
210.3 m and 122.5 m. Find the
size of the largest interior angle of
the park.
5. A 1.5 m high fence leans
outwards from a house at an
angle of 102c. A boy sits on top
of the fence and the angle of
depression from him down to the
house is . 32 44 c l How far from
the fence is the house?
6. Football posts are 3.5 m apart.
If a footballer is standing 8 m
from one post and 11 m from
the other, fnd the angle within
which the ball must be kicked
to score a goal, to the nearest
degree.
7. A boat is sinking 1.3 km out to
sea from a marina. Its bearing is
041c from the marina and 324c
from a rescue boat. The rescue
boat is due east of the marina.
How far, correct to 2 decimal (a)
places, is the rescue boat from the
sinking boat?
How long will it take the (b)
rescue boat, to the nearest
minute, to reach the other boat if
it travels at 80 km/h?
8. The angle of elevation of the
top of a fagpole from a point a
certain distance away from its
base is . 20c After walking 80 m
towards the fagpole, the angle of
elevation is . 75c Find the height
of the fagpole, to the nearest
metre.
9. A triangular feld ABC has sides
85 AB m = and 50 . AC m = If B is
on a bearing of 065c from A and
C is on a bearing of 166c from A ,
fnd the length of BC , correct to
the nearest metre.
10. (a) Find the exact value of AC in
the diagram.
Hence, or otherwise, fnd the (b)
angle , i correct to the nearest
minute.
11. Find the value of h , correct to
1 decimal place.

12. A motorbike and a car leave a
service station at the same time.
The motorbike travels on a
bearing of 080c and the car travels
for 15.7 km on a bearing of 108c
until the bearing of the motorbike
from the car is . 310c How far,
correct to 1 decimal place, has the
motorbike travelled?
13. A submarine is being followed
by two ships, A and B , 3.8 km
apart, with A due east of B . If A
is on a bearing of 165c from the
submarine and B is on a bearing
of 205c from the submarine, fnd
the distance from the submarine
to both ships.
14. A plane fies from Dubbo on a
bearing of 1 9 3 c for 852 km, then
turns and fies on a bearing of
2 5 8 cuntil it is due west of Dubbo.
How far from Dubbo is the plane,
to the nearest km?
15. A triangular roof is 16.8 m up
to its peak, then 23.4 m on the
other side with a 125c angle
at the peak as shown. Find the
length of the roof.
125
c
23.4 m 16.8 m
16. Rhombus ABCD with side 8 cm
has diagonal BD 11.3 cm long.
Find . DAB +
17. Zeke leaves school and runs for
8.7 km on a bearing of 338c,
then turns and runs on a bearing
of 061c until he is due north of
school. How far north of school
is he?
18. A car drives due east for 83.7 km
then turns and travels for 105.6 km
on a bearing of 029c. How far is
the car from its starting point?
19. The fgure below shows the
diagram that a surveyor makes
to measure a triangular piece of
land. Find its perimeter.
58
c
1l
132
c
31l
14.3 m
11.4 m
13.9 m
20. A light plane leaves Sydney and
fies for 1280 km on a bearing of
. 050c It then turns and fies for
3215 km on a bearing of . 149c
How far is the plane from Sydney,
to the nearest km?
21. Trapezium ABCD has AD BC ; ,
with AB = 4.6 cm, BC = 11.3 cm,
CD = 6.4 cm, DAC 2 30 3c + = l
and ABC 78c + = .
Find the length of (a) AC.
Find (b) ADC + to the nearest
minute .
22. A plane leaves Adelaide and
fies for 875 km on a bearing of
. 056c It then turns and fies on a
bearing of i for 630 km until it is
due east of Adelaide. Evaluate i
to the nearest degree.
Similarly,

sin
sin
A ac B
A bc A
2
1
2
1
=
=

Proof
From , BCD D

sin
sin
sin
C
a
h
h a C
A bh
ba C
2
1
2
1
`
=
=
=
=

23. Quadrilateral ABCD has
AB = AD = 7.2 cm, BC = 8.9 cm
and CD = 10.4 cm, with
DAB 107c + =
Find the length of diagonal (a) BD.
Find (b) BCD + .
24. Stig leaves home and travels on a
bearing of 248c for 109.8 km.
He then turns and travels for
271.8 km on a bearing of 143c.
Stig then turns and travels home
on a bearing of a .
How far does he travel on the (a)
fnal part of his journey?
Evaluate (b) a .
25. A wall leans inwards and makes
an angle of 88c with the foor.
A 4 m long ladder leans against (a)
the wall with its base 2.3 m out
from the wall. Find the angle that
the top of the ladder makes with
the wall.
A longer ladder is placed the (b)
same distance out from the wall
and its top makes an angle of 31c
with the wall.
How long is this (i)
ladder?
How much further (ii)
does it reach up the wall
than the frst ladder?
Area
To fnd the area of a triangle, you need to know its perpendicular height.
Trigonometry allows us to fnd this height in terms of one of the angles in the
triangle.
sin A ab C
2
1
=
EXAMPLE
Find the area of ABC D correct to 2 decimal places.

Solution
( . ) ( . )
.
sin
sin
A ab C
2
1
2
1
4 3 5 8 112 34
11 52 units
2
c
Z
=
= l
To fnd the area, use
2 sides and their
included angle.
6.13 Exercises
1. Find the area of each triangle
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
2. Calculate the exact area of . ABC D
3. Find the area of OAB D correct to
1 decimal place ( O is the centre of
the circle).
4. Find the area of a parallelogram
with sides 3.5 cm and 4.8 cm,
and one of its internal angles
, 67 13 c l correct to 1 decimal
place.
5. Find the area of kite ABCD ,
6. Find the area of the sail, correct
to 1 decimal place.
7. Find the area of a regular
hexagon with sides 4 cm, to the
nearest . cm
2

8. Calculate the area of a regular
pentagon with sides 12 mm.
9. The fgure below is made from a
rectangle and isosceles triangle
with AE = AB as shown.
10.5 cm
84
c
A
B
C D
14.3 cm
E
Find the length of (a) AE.
Find the area of the fgure . (b)
10. Given the following fgure,
9.4 cm
44
c
A
B
C
D
6.7 cm
58
c
36
c
Find the length of (a) AC
Find the area of triangle (b) ACD
Find the area of triangle (c) ABC .
Trigonometry in Three Dimensions
EXAMPLES
1. From point X , 25 m due south of the base of a tower, the angle of
elevation is . 47c Point Y is 15 m due east of the tower. Find:
the height, (a) h , of the tower, correct to 1 decimal place
the angle of elevation, (b) , i of the tower from point Y .
Solution
From (a) XTO D

.
tan
tan
h
h
h
47
25
25 47
26 8
c
c
=
=
=

So the tower is 26.8 m high.
From (b) YTO D

.
.
tan
tan
15
26 8
15
26 8
60 46
1
`
c
i
i
=
=
=
-
l
c m
So the angle of elevation from Y is 60 46 . c l

2. A cone has a base diameter of 18 cm and a slant height of 15 cm. Find
the vertical angle at the top of the cone.
Solution
The radius of the base is 9 cm.

36 52
sin
sin
15
9
15
9
1
`
c
i
i
=
=
=
-
l
c m

2
73 44
Vertical angle
c
i =
= l

Use the full value of
26.80921775 for a more
accurate answer to (b).
6.14 Exercises
1. A gymnastics bar is supported by
wires as shown below.
If one wire is inclined at an (a)
angle of 55c to the horizontal
and is 1.4 m out from the base
of the bar, fnd the height of the
bar, to the nearest metre.
The second wire is inclined at (b)
an angle of 68c to the horizontal.
How long is the wire (to
1 decimal place)?
The third wire is 2.2 m long. (c)
What is its angle of elevation?
2. A pole has two supporting ropes,
2.5 m and 3.1 m long.
If the 3.1 m rope makes an (a)
angle of elevation of , 38c fnd the
length of the pole, correct to
1 decimal place.
What angle of elevation does (b)
the other rope make?
3. A 25 11 8 cm cm cm # # cardboard
box contains an insert (the
shaded area) made of foam.
Find the area of foam in the (a)
insert, to the nearest . cm
2

Find the angle, (b) , i the insert
makes at the corner of the box.
4. A cone has radius 7 cm and a
slant height of 13 cm. Find the
vertical angle at the top of the
cone, in degrees and minutes.
5. From a point 15 m due north of
a tower, the angle of elevation of
the tower is 32c
Find the height of the tower, (a)
to the nearest metre.
Find the angle of elevation (b)
of the tower at a point 20 m due
east of the tower.
6. A pole is seen from two points
A and B . The angle of elevation
from A is . 58c If CAB 52c + =
and , ABC 34c + = and A and B
are 100 m apart, fnd:
how far (a) A is from the foot of
the pole, to the nearest metre.
the height of the pole, to (b)
1 decimal place.
7. Two straight paths up to the top
of a cliff are inclined at angles of
25c and 22c to the horizontal.
If path 1 is 114 m long, fnd (a)
the height of the cliff, to the
nearest metre.
Find the length of path 2, to (b)
1 decimal place.
If the paths meet at (c) 47c at
the base of the cliff, fnd their
distance apart at the top of the
cliff, correct to 1 decimal place.
8. David walks along a straight road.
At one point he notices a tower on
a bearing of 053c with an angle
of elevation of . 21c After walking
230 m, the tower is on a bearing of
, 342c with an angle of elevation
of . 26c Find the height of the
tower correct to the nearest metre.
9. A cylinder with radius 4 cm and
perpendicular height 15 cm is
tilted so that it will just ft inside
a 12 cm high box. At what angle
must it be tilted?
10. A hot air balloon fying at
950 m/h at a constant altitude
of 3000 m is observed to have an
angle of elevation of . 78c After
20 minutes, the angle of elevation
is . 73c Calculate the angle
through which the observer has
turned during those 20 minutes.
Sums and Differences of Angles
Sums and differences
Angles can be expressed as sums or differences of other angles. This enables
us to simplify or evaluate some angles that normally would be too hard to
simplify.
cos cos cos sin sin x y x y x y - = + ^ h
Proof

By the distance formula:

( ) ( )
( )
cos cos sin sin
cos cos cos cos sin sin sin sin
cos sin cos sin cos cos sin sin
cos cos sin sin
d x x y y
AB x y x y
x x y y x x y y
x x y y x y x y
x y x y
2 2
2 2
2 2
2
2 1
2
2 1
2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
= - + -
= - + -
= - + + - +
= + + + - -
= - +
_ _
^ ^
i i
h h

(1)
By the cosine rule:
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
cos
cos
cos
a b ab C
AB x y
x y
c 2
1 1 2 1 1
2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
= + -
= + - -
= - -

(2)
From (1) and (2):

cos cos cos sin sin
cos cos cos sin sin
x y x y x y
x y x y x y
2 2 2 2
`
- - = - +
- = +
^ ^
^
h h
h

Remember:
cos x coordinate = - i and
sin y coordinate. = - i
cos cos cos sin sin x y x y x y + = - ^ h
Proof
Substitute y - for . y

y
sin y
y y
( )
( ( )) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
cos cos cos sin sin
cos cos cos sin sin
cos cos cos sin
cos cos cos sin sin
x y x y x y
x x x
x y x y x
x y x y x y
- = +
- - = - + -
+ = + -
+ = -

sin sin cos cos sin x y x y x y + = + ^ h
Proof
Substitute 90 . x x for c -

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ( ))
( )
cos cos cos sin sin
cos cos cos sin sin
cos sin cos cos sin
sin sin cos cos sin
x y x y x y
x y x y x y
x y x y x y
x y x y x y
90 90 90
90
c c c
c
- = +
- - = - + -
- + = +
+ = +

sin sin cos cos sin x y x y x y - = - ^ h
Proof
Substitute . y y for -

( )
( ( )) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
sin sin cos cos sin
sin sin cos cos sin
sin sin cos cos sin
sin sin cos cos sin
x y x y x y
x y x y x y
x y x y x y
x y x y x y
+ = +
+ - = - + -
- = + -
- = -

tan
tan tan
tan tan
x y
x y
x y
1
+ =
-
+
^ h
Proof

( )
( )
tan
cos cos sin sin
sin cos cos sin
cos cos
cos cos sin sin
cos cos
sin cos cos sin
tan
tan tan
tan tan
cos
sin
x y
x y
x y
x y x y
x y x y
x y
x y x y
x y
x y x y
x y
x y
x y
1
+ =
+
+
=
-
+
=
-
+
+ =
-
+
^
^
h
h

Divide top and bottom by
. cos x cos y
tan
tan tan
tan tan
x y
x y
x y
1
- =
+
-
^ h
Proof
Substitute y - for y .

))
)
)
y
y
y
( )
( (
(
(
tan
tan tan
tan tan
tan
tan tan
tan tan
tan
tan tan
tan tan
tan
tan tan
tan tan
x y
x y
x y
x
x y
x y
x
x y
x y
x
x y
x y
1
1
1
1
+ =
-
+
+ - =
- -
+ -
- =
- -
-
- =
+
-
^
^
^
h
h
h

EXAMPLES
1. Simplify . sin cos cos sin 2 2 i i i i -
Solution

( ) sin cos cos sin sin
sin
2 2 2 i i i i i i
i
- = -
=

2. Find the exact value of . cos 75c
Solution

) 45c + ( cos cos
cos cos sin sin
75 30
30 45 30 45
2
3
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 2
3 1
2 2
3 1
2
2
4
6 2
# #
#
c c
c c c c
=
= -
= -
=
-
=
-
=
-

3. Simplify . cos sin 60 60 c c i i + + + ] ] g g
Solution

( ) ( ) cos sin
cos cos sin sin sin cos cos sin
cos sin sin cos
cos sin
cos sin
60 60
60 60 60 60
2
1
2
3
2
1
2
3
2
1
2
3
2
3
2
1
2
1 3
2
1 3
# # # #
c c
c c c c
i i
i i i i
i i i i
i i
i i
+ + +
= - + +
= - + +
= + + - +
=
+
+
-
d d
d d
n n
n n

Ratios of double angles
By using the sum of angles, we can fnd the trigonometric ratios for double
angles.
sin sin cos x x x 2 2 =
Proof

( ) sin sin
sin cos cos sin
sin cos
x x x
x x x x
x x
2
2
= +
= +
=

cos cos sin
sin
cos
x x x
x
x
2
1 2
2 1
2 2
2
2
= -
= -
= -

Proof

( )
( )
( )
cos cos
cos cos sin sin
cos sin
sin sin
sin
cos
cos
x x x
x x x x
x x
x x
x
x
x
2
1
1 2
1 2 1
2 1
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
= +
= -
= -
= - -
= -
= - -
= -

Remember:
. sin x cos x 1
2 2
+ =
tan
tan
tan
x
x
x
2
1
2
2
=
-

Proof

( ) tan tan
tan tan
tan tan
tan
tan
tan
x x x
x x
x x
x
x
x
2
1
2
1
2
2
= +
=
-
+
=
-

EXAMPLES
1. Simplify . cos sin 2 2
2 2
i i -
Solution

2 2 2(2 )
4
cos sin cos
cos
2 2
i i i
i
- =
=

2. If
7
4
, sinx = fnd the exact value of . sin x 2
Solution

sin sin cos
AC
AC
x x x
7 4
33
33
2 2
2
7
4
7
33
49
8 33
2 2 2
`
# #
= -
=
=
=
=
=

PROBLEM
Ulug Beg (13931449) used the relation sin sin sin
4
1
3 3
3
i i i = - ] g to
draw up a table of sine ratios. Can you prove this relation?
6.15 Exercises
1. Expand
(a) sin a b - ] g
(b) cos p q + ^ h
(c) tan a b + ^ h
(d) ( ) sin x 20c +
(e) tan x 48c +
] g

(f) cos 2i a - ] g
(g) ( ) cos x 75c +
(h) tan x y 5 7 - ^ h
(i) sin 4a b - ^ h
(j) tan 3 a b - ^ h
2. Simplify
(a) sin cos cos sin a b a b +
(b)
tan tan
tan tan
1 36 29
36 29
c c
c c
-
+

(c) cos cos sin sin 28 27 28 27 c c c c -
(d) sin cos cos sin x y x y 2 3 2 3 +
(e)
tan tan
tan tan
1 3
3
i i
i i
+
-

(f) sin cos cos sin 74 42 74 42 c c c c -
(g) sin sin a b a b + - + ] ] g g
(h) sin sin x y x y + - - ^ ^ h h
(i) cos cos x y x y - + - ^ ^ h h
(j) cos cos m n m n - + +
] ] g g

(a) sin75c
(b) cos 15c
(c) tan75c
(d) tan105c
(e) cos 105c
(f) sin15c
(g) sin105c
(h) tan 285c
(i) ( ) ( ) sin cos x x 30 30 c c + + +
(j) cos cos y y 45 45 c c - + + ^ ^ h h
4. Simplify
.
tan tan
tan tan
x y x y
x y x y
1 - + -
+ + -
^ ^
^ ^
h h
h h

5. If sin x
3
2
= and , cos y
4
3
= fnd
the exact value of
(a) sin x y + ^ h
(b) cos x y - ^ h
(c) tan x y + ^ h
6. By taking 2 , i i i = + fnd an
expression for
(a) sin 2i
(b) cos 2i
(c) tan 2i
7. By writing 3i as 2 , i i + fnd an
expression in terms of i for
(a) sin 3i
(b) cos 3i
(c) tan 3i
8. (a) Simplify .
tan tan
tan tan
1 7 3
7 3
i i
i i
+
-

Find an expression for sin (b) 4i
in terms of 7i and 3 . i
9. Find an expression for cos x 9 in
terms of 2x and 7 . x
(a) cos cos sin sin 23 22 23 22 c c c c -
(b)
tan tan
tan tan
1 85 25
85 25
c c
c c
+
-

(c) sin cos 180 60 c c
cos sin 180 60 c c +
(d) cos cos 290 80 c c
sin sin 290 80 c c +
(e)
tan tan
tan tan
1 11 19
11 19
c c
c c
-
+

11. If sin x
5
3
= and , cos y
13
5
= fnd
the value of
(a) cos x
(b) sin y
(c) sin x y - ^ h
(d) tan y
(e) tan x y + ^ h
12. (a) Write an expression for
. cos cos x y x y + + - ^ ^ h h
Hence write an expression for (b)
. cos cos 50 65 c c
13. Find an expression for
(a) sin sin x y x y + + - ^ ^ h h
(b) cos cos x y x y + - - ^ ^ h h
(c) sin sin x y x y + - - ^ ^ h h
(d) cos sin x y x y + + - ^ ^ h h
(e) tan tan x y x y + + - ^ ^ h h
(f) tan tan x y x y + - - ^ ^ h h
14. Expand
(a) sin b 2
(b) tan 2i
(c) cos 2i
(d) ( ) sin x y 2 +
(e) ( ) cos 2a b +
(f) ( ) tan x y 2 +
(g) ( ) sin 2i d -
(h) ( ) cos 2 i c -
(i) ( ) tan x z 2 -
(j) ( ) sin x y 2 2 -
15. Simplify
(a) cos sin x x 2 3 3
(b) cos sin y y 7 7
2 2
-
(c)
tan
tan
1 5
2 5
2
i
i
-

(d) sin y 1 2
2
-
(e) sin cos 6 6 i i
(f) sin cos x x
2
+
] g

(g) cos 2 3 1
2
a -
(h) sin 1 2 40
2
c -
(i)
tan
tan
1
2
2
b
b
-

(j) sin cos x x 3 3
2
-
] g

(a) . . cos sin 22 5 22 5 c c
(b) cos sin 30 30
2 2
c c -
(c)
tan
tan
1 15
2 15
2
c
c
-

(d) sin cos 2 75 75 c c
(e)
tan
tan
1 120
2 120
2
c
c
-

(f) sin 1 2 165
2
c -
(g) . cos 2 22 5 1
2
c -
(h)
tan
tan
1
2
2
i
i
-
where . 112 5c i =
(i) . . sin cos 67 5 67 5 c c
(j) cos sin 2 105 105 c c
17. If
8
5
, cos x = fnd the exact value
of cos x 2 and . sin x 2
18. If sin
5
3
a = and , tan
5
12
b = fnd
the exact values of
(a) sin a b + ^ h
(b) cos 2a
(c) sin 2b
(d) tan a b - ^ h
19. Express sin 4i in terms of . i
20. (a) Simplify .
cos
sin
x
x
1 2
2
+

Hence, fnd the exact value of (b)
. tan15c
21. Find the exact value of tan 22
2
1
c
by using the expression for
. tan x 2
22. Prove
(a) sin sin tan
2
1
2
2
i i i =
(b) tan
sin
cos
2
1 i
i
i
=
-

23. Show that
. sin sin sin sin 7 4 11 3
2 2
i i i i - =
24. Prove that
. cos cos cos 3 4 3
3
i i i = -
25. Find an expression for sin x 3 in
terms of . sin x
Further Trigonometric Equations
Some trigonometric equations are diffcult to solve. However, there are some
expressions that can be used to solve them.

Ratios in terms of tan

i
2

If , tan t
2
i
= then tan
t
t
1
2
2
i =
-

Proof

tan
tan
tan
tan
tan
tan
A
A
A
A
t
t
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
2
where
2
2
2
` i
i
i
i
=
-
=
-
=
=
-

If , tan t
2
i
= then sin
t
t
1
2
2
i =
+

Proof
tan t
t
2 1
i
= =

2 2
sin sin cos
sin sin cos
A A A
A
t
t
t
t
t
2 2
2 2
2
1 1
1
1
2
where
2 2
2
` i
i i
i
=
= =
=
+ +
=
+
e e o o

The hypotenuse is
t 1
2
+ by Pythagoras
theorem.
These ratios for sin
2
i
and cos
2
i
come from the
triangle above.
If , tan t
2
i
= then cos
t
t
1
1
2
2
i =
+
-

The ratios for cos
2
i
and
sin
2
i
come from the
previous triangle.
Proof

2
cos cos sin
cos cos sin
A A A
A
t t
t
t t
t
t
t
2
2 2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
where
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
` i
i i
i
= -
= - =
=
+
-
+
=
+
-
+
=
+
-
e e o o

EXAMPLES
1. Find the exact value of .
tan
tan
1 15
2 15
2
c
c
+

Solution
sin
t
t
1
2
2
i =
+
where tan t
2
i
=

tan
tan
sin
1 15
2 15
30
2
1
So
2
c
c
c
+
=
=

2. Prove that . cot cot tan
2
2
2
i
i
i
- =
Solution

LHS 2
RHS
cot cot
tan
tan
tan
tan
t
t
t
t
t t
t
t t
t
t
t
t
t
t
2
2
1 2
1
1
2
2
2
1
2
2 1
1 1
1 1
2
where
2
2
2
2
2
i
i
i i
i
i
= -
= -
= -
-
=
= -
-
= -
-
=
- +
=
=
=
=
^ h

cot cot tan
2
2
2
`
i
i
i
- =
There is also another expression that will help solve some further
trigonometric equations.

sin cos sin
tan
a b r
r a b
a
b
where
and
2 2
i i i a
a
+ = +
= + =
] g

Proof

( )
( )
LHS
sin
sin cos cos sin
sin cos
sin cos
r
a b
a b
a b
a
a b
b
a b
RHS
2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2
# #
i a
i a i a
i i
i i
= +
= + +
= +
+
+
+
= +
=
e o

sin cos sin
tan
a b r
r a b
a
b
where and
2 2
` i i i a
a
+ = +
= + =
] g
If tan
a
b
, = a then the
hypotenuse is a b
2 2
+ by
Pythagoras theorem.
EXAMPLES
1. Write sin cos x x 3 + in the form sin r x a +
] g
.
Solution
sin cos sin a b r i i i a + = + ] g where r a b
2 2
= + and tan
a
b
a =

:
,
sin cos x x
a b
r a b
3
3 1
3 1
3 1
4
2
For
2 2
2
2
+
= =
= +
= +
= +
=
=

tan
tan
a
b
3
1
3
1
30
1
c
a
a
=
=
=
=
-
e o

So sin cos x x 3 + = 2 sin( x + 30c)
CONTINUED
2. Write sin cos 3 2 i i + in the form sin r i a + ] g .
Solution
( ) sin cos sin a b r i i i a + = + where r a b
2 2
= + and tan
a
b
a =
For sin cos 3 2 i i + :
3, 2 a b = =

r a b
3 2
9 4
13
2 2
2 2
= +
= +
= +
=

tan
tan
a
b
3
2
3
2
33 41
1
l
a
a
=
=
=
=
-
c m

So ( ) sin cos sin 3 2 13 33 41 c i i i + = + l
Class Investigation
Can you fnd similar results for these?
sin cos a b i i -
cos cos a b i i +
cos sin a b i i -
6.16 Exercises
1. Simplify
(a)
1
2
t
t
2
-

(b)
1
1
t
t
2
2
+
-

(c)
tan
tan
1 10
2 10
2
c
c
-

(d)
tan
tan
1 25
1 25
2
2
c
c
+
-

(e)
tan
tan
1
2
2
i
i
+

(f)
tan
tan
1
2
1
2
2
2
i
i
+
-

(a)
tan
tan
1 30
2 30
2
c
c
+

(b)
.
.
tan
tan
1 22 5
1 22 5
2
2
c
c
+
-

(c)
tan
tan
1 30
1 30
2
2
c
c
+
-

(d)
tan
tan
1 90
2 90
2
c
c
-

3. Write each expression in terms of
t where . tan t
2
i
=
(a) cosec i
(b) sec i
(c) cot i
(d) sin cos i i +
(e) 1 tani +
(f) 1
2
tan tan i
i
+
(g) cos sin 3 4 i i +
(h)
sin cos
sin cos
1
1
i i
i i
+ -
+ +

(i) tan sec i i +
(j) sin 2i
4. Prove .
sin cos
sin cos
t
1
1
i i
i i
+ +
+ -
=
5. Find an expression for
sin cos 2 2 i i - in terms of t .
6. Write each expression in the form
sin r i a + ] g .
(a) sin cos 2 i i +
(b) sin cos 3 i i +
(c) sin cos i i +
(d) sin cos 5 2 i i +
(e) sin cos 4 i i +
(f) sin cos 3 i i +
(g) sin cos 2 3 i i +
(h) sin cos 4 7 i i +
(i) sin cos 5 4 i i +
(j) sin cos 3 5 i i +
7. Write each expression in the form
sin r i a - ] g.
(a) sin cos i i -
(b) sin cos 2 i i -
(c) sin cos 3 i i -
(d) sin cos 3 i i -
(e) sin cos 5 2 i i -
8. Write the expression
cos sin 3 i i + in the form
cos r i a - ] g .
cos sin 3 i i - in the form
cos r i a + ] g .
sin cos 9 2 i i + in the form .
(a) sin r i a + ] g
(b) cos r i a - ] g
EXAMPLES
1. Solve sin cos 2 i i = for . 0 360 c c # # i
Solution
sin cos 2 i i =
Dividing both sides by cos i : (check cos 0 i = does not give a solution)

.
cos
sin
cos
cos
tan
tan
2
2 1
0 5
i
i
i
i
i
i
=
=
=

CONTINUED
We can use these results to help solve some trigonometric equations.
Since tan i is positive in the frst and third quadrants:

,
,
26 34 180 26 34
26 34 206 34
c c c
c c
i = +
=
l l
l l

2. Solve cos cos 2i i = for . 0 360 c c # # i
Solution

cos cos
cos cos
cos cos
cos cos
2
2 1
2 1 0
2 1 1 0
2
2
i i
i i
i i
i i
=
- =
- - =
+ - =
] ] g g

,
,
cos cos
cos cos
cos
2 1 0 1 0
2 1 1
2
1
0 360
120 240
or `
c c
c c
i i
i i
i i
i
+ = - =
= - =
= - =
=
, , , 0 120 240 360 solutions are ` c c c c i =
3. Solve sin cos x x 3 1 + = for . x 0 360 c c # #
Solution (Method 1)
Use the result for . sin cos a x b x +
For , sin cos x x a 3 3 + = and 1 b =

2
r a b
3 1
2 2
2
2
= +
= +
=
^ h

`
tan
a
b
3
1
30c
a
a
=
=
=

sin cos sin x x x 3 2 30 ` c + = +
] g
Solving:

sin cos
sin
sin
x x x
x x
x
3 1 0 360
2 30 1 30 30 390
30
2
1
for
for
c c
c c c c
c
# #
# #
+ =
+ = +
+ =
]
]
g
g

`
, ,
, ,
, ,
x
x
30 30 180 30 360 30
30 150 390
0 120 360
c c c c c c
c c c
c c c
+ = - +
=
=

Sine is positive in the frst and
second quadrants.
Solution (Method 2)
Use the results for
2
. tan t
i
=

sin cos x x
t
t
t
t
t
t t
t t t
t t
t t
3 1
3
1
2
1
1
1
1
2 3 1
1
2 3 1 1
0 2 2 3
2 3
2 2
2
2
2
2 2
2
+ =
+
+
+
-
=
+
+ -
=
+ - = +
= -
= -
d
^
n
h

`
`
,
0 , 120 , 360
tan tan
t t
t t
x x x
x x
x
2 0 3 0
0 3
2
0
2
3 0
2
180
2
0 180
2
60
or
for c c
c c c
c c c
# #
= - =
= =
= =
= =
=
Test x 180c = separately:

) 1 ( sin cos 3 180 180 0
1
1
c c
!
+ = + -
= -
x 180 ` c = is not a solution
Solutions are , , . x 0 120 360 c c c =
General solutions of trigonometric equations
Often the solutions of trigonometric equations are restricted, for example, to
0 360 . c c # #i If the solutions are not restricted, then they can be described
by a general formula.
EXAMPLE
Find all solutions for . sin
2
3
i =
Solution
CONTINUED

, 540 60 c c -
g
, 360 60 c c + -
, , , ,
360 360 60
, , , , ,
,
( ), ( ), [ ( )],
,
sin sin 60
60 180 60 360 60 360 180 60
60 180 60 360 60 540 60 720 60
180 60 360 60 360 180 60
180 60
If can also be negative
c
c c c c c c c c
c c c
c c c c c c c c c
c c c c c c c
c c
i
i
i
i
=
= - + + -
+ +
= - + - +
= - + - - - - -
= - - -
g
g
g

1
60 sin sin
n n 180 60
So the general solution for is
where is an integer.
n
#
c
c c
i
i
=
= + -
] g
In general, the solution for sin sin i a =
is given by ) 1 a ( n 180
n
i = + - where n is
an integer.
EXAMPLE
Find all solutions for . cos
2
1
i =
Solution

, , , ,
360 360 45 ,
, , , , ,
cos cos 45
45 360 45 360 45 360 360 45
45 360 45 360 45 720 45 720 45
c
c c c c c c c c
c c c f
c c c c c c c c c f
i
i
=
= - + + -
+ +
= - + - +

, ( ), ( ), [ ( )],
, , , ,
45 360 45 360 45 360 360 45
45 360 45 360 45 720 45
If can also be negative,
c c c c c c c c f
c c c c c c c f
i
i = - - - - + - + -
= - - + - - - +
cos cos
n n
45
360 45
So the general solution for is
where is an integer. # !
c
c c
i
i
=
=
In general, the solution for cos cos i a =
is given by n 360 ! i a = where n is an
integer.
Sin is positive in the 1st
and 2nd quadrants.
Cos is positive in the 1st
and 4th quadrants.
6.17 Exercises
In general, the solution for tan tan i a =
is given by 180n i a = + where n is an
integer.
EXAMPLE
Find all solutions for . tan 1 i =
Solution

, 540 45 c c f + , 360 45 c c + - , 180 45 c c + -
, , ,
360 180 45 , 360 360 45 ,
, , , , ,
( ), ( ), [ ( )],
45 180 45 360 45
45 180 45 360 45 540 45 720 45
180 45 360 45 360 180 45
tan tan 45
If can also be negative, then
c
c c c c c
c c c c c c f
c c c c c c c c c f
c c c c c c c f
i
i
i
i
=
= + +
+ + + +
= + + + +
= - - - - - + -
= -

. n n 180 45
The general solution for tan tan 45 is
where is an integer #
c
c c
i
i
=
= +
1. Solve for 0 360 . x c c # #
(a) sin cos x x =
(b) cos sin x x 3 =
(c) sin sin x x 2 =
(d) tan tan x x 0
2
- =
(e) sin sin x x 2 1 0
2
- - =
(f) sin cos x x 2 3 3 0
2
+ - =
(g) sin cot sin x x x 0 - =
(h) cos x 1 0
2
- =
(i)
2 1 0
sin tan tan
sin
x x x
x
2 -
+ - =

(j) cos cos x x 3 7 4 0
2
- + =
2. Solve for . 0 360 c c # # i
(a) sin cos 3 4 0 i i + =
(b) 3 cos sin 5 12 i i - = -
(c) sin cos 3 0 i i - =
(d) 1 sin cos i i + = -
(e) sin cos 4 3 0 i i - + =
(f) sin cos 1 i i - =
(g) cos sin 2 1 i i + =
(h) sin cos 2
2
5
i i - =
(i) cos sin 3 5 2 0 i i - + =
(j) cos sin 2 1 0 i i + + =
Tan is positive in the 1st
and 3rd quadrants.
3. Find the general solution for
(a) sin
2
1
i =
(b) tan 3 a =
(c) cos
2
3
i =
(d) 1 sin x 2 = -
(e) tan 1 0 i + =
(f) cos 2 1
2
b =
(g) sin 4 3
2
c =
(h) tan
3
1
i =
(i) . cos 0 245 i =
(j) . sin 0 399 a =
4. Solve sin x 2 45
2
3
c - =
] g
for
. x 180 180 c c # # -
5. Find the general solutions of
2 . sin cos x x =
6. Solve sin
2
sin x = x for
. x 180 180 c c # # -
(a) sin 0 i =
(b) 1 cos x =
(c) 0 tanx =
(d) 1 sini = -
(e) 0 cos a =
8. For each question
solve for (i) x 0 360 c c # # and
fnd the general solutions (ii)
(a) sin x 2 1 0 - =
(b) cos x 4 3 0 - =
(c) sin cos x x 3 =
(d) sin cos x x 3 0 + =
(e) sin cos x x 2 + =
. sin sin x x 2 1 0
2
+ =
10. (a) Solve cos 2 x = cos x for
x 0 360 c c # # .
(b) Find the general solutions of
cos 2 x = cos x .
1. Find the exact value of cos i and sini if
. tan
5
3
i =
2. Simplify
(a) sin cot x x
(b)
cos
cos sin
40
40 50
c
c c +

(c) cot A 1
2
+
(d)
1
1
t
t
2
2
+
-
where tan t
2
i
=
(e) sin 1 2 10
2
i -
3. Evaluate to 2 decimal places.
(a) sin 39 54 c l
(b) tan 61 30 c l
(c) cos 19 2 c l
4. Find i to the nearest minute if
(a) . sin 0 72 i =
(b) . cos 0 286 i =
(c) tan
7
5
i =
5. Prove that .
sin
cos
sin
1
2
2 2
2
i
i
i
-
= +
6. Find the value of b if
. sin cos b b 2 30 c = -
] g

(a) cos 315c
(b) sin 60c -
] g

(c) tan120c
(d) sin cos 2 105 105 c c
(e) sin sin x y x
17
8
when and - = ^ h
cos y
13
5
=
8. Solve cos x 2 1 = - for . x 0 360 c c # #
9. Sketch the graph of , cos y x = and hence
solve cos x 0 = for 0 360 . x c c # #
10. A ship sails on a bearing of 215c from
port until it is 100 km due south of port.
How far does it sail, to the nearest km?
11. Find the length of AB as a surd.
12. Evaluate x , correct to 2 signifcant
fgures.
(a)
(b)
13. Evaluate i to the nearest minute.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Test Yourself 6
14. Find the area of triangle MNO .
15. Solve for x 180 180 c c # # . -
(a) sin x
4
3
2
=
(b) tan x 2
3
1
=
(c) tan tan x x 3
2
=
16. If sec
4
5
i = - and , tan 0 2 i fnd sin i
and . cot i
17. Jacquie walks south from home for
3.2 km, then turns and walks west for
1.8 km. What is the bearing, to the
nearest degree, of
Jacquie from her home? (a)
her home from where Jacquie is now? (b)
18. Find the general solution of
. sin cos 6 8 5 i i - =
19. The angle of elevation from point B to
the top of a pole is 39 , c and the angle of
elevation from D , on the other side of
the pole, is . B 42c and D are 20 m apart.
(a) Find an expression for the length of AD .
Find the height of the pole, to (b)
1 decimal place.
20. A plane fies from Orange for 1800 km
on a bearing of . 300c It then turns and
fies for 2500 km on a bearing of . 205c
How far is the plane from Orange, to the
nearest km?
(a) sin75c
(b) cos105c
(c) . sin cos 22 30 22 30 c c l l
2 cos (a) x 1 = 0
tan (b) x = 1
sin (c) x =
2
3
.
23. Solve 3 1 sin cos i i + = for
0 360 c c # # i .
24. Evaluate a in the fgure below .
12 mm
10 mm
4 mm
a
25. (a) Simplify cos x cos y sin x sin y .
(b) Show that cos 2 x = 1 sin
2
x .
1. Two cars leave an intersection at the
same time, one travelling at 70 km/h
along one road and the other car
travelling at 80 km/h along the other
road. After 2 hours they are 218 km
apart. At what angle, to the nearest
minute, do the roads meet at the
intersection?
2. A ship sails from port on a bearing of
, 055c then turns and sails on a bearing of
153c for 29.1 km, when it is due east of
port. How far, to 1 decimal place, is the
ship from its starting point?
3. Evaluate x correct to 3 signifcant fgures.

4. (a) Find an exact expression for the
length of AC .
(b) Hence, or otherwise, fnd the value of
h correct to 1 decimal place.
5. A man walks 3.8 km on a bearing of 134c
from a house. He then walks 2.9 km on a
bearing of . 029c How far is he from the
house, to 1 decimal place?
6. Simplify . sin tan x x 360 90 $ c c - -
] ] g g

7. Find the exact area of . ABC D
8. Find the exact value of ( ) . cos 315c -
9. Solve 2 1 0 tan x - = for . x 0 360 c c # #
10. Find i to the nearest minute.
11. The angle of depression from the top of
a 4.5 m mast of a boat down to a fsh
is 56 28 . c l How far down, to 1 decimal
place, does a pelican sitting at the top of
the mast need to fy to catch the fsh?
12. Solve 2 ( 10 ) 1 cos c i + = - for
. 0 360 c c # # i
13. Two roads meet at an angle of 74 . c Find
the distance, correct to 3 signifcant
fgures, between two cars, one 6.3 km
from the intersection along one road
and the other 3.9 km along the other
road.
14. Find the exact value of , cos i given
sin
9
5
i = and . cos 0 1 i
15. From the top of a vertical pole the angle
of depression to a man standing at the
foot of the pole is 43 . c On the other side
of the pole is another man, and the angle
of depression from the top of the pole to
this man is 52 . c The men are standing
58 m apart. Find the height of the pole,
to the nearest metre.
16. Show that
.
sin sin
cos sin cos
tan
1 1
1
i i
i i i
i
+ -
+
= +
] ]
]
g g
g

17. If 3 x = sin i and , cos y 3 2 i = -
eliminate i to fnd an equation relating
x and y .
18. From point A , 93 m due south of the
base of a tower, the angle of elevation
is 35 . c Point B is 124 m due east of the
tower. Find
the height of the tower, to the (a)
nearest metre
the angle of elevation of the tower (b)
from point B .
19. ABCD is a triangular pyramid with
7 , 10 , 8 , BC CD BD AB AC m m m = = = =
and 67 . ACB c + = Calculate
(a) BCD +
length (b) AB , to the nearest metre .
20. A cone has a base diameter of 14 cm and
a perpendicular height of 26 cm. Find
the vertical angle at the top of the cone.
21. Show that
. cos cos sin sin cos 6 4 6 4 2 5 1
2
i i i i i - = -
22. A cable car 100 m above the ground is
seen to have an angle of elevation of 65c
when it is on a bearing of 345 . c After a
minute, it has an angle of elevation of
69c and is on a bearing of 025 . c Find
how far it travels in that minute, and its
speed in . ms
1 -

23. Solve cos sin 2 0 i i - = for
. 0 360 c c # # i
24. Find the general solutions of . 1 sini = -
25. Simplify cosec cos 1 i i - ] g by expressing
it in terms of . tan t
2
i
c m
TERMINOLOGY
7
Linear Functions
Collinear points: Two or more points that lie on the same
straight line
Concurrent lines: Two or more lines that intersect at a
single point
Gradient: The slope of a line measured by comparing
the vertical rise over the horizontal run. The symbol for
gradient is m
Interval: A section of a straight line including the end
points
Midpoint: A point lying exactly halfway between two
points
Perpendicular distance: The shortest distance between a
point and a line. The distance will be at right angles to
the line
391 Chapter 7 Linear Functions
INTRODUCTION
IN CHAPTER 5, YOU STUDIED functions and their graphs. This chapter
looks at the linear function, or straight-line graph, in more detail.
Here you will study the gradient and equation of a straight line, the
intersection of two or more lines, parallel and perpendicular lines,
the midpoint, distance and the perpendicular distance from a point
to a line.
DID YOU KNOW?
Pierre de Fermat (160165) was a lawyer who dabbled in mathematics. He was a contemporary of
Descartes, and showed the relationship between an equation in the form Dx By, = where D and
B are constants, and a straight-line graph. Both de Fermat and Descartes only used positive values
of x , but de Fermat used the x -axis and y -axis as perpendicular lines as we do today.
De Fermats notes Introduction to Loci, Method of Finding Maxima and Minima and Varia
opera mathematica were only published after his death. This means that in his lifetime de Fermat
was not considered a great mathematician. However, now he is said to have contributed as
much as Descartes towards the discovery of coordinate geometry. De Fermat also made a great
contribution in his discovery of differential calculus.
Class Assignment
Find as many examples as you can of straight-line graphs in newspapers
and magazines.
Distance
The distance between two points (or the length of the interval between two
points) is easy to fnd when the points form a vertical or horizontal line.
EXAMPLES
Find the distance between
1. , 1 4 - ^ h and , 1 2 - - ^ h
Solution
Counting along the y -axis, the distance is 6 units.
2. , 3 2 ^ h and , 4 2 - ^ h
Solution
Counting along the x -axis, the distance is 7 units.
When the two points are not lined up horizontally or vertically, we use
Pythagoras theorem to fnd the distance.
EXAMPLE
Find the distance between points , 3 1 - ^ h and , 2 5 - ^ h.
Solution
5 BC = and 6 AC =
By Pythagoras theorem,

5 6
25 36
61
7.81
c a b
AB
AB 61
2 2 2
2 2 2
`
Z
= +
= +
= +
=
=

You studied Pythagoras
theorem in Chapter 4.
DID YOU KNOW?
Pythagoras made many discoveries about music as well as about mathematics. He found
that changing the length of a vibrating string causes the tone of the music to change. For
example, when a string is halved, the tone is one octave higher.
The distance between two points , x y
1 1
_ i and , x y
2 2
_ i is given by
d x x y y
2 1
2
2 1
2
= - + - _ _ i i
Proof
Let , x y A
1 1
= _ i and , x y B
2 2
= _ i
Length AC x x
2 1
= - and length BC y y
2 1
= -
By Pythagoras theorem

AB AC BC
d x x y y
d x x y y
2 2 2
2
2 1
2
2 1
2
2 1
2
2 1
2
`
= +
= - + -
= - + -
_ _
_ _
i i
i i

EXAMPLES
1. Find the distance between the points , 1 3 ^ h and , 3 0 - ^ h .
Solution
Let , 1 3 ^ h be , x y
1 1
_ i and , 3 0 - ^ h be , x y
2 2
_ i

d x x y y
3 1 0 3
4 3
16 9
25
5
2 1
2
2 1
2
2 2
2 2
= - + -
= - - + -
= - + -
= +
=
=
_ _
] ]
] ]
i i
g g
g g

So the distance is 5 units.
2. Find the exact length of AB given that , A 2 4 - - = ^ h and , B 1 5 - = ^ h .
Solution
Let , 2 4 - - ^ h be , x y
1 1
_ i and , 1 5 - ^ h be , x y
2 2
_ i

4
d x x y y
1 2 5
1 9
1 81
82
2
2 1
2
2 1
2
2
2 2
= - + -
= - - - + - -
= +
= +
=
_ _
^ ^
i i
h h 6 6 @ @

If points A and B were changed
around, the formula would be
( ) ( ) , d x x y y
1 2
2
1 2
2
= - + -
which would give the same
answer.
You would still get 82 if you
used ) ( 2, 4 - - as ( , ) x y
2 2
and
( ) , 1 5 - as ( , ) x y
1 1
.
7.1 Exercises
1. Find the distance between points
(a) , 0 2 ^ h and 3, 6 ^ h
(b) , 2 3 - ^ h and , 4 5 - ^ h
(c) , 2 5 - ^ h and , 3 7 - ^ h
2. Find the exact length of the
interval between points
(a) 2, 3 ^ h and , 1 1 - ^ h
(b) , 5 1 - ^ h and 3, 0 ^ h
(c) , 2 3 - - ^ h and 4, 6 - ^ h
(d) , 1 3 - ^ h and , 7 7 - ^ h
3. Find the distance, correct to
2 decimal places, between points
(a) , 1 4 - ^ h and 5, 5 ^ h
(b) 0, 4 ^ h and , 3 2 - ^ h
(c) , 8 1 - ^ h and , 7 6 - ^ h
4. Find the perimeter of ABC D with
vertices , , , A B 3 1 1 1 - ^ ^ h h and
, . C 1 2 - - ^ h
5. Prove that the triangle with
vertices 3, 4 ^ h , , 2 7 - ^ h and , 6 1 - ^ h
is isosceles.
6. Show that , AB BC = where
, , , A B 2 5 4 2 = - - = ^ ^ h h and
, . C 3 8 = - - ^ h
7. Show that points , 3 4 - ^ h and 8, 1 ^ h
are equidistant from point , . 7 3 - ^ h
8. A circle with centre at the origin
O passes through the point
, . 2 7
_ i
Find the radius of the
circle, and hence its equation.
9. Prove that the points
, , , X Y 2 3 1 10 - -
_ _ i i
and
, Z 6 5 -
_ i
all lie on a circle
with centre at the origin. Find its
equation.
10. If the distance between , a 1 - ^ h
and 3, 4 ^ h is 5, fnd the value of a .
11. If the distance between , 3 2 - ^ h
and 4, a ^ h is 7, fnd the exact
value of a .
12. Prove that , , , A B 1 4 1 2 ^ ^ h h and
, C 1 3 3 +
_ i
are the vertices of
an equilateral triangle.
13. If the distance between , 3 a ^ h
and 4, 2 ^ h is 37, fnd the values
of a .
14. The points , , ( , ), M N 1 2 3 0 - - ^ h
, P 4 6 ^ h and , Q 0 4 ^ h form
a quadrilateral. Prove that
MQ NP = and . QP MN = What
type of quadrilateral is MNPQ?
15. Show that the diagonals
of a square with vertices
, , , , , A B C 2 4 5 4 5 3 - - ^ ^ ^ h h h and
, D 2 3 - - ^ h are equal.
16. (a) Show that the triangle with
vertices , , , A B 0 6 2 0 ^ ^ h h and
, C 2 0 - ^ h is isosceles.
(b) Show that perpendicular , OA
where O is the origin, bisects BC .
diameter of a circle with centre
, 3 4 - ^ h if the circle passes
through the point , 7 5 ^ h .
radius of the circle with centre
(1, 3) if the circle passes through
the point , 5 2 - - ^ h .
19. Show that the triangle
with vertices , , , A B 2 1 3 3 - ^ ^ h h
and , C 7 7 - ^ h is right angled .
20. Show that the points
, , , X Y 3 3 7 4 - ^ ^ h h and , Z 4 1 - ^ h
form the vertices of an isosceles
right-angled triangle .
Midpoint
The midpoint is the point halfway between two other points.
The midpoint of two points , x y
1 1
_ i and , x y
2 2
_ i is given by
,
x x y y
M
2 2
1 2 1 2
=
+ +
e o

Proof
Find the midpoint of points , x y A
1 1
_ i and , x y B
2 2
_ i .
Let , x y M = ^ h
Then ABR ;D APQ < D

AR
AQ
AB
AP
` =

`
`
x x
x x
x x x x
x x x x
x x x
x
x x
y
y y
2
1
2
2 2
2
2
2
Similarly,
2 1
1
1 2 1
1 2 1
1 2
1 2
1 2
-
-
=
- = -
- = -
= +
=
+
=
+
_ i

Can you see why
these triangles
are similar?
EXAMPLES
1. Find the midpoint of , 1 4 - ^ h and 5, 2 ^ h .
Solution
x
x x
2
1 2
=
+

So ( , ) .
y
y y
M
2
1 5
2
4
2
2
2
4 2
2
6
3
2 3
1 2
=
- +
=
=
=
+
=
+
=
=
=
2. Find the values of a and b if , 2 3 - ^ h is the midpoint between , 7 8 - - ^ h
and , a b ^ h .
Solution

So and .
x
x x
a
a
a
y
y y
b
b
b
a b
2
2
2
7
4 7
11
2
3
2
8
6 8
2
11 2
1 2
1 2
=
+
=
- +
= - +
=
=
+
- =
- +
- = - +
=
= =

Note that the x -coordinate of the midpoint is the average of x
1
and . x
2

The same applies to the y -coordinate.
PROBLEM
A timekeeper worked out the average time for 8 fnalists in a race. The
average was 30.55, but the timekeeper lost one of the fnalists times.
The other 7 times were 30.3, 31.1, 30.9, 30.7, 29.9, 31.0 and 30.3.
Can you fnd out the missing time?
7.2 Exercises
1. Find the midpoint of
(a) , 0 2 ^ h and , 4 6 ^ h
(b) , 2 3 - ^ h and , 4 5 - ^ h
(c) , 2 5 - ^ h and , 6 7 - ^ h
(d) , 2 3 ^ h and , 8 1 - ^ h
(e) , 5 2 - ^ h and , 3 0 ^ h
(f) , 2 2 - - ^ h and , 4 6 - ^ h
(g) , 1 4 - ^ h and , 5 5 ^ h
(h) 0, 4 ^ h and , 3 2 - ^ h
(i) , 8 1 - ^ h and , 7 6 - ^ h
(j) , 3 7 ^ h and , 3 4 - ^ h
2. Find the values of a and b if
(a) , 4 1 ^ h is the midpoint of , a b ^ h
and , 1 5 - ^ h
(b) , 1 0 - ^ h is the midpoint of
, a b ^ h and , 3 6 - ^ h
(c) , a 2 ^ h is the midpoint of ( , b 3 h
and , 5 6 - ^ h
(d) , 2 1 - ^ h is the midpoint of
, a 4 ^ h and , b 3 - ^ h
(e) , b 3 ^ h is the midpoint of , a 2 ^ h
and , 0 0 ^ h
3. Prove that the origin is the
midpoint of , 3 4 - ^ h and , 3 4 - ^ h .
4. Show that P Q = where P is the
midpoint of , 2 3 - ^ h and , 6 5 - ^ h
and Q is the midpoint of , 7 5 - - ^ h
and , 11 3 ^ h .
5. Find the point that divides the
interval between , 3 2 - ^ h and
, 5 8 ^ h in the ratio of 1: 1.
6. Show that the line 3 x = is the
perpendicular bisector of the
interval between the points
, 1 2 - ^ h and , 7 2 ^ h .
7. The points , , , , A B 1 2 1 5 - ^ ^ h h
, C 6 5 ^ h and , D 4 2 ^ h form a
parallelogram. Find the midpoints
of the diagonals AC and BD . What
property of a parallelogram does
this show?
8. The points , , , , A B 3 5 9 3 - ^ ^ h h
, C 5 6 - ^ h and , D 1 2 - ^ h form a
quadrilateral. Prove that the
diagonals are equal and bisect
one another. What type of
quadrilateral is ABCD ?
9. A circle with centre , 2 5 - ^ h has
one end of a diameter at , . 4 3 - ^ h
Find the coordinates of the other
end of the diameter.
10. A triangle has vertices at
, , , A B 1 3 0 4 - ^ ^ h h and , C 2 2 - ^ h .
Find the midpoints (a) X , Y
and Z of sides AB , AC and BC
respectively.
Show that (b) , XY BC
2
1
=
XZ AC
2
1
= and
2
1
. YZ AB =
11. Point , x y P^ h moves so that
the midpoint between P and
the origin is always a point on
the circle 1. x y
2 2
+ = Find the
equation of the locus of P .
12. Find the equation of the locus
of the point , x y P^ h that is the
midpoint between all points on
the circle 4 x y
2 2
+ = and the
origin.
Gradient
The gradient of a straight line measures its slope. The gradient compares the
vertical rise with the horizontal run.
The locus is the path
that ( , ) P x y follows.
Gradient
run
rise
=
On the number plane, this is a measure of the rate of change of y with
respect to x .
The rate of change of y with respect to x is a very important measure
of their relationship. In later chapters you will use the gradient for many
purposes, including sketching curves, fnding the velocity and acceleration
of objects, and fnding maximum and minimum values of formulae.
EXAMPLES
Find the gradient of each interval.
1.
Solution

Gradient
run
rise
3
2
=
=

You will study the
gradient at different
points on a curve in
the next chapter.
CONTINUED
2.
Solution
In this case, x is 3 - (the run is measured towards the left) .

Gradient
run
rise
3
2
3
2
=
=
-
= -

Positive gradient leans to the right. Negative gradient leans to the left.
Gradient given 2 points
The gradient of the line between , x y
1 1
_ i and , x y
2 2
_ i is given by
m
x x
y y
2 1
2 1
=
-
-

Proof
BC y y
2 1
= - and AC x x
2 1
= -

Gradient
run
rise
x x
y y
2 1
2 1
=
=
-
-

This formula could also be
written m
x x
y y
1 2
1 2
=
-
-

EXAMPLES
1. Find the gradient of the line between points 2, 3 ^ h and , . 3 4 - ^ h
Solution

Gradient: m
x x
y y
3 2
4 3
5
1
5
1
2 1
2 1
=
-
-
=
- -
-
=
-
= -

2. Prove that points , , , 2 3 2 5 - - ^ ^ h h and , 0 1 - ^ h are collinear.
Solution
To prove points are collinear, we show that they have the same gradient
(slope).
Collinear points lie on the
same line, so they have
the same gradients.
CONTINUED
Gradient of the interval between , 2 5 - - ^ h and , 0 1 - ^ h :

m
x x
y y
2
5
2
1 5
2
4
2
0
1
2 1
2 1
=
-
-
=
-
-
=
- +
=
=
-
- -
]
]
g
g

Gradient of the interval between , 0 1 - ^ h and , 2 3 ^ h :

m
x x
y y
2 0
1
2
3 1
2
4
2
3
2 1
2 1
=
-
-
=
-
-
=
+
=
=
-
] g

Since the gradient of both intervals is the same, the points are collinear.
Gradient given the angle at the x -axis
The gradient of a straight line is given by
tan m i =
where i is the angle the line makes with the x -axis in the positive direction
Proof

run
rise
adjacent
opposite
tan
m
i
=
=
=


For an acute angle tan 0 2 i . For an obtuse angle tan 0 1 i .
Class Discussion
Which angles give a positive gradient? 1.
Which angles give a negative gradient? Why? 2.
What is the gradient of a horizontal line? What angle does it make 3.
with the x -axis?
What angle does a vertical line make with the 4. x -axis? Can you fnd
its gradient?
EXAMPLES
1. Find the gradient of the line that makes an angle of 135c with the
x -axis in the positive direction.
Solution

tan
tan
m
135
1
c
i =
=
= -

2. Find the angle, in degrees and minutes, that a straight line makes
with the x -axis in the positive direction if its gradient is 0.5.
Solution
.
tan
tan
m
0 5
26 34
`
c
i
i
i
=
=
= l

Can you see why the
gradient is negative?
7.3 Exercises
1. Find the gradient of the line
between
(a) , 3 2 ^ h and , 1 2 - ^ h
(b) , 0 2 ^ h and , 3 6 ^ h
(c) , 2 3 - ^ h and , 4 5 - ^ h
(d) , 2 5 - ^ h and , 3 7 - ^ h
(e) , 2 3 ^ h and , 1 1 - ^ h
(f) , 5 1 - ^ h and , 3 0 ^ h
(g) , 2 3 - - ^ h and , 4 6 - ^ h
(h) , 1 3 - ^ h and , 7 7 - ^ h
(i) , 1 4 - ^ h and , 5 5 ^ h
(j) , 0 4 ^ h and , 3 2 - ^ h
2. If the gradient of , y 8
1
_ i and
, 1 3 - ^ h is 2, fnd the value of . y
1

3. The gradient of , 2 1 - ^ h and , x 0 ^ h
is 5 . Find the value of x .
4. The gradient of a line is 1 and
the line passes through the points
, 4 2 ^ h and , x 3 - ^ h . Find the value
of x .
5. (a) Show that the gradient of
the line through , 2 1 - ^ h and
3, 4 ^ h is equal to the gradient
of the line between the points
, , and 2 1 7 2 - ^ ^ h h .
(b) Draw the two lines on the
number plane. What can you say
about the lines?
6. Show that the points
, , , , , A B C 1 2 1 5 6 5 - ^ ^ ^ h h h and
, D 4 2 ^ h form a parallelogram.
Find the gradients of all sides.
7. The points
, , , , , A B C 3 5 9 3 5 6 - - ^ ^ ^ h h h and
, D 1 2 - ^ hform a rectangle. Find
the gradients of all the sides and
the diagonals.
8. Find the gradients of the
diagonals of the square with
vertices , , , , A B 2 1 3 1 - ^ ^ h h
, and , . C D 3 6 2 6 - ^ ^ h h
9. A triangle has vertices
, , , A B 3 1 1 4 - - ^ ^ h h and , . C 11 4 - ^ h
By fnding the lengths of all (a)
sides, prove that it is a right-
angled triangle.
Find the gradients of sides (b)
AB and BC .
10. (a) Find the midpoints F and
G of sides AB and AC where
ABC is a triangle with vertices
, , , A B 0 3 2 7 - ^ ^ h h and , C 8 2 - ^ h .
(b) Find the gradients of FG
and BC .
11. The gradient of the line between
a moving point , P x y ^ h and the
point , A 5 3 ^ h is equal to the
gradient of line PB where B has
coordinates , 2 1 - ^ h . Find the
12. Prove that the points , , , 3 1 5 5 - ^ ^ h h
and , 2 4 - ^ h are collinear.
13. Find the gradient of the straight
line that makes an angle of 45c
with the x -axis in the positive
direction.
14. Find the gradient, to 2 signifcant
fgures, of the straight line that
the x -axis.
15. Find the gradient of the line that
the x -axis, to 2 signifcant fgures.
16. Find the angle, in degrees and
minutes, that a line with gradient
1.2 makes with the x -axis.
17. What angle, in degrees and
minutes does the line with
gradient 3 make with the x -axis
in the positive direction?
Gradient given an equation
In Chapter 5 you explored and graphed linear functions. You may have
noticed a relationship between the graph and the gradient and y -intercept of a
straight line.
18. Find the exact gradient of the
line that makes an angle with the
x -axis in the positive direction of
(a) 60c
(b) 30c
(c) . 120c
19. Show that the line passing
through , 4 2 - ^ h and , 7 5 - ^ h
makes an angle of 135c with
the x -axis in the positive
direction.
20. Find the exact value of x with
rational denominator if the line
passing through , x 3 ^ h and , 2 1 ^ h
makes an angle of 60c with the
x -axis.
Investigation
1. (i) Draw the graph of each linear function.
(ii) By selecting two points on the line, fnd its gradient.
(a) y x =
(b) 2 y x =
(c) 3 y x =
(d) y x = -
(e) 2 y x = -
Can you fnd a pattern for the gradient of each line? Can you predict
what the gradient of 5 y x = and 9 y x = - would be?
2. (i) Draw the graph of each linear function.
(ii) Find the y -intercept.
(a) y x =
(b) 1 y x = +
(c) 2 y x = +
(d) 2 y x = -
(e) 3 y x = -
Can you fnd a pattern for the y -intercept of each line? Can you predict
what the y -intercept of 11 y x = + and 6 y x = - would be?
has y mx b = +
gradient m =
b y = -intercept
EXAMPLES
1. Find the gradient and y -intercept of the linear function 7 5 y x = - .
Solution
The equation is in the form y mx b = + where 7 m = and 5 b = - .
Gradient 7 =
y-intercept 5 = -
2. Find the gradient of the straight line with equation . x y 2 3 6 0 + - =
Solution
First, we change the equation into the form y mx b = + .

So the gradient is .
x y
x y
x y
x y
y x
x
y
x
y
x
x
m
x x
2 3 6 0
2 3 6 0
2 3 6
2 3 6
3 6 2
2 6
3
2 6
3
2
3
6
3
2
2
3
2
3
2
6 6
2 2
3 3
+ - =
+ - =
+ =
+ =
= -
= - +
=
- +
=
-
+
= - +
= -
-
+ +
- -

There is a general formula for nding the gradient of a straight line.
The gradient of the line 0 ax by c + + = is given by
m
b
a
= -
Proof

0 ax by c
by ax c
y
b
ax
b
c
+ + =
= - -
= - -

m
b
a
` = -
EXAMPLE
Find the gradient of 3 2 x y - = .
Solution

,
x y
x y
a b
m
b
a
3 2
3 2 0
3 1
1
3
3
3 gradient is `
- =
- - =
= = -
= -
= -
-
=

7.4 Exercises
1. Find
(i) the gradient and
(ii) the y -intercept of each linear
function.
(a) 3 5 y x = +
(b) 2 1 f x x = +
] g

(c) 6 7 y x = -
(d) y x = -
(e) 4 3 y x = - +
(f) 2 y x = -
(g) 6 2 f x x = -
] g

(h) 1 y x = -
(i) 9 y x =
(j) 5 2 y x = -
2. Find
(i) the gradient and
(ii) the y -intercept of each linear
function .
(a) 2 3 0 x y + - =
(b) 5 6 0 x y + + =
(c) 6 1 0 x y - - =
(d) 4 0 x y - + =
(e) 4 2 1 0 x y + - =
(f) 6 2 3 0 x y - + =
(g) 3 6 0 x y + + =
(h) 4 5 10 0 x y + - =
(i) 7 2 1 0 x y - - =
(j) 5 3 2 0 x y - + =
line .
(a) 4 y x =
(b) 2 1 y x = - -
(c) 2 y =
(d) 2 5 0 x y + - =
(e) 1 0 x y + + =
(f) 3 8 x y + =
(g) 2 5 0 x y - + =
(h) 4 12 0 x y + - =
(i) 3 2 4 0 x y - + =
(j) 5 4 15 x y - =
(k)
3
2
3 y x = +
(l)
2
y
x
=
(m)
5
1 y
x
= -
(n)
7
2
5 y
x
= +
(o)
5
3
2 y
x
= - -
(p) 2
7 3
1
y
x
= - +
(q) 3
5
8 x
y
- =
(r)
2 3
1
x
y
+ =
(s)
3
2
4 3 0
x
y - - =
(t)
4 3
2
7 0
x
y
+ + =
Equation of a Straight Line
There are several different ways to write the equation of a straight line.
General form
0 ax by c + + =
Gradient form
y mx b = +
where gradient m = and b y = -intercept
Intercept form
1
a
x
b
y
+ =
where a and b are the x -intercept and y -intercept respectively
Proof

, m
a
b
b b
y
a
b
x b
b
y
a
x
a
x
b
y
1
1 `
`
= - =
= - +
= - +
+ =

Point-gradient formula
There are two formulae for fnding the equation of a straight line. One of these
uses a point and the gradient of the line.
The equation of a straight line is given by
x x y y m
1 1
- - = _ i
where , x y
1 1
_ i lies on the line with gradient m
This is a very useful
formula as it is used in
many topics in this course.
Proof
Given point , x y
1 1
_ i on the line with gradient m
Let , P x y = ^ h
Then line AP has gradient

m
x x
y y
m
x x
y y
m x x y y
2 1
2 1
1
1
1 1
`
=
-
-
=
-
-
- = - _ i

Two-point formula
The equation of a straight line is given by

x x
y y
x x
y y
1
1
2 1
2 1
-
-
=
-
-

where , x y
1 1
_ i and , x y
2 2
_ i are points on the line
Proof
ABR D ;
,
So
P x y
APQ
AQ
PQ
AR
BR
x x
y y
x x
y y
Let
i.e.
1
1
2 1
2 1
< D
=
=
-
-
=
-
-
^ h

The two-point formula is not essential. The right-hand side of it is the gradient
of the line. Replacing this by m gives the pointgradient formula.
This formula is
optional as you can
use the pointgradient
formula for any
question.
The gradient is the
same anywhere along
a straight line.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the straight line with gradient 4 - and passing
through the point , . 2 3 - ^ h
Solution
, and m x y 4 2 3
1 1
= - = - =

Equation: ( )
[ ( )]
( )
(gradient form)
or (general form)
y y m x x
y x
x
x
y x
x y
3 4 2
4 2
4 8
4 5
4 5 0
1 1
`
- = -
- = - - -
= - +
= - -
= - -
+ + =

2. Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the points
, 2 3 - ^ h and , . 4 7 - - ^ h
Solution
By two-point formula:

x x
y y
x x
y y
x
y
x
y
x
y
y x
y x
x y
x y
4
7
2 4
3 7
4
7
2 4
3 7
4
7
3
2
3 7 2 4
3 21 2 8
2 3 13 0
2 3 13 0 or
1
1
2 1
2 1
-
-
=
-
-
- -
- -
=
- -
- - -
+
+
=
+
- +
+
+
=
+ = +
+ = +
- + + =
- - =
]
]
]
]
^
]
g
g
g
g
h
g

By point-gradient method:

m
x x
y y
2 4
3 7
2 4
3 7
3
2
2 1
2 1
=
-
-
=
- -
- - -
=
+
- +
=
]
]
g
g

Use one of the points, say , 4 7 - - ^ h .
, 4 7 m x y
3
2
and
1 1
= = - = -
Equation: ( )
( ) ( )
y y m x x
y x 7
3
2
4
1 1
- = -
- - = - - 6 @

( )
or
y x
y x
y x
x y
x y
7
3
2
4
3 7 2 4
3 21 2 8
2 3 13 0
2 3 13 0
`
+ = +
+ = +
+ = +
- + + =
- - =
^
]
h
g

3. Find the equation of the line with x- intercept 3 and y- intercept 2.
Solution
Intercept form is 1,
a
x
b
y
+ = where a and b are the x- intercept and
y- intercept respectively.

1
2 3 6
2 3 6 0
x
y
x y
x y
3 2
`
`
+ =
+ =
+ - =

Again, the point-gradient formula can be used. The x -intercept and
y -intercept are the points 3, 0 ^ h and , . 0 2 ^ h
7.5 Exercises
1. Find the equation of the straight
line
with gradient 4 and (a)
y -intercept 1 -
with gradient (b) 3 - and passing
through , 0 4 ^ h
passing through the origin (c)
with gradient 5
with gradient 4 and (d)
x -intercept 5 -
with (e) x -intercept 1 and
y -intercept 3
with (f) x -intercept 3,
y -intercept 4 -
with (g) y -intercept 1 - and
making an angle of 45c with the
x -axis in the positive direction
with (h) y -intercept 5 and making
an angle of 45c with the x -axis in
the positive direction.
line that makes an angle of
135c with the x -axis and passes
through the point , . 2 6 ^ h
line passing through
(a) , 2 5 ^ h and , 1 1 - ^ h
(b) , 0 1 ^ h and , 4 2 - - ^ h
(c) , 2 1 - ^ h and , 3 5 ^ h
(d) , 3 4 ^ h and , 1 7 - ^ h
(e) , 4 1 - - ^ h and , 2 0 - ^ h .
4. What is the equation of the line
with x -intercept 2 and passing
through , ? 3 4 - ^ h
5. Find the equation of the line
parallel to the (a) x -axis and
passing through , 2 3 ^ h
parallel to the (b) y -axis and
passing through , 1 2 - ^ h .
Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
Parallel lines
6. A straight line passing through
the origin has a gradient of 2. -
Find its equation.
7. A straight line has x -intercept 4
and passes through , . 0 3 - ^ h Find
its equation.
line with gradient 2 - that passes
through the midpoint of , 5 2 - ^ h
and , . 3 4 - ^ h
9. What is the equation of the
straight line through the point
, 4 5 - ^ h and the midpoint of , 1 2 ^ h
and , ? 9 4 - ^ h
10. What is the equation of the
straight line through the
midpoint of , 0 1 ^ h and , 6 5 - ^ h
and the midpoint of , 2 3 ^ h and
, ? 8 3 - ^ h
Class Investigation
Sketch the following straight lines on the same number plane .
1. y x 2 =
y x 2 1 = + 2.
y x 2 3 = - 3.
y x 2 5 = + 4.
What do you notice about these lines?
If two lines are parallel, then they have the same gradient. That is,
m m
1 2
=
Two lines that are parallel have equations
0 ax by c
1
+ + = and 0 ax by c
2
+ + =
Proof
0 ax by c
1
+ + = has gradient m
b
a
1
= -
0 ax by c
2
+ + = has gradient m
b
a
2
= -
Since , m m
1 2
= the two lines are parallel.
EXAMPLES
1. Prove that the straight lines 5 2 1 0 x y - - = and 5 2 7 0 x y - + = are
parallel.
Solution

x y
x y
x y
m
x y
x y
x y
m
5 2 1 0
5 1 2
2
5
2
1
2
5
5 2 7 0
5 7 2
2
5
2
7
2
5
1
2
`
`
- - =
- =
- =
=
- + =
+ =
+ =
=

2
5
m m
1 2
= =
` the lines are parallel .
2. Find the equation of a straight line parallel to the line 2 3 0 x y - - =
and passing through , . 1 5 - ^ h
Solution

2 3 0
2 3
2
x y
x y
m
1
`
- - =
- =
=

For parallel lines m m
1 2
=
2 m
2
` =

Equation: ( )
( ) ( )
y y m x x
y x
y x
x y
5 2 1
5 2 2
0 2 7
1 1
- = -
- - = -
+ = -
= - -

Notice that the equations
are both in the form
5x 2y k 0. - + =
DID YOU KNOW?
Parallel lines are usually thought of as lines that never meet. However, there is a whole branch
of geometry based on the theory that parallel lines meet at infnity. This is called affne
geometry . In this geometry there are no perpendicular lines.
Perpendicular lines
Class Investigation
Sketch the following pairs of straight lines on the same number plane.
(a) 1. 3 4 12 0 x y - + = (b) 4 3 8 0 x y + - =
(a) 2. 2 4 0 x y + + = (b) 2 2 0 x y - + =
What do you notice about these pairs of lines?
If two lines with gradients m
1
and m
2
respectively are perpendicular, then

1 m m
m
m
1
i.e.
1 2
2
1
= -
= -

Proof

Let line AB have gradient tan m
1
a = .
Let line CD have gradient tan m
2
b = .

straight angle
tan
tan
cot
EC
EB
CBE
EB
EC
EC
EB
180
180
180 `
c
c
c
+
b
a
a
a
=
= -
- =
- =
^
]
]
h
g
g

Gradients of perpendicular lines
are negative reciprocals of each
other.
So
or
tan cot
cot
tan
m
m
m m
180
1
1
1
2
1
1 2
` c b a
a
a
= -
= -
= -
= -
= -
] g
Perpendicular lines have equations in the form
0 ax by c
1
+ + = and 0 bx ay c
2
- + =
Proof

has gradient
has gradient
ax by c m
b
a
bx ay c m
a
b
a
b
0
0
1 1
2 2
+ + = = -
- + = = -
-
=
m m
b
a
a
b
1
1 2
# = -
= -

Since , m m 1
1 2
= - the two lines are perpendicular .
EXAMPLES
1. Show that the lines 3 11 0 x y + - = and 3 1 0 x y - + = are
perpendicular.
Solution

3
1
x y
y x
m
x y
x y
x y
m
m m
3 11 0
3 11
3
3 1 0
1 3
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
1
2
1 2
`
`
#
+ - =
= - +
= -
- + =
+ =
+ =
=
= -
= -

`
the lines are perpendicular .
Notice that the equations
are in the form
x y c 3 0
1
+ + = and
. x y c 3 0
2
- + =
CONTINUED
2. Find the equation of the straight line through 2, 3 ^ h perpendicular to
the line that passes through , 1 7 - ^ h and , . 3 3 ^ h
Solution
Line through , 1 7 - ^ h and , : 3 3 ^ h

1
m
x x
y y
m
1 3
7 3
4
4
2 1
2 1
1
=
-
-
=
- -
-
=
-
= -

For perpendicular lines, 1 = - m m
1 2

1 1 m
m 1
i.e.
2
2
- = -
=

Equation through , : 2 3 ^ h

( )
( )
y y m x x
y x
x
x y
3 1 2
2
0 1
1 1
- = -
- = -
= -
= - +

7.6 Exercises
line
parallel to the line (a)
3 4 0 x y + - =
perpendicular to the line (b)
3 4 0 x y + - =
parallel to the line joining (c)
, 3 5 ^ h and , 1 2 - ^ h
perpendicular to the line with (d)
x -intercept 3 and y -intercept 2
perpendicular to the line (e)
making an angle of 135c with the
perpendicular to the line (f)
6 5 4 0 x y - - =
parallel to the line making an (g)
angle of c 30 with the x -axis
parallel to the line (h)
3 7 0 x y - - =
perpendicular to the line (i)
making an angle of c 120 with the
perpendicular to the line (j)
passing through , 4 2 - ^ h and , . 3 3 ^ h
2. Find the equation of each straight
line
passing through (a) , 2 3 ^ h and
parallel to the line 6 y x = +
through (b) , 1 5 - ^ h and parallel
to the line 3 7 0 x y - - =
with (c) x -intercept 5 and parallel
to the line 4 y x = -
through (d) , 3 4 - ^ h and
perpendicular to the line 2 y x =
through (e) , 2 1 - ^ h and
perpendicular to the line
2 3 0 x y + + =
through (f) , 7 2 - ^ h and
3 5 0 x y - - =
through (g) , 3 1 - - ^ h and
. x y 4 3 2 0 - + =
3. Show that the straight lines
3 2 y x = - and 6 2 9 0 x y - - =
are parallel .
4. Show that lines 5 0 x y + = and
5 3 y x = + are perpendicular .
5. Show that lines 6 5 1 0 x y - + =
and 6 5 3 0 x y - - = are parallel.
6. Show that lines 7 3 2 0 x y + + =
and 3 7 0 x y - = are
perpendicular.
7. If the lines 3 2 5 0 x y - + = and
1 y kx = - are perpendicular, fnd
the value of k .
8. Show that the line joining , 3 1 - ^ h
and , 2 5 - ^ h is parallel to the line
8 2 3 0. x y - - =
9. Show that the points , , A 3 2 - - ^ h
, , B 1 4 - ^ h , , C 7 1 - ^ h and
, D 5 7 - ^ h are the vertices of a
parallelogram.
10. The points , , A 2 0 - ^ h , , B 1 4 ^ h
, C 6 4 ^ h and , D 3 0 ^ h form
a rhombus. Show that the
diagonals are perpendicular.
line
passing through the (a)
origin and parallel to the line
3 0 x y + + =
through (b) , 3 7 ^ h and parallel to
the line 5 2 0 x y - - =
through (c) , 0 2 - ^ h and
2 9 x y - =
perpendicular to the line (d)
3 2 1 0 x y + - = and passing
through the point , 2 4 - ^ h .
line passing through , 6 3 - ^ h
that is perpendicular to the line
joining , 2 1 - ^ h and , . 5 7 - - ^ h
13. Find the equation of the line
through , 2 1 ^ h that is parallel
to the line that makes an angle
of c 135 with the x -axis in the
positive direction.
14. Find the equation of the
perpendicular bisector of the
line passing through , 6 3 - ^ h and
, . 2 1 - ^ h
straight line parallel to the line
2 3 1 0 x y - - = and through the
midpoint of , 1 3 ^ h and , . 1 9 - ^ h
Intersection of Lines
Two straight lines intersect at a single point , . x y ^ h The point satisfes the
equations of both lines. We fnd this point by solving simultaneous equations.

You may need to revise
simultaneous equations
from Chapter 3 .
Concurrent lines meet at a single point. To show that lines are
concurrent, solve two simultaneous equations to fnd the point of intersection.
Then substitute this point of intersection into the third and subsequent lines
to show that these lines also pass through the point.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the point of intersection between lines x y 3 3 0 2 - - = and
. x y 5 2 13 0 - - =
Solution
Solve simultaneous equations:
:
:
:
x
x y
x y
x y
x y
x
x
3
2 3 3 0 1
5 2 13 0 2
1 2 4 6 6 0 3
2 3 15 6 39 0 4
3 4 11 33 0
33 11
#
#
=
- - =
- - =
- - =
- - =
- - + =
=
^
^
^ ^
^ ^
^ ^
h
h
h h
h h
h h
ubstitute into : S x 3 1 = ^ h
y
y
y
y
2 3 3 3 0
3 3 0
3 3
1
- - =
- + =
=
=
^ h
So the point of intersection is , . 3 1 ^ h
2. Show that the lines , x y x y 3 1 0 2 12 0 - + = + + = and
x y 4 3 7 0 - - = are concurrent.
Solution
Solve any two simultaneous equations:
:
:
x y
x y
x y
x y
x
3 1 0 1
2 12 0 2
4 3 7 0 3
1 2 6 2 2 0 4
2 4 7 14 0
#
- + =
+ + =
- - =
- + =
+ + =
^
^
^
^ ^
^ ^
h
h
h
h h
h h
You could use a
computer spreadsheet to
solve these simultaneous
equations.
7 14
x
x
2 = -
= -
ubstitute into : x S 2 1 = - ^ h
y
y
y
3 2 1 0
5 0
5
- - + =
- - =
- =
^ h
So the point of intersection of (1) and (2) is , 2 5 - - ^ h .
Substitute , 2 5 - - ^ h into (3): x y 4 3 7 0 - - =
LHS 4 2
RHS
3 5 7
8 15 7
0
= - - -
= - + -
=
=
- ^ ^ h h
So the point lies on line (3)
` all three lines are concurrent .
Equation of a line through the intersection of 2 other lines
To fnd the equation of a line through the intersection of 2 other lines, fnd
the point of intersection, then use it with the other information to fnd the
equation.
Another method uses a formula to fnd the equation.
If a x b y c 0
1 1 1
+ + = and a x b y c 0
2 2 2
+ + = are 2 given lines then the
equation of a line through their intersection is given by the formula
( ) ( ) a x b y c k a x b y c 0
1 1 1 2 2 2
+ + + + + = where k is a constant
Proof
Let l
1
have equation . a x b y c 0
1 1 1
+ + =
Let l
2
have equation . a x b y c 0
2 2 2
+ + =
Let the point of intersection of l
1
and l
2
be , x y P
1 1
^ h
.
Then P satisfes l
1
i.e. a x b y c 0
1 1 1 1 1
+ + =
P also satisfes l
2

i.e. a x b y c 0
1 1 2 2 2
+ + =
Substitute P into ( ) ( ) a x b y c k a x b y c 0
1 1 1 2 2 2
+ + + + + =
( ) ( ) a x b y c k a x b y c
k
0
0 0 0
0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
+ + + + + =
+ =
=
^ h
` if point P satisfes both equations l
1
and l
2
then it satisfes l kl 0
1 2
+ = .
7.7 Exercises
EXAMPLE
Find the equation of the line through , 1 2 - ^ h that passes through the
intersection of lines x y 2 5 0 + - = and . x y 3 1 0 - + =
Solution
Using the formula:
, , , , a b c a b c 2 1 5 1 3 1
1 1 1 2 2 2
= = = - = = - =
a x b y c k a x b y c
x y k x y
0
2 5 3 1 0
1 1 1 2 2 2
+ + + + + =
+ - + - + =
^ ^
^ ^
h h
h h
Since this line passes through , , 1 2 - ^ h substitute the point into the
equation:
k
k
k
k
2 2 5 1 6 1 0
5 6 0
5 6
6
5
- + - + - - + =
- - =
- =
- =
^ ^ h h
So the equation becomes:
x y x y
x y x y
x y x y
x y
x y
2 5
6
5
3 1 0
6 2 5 5 3 1 0
12 6 30 5 15 5 0
7 21 35 0
3 5 0
+ - - - + =
+ - - - + =
+ - - + - =
+ - =
+ - =
^ ^
^ ^
h h
h h
Another way to do this example is to fnd the point of intersection, then
use both points to fnd the equation.
Substitute the value
of k back into the
equation.
1. Find the point of intersection of
straight lines
(a) x y 3 4 10 0 + + = and
x y 2 3 16 0 - - =
x y 5 2 11 0 + + = (b) and
x y 3 6 0 + + =
x y 7 3 16 - = (c) and
x y 5 2 12 - =
x y 2 3 6 - = (d) and x y 4 5 10 - =
x y 3 8 0 - - = (e) and
x y 4 7 13 0 + - =
y x 5 6 = + (f) and y x 4 3 = - -
y x 2 1 = + (g) and
x y 5 3 6 0 + = -
x y 3 7 12 + = (h) and
x y 4 1 0 6 - = -
x y 3 5 7 - = - (i) and
x y 2 3 4 - =
x y 8 7 3 0 - - = (j) and
x y 5 2 1 0 - - =
2. Show that the lines
x y 2 11 0 - - = and
x y 2 10 0 - = - intersect at the
point , . 3 4 - ^ h
3. A triangle is formed by 3
straight lines with equations
, x y 2 1 0 - + = x y 2 0 9 + - =
and . x y 2 5 3 0 - - = Find the
coordinates of its vertices.
, x y 5 17 0 - - =
x y 3 2 12 0 - - = and
x y 5 7 0 + - = are concurrent.
, x y 4 5 0 + + = , x y 3 7 15 0 - + =
x y 2 10 0 - = + and
x y 6 5 30 0 + + = are concurrent.
line through the origin that
passes through the intersection of
the lines x y 5 2 14 0 - + = and
x y 3 4 7 0 + - = .
line through , 3 2 ^ h that passes
through the intersection of
the lines x y 5 2 0 1 + + = and
x y 3 16 0 - + = .
line through , 4 1 - - ^ h that
passes through the intersection
of the lines x y 2 1 0 + - = and
. x y 3 5 16 0 + + =
line through , 3 4 - ^ h that passes
the lines x y 2 3 0 + - = and
x y 3 2 8 0 - - = .
the lines x y 2 3 6 0 + - = and
x y 3 5 10 0 + = - .
the lines x y 1 0 - + = and
x y 4 2 0 - - = .
of the lines x y 2 6 0 + - = and
. x y 3 7 9 0 + - =
the lines x y 2 10 0 + + = and
. x y 0 2 5 - = +
. x y 3 2 1 0 - - =
x y 3 11 0 - + = .
of the lines x y 1 0 + + = and
x y 3 2 0 + = .
the lines x y 3 4 0 - + = and
x y 2 12 0 - + = .
line with gradient 3 that passes
the lines x y 2 1 0 + - = and
x y 3 5 16 0 + + = .
line with gradient 2 that passes
the lines x y 5 2 3 0 - - = and
x y 7 3 4 0 - - = .
straight line parallel to the
line x y 3 7 0 - - = that passes
the lines x y 3 2 10 0 - - = and
. x y 4 17 0 + - =
straight line perpendicular to
the line x y 5 1 0 + - = that
of lines x y 3 5 3 0 - - = and
x y 2 3 17 0 + + = .
Perpendicular Distance
The distance formula d x x y y
2 1
2
2 1
2
= - + - _ _ i i is used to fnd the distance
between two points.
Perpendicular distance is used to fnd the distance between a point and
a line. If we look at the distance between a point and a line, there could be
many distances.
So we choose the shortest distance, which is the perpendicular distance.
The perpendicular distance from , x y
1 1
_ i to the line 0 ax by c + + = is
given by
| |
d
a b
ax by c
2 2
1 1
=
+
+ +

A distance is always
positive, so take the
absolute value.
Proof
Let d be the perpendicular distance of , x y
1 1
_ i from the line . ax by c 0 + + =
, A
a
c
0 = -
b l
, C
b
c
0 = - c m , R x
b
ax c
1
1
=
- -
e o

, ACO
a
c
b
c
a b
c b c a
ab
c a b
In AC
2
2
2
2
2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
D = +
=
+
=
+

PR y
b
ax c
b
ax by c
1
1
1 1
= -
- -
=
+ +
e o
ACO D is similar to PRQ D

.
AO
PQ
AC
PR
PQ
AC
AO PR
d
a
c
b
ax by c
ab
c a b
ab
c ax by c
c a b
ab
a b
ax by c
1 1
2 2
1 1
2 2
2 2
1 1
`
` # '
#
=
=
=
+ +
+
=
+ +
+
=
+
+ +
_ i

All points on one side of the line 0 ax by c + + = make the numerator of
this formula positive. Points on the other side make the numerator negative.
Usually we take the absolute value of d . However, if we want to know if
points are on the same side of a line or not, we look at the sign of d .
To fnd A and C , substitute
y 0 = and x 0 = into
. ax by c 0 + + =
Why?
EXAMPLES
1. Find the perpendicular distance of , 4 3 - ^ h from the line . x y 3 4 1 0 - - =
Solution

, , , ,
| |
| |
x y a b c
d
a b
ax by c
4 3 3 4 1
3 4
3 4 4 3 1
1 1
2 2
1 1
2 2
= = - = = - = -
=
+
+ +
=
+ -
+ - - + -
]
] ] ] ]
g
g g g g

CONTINUED
| |
.
25
12 12 1
5
23
4 6
=
+ -
=
=
So the perpendicular distance is 4.6 units.
2. Prove that the line x y 6 8 20 0 + + = is a tangent to the circle
4. x y
2 2
+ =
Solution
There are three possibilities for the intersection of a circle and a straight line.
The centre of the circle x y 4
2 2
+ = is , 0 0 ^ h and its radius is 2 units.
A tangent is perpendicular to the centre of the circle. So we prove that the
perpendicular distance from the line to the point , 0 0 ^ h is 2 units (the radius).

| |
| ( ) ( ) |
| |
d
a b
ax by c
6 8
6 0 8 0 20
100
20
10
20
2
2 2
1 1
2 2
=
+
+ +
=
+
+ +
=
=
=

` the line is a tangent to the circle.
3. Show that the points , 1 3 - ^ h and , 2 7 ^ h lie on the same side of the line
. x y 2 3 4 0 - + =
Solution
To show that points lie on the same side of a line, their perpendicular
distance must have the same sign. We use the formula without the
absolute value sign.

, :
, :
d
a b
ax by c
d
d
1 3
2 3
2 1 3 3 4
4 9
2 9 4
13
7
2 7
2 3
2 2 3 7 4
4 9
4 21 4
13
13
2 2
1 1
2 2
2
=
+
+ +
-
=
+ -
- - +
=
+
- - +
=
-
=
+ -
- +
=
+
- +
=
-
2
^
]
] ]
^
]
] ]
h
g
g g
h
g
g g

Since the perpendicular distance for both points has the same sign, the
points lie on the same side of the line.
1. Find the perpendicular distance
between
(a) , 1 2 ^ h and x y 3 4 2 0 + + =
(b) , 3 2 - ^ h and 5 12 7 0 x y + + =
(c) , 0 4 ^ h and 8 6 1 0 x y - - =
(d) 3, 2 - - ^ h and x y 4 3 6 0 - - =
the origin and (e)
. x y 12 5 8 0 - + =
2. Find, correct to 3 signifcant
fgures, the perpendicular
distance between
(a) , 1 3 ^ h and 3 1 0 x y + + =
(b) , 1 1 - ^ h and 2 5 4 0 x y + + =
(c) , 3 0 ^ h and 5 6 12 0 x y - - =
(d) , 5 3 - ^ h and 4 2 0 x y - - =
(e) 6, 3 - - ^ h and . x y 2 3 9 0 - + =
3. Find as a surd with rational
denominator the perpendicular
distance between
the origin and the line (a)
3 2 7 0 x y - + =
(b) , 1 4 - ^ h and 2 3 0 x y + + =
(c) , 3 1 - ^ h and 3 14 1 0 x y + + =
(d) 2, 6 - ^ h and 5 6 0 x y - - =
(e) 4, 1 - - ^ h and
. x y 3 2 4 0 - - =
4. Show that the origin
is equidistant from the
lines 7 24 25 0, x y + + =
4 3 5 0 x y + - = and
12 5 13 0. x y + - =
7.8 Exercises
Equidistant means that
two or more objects are
the same distance away
from another object.
5. Show that points , A 3 5 - ^ h and
, B 1 4 - ^ h lie on opposite sides of
2 3 0. x y - + =
6. Show that the points 2, 3 - ^ h and
, 9 2 ^ h lie on the same side of the
line . x y 3 2 0 - + =
7. Show that 3, 2 - ^ h and , 4 1 ^ h lie
on opposite sides of the line
. x y 4 3 2 0 - - =
8. Show that 0, 2 - ^ h is equidistant
from the lines 3 4 2 0 x y + - =
and . x y 12 5 16 0 - + =
9. Show that the points 8, 3 - ^ h and
, 1 1 ^ h lie on the same side of the
line . x y 6 4 0 - + =
10. Show that 3, 2 - ^ h and , 4 1 ^ h lie
on opposite sides of the line
. x y 2 2 0 + - =
11. Show that the point , 3 2 - ^ h
is the same distance from the
line 6 8 6 0 x y - + = as the
point 4, 1 - - ^ h is from the line
. x y 5 12 20 0 + - =
12. Find the exact perpendicular
distance with rational
denominator from the point
, 4 5 ^ h to the line with
x -intercept 2 and y -intercept . 1 -
from , 2 2 - ^ h to the line passing
through , 3 7 ^ h and , . 1 4 - ^ h
between , 0 5 ^ h and the line
through , 3 8 - ^ h parallel to
4 3 1 0. x y - - =
15. The perpendicular distance
between the point , 1 x - ^ h and
the line 3 4 7 0 x y - + = is
8 units. Find two possible values
of x .
16. The perpendicular distance
between the point , b 3 ^ h and the
line 5 12 2 0 x y - - = is 2 units.
Find the values of b .
17. Find m if the perpendicular
distance between , m 7 ^ h and the
line 9 12 6 0 x y + + = is 5 units.
18. Prove that the line
3 4 25 0 x y - + = is a tangent to
the circle with centre the origin
and radius 5 units.
19. Show that the line
3 4 12 0 x y - + = does not cut
the circle 1. x y
2 2
+ =
20. The sides of a triangle are formed
by the lines with equations
2 7 0, 3 5 4 0 x y x y - - = + - =
and 3 4 0. x y + - =
Find the vertices of the (a)
triangle.
Find the exact length of all (b)
the altitudes of the triangle.
Angle Between Two Lines
The acute angle i between two straight lines is given by

1
tan
m m
m m
1 2
1 2
i =
+
-

where m
1
and m
2
are the gradients of the lines
Proof
Let line l
1
have gradient m
1
and line l
2
have gradient . m
2

Then tan m
1
b = and tan m
2
a =
( ) tan
tan tan
tan tan
tan
ABC
m m
m m
1
1
exterior angle of
1 2
1 2
`
b a i
i b a
i b a
b a
b a
D = +
= -
= -
=
+
-
=
+
-
^ h

When tan i is positive, i is acute.
When tan i is negative, i is obtuse.
` for the acute angle between lines l
1
and , l
2

1
tan
m m
m m
1 2
1 2
i =
+
-

Note: the denominator
cannot be zero, so
. m m 1
2 1
!- So this
formula doesnt work for
perpendicular lines.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the acute angle between the lines x y 3 2 1 0 - + = and
. x y 3 0 - =
Solution

tan
x y
x y
x y
m
x y
x y
x y
m
m m
m m
3 2 1 0
3 1 2
2
3
2
1
2
3
3 0
3
3
1
3
1
1
So
So
1
2
1 2
1 2
i
- + =
+ =
+ =
=
- =
=
=
=
=
+
-

CONTINUED
tan
1
2
3
3
1
2
3
3
1
9
7
9
7
37 52
1
#
c
i
=
+
-
=
=
=
-
l
c m
2. Find the obtuse angle between the lines 5 2 6 0 x y - + = and
. x y 2 4 0 + - =
Solution

3
x y
x y
x y
5 2 6 0
5 6 2
2
5
- + =
+ =
+ =

m
2
5
So
1
=
x y
y x
2 4 0
2 4
+ - =
= - +
m 2 So
2
= -
tan
tan
m m
m m
1
1
2
5
2
2
5
2
8
9
8
9
8
9
48 22
1 2
1 2
1
#
l
i
i
=
+
-
=
+ -
- -
= -
=
=
=
-
]
]
c
g
g
m
This gives the acute angle.

180 48 22
131 38
Obtuse angle c c l
c l
= -
=

3. If the angle between the lines 2 7 0 x y - - = and 3 y mx = + is , 25c
fnd two possible values of m , correct to 1 decimal place.
Solution

( ) x y
x y
m
2 7 0 1
2 7
2
1
`
- - =
- =
=

Notice that
-
tan
8
9
1 -
d n
gives 48c - 22l so we need
to fnd the obtuse angle by
subtracting the acute angle
from 180c .
( )
tan
tan
y mx
m m
m m
m m
m
m
3 2
1
25
1 2
2
2
1 2
1 2
`
i
= +
=
=
+
-
=
+
-
There are two possibilities:
(1)
( )
( )
.
tan
tan
tan tan
tan tan
tan tan
tan
tan
m
m
m m
m m
m m
m
m
25
1 2
2
25 1 2 2
25 2 25 2
2 25 2 25
2 25 1 2 25
2 25 1
2 25
0 8
c
c
c c
c c
c c
c
c
Z
=
+
-
+ = -
+ = -
+ = -
+ = -
=
+
-

(2)
( )
( )
.
tan
tan
tan tan
tan tan
tan tan
tan
tan
m
m
m m
m m
m m
m
m
25
1 2
2
25 1 2 2
25 2 25 2
2 25 2 25
2 25 1 2 25
2 25 1
2 25
36 6
c
c
c c
c c
c c
c
c
Z
- =
+
-
- + = -
- - = -
- + = +
- + = +
=
- +
+

1. Find the acute angle between the
lines
(a) x y 2 1 0 + + = and
4 0 x y + + =
(b) 3 7 0 x y - - = and
5 3 0 x y + + =
(c) 2 0 x y + = and
3 2 1 0 x y - + =
(d) 3 2 0 x y + + = and
4 4 1 0 x y + - =
(e) 2 5 3 0 x y - - = and
5 0 x y - =
(f) 3 1 0 x y + + = and
4 7 2 0 x y + + =
(g) 2 7 1 0 x y - - = and
3 2 4 0 x y + - =
(h) 2 2 1 0 x y + + = and
2 4 x y + =
(i) 3 4 1 0 x y + + = and
5 2 2 0 x y - - =
(j) 2 3 0 x y - - = and
. x y 6 3 4 0 - + =
2. Find the obtuse angle between
the lines
(a) 4 2 0 x y + + = and
1 0 x y + - =
(b) 2 3 9 0 x y - - = and
2 4 0 x y + + =
7.9 Exercises
(c) 6 2 x y + = and
2 4 3 0 x y - + =
(d) 5 2 1 0 x y + + = and
4 7 0 x y + - =
(e) 4 2 7 0 x y - - = and
. x y 3 0 - =
line 2 5 1 0 x y - + = and the line
joining , 1 2 - ^ h and , . 5 3 ^ h
line joining , 3 2 ^ h and , 1 4 - ^ h
and the line joining , 0 5 ^ h and
, . 2 7 - ^ h
5. , , A 2 1 - ^ h , B 3 4 - ^ h and , C 1 5 - ^ h
form the vertices of a triangle.
Find the interior angles of the
triangle.
6. Find two possible values of m
if the lines 2 5 0 x y + - = and
1 y mx = + intersect at an angle
of . 45c
7. Lines 2 y mx = + and 5 9 y x = -
intersect at an acute angle whose
tangent is
5
2
. Find the possible
values of m .
8. Find the values of k if
the angle between the
lines 6 3 4 0 x y - - = and
5 0 kx y - + = is . 58c
9. , , , , , A B C 0 0 1 2 5 2 ^ ^ ^ h h h and
, D 4 0 ^ h form the vertices of a
parallelogram.
By fnding all the interior (a)
angles, show that opposite angles
are equal.
Find the obtuse angle (b)
between the diagonals of the
parallelogram.
10. By calculating the interior angles,
show that ABC D with vertices
, , , A B 7 1 1 1 - - ^ ^ h h and , C 5 7 - ^ h
is an isosceles triangle.
The coordinates of a point P that divides the interval between points
, x y
1 1
_ i and , x y
2 2
_ i in the ratio : m n respectively are given by
x
m n
mx nx
2 1
=
+
+
and y
m n
my ny
2 1
=
+
+

Proof
Ratios
You have a formula for the midpoint which divides an interval in half.
Sometimes we may want to divide an interval into a ratio that is not a half.
Here is a formula that we can use to divide an interval into any internal or
external ratio.
Let , P x y ^ h be the point dividing the interval AB into the ratio : . m n
Then
PB
AP
n
m
=
Draw ADC parallel to the x -axis.
Then AD x x
1
= - and . DC x x
2
= -
PD BC <

PB
AP
DC
AD
n
m
x x
x x
x x x x
mx mx nx nx
mx nx mx nx
m n
m n
mx nx
x
m n
x
intercepts have equal ratios
2
1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
`
`
=
=
-
-
- -
- = -
+ = +
+
+
+
=
=
=
^
_ _
]
h
i i
g

Similarly, by drawing AEF perpendicular to the x -axis, we can show that
. y
m n
my ny
2 1
=
+
+

If P divides the interval internally in the ratio : , m n then the ratio is
positive and P lies on AB .
If P divides the interval externally in the ratio : , m n then the ratio is
negative and P lies outside AB .

A ratio of : 1 1 gives the
midpoint
, x
x x
2
1 2
=
+
. y
y y
2
1 2
=
+

m and n are measured in
opposite directions so they
have opposite signs.
EXAMPLES
1. Divide AB into the ratio : 3 4 where A is , 6 2 - ^ h and B is , . 7 5 - ^ h
Solution
CONTINUED

,
x
m n
mx nx
y
m n
my ny
P
3 4
3 7 4 6
7
3
3 4
3 5 4 2
7
7
1
7
3
1
2 1
2 1
`
=
+
+
=
+
- +
=
=
+
+
=
+
+ -
=
=
=
] ]
] ]
c
g g
g g
m

2. If A is , 2 1 - - ^ h and B is , , 1 5 ^ h fnd the coordinates of the point P that
divides AB externally in the ratio : . 2 5
Solution
Let the ratio be : . 2 5 -

( )
( ) [ ( )]
x
m n
mx nx
2 5
2 1 5 2
3
12
4
2 1
=
+
+
=
+ -
+ - -
=
-
= -

( )
( ) [ ( )]
5
,
y
m n
my ny
P
2 5
2 5 5 1
3
15
4 5
2 1
`
=
+
+
=
+ -
+ - -
=
-
= -
= - - ^ h

You could use : 2 5 - instead
and would still get the same
answer for P.
1. Divide these intervals internally.
(a) , 1 5 - ^ h and , 0 4 - ^ h in the
ratio : 2 3
(b) , 3 2 - ^ h and , 2 5 ^ h in the
ratio : 4 1
(c) , 3 3 - ^ h and , 2 1 - ^ h in the
ratio : 5 4
(d) , 3 1 - ^ h and , 7 2 - ^ h in the
ratio : 2 5
(e) , 2 1 - ^ h and , 5 4 - ^ h in the
ratio : 7 3
(f) , 2 0 - ^ h and , 6 3 - ^ h in the
ratio : 3 1
(g) , 4 9 ^ h and , 4 1 - ^ h in the
ratio : 1 6
(h) , 3 0 - ^ h and , 5 6 - - ^ h in the
ratio : 2 9
(i) , 2 5 ^ h and , 3 1 - - ^ h in the
ratio : 4 3
(j) , 1 1 ^ h and , 3 7 - ^ h in the
ratio : . 1 2
2. Divide these intervals externally.
(a) , 2 3 - ^ h and , 6 1 ^ h in the
ratio : 1 5
(b) , 4 0 ^ h and , 3 5 - - ^ h in the
ratio : 2 7
(c) , 1 1 - ^ h and , 4 7 ^ h in the
ratio : 4 3
(d) , 0 2 - ^ h and , 8 3 ^ h in the
ratio : 3 1
(e) , 5 2 - ^ h and , 4 4 ^ h in the
ratio : 5 4
(f) , 7 1 - ^ h and , 0 1 ^ h in the
ratio : 2 9
(g) , 2 2 - ^ h and , 6 7 ^ h in the
ratio : 1 3
(h) , 1 3 ^ h and , 7 2 ^ h in the ratio : 4 1
(i) , 4 0 - ^ h and , 5 5 - ^ h in the
ratio : 6 7
(j) , 2 3 - ^ h and , 7 7 ^ h in the
ratio : . 8 3
3. , , , A B 0 0 1 3 ^ ^ h h and , C 3 0 ^ h are
the vertices of a triangle.
Find the coordinates of point (a) E ,
which divides AB internally in the
ratio : . 2 1
Find the coordinates of point (b) F ,
which divides CB internally in
the ratio : . 2 1
Hence prove that (c) 3 . AC EF =
4. Divide the interval AB where
, A 3 2 = ^ h and , B 1 6 = - ^ h into
three equal parts.
5. A has coordinates , 2 5 - ^ h and
B has coordinates , . 4 3 - ^ h Find
the length of PQ if P divides AB
internally in the ratio : 3 2 and
Q divides AB externally in the
ratio : . 3 2
6. An interval AB is divided
internally at P in the ratio : . 5 4 If
A is , 1 2 - ^ h and P is , , 5 6 - ^ h fnd
the coordinates of B .
7. The point , 5 5 ^ h divides the
interval between , p 1 - ^ h and
, q 6 ^ h in the ratio : . 2 5 Find the
value of p and q .
8. A triangle is formed with vertices
, , , A B 5 6 0 4 - ^ ^ h h and , . C 3 3 - ^ h
Find the point of intersection (a)
of its medians.
If (b) D , E and F are the
midpoints of AB , AC and BC ,
divide the intervals CD , BE and
AF in the ratio : . 2 1 What property
of medians does this show?
9. If , 0 0 ^ h divides the interval AB
where , A a b = ^ h and , B 4 9 = ^ h in
the external ratio of : , 2 1 fnd the
value of a and b .
10. P divides the interval between the
point , 2 3 ^ h and the intersection
of lines 2 3 19 0 x y - + = and
5 2 0 x y + = in the ratio of : . 4 5
Find the coordinates of P .
7.10 Exercises
Test Yourself 7
1. Find the distance between points , 1 2 - ^ h
and , . 3 7 ^ h
2. What is the midpoint of the origin and
the point , ? 5 4 - ^ h
3. Find the gradient of the straight line
passing through (a) , 3 1 - ^ h and , 2 5 - ^ h
with equation (b) 2 1 0 x y - + =
making an angle of (c) 30c with the
perpendicular to the line (d)
. x y 5 3 8 0 + - =
4. Find the equation of the linear function
passing through (a) , 2 3 ^ h and with
gradient 7
parallel to the line (b) 5 3 0 x y + - =
and passing through , 1 1 ^ h
through the origin, and (c)
perpendicular to the line 2 3 6 0 x y - + =
through (d) , 3 1 ^ h and , 2 4 - ^ h
with (e) x -intercept 3 and y -intercept . 1
5. Find the perpendicular distance between
, 2 5 ^ h and the line 2 7 0 x y - + = in surd
form with rational denominator.
6. Prove that the line between , 1 4 - ^ h
and , 3 3 ^ h is perpendicular to the line
4 6 0. x y - - =
2 5 10 0. x y - - =
8. (a) Find the equation of the straight
line l that is perpendicular to the line

2
1
3 y x = - and passes through , . 1 1 - ^ h
(b) Find the x -intercept of l .
(c) Find the exact distance from , 1 1 - ^ h
to the x -intercept of l .
9. Prove that lines 5 7 y x = - and
10 2 1 0 x y - + = are parallel.
line passing through the origin and
parallel to the line with equation
3 4 5 0. x y - + =
11. Find the point of intersection between
lines 2 3 y x = + and 5 6 0. x y - + =
12. The midpoint of , a 3 ^ h and , b 4 - ^ h is
, . 1 2 ^ h Find the values of a and b .
13. Find the acute angle between the lines
2 5 1 0 x y - + = and 7 0 x y + - = to the
nearest minute.
14. Show that the lines 4 0, x y - - =
, x y x y 2 1 0 5 3 14 0 + + = - - = and
3 2 9 0 x y - - = are concurrent.
15. Divide the interval between points
, 3 4 - ^ h and , 2 2 ^ h in the ratio : . 4 5
16. A straight line makes an angle of 153 29 c l
with the x -axis in the positive direction.
What is its gradient, to 3 signicant
gures?
17. The perpendicular distance from , 3 2 - ^ h
to the line 5 12 0 x y c - + = is 2. Find
2 possible values of c .
18. Find the equation of the straight line
through , 1 3 ^ h that passes through the
intersection of the lines 2 5 0 x y - + =
and 2 5 0. x y + - =
19. Divide the interval between , 0 5 ^ h and
, 2 4 - ^ h in the external ratio of : . 2 3
20. The gradient of the line through , 3 4 - ^ h
and , x 2 ^ h is 5. Evaluate x .
21. Find the obtuse angle between the lines
3 3 0 x y - + = and . x y 2 5 1 0 + - =
22. Show that the points , 2 1 - ^ h and
, 6 3 ^ h are on opposite sides of the line
. x y 2 3 1 0 - - =
3 4 y x = - and . y x 5 = -
24. Find the equation of the line with
x -intercept 4 that makes an angle of 45c
with the x -axis.
25. Find the equation of the line with
y -intercept 2 - and perpendicular to the
line passing through , 3 2 - ^ h and , . 0 5 ^ h
1. If points , , , k k k 3 1 1 3 - - - ^ ^ h h and
, k k 4 5 - - ^ h are collinear, fnd the
value of k .
2. Find the equation, in exact form, of the
line passing through , 3 2 -
_ i
that makes
an angle of 30c with the positive x -axis.
3. Find the equation of the circle whose
centre is at the origin and with tangent
3 9 0. x y - + =
4. ABCD is a rhombus where
, , , , , A B C 3 0 0 4 5 4 = - = = ^ ^ ^ h h h and
, . D 2 0 = ^ h Prove that the diagonals are
perpendicular bisectors of one another.
5. Prove that the points , , 1 2 2 -
_ i

, 3 6 -
_ i
and , 5 2 -
_ i
all lie on a
circle with centre the origin. What are
the radius and equation of the circle?
6. Find the exact distance between the
parallel lines 3 2 5 0 x y + - = and
3 2 1. x y + =
7. A straight line has x -intercept , a A 0 ^ h
and y -intercept , , B b 0 ^ h where a and b are
positive integers. The gradient of line AB
is . 1 - Find OBA + where O is the origin
and hence prove that . a b =
8. Find the exact perpendicular distance
between the line 2 3 1 0 x y + + =
and the point of intersection of lines
3 7 15 x y - = and 4 5. x y - = -
9. Find the magnitude of the angle, in
degrees and minutes, that the line
joining , 1 3 - ^ h and , 2 4 - ^ h makes with
the x -axis in the positive direction.
10. Find the equation of the line that passes
through the point of intersection of lines
2 5 19 0 x y + + = and 4 3 1 0 x y - - =
that is perpendicular to the line
3 2 1 0. x y - + =
11. Prove , , , A B 2 5 4 5 - ^ ^ h h and , C 1 2 - ^ h are
the vertices of a right-angled isosceles
triangle.
12. Find the coordinates of the centre of
a circle that passes through points
, , , 7 2 2 3 ^ ^ h h and , . 4 1 - - ^ h
13. If 2 0 ax y - - = and 5 11 0 bx y - + =
intersect at the point , , 3 4 ^ h fnd the
values of a and b .
through , 3 4 - ^ h that is perpendicular to
the line with x -intercept and y -intercept
2 and 5 respectively.
15. Find the acute angle between the straight
lines with equations 3 5 x y - = and
2 4 1 0. x y - + =
16. Find the exact equation of the straight
line through the midpoint of , , 0 5 - ^ h
and , 4 1 - ^ h that is perpendicular to the
line that makes an angle of 30c with the
x -axis.
17. Point , x y P^ h moves so that it is
equidistant from points , A 1 4 ^ h and
, . B 2 7 - ^ h By nding the distances AP and
BP , nd the equation of the locus of P .
18. Find the value of b if the lines
2 1 0 x y - + = and 7 5 0 bx y - + = make
an angle of 45c at their intersection.
19. Find the coordinates of trisection of the
interval between , 3 1 - ^ h and , . 1 5 - ^ h
20. Prove that if two lines with gradients
m
1
and m
2
meet at an angle of
, 45c then 1 m m m m
1 2 1 2
= - - or
1. m m m m
1 2 2 1
= - -
21. A and B have coordinates , 1 3 ^ h and
, 4 7 - ^ h respectively. If P divides AB in the
external ratio of : , p 1 nd the coordinates
of P in terms of p .
22. (a) Show that the point , 7 7 - ^ h lies on
the line joining , A 2 0 - ^ h and , . B 3 7 - ^ h
Find the ratio in which the point (b)
divides AB .
23. The interval AB where , A 5 3 = - ^ h and
, B x y = ^ h is divided by point P in the
ratio of : . 3 2 If the point P has coordinates
, , 8 9 - ^ h nd values for x and y .
24. The angle between straight lines
2 3 0 x y - = and 4 9 mx y + = is . 32 51 c l
Find the value of m correct to
2 signicant gures.
25. Given points , , , A B 1 0 2 5 ^ ^ h h and , C 9 0 ^ h
are the vertices of a triangle,
nd the coordinates of (a) P that divide
AB in the ratio : 2 1
nd the coordinates of (b) Q that divide
CB in the ratio : 2 1
prove (c) PQ AC <
nd the coordinates of (d) R that divide
AC in the ratio : 2 1
prove (e) . PR BC <
TERMINOLOGY
8
Introduction to
Calculus
Composite function: A function of a function. One
function, f (x), is a composite of one function to another
function, for example g(x)
Continuity: Describing a line or curve that is unbroken
over its domain
Continuous function: A function is continuous over an
interval if it has no break in its graph. For every x value
on the graph the limit exists and equals the function
value
Derivative at a point: This is the gradient of a curve at a
particular point
Derivative function: The gradient function of a curve
obtained through differentiation
Differentiable function: A function which is continuous
and where the gradient exists at all points on the
function
Differentiation: The process of nding the gradient of a
tangent to a curve which is called the derivative
Differentiation from rst principles: The process of nding
the gradient of a tangent to a curve by nding the
gradient of the secant between two points and nding
the limit as the secant becomes a tangent
Gradient of a secant: The gradient (slope) of the line
between two points that lies close together on a function
Gradient of a tangent: The gradient (slope) of a line that
is a tangent to the curve at a point on a function. It is the
derivative of the function
Rate of change: The rate at which the dependent variable
changes as the independent variable changes
439 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus
INTRODUCTION
CALCULUS IS A VERY IMPORTANT part of mathematics and involves the
measurement of change. It can be applied to many areas such as science,
economics, engineering, astronomy,
sociology and medicine. We also see articles
in newspapers every day that involve change:
the spread of infectious diseases, population
growth, ination, unemployment, lling of
our water reservoirs.
For example, this graph shows the
change in crude oil production in Iran over
the years. Notice that while the graph shows
that production is increasing over recent
years, the rate at which it is being produced
seems to be slowing down. Calculus is used
to look at these trends and predict what will
happen in the future.
There are two main branches of
calculus. Differentiation is used to calculate
the rate at which two variables change in relation to one another.
Anti-differentiation, or integration, is the inverse of differentiation and
uses information about rates of change to go back and examine the original
variables. Integration can also be used to nd areas of curved objects.
DID YOU KNOW?
Calculus comes from the Latin meaning pebble or small stone. In ancient civilisations, stones
were used for counting. However, the mathematics practised by these early people was quite
sophisticated. For example, the ancient Greeks used sums of rectangles to estimate areas of curved
fgures.
However, it wasnt until the 17 th century that there was a breakthrough in calculus when
scientists were searching for ways of measuring motion of objects such as planets, pendulums and
projectiles.
Isaac Newton, an Englishman, discovered the main principles of calculus when he was 23
years old. At this time an epidemic of bubonic plague closed Cambridge University where he was
studying, so many of his discoveries were made at home.
He frst wrote about his calculus methods, which he called fuxions, in 1671, but his Method
of fuxions was not published until 1704.
Gottfried Leibniz (16461716), in Germany, was also studying the same methods and there
was intense rivalry between the two countries over who was frst!
Search the Internet for further details on these two famous mathematicians. You can fnd
out about the history of calculus and why it was necessary for mathematicians all those years ago
to invent it.
7,000
Crude Oil Production (Mbbl/d)
Iran
6,000
5,000
4,000
2,000
3,000
1,000
0
73
74
75 77
76 78
79 81 83 85 87 89
80 82 84 86 88
91 93 95 97 99
90 92 94 96 98
01 03 05 07
00 02 04 06
T
h
o
u
s
a
n
d

B
a
r
r
e
l
s

p
e
r

D
a
y
January 1973May 2007
You will learn about
integration in the
HSC Course.
Isaac Newton
Gradient
Gradient of a straight line
The gradient of a straight line measures its slope. You studied gradient in the
last chapter.

run
rise
m =
Class Discussion
Remember that an increasing line has a positive gradient and a
decreasing line has a negative gradient.
positive negative
Notice also that a horizontal line has zero gradient.
Can you see why?
Can you nd the gradient of a vertical line? Why?
Gradient plays an important part, not just in mathematics, but in many areas
including science, business, medicine and engineering. It is used everywhere
we want to nd rates.
On a graph, the gradient measures the rate of change of the dependent
variable with respect to the change in the independent variable.
In this chapter you will learn about differentiation, which measures the rate of
change of one variable with respect to another.
EXAMPLES
1. The graph shows the average distance travelled by a car over time.
Find the gradient and describe it as a rate.
Hours
k
m
400
5
t
d
Solution
The line is increasing so it will have a positive gradient.

run
rise
m
5
400
1
80
80
=
=
=
=

This means that the car is travelling at the rate of 80 km/hour.
2. The graph shows the number of cases of fu reported in a town over
several weeks.
Weeks
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f
c
a
s
e
s

(
1
0
0
s
)
15
10
t
N
Find the gradient and describe it as a rate.
CONTINUED
Solution
The line is decreasing so it will have a negative gradient.

m
10
1500
1
150
150
run
rise
=
= -
= -
= -

This means that the rate is 150 - cases/week, or the number of cases
reported is decreasing by 150 cases/week.
When nding the gradient of a straight line in the number plane, we think of
a change in y values as x changes. The gradients in the examples above show
rates of change .
However, in most examples in real life, the rate of change will vary. For
example, a car would speed up and slow down depending on where it is in
relation to other cars, trafc light signals and changing speed limits.
Class Discussion
The two graphs show the distance that a bicycle travels over time. One is
a straight line and the other is a curve.
d
t
Hours
k
m
20
15
10
5
4 3 2 1

t
Hours
k
m
20
15
10
5
4 3 2 1
d
Is the average speed of the bicycle the same in both cases? What is
different about the speed in the two graphs?
How could you measure the speed in the second graph at any one
time? Does it change? If so, how does it change?
Gradient of a curve
Here is a more general curve. What could you say about its gradient?
How does it change along the curve?
y
x
Copy the graph and mark on it where the gradient is positive, negative
and zero.
Using what we know about the gradient of a straight line, we can see where
the gradient of a curve is positive, negative or zero by drawing tangents to the
curve in different places around the curve.
0
+ -
y
x
Notice that when the curve increases it has a positive gradient, when it
decreases it has a negative gradient and when it turns around the gradient is zero.
Investigation
There are some excellent computer programs that will draw tangents to
a curve and then sketch the gradient curve. One of these is Geometer
Sketchpad.
Explore how to sketch gradient functions using this or a similar
program as you look at the examples below.
EXAMPLES
Describe the gradient of each curve.
1.

Solution
Where the curve increases, the gradient is positive. Where it decreases, it
is negative. Where it turns around, it has a zero gradient.
2.
Solution

There are computer
programs that will
draw these tangents.
EXAMPLE
Make an accurate sketch of (a) y x
2
= on graph paper.
Draw tangents to this curve at the points where (b)
3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2 x x x x x x = - = - = - = = = and 3 x = .
Find the gradient of each of these tangents. (c)
Draw the graph of the gradients (the gradient function) on a (d)
number plane.
Solution
(a) and (b)
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 -3 -2
x
y
(c)

3, 6
2, 4
1, 2
0, 0
1, 2
2, 4
3, 6
x m
x m
x m
x m
x m
x m
x m
At
At
At
At
At
At
At
= - = -
= - = -
= - = -
= =
= =
= =
= =
(d)
Since we have a formula for fnding the gradient of a straight line, we fnd the
gradient of a curve by measuring the gradient of a tangent to the curve.
Use the m values as
the y values on this
graph.
Drawing tangents to a curve is difcult. We can do a rough sketch of
the gradient function of a curve without knowing the actual values of the
gradients of the tangents.
To do this, notice in the example above that where m is positive, the
gradient function is above the x -axis, where 0, m = the gradient function is on
the x -axis and where m is negative, the gradient function is below the x -axis.
EXAMPLES
Sketch the gradient function of each curve.
1.
Solution
First we mark in where the gradient is positive, negative and zero.
Now on the gradient graph, place the points where 0 m = on the x -axis.
These are at , x
1
x
2
and . x
3

To the left of , x
1
the gradient is negative, so this part of the graph will
be below the x -axis. Between x
1
and , x
2
the gradient is positive, so the
graph will be above the x -axis. Between x
2
and , x
3
the gradient is negative,
so the graph will be below the x -axis. To the right of , x
3
the gradient is
positive, so this part of the graph will be above the x -axis.
2.
Solution
First mark in where the gradient is positive, negative and zero.
CONTINUED
8.1 Exercises
Sketch the gradient function for each graph.
The gradient is zero at x
1
and . x
2
These points will be on the x -axis. To the
left of , x
1
the gradient is positive, so this part of the graph will be above
the x -axis. Between x
1
and , x
2
the gradient is negative, so the graph will
be below the x -axis. To the right of , x
2
the gradient is positive, so this part
of the graph will be above the x -axis.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Differentiation from First Principles
Seeing where the gradient of a curve is positive, negative or zero is a good frst step,
but there are methods to fnd a formula for the gradient of a tangent to a curve.
The process of fnding the gradient of a tangent is called differentiation .
The resulting function is called the derivative .
Differentiability
A function is called a differentiable function if the gradient of the tangent
can be found.
There are some graphs that are not differentiable in places.
Most functions are continuous , which means that they have a smooth
unbroken line or curve. However, some have a gap, or discontinuity, in the
graph (e.g. hyperbola). This can be shown by an asymptote or a hole in the
graph. We cannot fnd the gradient of a tangent to the curve at a point that
doesnt exist! So the function is not differentiable at the point of discontinuity.

a
y
x
This function is not
differentiable at a since the curve is
discontinuous at this point.
A function may be continuous but not smooth. It may have a sharp
corner. Can you see why curves are not differentiable at the point where there
is a corner?
A function ( ) y f x = is differentiable at the point x a = if the derivative
exists at that point. This can only happen if the function is continuous
and smooth at . x a =

b
y
x
This function is not
differentiable at b as the curve is
discontinuous at this point.
c
y
x

The curve is not differentiable at
point c since it is not smooth at that
point.
EXAMPLES
1. Find all points where the function below is not differentiable.
C
B
A
y
x
Solution
The function is not differentiable at points A and B since there are sharp
corners and the curve is not smooth at these points.
It is not differentiable at point C since the function is discontinuous
at this point.
2. Is the function ( ) f x
x x
x x
1
3 2 1
for
for

2
1
$
=
-
)
differentiable at all points?
Solution
The functions ( ) ( ) 3 2 f x x f x x and
2
= = - are both differentiable at all
points.
However, we need to look at where one nishes and the other starts, at f (1).

f
f
( )
( )
f x x
f x x
1 1
1
3 2
1 3 1 2
1
For
For
2
2
=
=
=
= -
= -
=
]
] ]
g
g g

This means that both pieces of this function join up (the function is
continuous). However, to be differentiable, the curve must be smooth at
this point.
CONTINUED
8.2 Exercises
For each function, state whether it has any points at which it is not
differentiable.
Sketching this function shows that it is not smooth (it has a sharp
corner) so it is not differentiable at 1 x = .
1
1
-2
y = x
2
y = 3x -2
y
x
1.
y
x
2.
x
1
y
x
3.
x
1
y
x
4. y
x
5.
x
1
x
2
y
x
6. ( )
4
f x
x
=
7.
3
1
y
x
= -
+

8. ( ) f x
x x
x x
2
1 2
if
if
3
2
#
=
+
)

9. ( ) f x
x x
x
x x
2 3
3 2 3
1 2
for
for
for

2
2
1
# # = -
- -
Z
[
\
]
]
]

10.
-4
-4
-5
-3
-3
-2
-2
-1
-1
2
1
3
4
5
1 2 3 4
x
y
11. tan y x = for x 0 360 c c # #
12. ( ) f x
x
x
=
13. ( ) cos f 3 2 i i = -
14. ( ) sin g
2
z z =
15.
9
3
y
x
x
2
=
-
-

Limits
To differentiate from frst principles, we need to look more closely at the
concept of a limit.
A limit is used when we want to move as close as we can to something.
Often this is to fnd out where a function is near a gap or discontinuous point.
You saw this in Chapter 5 when looking at discontinuous graphs. In this topic,
it is used when we want to move from a gradient of a line between two points
to a gradient of a tangent.
EXAMPLES
1. Find . lim
x
x x
2
2
x 2
2
-
- -
"

Solution

( )
( ) ( )
( 1)
lim lim
lim
x
x x
x
x x
x
2
2
2
1 2
2 1
3
x x
x
2
2
2
2
-
- -
=
-
+ -
= +
= +
=
" "
"

You did this in
Chapter 5.
CONTINUED
2. Find an expression in terms of x for
2 3
lim
h
xh h h
0
2
h
- -
"
.
Solution

( )
( )
lim lim
lim
h
xh h h
h
h x h
x h
x
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
h h
h
0
2
0
0
- -
=
- -
= - -
= -
" "
"

3. Find an expression in terms of x for
3 5
lim
x
x x x x
0
2 2
x
d
d d d + -
" d
.
Solution

( )
( )

lim lim
lim
x
x x x x
x
x x x
x x
x
3 5
3 5
3 5
3 5
x x
x
0
2 2
0
2
0
2
2
d
d d d
d
d d
d
+ -
=
+ -
= + -
= -
" "
"
d d
d

1. Evaluate
(a)
3
lim
x
x x
0
2
x
+
"

(b)
5 2 7
lim
x
x x x
0
3 2
x
- -
"

(c)
3
3
lim
x
x x
3
2
x
-
-
"

(d)
4
16
lim
t
t
4
2
t
-
-
"

(e)
1
1
lim
g
g
1
2
g
-
-
"

(f)
2
2
lim
x
x x
2
2
x
+
+ -
"-

(g)
2
lim
h
h h
0
5
h
+
"

(h)
3
7 12
lim
x
x x
3
2
x
-
- +
"

(i)
5
25
lim
n
n
5
2
n
-
-
"

(j)
1
4 3
lim
x
x x
1
2
2
x
-
+ +
"-

2. Find as an expression in terms of x
(a)
2 4
lim
h
x h xh h
0
2
h
- -
"

(b)
2
lim
h
x h xh h
0
3
h
+ -
"

(c)
3 7 4
lim
h
x h xh h h
0
2 2 2
h
- + -
"

(d)
4 4
lim
h
x h x h xh
0
4 2 2
h
- -
"

(e)
3 4 3
lim
h
x h xh xh h
0
2 2 2
h
+ - +
"

(f)
2 5 6
lim
h
x h xh h
0
2 2
h
+ +
"

(g)
2
lim
x
x x x x
0
2 2
x
d
d d -
" d

(h)
4 2
lim
x
x x x
0
2 2
x
d
d d -
" d

(i)
3
lim
x
x x x x x
0
3 2
x
d
d d d + -
" d

(j)
2 9
lim
x
x x x x x
0
2
x
d
d d d - +
" d

8.3 Exercises
Differentiation as a limit
The formula m
x x
y y
2 1
2 1
=
-
-
is used to nd the gradient of a straight line when we
know two points on the line. However, when the line is a tangent to a curve,
we only know one point on the linethe point of contact with the curve.
To differentiate from rst principles , we rst use the point of contact
and another point close to it on the curve (this line is called a secant ) and then
we move the second point closer and closer to the point of contact until they
overlap and the line is at single point (the tangent ). To do this, we use a limit.
If you look at a close up of a graph, you can get some idea of this concept.
When the curve is magnied, two points appear to be joined by a straight line.
We say the curve is locally straight .
Investigation
Use a graphics calculator or a computer program to sketch a curve and
then zoom in on a section of the curve to see that it is locally straight.
For example, here is a parabola.

-20
-10
2 20
10
2
y
x
f
1
(x) =x
2
Notice how it looks straight when we zoom in on a point on the
parabola?

f
1
(x) =x
2
2.99
7.99
y
x
Use technology to sketch other curves and zoom in to show that they are
locally straight.
Before using limits to nd different formulae for differentiating from rst
principles, here are some examples of how we can calculate an approximate
value for the gradient of the tangent to a curve. By taking two points close
together, as in the example below, we nd the gradient of the secant and then
estimate the gradient of the tangent.
(3, f (3))
(3.01, f (3.01))
y
x
EXAMPLES
1. For the function f x x
3
=
] g
, nd the gradient of the secant PQ where P
is the point on the function where 2 x = and Q is another point on the
curve close to P . Choose different values for Q and use these results to
estimate the gradient of the curve at P .
(2, f(2))
(2.1, f(2.1))
y
Q
P
x
Solution
2, (2) P f = ^ h
Take different values of x for point Q , for example 2.1 x =
Using different values of x for point Q gives the results in the table.
Point Q Gradient of secant PQ
. , . f 2 1 2 1
] _ gi
.
( . ) ( )
.
.
.
m
f f
2 1 2
2 1 2
2 1 2
2 1 2
12 61
3 3
=
-
-
=
-
-
=
. , . f 2 01 2 01
] _ gi
.
( . ) ( )
.
.
.
m
f f
2 01 2
2 01 2
2 01 2
2 01 2
12 0601
3 3
=
-
-
=
-
-
=
. , . f 2 001 2 001
] _ gi
.
( . ) ( )
.
.
.
m
f f
2 001 2
2 001 2
2 001 2
2 001 2
12 006001
3 3
=
-
-
=
-
-
=
. , . f 1 9 1 9
] _ gi
.
( . ) ( )
.
.
.
m
f f
1 9 2
1 9 2
1 9 2
1 9 2
11 41
3 3
=
-
-
=
-
-
=
. , . f 1 99 1 99
] _ gi
.
( . ) ( )
.
.
.
m
f f
1 99 2
1 99 2
1 99 2
1 99 2
11 9401
3 3
=
-
-
=
-
-
=
. , . f 1 999 1 999
] _ gi
.
( . ) ( )
.
.
.
m
f f
1 999 2
1 999 2
1 999 2
1 999 2
11 994001
3 3
=
-
-
=
-
-
=
From these results, a good estimate for the gradient at P is 12.
We can say that as x approaches 2, the gradient approaches 12.
We can write
2
( ) (2)
12 lim
x
f x f
2 x
-
-
=
"
.
Use
y
m
x x
y
2 1
1 2
-
-
= to nd
the gradient of the secant.
CONTINUED
2. For the curve y x
2
= , nd the gradient of the secant AB where A is the
point on the curve where 5 x = and point B is close to A . Find an estimate
of the gradient of the curve at A by using three different values for B .
Solution
5, (5) A f = ^ h
Take three different values of x for point B , for example . , . x x 4 9 5 1 = =
and 5.01 x = .
(a) . , ( . )
.
( . ) ( )
.
.
.
B f
m
x x
y y
f f
4 9 4 9
4 9 5
4 9 5
4 9 5
4 9 5
9 9
2 1
2 1
2 2
=
=
-
-
=
-
-
=
-
-
=
^ h
(b) . , ( . )
.
( . ) ( )
.
.
.
B f
m
x x
y y
f f
5 1 5 1
5 1 5
5 1 5
5 1 5
5 1 5
10 1
2 1
2 1
2 2
=
=
-
-
=
-
-
=
-
-
=
^ h
(c) . , ( . )
.
( . ) ( )
.
.
.
B f
m
x x
y y
f f
5 01 5 01
5 01 5
5 01 5
5 01 5
5 01 5
10 01
2 1
2 1
2 2
=
=
-
-
=
-
-
=
-
-
=
^ h
From these results, a good estimate for the gradient at A is 10.
We can say that as x approaches 5, the gradient approaches 10.
We can write
5
( ) (5)
10 lim
x
f x f
5 x
-
-
=
"
.
We can nd a general formula for differentiating from rst principles by
using c rather than any particular number. We use general points , ( ) P c f c ^ h and
, ( ) Q x f x ^ h where x is close to c .
The gradient of the secant PQ is given by

( ) ( )
m
x x
y y
x c
f x f c
2 1
2 1
=
-
-
=
-
-

The gradient of the tangent at P is found when x approaches c . We call
this ( ) c fl .
( )
( ) ( )
lim f c
x c
f x f c
x c
=
-
-
"
l
There are other versions of this formula.
We can call the points , ( ) P x f x ^ h and , ( ) Q x h f x h + + ^ h where h is small.
(x +h, f(x +h))
(x , f(x))
P
Q
y
x
Secant PQ has gradient

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
m
x x
y y
x h x
f x h f x
h
f x h f x
2 1
2 1
=
-
-
=
+ -
+ -
=
+ -

To nd the gradient of the secant, we make h smaller as shown, so that
Q becomes closer and closer to P .

P
Q
Q
Q
Q
y
x
(x +h, f(x +h))
(x, f (x))
Search the Internet using
keywords differentiation from
rst principles, gradient of
secant and tangent to nd
mathematical websites that
show this working.
As h approaches 0, the gradient of the tangent becomes
( ) ( )
lim
h
f x h f x
0 h
+ -
"
.
We call this ( ) x fl .
( )
( ) ( )
lim x
h
f x h f x
h 0
=
+ -
"
fl
If we use , P x y ^ h and , Q x x y y d d + + ^ h close to P where x y and d d are
small:
Gradient of secant PQ

m
x x
y
x x x
y y y
x
y
y
2 1
2 1
d
d
d
d
=
-
-
=
+ -
+ -
=

As x d approaches 0, the gradient of the tangent becomes lim
x
y
x 0
d
d
" d
. We
call this
dx
dy
.
The symbol d is a
Greek letter called
delta.
lim
dx
dy
x
y
x 0
d
d
=
" d

All of these different notations stand for the derivative, or the gradient of
the tangent:
, ( ), ( ) , ( ),
dx
dy
dx
d
y
dx
d
f x f x y l l ^ h
These occur because Newton, Leibniz and other mathematicians over the
years have used different notation.
Investigation
Leibniz used
dx
dy
where d stood for difference. Can you see why he would
have used this?
Use the Internet to explore the different notations used in calculus and
where they came from.
The three formulae for differentiating from rst principles all work in a
similar way.
EXAMPLE
Differentiate from rst principles to nd the gradient of the tangent to
the curve 3 y x
2
= + at the point where 1. x =
Solution
Method 1:

( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
lim
lim
lim
lim
lim
lim
lim
f c
x c
f x f c
f x x
f
f c
x c
f x f c
f
x
f x f
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
3
1 1 3
4
1
1
1
1
3 4
1
1
1
1 1
1
1 1
2
x c
x c
x
x
x
x
x
2
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
=
-
-
= +
= +
=
=
-
-
=
-
-
=
-
+ -
=
-
-
=
-
+ -
= +
= +
=
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
l
l
l
]
]
g
g

Method 2:

( )
( ) ( )

lim f x
h
f x h f x
f x x
f
f x h x h
x
f h h
h h
h h
3
1 1 3
4
3
1
1 1 3
1 2 3
2 4
When
h 0
2
2
2
2
2
2
=
+ -
= +
= +
=
+ = + +
=
+ = + +
= + + +
= + +
"
l
]
]
] ]
] ]
g
g
g g
g g

Remember that 3 y x
2
= -
is the same as ( ) . f x x 3
2
= -
CONTINUED
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
lim
lim
lim
lim
lim
lim
f x
h
f x h f x
f
h
f h f
h
h h
h
h h
h
h h
h
1
1 1
2 4 4
2
2
2
2 0
2
h
h
h
h
h
h
0
0
0
2
0
2
0
0
=
+ -
=
+ -
=
+ + -
=
+
=
+
= +
= +
=
"
"
"
"
"
"
l
l
Method 3:

lim
dx
dy
x
y
y x 3
x 0
2
d
d
=
= +
" d

1 3
x
y
1
4
When
2
=
= +
=
So point , 1 4 ^ h lies on the curve.
Substitute point ( , ) x y 1 4 d d + + :

( )
( )
( )
lim
lim
y x
x x
x x
y x x
x
y
x
x x
x
x x
x
dx
dy
x
y
x
4 1 3
1 2 3
2 4
2
2
2
2
2
2 0
2
x
x
2
2
2
2
2
0
0
d d
d d
d d
d d d
d
d
d
d d
d
d d
d
d
d
d
+ = + +
= + + +
= + +
= +
=
+
=
+
= +
=
= +
= +
=
"
"
d
d

We can also use these formulae to fnd the derivative function generally.
EXAMPLE
Differentiate f x
2
x x 2 7 3 = + -
] g
from rst principles.
Solution

f x x x
f x h x h x h
x xh h x h
x xh h x h
2 7 3
2 7 3
2 2 7 7 3
2 4 2 7 7 3
2
2
2 2
2 2
= + -
+ = + + + -
= + + + + -
= + + + + -
]
] ] ]
^
g
g g g
h

f x h f x x xh h x h x x
x xh h x h x x
xh h h
2 4 2 7 7 3 2 7 3
2 4 2 7 7 3 2 7 3
4 2 7
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
+ - = + + + + - - + -
= + + + + - - - +
= + +
] ] ^ ^ g g h h
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
lim
lim
lim
lim
f x
h
f x h f x
h
xh h h
h
h x h
x h
x
x
4 2 7
4 2 7
4 2 7
4 0 7
4 7
h
h
h
h
0
0
2
0
0
=
+ -
=
+ +
=
+ +
= + +
= + +
= +
"
"
"
"
l
Try this example using the
other two formulae.
1. (a) Find the gradient of the secant
between the point , 1 2 ^ h and the
point where 1.01 x = , on the
curve 1. y x
4
= +
Find the gradient of the (b)
secant between , 1 2 ^ h and the
point where 0.999 x = on the
curve.
Use these results to nd the (c)
gradient of the tangent to the
curve 1 y x
4
= + at the point
, 1 2 ^ h .
2. A function f x x x
3
= +
] g
has a
tangent at the point , 2 10 ^ h .
Find the value of (a)
2
( ) (2)
x
f x f
-
-
when 2.1 x = .
Find the value of (b)
( ) ( )
x
f x f
2
2
-
-
when 2.01 x = .
Evaluate (c)
2
( ) (2)
x
f x f
-
-
when
. x 1 99 = .
Hence nd the gradient of the (d)
tangent at the point , 2 10 ^ h .
3. For the function , f x x 4
2
= -
] g

nd the derivative at point P
where 3 x = by selecting points
near P and nding the gradient of
the secant.
4. If ( ) f x x
2
= ,
nd (a) ( ) f x h +
show that (b)
( ) ( ) f x h f x + - xh h 2
2
= +
8.4 Exercises
show that (c)

( ) ( )
h
f x h f x + -
x h 2 = +
show that (d) ( ) x x 2 = fl .
5. A function is given by
( ) 2 7 3 f x x x
2
= - + .
Show that (a) ( ) f x h + =
2 4 2 7 7 3 x xh h x h
2 2
+ + - - + .
(b) Show that
( ) ( ) 4 2 7 f x h f x xh h h
2
+ - = + - .
Show that (c)

( ) ( )
4 2 7
h
f x h f x
x h
+ -
= + - .
Find (d) ( ) x fl .
6. A function is given by
( ) 5 f x x x
2
= + + .
Find (a) f 2
] g
.
Find (b) f h 2 +
] g
.
Find (c) f h f 2 2 + -
] ] g g
.
Show that (d)

( ) ( )
5
h
f h f
h
2 2 + -
= + .
Find (e) (2) fl .
7. Given the curve ( ) 4 3 f x x
3
= -
nd (a) f 1 -
] g

nd (b) f h 1 1 - + - f -
] ] g g

nd the gradient of the (c)
tangent to the curve at the point
where x 1 = - .
8. For the parabola 1 y x
2
= -
nd (a) f 3
] g

nd (b) f h f 3 3 + -
] ] g g

nd (c) (3) fl .
9. For the function
( ) f x x x 4 3 5
2
= - -
nd (a) ( ) f 1 l
similarly, nd the gradient (b)
of the tangent at the point
, 2 10 - - ^ h .
10. For the parabola y x x 2
2
= +
show that (a)
2 2 y x x x x
2
d d d d = + +
by substituting the point
, x x y y d d + + ^ h
show that (b) 2 2
x
y
x x
d
d
d = + +
nd (c)
dx
dy
.
11. Differentiate from rst principles
to nd the gradient of the
tangent to the curve
(a) f x x
2
=
] g
at the point where
1 x =
(b) y x x
2
= + at the point , 2 6 ^ h
(c) f x x 2 5
2
= -
] g
at the point
where x 3 = -
(d) 3 3 1 y x x
2
= + + at the point
where 2 x =
(e) f x x x 7 4
2
= - -
] g
at the
point , 1 6 - ^ h .
12. Find the derivative function for
each curve by differentiating
from rst principles
(a) f x x
2
=
] g

(b) y x x 5
2
= +
(c) f x x x 4 4 3
2
= - -
] g

(d) y x x 5 1
2
= - -
(e) y x
3
=
(f) f x x x 2 5
3
= +
] g

(g) 2 3 1 y x x x
3 2
= - + -
(h) ( ) f x x 2
3
= - .
13. The curve y x = has a tangent
drawn at the point , 4 2 ^ h .
Evaluate (a)
4
( ) (4)
x
f x f
-
-
when
. x 3 9 = .
Evaluate (b)
4
( ) (4)
x
f x f
-
-
when
. x 3 999 = .
Evaluate (c)
4
( ) (4)
x
f x f
-
-
when
4.01 x = .
14. For the function ( ) f x x
1
=
-
,
evaluate (a)
5
( ) (5)
x
f x f
-
-
when
. x 4 99 = .
Remember that
x
x
1
1
=
-
evaluate (b)
( ) ( )
x
f x f
5
5
-
-
when
5.01 x = .
Use these results to fnd the (c)
derivative of the function at the
point where x 5 = .
15. Find the gradient of the tangent
to the curve
4
y
x
2
= at point
, P 2 1 ^ h by fnding the gradient of
the secant between P and a point
close to P .
Short Methods of Differentiation
The basic rule
Remember that the gradient of a straight line y mx b = + is m . The tangent to
the line is the line itself, so the gradient of the tangent is m everywhere along
the line.
y
x
y =mx +b
So if , y mx
dx
dy
m = =
For a horizontal line in the form y k = , the gradient is zero.

y
x
y =k

So if , y k
dx
dy
0 = =

dx
d
kx k =
] g

dx
d
k 0 =
] g

Proof
Investigation
Differentiate from rst principles:

y x
y x
y x
2
3
4
=
=
=

Can you nd a pattern? Could you predict what the result would be for x
n
?
Alternatively, you could nd an approximation to the derivative of a
function at any point by drawing the graph of
.
( . ) ( )
y
f x f x
0 01
0 01
=
+ -
.
Use a graphics calculator or graphing computer software to sketch the
derivative for these functions and nd the equation of the derivative.
Mathematicians working with differentiation from rst principles discovered
this pattern that enabled them to shorten differentiation considerably!
For example:
When , y x y x 2
2
= = l
When , y x y x 3
3 2
= = l
When , y x y x 4
4 3
= = l

dx
d
x nx
n n 1
=
-
^ h

You do not need to know
this proof.

( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) [( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
. . . ( ) ]
[( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
. . . ( ) ]
f x x
f x h x h
f x h f x x h x
x h x x h x h x x h x x h x
x h x x
h x h x h x x h x x h x
x h x x
n
n
n n
n n n n
n n
n n n n
n n
1 2 3 2 4 3
2 1
1 2 3 2 4 3
2 1
=
+ = +
+ - = + -
= + - + + + + + + +
+ + + +
= + + + + + + +
+ + + +
- - - -
- -
- - - -
- -
^ h
( )
( ) ( )
[( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) . . . ( ) ]
[( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) . . . ( ) ]
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) . . . ( )
lim
lim
lim
f x
h
f x h f x
h
h x h x h x x h x x h x x h x x
x h x h x x h x x h x x h x x
x x x x x x x x x x
nx
h
h
n n n n n n
h
n n n n n n
n n n n n n
n
0
0
1 2 3 2 4 3 2 1
0
1 2 3 2 4 3 2 1
1 2 3 2 4 3 2 1
1
=
+ -
=
+ + + + + + + + + + +
= + + + + + + + + + + +
= + + + + + +
=
"
"
"
- - - - - -
- - - - - -
- - - - - -
-
l
this proof.
EXAMPLE
Differentiate ( ) f x x
7
= .
Solution
( ) 7 f x x
6
= l
There are some more rules that give us short ways to differentiate functions.
The rst one says that if there is a constant in front of the x (we call this a
coefcient), then it is just multiplied with the derivative.

dx
d
kx knx
n n 1
=
-
^ h

( ) ( )
dx
d
kf x kf x = l ^ h
A more general way of writing this rule is:
Proof

( )
( ) ( )
[ ( ) ( )]
( ) ( )
( )
lim
lim
lim
dx
d
kf x
h
kf x h kf x
h
k f x h f x
k
h
f x h f x
kf x
h
h
h
0
0
0
=
+ -
=
+ -
=
+ -
=
"
"
"
l
^ h

EXAMPLE
Find the derivative of 3 x
8
.
Solution

3 y x
dx
dy
x
x
3 8
24
If
8
7
7
#
=
=
=

Many functions use a combination of these rules.
Also, if there are several terms in an expression, we differentiate each one
separately. We can write this as a rule:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
dx
d
f x g x f x g x + = + l ^ h
Proof

( ) ( )
[ ( ) ( )] [ ( ) ( )]
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
lim
lim
lim
lim
lim lim
dx
d
f x g x
h
f x h g x h f x g x
h
f x h g x h f x g x
h
f x h f x g x h g x
h
f x h f x
h
g x h g x
h
f x h f x
h
g x h g x
f x g x
h
h
h
h
h h
0
0
0
0
0 0
+ =
+ + + - +
=
+ + + - -
=
+ - + + -
=
+ -
+
+ -
=
+ -
+
+ -
= +
"
"
"
"
" "
l l
^ h
= G

You do not need to
know this proof.
EXAMPLE
Differentiate x x
3 4
+ .
Solution
( )
dx
d
x x x x 3 4
3 4 2 3
+ = +
EXAMPLES
Differentiate
1. 7 x
Solution

dx
d
x 7 7 =
] g

CONTINUED
2. ( ) 5 x x x f
4 3
= - +
Solution

( ) f x x x
x x
4 3 0
4 3
3 2
3 2
= - +
= -
l

3. y x 4
7
=
Solution
dx
dy
x
x
4 7
28
6
6
# =
=

4. If ( ) f x x x x 2 7 5 4
5 3
= - + - , evaluate ( ) f 1 - l
Solution

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
f x x x
f
10 21 5
1 10 1 21 1 5
6
4 2
4 2
= - +
- = - - - +
= -
l
l
5. Differentiate
2
3 5
x
x x
2
+

Solution
Divide by 2 x before differentiating.

x
x x
x
x
x
x
x
dx
dy
2
3 5
2
3
2
5
2
3
2
5
2
3
1
2
1
2 2
+
= +
= +
=
=

6. Differentiate S r rh 2 2
2
r r = + with respect to r .
Solution
We are differentiating with respect to r , so r is the variable and r and h
are constants.

( )
dr
dS
r h
r h
2 2 2
4 2
r r
r r
= +
= +

1. Differentiate
(a) 2 x +
(b) 5 9 x -
(c) 3 4 x x
2
+ +
(d) 5 8 x x
2
- -
(e) 2 7 3 x x x
3 2
+ - -
(f) 2 7 7 1 x x x
3 2
- + -
(g) 3 2 5 x x x
4 2
- +
(h) 5 2 x x x
6 5 4
- -
(i) 2 4 2 4 x x x x
5 3 2
- + - +
(j) 4 7 x x
10 9
-
2. Find the derivative of
(a) 2 1 x x +
] g

(b) 2 3 x
2
-
] g

(c) 4 4 x x + -
] ] g g

(d) 2 3 x
2
2
-
^ h

(e) 2 5 1 x x x
2
+ - +
] ^ g h

3. Differentiate
(a)
x
x
6
2
-
(b)
2 3
4
x x
4 3
- +
(c) ( ) x x
3
1
3
6 2
-
(d)
x
x x 2 5
3
+

(e)
4
2
x
x x
2
+

(f)
3
2 3 6 2
x
x x x x
2
5 4 3 2
- + -

4. Find ( ) f x l when
( ) f x x 8
2
= - x 7 4 + .
5. If y x x 2 5
4 3
= - + , nd
dx
dy
when
. x 2 = -
6. Find
dx
dy
if
y x x x 6 5 7
10 8 5
= - + - . x 3 8 +
7. If s t t 5 20
2
= - , nd
dt
ds
.
8. Find ( ) g x l given ( ) g x x 5
4
=
-
.
9. Find
dt
dv
when v t 15 9
2
= - .
10. If h t t 40 2
2
= - , nd
dt
dh
.
11. Given
3
4
V r
3
r = , nd
dr
dV
.
12. If ( ) f x x x 2 3 4
3
= - + ,
evaluate (1) f l .
13. Given ( ) 5 f x x x
2
= - + , evaluate
(a) ( ) f 3 l
(b) ( ) f 2 - l
(c) x when ( ) f x 7 = l
14. If y x 7
3
= - , evaluate
(a)
dx
dy
when x 2 =
(b) x when
dx
dy
12 =
15. Evaluate ( ) g 2 l when
( ) g t t t t 3 4 2 1
3 2
= - - + .
8.5 Exercises
Expand brackets
before differentiating.
Simplify by dividing
DID YOU KNOW?
The word tangent comes from the Latin tangens, meaning touching. A tangent to a circle
intersects it only once.

However, a tangent to a curve could intersect the curve more than once.

A line may only intersect a curve once but not be a tangent.
So a tangent to a curve is best described as the limiting position of the secant PQ as Q
approaches P .
This line is a tangent to the
curve at point P.
Remember from earlier in the chapter that the derivative is the gradient of the
tangent to a curve.

dx
dy
is the gradient of the tangent to a curve
Tangents and Normals
u
EXAMPLES
1. Find the gradient of the tangent to the parabola y x 1
2
= + at the
point , 1 2 ^ h .
Solution

, ( )
dx
dy
x
x
dx
dy
2 0
2
1 2 2 1
2
At
= +
=
=
=
^ h

So the gradient of the tangent at , 1 2 ^ h is 2.
2. Find values of x for which the gradient of the tangent to the curve
2 6 1 y x x
3 2
= - + is equal to 18.
Solution

dx
dy
x x 6 12
2
= -

dx
dy
is the gradient of the tangent, so substitute
dx
dy
18 = .

x 1 = -
,
,
x x
x x
x x
x x
x x
x
18 6 12
0 6 12 18
2 3
3 1
3 0 1 0
3
2
2
2
`
= -
= - -
= - -
= - +
- = + =
=
] ] g g

3. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y x x x 3 7 2
4 3
= - + -
at the point , 2 4 ^ h .
Solution
,
dx
dy
x x
dx
dy
4 9 7
2 4 4 2 9 2 7
3
At
3 2
3 2
= - +
= - +
=
^
] ]
h
g g

Equation of the tangent:

y y m x x
y x 4 3 2
1 1
- = -
- = -
_
]
i
g


x
y x
x y
3 6
3 2
0 3 2 or
= -
= -
= - -
The normal is a straight line perpendicular to the tangent at the same point of
contact with the curve.
Normal
Tangent
y
x
If lines with gradients m
1
and m
2
are perpendicular, then m m 1
1 2
= -
You used this rule in the
previous chapter.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the gradient of the normal to the curve y x x 2 3 5
2
= - + at the
point where x 4 = .
Solution

dx
dy
is the gradient of the tangent .

13 =
x 4 3 = -
dx
dy
x
dx
dy
m
4
4 4 3
13
When
So
1
#
=
= -
=

The normal is perpendicular to the tangent .
m m 1 So
1 2
= -
CONTINUED
m
m
13 1
13
1
2
2
= -
= -
So the gradient of the normal is
13
1
- .

2. Find the equation of the normal to the curve y x x x 3 2 1
3 2
= + - -
at the point , . 1 3 - ^ h
Solution

dx
dy
is the gradient of the tangent .

dx
dy
x x
x
dx
dy
m
3 6 2
1
3 1 6 1 2
5
5
When
So
2
2
1
= + -
= -
= - + - -
= -
= -
] ] g g

The normal is perpendicular to the tangent .

m m
m
m
1
5 1
5
1
So
1 2
2
2
= -
- = -
=

So the gradient of the normal is
5
1
.
Equation of the normal:

y y m x x
y x
y x
x y
3
5
1
1
5 15 1
0 5 16
1 1
- = -
- = - -
- = +
= - +
_
] ]
i
gg

to the curve
(a) y x x 3
3
= - at the point where
5 x =
(b) f x
2
x x 4 = + -
] g
at the point
, 7 38 - ^ h
(c) f x
3
x x 5 4 1 = - -
] g
at the
point where x 1 = -
(d) 5 2 3 y x x
2
= + + at the point
, 2 19 - ^ h
(e) y x 2
9
= at the point where
1 x =
(f) f x
3
x 7 = -
] g
at the point
where 3 x =
(g) v t t 2 3 5
2
= + - at the point
where t 2 =
(h) 3 2 8 4 Q r r r
3 2
= - + - at the
point where 4 r =
(i) 4 h t t
4
= - where t 0 =
(j) f t t t t 3 8 5
5 3
= - +
] g
at the
point where 2 t = .
8.6 Exercise s
2. Find the gradient of the normal
to the curve
(a) f x x x 2 2 1
3
= + -
] g
at the
point where x 2 = -
(b) 3 5 2 y x x
2
= + - at the
point , 5 48 - ^ h
(c) f x x x 2 7
2
= - -
] g
at the
point where 9 x = -
(d) 3 2 y x x x
3 2
= + + - at the
point , 4 62 - - ^ h
(e) f x x
10
=
] g
at the point where
1 x = -
(f) 7 5 y x x
2
= + - at the
point , 7 5 - - ^ h
(g) 2 3 1 A x x x
3 2
= + - + at the
point where 3 x =
(h) f a a a 3 2 6
2
= - - ] g at the
point where 3 a = -
(i) 4 9 V h h
3
= - + at the
point , 2 9 ^ h
(j) 2 5 3 g x x x x
4 2
= - + -
] g
at
the point where x 1 = - .
3. Find the gradient of the
(i) tangent and (ii) normal to
the curve
(a) 1 y x
2
= + at the point , 3 10 ^ h
(b) f x x 5
2
= -
] g
at the point
where x 4 = -
(c) 2 7 4 y x x
5 2
= - + at the point
where x 1 = -
(d) 3 2 8 p x x x x
6 4
= - - +
] g

where 1 x =
(e) f x x x 4
2
= - -
] g
at the point
, 6 26 - ^ h .
4. Find the equation of the tangent
to the curve
(a) 5 1 y x x
4
= - + at the
point , 2 7 ^ h
(b) ( ) 5 3 2 6 f x x x x
3 2
= - - + at
the point , 1 6 ^ h
(c) 2 8 y x x
2
= + - at the
point , 3 5 - - ^ h
(d) 3 1 y x
3
= + at the point
where 2 x =
(e) 4 7 2 v t t
4 3
= - - at the point
where 2 t =
5. Find the equation of the normal
to the curve
(a) f x x x 3 5
3
= - +
] g
at the
point , 3 23 ^ h
(b) 4 5 y x x
2
= - - at the point
, 2 7 - ^ h
(c) f x x x 7 2
2
= -
] g
at the point
where 6 x =
(d) 7 3 2 y x x
2
= - - at the point
, 3 70 - ^ h
(e) 2 4 1 y x x x
4 3
= - + + at the
point where 1 x = .
(i) tangent and (ii) normal to the
curve
(a) f x x x 4 8
2
= - +
] g
at the
point , 1 11 ^ h
(b) 2 5 y x x x
3 2
= + - at the
point , 3 6 - ^ h
(c) 5 F x x x
5 3
= -
] g
at the point
where 1 x =
(d) 8 7 y x x
2
= - + at the point
, 3 8 - ^ h
(e) 2 4 1 y x x x
4 3
= - + + at the
point where 1 x = .
7. For the curve 27 5, y x x
3
= - -
nd values of x for which 0
dx
dy
= .
8. Find the coordinates of the point
at which the curve 1 y x
3
= + has
a tangent with a gradient of 3.
9. A function ( ) 4 12 f x x x
2
= + -
has a tangent with a gradient of
6 - at point P on the curve. Find
the coordinates of the point P .
10. The tangent at point P on the
curve 4 1 y x
2
= + is parallel to the
x -axis. Find the coordinates of P .
11. Find the coordinates of point Q
where the tangent to the curve
5 3 y x x
2
= - is parallel to the line
7 3 0 x y - + = .
12. Find the coordinates of point S
where the tangent to the curve
4 1 y x x
2
= + - is perpendicular
to the line 4 2 7 0 x y + + = .
13. The curve 3 4 y x
2
= - has a
gradient of 6 at point A .
Find the coordinates of (a) A .
Find the equation of the (b)
tangent to the curve at A .
14. A function 3 2 5 h t t
2
= - + has a
tangent at the point where t 2 = .
Find the equation of the tangent.
15. A function f x x x 2 8 3
2
= - +
] g

has a tangent parallel to the line
4 2 1 0 x y - + = at point P . Find
the equation of the tangent at P .
Further Differentiation and Indices
The basic rule for differentiating x
n
works for any rational number n .
Investigation
(a) Show that 1.
1 1
( ) x h
x
x x h
h
+
- =
+
-
.
Hence differentiate (b)
1
y
x
= from rst principles .
Differentiate (c) y x
1
=
-
using a short method. Do you get the same
answer as 1(b)?
(a) Show that 2. ( )( ) x h x x h x h + - + + = .
Hence differentiate (b) y x = from rst principles .
Differentiate (c)
2
y x =
1
and show that this gives the same answer as 2(b).
EXAMPLES
1. Differentiate 7 x
3
.
Solution

3
x x
dx
dy
x
x
x
7 7
7
3
1
3
7
3
7 1
3
3
3
1
3
2
$
#
=
=
=
=
-
-
1
1
2

We sometimes need to change a function into index form before
differentiating.
x
x
3
7 1
3
7
2 3
2 3
# =
=
2. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve
4
y
x
2
= at the point
where 2. x =
Solution

y
x
x
dx
dy
x
x
4
4
8
8
2
2
3
3
=
=
= -
= -
-
-

2 x When =
y
2
4
1
2
=
=

Gradient of the tangent at 2, 1 : ^ h
dx
dy
2
8
1
3
= -
= -

Equation of the tangent:

y y m x x
y x
x
y x
x y
1 1 2
2
3
3 0 or
1 1
- = -
- = - -
= - +
= - +
+ - =
_
]
i
g

8.7 Exercises
1. Differentiate
(a) x
3 -

(b) x
1.4

(c) 6x
0.2

(d)
2
x
1

(e)
2
2 3 x x
1
-
-
1

(f) 3x
3
1

(g) 8x
4
3

(h)
2
2x -
-
1

2. Find the derivative function,
writing the answer without
negative or fractional indices .
(a)
1
x

(b) 5 x
(c) x
6

(d)
2
x
5

(e)
5
x
3
-
(f)
1
x

(g)
x 2
1
6
(h) x x
(i)
x 3
2
(j)
x x 4
1 3
2 4
+
to the curve y x
3
= at the point
where 27. x =
4. If
12
x
t
= , fnd
dt
dx
when . t 2 =
5. A function is given by ( ) f x x
4
= .
Evaluate . ( ) f 16 l
to the curve
2
3
y
x
2
= at the point
1, 1
2
1
c m .
7. Find
dx
dy
if y x x
2
= +
^ h
.
8. A function ( )
2
f x
x
= has a
tangent at , . 4 1 ^ h Find the
gradient of the tangent.
to the curve
1
y
x
3
= at the point
2,
8
1
c m .
to ( ) 6 f x x = at the point where
9. x =
11. (a) Differentiate
x
x
.
H (b) ence fnd the gradient of the
tangent to the curve y
x
x
= at
the point where 4. x =
to the curve
4
y
x
= at the point
8,
2
1
c m .
13. If the gradient of the tangent to
y x = is
6
1
at point A , fnd the
coordinates of A .
14. The function ( ) 3 f x x = has
( ) f x
4
3
= l . Evaluate x .
15. The hyperbola
2
y
x
= has two
tangents with gradient
25
2
- . Find
the coordinates of the points of
contact of these tangents.
Note that
1
.
x x 2
2
1 1
6 6
# =
Use index laws to
simplify frst.
Expand brackets frst.
Composite Function Rule
A composite function is a function composed of two or more other functions.
For example, 3 4 x
2
5
-
^ h
is made up of a function u
5
where 3 4 u x
2
= - .
To differentiate a composite function, we need to use the result. .
This rule is also called the
function of a function rule
or chain rule.

dx
dy
du
dy
dx
du
# =
Proof
Let , x y d d and u d be small changes in x , y and u where , , . x y u 0 0 0 " " " d d d
0, 0
lim lim lim
x
y
u
y
x
u
x u
x
y
u
y
x
u
Then
As
So
x u x 0 0 0
" "
#
#
d
d
d
d
d
d
d d
d
d
d
d
d
d
=
=
" " " d d d

Using the denition of the derivative from rst principles, this gives

dx
dy
du
dy
dx
du
# = .
You do not need to
learn this proof.
EXAMPLES
Differentiate
1. (5 4) x
7
+
Solution
Let 5 4 u x = +

` 7
( )
dx
du
y u
du
dy
u
dx
dy
du
dy
dx
du
u
x
5
7 5
35 5 4
Then
7
6
6
6
#
#
=
=
=
=
=
= +

2. (3 2 1) x x
2 9
+ -
Solution
`
( )
( ) ( )
u x x
dx
du
x
y u
du
dy
u
dx
dy
du
dy
dx
du
u x
x x x
3 2 1
6 2
9
9 6 2
9 6 2 3 2 1
Let
Then
2
9
8
8
2 8
#
= + -
= +
=
=
=
= +
= + + -

Can you see a quick
way of doing this
question?
CONTINUED
3. 3 x -
Solution

2
2
2
2
2
( )
( 1)
(3 )
x x
u x
dx
du
y u
du
dy
u
dx
dy
du
dy
dx
du
u
x
x
3 3
3
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 3
1
Let
#
- = -
= -
= -
=
=
=
= -
= - -
= -
-
-
-
-
1
1
1
1
1

The derivative of a composite function is the product of two derivatives.
One is the derivative of the function inside the brackets. The other is the
derivative of the whole function.
[
dx
d
n n 1 -
( )] ( ) [ f x f x n = ( )] f x l
Proof
( )
( )
( )
( ) [ ( )]
u f x
dx
du
f x
y u
du
dy
nu
dx
dy
du
dy
dx
du
nu f x
f x n f x
Let
Then
n
n
n
n
1
1
1
`
#
#
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
-
-
-
l
l
l

this proof.
EXAMPLES
Differentiate
1. (8 1) x
3 5
-
Solution
( ) [ ( )]
( )
( )
dx
dy
f x n f x
x x
x x
24 5 8 1
120 8 1
n 1
2 3 4
2 3 4
$
$
=
= -
= -
-
l
2. (3 8) x
11
+
Solution

.
( ) [ ( )]
( )
( )
y f x n f x
x
x
3 11 3 8
33 3 8
n 1
10
10
#
=
= +
= +
-
l l

3.
(6 1)
1
x
2
+

Solution

( )
( )
( ) [ ( )]
( )
( )
( )
x
x
y f x n f x
x
x
x
6 1
1
6 1
6 2 6 1
12 6 1
6 1
12
n
2
2
1
3
3
3
$
#
+
= +
=
= - +
= - +
= -
+
-
-
-
-
l l

1. Differentiate
(a) ( ) x 3
4
+
(b) ( ) x 2 1
3
-
(c) ( ) x 5 4
2 7
-
(d) ( ) x 8 3
6
+
(e) ( ) x 1
5
-
(f) 3(5 9) x
9
+
(g) ( ) x 2 4
2
-
(h) ( ) x x 2 3
3 4
+
(i) ( 5 1) x x
2 8
+ -
(j) ( 2 3) x x
6 2 6
- +
(k)
2
( ) x 3 1 -
1

8.8 Exercises
(l) (4 ) x
2
-
-

(m) ( 9) x
2 3
-
-

(n)
3
( ) x 5 4 +
1

(o)
4
( ) x x x 7
3 2
- +
3

(p) 3 4 x +
(q)
5 2
1
x -

(r)
( 1)
1
x
2 4
+

(s) ( ) x 7 3
2
-
3

(t)
4
5
x +

(u)
2 3 1
1
x -

(v)
4(2 7)
3
x
9
+

(w)
3 3
1
x x x
4 3
- +

(x) ( ) x 4 1
4
3
+
(y)
( ) x 7
1
5
4
-

to the curve 3 2 y x
3
= - ] g at the
point . , 1 1 ^ h
3. If ( ) 2( 3) f x x
2 5
= - , evaluate (2) fl .
4. The curve 3 y x = - has a
tangent with gradient
2
1
at point
N . Find the coordinates of N .
5. For what values of x does the
function ( )
4 1
1
f x
x
=
-
have
( ) f x
49
4
= - l ?
to (2 1) y x
4
= + at the point
where 1. x = -
Product Rule
Differentiating the product of two functions y uv = gives the result

dx
dy
u
dx
dv
v
dx
du
= +
Proof
y uv =
Given that , y u v and d d d are small changes in y , u and v .

( ) ( ) y y u u v v
uv u v v u u v
y u v v u u v y uv
x
y
u
x
v
v
x
u
u
x
v
since `
d d d
d d d d
d d d d d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
+ = + +
= + + +
= + + =
= + +
^ h
0, 0
lim lim
lim lim lim
x u
x
y
u
x
v
v
x
u
u
x
v
u
x
v
v
x
u
u
x
v
dx
dy
u
dx
dv
v
dx
du
As
x x
x x x
0 0
0 0 0
" " d d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
= + +
= + +
= +
" "
" " "
d d
d d d
<
< < <
F
F F F

It is easier to remember this rule as y uv vu = + l l l . We can also write this
the other way around which helps when learning the quotient rule in the next
section.
You do not need to
know this proof.
If , y uv y u v v u = = + l l l
EXAMPLES
Differentiate
1. 3 1 5 x x + -
] ] g g

Solution
You could expand the brackets and then differentiate:

x x x x x
x x
dx
dy
x
3 1 5 3 15 5
3 14 5
6 14
2
2
+ - = - + -
= - -
= -
] ] g g

Using the product rule:

y uv u x v x
u v
3 1 5
3 1
where and = = + = -
= = l l

y u v v u
x x
x x
x
3 5 1 3 1
3 15 3 1
6 14
= +
= - + +
= - + +
= -
l l l
] ] g g

2. 2 5 3 x x
5 3
+
] g

Solution

.
y uv u x v x
u x v x
2 5 3
10 5 3 5 3
where and
5 3
4 2
= = = +
= = + l l
]
]
g
g
CONTINUED
.
y u v v u
x x x x
x x x x
x x x x
x x x
10 5 3 5 3 5 3 2
10 5 3 30 5 3
10 5 3 5 3 3
10 5 3 8 3
4 3 2 5
4 3 5 2
4 2
4 2
$
= +
= + + +
= + + +
= + + +
= + +
l l l
] ]
] ]
] ]
] ]
g g
g g
g g
g g
6 @

3. (3 4) 5 2 x x - -
Solution

2
2
2

( )
x x
y uv u x v x
u v x
5 2 5 2
3 4 5 2
3 2
2
1
5 2
Remember
where and
$
- = -
= = - = -
= = - -
-
1
1
1
l l
]
]
g
g

-
2
2
2
2
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
y u v v u
x x x
x x x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x x
x
x x
x
x x
x
x
3 5 2 2
2
1
5 2 3 4
3 5 2 3 4 5 2
3 5 2
5 2
3 4
3 5 2
5 2
3 4
5 2
3 5 2 5 2 3 4
5 2
3 5 2 3 4
5 2
15 6 3 4
5 2
19 9
$
$
= +
= - +- - -
= - - - -
= - -
-
-
= - -
-
-
=
-
- - - -
=
-
- - -
=
-
- - +
=
-
-
-
1 1
1
1
l l l
] ] ]
]
g g g
g

We can simplify this further
by factorising.
1. Differentiate
(a) 2 3 x x
3
+
] g

(b) 3 2 2 1 x x - +
] ] g g

(c) 3 5 7 x x +
] g

(d) 4 3 1 x x
4 2
-
^ h

(e) 2 3 x x x
4
-
^ h

(f) 1 x x
2 3
+
] g

(g) 4 3 2 x x
5
-
] g

(h) x x 3 4
4 3
-
] g

(i) 1 2 5 x x
4
+ +
] ] g g

(j) 5 3 1 x x x
3 2 2
5
+ - +
^ ^ h h

(k) 2 x x -
(l)
2 1
5 3
x
x
-
+

8.9 Exercises
Change this into a product
to the curve 2 3 2 y x x
4
= -
] g
at
the point 1, 2 ^ h .
3. If ( ) (2 3) (3 1) f x x x
5
= + - ,
evaluate ( ) 1 fl .
4. Find the exact gradient of the
tangent to the curve y x x 2 5 = +
at the point where 1 x = .
5. Find the gradient of the
tangent where 3, t = given
2 5 1 x t t
3
= - +
] ] g g
.
to the curve 2 1 y x x
2 4
= -
] g
at
the point , . 1 1 ^ h
to ( 1) ( 1) h t t
2 7
= + - at the point
, . 2 9 ^ h
8. Find exact values of x for
which the gradient of the
tangent to the curve
2 3 y x x
2
= +
] g
is 14.
9. Given ( ) (4 1) (3 2) f x x x
2
= - + ,
fnd the equation of the
tangent at the point where
x 1 = - .
Quotient Rule
Differentiating the quotient of two functions y
v
u
= gives the result.

dx
dy
v
v
dx
du
u
dx
dv
2
=
-

Proof
y
v
u
=
Given that , y u v and d d d are small changes in y , u and v .

`
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
,
y y
v v
u u
y
v v
u u
v
u
y
v
u
v v v
v u u
v v v
u v v
v v v
v u u u v v
v v v
vu v u uv u v
v v v
v u u v
x
y
v v v
v
x
u
u
x
v
x v 0 0
since
As " "
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d d
d
d d
d
d d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d d
+ =
+
+
=
+
+
- =
=
+
+
-
+
+
=
+
+ - +
=
+
+ - -
=
+
-
=
+
-
a k
( )
lim lim
x
y
v v v
v
x
u
u
x
v
dx
dy
v
v
dx
du
u
dx
dv
x x 0 0
2
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
=
+
-
=
-
" " d d
R
T
S
S
S
S
V
X
W
W
W
W

It is easier to remember this rule as y
v
u v v u
2
=
-
l
l l
.
this proof.
If , y
v
u
y
v
u v v u
2
= =
-
l
l l

EXAMPLES
Differentiate
1.
5 2
3 5
x
x
+
-
Solution

=
y
v
u
u x v x
u v
3 5 5 2
3 5
where and = = - = +
= l l
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
y
v
u v v u
x
x x
x
x x
x
5 2
3 5 2 5 3 5
5 2
15 6 15 25
5 2
31
2
2
2
2
=
-
=
+
+ - -
=
+
+ - +
=
+
l
l l

2.
1
4 5 2
x
x x
3
3
-
- +
Solution

=
y
v
u
u x x v x
v x
4 5 2 1
3
where and
3 3
2 2
= = - + = -
= u x 12 5 - l l
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
y
v
u v v u
x
x x x x x
x
x x x x x x
x
x x
1
12 5 1 3 4 5 2
1
12 12 5 5 12 15 6
1
10 18 5
2
3 2
2 3 2 3
3 2
5 2 3 5 3 2
3 2
3 2
=
-
=
-
- - - - +
=
-
- - + - + -
=
-
- +
l
l l
8.10 Exercises
1. Differentiate
(a)
2 1
1
x -

(b)
5
3
x
x
+

(c)
4 x
x
2
3
-

(d)
5 1
3
x
x
+
-
(e)
7
x
x
2
-

(f)
3
5 4
x
x
+
+

(g)
2x x
x
2
-

(h)
2
4
x
x
-
+

(i)
4 3
2 7
x
x
-
+
(j)
3 1
5
x
x
+
+

(k)
3 7
1
x
x
2
-
+

(l)
2 3
2
x
x
2
-

(m)
5
4
x
x
2
2
-
+

(n)
4 x
x
3
+

(o)
3
2 1
x
x x
3
+
+ -

(p)
3 4
2 1
x
x x
2
+
- -

(q)
1 x x
x x
2
3
- -
+

(r)
2
( ) x
x
5
2
+
1

(s)
5 1
(2 9)
x
x
3
+
-

(t)
(7 2)
1
x
x
4
+
-

(u)
(2 5)
(3 4)
x
x
3
5
-
+

(v)
1
3 1
x
x
+
+
(w)
2 3
1
x
x
-
-

(x)
( 9)
1
x
x
2
2
-
+

2. Find the gradient of the tangent to
the curve
3 1
2
y
x
x
=
+
at the point
1,
2
1
c m .
3. If ( ) f x
x
x
2 1
4 5
=
-
+
evaluate ( ) f 2 l .
4. Find any values of x for which
the gradient of the tangent to the
curve
2 1
4 1
y
x
x
=
-
-
is equal to . 2 -
5. Given ( ) f x
x
x
3
2
=
+
fnd x if
( ) f x
6
1
= l .
to the curve
2
y
x
x
=
+
at the
point 4,
3
2
c m .
to the curve
3
1
y
x
x
2
=
+
-
at the
point where 2 x = .
Angle Between 2 Curves
To measure the angle between two curves, measure the angle between the
tangents to the curves at that point.
EXAMPLE
Find the acute angle formed at the intersection of the curves y x
2
= and
( 2) . y x
2
= -
Solution
The curves intersect at the point (1, 1) .

( , ), ( )
( )
( )
(1, 1), 2(1 2)
( )
( )
tan
y x
dx
dy
x
dx
dy
m
y x
dx
dy
x
dx
dy
m
m m
m m
2
1 1 2 1
2
2
2 2
2
1
1 2 2
2 2
53 08
For
At
For
At
2
1
2
2
1 2
1 2
3
4
`
`
c
i
i
=
=
=
=
= -
= -
= -
= -
=
+
-
=
+ -
- -
=
= l

1
tan
m m
m m
1 2
1 2
i =
+
-
where m
1
and m
2
are the gradients of the tangents to
the curves at the point of intersection.
1. (a) Sketch the curves 4 y x
2
= -
and 8 12 y x x
2
= - + on the same
set of axes.
Show that the curves intersect (b)
at the point (2, 0) . Q
Find the gradient of the (c)
tangent of each curve at point Q .
Find the acute angle at which (d)
the curves intersect at Q .
2. (a) Sketch the curve y x
2
= and
the line 6 9 y x = - on the same
set of axes.
Find the point (b) P , their point
of intersection.
Find the gradient of the curve (c)
y x
2
= at P .
Find the acute angle between (d)
the curve and the line at P .
curves y x
2
= and y x
3
= at point
(1, 1) .
curves y x
3
= and 2 2 y x x
2
= - +
at their point of intersection.
5. What is the obtuse angle between
the curves ( ) 4 f x x x
2
= - and
( ) 12 g x x
2
they meet?
6. The curves 2 4 y x x
2
= - and
4 y x x
2
= - + intersect at two
points X and Y .
Find the coordinates of (a)
X and Y .
Find the gradient of the (b)
tangent to each curve at X and Y .
Find the acute angle between (c)
the curves at X and Y .
curve ( ) 1 f x x
2
= - and the line
( ) 3 1 g x x = - at their 2 points of
intersection.
8. (a) Find the points of intersection
between y x
3
= and 2 y x x
2
= + .
Find the acute angle between (b)
the curves at these points.
9. Show that the acute angle
between the curves y x
2
= and
4 y x x
2
= - is the same at both
the points of intersection.
10. Find the obtuse angles between
the curves 2 y x x
3
= + and
5 2 y x x
2
= - at their points of
intersection.
8.11 Exercises
1. Sketch the derivative function of
each graph
(a)
(b)
2. Differentiate 5 3 2 y x x
2
= - + from rst
principles .
3. Differentiate
(a) 7 3 8 4 x x x x
6 3 2
- + - -
(b)
2 1
3 4
x
x
+
-

(c) ( 4 2) x x
2 9
+ -
(d) ( ) x x 5 2 1
4
-
(e) x x
2

(f)
5
x
2

4. Find
dt
dv
if 2 3 4 v t t
2
= - - .
5. Given ( ) (4 3) , f x x
5
= - nd the value of
(a) (1) f
(b) ( ) f 1
1
.
6. Find the gradient of the tangent to the
curve 3 5 y x x x
3 2
= - + - at the point
( , ) . 1 10 - -
7. If 60 3 , h t t
2
= - nd
dt
dh
when . t 3 =
8. Find all x -values that are not
differentiable on the following curves .
(a)
(b)
(c)
9. Differentiate
(a) f x x 2 4 9
4
= +
] ] g g

(b)
3
5
y
x
=
-

(c) 3 1 y x x
2
= -
] g

(d)
4
y
x
=
(e) ( ) f x x
5
=
Test Yourself 8
-5
2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
y
x
11 -44 -3 -2 -1
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1
y
x
10. Sketch the derivative function of the
following curve.

11. Find the equation of the tangent to
the curve 5 3 y x x
2
= + - at the point
2, 11 . ^ h
12. Find the point on the curve
1 y x x
2
= - + at which the tangent has a
gradient of 3.
13. Find
dr
dS
if 4 S r
2
r = .
14. At which points on the curve
2 9 60 3 y x x x
3 2
= - - + are the tangents
horizontal?
15. Find the equation of the tangent to the
curve 2 5 y x x
2
= + - that is parallel to
the line 4 1. y x = -
16. Find the gradient of the tangent to the
curve 3 1 2 1 y x x
3 2
= - -
] ] g g
at the point
where 2. x =
17. Find ( ) f 4 l when . f x x 3
9
= -
] ] g g

curve
3
1
y
x
= at the point where . x
6
1
=
19. Differentiate
2
1
s ut at
2
= + with respect
to t and nd the value of t for which
5, 7
dt
ds
u = = and . a 10 = -
20. Find the x -intercept of the tangent to
the curve
2 1
4 3
y
x
x
=
+
-
at the point where
. x 1 =
21. Find the acute angle between the curve
y x
2
= and the line 2 3 y x = + at each
point of intersection.
22. Find the obtuse angle between the curve
y x
2
= and the line 6 8 y x = - at each
point of intersection.
1. If ( ) 3 (1 2 ) , f x x x
2 5
= - nd the value of
(1) f and (1) . fl
2. If
7 1
5 3
, A
h
h
=
-
+
nd
dh
dA
when 1. h =
3. Given 2 100 , x t t
4 3
= + nd
dt
dx
and nd
values of t when 0.
dt
dx
=
4. Find the equations of the tangents to the
curve ( 1) ( 2) y x x x = - + at the points
where the curve cuts the x -axis.
5. Find the points on the curve 6 y x
3
= -
where the tangents are parallel to the line
12 1. y x = - Hence nd the equations of
the normals to the curve at those points.
y
x
6. Find ( ) f 2 l if ( ) 3 2 . f x x = -
7. Differentiate (5 1) ( 9) . x x
3 5
+ -
8. Find the derivative of
(4 9)
2 1
. y
x
x
4
=
-
+

9. If ( ) 2 3 4, f x x x
3 2
= + + for what exact
values of x is ( ) ? x 7 = fl
10. Find the equation of the normal to the
curve 3 1 y x = + at the point where
8. x =
11. The tangent to the curve 2 y ax
3
= + at
the point where 3 x = is inclined at 135c
to the x -axis. Find the value of a .
12. The normal to the curve 1 y x
2
= + at the
point where 2, x = cuts the curve again
at point P . Find the coordinates of P .
13. Find the exact values of the
x - coordinates of the points on the curve
(3 2 4) y x x
2 3
= - - where the tangent is
horizontal.
14. Find the gradient of the normal to the
curve 2 5 y x x = - at the point (4, 8) .
the curve 2 6 y x x x
3 2
= - + + at point
(1, 8) . P Find the coordinates of point Q
where this tangent meets the y -axis and
calculate the exact length of PQ .
16. (a) Show that the curves 3 2 y x
5
= -
] g
and

1
5 3
y
x
x
=
+
-
intersect at 1, 1 ^ h
Find the acute angle between the (b)
curves at this point .
17. The equation of the tangent to the
curve 3 2 y x nx x
4 2
= - + - at the point
where 2 x = - is given by 3 2 0. x y - - =
Evaluate n .
18. The function ( ) 3 1 f x x = + has a
tangent that makes an angle of 30c with
the x -axis. Find the coordinates of the
point of contact for this tangent and nd
its equation in exact form.
19. Find all x values of the function
( ) ( 3) (2 1) f x x x
2 8
= - - for which
( ) f x 0 = l .
20. (a) Find any points at which the graph
below is not differentiable.
Sketch the derivative function for (b)
the graph.

21. Find the point of intersection
between the tangents to the curve
2 5 3 y x x x
3 2
= - - + at the points where
2 x = and 1. x = -
parabola
2
3
y
x
2
=
-
at the point where
the tangent is perpendicular to the line
. x y 3 3 0 + - =
23. Differentiate .
x
x
2
3 2
3
-

24. (a) Find the equations of the tangents
to the parabola 2 y x
2
= at the points
where the line 6 8 1 0 x y - + = intersects
with the parabola.
Show that the tangents are (b)
perpendicular.
y
x
90c 180c 270c 360c
25. Find any x values of the function
( )
8 12
2
f x
x x x
3 2
=
- +
where it is not
differentiable.
26. The equation of the tangent to the curve
7 6 9 y x x x
3 2
= + - - is y ax b = + at the
point where . x 4 = - Evaluate a and b .
27. Find the exact gradient with rational
denominator of the tangent to the curve
3 y x
2
= - at the point where 5. x =
28. The tangent to the curve y
x
p
= has a
gradient of
6
1
- at the point where 3. x =
Evaluate p .
29. Find
dr
dV
when
3
2
r
r
= and 6 h = given

3
1
V r h
3
r = .
30. Evaluate k if the function
( ) 2 1 f x x kx
3 2
= - + has ( ) . f 2 8 = l
31. Find the equation of the chord joining
the points of contact of the tangents to
the curve 4 y x x
2
= - - with gradients
3 and . 1 -
passing through 4, 3 ^ h and parallel to the
tangent to the curve y x
4
= at the point
1, 1 . ^ h
33. Find ( ) 7 fl as a fraction, given
( )
1
1
f x
x
3
=
+
.
34. For the function
( ) , ( ) , f x ax bx c f 2 4
2
= + + =
( ) ( ) x 1 0 8 and = = f f l l when . x 3 = -
Evaluate a , b and c .
curve 2 2 S r rh
2
r r = + at the point where
2 r = ( h is a constant) .
36. Differentiate
(a) 2 3 5 x x x
3 4
- -
] g

(b)
( 3)
2 1
x
x
3
-
+

37. The tangents to the curve
2 3 y x x
3 2
= - + at points A and B are
perpendicular to the tangent at , . 2 3 ^ h
Find the exact values of x at A and B .
38. (a) Find the equation of the normal to
the curve 1 y x x
2
= + - at the point
P where 3. x =
Find the coordinates of (b) Q , the point
where the normal intersects the parabola
again.
TERMINOLOGY
9
Properties of
the Circle
Arc: Part of a curve, most commonly a portion of the
distance around the circumference of a circle
Chord: A straight line joining two points on the
circumference of a circle
Concentric circles: Circles that have the same centre
Concyclic points: Points that lie on the circumference of
the same circle
Cyclic quadrilateral: A cyclic quadrilateral is a fgure
whose four vertices are concyclic points. The four vertices
lie on the circumference of a circle
Radius: A radius is the distance from the centre of a circle
out to the circumference (radii is plural, meaning more
than one radius)
Subtend: Form an angle at some point (usually the centre
or circumference of a circle)
Tangent: A straight line external to a curve or circle that
just touches the curve or circle at a single point
499 Chapter 9 Properties of the Circle
INTRODUCTION
IN CHAPTER 4, YOU STUDIED the geometry of angles, triangles, quadrilaterals
and other polygons. This chapter shows you some properties of the circle .
DID YOU KNOW?
A rainbow is the shape of an arc of a circle. If you
could see the whole rainbow, it would form a circle.
Research the rainbow on the Internet and fnd out
more about its shape and other properties.
Parts of a Circle
An arc is a part of the circumference .
A tangent touches the circle at one point .
Concentric circles are circles that have the same centre .
Equal circles have the same radius .
Equal arcs subtend equal angles at the centre of the circle.
DID YOU KNOW?
Leonardo da Vinci (14521519) was a great artist, scientist and inventor. He studied geometry,
and many of his model drawings show this infuence. His drawings included designs for
fying machines, spring-driven automobiles, bridges and weapons. Leonardos designs were
revolutionary, and the scientists of his time did not have the knowledge needed to make the
models work.
Arcs, Angles and Chords

Proof
Let two equal arcs have lengths l
1
and , l
2
and subtend angles of a and b at the
centre of the circle.
Using , l r l r
1
i a = = and l r
2
b =

l l
r r
But
1 2
`
`
a b
a b
=
=
=

The converse is also true:
If two arcs subtend equal angles at the centre of the
circle, then the arcs are equal.
EXAMPLE
AB is a diameter of the circle with centre . O Arc . CB BD arc =
Prove AOC AOD + + = .
Solution

CB BD COB DOB
COB DOB x
Since arc arc ,
Let
+ +
+ +
= =
= =

Then ( ) AOC COB AOB 180 is a straight angle c + + + = -
x 180c = -
Also AOD DOB 180c + + = - (similarly)
x 180c = -
AOC AOD ` + + =
You will study the formula
l r i = in Chapter 5 of
the HSC Course book.
Proof
OA OC = (equal radii)
OB OD = (similarly)
AB CD = (given)
OAB OCD by SSS, ` / D D
AOB COD ` + + = (corresponding s + in congruent Ds )
The converse in also true:
Equal chords subtend equal angles at the centre of the circle.
Equal angles subtended at the centre of the circle cut off equal chords.
EXAMPLE
AD is a diameter of the circle with centre O , where . AB CD = Prove that
. BC AD <
Solution

,
( ) ( )
( )
AB CD AOB COD
AOB COD x
BOC x x AOD
x
OB OC
180
180 2
Since
Let
Then is a straight
equal radii
c
c
+ +
+ +
+ + +
= =
= =
= - +
= -
=

OBC ` D is isosceles with OBC OCB + + =
( ) OBC OCB x OBC
OBC OCB x
OBC OCB x
OBC AOB
180 2 180
2
sum of
`
`
c c + + +
+ +
+ +
+ +
D + + - =
+ =
= =
=

But these are equal alternate angles
BC AD ` <
These fgures show that
this property can look
quite different in different
situations.
The angle at the centre of a circle is twice the angle at the
circumference subtended by the same arc.

Proof
Join AO and produce to . D
( )
BAO x CAO y
BAC x y
OA OB
Let and
equal radii
`
+ +
+
= =
= +
=

)
( )
)
)
)
( )
OBA x
BAO
OA OC
OCA y
CAO
BOD x x OBA
x
COD y y OCA
y
BOC BOD COD
x y
x y
BAC
2
2
2 2
2
2
(base s of isosceles
equal radii
(exterior of
(exterior of
`
`
+ +
+
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+
D
D
D
D
=
=
=
=
=
= +
=
= +
=
= +
= +
= +
=

EXAMPLES
1. Find the values of x and y .
Solution

( )
( )
( )
x
BOC
y
40
360 80
280
140
at centre is twice the at the circumference
Reflex of revolution
at centre is twice the at the circumference `
c c
c
+ +
+ +
+ +
=
= -
=
=

2. Prove BOC + is twice the size of . OCA +
Solution

2 ( )
)
OAC x
BOC OAC
x
OA OC
OCA OAC x
BOC OCA
2
2
Let
equal radii
(base s of isosceles `
`
+
+ + + +
+ + +
+ +
D
=
=
=
=
= =
=
^ h

Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal.
Proof
Join A and D to centre O

2 ( ) AOD ABD
AOD ACD
ABD ACD
2
`
+ + + +
+ +
+ +
=
=
=

EXAMPLE
Prove ABC D and DEC D are similar. Hence nd the value of y correct to
1 decimal place.
Solution

DEC D | | |
( )
( )
. .
.
. . .
.
. .
. .
ABC DEC
BCA ECD
ABC
BA
ED
BC
EC
y
y
y
1 7 1 2
6 5
1 2 1 7 6 5
1 2
1 7 6 5
9 2
s in same segment
vertically opposite s
cmcorrect to1decimal place
`
`
#
#
+ + +
+ + +
D
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

The angle in a semicircle is a right angle.
Proof

)
( )
AOB
AOB ACB
ACB
180
2
90
(straight
`
c
c
+ +
+ + + +
+
=
=
=

EXAMPLE
AB is a diameter of the circle below. If 2 BC m = and 9 AB m, = nd the
exact length of AC .
Solution

90
9 2
81 4
77
ACB
AB AC BC
AC
AC
AC
AC 77 m
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
2
`
`
c + =
= +
= +
= +
=
=

9.1 Exercise s
1. Find values of all pronumerals
( O is the centre of each circle).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
2. The circumference of a circle is
16 cm. r Find the length of the
arc that subtends an angle of 40c
at the centre of the circle.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
5. (a) Prove | . DEC D | | ABC D
(b) Hence nd the value of x

6. Find x and y , giving reasons.


8. Evaluate x , giving reasons for
each step in your calculation.

9. Prove STV D and WUV D are
similar. Hence nd x .

10. 6 3 AB BC cmand cm. = = O is
the centre of the circle. Show
that the radius of the circle is

2
3 5
cm.

11. Find x , giving reasons for each
step in your calculations.

12. The circle below has centre O .

D
A
B
O
C
38c
x
y

Evaluate (a) x and y.
Show that (b) . AD BC =
13. Show that AD BC < in the circle
below.

D
A
B
C
33c
114c

14. A circle has centre O and radius r
as shown.

O
A
B
C

Show that triangles (a) AOB and
ABC are similar.
Show that (b) . BC r 2 =
15. The circle below has centre O and
. DAB + i =

D
O
B
A
C
i

Show that DAB + and BCD + are
supplementary.
Chord Properties
A perpendicular line from the centre of a circle to a chord
bisects the chord.

Proof


ADO BDO
OA OB
90 (given)
(equal radii)
c + + = =
=

OD is common

OAD OBD by RHS / D D
) AD BD (corresponding sides in congruent s
`
` D =

So OD bisects AB
A line from the centre of a circle that bisects a chord is perpendicular
to the chord.
EXAMPLES
1. Line OC is perpendicular to chord AB . If the radius of the circle is
6 cm and the chord is 11 cm long, nd the length of OC , correct to
1 decimal place.

Solution

11
5.5 ( )
6 -
6 5.5
36 30.25
5.75
.
2.4
AB
AC OC AB
OA
OA AC OC
OC
OC
OC
OC 5 75
bisects
Also (radius given)
cm
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
2
`
`
=
=
=
= +
= +
= +
=
=
=

CONTINUED
2. Given XY YZ = and 54 , OXY c + = nd . XOY +

Solution

90 ( )
180 (90 54 ) ( )
OYX OY XZ
XOY OXY
36
bisects
sumof
c
c c c
c
+
+ + D
=
= - +
=

Equal chords are equidistant from the centre of the circle.

Proof

CD AB
OEB OFD
OB OD
AB CD
90
Let
(given)
(equal radii)
(given)
c + +
=
= =
=
=

/
( )
( )
BE AB OE AB
DF CD OF CD
BE DF
OEB OFD
OE OF
bisects
bisects
by RHS
(corresponding sides in congruent s)
2
1
2
1
`
`
`
D D
D
=
=
=
=

Chords that are equidistant from the centre are equal.
Class Exercise
Prove that chords that are equidistant from the centre are equal.
EXAMPLE
In the circle below, with centre O , 35 OE mm, = 56 DE mm = and
21 OC mm. = Show that . AB DE =

Solution

( )
(
.
EF OF DE
OE EF OF
OF
OF
OF
OF
OF OC
AB DE
28
35 28
35 28
441
441
21
mm bisects
mm
chords equal when equidistant from the centre)
So
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
`
`
=
= +
= +
- =
=
=
=
=
=

Proof

CEB ;D
( )
( )
AED CEB
DAE ECB
ADE EBC
AED
EC
AE
EB
DE
AE EB DE EC
vertically opposite s
s in same segment
(similarly)
`
`
` : :
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
< D
=
=
=
=
=

EXAMPLE

Given chord 12.3 2.7 AB EB cm, cm = = and 10.6 DE cm, = nd the
length of EC , correct to 1 decimal place.
The products of intercepts of intersecting chords are equal.

AE EB DE EC : : =
Solution

. .
.
. . .
.
. .
.
AE AB EB
AE EB DE EC
EC
EC
12 3 2 7
9 6
9 6 2 7 10 6
10 6
9 6 2 7
2 4 cm
: :
# #
`
#
= -
= -
=
=
=
=
=

9.2 Exercises
pronumerals ( O is the centre of
each circle).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)

2. Find the exact radius of a circle
with a chord that is 8 cm long
and 5 cm from the centre.
3. A circle with radius 89 mm has
a chord drawn 52 mm from the
centre. How long, to the nearest
millimetre, is the chord?
4. O and P are the centres of
intersecting circles with radii 20
cm and 8 cm respectively.
If 10 AB cm, = fnd the distance
OP , correct to 1 decimal place.

5. Show . AB CD =

6. 20 26 AC AD cmand cm. = =
Find OB , correct to 1 decimal
place.

7. Evaluate x and y , correct to
1 decimal place.

pronumerals.

9. A circle with centre O has radius r
and chord . AB x =

D
C
B
A
O

Show that . CD
r r x
2
2 4
2
=
+ -
2

10.
D
E
B
A
C

Prove that triangles (a) ABC and
CDE are similar.
Show that (b)
. AC CD BC CE : : =
Concyclic Points
Concyclic points are points that lie on the circumference of a circle.

Any 3 non-collinear points are concyclic . They lie on a unique circle,
with centre at the point of intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of the
intervals joining these points.

Four or more non-collinear points may not necessarily lie on a circle .
Cyclic quadrilaterals
A cyclic quadrilateral is a gure whose 4 vertices are concyclic points .
The opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.
Join B and D to O .

of revolution)
l at centre is doub

+
+
e (

(
DOB A
DOB C
DOB DOB
A C
A C
2
2
360
2 2 360
180
Obtuse
Reflex
Obtuse reflex
`
`
c
c
c
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
=
=
+ =
+ =
+ =
at circumference) +

Similarly, it can be proven that B D 180c + + + = by joining A and C to O .
Proof

If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral are supplementary,
then the quadrilateral is cyclic.
The property of opposite angles being supplementary in a cyclic quadrilateral
can also be used to prove the following property:
The exterior angle at a vertex of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal
to the interior opposite angle.
EXAMPLE
Evaluate a , b and c .

Solution

(
(
( )
(
( )
OB OD
ODB
a
a
b
c
20
20 20 180
180 40
140
70
180 70
110
equal radii)
base s of isosceles equal)
sumof
at centre double at circumference)
opposite s in cyclic quadrilateral
`
`
c
c c c
c c
c
c
c c
c
+ +
+
+ +
+
D
D
=
=
+ + =
= -
=
=
= -
=

Proof

`
(
)
(
( )
A x
BCD x
BCD BCE DCE
BCE x
x
x
A BCE
180
180
180 180
180 180
Let
Then opposite s supplementary
in cyclic quadrilateral
straight angle)
`
`
c
c
c c
c c
+
+ +
+ + +
+
+ +
=
= -
+ =
= - -
= - +
=
=

9.3 Exercises
pronumerals.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
118c
xc
(j)
pronumerals.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
46c 111c
xc
yc
O
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
3. Show that ABCD is a cyclic
quadrilateral.
58c
D
C B
A
58c
(a)
(b)
D
C
B
A

D
C B
A
E
i
i
(c)
Tangent Properties
The tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius drawn from
the point of contact.
The perpendicular
distance is the shortest
distance any other
distance would be greater
than the radius.
The line perpendicular to the radius at the point where it
meets the circle is a tangent to the circle at that point.
Here is another property of tangents to a circle:
Tangents to a circle from an exterior point are equal.
Proof

,
A C
OA OC
OAB OCB
AB CB
90
Join
(tangent radius)
is common
(equal radii)
by RHS
OB
OB
`
`
c = + +
/ D D
D
= =
=
=

EXAMPLE
A circle with centre O and radius 10 cm has a tangent AB drawn to it
where 26 OB cm. = Find the length of AB.
Solution

( ) OA
OAB
OB OA AB
AB
AB
AB
AB
10
90
26 10
676 100
576
576
24
radius
(tangent radius)
cm
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
2
`
`
c = +
=
=
= +
= +
= +
=
=
=

When two circles touch, the line through their centres
passes through their point of contact.
Proof

(
)
.
AB
OCB
AB
PCB
OCB PCB
90
90
90 90
180
is a tangent to circle with centre
tangent radius)
is a tangent to circle with centre
(similarly
is a straight line
O
P
OCP
`
`
`
c =
c
c c
c
+
+
+ +
=
=
+ = +
=

You could also prove this
result for when circles
touch internally.
EXAMPLE
Two circles touch at A and the larger circle has centre O . Prove
(a) ABC T and AOD T are similar
(b) CB DO <
(c) . BC DO 2 =
Solution
D ; AOD ;
ODA
BCA
BCA ODA
A
ABC
90
90
is a diameter of small circle (line through centres passes
through point of contact)
( in semicircle)
Since is a diameter of the larger circle,
(similarly)
is common
OA
AB
`
`
`
c
c
+ +
+
+ +
+
D
=
=
=
;
(a)
(b)
.
BCA ODA
CB
[from(a)]
These are equal corresponding angles
`
+ +
<
=
DO
(c) ( AB OA OA
OA
AB
OA
AB
AD
AC
DO
BC
BC DO
2
2
2
2
radius)
(by similar s)
`
`
`
D
=
=
= = =
=

The angle between a tangent and a chord through the point
of contact is equal to the angle in the alternate segment.
Proof
Draw in diameter CF and join EF .

.
(
( )
( ) ( )
(
ECB x
FCB
FEC
EFC x
x
EFC EDC
EDC ECB
90
90
180 90 90
Let
tangent radius)
FCE 90
in semicircle
angle sum of
angles in same segment)
x `
`
`
c =
c
c
c c c
+
+
+
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
D
=
=
= -
=
= - + -
=
=
=

EXAMPLE
Evaluate x and y .
CONTINUED
The square of the length of the tangent from an external point
is equal to the product of the intercepts of the secant passing
through this point.

PQ QR QS
2
: = where PQ is a tangent to the circle.
Proof

SPQ ;D ;
PSR + = ( ) QPR
Q
PQR
QS
PQ
SP
PR
PQ
QR
QS
PQ
PQ
QR
PQ QR QS
angles in alternate segments
is common
2
`
`
`
:
+
+
;
= =
=
=

Solution

( ) ( )
(
(
ABC
x
y y ABC
180 95 50
35
35
35
sum of
s in alternate segment)
and in same segment)
`
c c c
c
c
c
+ +
+
+
D = - +
=
=
=

The third pair of angles is
equal by angle sum of a
triangle.
EXAMPLE
AB is a tangent to the circle and 1.3 1.7 CD BC cm, cm. = = Find the
length of , AB correct to 1 decimal place.
Solution

. .
.
.
.
. .
BD
AB BC BD
AB
1 3 1 7
3
1 7 3
5 1
5 1
2 3 cmcorrect to 1 decimal place
2
:
#
= +
=
=
=
=
=
=

9.4 Exercises
pronumerals.
(a)
(b)
(c)
x
y
38c
O
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
pronumerals (all external lines
are tangents to the circles).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
63c
yc
xc
O
(e)
y
9 cm
1
5

c
m
1
3

c
m
O
P
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
pronumerals, giving reasons
for each step of your working
( O is the centre of circle, AB is
a tangent).
4. AB , BC and AC are tangents,
with 24 27 AB BC cm, cm = =
and 15 BM cm. = Find the length
of AC .
5. 6.5 3.9 AB AC m, m = = and
5.2 BC m. = Prove A lies on a
diameter of the circle, given BC is
a tangent to the circle.
pronumerals ( O is the centre of
each circle; all external lines are
tangents).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
pronumerals.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
8. Find AB , given . AD 4 9 m, =
. . . BC CD 5 1 7 8 mand m = =
Test Yourself 9
1. O is the centre of the circle. Evaluate . i
2. Evaluate y to 1 decimal place.
3. AB is a tangent to the circle. Find the
value of x to 1 decimal place.
4. O is the centre of the circle. Find the
length of tangents x and y .
5. Evaluate x , y and z , giving reasons for
each step of your working.
6. O is the centre of the larger circle. Find
the value of x .
7. AB is a tangent to the circle. Evaluate , a b
and . c
8. O is the centre of the circle, and AB is
a tangent. Evaluate a , b , c and d , giving
reasons for each step of your working.
9. Find the length of the radius of the
circle. O is the centre.
10. Find the length of tangent . AB
11. Evaluate a and b .
12. O is the centre of the circle. Find the
value of a and . b
13. Calculate the length of AB to 3
signifcant fgures, given that A and B are
the centres of the circles.
14. Find the value of x to 1 decimal place.
15. Find the length of AB .
16. Evaluate a and . b
17. Evaluate x and y , giving reasons for your
working.
18. Evaluate , x y and z .
19. Prove that BCD D is similar to . ABC D
20. O is the centre of the circle.
Prove that (a) OAC D and OBC D are
congruent.
Show that (b) OC bisects AB .
1. Find the length of the radius, to the
nearest centimetre, if 10 AC cm = and
3 BD cm. =
2. In the circle below with centre O ,
. OD DC = Prove . AOE DCB 3 + + =
3. Two circles meet at points A and B .
A tangent to each circle is drawn from
A to meet the circles at D and C . Prove
. DAC 90c + =
4. Three equal circles touch each other, as
in the fgure.
Prove that the triangle with vertices (a)
the centres of the circles is equilateral.
Find the perimeter of the curved (b)
fgure DEF in terms of the radius r of the
circles.
Find the exact area of the shaded (c)
region.
5. The triangles below have
BDE BAD 2 + + = and . CDE CAD 2 + + =
Prove that a circle can be drawn through
A , B and C with centre D .
6. Two chords AB and CD intersect
at 90c Prove, for obtuse
, AOD AOD COB 180c + + + + = where O
is the centre of the circle.
7. Prove that any kite ABCD with
ADC ABC 90c + + = = is a cyclic
quadrilateral with diameter AC .
8. A large circle with radius R is surrounded
by 7 smaller circles with radius r . A circle
is drawn through the centres of the
smaller circles. If , R
r
2
3
= fnd the shaded
area in terms of r .
9. Prove that if an interval subtends equal
angles at two points on the same side of
it, then the endpoints of the interval and
the two points are concyclic.
10. Prove that if both pairs of opposite angles
in a quadrilateral are supplementary,
then the quadrilateral is cyclic.

TERMINOLOGY
10
The Quadratic
Function
Axis of symmetry: A line about which two parts of
a graph are symmetrical. One half of the graph is a
refection of the other
Coeffcient: A constant multiplied by a pronumeral in an
algebraic term e.g. in ax
3
the a is the coeffcient
Discriminant: Part of the quadratic formula, the algebraic
expression 4 b ac
2
- is called the discriminant as its value
determines the number and nature of the roots of a
quadratic equation
Equations reducible to quadratics: Equations that can be
reduced to the form: 0 ax bx c
2
= + +
Indefnite: A quadratic function where f ( x ) can be both
positive and negative for varying values of x
Maximum value: The maximum or greatest y-value of a
graph for a given domain
Minimum value: The minimum or smallest y-value of a
graph for a given domain
Negative defnite: A quadratic function where f(x) is
always negative for all values of x
Positive defnite: A quadratic function where f(x) is always
positive for all values of x
Root of an equation: The solution of an equation
543 Chapter 10 The Quadratic Function
INTRODUCTION
THE SOLUTION OF QUADRATIC equations is important in many felds,
such as engineering, architecture and astronomy. In this chapter you will
study quadratic equations in detail, and look at the relationship between
quadratic equations and the graphs of quadratic functions (the parabola).
You will study the axis of symmetry and maximum and minimum
values of the quadratic function. You will also look at the quadratic
formula in detail, and at the relationships between the roots (solutions)
of quadratic equations, the formula and the quadratic function.
DID YOU KNOW?
Thousands of clay tablets from ancient Babylonia have been discovered by archaeologists. These
tablets are from as far back as 2000 BC. They show that the Babylonians had mastered many
mathematical skills. Geometry, including Pythagoras theorem, was well developed, and geometric
problems were often worked out by using algebra.
Quadratic equations were used in solving geometry problems. The word quadratic comes
from the Latin quadratum , meaning four-sided fgure. Completing the square and the quadratic
formula were both used to solve quadratic equations.
The Babylonians also had some interesting approximations for square roots. For example,

12
2 . =
17
An approximation for 2 that is very accurate was found on a tablet dating back to 1600 BC:

2 3
2 1 1.414213
60
24
60
51
60
10
= + + + =
Graph of a Quadratic Function
Axis of symmetry
EXAMPLE
Sketch the parabola (a ) 4 y x x
2
= - on the number plane.
Find the equation of the axis of symmetry of the parabola. (b)
Find the minimum value of the parabola. (c )
Solution
For the (a) y -intercept, 0 x =

( ) y 0 4 0
0
i.e.
2
= -
=

For the x -intercept, y 0 =

`
( )
x x
x x
x x
x
0 4
4
0 4 0
4
i.e.
or
2
= -
= -
= - =
=

CONTINUED
The axis of symmetry lies halfway
between x 0 = and x 4. =
The axis of symmetry has equation (b) 2. x =
Since the parabola is symmetrical about the line (c) 2, x = the
minimum value is on this line.
Substitute 2 x = into the equation of the parabola

( ) y 2 4 2
4
i.e.
2
= -
= -

So the minimum value is . 4 -
Class Investigation
How would you fnd the axis of symmetry for a graph with no 1.
x -intercepts?

How would you fnd the axis of symmetry of a graph where the 2.
x -intercepts are irrational numbers?
The axis of symmetry of the quadratic function y ax bx c
2
= + + has the
equation

2
x
a
b
= -
Proof
The axis of symmetry lies midway between the x -intercepts.
For the x -intercepts, 0 y =

ax bx c
x
a
b b ac
0
2
4
i.e.
2
2
!
+ + =
=
- -

The x -coordinate of the axis of symmetry is the average of the
x -intercepts.

x
a
b b ac
a
b b ac
a
b
a
b
a
b
2
2
4
2
4
2
2
2
4
2
2
i.e.
2 2
=
- - -
+
- + -
=
-
=
-
= -

The parabola has a minimum value if 0. a 2
The shape of the parabola is concave upwards .
Minimum value
The parabola has a maximum value if 0. a 1
The shape of the parabola is concave downwards.

Maximum value
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the axis of symmetry and the minimum value of
the quadratic function 5 1. y x x
2
= - +
Solution
The equation of the axis of symmetry is given by
`
( )
( )

x
a
b
x
x
y
2
2 1
5
2
5
2
2
1
2
5
5
2
5
1
4
25
2
25
1
5
4
1
i.e.
Equation is
Minimum value:
2
= -
= -
-
=
=
= - +
= - +
= -
c c m m

So minimum value is
4
. 5
1
-
2. Find the equation of the axis of symmetry and the maximum value of
the quadratic function . y x x 3 5
2
= - + -
Solution
The equation of the axis of symmetry is given by

( )

x
a
b
x
x
y
2
2 3
1
6
1
6
1
3
6
1
6
1
5
12
1
6
1
5
4
12
11
i.e.
Equation is
Maximum value:
2
`
= -
= -
-
=
=
= - + -
= - + -
= -
c c m m

So maximum value is . 4
12
11
-
a 0 2 gives a minimum
value.
a 0 1 gives a maximum
value.
The minimum or maximum value is f
a
b
2
- c m
Class Investigation
Examine the graph of y x x 3 5
2
= - + - from the above example. Are
there any solutions for the quadratic equation ? x x 3 5 0
2
- + - =
The minimum or maximum point of the parabola is called the vertex.
EXAMPLE
Find the equation of the axis of symmetry and the coordinates of the (a)
vertex of the parabola y x x 2 12 7
2
= + - .
Find the (b) y -intercept and sketch the graph .
Solution
Axis of symmetry: (a)

x
a
b
2
2 2
12
3
#
= -
= -
-
=

When 3 x =

y 2 3 3
11
2
=
= -
12 7 - +
] ] g g

So the vertex is ( , ) . 3 11 -
For (b) y -intercept, 0 x =

y 2 0 12 0 7
7
= - +
=
2
] ] g g

The vertex is the minimum point of the parabola since a 0 2 .
1. By fnding the intercepts on
the axes, sketch the parabola
2 . y x x
2
= + Find the equation
of its axis of symmetry, and the
minimum value.
2. Find the equation of the axis of
symmetry and the minimum value
of the parabola 2 6 3. y x x
2
= + -
axis of symmetry and the
minimum value of the parabola
3 2. y x x
2
= + +
minimum value of the parabola
4. y x
2
= -
10.1 Exercises
y
x
3
(3, -11)
7
-11
minimum point of the parabola
4 3 1. y x x
2
= - +
maximum value of the parabola
2 7. y x x
2
= - + -
maximum point of the parabola
2 4 5. y x x
2
= - - +
8. Find the minimum value of
4 3. y x x
2
= + + How many
solutions does the equation
4 3 0 x x
2
+ + = have?
4. y x x
2
= + + How many
4 0 x x
2
+ + = have?
4 4. y x x
2
= + + How many
4 4 0 x x
2
+ + = have?
11. Find the equation of the axis of
symmetry and the coordinates of
the vertex for each parabola .
(a) y x x 6 3
2
= + -
(b) y x x 8 1
2
= - - +
(c) 2 5 y x x
2
= - +
(d) y x x 4 10 7
2
= + -
(e) 3 18 4 y x x
2
= + +
12. Find
the equation of the axis of (i)
symmetry
the minimum or maximum (ii)
value and
the vertex of the parabola. (iii)
(a) y x x 2 2
2
= + -
(b) y x x 2 4 1
2
= - + -
13. Find the maximum or minimum
point for each function.
(a) 2 1 y x x
2
= + +
(b) y x x 8 7
2
= - -
(c) f x x x 4 3
2
= + -
] g

(d) y x x 2
2
= -
(e) f x x x 4 7
2
= - -
] g

(f) f x x x 2 3
2
= + -
] g

(g) y x x 2 5
2
= - + -
(h) 2 8 3 y x x
2
= - + +
(i) f x x x 3 3 7
2
= - + +
] g

(j) f x x x 2 4
2
= - + -
] g

14. For each quadratic function
fnd any (i) x -intercepts using the
quadratic formula .
state whether the function (ii)
has a maximum or minimum
value and fnd this value .
sketch the function on a (iii)
number plane .
(a) f x x x 4 4
2
= + +
] g

(b) f x x x 2 3
2
= - -
] g

(c) y x x 6 1
2
= - +
(d) f x x x 2
2
= +
] g

(e) y x 2 18
2
= -
(f) y x x 3 2
2
= + -
(g) f x x x 2 6
2
= - - +
] g

(h) f x x x 3
2
= - - +
] g

(i) y x x 3 2
2
= - - +
(j) 2 4 5 y x x
2
= - + +
15. (a) Find the minimum value of
the parabola 2 5 y x x
2
= - + .
(b) How many solutions
does the quadratic equation
x x 2 5 0
2
+ = - have?
(c) Sketch the parabola .
16. (a) How many x -intercepts
has the quadratic function
f x x x 3 9
2
= - +
] g
?
(b) Find the minimum point of
the function .
(c) Sketch the function.
17. (a) Find the maximum value
of the quadratic function
f x x x 2 4
2
= - + -
] g
.
(b) How many solutions
has the quadratic equation
x x 2 4 0
2
- + = - ?
(c) Sketch the graph of the
quadratic function .
Investigation
Could you tell without sketching the function y x x 5
2
= + - if
x x 5 0
2
2 - + for all x ? How could you do this?
How could you know that x x 2 7 0
2
1 - + - for all x without sketching
the graph of f x x x 2 7
2
= - + -
] g
?
18. (a) Sketch the parabola
. y x x 5 6
2
= - +
(b) From the graph, fnd values
of x for which . x x 5 6 0
2
2 - +
(c) Find the domain over which
. x x 5 6 0
2
# - +
19. Sketch y x x 3 2 4
2
= - + and
hence show that x x 3 2 4 0
2
2 - +
for all x.
20. By sketching f x x x 2
2
= + +
] g
,
show that x x 2 0
2
2 + + for all x.
21. Show by a sketch that
x x 2 7 0
2
1 - + - for all x .
22. Sketch y x x 5 4 1
2
= - + - and
show that x x 5 4 1 0
2
1 - + - for
all x .
Quadratic Inequalities
You looked at solving quadratic inequations in Chapter 3 using the number
line. You can also solve them using the graph of a parabola.
For any curve on a number plane
0 y = is on the x -axis (all values of y are zero on the x -axis)
y 0 2 is above the x -axis (all positive values of y lie above the x -axis)
y 0 1 is below the x -axis (all negative values of y lie below the x -axis)
For the parabola y ax bx c
2
= + +
0 ax bx c
2
+ + = on the x -axis
ax bx c 0
2
2 + + above the x -axis
ax bx c 0
2
1 + + below the x -axis
Substituting ax bx c
2
+ + for y in the general parabola y ax bx c
2
= + + gives
the following results:
You will look at this later
on in the chapter.
EXAMPLES
1. Solve . x x 3 2 0
2
$ - +
Solution
First sketch y x x 3 2
2
= + - showing x -intercepts ( a 0 2 so it is concave
upwards) .
For x -intercepts, 0 y =

x x
x x
0 3 2
2 1
2
= - +
= - -
] ] g g

,
,
x x
x x
2 0 1 0
2 1
- = - =
= =

ax
2
+ bx + c 2 0
ax
2
+ bx + c = 0
ax
2
+ bx + c 1 0
a 2 0
x
y
ax
2
+ bx + c 2 0
ax
2
+ bx + c = 0
ax
2
+ bx + c 1 0
a 1 0
x
y


1 2
y
x
y 0 $ on and above the x -axis
So x x 3 2 0
2
$ - + on and above the x -axis.
1, 2 x x ` # $
2. Solve . x x 4 0
2
2 -
Solution
First sketch y x x 4
2
= - showing x -intercepts ( a 0 1 so it is concave
downwards).

,
,
x x
x x
x x
x
0 4
4
0 4 0
0
2
= -
= -
= - =
= x 4 =
] g

0 4
y
x
y 0 2 above the x -axis
So 4 0 x x
2
2 - above the x -axis.
. x 0 4 ` 1 1
CONTINUED
3. Solve . x 25 0
2
1 -
Solution
First sketch y x 25
2
= - showing x -intercepts ( a 0 2 so it is concave
upwards).

, 0 =

,
x
x x
x x
x
0 25
5 5
5 5 0
5
2
= -
= + -
+ - =
= - x 5 =
] ] g g

5 -5
x
y
y 0 1 below the x -axis
So x 25 0
2
1 - below the x -axis.
x 5 5 ` 1 1 -
Further inequations
You learned how to solve inequations involving the pronumeral in the
denominator by using the number line in Chapter 3. Here we use quadratic
inequalities to solve them.
EXAMPLES
1. Solve .
x 1
1
2 $
+

Solution
1 x !-
We dont know whether 1 x + is positive or negative, but x 1 +
2
] g
is
always positive. We can multiply both sides of the inequation by x 1 +
2
] g

without changing the inequality sign.

x
x
x x
x x
x x
x x
x x
x x
1
1
2
1
1
2
1 2 1
0 2 1 1
1 2 1 1
1 2 2 1
1 2 1
1 1
2
2 2
# #
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
+
+
+ +
+ - +
+ + -
+ + -
+ +
+ +
2
]
] ]
] ]
] ]
] ]
] ]
g
g g
g g
g g
g g
g g
6 @

We solve this by sketching the parabola 1 2 1 y x x = + +
] ] g g
.
For x -intercepts: 0 y =

,
,
x x
x x
x x
x
0 1 2 1
1 0 2 1 0
1 2 1
2
1
= + +
+ = + =
= - = -
= -
] ] g g

x x 0 1 2 1 $ + +
] ] g g
on and below the x -axis. However, x 1 ! -
The solution is . x 1
2
1
1 # - -
2. Solve .
x
x
2
4
5 1
-

Solution
2 x !
We multiply both sides of the inequation by x 2
2
-
] g
.
Factorise by taking out
x 1 + as a common factor.
CONTINUED
y
-1
-
1
2
x

x
x
x
x
x x x
x x
x x x
x x
2
4
5
2
4
5
4 2 5 2
0 5 2 2
2 5 2 4
2 2
2
2 2
# #
1
1
1
1
1
-
-
- -
- -
- - -
- -
x 4
2
-
] ]
] ]
] ]
] ]
g g
g g
g g
g g
6 @

x x x
x x
2 5 10 4
2 10
1
1
- - -
- -
] ]
] ]
g g
g g

We solve this by sketching the parabola . y x x 2 10 = - -
] ] g g

,
,
x x
x x
x x
0 2 10
2 0 10 0
2 10
= - -
- = - =
= =
] ] g g

y
2 10
x
2 10 x x 0 1 - -
] ] g g
above the x -axis.
The solution is , . x x 2 10 1 2
1. x 9 0
2
2 -
2. n n 0
2
# +
3. a a 2 0
2
$ -
4. x 4 0
2
1 -
5. y y 6 0
2
# -
6. t t 2 0 2 -
2

7. x x 2 8 0
2
2 + -
8. p p 4 3 0
2
$ + +
9. m m 6 8 0
2
2 - +
10. x x 6 0
2
# - -
10.2 Exercises
Solve
Factorise by taking out x 2 -
as a common factor.
11. h h 2 7 6 0
2
1 - +
12. x x 20 0
2
# - -
13. k k 35 9 2 0
2
$ + -
14. q q 9 18 0
2
2 + -
15. x 2 0
2
$ +
] g

16. n n 12 0
2
# - -
17. x x 2 15
2
1 -
18. t t 4 12
2
$ - -
19. y y 3 14 5
2
2 +
20. x x 3 1 5 $ + -
] ] g g

21.
x
1
2 1 -
22.
x
1
3 2
23.
x
1
1 $
24.
1
2
x
$ -
25.
x 1
1
3 2
-

26.
2
1
1
x
#
+

27.
2
2
5
x
$
-

28.
x 3
3
1 2
+
-
29.
1
1
3
x
#
-
-

30.
2
4
x
x
$
+

The Discriminant
The values of x that satisfy a quadratic equation are called the roots of the
equation.
The roots of 0 ax bx c
2
+ + = are the x -intercepts of the graph
y ax bx c
2
= + +
If 1. y ax bx c
2
= + + has 2 x -intercepts, then the quadratic equation
0 ax bx c
2
+ + = has 2 real roots.
y
x
a 2 0
y
x
a 1 0
Since the graph can be both positive and negative, it is called an
indefnite function .
Solve the inequations
in Chapter 3 using
these methods for extra
practice.
If 2. y ax bx c
2
= + + has 1 x -intercept, then the quadratic equation
0 ax bx c
2
+ + = has 1 real root
y
x
a 2 0
y
x
a 1 0
If 3. y ax bx c
2
= + + has no x -intercepts, then the quadratic equation
0 ax bx c
2
+ + = has no real roots
y
x
a 2 0
y
x
a 1 0
Since this graph is always positive, Since this graph is always
it is called a positive defnite negative, it is called a negative
function. defnite function.
This information can be found without sketching the graph.
Investigation
Solve the following quadratic equations using the quadratic formula 1.
(a) x x 3 2 0
2
+ = -
(b) x x 4 7 0
2
+ = -
(c) 5 0 x x
2
+ + =
(d) x x 6 9 0
2
- + =
Without solving a quadratic equation, can you predict how many 2.
roots it has by looking at the quadratic formula?
In the quadratic formula , x
a
b b ac
2
4
2
!
=
- -
the expression b ac 4
2
- is called
the discriminant . It gives us information about the roots of the quadratic
equation 0 ax bx x
2
+ + = .
EXAMPLES
Use the quadratic formula to fnd how many real roots each quadratic
equation has.
1. x x 5 3 0
2
+ - =
Solution

x
a
b b ac
2
4
2 1
5 5 4 1 3
2
5 25 12
2
5 37
2
2
!
#
! # #
!
!
=
- -
=
- - -
=
- +
=
-

There are 2 real roots:
, x
2
5 37
2
5 37
=
- + - -

2. x x 4 0
2
+ = -
Solution

( ) ( )
x
a
b b ac
2
4
2 1
1 1 4 1 4
2
1 15
2
2
!
#
! # #
!
=
- -
=
- - - -
=
-

There are no real roots since 15 - has no real value.
3. x x 2 1 0
2
+ = -
Solution

( ) ( )
x
a
b b ac
2
4
2 1
2 2 4 1 1
2
2 0
2
2
!
#
! # #
!
=
- -
=
- - - -
=

CONTINUED
There are 2 real roots:

,
,
x
2
2 0
2
2 0
1 1
=
+ -
=

However, these are equal roots.
Notice that when there are 2 real roots, the discriminant . b ac 4 0
2
2 -
When there are 2 equal roots (or just 1 real root), . b ac 4 0
2
- =
When there are no real roots, . b ac 4 0
2
1 -
We often use . b ac 4
2
D = -
If 1. , 0 T2 then the quadratic equation 0 ax bx c
2
+ + = has 2 real
unequal (different) roots.
y
x
a 2 0
y
x
a 1 0
If T is a perfect square, the roots are rational.
If T is not a perfect square, the roots are irrational.
If 2. 0 T= , then the quadratic equation 0 ax bx c
2
+ + = has 1 real root
or 2 equal roots.
y
x
a 2 0
y
x
a 1 0
Tis the Greek
letter 'delta'.
If 3. 0 T1 , then the quadratic equation 0 ax bx c
2
+ + = has no real roots.
y
x
y
x
a 1 0 a 2 0
If 0 T1 and a 0 2 , it is positive If 0 T1 and a 0 1 , it is
defnite and ax bx c 0
2
2 + + negative defnite and
for all x. ax bx c 0
2
1 + + for all x.
We can examine the roots of the quadratic equation by using the
discriminant rather than the whole quadratic formula.
EXAMPLES
1. Show that the equation 2 4 0 x x
2
+ + = has no real roots .
Solution

b ac 4
1 4 2 4
1 32
31
0
2
2
T
1
= -
= -
= -
= -
] ] g g

So the equation has no real roots.
2. Find the values of k for which the quadratic equation x x k 5 2 0
2
+ = -
has real roots .
Solution
For real unequal roots, . 0 T 2
For real equal roots, . 0 T=
So for real roots, . 0 T $
CONTINUED

b ac
k
k
k
k
0
4 0
2 4 5 0
4 20 0
4 20
5
1
2
2
T $
$
$
$
$
$
-
- -
-
] ] ] g g g

3. Show that x x 2 4 0
2
2 + - for all x .
Solution
If a 0 2 and 0 T1 , then ax bx c 0
2
2 + + for all x .

y
x
a 2 0

a
b ac
1
0
4
2 1 4
4 16
12
0
2
2
T
1
=
= -
= -
= -
= -
4
2
-
] ] ] g g g

Since a 0 2 and , x x 0 2 4 0
2
T1 2 - + for all x.
4. Show that the line 4 4 0 x y + + = is a tangent to the parabola y x
2
= .
Solution
For the line to be a tangent, it must intersect with the curve in only
1 point.

It is too hard to tell from the graph if the line is a tangent, so we solve
simultaneous equations to fnd any points of intersection.

y x
x y
1
4 4 0 2
2
=
+ + =
]
]
g
g


x x
x x
4 4 0
4 4 0
2
2
+ + =
+ + =

We dont need to fnd the roots of the equation as the question only asks
how many roots there are. We fnd the discriminant.

b ac 4
4 4 1 4
16 16
0
2
2
D =
=
=
=
-
-
-
] ] g g

` the equation has 1 real root (equal roots) so there is only one point of
intersection.
So the line is a tangent to the parabola.
1. Find the discriminant of each
quadratic equation.
(a) x x 4 1 0
2
= - -
(b) 2 3 7 0 x x
2
+ + =
(c) x x 4 2 1 0
2
- + - =
(d) x x 6 2 0
2
= - -
(e) x x 3 0
2
= - -
(f) 4 0 x
2
+ =
(g) x x 2 1 0
2
- + =
(h) x x 3 2 5 0
2
- - + =
(i) 2 2 0 x x
2
- + + =
(j) x x 4 4 0
2
- + = -
2. Find the discriminant and
state whether the roots of the
quadratic equation are real or
imaginary (not real), and if they
are real, whether they are equal
or unequal, rational or irrational.
10.3 Exercises
y
x
1
-1
-3
-4
-5
2
3
4
5
-2
- 5 2 1 3 4 4 -2
1
-3
-6
(a) x x 4 0
2
= - -
(b) 2 3 6 0 x x
2
+ + =
(c) x x 9 20 0
2
+ = -
(d) 6 9 0 x x
2
+ + =
(e) x x 2 5 1 0
2
= - -
(f) x x 2 5 0
2
- + - =
(g) x x 2 5 3 0
2
- - + =
(h) x x 5 2 6 0
2
- + - =
(i) x x 0
2
- + =
(j) x x 2 8 2 0
2
- + - =
3. Find the value of p for which
the quadratic equation
2 0 x x p
2
+ + = has equal roots.
4. Find any values of k for
which the quadratic equation
1 0 x kx
2
+ + = has equal roots .
5. Find all the values of b for which
2 1 0 x x b
2
+ + + = has real roots .
6. Evaluate p if 4 2 0 px x
2
+ + = has
no real roots .
7. Find all values of k for which
k x x 2 3 0
2
+ + - =
] g
has 2 real
unequal roots .
8. Prove that x x 3 7 0
2
2 + - for all
real x .
9. Find the values of k for which
1 4 0 x k x
2
+ + + =
] g
has real
roots .
10. Find values of k for which the
expression 3 9 kx kx
2
+ + is
positive defnite .
11. Find the values of m for
which the quadratic equation
x mx 2 9 0
2
+ = - has real and
different roots .
12. If x kx 2 1 0
2
+ = - has real roots,
evaluate k .
13. Find exact values of p if
px x p 2 3 0
2
+ = - is negative
defnite .
14. Evaluate b if
2 5 0 b x bx b 2
2
- - + =
] g
has real
roots .
15. Find values of p for which
3 0 x px p
2
+ + + = has real roots.
16. Show that the line 2 6 y x = +
cuts the parabola 3 y x
2
= + in
2 points .
17. Show that the line x y 3 4 0 + = -
cuts the parabola 5 3 y x x
2
= + +
in 2 points .
18. Show that the line y x 4 = - -
does not touch the parabola
y x
2
= .
19. Show that the line y x 5 2 = -
is a tangent to the parabola
y x x 3 1
2
= + - .
20. The line y x p 3 1 = + - is a
tangent to the parabola y x
2
= .
Evaluate p .
21. Which of these lines is a tangent
to the circle 4 x y
2 2
+ = ?
(a) x y 3 1 0 - - =
(b) x y 5 3 0 + = -
(c) x y 4 3 10 0 + = -
(d) x y 5 12 26 0 + = -
(e) x y 2 7 0 + = -
Quadratic Identities
When you use the quadratic formula to solve an equation, you compare a
quadratic, say, 3 2 5 0 x x
2
- + = with the general quadratic 0. ax bx c
2
+ + =
You are assuming when you do this that x x 3 2 5
2
- + and ax bx c
2
+ + are
equivalent expressions.
We can state this as a general rule:
If two quadratic expressions are equivalent to each other then the
corresponding coeffcients must be equal .
If a x b x c a x b x c
1
2
1 1 2
2
2 2
/ + + + + for all real x
then , a a b b
1 2 1 2
= = and c c
1 2
=
Proof
If a x b x c a x b x c
1
2
1 1 2
2
2 2
+ + = + + for more than two values of x , then
( ) ( ) ( ) 0. a a x b b x c c
1 2
2
1 2 1 2
- + - + - =
That is, , a a b b
1 2 1 2
= = and . c c
1 2
=
EXAMPLES
1. Write 2 3 5 x x
2
- + in the form ( ) ( ) . A x B x C 1 1
2
- + - +
Solution

( ) ( )
( )
( )
A x B x C A x x Bx B C
Ax Ax A Bx B C
Ax A B x A B C
x x Ax A B x A B C
1 1 2 1
2
2
2 3 5 2 For
2 2
2
2
2 2
/
- + - + = - + + - +
= - + + - +
= + - + + - +
- + + - + + - +
] g

( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ):
( )
( ):
( ) ( )
A
A B
A B C
B
B
B
A B
C
C
C
x x x x
2 1
2 3 2
5 3
1 2
2 2 3
4 3
1
2 1 3
2 1 5
1 5
4
2 3 5 2 1 1 4
Substitute into
Substitute and into
2 2
` /
=
- + = -
- + =
- + = -
- + = -
=
= =
- + =
+ =
=
- + - + - +

You learnt how to solve
simultaneous equations
with 3 unknowns in
Chapter 3.
CONTINUED
2. Find values for a , b and c if
2
( ) . x x a x bx c 3 1
2
/ - + + + -
Solution

( )
( )
( )
a x bx c a x x bx c
ax ax a bx c
ax a b x a c
x x ax a b x a c
3 1 6 9 1
6 9 1
6 9 1
6 9 1 For
2 2
2
2
2 2
/
+ + + - = + + + + -
= + + + + -
= + + + + -
- + + + + -
] g

( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ):
( )
( ) ( ):
( )
a
a b
a c
b
b
b
c
c
c
1 1
6 1 2
9 1 0 3
1 2
6 1 1
6 1
7
1 3
9 1 1 0
8 0
8
Substitute into
Substitute into
=
+ = -
+ - =
+ = -
+ = -
= -
+ - =
+ =
= -

, , a b c 1 7 8 ` = = - = -
3. Find the equation of the parabola that passes through the points
( , ), ( , ) 1 3 0 3 - - and (2, 21).
Solution
The parabola has equation in the form . y ax bx c
2
= + + Substitute the
points into the equation:

, :
, :
, :
a b c
a b c
a b c
a b c
c
c
a b c
a b c
a b c
1 3 3 1 1
3 1
0 3 3 0 0
3 2
2 21 21 2 2
4 2
4 2 21 3
2
2
`
`
`
- - - = - + - +
= - +
- + = -
= + +
=
=
= + +
= + +
+ + =
2
^
] ]
]
^ ] ]
]
^
] ]
]
h
g g
g
h g g
g
h
g g
g

Solve simultaneous equations to fnd a , b and c .

( )
a b
a b
3 3
6 4
- + = -
- = -


a 6
( )
( ) :
( )
( ) ( ):
a b
a b
a b
a b
a b
a
4 2 3 21
4 2 18 5
4 2
2 2 12 6
6 5
2 2 12
4 2 18
6
1
#
+ + =
+ =
- = -
+
- = -
+ =
=
=

a 1 Substitute into(5): =
( ) b
b
b
b
4 1 2 18
4 2 18
2 14
7
+ =
+ =
=
=

` , , a b c 1 7 3 = = =
Thus the parabola has equation . y x x 7 3
2
= + +
1. Find values of a , b and c for
which
(a) x x 4 3
2
+ -
a x b x c 1 1
2
/ + + + +
] ] g g

(b) x x 2 3 1
2
- +
a x b x c 2 2
2
/ + + + +
] ] g g

(c) x x 2
2
- -
a x b x c 1 1
2
/ - + - +
] ] g g
(d) x x 6
2
+ +
a x b x c 3 3 / - + - +
2
] ] g g

(e) x x 3 5 2
2
- -
a x b x c 1 1
2
/ + + - +
] ] g g
(f) x x 4 7
2
+ -
a x b x c 2 2
2
/ - + - +
] ] g g

(g) x x 2 4 1
2
+ -
a x b x c 4 2
2
/ + + + +
] ] g g

(h) x x 3 2 5
2
- +
a x bx c 1
2
/ + + +
] g
(i) x x 4 3
2
- + -
a x b x c 3 3
2
/ + + + +
] ] g g
(j) x x 2 4 3
2
- + -
a x b x c 1 1
2
/ - + + +
] ] g g
2. Find values of m , p and q for
which x x 2 1
2
- -
. m x p x q 1 1
2
/ + + + +
] ] g g

3. Express x x 4 5
2
+ - in the form
. Ax x B x C 2 1 4 - + + + +
] ] g g

4. Show that 2 9 x x
2
+ + can
be written in the form
a x x b x c 2 3 2 + + + - -
] ] ] g g g

where 1 a = , 1 b = and . c 17 =
5. Find values of A , B and C if
. x x A x Bx C 2 2
2 2
/ + - - + +
] g

6. Find values of a , b and c
for which x x 3 5 1
2
+ -
. ax x bx c x 3 1
2
/ + + + +
] ] g g
7. Evaluate K , L and M if
. x K x L x M 3 1 2
2
/ - + + -
2
] ] g g

10.4 Exercises
8. Express 4 2 x
2
+ in the form
. a x b x c 5 2 3 2
2
+ + - + -
] ] g g

9. Find the values of a , b and c if
. x a x b x c 20 17 4 5 1
2
/ - - - + +
] ] g g
10. Find the equation of the parabola
that passes through the points
(0, (a) 5 - ), (2, 3 - ) and ( 3 - , 7)
(1, (b) 2 - ), (3, 0) and ( 2 - , 10)
( (c) 2 - , 21), (1, 6) and ( 1 - , 12)
(2, 3), (1, (d) 4 - ) and ( 1 - , 12 - )
(0, 1), ( (e) 2 - , 1) and (2, 7 - )
Sum and Product of Roots
When you solve a quadratic equation, you may notice a relationship between
the roots. You also used this to factorise trinomials in Chapter 2.
EXAMPLE
Solve (a) . x x 9 20 0
2
- + =
Find the sum of the roots. (b)
Find the product of the roots. (c)
Solution
(a)
( ) ( )
,
,
x x
x x
x x
x
9 20 0
4 5 0
4 0 5 0
4
2
`
- + =
- - =
- = - =
= x 5 =

(b) 4 5
9
Sum = +
=

(c) 4 5
20
Product # =
=

This relationship with the sum and product of the roots works for any
quadratic equation.
The general quadratic equation can be written in the form
( ) x x 0
2
a b ab - + + =
where a and b are the roots of the equation.
Proof
Suppose the general quadratic equation 0 ax bx c
2
+ + = has roots a and . b
Then this equation can be written in the form
Notice 9 - is the coeffcient of
x and 20 is the constant term
in the equation.

( ) ( ) 0
0
( ) 0
x x
x x x
x x
i.e.
2
2
a b
b a ab
a b ab
- - =
- - + =
- + + =

EXAMPLES
1. Find the quadratic equation that has roots 6 and . 1 -
Solution
Method 1: Using the general formula
( ) x x 0
2
a b ab - + + = where 6 a = and 1 b = -

6 1
5
6 1
6
#
a b
ab
+ = + -
=
= -
= -

Substituting into ( ) x x 0
2
a b ab - + + = gives
x x 5 6 0
2
= - -
Method 2:
If 6 and 1 - are the roots of the equation then it can be written as

x x
x x x
x x
6 1 0
6 6 0
5 6 0
2
2
- + =
+ - - =
- - =
] ] g g

2. Find the quadratic equation that has roots 3 2 + and . 3 2 -
Solution
Method 1: Using the general formula

2
( ) ( )
( )
3 2 3 2
6
3 2 3 2
3 2
9 2
7
2
#
a b
ab
+ = + + -
=
= + -
= -
= -
=

Substituting into ( ) x x 0
2
a b ab - + + = gives
x x 6 7 0
2
+ = -
Method 2:
If 3 2 + and 3 2 - are the roots of the equation then it can be
written as

3 2 3 2

x x
x x
x x x x x
x x
0
3 2 3 2 0
3 2 3 9 3 2 2 3 2 2 0
6 7 0
2
2
- + - - =
- - - + =
- + - + - - + - =
- + =
_ _
^ ^
i i
h h
" " , ,

It doesnt matter
which way around we
name these roots.
We can fnd a more general relationship between the sum and product of
roots of a quadratic equation.
If a and b are the roots of the quadratic equation 0 ax bx c
2
+ + = :
Sum of roots:
a
b
a b + = -
Product of roots:
a
c
ab =
Proof
If an equation has roots a and b , it can be written as ( ) x x 0
2
a b ab - + + = .
But we know that a and b are the roots of the quadratic equation
0 ax bx c
2
+ + = .
Using quadratic identities, we can compare the two forms of the
equation.

( )
( )
ax bx c
ax bx c
x
a
b
x
a
c
x x x
a
b
x
a
c
a
b
a
b
a
c
a a a a
0
0
0
For
Also
2
2
2
2 2
`
/ a b ab
a b
a b
ab
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
- + + + +
- + =
+ = -
=

EXAMPLES
1. Find (a) a b + (b) ab (c)
2 2
a b + if a and b are the roots of
. x x 2 6 1 0
2
- + =
Solution
(a)
( )
a
b
2
6
3
a b + = -
= -
-
=

(b)
a
c
2
1
ab =
=

(c)

2
( )
2
2
3 2
2
1
9 1
8
2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
! a b a b
a b a ab b
a b ab a b
a b
a b
a b
+ +
+ = + +
+ - = +
- = +
- = +
= +
^
^
] c
h
h
g m

2. Find the value of k if one root of kx x k 7 1 0
2
- + + = is . 2 -
Solution
If 2 - is a root of the equation then x 2 = - satisfes the equation.
Substitute 2 x = - into the equation:
5 15 0
k k
k k
k
k
k
2 7 2 1 0
4 14 1 0
5 15
3
- - - + + =
+ + + =
+ =
= -
= -
2
] ] g g

3. Evaluate p if one root of x x p 2 5 0
2
+ = - is double the other root.
Solution
If one root is a then the other root is . 2a
Sum of roots:

a
b
2
1
2
3 2
3
2
a b
a a
a
a
+ = -
+ = -
= -
= -

CONTINUED
You could use b
and 2b instead.
Product of roots:

a
c
p
p
p
p
p
p
2
1
5
2 5
2
3
2
5
2
9
4
5
9
8
5
45
8
2
2
#
ab
a a
a
=
=
-
= -
- = -
= -
= -
- =
c
c
m
m

1. Find a b + and ab if a and b are
the roots of
(a) x x 2 1 0
2
+ + =
(b) 2 3 6 0 x x
2
- - =
(c) 5 9 0 x x
2
- - =
(d) x x 7 1 0
2
+ + =
(e) 3 8 3 0 y y
2
- + =
2. If a and b are the roots
of the quadratic equation
3 6 0, x x
2
- - = fnd the value of
(a) a b +
(b) ab
(c)
1 1
a
b
+
(d)
2 2
a b +
3. Find the quadratic equation
whose roots are
2 and (a) 5 -
(b) 3 - and 7
(c) 1 - and 4 -
(d) 4 5 + and 4 5 -
(e) 1 2 7 + and 1 2 7 -
4. Find the value of m in
2 6 0 x mx
2
+ - = if one of the
roots is 2.
5. If one of the roots of
x x k 2 5 1 0
2
- + - = is 3, - fnd
the value of k .
6. One root of
3 2(3 1) 4 0 x b x b
2
- + + = is 8.
Find the value of b .
7. In the quadratic equation
2 3 0, x x k
2
- + = one root is
double the other. Find the value
of k .
, x x p 8 1 0
2
- + - = one root
is triple the other. Find the
value of p .
( ) , k x x k 2 2 3 0 50
2
- + + = +
the roots are reciprocals of each
other. Find the value of k .
10.5 Exercises
Reciprocals are n and
1
n
.
2 0, x mx
2
+ + = the roots are
consecutive. Find the values of m .
( ) , x k x 3 1 5 0
2
- - + + = the
roots are equal in magnitude but
opposite in sign. Find the value
of k .
12. Find values of n in the equation
( ) x n x 2 5 1 12 0
2
- - + = if the
two roots are consecutive.
13. If the sum of the roots of
0 x px r
2
+ + = is 2 - and the
product of roots is 7, - fnd the
values of p and r .
14. One root of the quadratic
equation 0 x bx c
2
+ + = is 4 and
the product of the roots is 8. Find
the values of b and c .
15. The roots of the quadratic
equation 4 0 x x a
2
+ - = are
1 b + and 3. b - Find the values
of a and b .
16. Show that the roots of
3 2 3 0 mx x m
2
+ + = are always
reciprocals of one another.
17. Find values of k in the equation
( ) x k x
k
1
4
1
0
2
+ + +
+
= c m if:
roots are equal in magnitude (a)
but opposite in sign
roots are equal (b)
one root is 1 (c)
roots are reciprocals of one (d)
another
roots are real . (e)
18. Find exact values of p in the
equation 3 0 x px
2
+ + = if
the roots are equal (a)
it has real roots (b)
one root is double the other . (c)
19. Find values of k in the equation
x kx k 1 0
2
+ + = - if
the roots are equal (a)
one root is 4 (b)
the roots are reciprocals of (c)
one another .
20. Find values of m in the equation
mx x m 3 0
2
+ + = - if
one root is (a) 2 -
it has no real roots (b)
the product of the roots is 2. (c)
Equations Reducible to Quadratics
To solve a quadratic equation such as x x 3 3 2 0
2
- - - - =
] ] g g
, you could
expand the brackets and then solve the equation. However, in this section you
will learn a different way to solve this.
There are other equations that do not look like quadratic equations that
can also be solved this way.
Consecutive numbers
are numbers that
follow each other
in order, such as
3 and 4.
EXAMPLES
1. Solve . x x 2 3 2 4 0
2
+ - + - =
] ] g g

Solution
Let 2 u x = +

,
,
u u
u u
u u
u u
3 4 0
4 1 0
4 0 1 0
4 1
Then
2
- - =
- + =
- = + =
= = -
] ] g g

But 2 u x = +

,
,
x x
x x
2 4 2 1
2 3
So + = + = -
= = -

2. Solve
2
3 x
x
+ = where . x 0 !
Solution

,
,
x
x
x
x
x x
x x
x x
x x
x x
x x x
2
3
2
3
2 3
3 2 0
2 1 0
2 0 1 0
2 1
2
2
# # #
+ =
+ =
+ =
- + =
- - =
- = - =
= =
] ] g g

3. Solve . . 9 4 3 3 0
x x
- + =
Solution
9 3 3
2
2
x
x
x
= =
^ ^ h h

So . 9 4 3 3 0
x x
+ = - can be written as
. 3 4 3 3 0
x x
2
+ = -
^ h

Let 3 k
x
=

,
,
k k
k k
k k
k k
4 3 0
3 1 0
3 0 1 0
1 3
2
- + =
- - =
- = - =
= =
] ] g g

But k 3
x
=

,
, x x
3 1 3 3
0 1
So
x x
= =
= =

4. Solve sin sin x x 2 1 0
2
+ - = for . x 0 360 c c # #
Solution
Let sinx u =

u u
u u
u u
u u
u
2 1 0
2 1 1 0
2 1 0 1 0
2 1 1
2
1
Then
or
2
+ - =
- + =
- = + =
= = -
=
] ] g g

But sin u x =
So sin x
2
1
= or sin x 1 = -

2
1
sinx = has solutions in the 1 st and 2 nd quadrants
sin30
2
1
c =

,
,
x 30 180 30
30 150
So c c c
c c
= -
=

For 1 sinx = - , we use the graph of sin y x =

From the graph:
x 270c =
So solutions to sin sin x x 2 1 0
2
+ - = are
, , x 30 150 270 c c c =
See Chapter 6 if you have
forgotten how to solve a
trigonometric equation.
CONTINUED
1
2 3
60
c
00
30
c
90c 180c 270c 360c
x
y
1
-1
1. Solve
(a) x x 1 7 1 10 0 - + - + =
2
] ] g g

(b) y y 3 3 2 0
2
- - - - = ^ ^ h h
(c) x x 2 2 2 8 0
2
+ - + - =
] ] g g

(d) n n 5 7 5 6 0 - + - + =
2
] ] g g

(e) a a 4 6 4 7 0 - + - - =
2
] ] g g
(f) p p 1 9 1 20 0
2
+ - + + = ^ ^ h h
(g) x x 3 4 3 5 0
2
+ - + - =
] ] g g

(h) k k 8 8 12 0
2
- - - - =
] ] g g

(i) t t 2 2 2 24 0
2
- + - - =
] ] g g

(j) b b 9 2 9 15 0
2
+ - + - =
] ] g g

2. Solve ( ) . x 0 !
(a)
6
1 x
x
- =
(b)
6
5 x
x
+ =
(c)
20
9 0 x
x
+ - =
(d)
15
8 x
x
+ =
(e) 2
12
11 x
x
+ =
3. Solve
(a) x x 7 18 0
4 2
= - -
(b) y y 6 8 0
4 2
+ = - , giving exact
values
(c) x x x x 2 0
2
2
2
+ = - - -
^ ^ h h

giving exact values
(d)
x x x x 3 1 7 3 1 10 0
2
2
2
+ - - + - + =
^ ^ h h

correct to 2 decimal places
(e) a a a a 4 2 4 8 0
2
2
2
+ + + = -
^ ^ h h

giving exact values .
4. Solve
(a) . 2 9 2 8 0
x x 2
+ = -
(b) 3 3 12 0
p p 2
+ - =
(c) 5 5 20 0
x x 2
= - -
(d) 9 3 12 0
x x
+ - =
(e) . 4 10 2 16 0
x x
- + =
5. Solve ( ) . x
x
x
4
5 0
2
2
! + =
6. Solve x
x
x
x
1 1
2 0
2
+ + + - =
b b l l

( ) . x 0 !
7. Solve
x
x
x
x
1
9
1
20 0
2
2
2
2
2
+ - + + = d d n n
correct to 2 decimal places
( ) x 0 ! .
8. Solve for . x 0 360 c c # #
(a) sin sin x x 0
2
- =
(b) cos cos x x 0
2
+ =
(c) sin sin x x 2 1 0
2
- - =
(d) cos cos x x 2
2
=
(e) sin cos x x 1
2
= -
9. Solve for . x 0 360 c c # #
(a) tan tan x x 0
2
- =
(b) cos x 1 0
2
- =
(c) sin sin x x 2 0
2
- =
(d) sin sin x x 8 10 3 0
4 2
- + =
(e) tan tan x x 3 10 3 0
4 2
- + =
10. Show that the equation
3
3
2
5 x
x
+ +
+
= has 2 real
irrational roots ( ) . x 3 ! -
10.6 Exercises
Test Yourself 10
1. Solve
(a) 3 0 x x
2
# -
(b) n 9 0
2
2 -
(c) 4 0 y
2
$ -
2. Evaluate a , b and c if x x 2 5 7
2
- +
( ) ( ) . a x b x c 2 1 1
2
= + + + +
3. Find
the equation of the axis of (a)
symmetry and
the minimum value of the parabola (b)
. y x x 4 1
2
= - +
4. Show that 2 7 y x x
2
= - + is a positive
defnite quadratic function.
5. If a and b are roots of the quadratic
equation 6 3 0, x x
2
- + = fnd
(a) a b +
(b) ab
(c)
1 1
a
b
+
(d)
2 2
ab a b +
(e)
2 2
a b +
6. Solve (3 2) 2(3 2) 3 0. x x
2
- - - - =
7. Describe the roots of each quadratic
equation as
real, different and rational (i)
real, different and irrational (ii)
equal or (iii)
unreal. (iv)
(a) 2 3 0 x x
2
- + =
(b) 10 25 0 x x
2
- - =
(c) 10 25 0 x x
2
- + =
(d) 3 7 2 0 x x
2
+ - =
(e) 6 2 0 x x
2
- - =
8. Show that x x 4 3 0
2
1 - + - for all x .
9. Find
the equation of the axis of (a)
symmetry and
the maximum value of the quadratic (b)
function . y x x 2 6
2
= - - +
10. Write 3 7 x
2
+ in the form
( ) ( ) . a x b x c 2 3
2
- + + +
11. Solve sin sin x x 2 1 0
2
+ - = for
. x 0 360 c c # #
12. Find the value of k in x x k 3 1 0
2
+ + - =
if the quadratic equation has
equal roots (a)
one root (b) 3 -
one root double the other (c)
consecutive roots (d)
reciprocal roots . (e)
13. Solve ( ) . x
x
x 2 5
3
0 ! = +
14. Find values of m such that
mx x 3 4 0
2
1 + - for all x .
15. Solve 5 26.5 25 0.
2x x
- + =
16. For each set of graphs, state whether they
have
2 points (i)
1 point (ii)
no points of intersection. (iii)
(a) 7 xy = and x y 3 5 1 0 - - =
(b) 9 x y
2 2
+ = and 3 3 y x = -
(c) x y 1
2 2
+ = and 2 3 0 x y - - =
(d)
2
y
x
= and y x 3 1 = +
(e) y x
2
= and 4 4 y x = -
17. State if each quadratic function is
indefnite (i)
positive defnite or (ii)
negative defnite. (iii)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
18. Show that kx px k 0
2
- + = has reciprocal
roots for all x .
19. Find the quadratic equation that has
roots
4 and (a) 7 -
(b) 5 7 + and 5 7 -
20. Solve . . 2 10 2 16 0
x x 2
- + =
21. Solve
(a)
x 1
3
7 1
+

(b)
n
n
3
2
1 $
-

(c)
y 5 1
2
3 2
-

(d)
x
x
2 5
3
2 #
+

(e)
x
x
4
2 1
5 $
-
+

1. Show that the quadratic equation
2 2 0 x kx k
2
- + - = has real rational
roots.
2. Find the equation of a quadratic
function that passes through the points
( , ), ( , ) 2 18 3 2 - - and ( , ) . 1 0
3. Find the value of a , b and c if
( ) ( ) . x x ax x b x cx 5 3 1 1
2 2
/ + - + + + +
4. Solve . x
x
1
1
25
10
2
2
+ +
+
=
5. Find the maximum value of the function
( ) 2 4 9. f x x x
2
= - - +
6. Find the value of n for which the
equation ( 2) 3 5 0 n x x
2
+ + - = has one
root triple the other.
7. Find the values of p for which
x x p 3 2 0
2
2 - + - for all x .
2 0 x px p
2 2
- + = has equal roots.
9. Solve 2 5.2 2 0.
2 1 x x
- + =
+

10. Find values of A , B and C if
( ) ( ) . x x Ax B x C 4 3 7 4 4
2 2
/ - + + + + +
11. Express
2
4 1
x x
x
2
- -
+
in the form

2 1
.
x
a
x
b
-
+
+

12. Find exact values of k for which
2 5 0 x kx k
2
+ + + = has real roots.
13. Solve cos sin x x 3 2 3 0
2
- - = for
0 360 . x c c # #
14. Solve . x
x
x
x
1
5
1
6 0
2
+ - + + =
b b l l

15. Solve sin cos x x 2 2 0
2
+ - = for
0 360 . x c c # #
16. If a and b are the roots of the quadratic
equation x x 2 4 5 0
2
+ = - , evaluate

3 3
a b + .
TERMINOLOGY
11
Locus and the
Parabola
Axis: A line around which a curve is refected e.g. the axis
of symmetry of a parabola
Cartesian equation: An equation involving two variables
x and y
Chord: An interval joining any two points on a curve. In
this chapter, any two points on a parabola
Circle: The locus of a point moving so that it is
equidistant from a fxed point on a plane surface
Directrix: A fxed line from which all points equidistant
from this line and a fxed point called the focus form a
parabola
Focal chord: A chord that passes through the focus
Focal length: The distance between the focus and the
vertex of a parabola or the shortest distance between the
vertex and the directrix
Focus: A fxed point from which all points equidistant
from this point and the directrix form a parabola
Latus rectum: A focal chord that is perpendicular to the
axis of the parabola
Locus: The path traced out by a point that
moves according to a particular pattern or rule.
Locus can be described algebraically or
geometrically
Parabola: The locus of a point moving so that it is
equidistant from a fxed point called the focus and a
fxed line called the directrix
Parametric equations: A set of equations where variables
x and y are both written in terms of a third variable,
called a parameter, usually p or t
Tangent: A straight line that touches a curve at a single
point only.
Vertex: The turning point (maximum or minimum point)
of a parabola. It is the point where the parabola meets
the axis of symmetry
579 Chapter 11 Locus and the Parabola
INTRODUCTION
THIS CHAPTER EXPANDS THE work on functions that you have already learned.
It shows a method of fnding the equation of a locus. In particular, you will
study the circle and the parabola , defned as a locus.
A parabola can also be defned as a set of parametric equations , and you
will study these in this chapter.
DID YOU KNOW?
Locus problems have been studied since very early times. Apollonius of Perga (262190 BC),
a contemporary (and rival) of Archimedes , studied the locus of various fgures. In his Plane Loci ,
he described the locus points whose ratio from two fxed points is constant. This locus is called
the Circle of Apollonius.
Apollonius also used the equation y lx
2
= for the parabola.
Ren Descartes (15961650) was another mathematician who tried to solve locus problems.
His study of these led him to develop analytical (coordinate) geometry.
Locus
A relation can be described in two different ways. It can be a set of points that
obey certain conditions, or a single point that moves along a path according
to certain conditions.
A locus is the term used to describe the path of a single moving point
that obeys certain conditions.
EXAMPLES
Describe the locus of the following.
1. A pencil on the end of compasses.

Solution
The path of the pencil is a circle with centre at the point of the
compasses.
2. A person going up an escalator (standing still on one step).
Solution
The body travels along a straight line parallel to the escalator.
3. A doorknob on a closing door.
What would the locus be
if the person walks up the
escalator?
Solution
If the door could swing right around it would follow a circle. So a door
closing swings through an arc of a circle.
4. A point on the number line that is 3 units from 0.
Solution
The locus is . 3 !
5. A point in the number plane that moves so that it is always 3 units
from the y -axis.
Solution
The locus is 2 vertical lines with equations . x 3 ! =
Class Discussion
Describe the path of a person abseiling down a cliff.
1. a racing car driving around a
track
2. a person climbing a ladder
3. a child on a swing
4. a balls fight when thrown
5. a person driving up to the 5th
foor of a car park
11.1 Exercises
Describe the locus of the following:
6. a point that moves along the
number line such that it is always
less than 2 units from 0
7. a point on the number plane that
moves so that it is always 2 units
from the origin
8. a point that moves so that it is
always 1 unit from the x -axis
always 5 units from the y -axis
always 2 units above the x -axis
always 1 unit from the origin
always 4 units from the point
, 1 2 - ^ h
13. a point that is always 5 units
below the x -axis
away from the point (1, 1)
15. a point that is always 7 units to
the left of the y -axis
16. a point that is always 3 units to
the right of the y -axis
from the x -axis
from the y -axis
from the point ( 2 - , 4)
20. a point that is always 1 unit from
the point ( 4 - , 5).
A locus describes a single point , P x y ^ h that moves along a certain path. The
equation of a locus can often be found by using , P x y ^ h together with the
information given about the locus.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the locus of a point , P x y ^ h that moves so that it
is always 3 units from the origin.
Solution
You may recognise this locus as a circle, centre , 0 0 ^ h radius 3 units. Its
equation is given by 9. x y
2 2
+ =
Alternatively, use the distance formula.

d x x y y
d x x y y or
2 1
2
2 1
2
2
2 1
2
2 1
2
= - + -
= - + -
_ _
_ _
i i
i i

You studied this formula in
Chapter 7. It is easier to use d
2

than d to fnd the equation of
the locus.
Let , P x y ^ h be a point of the locus.

0
PO
PO
x y
x y
3
9
0 9
9
We want
i.e.
2
2 2
=
=
- + - =
+ =
2 2
^ ^ h h

2. Find the equation of the locus of point , x y P^ h that moves
so that distance PA to distance PB is in the ratio 2:1 where
, , . A B 3 1 2 2 and = - = - ^ ^ h h
Solution

: :
[ 3 ] 2 [ 2 ]
3 [ 2 ]
4 4 4 4
PA PB
PB
PA
PA PB
PA PB
PB
x y x y
x y x y
x x y y x x y x
x x y y
x x y y
x x y y
21
1
2
2
2
4
1 4
1 4 2
6 9 2 1 4
4 16 16 4 16 16
0 3 22 3 18 22
3 22 3 18 22 0
i.e.
i.e.
or
2
2
2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
`
=
=
=
=
=
- - + - = - + - -
+ + - = - + +
+ + + - + = - + + + +
= - + + + +
= - + + +
- + + + =
2
2
2 2 2
]
^ ^ ^ ^
^ ^ ^ ^
^
g
h h h h
h h h h
h
$ .
3. Find the equation of the locus of a point , x y P^ h that moves so that
the line PA is perpendicular to line PB , where , A 1 2 = ^ h and , . B 3 1 = - - ^ h
Place P anywhere on
the number plane.
This is the equation
of a circle.
Use the distance
formula as in
Example 1.
CONTINUED
Solution
Let , x y P^ h be a point of the locus.
For perpendicular lines, m m 1
1 2
= -

:
:
m
x x
y y
PA m
x
y
PB m
x
y
x
y
1
2
3
1
3
1
Using
1
2
2 1
2 1
=
-
-
=
-
-
=
-
-
=
+
+
-
-
]
]
g
g

For PA perpendicular to PB

x
y
x
y
x x
y y
y y x x
x x
x x y y
1
2
3
1
1
2 3
2
1
2 2 3
2 3
2 5 0 i.e.
2
2
2 2
2
2 2
#
-
-
+
+
= -
+ -
- -
= -
- - = - + -
= - - +
+ + - - =
^ h
4. Find the equation of the locus of point , P x y ^ h that is equidistant from
fxed point , A 1 2 - ^ h and fxed line with equation 5. y =
Solution
B has coordinates , . x 5 ^ h

[ ]
PA PB
PA PB
x y x x y
x y y
x x y y y y
x x y
1 2 5
1 2 5
2 1 4 4 10 25
2 14 20 0
We want
i.e.
2 2
2
2 2 2
2
=
=
- + - - = - + -
- + + = -
- + + + + = - +
- + - =
2 2 2
2 2 2
^ ^ ^ ^
^ ^ ^
h h h h
h h h

These results come from
Chapter 7.
The locus is a circle with
diameter AB .
This is the equation of
a parabola. Can you
see where the parabola
lies?
1. Find the equation of the locus of
point , P x y ^ h that moves so that it
is always 1 unit from the origin.
point , P x y ^ h that moves so that
it is always 9 units from the point
, . 1 1 - - ^ h
of a point that moves so that it
is always 2 units from the point
, . 5 2 - ^ h
it is equidistant from the points
, 3 2 ^ h and , . 1 5 - ^ h
of a point that moves so that it
is equidistant from the points
, 4 6 - ^ h and , . 2 7 - ^ h
point , P x y ^ h that moves so that it
is equidistant from the x -axis and
the y -axis.
a point P that moves so that PA
is twice the distance of PB where
, A 0 3 = ^ h and , . B 4 7 = ^ h
the ratio of PA to PB is : 3 2 where
, A 6 5 = - ^ h and , . B 3 1 = - ^ h
of a point that moves so that
it is equidistant from the point
, 2 3 - ^ h and the line 7. y =
a point that moves so that it is
equidistant from the point , 0 5 ^ h
and the line 5. y = -
a point that moves so that it is
and the line 6. x =
, 1 1 - ^ h and the line 3. y =
, 0 3 - ^ h and the line 3. y =
of a point , P x y ^ h that moves so
that the line PA is perpendicular
to line PB where , A 1 3 = - ^ h and
, . B 4 5 = ^ h
to line PB , where , A 4 0 = - ^ h and
, . B 1 1 = ^ h
to line PB where , A 1 5 = ^ h and
, . B 2 3 = - - ^ h
17. Point P moves so that
4 PA PB
2 2
+ = where , A 3 1 = - ^ h
and , . B 5 4 = - ^ h Find the
18. Point P moves so that
12 PA PB
2 2
+ = where
, A 2 5 = - - ^ h and , . B 1 3 = ^ h
Find the equation of the locus
of P .
its distance from the line
3 4 5 0 x y + + = is always 4 units.
11.2 Exercises
its distance from the line
12 5 1 0 x y - - = is always 1 unit.
21. Find the equation, in exact form,
of the locus of a point that moves
so that its distance from the line
2 3 0 x y - - = is always 5 units.
it is equidistant from the line
4 3 2 0 x y - + = and the line
3 4 7 0. x y + - =
it is equidistant from the line
3 4 5 0 x y + - = and the line
5 12 1 0. x y + - =
24. Given two points , A 3 2 - ^ h and
, , B 1 7 - ^ h fnd the equation of the
locus of , P x y ^ h if the gradient of
PA is twice the gradient of PB .
25. If R is the fxed point , 3 2 ^ h
and P is a movable point , , x y ^ h
fnd the equation of the locus
of P if the distance PR is twice
the distance from P to the line
. y 1 = -
PROBLEM
Can you see 2 mistakes in the solution to this question ?
Find the locus of point , P x y ^ h that moves so that its perpendicular
distance from the line 12 5 1 0 x y + - = is always 3 units.
Solution

| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
d
a b
ax by c
x y
x y
x y
x y
x y
x y
3
5 12
5 12 1
25 144
5 12 1
169
5 12 1
13
5 12 1
39 5 12 1
0 5 12 40
2 2
1 1
2 2
`
=
+
+ +
=
+
+ -
=
+
+ -
=
+ -
=
+ -
= + -
= + -

Can you fnd the correct locus?
Circle as a Locus
The locus of point P (x, y) that is always a constant distance from a fxed
point is a circle.
The circle, centre , 0 0 ^ h and radius r , has the equation
x y r
2 2 2
+ =
Proof
Find the equation of the locus of point , P x y ^ h that is always r units from the
origin.
Let , x y P^ h be a point of the locus.

0
OP r
OP r
x y r
x y r
0
i.e.
2 2
2
2 2 2
=
=
- + - =
+ =
2 2
^ ^ h h

So x y r
2 2 2
+ = is the equation of the locus. It describes a circle with radius r
and centre , . 0 0 ^ h
The circle, centre , a b ^ h and radius r , has the
equation
x a y b r
2
- + - =
2 2
^ ^ h h
Proof
Find the equation of the locus of point , P x y ^ h that is always r units from point
, . A a b ^ h

AP r
AP r
x a y b r
i.e.
2 2
2
=
=
- + - =
2 2
^ ^ h h

So x a y b r
2 2 2
- + - = ]
^
g
h is the equation of the locus. It describes a circle
with radius r and centre , . a b ^ h
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the locus of a point that is always 2 units from
the point , . 1 0 - ^ h
Solution
This is a circle with radius 2 and centre , . 1 0 - ^ h Its equation is in the form

[ 1 ]
1
x a y b r
x y
x y
x x y
x x y
0 2
4
2 1 4
2 3 0
i.e.
2
2 2 2
2
2 2
2 2
- + - =
- - + - =
+ + =
+ + + =
+ + - =
2 2
2
^ ^
^ ^
^
h h
h h
h

2. Find the radius and the coordinates of the centre of the circle
. x x y y 2 6 15 0
2 2
+ + - - =
Solution
We put the equation into the form . x a y b r
2
- + - =
2 2
^ ^ h h
To do this we complete the square.
In general, to complete the square on , x bx
2
+ add
2
b
2
c m to give:

2 2
x bx
b
x
b
2
2 2
+ + = + c c m m
First we move any constants to the other side of the equation, then
complete the square.
To complete the square on 2 , x x
2
+ we add .
2
2
1
2
= c m
You could fnd this equation by
using (x, y) P and treating the
question as a locus problem.
You learned how to
complete the square in
Chapter 3.
To complete the square on , y y 6
2
- we add .
2
6
9
2
= c m
x x y y 2 6 15 0
2 2
+ + = - -
2 x x
2
+ y y 6
2
+ - 15 =
2 6 15 1 9 1 9 x x y y
2 2
+ + - = + + + +
1 25 x y 3 + + - =
2 2
^ ^ h h
x y 1 3 5
2
- - + - =
2 2
]
^ ^
g
h h
The equation is in the form . x a y b r
2
- + - =
2 2
^ ^ h h
This is a circle, centre , 1 3 - ^ h and radius 5.
1. Find the length of the radius and
the coordinates of the centre of
each circle.
(a) 100 x y
2 2
+ =
(b) 5 x y
2 2
+ =
(c) x y 4 5 16 - + - =
2 2
^ ^ h h
(d) x y 5 6 49 - + + =
2 2
^ ^ h h
(e) x y 3 81
2 2
+ - = ^ h
2. Find the equation of each circle
in expanded form (without
grouping symbols) .
Centre (0, 0) and radius 4 (a)
Centre (3, 2) and radius 5 (b)
Centre (c) , 1 5 - ^ h and radius 3
Centre (2, 3) and radius 6 (d)
Centre (e) , 4 2 - ^ h and radius 5
Centre (f) , 0 2 - ^ h and radius 1
Centre (4, 2) and radius 7 (g)
Centre (h) , 3 4 - - ^ h and radius 9
Centre (i) , 2 0 - ^ h and radius 5
Centre (j) , 4 7 - - ^ h and
radius . 3
a point moving so that it is 1 unit
from the point , . 9 4 - ^ h
of a point moving so that it is
4 units from the point , . 2 2 - - ^ h
7 units from the point , . 1 0 ^ h
2 units from the point , . 3 8 - ^ h
a point moving so that it is 2
units from the point , . 5 2 - ^ h
8. Find the equation of a circle with
centre , 0 0 ^ h and radius 3 units.
centre , 1 5 ^ h and radius 1 unit.
centre , 6 1 - ^ h and radius 6 units.
12. Find the equation of a circle
with centre , 0 3 - ^ h and radius
2 2 units.
13. Find the coordinates of the centre
and the length of the radius of
each circle.
(a) x x y y 4 2 4 0
2 2
+ = - - -
(b) x x y y 8 4 5 0
2 2
+ + = - -
(c) x y y 2 0
2 2
+ = -
11.3 Exercises
Concentric circles have
the same centre.
(d) x x y y 10 6 2 0
2 2
+ + = - -
(e) x x y y 2 2 1 0
2 2
+ + + = -
(f) x x y 12 0
2 2
+ = -
(g) x x y y 6 8 0
2 2
+ + = -
(h) x x y y 20 4 40 0
2 2
+ + + = -
(i) x x y y 14 2 25 0
2 2
+ + + = -
(j) x x y y 2 4 5 0
2 2
+ + + - =
14. Find the centre and radius of the
circle with equation given by
6 2 6 0. x x y y
2 2
- + + - =
4 10 4 0. x x y y
2 2
- + - + =
. x x y y 2 12 12 0
2 2
+ + + - =
8 14 1 0. x x y y
2 2
- + - + =
3 2 3 0. x x y y
2 2
+ + - - =
19. Sketch the circle whose
equation is given by
4 2 1 0. x x y y
2 2
+ + - + =
20. Prove that the line
3 4 21 0 x y + + = is a
tangent to the circle
8 4 5 0. x x y y
2 2
- + + - =
21. (a) Show that
2 4 1 0 x x y y
2 2
- + + + = and
2 4 4 0 x x y y
2 2
- + + - = are
concentric .
Find the difference between (b)
their radii.
22. Given two points , A 2 5 - ^ h and
, , B 4 3 - ^ h fnd the equation of
the circle with diameter AB .
tangent from , 4 5 - ^ h to the circle
4 2 11 0. x x y y
2 2
+ + - - =
24. Find the exact length of AB
where A and B are the centres
of the circles 6 0 x x y
2 2
- + =
and 4 6 3 0 x x y y
2 2
+ + + - =
respectively.
25. (a) Find the length of XY where
X and Y are the centres of the
circles 6 2 1 0 x x y y
2 2
+ + - + =
and 4 2 1 0 x x y y
2 2
- + - + =
respectively.
Find the radius of each circle. (b)
What conclusion can you draw (c)
from the results for (a) and (b)?
26. Show that the circles 4 x y
2 2
+ =
and 2 4 4 0 x x y y
2 2
+ + - - =
both have 3 4 10 0 x y + + = as a
tangent.
27. A circle has centre , C 1 3 - ^ h and
radius 5 units.
Find the equation of the (a)
circle.
The line (b) 3 1 0 x y - + = meets
the circle at two points. Find
their coordinates.
Let the coordinates be (c) X and
Y , where Y is the coordinate
directly below the centre C . Find
the coordinates of point Z , where
YZ is a diameter of the circle.
Hence show (d) . ZXY 90c + =
28. (a) Find the perpendicular
distance from , P 2 5 - ^ h to the line
5 12 2 0. x y + - =
Hence fnd the equation (b)
of the circle with centre P and
tangent . x y 5 12 2 0 + - =
Parabola as a Locus
The locus of a point that is equidistant from a fxed point and a fxed line
is always a parabola. The fxed point is called the focus and the fxed line is
called the directrix.
Work on the parabola as a locus is very important, as the properties of the
parabola are useful to us. The parabola is used in lenses of glasses and cameras,
in car headlights, and for bridges and radio telescope dishes.
DID YOU KNOW?
Any rope or chain supporting a load (e.g.
a suspension bridge) is in the shape of a
parabola.
Find some examples of suspension
bridges that have a parabola shaped chain.
Other bridges have ropes or chains
hanging freely. These are not in the shape
of a parabola, but are in a shape called a
catenary. Can you fnd some bridges with this
shape?
More recent bridges are cable-stayed,
where ropes or chains are attached to towers,
or pylons, and fan out along the sides of the bridge. An example is the Anzac Bridge
in Sydney.
There are many different bridge designs. One famous bridge in Australia is the Sydney
Harbour Bridge.
Research different bridge designs and see if you can fnd some with parabolic shapes.
Parabola with vertex at the origin
Just as the circle has a special equation when its centre is at the origin, the
parabola has a special equation when its vertex is at the origin. Both also have
a more general formula.
The locus of a point that is equidistant from a fxed point and a fxed line
is always in the shape of a parabola.
If the fxed point is (0, a ) and the fxed line is y a = - (where a 0 2 ), then
one of the equidistant points is the origin (0, 0). The distance between the
points (0, 0) and (0, a ) is a units.
The point on y a = - directly below the origin is , a 0 - ^ h and the distance
from (0, 0) to , a 0 - ^ h is also a units.
(0, a)
(0, -a) y =-a
a
a
y
x
To fnd the equation of the parabola, we use the general process to fnd
the equation of any locus. The features of the parabola have special names.
A parabola is equidistant from a fxed point and a fxed line.
The fxed point is called the focus.
The fxed line is called the directrix.
The turning point of the parabola is called the vertex.
The axis of symmetry of the parabola is called its axis.
The distance between the vertex and the focus is called the focal
length.
An interval joining any two points on the parabola is called a chord.
A chord that passes through the focus is called a focal chord.
The focal chord that is perpendicular to the axis is called the latus
rectum.
A tangent is a straight line that touches the parabola at a single point.
The locus of point , P x y ^ h moving so that it is equidistant from the point
, a 0 ^ h and the line y a = - is a parabola with equation
4 x ay
2
=
PARABOLA x
2
4 = ay
The parabola 4 x ay
2
= has
focus at , a 0 ^ h
directrix with equation y a = -
vertex at , 0 0 ^ h
axis with equation 0 x =
focal length the distance from the vertex to the focus with length a
latus rectum that is a horizontal focal chord with length 4 a
Since the focal length is a , a
is always a positive number.
Proof
Taking the perpendicular distance from P to the line , y a = - point , . B x a = - ^ h

0 [ ]
PA PB
PA PB
x y a x x y a
x y a y a
x y ay a y ay a
x ay
2 2
4
2 2
2
2
2 2 2 2 2
2
`
=
=
- + - = - + - -
+ - = +
+ - + = + +
=
2 2 2
2 2
^ ^ ^ ^
^ ^
h h h h
h h

Class Investigation
Find the equation of the locus if point , P x y ^ h is equidistant from , a 0 - ^ h
and . y a =
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola whose focus has coordinates , 0 2 ^ h
and whose directrix has equation 2. y = -
Solution
The focus has coordinates in the form , a 0 ^ h and the directrix has
equation in the form , y a = - where 2. a =
` the parabola is in the form 4 x ay
2
= where 2 a =

( ) x y
x y
4 2
8
i.e.
2
2
=
=

2.
Find the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the directrix of (a)
the parabola . x y 20
2
=
Find the points on the parabola at the endpoints of the latus rectum (b)
and fnd its length.
Solution
The parabola (a) 20 x y
2
= is in the form 4 x ay
2
=

4 20
5
a
a `
=
=

The focal length is 5 units.
We can fnd the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the
directrix in two ways.
Method 1:
Draw the graph 20 x y
2
= and count 5 units up and down from the
origin as shown.
y
x
(0, 5)
(0, -5) y =-5
x
2
=20y
5
5
The focus is (0, 5) and the directrix has equation y = -5.
Method 2:
The focus is in the form (0, a ) where . a 5 =
So the focus is (0, 5).
The directrix is in the form y a = - where . a 5 =
So the directrix is . y 5 = -
The latus rectum is a focal chord that is perpendicular to the axis of (b)
the parabola as shown
(0, 5)
x
2
=20y
y
x
The endpoints of the latus rectum will be where the line 5 y = and the
parabola intersect.
Substitute 5 y = into the parabola.

x y
x
20
20 5
100
100
10
2
!
!
=
=
=
=
=
] g

So the endpoints are ( 10 - , 5) and (10, 5).

(0, 5) (10, 5) (-10, 5)
y
x
x
2
=20y
From the graph, the length of the latus rectum is 20 units.
CONTINUED
The latus rectum is 4 a
units long which gives
20 units.
3. Find the equation of the focal chord to the parabola x y 4
2
= that
passes through ( 4 - , 4).
Solution
The parabola 4 x y
2
= is in the form . x ay 4
2
=

4 4
1
a
a `
=
=

The focal length is 1 unit.
The focus is 1 unit up from the origin at (0, 1) and the focal chord also
passes through ( 4 - , 4).
(0, 1)
(-4, 4)
y
x
x
2
=4y
We can fnd the equation of the line between (0, 1) and ( 4 - , 4) by using
either formula
y y m x x
x x
y y
x x
y y
or
1 1
1
1
2 1
2 1
- = -
-
-
=
-
-
_ i
x x
y y
x x
y y
x
y
x
y
y x
y x
x y
0
1
4 0
4 1
1
4
3
4 1 3
4 4 3
0 3 4 4
1
1
2 1
2 1
-
-
=
-
-
-
-
=
- -
-
-
=
-
- - =
- + =
= + -
^ h
You used these
formulae in Chapter 7.
As you saw in the previous chapter, a parabola can be concave
downwards. Can you guess what the equation of this parabola might be?
PARABOLA x
2
4 = - ay
The locus of a point P ( x , y ) moving so that it is equidistant from the
point , a 0 - ^ h and the line y a = is a parabola with equation 4 x ay
2
= -
Proof
A(0, -a)
P(x, y)
B(x, a) y =a
y
x
Let P ( x , y ) be a point of the locus.
Taking the perpendicular distance from P to the line , y a = point , . B x a = ^ h

PA PB
PA PB
x y a x x y a
x y a y a
x y ay a y ay a
x ay
0
2 2
4
2 2
2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
2
`
=
=
- + - - = - + -
+ + = -
+ + + = - +
= -
2 2
^ ^ ^ ^
^ ^
h h h h
h h
7 A

The parabola 4 x ay
2
= - has
focus at , a 0 - ^ h
directrix with equation y a =
vertex at (0, 0)
axis with equation 0 x =
focal length a
latus rectum a horizontal focal chord with length 4 a
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus , 0 4 - ^ h and directrix
. y 4 =
Solution
If we draw this information, the focus is below the directrix as shown. So
the parabola will be concave downwards (the parabola always turns away
from the directrix).
y
x
(0, -4)
y =4
4
4
The focal length is 4 so . a 4 =
The parabola is in the form 4 x ay
2
= - where . a 4 =

4
4
16
x ay
y
y
4
2
= -
= -
= -
] g

2. Find the coordinates of the vertex, the coordinates of the focus and
the equation of the directrix of the parabola . x y 12
2
= -
Solution
The parabola x y 12
2
= - is in the form . x ay 4
2
= -

a 3 ` =
a 4 12 =

The vertex is (0, 0).
We can fnd the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the directrix
in two ways.
Method 1:
Draw the graph x y 12
2
= - and count 3 units up and down from the
origin as shown. (The parabola is concave downward.)
y
x
(0, -3)
y =3
3
3
x
2
=-12y
Counting down 3 units, the focus is , . 0 3 - ^ h
Counting up 3 units, the directrix has equation . y 3 =
Method 2:
The focus is in the form , a 0 - ^ h where . a 3 =
So the focus is , . 0 3 - ^ h
The directrix is in the form y a = where . a 3 =
So the directrix is . y 3 =
3. Find the equation of the parabola with focal length 5 and whose
vertex is , 0 0 ^ h and equation of the axis is 0. x =
Solution
Vertex , 0 0 ^ h and axis given by 0 x = give a parabola in the form
, x ay 4
2
! = since there is not enough information to tell whether it is
concave upwards or downwards.
This gives two possible parabolas.
CONTINUED
( )
a
x y
x y
5
4 5
20
Focal length of 5 means
The equation is
i.e.
2
2
!
!
=
=
=

1. Find the equation of each
parabola.
focus (0, 5), directrix (a) 5 y = -
focus (0, 9), directrix (b) 9 y = -
focus (0, 1), directrix (c) y 1 = -
focus (0, 4), directrix (d) 4 y = -
focus (0, 10), directrix (e)
y 10 = -
focus (0, 3), directrix (f) 3 y = -
focus (0, 6), directrix (g) 6 y = -
focus (0, 11), directrix (h)
y 11 = -
focus (0, 2), directrix (i) 2 y = -
focus (0, 12), directrix (j)
y 12 = -
parabola.
focus (0, (a) 1 - ), directrix 1 y =
focus (0, (b) 3 - ), directrix 3 y =
focus (0, (c) 4 - ), directrix 4 y =
focus (0, (d) 7 - ), directrix 7 y =
focus (0, (e) 6 - ), directrix 6 y =
focus (0, (f) 9 - ), directrix 9 y =
focus (0, (g) 8 - ), directrix 8 y =
focus (0, (h) 2 - ), directrix 2 y =
focus (0, (i) 15 - ), directrix
15 y =
focus (0, (j) 13 - ), directrix
y 13 =
3. Find
(i) the coordinates of the
focus and
(ii) the equation of the
directrix of
(a) x y 4
2
=
(b) 28 x y
2
=
(c) x y 16
2
=
(d) 36 x y
2
=
(e) 40 x y
2
=
(f) 44 x y
2
=
(g) x y 12
2
=
(h) 6 x y
2
=
(i) x y 10
2
=
(j) x y 15
2
=
4. Find
focus and
directrix of
(a) 4 x y
2
= -
(b) 24 x y
2
= -
(c) 8 x y
2
= -
(d) 48 x y
2
= -
(e) 20 x y
2
= -
(f) 16 x y
2
= -
(g) 32 x y
2
= -
(h) 40 x y
2
= -
(i) 2 x y
2
= -
(j) x y 22
2
= -
with
coordinates of the focus (a) , 0 7 ^ h
and equation of the directrix
y 7 = -
coordinates of the focus (b)
, 0 11 ^ h and equation of the
directrix y 11 = -
coordinates of the focus (c)
, 0 6 - ^ h and equation of the
directrix y 6 =
coordinates of the focus (d) , 0 2 ^ h
and coordinates of the vertex
, . 0 0 ^ h
11.4 Exercises
coordinates of the vertex (e)
, , 0 0 ^ h equation of the axis 0 x =
and focal length 3
coordinates of the vertex (f)
, , 0 0 ^ h equation of the axis 0 x =
and focal length 8
coordinates of the vertex (g)
, 0 0 ^ h and equation of the axis
0, x = and passing through the
point , 8 2 - ^ h
coordinates of the vertex (h)
0, x = and passing through the
point , . 1 7 - ^ h
6. Find the coordinates of the focus,
the equation of the directrix and
the focal length of the parabola
(a) 8 x y
2
=
(b) 24 x y
2
=
(c) x y 12
2
= -
(d) 2 x y
2
=
(e) 7 x y
2
= -
(f) x y 2
2
=
7. Find the equation of the focal
chord that cuts the curve 8 x y
2
=
at , . 4 2 - ^ h
8. The tangent with equation
2 4 0 x y - - = touches the
parabola 4 x y
2
= at A . Find the
coordinates of A .
9. The focal chord that cuts the
parabola x y 6
2
= - at , 6 6 - ^ h cuts
the parabola again at X . Find the
coordinates of X .
10. Find the coordinates of the
endpoints of the latus rectum of
the parabola 8 . x y
2
= - What is
the length of the latus rectum?
11. The equation of the latus rectum
of a parabola is given by 3. y = -
The axis of the parabola is 0, x =
and its vertex is , . 0 0 ^ h
parabola.
directrix.
Find the length of the focal (c)
chord that meets the parabola at
, . 2
3
1
- c m
12. (a) Show that the point , 3 3 - ^ h
lies on the parabola with
equation 3 . x y
2
=
Find the equation of the line (b)
passing through P and the focus F
of the parabola.
Find the coordinates of the (c)
point R where the line PF meets
the directrix.
13. (a) Find the equation of chord
PQ where , P 1
4
1
- c m and , Q 2 1 ^ h
lie on the parabola 4 . x y
2
=
Show that (b) PQ is not a focal
chord.
Find the equation of the circle (c)
with centre Q and radius 2 units.
Show that this circle passes (d)
through the focus of the
parabola.
14. (a) Show that , Q aq aq 2
2
_ i lies on
the parabola 4 . x ay
2
=
Find the equation of the focal (b)
chord through Q .
Prove that the length of the (c)
latus rectum is 4 a .
Investigation
Sketch the parabola . x y
2
= You may like to complete the table below to
help you with its sketch.
x
y 3 - 2 - 1 - 0 1 2 3
Is this parabola a function? What is its axis of symmetry?
The parabola that has y
2
rather than x
2
in its equation is a sideways
parabola. It still has the same properties, but generally the x and y values are
swapped around.
PARABOLA y
2
4 = ax
The locus of point , P x y ^ h moving so that it is equidistant from the point
, a 0 ^ h and the line x a = - is a parabola with equation
4 y ax
2
=
Proof
Find the equation of the locus of point , , P x y ^ h which moves so that it is
equidistant from the point , a 0 ^ h and the line . x a = -
Coordinates of B are , . a y - ^ h

[ ]
PA PB
PA PB
x a y x a y y
x a y x a
x ax a y x ax a
y ax
0
2 2
4
We want
i.e.
2 2
2
2
2 2 2 2 2
2
=
=
- + - = - - + -
- + =
- + + = + +
=
+
2 2 2 2
2 2
^ ^ ^ ^
^ ^
h h h h
h h

The parabola y ax 4
2
= has
focus at , a 0 ^ h
equation of directrix x a = -
vertex at , 0 0 ^ h
axis with equation 0 y =
focal length the distance from the vertex to the focus with length a
latus rectum that is a vertical focal chord with length 4 a
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus (7, 0) and directrix
. x 7 = -
Solution
If we draw this information, the focus is to the right of the directrix
as shown (the parabola always turns away from the directrix). So the
parabola turns to the right.
y
x
x =-7
7 7
(7, 0)
CONTINUED
The parabola is in the form 4 y ax
2
= where . a 7 =

.
y ax
x
x
4
4 7
28
2
=
=
=
^ h
2. Find the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the directrix of
the parabola . y x 32
2
=
Solution
The parabola 32 y x
2
= is in the form . y ax 4
2
=

4 32
8
a
a `
=
=

Method 1:
Draw the graph 32 y x
2
= and count 8 units to the left and right from the
origin as shown. (The parabola turns to the right.)
y
x
x =-8
8 8
(8, 0)
y
2
=32x 22
Counting 8 units to the right, the focus is (8, 0).
Counting 8 units to the left, the directrix has equation . x 8 = -
Method 2:
The focus is in the form ( a , 0) where . a 8 =
So the focus is (8, 0).
The directrix is in the form x a = - where . a 8 =
So the directrix is . x 8 = -
A parabola can also turn to the left.
PARABOLA y
2
4 = - ax
The locus of a point P ( x , y ) moving so that it is equidistant from
the point , a 0 - ^ h and the line x a = is a parabola with equation
4 y ax
2
= -
Proof
y
x
P(x, y)
B(a, y)
A( -a, 0)
x =a
Let P ( x , y ) be a point of the locus.
Taking the perpendicular distance from P to the line , x a =
point , . B a y = ^ h

PA PB
PA PB
x a y x a y y
x a y x a
x ax a y x ax a
y ax
0
2 2
4
2 2
2 2
2
2 2 2 2 2
2
`
=
=
- - + - = - + -
+ + = -
+ + + = - +
= -
2 2
2 2
^ ^ ^ ^
^ ^
h h h h
h h
7 A

The parabola 4 y ax
2
= - has
focus at ( a - , 0)
directrix with equation x a =
vertex at (0, 0)
axis with equation 0 y =
focal length a
latus rectum a vertical focal chord with length 4 a
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus ( 4 - , 0) and directrix
. x 4 =
Solution
Drawing this information shows that the parabola turns to the left.

y
x
( -4, 0)
x =4
4 4
The parabola is in the form 4 y ax
2
= - where . a 4 =

.
y ax
x
x
4
4 4
16
2
= -
= -
= -
^ h
the parabola . y x 2
2
= -
Solution
The parabola 2 y x
2
= - is in the form . y ax 4
2
= -

4 2 a
a
2
1
`
=
=

The focal length is
2
1
unit.
Method 1:
Draw the graph 2 y x
2
= - and count
2
1
unit to the left and right from the
origin as shown. (The parabola turns to the left.)
1
2
1
2
(
-
1
2
, 0
)
1
2
x =
y
x
Counting
2
1
units to the left, the focus is , .
2
1
0 - c m
Counting
2
1
units to the right, the directrix has equation . x
2
1
=
Method 2:
The focus is in the form ( a - , 0) where . a
2
1
=
So the focus is , .
2
1
0 - c m
The directrix is in the form x a = where . a
2
1
=
So the directrix is . x
2
1
=
parabola.
focus (2, 0), directrix (a) 2 x = -
focus (5, 0), directrix (b) 5 x = -
focus (14, 0), directrix (c)
x 14 = -
focus (9, 0), directrix (d) 9 x = -
focus (8, 0), directrix (e) 8 x = -
focus (6, 0), directrix (f) 6 x = -
focus (7, 0), directrix (g) 7 x = -
focus (3, 0), directrix (h) 3 x = -
focus (4, 0), directrix (i) 4 x = -
focus (1, 0), directrix (j) x 1 = -
parabola.
focus ( (a) 9 - , 0), directrix 9 x =
focus ( (b) 4 - , 0), directrix 4 x =
focus ( (c) 10 - , 0), directrix x 10 =
focus ( (d) 6 - , 0), directrix 6 x =
focus ( (e) 2 - , 0), directrix 2 x =
focus ( (f) 12 - , 0), directrix x 12 =
focus ( (g) 11 - , 0), directrix x 11 =
focus ( (h) 5 - , 0), directrix 5 x =
focus ( (i) 3 - , 0), directrix 3 x =
focus ( (j) 7 - , 0), directrix x 7 =
11.5 Exercises
3. Find
focus and
directrix of
(a) 8 y x
2
=
(b) y x 12
2
=
(c) y x 16
2
=
(d) 4 y x
2
=
(e) 28 y x
2
=
(f) 32 y x
2
=
(g) 24 y x
2
=
(h) 36 y x
2
=
(i) y x
2
=
(j) y x 18
2
=
4. Find
focus and
directrix of
(a) 8 y x
2
= -
(b) y x 12
2
= -
(c) 28 y x
2
= -
(d) 4 y x
2
= -
(e) 24 y x
2
= -
(f) 52 y x
2
= -
(g) 60 y x
2
= -
(h) 2 y x
2
= -
(i) 26 y x
2
= -
(j) y x 5
2
= -
with
coordinates of the focus (a) , 5 0 ^ h
x 5 = -
coordinates of the focus (b) , 1 0 ^ h
x 1 = -
coordinates of the focus (c)
, 4 0 - ^ h and equation of the
directrix x 4 =
coordinates of the focus (d) , 3 0 ^ h
and coordinates of the vertex
, 0 0 ^ h
coordinates of the vertex (e)
, 0 0 ^ h equation of the axis 0 y =
and focal length 9
coordinates of the vertex (f)
, , 0 0 ^ h equation of the axis 0 y =
and focal length 2
coordinates of the vertex (g)
0 y = and passing through the
point , 3 6 ^ h
coordinates of the vertex (h)
0 y = and passing through the
point , . 2 1 ^ h
6. Find the coordinates of the focus,
the equation of the directrix and
the focal length of the parabola
(a) 8 y x
2
=
(b) 4 y x
2
=
(c) y x 12
2
= -
(d) 6 y x
2
=
(e) 5 y x
2
= -
(f) y x 3
2
=
7. Find the equation of the focal
chord that cuts the curve y x 16
2
=
at , . 4 8 ^ h
8. Find the length of the latus
rectum of the parabola . y x 12
2
=
What are the coordinates of its
endpoints?
9. The line with equation
3 27 0 x y - - = meets the
parabola 4 y x
2
= at two points.
Find their coordinates.
10. Let , R
5
1
2 - c m be a point on the
parabola 20 . y x
2
=
Find the equation of the focal (a)
chord passing through R .
Find the coordinates of the (b)
point Q where this chord cuts the
directrix.
Find the area of (c) D OFQ where
O is the origin and F is the focus.
Find the perpendicular (d)
distance from the chord to the
point , . P 1 7 - - ^ h
Hence nd the area of (e) D PQR .
Application
A parabolic satellite dish receives its signals through the focus. If the dish has
height 12 m and a span of 20 m, fnd where the focus should be placed, to the
nearest mm.
SOLUTION
The parabola is of the form 4 x ay
2
= and passes through (10, 12) and ( 10, 12) -
Substituting (10, 12) gives

10 4 (12)
100 48
2.083
a
a
a
2
=
=
=

So the focus should be placed 2.083 m from the vertex.
This is 2083 mm to
the nearest millimetre.
1. 4 x ay
2
=
y
x
x
2
=4ay
Focus
(0, a)
Directrix
y =-a
Here is a summary of the 4 different types of parabola with the vertex at
the origin.
2. 4 x ay
2
= -
y
x
2
=-4ay
Focus
(0, -a)
Directrix
y =a
x
3. 4 y ax
2
=
y
y
2
=4ax
Directrix
x =-a
x
Focus
(a, 0)
4. 4 y ax
2
= -
y
2
=-4ax
Directrix
x =a
y
x
Focus
(-a, 0)
General Parabola
When the parabola does not have its vertex at the origin, there is a more
general formula.
Since we use a to mean the focal length, we cannot use ( a , b ) as the
vertex. We use ( h , k ) instead.
PARABOLA (x - h)
2
= 4a(y - k)
The concave upwards parabola with vertex ( h , k ) and focal
length a has equation x h a y k 4 - = -
2
^ ^ h h
Proof
Find the equation of the parabola with vertex , h k ^ h and focal length a .
Counting up a units from vertex V gives the focus , . F h k a = + ^ h
Counting down a units from V gives the point on the directrix , . D h k a = - ^ h
So the equation of the directrix is given by . y k a = -
We fnd the equation of the locus of , x y P^ h that is equidistant from point
, h k a F + ^ h and line . y k a = -
B has coordinates , . x k a - ^ h

i.e.
We want
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
PF PB
PF PB
x h y k a x x y k a
x h y k a y k a
x h y k a y k a
y k a y k a y k a y k a
y k a
ay ak
a y k
2 2 2
4 4
4
difference of two squares
2 2
2 2
#
=
=
- + - + = - + - +
- + - - = - +
- = - + - - -
= - + + - - - + - - -
= -
= -
= -
2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
^ ^ ^ ^
^ ^ ^
^ ^ ^
^ ^ ^ ^
^
^ ^
^
h h h h
h h h
h h h
h h h h
h
h h
h

The parabola x h y k a 4
2
- - = ^ ^ h h has
axis parallel to the y -axis
vertex at , h k ^ h
focus at , h k a + ^ h
directrix with equation y k a = -
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus , 2 3 ^ h and directrix with
equation 7. y = -
Solution

Coordinates of B are , . 2 7 - ^ h
The vertex is the midpoint of , 2 3 ^ h and , . 2 7 - ^ h
, 2 2 vertex ` = - ^ h
Focal length is the distance from the focus to the vertex.
a 5 ` =
From the diagram the parabola is concave upwards.
The equation is in the form

[ ]
x h a y k
x y
y
x x y
x x y
4
2 4 5 2
20 2
4 4 20 40
4 20 36 0
i.e.
2
2
- = -
- = - -
= +
- + = +
- - - =
2
2
^ ^
^ ^ ^
^
h h
h h h
h
2. Find the coordinates of the vertex and the focus, and the equation of
the directrix, of the parabola with equation . x x y 6 12 3 0
2
+ - - =
Draw a diagram to fnd
the vertex and to fnd a .
PARABOLA (x - h)
2
= - 4a(y - k)
Solution
Complete the square on x .

3
( )
x x y
x x y
x x y
x y
y
6 12 3 0
6 12 3
6 12 3
12 12
12 1
9 9
2
2
2
2
+ - - =
+ = +
+ = +
+ = +
= +
+ +
^ h

So the parabola has equation . x y 3 12 1
2
+ = + ^ ^ h h
Its vertex has coordinates , . 3 1 - - ^ h

4 12
3
a
a `
=
=

The parabola is concave upwards as it is in the form . x h a y k 4 - = -
2
^ ^ h h
Count up 3 units to the focus
, 3 2 focus ` = - ^ h
Count down 3 units to the directrix
` directrix has equation . y 4 = -
It is easy to fnd
the focus and the
directrix by counting
along the y -axis.
The concave downwards parabola with vertex ( h , k ) and focal length a
has equation x h a y k 4 - = - -
2
^ ^ h h
Proof
Find the equation of the concave downwards parabola with vertex ( h , k ) and
focal length a.
Counting down a units from the vertex V gives the focus , . F h k a = - ^ h
Counting up a units from the vertex V gives the point on the directrix
, . D h k a = + ^ h
So the equation of the directrix is given by . y k a = +
We fnd the equation of the locus of P ( x , y ) that is equidistant from point
, F h k a - ^ h and line . y k a = +
y
x
F(h , k -a)
P(x, y)
B
y =k +a

B has coordinates , . x k a + ^ h

( )
PF PB
PF PB
x h y k a x x y k a
x h y k a y k a
x h y k a y k a
y k a y k a y k a y k a
y k a
ay ak
a y k
2 2 2
4 4
4
We want
2 2
2 2
=
=
- + - - = - + - +
- + - + = - -
- = - - - - +
= - - + - + - - - - +
= - -
= - +
= - -
2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
^ ^ ^ ^
^ ^ ^
^ ^ ^
^ ^ ^ ^
^ ^
^
h h h h
h h h
h h h
h h h h
h h
h
7 7
7 7
A A
A A

The parabola x h a y k 4 - = - -
2
^ ^ h h has
axis parallel to the y -axis
vertex at ( h , k )
focus at , h k a - ^ h
directrix with equation y k a = +
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus ( 2 - , 1) and directrix
. y 3 =
Solution
x
(-2, 1)
y =3
-2 -1
1
1
B
2
1
y
3
Coordinates of B are ( 2 - , 3) .
The vertex is the midpoint of ( 2 - , 1) and ( 2 - , 3).
` vertex = ( 2 - , 2)
Focal length . a 1 =
From the diagram the curve is concave downwards.

.
x h a y k
x y
x y
x x y
x x y
4
2 4 1 2
2 4 2
4 4 4 8
4 4 4 0
i.e.
2
2
2
- = - -
- - = - -
+ = - -
+ + = - +
+ + - =
2
2
^ ^
^
]
^
^ ^
h h
h
g
h
h h
7 A

2. Find the coordinates of the vertex and focus, and the equation of the
directrix of the parabola . x x y 8 8 16 0
2
- + - =
CONTINUED
PARABOLA ( y - k)
2
= 4a(x - h)
Solution
Complete the square on x.

x x y
x x y
x x y
x y
y
8 8 16 0
8 8 16
8 8 16
4 8 32
8 4
16 16
2
2
2
2
- + - =
- = - +
- = - +
- = - +
= - -
+ +
^
^
h
h

So the parabola has equation . x y 4 8 4 - = - -
2
^ ^ h h
Its vertex has coordinates (4, 4).

4 8
2
a
a `
=
=

The parabola is concave downwards as it is in the form
. x h a y k 4 - = - -
2
^ ^ h h
(4, 4)
(4, 2)
1
1
2
3
4
5
2 3 4
2
2
y
y =6
Count down 2 units to the focus
, 4 2 focus ` = ^ h
Count up 2 units to the directrix
` directrix has equation . y 6 =
The parabola with vertex ( h , k ) and focal length a that turns
to the right has equation y k a x h 4 - = -
2
^ ^ h h
Proof
Find the equation of the parabola that turns to the right with vertex ( h , k ) and
focal length a.
Counting a units to the right from the vertex V gives the focus , . F h a k = + ^ h
Counting a units to the left from the vertex V gives the point on the directrix
, . D h a k = - ^ h
So the equation of the directrix is given by . x h a = -
, F h a k + ^ h and line . x h a = -
y
F(h+a, k)
x
P(x, y)
x =h-a
B

B has coordinates , . h a y - ^ h

( )
PF PB
PF PB
x h a y k x h a y y
x h a y k x h a
y k x h a x h a
x h a x h a x h a x h a
x h a
ax ah
a x h
2 2 2
4 4
4
We want
2 2
2 2 2
2
=
=
- + + - = - - + -
- - + - = - -
- = - + - - -
= - + + - - - + - - -
= -
= -
= -
2
2 2
2 2 2
^ ^ ^ ^
^ ^ ^
^ ^
]
^ ^ ^ ^
^ ^
^
h h h h
h h h
h h
g
h h h h
h h
h
7 7
7 7
A A
A A

The parabola y k a x h 4 - = -
2
^ ^ h h has
axis parallel to the x -axis
vertex at , h k ^ h
focus at , h a k + ^ h
directrix with equation x h a = -
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus (1, 1 - ) and directrix
. x 5 = -
Solution
x
(1, -1)
4
2
3
-4 -3 -2-1 1 2 3
3 3
B
4 5
5
x =-5
1
y
-5
-2
-3
Coordinates of B are ( 5 - , 1 - ).
The vertex is the midpoint of ( 5 - , 1 - ) and (1, 1 - ).
, 2 1 vertex ` = - - ^ h
Focal length 3 a =
From the diagram the parabola curves to the right.

1 2
y k a x h
y x
y x
y y x
y y x
4
4 3
1 12 2
2 1 12 24
2 12 23 0
i.e.
2
2
2
2
- = -
- - = - -
+ = +
+ + = +
+ - - =
2
^
]
^
]
^
^
]
h
g
h
g
h
h
g
7 7 A A

directrix of the parabola . y y x 12 4 8 0
2
+ - - =
Solution
Complete the square on y.

y y x
y y x
y y x
y x
x
12 4 8 0
12 4 8
12 4 8
6 4 44
4 11
36 36
2
2
2
+ - - =
+ = +
+ = +
+ = +
= +
+ +
2
^
^
h
h

So the parabola has equation 11 y x 6 4
2
+ = + ^ ^ h h
. y x 6 4 11 or
2
- - = - -
] ] g g
7
6
A
@

Its vertex has coordinates ( 11 - , 6 - ).

4 4
1
a
a `
=
=

The parabola turns to the right as it is in the form . y k a x h 4 - = -
2
^ ^ h h
y
x
(-10, -6)
(-11, -6)
x =-12
1 1
Count 1 unit to the right for the focus
, . 10 6 focus ` = - - ^ h
Count 1 unit to the left for the directrix
` directrix has equation . x 12 = -
PARABOLA (y k)
2
= 4a(x h)
The parabola with vertex ( h , k ) and focal length a that turns to
the left has equation y k a x h 4 - = - -
2
^ ^ h h
Proof
Find the equation of the parabola that turns to the left with vertex ( h , k ) and
focal length a.
Counting a units to the left from the vertex V gives the focus , F h a k = - ^ h .
Counting a units to the right from the vertex V gives the point on the directrix
, D h a k = + ^ h .
So the equation of the directrix is given by x h a = + .
, F h a k - ^ h and line x h a = + .
x =h+a
B
F (h-a, k)
P (x, y)
y
x
B has coordinates , . h a y + ^ h

PF PB
PF PB
x h a y k x h a y y
x h a y k x h a
y k x h a x h a
x h a x h a x h a x h a
We want
2 2
=
=
- + - = - + -
- + - = -
- = - - -
= - + - - - -
- +
+ -
- +
- + - +
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
^ ^ ^ ^
^ ^ ^
^ ^ ^
^ ^ ^ ^
h h h h
h h h
h h h
h h h h
7 7
7 7
A A
A A

(difference of two squares)

2 2 2 x h a
ax ah
a x h
a y k
4 4
4
4
= - -
= - +
= - -
= - -
^ ^
^
^
h h
h
h

The parabola y k a x h 4 - = - -
2
^
]
h
g
has
axis parallel to the x -axis
vertex at ( h , k )
focus at , h a k - ^ h
directrix with equation x h a = +
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus (2, 1) and directrix 3 x = .
Solution
x
y
B
x =3
1
1 2
(2, 1)
1
2
1
2
1
2 (
2 , 1
)
Coordinates of B are (3, 1).
The vertex is the midpoint of (3, 1) and (2, 1).
, 2
2
1
1 vertex ` = c m
Focal length
2
1
a =
From the diagram the parabola curves to the left.

4
1
2
y a x h
y x
y x
y y x
y y x
k
4
2
1
2
2
1
1 2
2
1
2 1 2 5
2 2 4 0
i.e.
2
2
- = - -
- = - -
- = - -
- + = - +
- + - =
2
2
2
^ ^
^ c c
^ c
h h
h m m
h m
directrix of the parabola . y y x 4 8 4 0
2
+ + - =
CONTINUED
Solution
Complete the square on y.

y y x
y y x
y y x
y x
x
4 8 4 0
4 8 4
4 8 4
2 8 8
8 1
4 4
2
2
2
2
+ + - =
+ = - +
+ = - +
+ = - +
= - -
+ +
^
]
h
g

So the parabola has equation y x 2 8 1
2
+ = - - ^
]
h
g

. y x 2 8 1 or
2
- - = - -
] ] g g
7 A
Its vertex has coordinates , . 1 2 - ^ h

4 8
2
a
a `
=
=

The parabola turns to the left as it is in the form y k a x h 4 - = - -
2
^ ^ h h
Count 2 units to the left for the focus
, . 1 2 focus ` = - - ^ h
Count 2 units to the right for the directrix
` directrix has equation . x 3 =
1. Complete the square on x to
write each equation in the form
. x h a y k 4
2
! - = -
]
^
g
h
(a) x x y 6 8 15 0
2
- - - =
(b) x x y 10 4 1 0
2
- - + =
(c) x x y 2 4 11 0
2
- - - =
(d) x x y 8 12 20 0
2
- + - =
(e) x x y 12 8 20 0
2
= - - -
(f) x x y 14 16 1 0
2
+ + + =
(g) x x y 4 4 16 0
2
- + - =
(h) x x y 18 12 9 0
2
+ - + =
(i) x x y 2 8 7 0
2
+ - - =
(j) x x y 6 4 1 0
2
- + + =
11.6 Exercises
x =3
y
x
(1, -2)
1
-1
-2 -3 -1
(-1, -2)
2 2
-222222
2 1 3
2. Complete the square on y to
write each equation in the form
y k a x h 4
2
! - = - ^
]
h
g

(a) y y x 8 4 0
2
= - -
(b) y y x 2 8 15 0
2
= - - -
(c) y y x 4 12 8 0
2
+ = - -
(d) y y x 20 4 16 0
2
+ = - -
(e) y y x 6 16 7 0
2
+ + = -
(f) y y x 12 8 4 0
2
+ = - -
(g) y y x 10 24 23 0
2
+ + = -
(h) y y x 24 4 0
2
+ = -
(i) y y x 4 20 16 0
2
+ = - -
(j) y y x 8 8 0
2
+ + =
3. Find the equation of each parabola
focus (a) , , 1 3 - ^ h directrix 1 y = -
focus (b) 4, 1 , - ^ h directrix y 1 = -
focus (2, 0), directrix (c) 4 y = -
focus (3, 6), directrix (d) 2 y =
focus (e) 2, 5 , - ^ h directrix
3 y = -
focus (f) , , 1 4 - - ^ h directrix 4 y =
focus (g) 3), ( , 4 - directrix 7 y =
focus (h) 5, 1 , - ^ h directrix 5 y =
focus (i) , , 3 6 - - ^ h directrix 0 y =
focus (j) , , 0 7 - ^ h directrix 5 y = -
focus (2, 3), directrix (k) 4 x = -
focus (l) , , 1 4 - ^ h directrix 3 x = -
focus (6, 0), directrix (m) 2 x =
focus (n) 2 ( ), , 3 - directrix
5 x = -
focus (o) , , 1 1 - ^ h directrix 3 x = -
focus (p) , , 2 4 - - ^ h directrix 4 x =
focus (2, 1), directrix (q) 4 x =
focus (r) 5, 3 , - ^ h directrix 3 x =
focus (s) 1, 2 , - ^ h directrix 0 x =
focus (3, 1), directrix (t) x 4 =
4. Find
(i) the coordinates of the focus and
(ii) the equation of the directrix of
(a) x x y 6 4 3 0
2
= - - -
(b) x x y 2 8 7 0
2
= - - -
(c) x x y 4 4 0
2
+ = -
(d) x x y 8 12 4 0
2
+ = - -
(e) x x y 10 8 1 0
2
+ + = -
(f) x x y 6 4 1 0
2
+ + = -
(g) x x y 2 8 15 0
2
+ + = -
(h) x x y 4 4 0
2
+ = -
(i) x x y 8 12 4 0
2
+ + = -
(j) x x y 4 16 12 0
2
+ + = -
5. Find
(i) the coordinates of the focus and
(ii) the equation of the directrix of
(a) y y x 2 4 3 0
2
+ = - -
(b) y y x 8 12 4 0
2
+ = - -
(c) y y x 6 8 7 0
2
= - - -
(d) y y x 4 16 12 0
2
+ = - -
(e) y y x 2 24 25 0
2
+ = - -
(f) y y x 10 8 1 0
2
+ + + =
(g) y y x 14 4 1 0
2
+ + + =
(h) y y x 12 20 4 0
2
- + - =
(i) y y x 4 32 28 0
2
+ = - -
(j) y y x 6 40 29 0
2
+ + + =
with vertex , 0 3 ^ h if it is concave
upwards and 3. a =
with vertex , , 2 1 - - ^ h focal
length 2, and axis parallel to the
y -axis.
8. A parabola has its vertex at
, 1 5 - ^ h and its focal length as 1.
If the parabola is concave
upwards, fnd its equation.
9. A parabola has its axis parallel
to the x -axis. If its vertex has
coordinates , 2 6 ^ h and , a 3 = fnd
its equation if it turns to the left.
with vertex at , 1 0 ^ h and focus at
, . 1 4 ^ h
that has vertex , 1 1 ^ h and focus
, . 1 8 ^ h
12. A parabola has its vertex at
, 2 2 - ^ h and focus at , . 4 2 - - ^ h
Find its equation.
with vertex , 0 3 ^ h and focus , . 8 3 ^ h
with vertex , 3 3 ^ h and equation of
directrix . y 5 =
with vertex , 3 1 - ^ h and directrix
. x 1 = -
16. A parabola has directrix y 5 = and
focus , . 3 3 - ^ h Find its equation.
and the line . y 4 = -
with focus , 2 1 - ^ h and directrix
. x 10 =
19. Find the coordinates of the vertex
and focus and the equation of the
directrix for the parabola
(a) x x y 4 8 12 0
2
+ - + =
(b) x x y 6 12 33 0
2
- - + =
(c) x x y 2 4 5 0
2
- + + =
(d) y y x 8 16 64 0
2
- - + =
(e) y y x 4 24 4 0
2
+ - + =
(f) . y x 8 40 0
2
+ + =
20. For the parabola
, x x y 2 28 111 0
2
+ + - = fnd
the coordinates of its vertex and
focus, and the equations of its
directrix and axis. What is its
maximum value?
21. The latus rectum of a parabola
has endpoints , 2 3 - ^ h and , . 6 3 ^ h
Find two possible equations for
the parabola.
22.
Find the equation of the arch (a)
above.
Find the coordinates of its (b)
focus and the equation of its
directrix.
23. (a) Sketch , y x x 2 8
2
= + -
showing intercepts and the
minimum point.
focus and the equation of the
directrix of the parabola.
with vertex , 2 3 - ^ h that also
passes through , 2 1 ^ h and is
concave downwards.
25. A parabolic satellite dish has a
diameter of 4 m at a depth of
0.4 m. Find the depth at which
its diameter is 3.5 m, correct to
1 decimal place.
DID YOU KNOW?
The word directrix is due to the Dutch mathematician Jan De Witt (162972). He published a
work called Elementa curvarum , in which he defned the properties of the parabola, ellipse,
circle and hyperbola. These curves are all called conic sections .
De Witt was well known as the Grand Pensionary of Holland. He took part in the politics
and wars of his time, opposing Louis XIV. When the French invaded Holland in 1672, De Witt
was seized and killed.
Tangents and Normals
Remember that the gradient of the tangent to a curve is given by the
derivative.
The normal to the curve is perpendicular to its tangent at that point.
That is, 1 m m
1 2
= - for perpendicular lines.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the gradient of the tangent to the parabola 8 x y
2
= at the point
, . 4 2 ^ h
Solution

x y
y
x
dx
dy
x
x
8
8
8
2
4
2
2
`
=
=
=
=

CONTINUED

, ,
dx
dy
4 2
4
4
1
At =
=
^ h

2. Find the equation of the normal to the parabola 4 x y
2
= at the point
, . 8 16 - ^ h
Solution

( , ):
the .
x
dx
dy
x
x
dx
dy
m
4
4
2
2
8 16
2
8
So
At
So gradient of the tangent
2
2
1
-
-
x y
y
4
4
4
=
=
=
=
=
= -
= -

The normal is perpendicular to the tangent.

m m
m
m
1
4 1
4
1
So
1 2
2
2
`
`
= -
- = -
=
] g

The equation of the normal is given by

( )
[ ( )]
( )
.
y y m x x
y x
x
y x
x y
16
4
1
8
4
1
8
4 64 8
0 4 72
i.e.
1 1
- = -
- = - -
= +
- = +
= - +

to the parabola 12 x y
2
= at the
point where 2. x =
2
= - at the
point , . 6 12 - ^ h
3. Find the gradient of the normal
2
= at the
point where 2. x =
2
= at the
point , . 4 1 ^ h
11.7 Exercises
5. Show that the gradient of the
tangent to the curve 2 x y
2
= at
any point is its x -coordinate.
to the curve 8 x y
2
= at the point
, . 4 2 ^ h
to the curve 4 x y
2
= at the point
where 4. x = -
8. Find the equations of the tangent
and normal to the parabola
24 x y
2
= - at the point , . 12 6 - ^ h
9. Find the equations of the tangent
and normal to the parabola
16 x y
2
= at the point where 4. x =
to the curve 2 x y
2
= - at the
point , . 4 8 - ^ h This tangent meets
the directrix at point M . Find the
coordinates of M .
to the curve 12 x y
2
= at the point
, . 6 3 ^ h This normal meets the
parabola again at point P . Find
the coordinates of P .
12. The normal of the parabola
18 x y
2
= at , 6 2 - ^ h cuts the
parabola again at Q . Find the
coordinates of Q .
13. Find the equations of the normals
to the curve 8 x y
2
= - at the
points , 16 32 - - ^ h and , . 2
2
1
- - c m
Find their point of intersection
and show that this point lies on
the parabola.
at , 8 4 ^ h on the parabola 16 . x y
2
=
This tangent meets the tangent
at the vertex of the parabola at
point R . Find the coordinates
of R .
15. (a) Show that the point , P p p 2
2
_ i
lies on the parabola 4 . x y
2
=
normal to the parabola at P .
Show that (c) p 1 0
2
+ = if the
normal passes through the focus
of the parabola . p 0 ! ^ h
Parametric Equations of the Parabola
An equation involving x and y , for example 4 , x ay
2
= is called a Cartesian
equation.
Equations can also be written in parametric form. In this form, x and y
are both written in terms of a third variable called a parameter.
An example of a Cartesian equation is y x 1
2
= - .
An example of parametric equations is , x t y t 2 3 2 = + = - .
Any Cartesian equation can be written in parametric form.
The word Cartesian comes
from the name of the
mathematician Descartes.
EXAMPLE
Write y x 3 1 = + in parametric form.
Solution
There are many different ways this can be done.
For example: Given parameter p
Let (a) x p =

y x
p
3 1
3 1
Then = +
= +

So parametric equations are , x p y p 3 1 = = + .
Let (b) x p 5 = -

3 1
3 1
3 15 1
3 14
y x
p
p
p
5
Then = +
= +
= +
=
-
-
-
^ h

So parametric equations are , x p y p 5 3 14 = = - - .
There are many different ways to write parametric equations. Can you
fnd some more for the example above?
We can also change parametric equations back into Cartesian form.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the Cartesian equation of , x t y t 3 1 2 3 = + = - .
Solution
We use the process for solving simultaneous equations to eliminate the
parameter.

x t
y t
3 1 1
2 3 2
= +
= -
]
]
g
g

From (1)

x t
x
t
1 3
3
1
- =
-
=

Substitute in (2)

y t
x
y x
x
x
x y
2 3
2
3
1
3
3 2 1 9
2 2 9
2 11
0 2 3 11
= -
=
-
-
= - -
= - -
= -
= - -
c
]
m
g

Proof
Substitute 2 x at = into 4 x ay
2
=

2 4
4 4
at ay
a t ay
at y
2 2
2
2
=
=
=
^ h

` 2 x at = and y at
2
= satisfy the equation x ay 4
2
=
2. Find the Cartesian equation of , x q y q 2 3
2
= = - .
Solution

x q
y q
2 1
3 2
2
=
= -
]
]
g
g

From (1)

2 x q
x
q
2
=
=

Substitute in (2)

y q
x
x
y x
x y
3
2
3
4
3
4 12
0 4 12
2
2
2
2
2
= -
= -
= -
= -
= - -
c m

The parabola 4 x ay
2
= can be written as

2 x at
y at
2
=
=

where t is a parameter.
Class Investigation
How would you write 1. 4 x ay
2
= - in parametric form?
How would you write 2. 4 y ax
2
= in parametric form?
How would you write 3. 4 y ax
2
= - in parametric form?
The equation of a parabola can be written as a set of parametric
equations.
Proof

y at y ax
at ax
a t ax
at x
2 4
2 4
4 4
Substitute into
2
2
2 2
2
= =
=
=
=
] g

. x at y at y ax 2 4 and satisfy the equation
2 2
` = = =
The parabola 4 x ay
2
= - can be written as

2 x at
y at
2
=
= -

Proof

2 4
4
4 4
x at x ay
at ay
a t ay
at y
at y
2
Substitute into
2
2 2
2
2
2
= = -
= -
= -
= -
- =
^ h

. x at y at x ay 2 4 and satisfy the equation
2 2
` = = - = -
The parabola 4 y ax
2
= can be written as

2
x at
y at
2
=
=

The parabola 4 y ax
2
= - can be written as

2
x at
y at
2
= -
=

Proof

2 4
4
4 4
y at y ax
at ax
a t ax
at x
at x
2
Substitute into
2
2
2 2
2
2
= = -
= -
= -
= -
- =
] g

. x at y at y ax 2 4 and satisfy the equation
2 2
` = - = = -
EXAMPLES
1. Given the parabola 4 x t = and 2 , y t
2
= fnd
its Cartesian equation (a)
the points on the parabola when (b) . t 2 ! =
Solution
(a) 4 x t =

`

4
x
t =
Substitute into 2 : y t
2
=

2
8
y
x
x
x
y x
4
16
2
8
2
2
2
2
=
=
=
=
c m

(b) 2
4
8
2
8
2
4
8
2
8
t
x
y
t
x
y
2
2
2
2
When
When
2
2
=
=
=
=
=
= -
= -
= -
= -
=
^
^
^
^
h
h
h
h

` points are , 8 8 ^ h and , . 8 8 - ^ h
the parabola , . x t y t 12 6
2
= - = -
Solution
Method 1:
We can fnd the Cartesian equation.

x t
y t
x t
x
t
12 1
6 2
1
12
12
From
2
= -
= -
= -
-
=
]
]
]
g
g
g

CONTINUED
When t k, ! = the
points are symmetrical
about the y -axis.
Substitute in (2)

6
y t
x
x
x
y x
6
12
6
144
24
24
2
2
2
2
2
= -
= -
-
= -
= -
- =
c
c
m
m
This is in the form 4 x ay
2
= - (concave downwards parabola with vertex
at the origin).

4 24
6
a
a
=
=

So focal length is 6 units.
y
x
6
6
(0, -6)
y =6
Method 2:
The equations , x t y t 12 6
2
= - = - are in the form , . x at y at 2
2
= - = -
a 6 ` =

4
4
24
x ay
x y
y
6
The equations satisfy
2
2
= -
= -
= -
] g

This is a concave downward parabola with focus , a 0 - ^ h and directrix
y a = .
, . y 0 6 6 So focus and directrix has equation = - = ^ h
3. Write 32 x y
2
= as a set of parametric equations.
Solution

4 32
8
a
a So
=
=

Equations are in the form , . x at y at 2
2
= =

2 , 8
,
x t y t
x t y t
8
16 8
So
2
2
= =
= =
] g

4. Write 12 y x
2
= in parametric form.
Solution

4 12
3
a
a
=
=

Equations are in the form , x at y at 2
2
= =

,
,
x t y t
x t y t
3 2 3
3 6
So
2
2
= =
= =
] g

1. Sketch the graph of
(a) , x t y t 2
2
= - =
(b) , x t y t 2 3 1 = - = -
(c) , x t y t 2 4 3 = = -
(d) , x t y t 1
2
= + =
(e) , x t y t 2 2 3
2
= = -
(f) , x t y t 6 3
2
= =
2. Find the Cartesian equation of
(a) , x t y t 4 2 1 = = -
(b) , x t y t 3 2 5 = + = -
(c) , x t y t t 1
2
= - = +
(d) , x
t
y t
2
4 1
2
= = -
(e) , x
t
y t
1
2 = =
3. Write as a set of parametric
equations
(a) 4 x y
2
=
(b) x y 12
2
=
(c) 8 x y
2
= -
(d) x y 16
2
=
(e) 36 x y
2
= -
(f) 20 x y
2
=
(g) 6 x y
2
= -
(h) x y
2
=
(i) 2x y
2
=
(j) x y 10
2
= -
4. Find the Cartesian equation for
each parabola
(a) , x t y t 8 4
2
= =
(b) , x t y t 10 5
2
= =
(c) , x t y t 2
2
= =
(d) , x t y t 14 7
2
= - = -
(e) , x t y t 4 2
2
= = -
(f) , x at y at 2
2
= =
(g) , x m y m 2
2
= = -
(h) , x p y p 12 6
2
= =
(i) , x t y t
2
1
2
= - = -
(j) , x aq y aq 2
2
= =
5. (a) Show that , t t 6 3
2
- _ i lies on
the parabola x y 12
2
= - for all
values of t .
Find the coordinates of point (b)
P where 2. t = -
Find the equation of the (c)
tangent to the parabola at P .
6. (a) Find the coordinates of Q on
the parabola , x t y t 8 4
2
= = at the
point where 1. t = -
normal to the parabola at Q .
11.8 Exercises
7. A parabola has equations
, . x t y t 4 8
2
= = Find the
coordinates of its focus and the
equation of its directrix.
8. Find the coordinates of point P
on the parabola , x t y t 2
2
= = -
where 2. t = Find the equation of
line PS where S is the focus of the
parabola.
9. (a) Find the Cartesian equation
of the parabola , . x t y t 12 6
2
= =
The point (b) , 3
8
3
c m lies on the
parabola. What is the value of t at
this point?
to the parabola , x t y t 4 2
2
= = at
the point where 3. t =
Proof

2
2
m
x x
y y
ap aq
ap aq
a p q
a p q
a p q
a p q p q
p q
2 2
2
2 1
2 1
2 2
2 2
=
-
-
=
-
-
=
-
-
=
-
+ -
=
+
^
_
^
^ ^
h
i
h
h h

The equation formula is

( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
y y m x x
y aq
p q
x aq
p q x aq p q
p q x apq aq
2
2
2
1
2
1
1 1
2
2
`
- = -
- =
+
-
= + - +
= + - -

( ) y p q x apq
2
1
0 ` - + + =
Chords, Tangents and Normals
If P (2 ap , ap
2
) and Q (2 aq , aq
2
) are any two points on the parabola 4 , x ay
2
=
then the chord PQ has gradient
p q
2
+

and equation y p q x apq
2
1
0 - + + = ^ h
Learn to derive these
equations rather than
memorise them.
Proof
4 x ay
2
= has focus (0, a ).
PQ has equation . y p q x apq
2
1
0 + + = - ^ h
For PQ to be a focal chord, it passes through (0, a ).

( ) a p q apq
a apq
apq a
pq
2
1
0 0
0
1
i.e. $ - + + =
+ =
= -
= -

If PQ is a focal chord, then pq 1 = -
The tangent to the parabola 4 x ay
2
= at the point P (2 ap , ap
2
) has gradient
p and equation given by y px ap 0
2
- + =
Proof

,
x ay
y
a
x
dx
dy
a
x
a
x
ap ap
dx
dy
a
ap
p
P
4
4
4
2
2
2
2
2
At
2
2
2
`
=
=
=
=
=
=
^ h


y y m x x
y ap p x ap
px ap
y px ap
2
2
0
1 1
2
2
2
`
`
- = -
- = -
= -
- + =
_
^
i
h

The tangents to the parabola 4 x ay
2
= at points , P ap ap 2
2
_ i and
, Q aq aq 2
2
_ i intersect at the point [ , a p q apq + ^ h @
Proof
Equation of tangent at P is 0 (1) y px ap
2
- + =
Equation of tangent at Q is 0 ( ) y qx aq 2
2
- + =
(1) (2).

0
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
px qx ap aq
x q p a q p
a q p q p
x a q p
2 2
2 2
- + + - =
- = -
= + -
= +

Substitute in (1):

( ) y p a q p ap
y apq ap ap
y apq
0
0
2
2 2
$ - + + =
- - + =
=

` point of intersection is , [ apq a p q + ^ h @
The normal to the curve 4 x ay
2
= at point , P ap ap 2
2
_ i has gradient
1
p
-
and equation given by x py ap ap 2
3
+ = +
Proof
Tangent at P has gradient p .
For perpendicular lines, 1 m m
1 2
= -
` normal has gradient
1
.
p
-
( ) ( )
y y m x x
y ap
p
x ap
p y ap x ap
py ap x ap
x py ap ap
1
2
2
2
2
1 1
2
2
3
3
`
- = -
- = - -
- = - -
- = - +
+ = +
_
^
i
h

Proof
Equation of normal at P is ( ) x py ap ap 2 1
3
+ = +
Equation of normal at Q is ( ) x qy aq aq 2 2
3
+ = +

( ) ( ): py qy ap aq ap aq
y p q a p q a p q
a p q p pq q a p q
y a p pq q a
a p pq q
1 2 2 2
2
2
2
2
3 3
3 3
2 2
2 2
2 2
- - = - + -
- = - + -
= - + + + -
= + + +
= + + +
^ _ ^
^ _ ^
_
_
h i h
h i h
i
i

The normals to the parabola 4 x ay
2
= at , P ap ap 2
2
_ i and
, Q aq aq 2
2
_ i intersect at [ , ] apq p q a p pq q 2
2 2
- + + + + ^ _ h i
Substitute in (1):

( )
( )
x p a p pq q ap ap
x ap ap q apq ap ap ap
x ap q apq
apq p q
2 2
2 2
2 2 3
3 2 2 3
2 2
$ + + + + = +
+ + + + = +
= - -
= - +

` point of intersection is [ , ] apq p q a p pq q 2
2 2
- + + + + ^ _ h i
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the chord joining points where 3 t = and 2 t =
on the parabola 2 , x at = . y at
2
=
Solution

t
x a y a
a a
3
2 3 3
6 9
When
2
=
= =
= =
^ ^ h h

t
x a y a
x a a
2
2 2 2
4 4
When
2
=
= - = -
= - =
^ ^ h h
` points are (6 a , 9 a ) and 4 , 4 a a ^ h

m
x x
y y
a a
a a
a
a
4 6
4 9
10
5
2
1
Gradient
2 1
2 1
=
-
-
=
- -
-
=
-
-
=


y y m x x
y a x a
y a x a
x y a
4
2
1
4
2 8 4
0 2 12
1 1
`
- = -
- = +
- = +
= - +
_
^
i
h

2. Find the equation of the tangent to the parabola 8 x y
2
= at the point
, . t t 4 2
2
_ i
Solution

x y
y
x
8
8
2
2
`
=
=

The equations of the tangent, normal and chord can also be derived from
points in Cartesian form rather than parametric form.

dx
dy
x
x
8
2
4
=
=

At (4 t , 2 t
2
)

dx
dy
t
t
4
4
=
=


4
4
y y m x x
y t t x t
tx t
tx y t
2
0 2
1 1
2
2
2
`
`
- = -
- = -
= -
= - -
_
^
i
h

If point A ( x
1
, y
1
) lies on the parabola 4 , x ay
2
= then the equation of the
tangent at A is given by
xx a y y 2
1 1
= + _ i
Proof

y
a
x
dx
dy
a
x
a
x
4
4
2
2
2
=
=
=

At ( x
1
, y
1
)

2 dx
dy
a
x
1
=

( )
(
( )
y y m x x
a
x
x x
a y y x x x
ay ay xx x
xx ay x
ay ay xx
a y y xx
2
2
2 2
4
2 2
2
since
1 1
1
1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1
1 1
- = -
= -
- = -
- = -
= -
+ =
+ =
) ay 4
2
2
=
^
^
^
h
h
h

Proof

y
a
x
dx
dy
a
x
a
x
4
4
2
2
2
=
=
=

At ( x
1
, y
1
)

2 dx
dy
a
x
1
=

1 m m
m
x
a 2
For normal,
1 2
2
1
`
=
= -


y y m x x
y y
x
a
x x
2
1 1
1
1
1
`
- = -
- = - -
_
^
i
h

If point A ( x
1
, y
1
) lies on the parabola 4 , x ay
2
= then the equation of the
normal at A is given by
y y
x
a
x x
2
1
1
1
- = - - _ i
The equation of the chord of contact XY of tangents drawn from external
point ( x
1
, y
1
) to the parabola 4 x ay
2
= is given by
xx a y y 2
1 1
= + _ i
Proof
Let , X ap ap 2
2
= _ i and , . Y aq aq 2
2
= _ i
Then chord XY has equation . y p q x apq
2
1
0 - + + = ^ h
Now the tangents at X and Y intersect at , . P x y
1 1
_ i
But the intersection of tangents is , [ p q apq a + ^ h @

(1)
(2)
( ):
(3)
x a p q
y apq
p q
a
x
1
and
From
1
1
1
` = +
=
+ =
^ h

Substituting (2) and (3) into the equation of chord XY gives

0
2 2 0
2 ( ) 0
2 ( )
y
a
x
x y
ay x x ay
a y y x x
a y y x x
2
1 1
1
1 1
1 1
1 1
- + =
- + =
+ - =
+ =
d n

EXAMPLE
Tangents are drawn from the point
2
1
,
2
1
- c m to the points P and Q on the
parabola 4 . x y
2
= Find the equation of the chord of contact PQ and the
coordinates of P and Q .
Solution

4
4 4
1
x y
a
a
2
`
=
=
=

PQ has equation xx a y y 2
1 1
= + _ i where
2
1
x
1
= and
2
1
. y
1
= -

4 2
4 2 0
x y
y
x y
x y
2
1
2
2
1
2 1
is the equation of the chord of contact. `
= -
= -
= -
- + =
c m

To fnd P and Q , solve simultaneous equations.

( )
( )
( ):
( )
x y
x y
x y
4 1
4 2 0 2
2
2 4 3
From
2
=
- + =
+ =

Substitute into (1):

2
2 0
( 2) ( 1) 0
2, 1
x x
x x
x x
x
2
2
`
= +
- - =
- + =
= -

Substitute 2 x = into (3):

2 4 2 0
4 4
1
y
y
y
- + =
=
=

Substitute 1 x = into (3):

1 4 2 0
1 4
y
y
y
4
1
- - + =
=
=

So P and Q are points (2, 1) and , . 1
4
1
- c m
1. Find the
(i) gradient and
(ii) equation of chord AB on the
parabola
(a) x y 16
2
= where
, A t t 8 4
2
= _ i and
, B n n 8 4
2
= _ i
(b) 8 x y
2
= where
, A p p 4 2
2
= _ i and
, B q q 4 2
2
= _ i
(c) 12 x y
2
= where
, A m m 6 3
2
= _ i and
, B n n 6 3
2
= _ i
(d) 20 x y
2
= where
, A p p 10 5
2
= _ i and
, B q q 10 5
2
= _ i
(e) 4 x y
2
= where
2 , A a a
2
= _ i and 2 , B b b
2
= _ i
(f) 8 x y
2
= - where
, A p p 4 2
2
= - _ i and
, B q q 4 2
2
= - _ i
(g) 24 x y
2
= - where
, A a a 12 6
2
= - _ i and
, B b b 12 6
2
= - _ i
(h) x y 16
2
= - where
, A p p 8 4
2
= - - _ i and
, B q q 8 4
2
= - - _ i
(i) 4 x y
2
= - where
, A s s 2
2
= - _ i and
, B t t 2
2
= - _ i
(j) 28 x y
2
= - where
, A p p 14 7
2
= - - _ i and
, B q q 14 7
2
= - - _ i
2. Find
(i) the gradient of the tangent,
(ii) the gradient of the normal,
(iii) the equation of the tangent and
(iv) the equation of the normal
to the curve
(a) 4 x y
2
= at the point
(2 p , p
2
)
(b) 12 x y
2
= at the point
(6 q , 3 q
2
)
(c) 8 x y
2
= at the point
(4 t , 2 t
2
)
(d) 20 x y
2
= at the point
(10 n , 5 n
2
)
(e) 24 x y
2
= at the point
(12 p , 6 p
2
)
(f) x y 16
2
= - at the point
(8 k , 4 - k
2
)
(g) 4 x y
2
= - at the point
( 2 - q , q
2
- )
(h) 8 x y
2
= - at the point
(4 t , t 2
2
- )
(i) 12 x y
2
= - at the point
( 6 - m , m 3
2
- )
(j) 32 x y
2
= - at the point
(16 a , 8 - a
2
)
11.9 Exercises
3. Find the point of intersection
between the
(i) tangents and
(ii) normals to the curve
(a) 4 x y
2
= at the points
(2 p , p
2
) and (2 q , q
2
)
(b) x y 16
2
= at the points
(8 p , 4 p
2
) and (8 q , 4 q
2
)
(c) 8 x y
2
= at the points
(4 a , 2 a
2
) and (4 b , 2 b
2
)
(d) 12 x y
2
= at the points
(6 s , 3 s
2
) and (6 t , 3 t
2
)
(e) 20 x y
2
= at the points
(10 t , 5 t
2
) and (10 w , 5 w
2
)
(f) 24 x y
2
= - at the points
(12 p , 6 - p
2
) and (12 q , 6 - q
2
)
(g) 16 x y
2
= - at the points
(8 m , 4 - m
2
) and (8 n , 4 - n
2
)
(h) 40 x y
2
= - at the points
(20 p , 10 - p
2
) and (20 q , 10 - q
2
)
(i) 20 x y
2
= - at the points
(10 h , 5 - h
2
) and (10 k , 5 - k
2
)
(j) 12 x y
2
= - at the points
( 6 - p , 3 - p
2
) and ( 6 - q , 3 - q
2
)
(i) tangent and
(ii) normal at the point ( x
1
, y
1
)
to the parabola
(a) 8 x y
2
=
(b) x y 12
2
=
(c) x y 16
2
=
(d) 4 x y
2
=
(e) 20 x y
2
=
(f) 4 x y
2
= -
(g) 8 x y
2
= -
(h) 24 x y
2
= -
(i) 44 x y
2
= -
(j) 28 x y
2
= -
5. Find the equation of the chord
of contact AB of tangents drawn
from an external point ( x
1
, y
1
) to
the parabola
(a) x y 16
2
=
(b) 4 x y
2
=
(c) 8 x y
2
=
(d) x y 12
2
=
(e) 20 x y
2
=
(f) 4 x y
2
= -
(g) 24 x y
2
= -
(h) 8 x y
2
= -
(i) x y 16
2
= -
(j) 36 x y
2
= -
6. Derive the equation of the
tangent to the curve 4 x ay
2
= at
the point
(a) , ap ap 2
2
_ i
(b) , x y
0 0
_ i
7. Find the equation of chord
XY on the parabola 8 x y
2
=
where , X t t 4 2
2
= _ i and
, . Y r r 4 2
2
= _ i
8. Find the equation of chord PQ on
the parabola , , x t y t 6 3
2
= = given
that 2 t = at P and 3 t = at Q .
9. Show that the equation of the
normal to the parabola x y 18
2
= -
at the point 9 ,
2
9
t
t
2
- -
d n
is given
by 2 2 9 18 0. x ty t t
3
+ + + =
10. Derive the equation of the
normal to the parabola 4 x ay
2
=
at the point , . at at 2
2
_ i
11. Find the equation of the chord of
contact of tangents drawn from
the external point , 3 1 - ^ h to the
parabola 8 . x y
2
=
12. Show that 3 4 4 0 x y + + = is
a focal chord of the parabola
4 . x y
2
= -
13. Show that if PQ is a focal chord
of 4 x ay
2
= where P is the point
, ap ap 2
2
_ i and Q is the point
, aq aq 2
2
_ i then . pq 1 = -
14. Find the point of intersection of
the tangents to the curve
12 x y
2
= at , 6 3 - ^ h and , . 2
3
1
c m
15. Show that the tangents to the
curve 4 x ay
2
= at , P ap ap 2
2
_ i and
, Q aq aq 2
2
_ i intersect at the point
[ , . a p q apq + ^ h @
16. (a) Find the equation of the
chord joining , P 8 8 ^ h and
, Q 2
2
1
c m where P and Q are points
on the parabola 8 . x y
2
=
Show that (b) PQ is a focal chord.
17. Points , P ap ap 2
2
_ i and
, aq aq Q 2
2
_ i lie on the parabola
4 . x ay
2
=
Show that the normal at (a) P is
given by 2 . x py ap ap
3
+ = +
Find the point (b) N where this
normal meets the axis of the
parabola.
18. Point , M 4 8 - ^ h lies on the
parabola 2 . x y
2
= -
Find the equation of the focal (a)
chord through M .
Find point (b) N where this chord
cuts the parabola again.
19. Tangents are drawn from an
external point , P 2 1 - - ^ h to the
parabola 12 . x y
2
=
chord of contact of the tangents.
points where the tangents meet
the parabola.
20. (a) Find the coordinates of the
focus F of the parabola 12 , x t =
6 . y t
2
=
Find the equation of the focal (b)
chord PF where P is the point
, 6 1
2
1
c m on the parabola.
Find (c) Q where this chord cuts
the parabola again.
Find the equations of the (d)
tangents to the parabola at P
and Q .
Prove that the tangents are (e)
perpendicular.
Find the point of intersection (f)
R of these tangents.
Show that (g) R lies on the
directrix.
21. The chord of contact of two
tangents drawn from an external
point P to the parabola 8 x y
2
=
has equation 2 3 0. x y + - =
Find the coordinates of P .
to the parabola 6 , 3 x t y t
2
= = at
the point where 1. t = -
23. Prove that the tangents at
the end of a focal chord are
perpendicular.
24. Show that the tangents at the
ends of a focal chord intersect on
the directrix.
25. Show that the equation of the
tangent at the point , P x y
0 0
_ i on
the parabola 4 x ay
2
= is given by
. xx a y y 2
0 0
= + _ i
Properties of the Parabola
The tangents at the end of a focal chord intersect at right angles on the
directrix .
Proof
Let PQ be a focal chord of x ay 4
2
= where , P ap ap 2
2
= _ i and , . Q aq aq 2
2
= _ i
Then pq 1 = -
Tangent at P has gradient m p
1
=
Tangent at Q has gradient m q
2
=
pq 1 = -
i.e. m m 1
1 2
= -
` the tangents are perpendicular
Tangents intersect at , [ p q apq a + ^ h @
1
y apq
pq
y a
i.e.
But
`
=
= -
= -

This is the equation of the directrix.
` tangents intersect on the directrix
EXAMPLE
Points , P 2
2
1
- c m and , Q 8 8 - - ^ h lie on the parabola 8 . x y
2
= -
Find the equation of line (a) PQ .
Show that (b) PQ is a focal chord.
Prove that the tangents at (c) P and Q intersect at right angles on the
directrix.
Solution
Equation of (a) PQ

( )
x x
y y
x x
y y
x
y
y x
x y
8
8
2 8
2
1
8
4
3
4 32 3 24
0 3 4 8 1
1
1
2 1
2 1
-
-
=
-
-
+
+
=
+
- +
=
+ = +
= - -

(b)
( , )
x y
a
a
8
4 8
2
0 2 Focus
2
`
= -
=
=
= -

(0, 2) (1) Substitute into -

3(0) 4( 2) 8
0
RHS
LHS
= - - -
=
=

` PQ is a focal chord
(c)
,
y
x
dx
dy
x
P
dx
dy
8
4
4
2
2
1
At
2
= -
= -
= -
= -


( )
( )
y y m x x
y x
y x
x y
2
1
2
1
2
2 1 2
2 1 0 1
1 1
- = -
+ = - -
+ = - +
+ - =
] g

, Q
dx
dy
4
8
2
At = -
-
=
] g


( )
( )
y y m x x
y x
x
x y
8 2 8
2 16
0 2 8 2
1 1
- = -
+ = +
= +
= - +
] g

P has gradient m
2
1
1
= -
Q has gradient 2 m
2
=

2
1
m m
2
1
1 2
# = -
= -

` the tangents are perpendicular
Solve simultaneous equations to fnd the point of intersection.

( ) :
( ) ( ):
x y
x y
x y
y
2 1 0 1
2 8 0 2
1 2 2 4 2 0 3
2 3 5 10 0
#
+ - =
- + =
+ - =
- - + =
]
]
]
g
g
g

CONTINUED
Proof

FP PR
PR PS SR
ap a
FP ap a
definition of a parabola
2
2
`
=
= +
= +
= +
^ h

Tangent PQ has equation y px ap 0
2
+ = -

y
y
10 5
2
=
=
Substitute in (1)

x
x
4 1 0
3
=
= -
+ -

` point of intersection is , 3 2 - ^ h

y a
y 2
The directrix has equation
i.e.
=
=

The point , 3 2 - ^ h lies on the line 2 y =
` the tangents meet on the directrix.
The tangent at point P on a parabola is equally inclined to the axis of the
parabola and the focal chord through P .

,
,
Q x
y ap
y ap
Q ap
FQ FO OQ
a ap
FP
FQP FPQ
0
0 0
0
At
base s of isosceles
2
2
2
2
`
` + + + D
=
- + =
= -
= -
= +
= +
=
=
_
]
i
g

` tangent is equally inclined to the axis and the focal chord.
Application
This property of the parabolathat is, that the tangent at P is equally inclined to
the axis of the parabola and the focal chord through P is used in many practical
applications, including telescopes, headlights and radar.
Class Investigation
Explore the use of the parabola in everyday life. You could go on an
excursion to the Observatory, the physics section of a university, an optics
manufacturer, an engineering company or a camera manufacturer.
Write about the use of the parabola in any of the above applications, or
any others you can think of.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the locus of the midpoints of the chords in the parabola x ay 4
2
=
that pass through (0, 2).
Solution
Equation of chord PQ where , ap ap P 2
2
= _ i and , aq aq Q 2
2
= _ i is given by
. p q y x apq
2
1
0 + - + = ^ h
If PQ passes through (0, 2):

apq 2 = -
( ) p q apq 2
2
1
0 0
1
- + + =
] g

For midpoint M ( x , y )

x
ap aq
a p q
p q
a
x
y
ap aq
a p q
a p q pq
2
2 2
2
2
2
1
2
1
2 3
2 2
2 2
2
`
=
+
= +
+ =
=
+
= +
= + -
^
]
_
^
]
h
g
i
h
g
7 A

Substitute (2) into (3)

( )
y a
a
x
pq
y
a
x
apq
a
x
ay x a
x ay a
a y
2
1
2
2 2
4 1
2 4
2 4
2 2
from
2
2
2
2
2
= -
= -
= +
= +
= -
= -
b
]
l
g
;
6
E
@

` locus is a parabola with vertex (0, 2) and focal length .
a
2

2. Points P (2 ap , ap
2
) and Q (2 aq , aq
2
) lie on the parabola x ay 4
2
= and
chord PQ passes through , a 0 4 - ^ h. Find the locus of the intersection of
the normals drawn from P and Q .
Locus Problems
Solution
PQ has equation . y p q x apq
2
1
0 - + + = ^ h
PQ passes through , a 0 4 - ^ h

( )
( )
a p q apq
apq a
pq
4
2
1
0 0
4
4 1
` - - + + =
=
=

Normals intersect at [ , ] . apq p q a p pq q 2
2 2
- + + + + ^ ^ h h

[ ]
( )
[ ]
x apq p q
a p q
a
x
p q
y a p pq q
a p q
a p q
a
y
p q
p q pq
p q
p q
a
x
a
y
a
x
ay a x
a y a x
4
4
2
2
4 2
6
6
2 6
8 6
2
16
2 2
2
16
16 32
16 2
i.e.
from(1)
from( )
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
= - +
= - +
-
= +
= + + +
= + + +
= + +
= + +
= + - +
= + - +
= + -
= -
+ =
+ =
+ =
^
^
^
^
_
^
^
^
^
h
h
h
h
i
h
h
h
h

This is the equation of
a parabola with vertex
, 2 (0 a) - and focal
length 4a.
1. (a) Find the equation of the focal
chord PF on the parabola x y 8
2
=
where , P 8 8 = - ^ h and F is the
focus.
Find the coordinates of (b) Q
where the focal chord intersects
the parabola again.
Find the point of intersection (c)
of the tangents at P and Q.
Show that the tangents at (d)
P and Q are perpendicular.
tangent to the parabola x y 4
2
= at
the point P (2 p , p
2
).
Find the length of (b) PF where
F is the focus.
Show that (c) PF FR = where R is
the y -intercept of the tangent.
2
=
at the point T (6 t , 3 t
2
).
Find the coordinates of (b) Y , the
y -intercept of the tangent.
Show that (c) TF FY = where F is
the focus.
2
= -
at the point Q (10 q , 5 - q
2
).
11.10 Exercises
Find the coordinates of (b) R , the
y -intercept of the tangent.
Show that (c) FQR FRQ + + =
where F is the focus.
5. (a) Find the equation of chord AB
on the parabola 12 x y
2
= where
, A 2
3
1
= c m and , . B 18 27 = - ^ h
(b) Show that AB is a focal chord.
(c) Show that the tangents at A
and B are perpendicular.
(d) Show that the tangents
intersect on the directrix.
the midpoint M of all chords PQ
where P (2 ap , ap
2
) and Q (2 aq , aq
2
)
lie on the parabola 4 x ay
2
= and
PQ passes through (0, 2 a ).
7. Find the equations of the
tangents to the curve x y 8
2
=
at the points P (4 p , 2 p
2
) and
Q (4 q , 2 q
2
). Find the equation
of the locus of their point of
intersection if PQ is a focal chord.
point R that is the intersection
of the normals at P (2 p , p
2
) and
Q (2 q , q
2
) on the parabola , x y 4
2
=
given that . pq 4 = -
9. The chord PQ is a focal chord
of the parabola x ay 4
2
= where
, P ap ap 2
2
= ^ h and , . Q a a q q 2
2
= ^ h
Find the equation of the locus of
the midpoint of PQ .
10. Tangents to the parabola x ay 4
2
=
drawn from points P (2 ap , ap
2
)
and Q (2 aq , aq
2
) intersect at
right angles at point R . Find the
equation of the locus of
point (a) R
the midpoint of (b) PQ.
11. The normal at any point
, P p p 8 4
2
- - _ i on the parabola
x y 16
2
= - cuts the y- axis at point
M . Find the equation of the locus
of the midpoint of PM .
12. Given that P (2 ap , ap
2
) and
Q (2 aq , aq
2
) lie on the parabola
4 , x ay
2
= chord PQ subtends a
right angle at the origin.
Show (a) 4. pq =
Find the equation of the locus (b)
of the midpoint of PQ .
Show that this locus is a (c)
parabola, and fnd its vertex and
focal length.
13. Find the locus of the midpoint
of PF where P is the point
(2 ap , ap
2
) on the parabola
4 x ay
2
= and F is its focus.
14. (a) Find the point of intersection
T of the tangents at P (2 ap , ap
2
)
and Q (2 aq , aq
2
) on the parabola
4 . x ay
2
=
Given that (b) PQ passes through
(0, 6 a ), fnd the equation of the
locus of T .
15. Normals to the parabola
, x at y at 2
2
= = from points
P (2 ap , ap
2
) and Q (2 aq , aq
2
)
intersect at N . Find the equation
of the locus of N if PQ passes
through the point (0, 3 a ).
Class Investigation
Can you spot 6 mistakes in the solution to this question ?
Find the equation of the normal to the parabola x ay 4
2
= at the point
P (2 ap , ap
2
).
SOLUTION

,
x ay
y
a
x
dx
dy
a
x
P
dx
dy
a
ap
m
p
4
4
4
4
4
At
2
2
2
1
2
`
`
=
=
= -
=
=

For normal, m m 1
1 2
= -

p
m
m
p
y y m x x
y ap
p
x ap
p y ap x ap
x ap
p y x ap
4
1
4
2
4
2 4
4 4
4 2
i.e.
if
2
2
2 2
1 1
2
2
2 2 2
2
2 2
`
= -
=
- = -
- = -
- = -
= -
= +
_
_
_
i
i
i

Test Yourself 11
1. Find the equation of the locus of a point
moving so that it is equidistant from
, A 1 2 - ^ h and , B 3 5 ^ h .
2. Find the equation of the parabola with
focus , 2 1 ^ h and directrix . y 3 = -
3. Find the radius and centre of the circle
6 2 6 0. x x y y
2 2
- + - - =
4. Find the coordinates of
the vertex and (a)
the focus of the parabola (b)
( ) . y x 3 12 1
2
+ = -
] g

5. (a) Find the coordinates of P on the
parabola , , x t y t 4 2
2
= = where 2. t =
Find the equation of the tangent at (b) P .
that is always 5 units from the origin.
7. Find
the equation of the directrix and (a)
the coordinates of the focus of the (b)
parabola . x y 8
2
= -
8. A point , P x y ^ h moves so that AP and BP
are perpendicular, given , A 3 2 = ^ h and
, . B 4 1 = - ^ h Find the equation of the
locus of P .
9. Point , x y P^ h is equidistant from the
point , A 4 2 - ^ h and the line 6. y = Find
the equation of the locus.
10. Find (a) the coordinates of the (i) vertex
and (ii) focus and (b) the equation
of the directrix of the parabola
. x x y 2 4 5 0
2
- - + =
parabola 18 x y
2
= at the point , . 6 2 - ^ h
12. Find the length of the diameter of the
circle 8 12 3 0. x x y y
2 2
+ + - + =
directrix x 6 = and focus , . 6 0 - ^ h
14. A parabola has a focus at , 0 4 ^ h and its
vertex is at , 0 2 ^ h . Find the equation of
the parabola.
that is always 3 units from the line
. x y 4 3 1 0 - - =
16. A point is equidistant from the x - and
y -axis. Find the equation of its locus.
vertex at the origin, axis 0 y = and
passing through the point , . 1
4
1
5 c m
18. Find the gradient of
the tangent and (a)
the normal to the parabola (b) 12 x y
2
= -
at the point where 3. x =
19. Find the Cartesian equation of
(a) , x t y t 6 3
2
= =
(b) , . x t y t 8 16
2
= - = -
20. (a) Find the equation of the normal
2
= at the point
, . 8 16 - ^ h
This normal cuts the parabola again (b)
at Q . Find the coordinates of Q .
21. Show that 7 3 12 0 x y - + = is a focal
chord of the parabola 16 . x y
2
=
22. Find the point of intersection of the
normals to the parabola x y 12
2
= - at the
points , 4 1
3
1
- c m and , . 2
3
1
- - c m
23. Find the equation of the chord PQ on the
parabola , x t y t 4 2
2
= = if 5 t = at P and
2 t = at Q .
24. Points P (10 p , 5 p
2
) and Q (10 q , 5 q
2
) lie on
the parabola . x y 20
2
= Find the equation
of the locus of the midpoint of PQ if
. pq 2 = -
parabola , x at y at 2
2
= = the point where
3. t =
26. (a) Find the equation of the tangent to
the parabola x y 12
2
= at the point P (6, 3).
Find (b) R , the y- intercept of the tangent.
Show that (c) FP FR = where F is the
focus.
chord PQ given that P (2 ap , ap
2
) and
Q (2 aq , aq
2
) are points on the parabola
. x ay 4
2
=
If (b) PQ is a focal chord show that
. pq 1 = -
parabola , x t y t 8 4
2
= = at the point
where . t 2 = -
29. Tangents are drawn from an external
point , P 2 3 - ^ h to the parabola 4 . x y
2
=
Find the equation of the chord of (a)
contact of the tangents.
Find the coordinates of the points at (b)
which each tangent meets the parabola.
30. Chord PQ is a focal chord of x ay 4
2
=
where , P ap ap 2
2
= ^ h and , . Q a a q q 2
2
= ^ h
Find the equation of the locus of the points
of intersection of the tangents at P and Q .
1. (a) Find the equation of the locus of
point P , which is equidistant from fxed
points , A 3 5 ^ h and , . B 1 2 - ^ h
Show that this locus is the (b)
perpendicular bisector of line AB .
2. (a) Find the equation of the circle with
Show that the circle cuts the (b) x -axis at
the points , 5 0 ^ h and , . 3 0 - ^ h
3. Write in Cartesian form the equation
, . sin cos x y 2 i i = =
4. The line with equation x y 5 12 36 0 - + =
is a chord of the parabola . x y 12
2
= Find
the point of intersection of the tangents
to the parabola from the endpoints of the
chord.
5. (a) Find the equation of the normals to
the parabola x y 8
2
= at the points
, M 2
2
1
- c m and , . N 8 8 ^ h
Show that these normals are (b)
perpendicular.
Find the point of intersection (c) X of
the normals.
Find the equation of line (d) MN and
show that it is a focal chord.
6. From which point on the parabola x ay 4
2
=
does the normal pass through the focus?
7. (a) Find the equation of the tangents to
the parabola x y 4
2
= at the points
, A 1
4
1
c m and , . B 4 4 - ^ h
Show that the point of intersection of (b)
these tangents lies on the directrix.
axis parallel to the y -axis and passing
through points , , 0 2 - ^ h , 1 0 ^ h and
, . 3 8 - ^ h
through the centres of the circles with
equations x x y y 4 8 5 0
2 2
+ + - - = and
. x x y y 2 10 10 0
2 2
- + + + =
10. Sketch the region
2 4 4 0. x x y y
2 2
# + + - -
11. (a) Find the equation of the locus
of a point P moving so that PA is
perpendicular to PB where , A 4 3 - = ^ h
and , . B 0 7 = ^ h
Show that this locus is a circle with (b)
centre , 2 5 - ^ h and radius . 2 2
12. Find the exact gradient, with rational
denominator, of the normal to the
parabola y x 12
2
= at the point where
x 4 = in the frst quadrant.
13. (a) Find the equation of the parabola
with vertex , 3 2 - ^ h and focus , . 7 2 - ^ h
Find the equation of the tangent to (b)
the parabola at the point where x 4 = in
the frst quadrant.
14. Find the exact length of the line
from , 2 7 ^ h to the centre of the circle
. x x y y 4 6 3 0
2 2
+ + - - =
midpoints of all chords of length
2 units in the circle with equation
. x y y 2 3 0
2 2
+ - - =
16. A satellite dish is to be 3.5 m wide and
1.1 m deep. Find the position of the
focus in millimetres, correct to the
nearest millimetre.
3.5 m
1.1 m
17. Find the equation of the locus of point
P that moves such that the distance
from P to the lines 3 4 1 0 x y - + = and
12 5 3 0 x y + + = is in the ratio : . 3 1
18. PQ is a chord of 4 x ay
2
= where
( , ) P ap ap 2
2
= and , . Q aq aq 2
2
= _ i
Find the coordinates of point (a) N that
divides PQ in the ratio 2:3.
Find the locus of the midpoint of (b) PQ
if . pq 2 =
19. The chord of contact of the tangents to
the parabola x ay 4
2
= from an external
point R ( x
1
, y
1
) passes through the point
N (0, 2 a ). Find the equation of the locus
of the midpoint of RN .
20. (a) Find the coordinates of T where T is
at the points t 2 = - and t 5 = on the
parabola , . x t y t 4 2
2
= =
Find the coordinates of (b) P where P is
at the points X (2 at , at
2
) and Y (2 as , as
2
)
on the parabola . x ay 4
2
=
The tangents from (c) X and Y meet at
. 45c Show that t
s
s
1
1
=
+
-
or . t
s
s
1
1
=
-
+
TERMINOLOGY
12
Polynomials 1
Coefcient: A constant multiplied by a pronumeral in an
algebraic term e.g. in ax
3
the a is the coeffcient
Degree: The value of the highest power of x in a
polynomial
Dividend: The number, algebraic expression or polynomial
that is being divided by another of the same type
Divisor: A number, algebraic expression or polynomial
that divides another of the same type
Factor theorem: If P(x) is divided by x a - and ( ) 0 P a =
then x a - is a factor of P(x)
Leading term: The term with the highest power of x.
e.g. 5 2 3 x x
3 2
- + has a leading term of 5x
3
Long division: A division of one polynomial into another
polynomial using a method similar to long division of
numbers
Monic polynomial: A polynomial where the leading
coeffcient is 1
Polynomial: A sum or difference of terms involving
integral powers of a variable, usually x. A function of the
form P x a a x a x a x ( )
0 1 2
2
n
n
f = + + + + where a
0
, a
1
, ...
are real numbers and n is a positive integer or zero
Quotient: The result when two numbers, algebraic
expressions or polynomials are divided
Remainder theorem: If P(x) is divided by x a - then the
remainder is given by P(a)
Root of a polynomial equation: The solution of polynomial
equation ( ) 0 P x = . Graphically it is where the polynomial
crosses the x-axis.
Zeros: The zeros of a polynomial are the roots of the
polynomial equation ( ) 0 P x = . They are the values that
make P(x) zero.
663 Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
INTRODUCTION
POLYNOMIALS ARE AN IMPORTANT part of algebra and are used in many
branches of mathematics . Some examples of polynomials that you have
already studied are linear and quadratic functions .
In this chapter you will study some properties of polynomials in general ,
and relate polynomial expressions to equations and graphs .
DID YOU KNOW?
The word polynomial means an expression with many terms. (A binomial has 2 terms and a
trinomial has 3 terms). Poly means many, and is used in many words, for example, polyanthus,
polygamy, polyglot, polygon, polyhedron, polymer, polyphonic, polypod and polytechnic. Do you
know what all these words mean? Do you know any others with poly-?
P x p p x p x p x p x
n
n
n
n
0 1 2
2
1
1
f = + + + + +
-
-
] g
where n is a
positive integer or zero.
P ( x ) is a continuous and differentiable function.
Although the defnition has the term p
n
x
n
last, we generally write
polynomials from the highest order down to the lowest. e.g. . f x x x 5 4
2
= - +
] g

We can describe various aspects of polynomial as follows:
p x p x p x p x p x p
n
n
n
n
n
n
1
1
2
2
2
2
1 0
f + + + + + +
-
-
-
-
is called a polynomial
expression
P x p x p x p x p x p x p
n
n
n
n
n
n
1
1
2
2
2
2
1 0
f = + + + + + +
-
-
-
-
] g
has degree n
where 0 p
n
!
, , , p p p p
n n n 1 2 0
f
- -
are called coeffcients
p
n
x
n
is called the leading term and p
n
is the leading coeffcient
p
0
is called the constant term
If 1, p P x
n
=
] g
is called a monic polynomial
If p p p p 0
n 0 1 2
f = = = = = then P ( x ) is the zero polynomial
The degree of a polynomial
is the highest power of x
with non-zero coeffcient.
Coeffcients can be any real
number but we generally
use integers in this course
for convenience.
Defnition of a Polynomial
A polynomial is a function defned for all real x involving positive powers of x
in the form:
EXAMPLES
1. Which of the following are polynomial expressions?
(a) x x 4 3
2
- +
(b) x x x 3 5 1
4 2
- + -
(c) x x x 3
2 1
- +
-

Solution
(a) and (b) are polynomials but (c) is not, since it has a term x
1 -
that is
not a positive power of x.
2. For the polynomial P x x x x x x 2 3 7 3
6 4 3 2
= - + + - -
] g

Find the degree. (a)
Is the polynomial monic? (b)
State the leading term. (c)
What is the constant term? (d)
Find the coeffcient of (e) x
4
.
Solution
Degree is 6 since (a) x
6
is the highest power.
Yes, the polynomial is monic since the coeffcient of (b) x
6
is 1.
The leading term is (c) x
6
.
The constant term is (d) . 3 -
The coeffcient of (e) x
4
is . 2 -
Polynomial equation
0 P x =
] g
is a polynomial equation of degree n
The real values of x that satisfy the equation are called the real
roots of the equation or the real zeros of the polynomial .
EXAMPLES
1. Find the zeros of the polynomial . P x x x 5
2
= -
] g

Solution
To fnd the zeros of the polynomial, we solve . P x 0 =
] g

x x
x x
5 0
5 0
2
- =
- =
] g

, x x
x
0 5 0
5
= - =
=
So the zeros are 0, 5.
2. Find the roots of the polynomial equation . x x x 2 3 0
3 2
- - =
Solution

x x x
x x x
x x x
2 3 0
2 3 0
3 1 0
3 2
2
- - =
- - =
- + =
^
] ]
h
g g

, , x x x 0 3 0 1 0 = - = + =
, x x 3 1 = = -
The roots are , , . x 0 3 1 = -
3. Show that the polynomial p x x x 4
2
= - +
] g
has no real zeros.
Solution
We look at the polynomial equation . p x 0 =
] g

x x 4 0
2
- + =
The discriminant will show whether the polynomial has real zeros.

b ac 4 1 4 1 4
1 16
15
0
2 2
1
- = - -
= -
= -
] ] ] g g g

So the polynomial has no real zeros.
4. For the polynomial P x ax x x x 3 7 1
5 4 3
= - + - +
] g

Evaluate (a) a if the polynomial is monic.
Find the degree of the derivative (b) ( ) . x Pl
Solution
For a monic polynomial, (a) 1 a =
(b) ax x x 5 12 3 7 = - + - P x
4 3 2
l^ h
( ) x Pl has degree 4 (highest power).
1. Write down the degree of each
polynomial.
(a) 5 3 2 3 1 x x x x
7 5 3
- + - +
(b) 3 2 x x x x
2 3 4
+ + - +
(c) 3 5 x +
(d) 5 4 x x
11 8
- +
(e) 2 5 3 x x x
2 3
- - +
3 (f)
(g) 2x x
4
-
2. For the polynomial
( ) , P x x x x 7 1
3 2
= - + - fnd
(a) ( ) P 2
(b) ( ) P 1 -
(c) ( ) P 0
3. Given ( ) P x x 5 = + and
( ) , Q x x 2 1 = - fnd
(a) ( ) P 11 -
(b) ( ) Q 3
(c) ( ) ( ) P Q 2 2 + -
the degree of (d) ( ) ( ) P x Q x +
the degree of (e) ( ) ( ) P x Q x $
( ) 3 5 4, P x x x x
5 4
= - - + fnd
the degree of (a) ( ) P x
the constant term (b)
the coeffcient of (c) x
4

the coeffcient of (d) x
2

5. Find the zeros of the following
polynomials.
(a) ( ) 9 P x x
2
= -
(b) ( ) 5 p x x = +
(c) ( ) 2 f x x x
2
= + -
(d) ( ) 8 16 P x x x
2
= - +
(e) ( ) 2 5 g x x x x
3 2
= - +
6. Find the derivative of each
polynomial ( ) P x and state the
degree of ( ) x Pl
(a) ( ) 3 2 4 5 P x x x x x
4 3 2
= - - + -
(b) ( ) 5 3 P x x
2
= +
(c) ( ) 9 7 8 P x x x x
12 5
= - +
(d) ( ) 3 7 3 P x x x x x
7 3 2
= - + - -
(e) ( ) 8 5 P x x = +
7. Which of the following are not
polynomials?
(a) 5 3
1
x x x
x
4 2
- + +
(b) 3 x
2 x
+
(c) 3 7 x x
2
+ -
(d) 3 5 x +
0 (e)
(f) x x 3
2
1
1
2
- +
(g) x x 4 7 5
3 2
+ +
-

( ) ( 1) ( 7) 5, P x a x b x c
3 2
= + + - + +
fnd values for a , b or c if
(a) ( ) P x is monic
the coeffcient of (b) x
2
is 3
the constant term is (c) 1 -
(d) ( ) P x has degree 2
the leading term has a (e)
coeffcient of 5
9. Given ( ) 2 5, P x x = +
( ) 2 Q x x x
2
= - - and
( ) 9 , R x x x
3
= + fnd
any zeros of (a) ( ) P x
the roots of (b) ( ) 0 Q x =
the degree of (c) ( ) ( ) P x R x +
the degree of (d) ( ) ( ) P x Q x $
the leading term of (e) ( ) ( ) Q x R x $
10. Given ( ) 3 2 1 f x x x
2
= - + and
( ) , g x x 3 3 = -
show (a) ( ) f x has no zeros
fnd the leading term of (b)
( ) ( ) f x g x $
fnd the constant term of (c)
( ) ( ) f x g x +
fnd the coeffcient of (d) x in
( ) ( ) f x g x $
fnd the roots of (e)
( ) ( ) 0 f x g x + =
11. State how many real roots there
are for each polynomial equation
. P x 0 =
] g

(a) P x x 9
2
= -
] g

(b) 4 P x x
2
= +
] g

(c) P x x x 3 7
2
= - -
] g

12.1 Exercises
(d) 2 3 P x x x
2
= + +
] g

(e) P x x x 3 5 2
2
= - -
] g

(f) P x x x x x 1 4 6 = - + +
] ] ] ] g g g g

(g) P x x x x 1 2 5 = + - -
] ] ] ] g g g g

, P x x x x 2 3 36 17
3 2
- = + +
] g

fnd the roots of the derivative
polynomial equation ( ) . x 0 = Pl
13. If , P x x x 3 4 1
4 3
= - -
] g
fnd the
zeros of ( ) . x Pl
14. Show that ( ) x 0 = Pl has no real
roots if . P x x x x 9
3 2
= - +
] g

15. Show that ( ) Q x 0 = l
has equal roots given
. Q x x x x 3 3 5
3 2
= - + +
] g

Class Investigation
Here are two examples of long division.
Divide 5715 by 48. 1.

48 5715
48
91
48
435
432
3
119 3 r
g

This means
48
5715
119
48
3
= +
119 48 48 48
48
5715
48
3
# # # = +
So 5715 48 119 3 # = + (check this on your calculator)
The number 5715 is called the dividend, the 48 is the divisor, 119 is the
quotient and 3 is the remainder.
Divide 4871 by 35. 2.

35 4871
35
137
105
321
315
6
139 6 r
g

CONTINUED
Division of Polynomials
You would have learned how to do long division in primary school, but have
probably forgotten how to do it! We use this method to divide polynomials.
This means
35
4871
139
35
6
= +
or 4871 35 139 6 # = + (check this on your calculator)
The number 4871 is called the dividend, the 35 is the divisor, 139 is the
quotient and 6 is the remainder.
Use long division to divide other numbers and write them in the form
above.
For example:
1. 2048 15 '
2. 5876 17 '
3. 3546 21 '
4. 2992 33 '
5. 8914 19 '
A polynomial P ( x ) can be written as P x A x Q x R x $ = +
] ] ] ] g g g g

where P ( x ) is the dividend , A ( x ) is the divisor , Q ( x ) is the quotient
and R ( x ) is the remainder .
Proof
If we divide a polynomial P ( x ) by A ( x ), we can write P ( x ) in the form of

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
A x
P x
Q x
A x
R x
= + where Q ( x ) is the quotient and R ( x ) is the remainder.

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
A x
P x
Q x
A x
R x
A x A x A x # # # = +
P x A x Q x R x $ = +
] ] ] ] g g g g

The division continues until the remainder can no longer be broken down
further by division.
The degree of remainder R ( x ) is always less than the degree
of the divisor A ( x ) .
Proof
Suppose the degree of R ( x ) is higher than the degree of A ( x ).
This means that R ( x ) can be divided by A ( x ).

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
So
This gives .
A x
R x
Q x
A x
R x
R x A x Q x R x
R x
P x A x Q x R x
1
1
1 1
2
2
$
$
= +
= +
=
= +
] ] ] ]
]
] ] ] ]
g g g g
g
g g g g

EXAMPLES
1. (a) Divide ( ) 3 7 2 3 P x x x x x
4 3 2
= - + - + by 2. x -
(b) Hence write ( ) P x in the form ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ). P x A x Q x R x = +
(c) Show that (2) P is equal to the remainder.
Solution
(a) Step 1: Divide the leading term by x .
x x x 3 3 i.e.
4 3
' =

2 3 7 2 3 x x x x x
3
4 3 2
- - + - +
3x
g

Step 2: Multiply 3x
3
by ( 2) x - and fnd the remainder by
subtraction.
( ) x x x x 3 2 3 6 i.e.
3 4 3
- = -
x x x x x
x
x x
2 3 7 2 3
5
3 6
3
4 3 2
3
4 3
- - + - +
-
x 3
g

Step 3: Bring down the 7x
2
and divide 5x
3
by x .

x x 5 7 +
x x x x x
x x
2 3 7 2 3
3 6
3 2
4 3 2
4 3
3 2
- - + - +
-
x x 3 5 +
g

Step 4: Multiply 5x
2
by ( 2) x - and fnd the remainder by
subtraction.
x x x x 5 2 5 10 i.e.
2 3 2
- = -
] g

x x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x
2 3 7 2 3
3 6
5 7
5 10
17
3 2
4 3 2
4 3
3 2
3 2
2
- - + - +
-
+
-
x x 3 5 +
g

x 2 - is called the divisor.
CONTINUED
Continuing this way until we have fnished, we will have

x
x x
x
x
x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x x
2 3 7 2 3
3 6
5 7
5 10
17 2
17 34
32 3
32 64
67
3 2
4 3 2
4 3
3 2
3 2
2
2
- - + - +
-
+
-
-
-
+
-
x 3 + x 5 + 32 + x 17
g

(b) This means that ( ) ( ) x x x x x 3 7 2 3 2
4 3 2
' - + - + -
( ), x x x 3 5 17 32
3 2
= + + + remainder 67

or ( ) ( )
x
x x x x
x x x
x
x x x x x x x x
2
3 7 2 3
3 5 17 32
2
67
3 7 2 3 2 3 5 17 32 67
i.e.
4 3 2
3 2
4 3 2 3 2
-
- + - +
= + + + +
-
- + - + = - + + + +

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) P x A x Q x R x i.e. = + where ( ) A x is the divisor, ( ) Q x is the quotient
and ( ) R x is the remainder.

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) .
P
P
2 3 2 2 7 2 2 2 3
48 8 28 4 3
67
2
(c)
is equal to the remainder
4 3 2
`
= - + - +
= - + - +
=

2. Divide 3 4 x x x
3 2
- + + by . x x
2
-
Solution

x x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x
3 4
2
2 2
4
2 3 2
3 2
2
2
- - + +
-
- +
- +
- +
x 2 -
g

This means that

( ) ( ) ( ),
2
3 4 ( 2) ( ) ( 4)
x x x x x x x
x x
x x x
x
x x
x
x x x x x x x
3 4 2 4
3 4 4
remainder
i.e.
or
3 2 2
2
3 2
2
3 2 2
' - + + - = - - +
-
- + +
= - +
-
- +
- + + = - - + - +

The remainder is 67.
The quotient is
3x 5x 17x 32.
3 2
+ + +
Check this is true by
expanding and
simplifying.
3. Divide 5 6 15 x x x x
5 3 2
+ + - + by 3. x
2
+
Solution

x x x x x
x x
x x x
x x
x
x
3 5 6 15
3
2 5 6
2 6
5 15
5 15
0
3
2 5 3 2
5 3
3 2
3
2
2
+
+
+ + + - +
+
- + -
- -
x x 2 5 - +
g

This means that

( ) ( ) ( )
2 5
5 6 15 ( 2 5) ( 3)
x x x x x x x
x
x x x x
x x
x x x x x x x
5 6 15 3 2 5
3
5 6 15
i.e.
or
5 3 2 2 3
2
5 3 2
3
5 3 2 3 2
' + + - + + = - +
+
+ + - +
= - +
+ + - + = - + +

0, R (x) = so there is no
remainder.
Check this by expanding
and simplifying.
Divide the following polynomials
and put them in the form
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) . P x A x Q x R x = +
1. (3 2 5) ( 4) x x x
2
' + + +
2. ( 7 4) ( 1) x x x
2
' - + -
3. ( ) ( ) x x x x 2 1 3
3 2
' + + - -
4. (4 2 3) (2 3) x x x
2
' + - +
5. ( 5 2) ( 3 ) x x x x x
3 2 2
' - + + +
6. ( 3) ( 2) x x x x
3 2
' + - - -
7. ( ) ( ) x x x x x 5 2 3 1
3 2 2
' - + + +
8. ( 2 3) ( 4) x x x x x
4 3 2
' - - + - +
9.
(2 5 2 2 5)
( 2 )
x x x x
x x
4 3 2
2
' - + + -
-

10. ( ) ( ) x x x x 4 2 6 1 2 1
3 2
' - + - +
11. ( ) ( ) x x x 6 3 1 3 2
2
' - + -
12. ( 2 2) ( ) x x x x x
4 3 2 2
' - - - -
13. ( )
( )
x x x x x
x
3 2 3 1
2
5 4 3 2
' - - + - -
+

14. ( 5 2) ( 1) x x x
2
' + - +
15. ( 2 5 4) ( 3) x x x x
4 2
' - + + -
16. (2 5) ( 2 ) x x x x
4 3 2
' - + -
17. ( ) ( ) x x x x 3 3 1 5
3 2 2
' - + - +
18. (2 4 8) ( 3 2) x x x x x
3 2 2
' + - + + +
19. ( 2 4 2 5)
( 2 1)
x x x x
x x
4 3 2
2
' - + + +
+ -

20. ( ) ( ) x x x x 3 2 1 1
5 3
' - + - +
12.2 Exercises
If a polynomial P ( x ) is divided by , x a - then the remainder is P ( a )
Proof
P x A x Q x R x $ = +
] ] ] ] g g g g
where A x x a = -
] g

P x x a Q x R x = - +
] ] ] ] g g g g

The degree of A ( x ) is 1, so the degree of R ( x ) must be 0 .

So where is a constant
Substituting :
So is the remainder.
k R x k
P x x a Q x k
x a
P a a a Q a k
Q x k
k
P a
0
`
$
=
= - +
=
= - +
= +
=
]
] ] ]
] ] ]
]
]
g
g g g
g g g
g
g

The degree of R(x) is less than
the degree of A(x).
EXAMPLES
1. Find the remainder when x x x 3 2 5 1
4 2
- + + is divided by . x 2 -
Solution
The remainder when P ( x ) is divided by x a - is P ( a ).
The remainder when P ( x ) is divided by x 2 - is P (2).

P 2 3 2 2 2 5 2 1
51
4 2
= - + +
=
] ] ] ] g g g g

So the remainder is 51.
2. Evaluate m if the remainder is 4 when dividing 2 5 x mx
4
+ + by 3 x + .
Solution
The remainder when P ( x ) is divided by 3 x + is . P 3 -
^ h

4 P
m
m
3
2 3 3 5 4
162 3 5 4
o S
4
- =
- + - + =
- + =
]
] ]
g
g g

x 3 x ( 3) . = + - -
Remainder and Factor Theorems
Dividing polynomials helps us to factorise them, which in turn makes
sketching their graphs easier.
There are two theorems that will also help us to work with polynomials.
Remainder theorem
Factor theorem
The factor theorem is a direct result of the remainder theorem.

.
m
m
m
m
167 3 4
167 3 4
163 3
54
3
1
- =
= +
=
=

For a polynomial P ( x ), if 0 P a = ] g then x a - is a factor of the polynomial.
Proof
P x A x Q x R x $ = +
] ] ] ] g g g g
where A x x a = -
] g

P x x a Q x R x = - +
] ] ] ] g g g g

The remainder when P ( x ) is divided by x a - is P ( a ) .
So P x x a Q x P a = - +
] ] ] ] g g g g
But if 0: P a = ] g

P x x a Q x
x a Q x
0 = - +
= -
] ] ]
] ]
g g g
g g

So x a - is a factor of P ( x ) .
For a polynomial P ( x ), if x a - is a factor of the polynomial, then 0 P a = ] g
Proof
If x a - is a factor of P ( x ), then we can write :
P x x a Q x = -
] ] ] g g g

This means that when P ( x ) is divided by , x a - the quotient is Q ( x ) and there is
no remainder.
So 0 P a = ] g
Further properties of a polynomial
Some properties of polynomials come from the remainder and factor
theorems.
EXAMPLE
(a) Show that x 1 - is a factor of P x x x x 7 8 2
3 2
= - + -
] g
.
(b) Divide P ( x ) by x 1 - and write P ( x ) in the form P x x Q x 1 = -
] ] ] g g g
.
Solution
(a) The remainder when dividing the polynomial by x 1 - is P (1)

P 1 1 7 1 8 1 2
0
3 2
= - +
=
-
] ] ] g g g

So x 1 - is a factor of P ( x ) .
(b)

x 1 - x x x
x x
x x
x x
x
x
0
7 8 2
6 8
6 6
2 2
2 2
3 2
2
3 2
2
2
- + -
-
- +
- +
-
-
x - 6 2 x +
g

So P x x x x
x x x
7 8 2
1 6 2
3 2
2
= - + -
= - - +
]
] ^
g
g h

Notice that x 6x 2
2
- +
wont factorise.
If polynomial P ( x ) has k distinct zeros , , , ... a a a a
k 1 2 3
, then
( ) ( ) ( ) ... ( ) x a x a x a x a
k 1 2 3
- - - - is a factor of P ( x )
Proof
If a
1
is a zero of P ( x ) then ( ) x a
1
- is a factor of P ( x ) .
If a
2
2
If a
3
3
Similarly, if a
k
k

So
( ) ( ) ( ) ... ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ... ( ) is a factor of
P x x a x a x a x a g x
x a x a x a x a P x
k
k
1 2 3
1 2 3
` = - - - -
- - - - .
] ]
]
g g
g

If polynomial P ( x ) has degree n and n distinct zeros , , , ... a a a a
n 1 2 3
,
then ( ) ( ) ( ) ... ( ) P x p x a x a x a x a
n n 1 2 3
= - - - -
] g

Proof
Since , , , ... a a a a
n 1 2 3
are zeros of P ( x ), ( ) ( ) ( ) ... ( ) x a x a x a x a
n 1 2 3
- - - - is a
factor of the polynomial.
So ( ) ( ) ( ) ... ( ) P x x a x a x a x a
n 1 2 3
= - - - -
] g
Q ( x )
But ( ) ( ) ( ) ... ( ) x a x a x a x a
n 1 2 3
- - - - has degree n and P ( x ) has degree n so
Q ( x ) must be a constant .
( ) ( ) ( ) ... ( ) P x p x a x a x a x a
n n 1 2 3
` = - - - -
] g

EXAMPLE
If a polynomial has degree 2, show that it cannot have 3 zeros .
Solution
Let P x p x p x p
2
2
1 0
= + +
] g
where 0 p
2
!
Assume P ( x ) has 3 zeros, a
1
, a
2
and a
3

Then x a x a x a
1 2 3
- - - _ _ _ i i i is a factor of the polynomial.
( ) ( )( )( ) ( ) P x x a x a x a Q x
1 2 3
` = - - -
But this polynomial has degree 3 and P ( x ) only has degree 2 .
So P ( x ) cannot have 3 zeros .
A polynomial of degree n cannot have more than n distinct real zeros.
A polynomial of degree n with more than n distinct real zeros is the
zero polynomial ( ... P x p p p 0 0
n 0 1 2
= = = = = = p
] g
)
Proof
P ( x ) has degree n
So P x p x p x p x p x p x p
n
n
n
n
n
n
1
1
2
2
2
2
1 0
f = + + + + + +
-
-
-
-
] g
where 0 p
n
!
Suppose P ( x ) has more than n distinct zeros, say 1 n +
Then ( ) ( ) ( ) ... ( ) x a x a x a x a
n 1 2 3 1
- - - -
+
is a factor of P ( x ).
So ( ) ( ) ( ) ... ( ) P x x a x a x a x a Q x
n 1 2 3 1
= - - - -
+
] ] g g
.
But this gives P ( x ) at least degree 1, n + and P ( x ) only has degree n .
So the polynomial cannot have more than n distinct real zeros.
This also means that the polynomial equation cannot have more than n real roots.
Proof
Let P ( x ) be a polynomial of degree n with zeros , , , ... a a a a
n 1 2 3

Then ( ) ( ) ( ) ... ( ) P x x a x a x a x a k
n 1 2 3
= - - - -
] g

Suppose P ( x ) has another distinct zero a
1 n+

Then 0 P a
1 n
=
+
_ i
( ) ( ) ( ) ... ( ) a a a a a a a a k 0
n n n n n 1 1 1 2 1 3 1
` - - - - =
+ + + +

But , , , ... a a a a a
n n 1 1 2 3
!
+
since all zeros are distinct.
So 0 k =
0 P x ` =
] g

If two polynomials of degree n are equal for more than n distinct values
of x , then the coeffcients of like powers of x are equal.
That is, if ... ... a a x a x a x b b x b x b x
n
n
n
n
0 1 2
2
0 1 2
2
/ + + + + + + + +
then , , , ... a b a b a b a b
n n 0 0 1 1 2 2
= = = =
Proof
Let ... A x a a x a x a x
n
n
0 1 2
2
= + + + +
] g

and ... B x b b x b x b x
n
n
0 1 2
2
= + + + +
] g

where A x B x =
] ] g g
for more than n distinct x values .
Let P x A x B x = -
] ] ] g g g

Then ( ) ( ) ( ) ... ( ) P x a b a b x a b x a b x
n n
n
0 0 1 1 2 2
2
= - + - + - + + -
] g

and P ( x ) has degree n .
If A x B x =
] ] g g
for more than n distinct x values, then A x B x 0 = -
] ] g g
for more
than n distinct x values .
This means 0 P x =
] g
for more than n distinct x values .
This means that P ( x ) has more than n zeros.
` P ( x ) is the zero polynomial
0 P x =
] g

( ) ( ) ( ) ... ( ) a b a b x a b x a b x 0
n n
n
0 0 1 1 2 2
2
- + - + - + + - =
So , , , ..., a b a b a b a b 0 0 0 0
n n 0 0 1 1 2 2
- = - = - = - =
, , , ..., a b a b a b a b
n n 0 0 1 1 2 2
` = = = =
You learned a special case of this result
in Chapter 10 under quadratic identities.
This is a more general result for all
polynomials.
EXAMPLE
Write x x 2 5
3 2
+ - in the form 3 3 ax b x c x d
3 2
+ + + + +
] ] g g
.
Solution
( ) ax b x c x d ax b x x c x d
ax bx bx b cx c d
ax bx b c x b c d
3 3 6 9 3
6 9 3
6 9 3
3 2 3 2
3 2
3 2
+ + + + + = + + + + + +
= + + + + + +
= + + + + + +
] ^ ]
]
g h g
g

For x x ax b x c x d 2 5 3 3
3 2 3 2
/ + + + + + + -
] ] g g

Proof
Let P x p x p x p x p x p x p
n
n
n
n
n
n
1
1
2
2
2
2
1 0
f = + + + + + +
-
-
-
-
] g
where p 0
n
!
If x a - is a factor of P ( x ) we can write
P x x a Q x = -
] ] ] g g g
where Q ( x ) has degree . n 1 -

P x x a q x q x q x q x q q
xq x xq x xq x xq
aq x aq x aq x aq x aq
q x q x q x q x aq x aq x
aq x aq x aq
q x q a x q a x q a x aq
0 where
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
1
1
2
2
2
2
1 0 1
1
1
2
2
1 0
1
1
2
2
2
2
1 0
1 2
1
1
2
0 1
1
2
2
2
2
1 0
1 2
1
1
2
0 0
g
g
g
g g
g
! = - + + + + +
= + + + +
- - - - - -
= + + + + - - -
- - -
= + - + + - + - -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- -
-
-
-
-
-
- -
-
] ]
_
_ _ _
g g
i
i i i

p aq
0 0
` = -
So a is a factor of p
0
.
If x a - is a factor of polynomial P(x), then a is a factor of the constant
term of the polynomial.
We already use this when
factorising a trinomial.
This is a more general
result for all polynomials.

a
b
b c
b c d
1 1
2 2
6 0 3
9 3 5 4
=
= -
+ =
+ + =
]
]
]
]
g
g
g
g


c
c
c
6 2 0
12 0
12
- + =
- + =
=
] g

Substitute 2 b = - and 12 c = into (4):

.
d
d
d
d
x x x x x
9 2 3 12 5
18 36 5
18 5
13
2 5 2 3 12 3 13
2 3 3 2
` /
- + + =
- + + =
+ =
= -
- + - + + + -
] ]
] ]
g g
g g

To factorise polynomials in general, we also look for factors of the constant term.
Class Investigation
Why are factors of the polynomial factors of the constant term? Use the
knowledge you have of trinomials to help you in your discussion.
EXAMPLES
1. Find all factors of ( ) . f x x x x 3 4 12
3 2
= + - -
Solution
Try factors of ( , , , , , ) . 12 1 2 3 4 6 12 i.e. ! ! ! ! ! ! -

0 !
( ) ( ) ( ) f 1 1 3 1 4 1 12
12
e.g.
3 2
= + - -
= -
x 1 ` - is not a factor of ( ) f x

( ) ( ) ( ) f 2 2 3 2 4 2 12
0
3 2
= + - -
=

Since ( ) , f 2 0 = the remainder when ( ) f x is divided by x 2 - is 0.
x 2 ` - is a factor of ( ) . f x
We divide ( ) f x by 2 x - to nd other factors:

x x 5
x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x
x
0
2 3 4 12
2
5 4
5 10
6 12
6 12
2
3 2
3 2
2
2
- + - -
-
-
-
-
-
+ + 6
g

x 2 - is called a linear
factor as it has degree 1.

EXAMPLE
Factorise x x 2 15
2
+ - .
Solution
Factors of 15 - are , , , 3 5 3 5 1 15 1 15 # # # # - - - - .
We choose 3 5 # - since , x x x 3 5 2 - + = the middle term.
So x x x x 2 15 3 5
2
+ = - - +
] ] g g
.

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
f x x x x
x x x
2 5 6
2 2 3
2
` = - + +
= - + +

2. Find all factors of ( ) 3 5 15. P x x x x
3 2
= + + +
Solution
Try factors of 15 ( , , , ) . 1 3 5 15 i.e.! ! ! !

( 3) ( 3) 3( 3) 5( 3) 15 P
0
e.g.
3 2
- = - + - + - +
=

3 x ` + is a factor of ( ) f x
We divide ( ) P x by 3 x + to fnd other factors:

x
0
3 +
x
x x x
x x
x
x
5
3 5 15
3
0 5 15
5 15
2
3 2
3 2
+
+ + +
+
+ +
+
g

( ) ( ) ( ) P x x x 3 5
2
` = + +
x 5 +
2
will not factorise for
any real x.
1. Use the remainder theorem
to fnd the remainder in each
question.
(a) ( ) ( ) x x x x 2 5 4
3 2
' - + + -
(b) ( ) ( ) x x x 5 3 2
2
' + + +
(c) ( ) ( ) x x x 2 4 1 3
3
' - - +
(d) ( ) ( ) x x x x 3 2 4 5
5 2
' + - + -
(e) ( ) ( ) x x x x 5 2 2 9 1
3 2
' + + - -
(f) ( ) ( ) x x x x x 3 1 2
4 3 2
' - + - - +
(g) ( ) ( ) x x x 2 7 2 7
2
' + - +
(h) ( ) ( ) x x x 5 1 3
7 3
' + - -
(i) ( ) ( ) x x x x 2 3 4 5
6 2
' - + + +
(j) ( ) ( ) x x x x x 3 7 1
4 3 2
' - - - - +
the remainder is 3 when (a)
x x k 5 10
2
- + is divided by . x 1 -
the remainder is (b) 4 - when
( ) x k x kx 1 5 4
3 2
- - + + is divided
by 2 x + .
the remainder is 0 when (c)
x x k 2 7 1
5 2
+ + + is divided by
6 x + .
(d) x kx x x 2 3
4 3 2
- + + is divisible
by x 3 - .
the remainder is 25 when (e)
x x 2 3 5
4 2
- + is divided by x k - .
3. (a) Find the remainder when
( ) f x x x x 4 6
3 2
= - + + is divided
by . x 2 -
Is (b) x 2 - a factor of ( )? f x
Divide (c) x x x 4 6
3 2
- + +
by 2. x -
Factorise (d) ( ) f x fully and write
( ) f x as a product of its factors.
4. (a) Show that 3 x + is a factor of
( ) . P x x x x x 3 9 27
4 3 2
= + - -
Divide (b) ( ) P x by 3 x + and
write ( ) P x as a product of its
factors.
12.3 Exercises
5. The remainder is 5 when
( ) 4 4 P x ax bx x
3 2
= - + -
is divided by 3 x - and the
remainder is 2 when ( ) P x is
divided by . x 1 + Find the values
of a and b .
6. When ( ) f x ax x 3 1
2
= - + and
( ) g x x x 3 2
3 2
= - + are divided
by x 1 + they leave the same
remainder. Find the value of a .
7. (a) Show that 3 x - is not a factor
of ( ) . P x x x x x 2 7 3 5
5 4 2
= - + - +
Find a value of (b) k such
that 3 x - is a factor of
( ) . Q x x x k 2 5
3
= - +
8. The polynomial
( ) 2 P x x ax bx
3 2
= + + + has
factors x 1 + and . x 2 - Find the
values of a and b .
9. (a) The remainder, when
( ) 15 9 2 f x ax bx x x
4 3 2
= + + + +
is divided by 2, x - is 216, and
x 1 + is a factor of ( ). f x Find a
and b .
Divide (b) ( ) f x by x 1 + and
write the polynomial in the form
( ) ( ) ( ) . f x x g x 1 = +
Show that (c) x 1 + is a factor
of ( ). g x
Write (d) ( ) f x as a product of its
factors.
10. Write each polynomial as a
product of its factors .
(a) 2 8 x x
2
- -
(b) 2 x x x
3 2
+ -
(c) 10 8 x x x
3 2
+ - +
(d) 4 11 30 x x x
3 2
+ - -
(e) 11 31 21 x x x
3 2
- + -
(f) 12 17 90 x x x
3 2
- + +
(g) 7 16 12 x x x
3 2
- + -
(h) 6 9 4 x x x x
4 3 2
+ + +
(i) 3 4 x x
3 2
+ -
(j) 7 6 x x
3
- -
11. (a) Write ( ) 7 6 P x x x
3
= - + as a
product of its factors.
What are the zeros of (b) ( )? P x
Is (c) ( 2)( 3) x x - + a factor
of ( )? P x
12. If
( ) 10 23 34 120 f x x x x x
4 3 2
+ + = - -
has zeros 5 - and 2
show (a) ( 5)( 2) x x + - is a factor
of ( ) f x
write (b) ( ) f x as a product of its
linear factors.
13. If
( ) 3 13 51 36 P x x x x x
4 3 2
+ = - - -
has zeros 3 - and 4, write ( ) P x as
a product of its linear factors.
14. (a) Show that
( ) 3 34 120 P x x x x
3 2
= - - + has
zeros 6 - and 5.
Write (b) ( ) P x as a product of its
linear factors.
15. (a) Write the polynomial
P u u u u 4 5 2
3 2
= - + -
] g
as a
Hence or otherwise, solve (b)
. x x x 1 4 1 5 1 2 0
3 2
- - - + - - =
] ] ] g g g

16. (a) Write the polynomial
f p p p p 2 5 6
3 2
= - - + ^ h as a
product of its factors .
(b) Hence or otherwise, solve
. x x x 2 1 2 2 1 5 2 1 6 0
3 2
+ - + - + + =
] ] ] g g g

17. (a) Write P k k k 2 3 1
3 2
= + -
] g
as
a product of its factors.
sin sin x x 2 3 1 0
3 2
+ - = for
. c c x 0 360 # #
18. (a) Write
13 39 27 f u u u u
3 2
= - + -
] g
as a
. . . 3 13 3 39 3 27 0
x x x 3 2
- + - =
19. Solve
. x x x 4 4 2 4 0
4 3 2
+ - + - + =
] ] ] g g g

Linear factors are in the
form . x a -
20. Solve cos cos cos 2 0
3 2
i i i - - =
for x 0 360 c c # # .
21. Evaluate a , b , c and d if
(a) x x x 3 2 1
3 2
/ + - +
ax b x cx d 1
3 2
+ - + +
] g
(b) x x x 4
3 2
/ - +
ax b x c x d 2 2
3 2
+ + + + +
] ] g g
(c) x x 2 7
3
/ - +
ax b x c x d 1 1 2
3 2
+ + + + + +
] ] g g
(d) x x x 5 3
3 2
/ + + -
ax b x cx d 3
3 2
+ - + +
] g
(e) x x 4 3
3
/ - +
a x b x 1 4
3 2
+ + + + ] ] g g
c x d 4 1 + + -
] g
(f) x x x 8 6
3 2
/ + - -
ax b x cx d 2 3
3 2
+ - + + -
] g
(g) x x x 3 2
3 2
/ - +
a x b x 2 5
3 2
- + - + ] ] g g
c x d 5 2 - + -
] g
(h) x x x 4 2
3 2
/ - + - -
a x bx cx d 1
3 2
+ + + +
] g
(i) x x 2 3 1
3 2
/ - + -
ax b x cx d 2 1
3 2
+ - + +
] g
(j) x x x 4 3
3 2
/ - - + +
a x b x 2 2
3 2
- + - +
] ] g g
c x d 2 1 - + +
] g
22. A monic polynomial of degree
3 has zeros , 3 0 - and 4. Find the
polynomial.
23. Polynomial
P x ax bx cx 8
3 2
= - + -
] g
has
zeros 2 and 1 - and . P 3 28 =
] g

Evaluate a , b and c.
24. A polynomial with leading term
2 x
4
has zeros , , 2 0 1 - and 3. Find
the polynomial.
25. Show that a polynomial of degree
3 cannot have 4 zeros.
Graph of a Polynomial
We can use the graphing techniques that you have learned to sketch the graph
of a polynomial.
Using intercepts
Finding the zeros of a polynomial or the roots of the polynomial equation
helps us to sketch its graph.
EXAMPLES
1. (a) Write the polynomial 6 P x x x x
3 2
= + -
] g
as a product of its factors.
(b) Sketch the graph of the polynomial.
Solution
(a) P x x x x
x x x
x x x
6
6
3 2
3 2
2
= + -
= + -
= + -
]
^
] ]
g
h
g g

(b) For the graph of P x x x x 6
3 2
= + -
] g

CONTINUED

, ,
,
x x x
x x x
x x x
x x
0 6
3 2
0 3 0 2 0
3 2
3 2
= + -
= + -
= + = - =
= - =
] ] g g

So x -intercepts are 0, 3 - and 2.
For y -intercepts: 0 x =

P 0 0 0 6 0
0
3 2
= + -
=
] ] ] g g g

So y -intercept is 0.
0 2 -3 1 3 4 -2 -1 -4
1
2
3
4
-1
-2
-3
-4
y
x
We look at which parts of the graphs are above and which are below the
x -axis between the x -intercepts.
, : x x 3 4 Test say 1- = -
P x x x x
x x x
P
6
3 2
4 4 4 3 4 2
4 1 6
24
0
3 2
1
= + -
= + -
- = - - + - -
= - - -
= -
]
] ]
] ] ]
] ]
g
g g
g g g
g g
So the curve is below the x -axis.
, : x x 3 0 Test say 1 1 1 - = -
0
P
2 3
6
1 1 1 3 1 2
1
2
- = - - + - -
= - -
=
] ] ]
] ]
g g g
g g
So the curve is above the x -axis.

, : x x
P
0
0
Test 2 say 1
1 1 1 3 1 2
1 4 1
4
=
= + -
=
= -
1
1
1
-
] ] ]
] ]
g g g
g g

So the curve is below the x -axis.
, : x x Test 2 say 3 2 =
P
0
3 3 3 3 3 2
3 6 1
18
= + -
=
=
2
] ] ]
] ]
g g g
g g
We can sketch the polynomial as shown.
0
2 -3 1 3 4 -2 -1 -4
1
2
3
4
-1
-2
-3
-4
y
x
2. (a) Write the polynomial 5 3 P x x x x
3 2
= - - -
] g
as a product of its
factors.
(b) Sketch the graph of the polynomial.
Solution
(a) Factors of 3 - are 1 ! and 3 ! .

P 1 1 1 5 1 3
0
3 2
= - - - - -
=
- -
] ] ] ] g g g g

Later on, in a class investigation
in this chapter you will learn
how to make the graph
more accurate by fnding the
maximum and minimum points.
This is a topic in the HSC Course.
CONTINUED
So 1 x + is a factor of the polynomial.

x
x
3 x 2
x x x
x
x x
x x
x
x
1 5 3
2 5
2 2
3 3
3 3
0
2
3 2
3 2
2
2
+ - - -
+
- -
- -
- -
- -
x - -
g

P x x x x
x x x
x x
1 2 3
1 3 1
1 3
2
2
= + - -
= + - +
= + -
] ] ^
] ] ]
] ]
g g h
g g g
g g

(b) For the graph of 5 3 P x x x x
3 2
= - - -
] g

For x-intercepts: y = 0
x 1 = -
,
x x x
x x
x x
0 5 3
1 3
1 0 3 0
3 2
2
2
= - - -
= + -
+ = - =
x 1 0 + = x 3 =
] ]
]
g g
g
So x -intercepts are 1 - and 3 .
For y -intercepts: 0 x =

P 0 0 0 5 0 3
3
3 2
= - - -
= -
] ] ] g g g

So y -intercept is 3 - .
We look at which parts of the graphs are above and which are below the
x -axis between the x -intercepts.
, : x x 1 2 Test say 1- = -
0 1

5
P x x x x
x x
P
3 3
1 3
2 2 1 2 3
1 5
3 2
2
2
2
= - - +
= + -
- = - + - -
= - -
= -
]
] ]
] ] ]
] ]
g
g g
g g g
g g
So the curve is below the x -axis .
, : x x 1 3 0 Test say 1 1 - =
0 1
P 0 0 1 0 3
1 3
3
2
2
= + -
= -
= -
] ] ]
] ]
g g g
g g
0 2 -3 1 3 4 -2 -1 -4
1
2
3
4
-1
-2
-3
-4
y
x
So the curve is below the x -axis .
, : x x 3 4 Test say 2 =
0 2
4 1 4 3 P 4
5 1
25
2
2
= +
=
=
-
] ] ]
] ]
g g g
g g
We can sketch the polynomial as shown.
0 2 -3 1 3 4 -2 -1 -4
1
2
3
4
-1
-2
-3
-4
y
x
-5
-6
-7
1. Sketch the graph of each
polynomial by nding its zeros
and showing the x - and
y -intercepts .
(a) f x x x x 1 2 3 = + - -
] ] ] ] g g g g

(b) 4 2 P x x x x = + -
] ] ] g g g

(c) 1 3 p x x x x = - - -
] ] ] g g g

(d) f x x x 2
2
= +
] ] g g

(e) g x x x x 5 2 5 = - + +
] ] ] ] g g g g

2. (i) Write each polynomial as a
product of its factors
Sketch the graph of the (ii)
polynomial
(a) 2 8 P x x x x
3 2
= - -
] g

(b) 4 5 f x x x x
3 2
= - - +
] g

(c) 3 2 P x x x x
4 3 2
= + +
] g

(d) 2 15 A x x x x
3 2
= + -
] g

(e) 2 3 P x x x x
4 3 2
= - + +
] g

12.4 Exercises
3. (a) Find the x -intercepts of the
polynomial 3 4 P x x x x
4 3
= + -
] g
.
Sketch the graph of the (b)
polynomial .
4. (a) Show that 2 x - is a factor of
3 4 12 P x x x x
3 2
= - - +
] g
.
Write (b) P ( x ) as a product of its
factors .
Sketch the graph of the (c)
polynomial .
5. Sketch the graph of each
polynomial, showing all x - and
y -intercepts .
(a) P x x x x 3 10 24
3 2
= + - -
] g

(b) P x x x x 9 9
3 2
= + - -
] g

(c) P x x x x 12 19 8
2 3
= - + -
] g
(d) P x x x 13 12
3
= - +
] g

(e) P x x x x 2 9 18
3 2
= - + + -
] g

(f) P x x x x 2 4 8
3 2
= + - -
] g

(g) P x x x x 5 8 4
3 2
= - + -
] g

(h) P x x x x 5 3
3 2
= + - +
] g

(i) ( ) f x x x x 16 12
2 4
= + -
(j) 2 1 P x x x
4 2
= - +
] g

Class Investigation
The graphs in the examples above are not very accurate, as we dont know
where they turn around. We can use calculus to help fnd these points.
You used the axis of symmetry to fnd the minimum and maximum
values of quadratic functions in Chapter 10. You can also use calculus to
fnd the minimum or maximum turning points of functions.
Notice that the graph below has both a maximum and minimum turning
point. We can fnd these by looking at the gradient of the tangents
around the curve, or
dx
dy
.

y
x
Maximum turning point
Minimum turning point
You will look at the
applications of calculus in
sketching graphs in the HSC
Course.
You looked at the gradient
of tangents to a curve in
Chapter 8.
Notice that at both these turning points, 0.
dx
dy
=
We can also examine each type of turning point more closely.
Maximum turning point:

The maximum turning point has a zero gradient at the point itself but
notice that it has a positive gradient on the left-hand side and a negative
gradient on the right-hand side.
So
dx
dy
0 2 on the LHS and
dx
dy
0 1 on the RHS .
Minimum turning point:

The minimum turning point has a zero gradient at the point itself but it
has a negative gradient on the left-hand side and a positive gradient on
the right-hand side.
So
dx
dy
0 1 on the LHS and
dx
dy
0 2 on the RHS .
CONTINUED
There is also another type of point that you see in graphs such as f x x
3
=
] g
.

This is called a point of inexion and has
dx
dy
0 = .
However, the gradient has the same sign on both the LHS and RHS.
These three types of points are called stationary points.
We can use them to sketch the graph of a polynomial. Here is an example.
Sketch the polynomial 2 3 12 7 P x x x x
3 2
= + - -
] g
showing any stationary
points.

dx
dy
x x 6 6 12
2
= + -
For stationary points 0:
dx
dy
=

,
,
x x
x x
x x
x x
x x
6 6 12 0
6 2 0
6 1 2 0
1 0 2 0
1 2
2
2
+ - =
+ - =
- + =
- = + =
= = -
^
] ]
h
g g

So there are two stationary points when , x 1 2 = - .

x
P
1 1
1 2 1 3 1 12 1 7
14
When
3 2
=
= + - -
= -
]
] ] ] ]
g
g g g g

So there is a stationary point at , 1 14 - ^ h .
We can check the gradient on the LHS and RHS of this point to determine
if it is a maximum or minimum turning point.

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
x
dx
dy
x
dx
dy
0
6 0 6 0 12
12
2
6 2 6 2 12
24
When
When
2
2
=
= + -
= -
=
= + -
=

x 0 1 2
dx
dy
-12 0 24
Since
dx
dy
0 1 on the LHS and
dx
dy
0 2 on the RHS , , 1 14 - ^ h is a minimum
turning point .
x 2 2 When = -
] g

P 2 2 2 3 2 12 2 7
13
3 2
- = - + - - - -
=
] ] ] ] g g g g
So there is a stationary point at , 2 13 - ^ h .
Check the gradient on the LHS and RHS of this point.

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
x
dx
dy
x
dx
dy
3
6 3 6 3 12
24
1
6 1 6 1 12
12
When
When
2
2
= -
= - + - -
=
= -
= - + - -
= -

x -3 -2 -1
dx
dy
24 0 -2
Since
dx
dy
0 2 on the LHS and
dx
dy
0 1 on the RHS , , 2 13 - ^ h is a maximum
turning point .
Now we look for intercepts.
x x x 0 2 3 12 7
3 2
= + - -
The expression x x x 2 3 12 7
3 2
+ - - will not factorise so we cannot fnd
the x -intercepts.

P x 2 0 3 0 12 0 7
7
3 2
= + - -
= -
] ] ] ] g g g g

So the y -intercept is 7 - .
Factors of 7 - are 1 !
and 7 ! and none of
these factors will satisfy
the polynomial equation.
CONTINUED
We sketch the polynomial using the stationary points and y -intercept.
(1, -14)
(-2, 13)
-7
y
x
Can you sketch the following polynomials using calculus to fnd their
stationary points?
1. P x x x 6 3
2
= + -
] g

2. P x x x 4 1
2
= - + +
] g

3. p x x 5
3
= -
] g

4. f x x 2
4
= +
] g

5. g x x x 2 3 1
3 2
= + -
] g

6. P x x x x 2 21 72 12
3 2
= - + -
] g

7. f x x x x 2 9 12 4
3 2
= - + - +
] g

8. P x x x x 3 3 5
3 2
= - + -
] g

9. 8 18 7 A x x x x
4 3 2
= + - -
] g

10. Q x x x x x 3 20 48 48 3
4 3 2
= - + - + -
] g

You may have noticed some of these properties while sketching the graphs of
polynomials.
Limiting behaviour of polynomials
The limiting behaviour of a function describes what happens to the function as
. x " !3
For very large , ( ) x P x p x
n
n
.
Investigation
Use a graphics calculator or graphing computer software to explore the
behaviour of polynomials as x becomes large (both negative and positive
values).
For example, sketch f x x x x 2 3 7 1
5 2
= + - -
] g
and 2 f x x
5
=
] g
together.
What do you notice at both ends of the graphs where x is large? Zoom
out on these graphs and watch the graph of the polynomial and the
graph of the leading term come together.
Try sketching other polynomials along with their leading term as
different graphs. Do you fnd the same results?
All positive or negative
values of x to an even
power will always be
positive.
So the leading term shows us what its limiting behaviour will be.
If the degree of a polynomial P ( x ) is even and the leading coeffcient is
positive, then the polynomial will be positive as x becomes large.
This means that for any polynomial with a positive leading coeffcient
and even degree, P x x as " " ! 3 3
] g
.
On the graph, both ends of the graph will go up as shown by the
examples below.
y
x
y
x
y
x
If the degree of a polynomial P ( x ) is even and the leading coeffcient is
negative, then the polynomial will be negative as x becomes large.
This means that for any polynomial with a negative leading coeffcient
and even degree, P x x as " " ! 3 3 -
] g
.
On the graph, both ends of the graph will go down as shown by the
examples below.
y
x
y
x
y
x
If P ( x ) is an odd degree polynomial with positive leading coeffcient, then
as x becomes a very large positive value, P ( x ) will also be positive. As x becomes
a very large negative value, P ( x ) will also be negative.
This means that P x x as " " 3 3 - -
] g
and . P x x as " " 3 3
] g

On the graph, the end of the graph on the LHS will go down and the end
on the RHS will go up as shown in the examples.
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
If P ( x ) is an odd degree polynomial with negative leading coeffcient, then
as x becomes a very large positive value, P ( x ) will be negative. As x becomes
a very large negative value, P ( x ) will be positive.
This means that P x x as " " 3 3 -
] g
and . P x x as " " 3 3 -
] g

On the graph, the end of the graph on the LHS will go up and the end on
the RHS will go down as shown in the examples.
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
If P ( x ) has even degree, the ends of the graph both go the same way.
If P ( x ) has odd degree, the ends of the graph both go different ways .
A polynomial of odd degree always has at least one real zero .
At least one maximum or minimum value of P ( x ) occurs
between any two distinct real zeros .
This comes from the results above. A polynomial with odd degree will go
up at one end and down the other as x becomes large. This means that it must
cross the x -axis at least once.
` the polynomial must have at least one real zero.
You can see this on a graph. If there are two distinct real zeros of a
polynomial, then they will show up on the graph as two x -intercepts since the
zeros make 0 P x =
] g
.
y
x
Leading coefficient 10
y
x
y
x
Leading coefficient 20 y
x
When the graph passes through one x -intercept, say x
1
, it must turn
around again to pass through the other x -intercept x
2
as shown in the
examples below. So there must be at least one maximum or minimum value
between the zeros.
y
x
x
1
x
2
y
x
x
1
x
2
y
x
x
1
x
2
Multiple roots
In quadratic functions, you saw that if a quadratic expression is a perfect
square, it has equal roots (and the discriminant is zero).
EXAMPLE
Solve 2 1 0 x x
2
- + = .
Solution

x x
x x
x
2 1 0
1 1 0
1 0
2
2
- + =
- - =
- =
] ]
]
g g
g

,
,
x x
x x
1 0 1 0
1 1
- = - =
= =
The solution is 1 x = but we say that there are two equal roots .
If , P x x a Q x
n
= -
] ] ] g g g
the polynomial has a multiple root at
x a =
It has n equal roots at x a =
If P ( x ) has two equal roots at x a = then we can write P x x a Q x
2
= -
] ] ] g g g

We say that the polynomial has a double root at x a = .
If , P x x a Q x
3
= -
] ] ] g g g
the polynomial has a triple root at . x a = There are
three equal roots at . x a =
EXAMPLES
1. Sketch the graph of f x x 2
2
+ =
] ] g g
.
Solution
This graph is f x
2
x =
] g
translated 2 units to the left .
Notice that there is a minimum turning point at the root 2 x = - .
0
2 -3 1 -2 -1 -4
1
2
3
4
-1
-2
-3
-4
5
y
x
See class investigations
on pages 686690.
2. Sketch the graph of F x x 1
3
= -
] ] g g
.
Solution
This is the graph of F x x
3
=
] g
translated 1 unit to the right.
0 2 -3 1 3 4 -2 -1 -4
2
4
6
8
-2
-4
-6
-8
y
x
Notice that there is a point of infexion at the root x 1 = .
EXAMPLE
(a) Examine the polynomial P x x x 2 1
2
= + -
] ] ] g g g
close to the roots .
(b) Describe the behaviour of the polynomial as x becomes very large .
(c) Draw a sketch of the polynomial showing its roots.
Solution
(a) P x x x 2 1
2
= + -
] ] ] g g g
has roots when P x 0 =
] g
.
,
,
x x
x x
x x
2 1 0
2 0 1 0
2 1
2
+ - =
+ = - =
= - =
] ] g g

Notice that there is a double root at x 2 = - .
Look at the sign of P ( x ) close to 1: x =

When .
. . .
x
P
0 9
0 9 0 9 2 0 9 1
2
#
=
= + -
= -
= -
+
] ] ] g g g

So the curve is below the x -axis on the LHS .
Generally, a graph cuts the x -axis at a single root but touches the x -axis at
a multiple root in a special way.
See class investigations
on pages 686690.
CONTINUED

When .
. . .
x
P
1 1
1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1
2
#
=
= + -
= + +
= +
] ] ] g g g

So the curve is above the x -axis on the RHS .
Look at the sign of P ( x ) close to : x 2 = -

When .
. . .
x
P
2 1
2 1 2 1 2 2 1 1
2
#
= -
- = - + - -
= + -
= -
] ] ] g g g

So the curve is below the x -axis on the LHS .

When 1.9
. . .
x
P 1 9 1 9 2 1 9 1
2
#
= -
- = - + - -
= + -
= -
] ] ] g g g

So the curve is below the x -axis on the RHS.
At the single root 1 x = , the curve passes through the root from
below the x -axis to above the x -axis.
At the double root , x 2 = - the curve touches the x -axis from below
and turns around and continues to be below the x -axis.
Expanding (b) P x x x 2 1
2
= + -
] ] ] g g g
gives x
3
as the leading term.

P x x x
x x x
x x x x x
2 1
4 4 1
4 4 4 4
2
2
3 2 2
= + -
= + + -
= - + - + -
] ] ]
^ ]
g g g
h g

So the polynomial has degree 3 since the highest power is x
3
.
Also the leading coeffcient is 1.
Since P ( x ) has odd degree and a positive leading coeffcient, as x becomes
a larger positive number, P x "3
] g
and as x becomes a larger negative
number, P x " 3 -
] g
.
(c)

1 -2
y
x
There is no need to expand
the brackets fully as we only
need the leading term.
If P x x a Q x
n
= -
] ] ] g g g
has a multiple root at x a = then ( ) a 0 = ( ) P a P = l
There is a stationary point at : x a =
If n is even, there is a maximum or minimum turning point at x a =
If n is odd, there is a point of infexion at x a =
Proof

P x x a Q x
P a a a Q a
Q x 0
0
n
n
n
$
= -
= -
=
=
] ] ]
] ] ]
]
g g g
g g g
g

Investigation
Use a graphics calculator or graphing computer software to draw graphs
with multiple roots.
Examine values close to the roots . (a)
Look at the relationship between the degree of the polynomial, the (b)
leading coeffcient and its graph .
Here are some examples of polynomials but you could choose others to
examine .
1. P x x x 1 3 = + -
] ] ] g g g

2. P x x x 1 3 = + -
2
] ] ] g g g

3. P x x x 1 3 = - + -
3
] ] ] g g g

4. P x x x 1 3 = - + -
4
] ] ] g g g

5. P x x x 1 3 = + -
2
] ] ] g g g

6. P x x x 1 3 = + -
3
] ] ] g g g

7. P x x x 1 3 = - + -
4
] ] ] g g g

8. P x x x 1 3 = - + -
2 2
] ] ] g g g

9. P x x x 1 3 = - + -
2 3
] ] ] g g g

10. P x x x 1 3 = + -
3 2
] ] ] g g g

Where there is a multiple root, there is always a stationary point
(maximum, minimum or point of infexion).
This means that 0
dx
dy
= at that point.
If the root is at x a = , then we can write this as ( ) a 0 = . Pl
See class
investigation on
pages 686690.
EXAMPLES
1. Draw a sketch of . P x x x 3
3
= - -
] ] g g

Solution
Roots of the polynomial equation : P x 0 =
] g

,
x x
x x
x
3 0
0 3 0
3
3
- - =
= - =
=
] g

There is a single root at 0 x = so the curve crosses the x -axis at this point.
There is a triple root at 3. x = Since n is odd, there is a point of infexion
at 3. x =

P x x x
x x x x
x
3
9 27 27
3
3 2
4
f
= - -
= - - + -
= -
] ]
^
g g
h

Since x
4
is the leading term, P ( x ) has degree 4 and the leading coeffcient
is negative.
So as x becomes large (both negative and positive) the value of
P x " 3 -
] g
.
3 0
y
x

( ) P x u v v u = + l l l

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
n x a Q x Q x x a
n x a Q x x a Q x
1
n n
n n
1
1
$ $ $ = - + -
= - + -
-
-
l
l
( ) P a l ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) n a a Q a a a Q a
n n 1
= - + -
-
l

( ) ( ) n Q a Q a 0 0
0
n n 1
$ $ $ = +
=
-
l

( ) ( ) P a P a 0 ` = = l
There is no need to fully expand
the polynomial as we only want
to fnd the leading term.
2. A polynomial has a double root at 5. x =
Write an expression for the polynomial . (a)
Prove that (b) ( ) P P 5 5 0 = = l ] g
.
Solution
If (a) P ( x ) has a double root at 5 x = , then x 5 -
2
] g
is a factor
P x x Q x 5 So = -
2
] ] ] g g g

(b)

P x x Q x
P Q
Q
5
5 5 5 5
0 5
0
2
#
= -
= -
=
=
2
2
] ] ]
] ] ]
]
g g g
g g g
g

To fnd ( ) P 5 l , frst we differentiate P ( x ) using the product rule.
( ) P x u v v u = + l l l

1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
x Q x Q x x
x Q x x Q x
Q Q
Q Q
2 5 1 5
2 5 5
2 5 5 5 5 5 5
2 0 5 0 5
0
2
2
2
2
$ $ $
# # #
= - + -
= - + -
= - + -
= +
=
l
l
l
l

3. A monic polynomial has degree 5 and has a double root at a
1
and a
triple root at a
2
. Draw a sketch of the polynomial where . a a
1 2
1
Solution
Since P ( x ) is monic and has degree 5, the leading term is x
5
.
We could write P x x a x a
1 2
= - -
3 2
]
_ _
g
i i .
Since the polynomial has odd degree and a positive leading coeffcient, as
x becomes a positive large value, P x "3
] g
and as x becomes a negative
large value, P x " 3 -
] g
.
The double root at x a
1
= gives a maximum or minimum turning point
and the triple root at x a
2
= means a point of infexion.
Putting all this information together gives the graph below.
y
x
a
1
a
2
You learned this
rule in Chapter 4.
( ) P 5 l
1. Find the roots of each polynomial
equation ( ) P x 0 = and state if
they are multiple roots .
(a) 6 9 P x x x
2
= - +
] g

(b) P x x x x 9 14
3 2
= - +
] g

(c) 3 P x x x
3 2
= -
] g

(d) 2 4 8 f x x x x
3 2
= - - +
] g

(e) P x x x x 6 12 8
3 2
= + - -
] g

(f) 4 5 2 A x x x x x
4 3 2
= - + -
] g

(g) P x x x x 4 2
4 3 2
= - - +
] g

x 12 9 +
(h) Q x x x x 8 16
5 4 3
= - +
] g

(i) P x x x x 2 12
4 3 2
= + - +
] g

x 14 5 -
(j) 8 36 54 27 f x x x x
3 2
= - + -
] g

2. For each graph, state if
(i) the leading coeffcient is
positive or negative and
(ii) the degree of the polynomial
is even or odd.
y
x
(a)
y
x
(b)
(c)
y
x
(d)
y
x
y
x
(e)
y
x
(f)
12.5 Exercises
y
x
(g)
y
x
(h)
y
x
(i)
y
x
(j)
3. A monic polynomial of degree
2 has a double root at . x 4 = -
Write down an expression for the
polynomial P ( x ). Is this a unique
expression?
4. A polynomial of degree 3 has a
triple root at . x 1 =
Write down an expression for (a)
the polynomial. Is this unique?
If (b) , P 2 5 =
] g
write the
expression for the polynomial.
5. Polynomial
P x x x 7
3 2
= - +
] g
x 8 16 + has a
double root at . x 4 =
Show that (a) x 4 -
2
] g
is a factor
of P ( x ) .
Write (b) P ( x ) as a product of its
factors .
Prove (c) ( ) . 4 0 = P P 4 = l ] g

6. Polynomial
f x x x 7
4 3
= + +
] g
x x 9 27 54
2
- -
has a triple root at 3 x = - .
Show that (a) 3 x
3
+
] g
is a factor
of f ( x ) .
Write (b) f ( x ) as a product of its
factors .
Prove (c) ( 3) 0 - = . f f 3 - = l ] g

7. A polynomial has a triple root at
x k = and degree n .
Write an expression for the (a)
polynomial .
Prove that (b) ( ) ( ) . P k P k 0 = = l
8. Draw an example of a polynomial
with leading term
(a) x
3

(b) 2x
5
-
3 (c) x
2

(d) x
4
-
(e) 2x
3
-
with a double root at 2 x = and a
leading term of 2 x
3
.
with a double root at x 1 = - and
leading term x
3
- .
11. Sketch an example of a
polynomial with a double root at
2 x = and a leading term of x
4
.
with a double root at 3 x = - and
leading term . x
6

13. A polynomial has a triple root at
x 1 = and it has a leading term of
x
3
. Draw an example of a graph
showing this information.
14. Given a polynomial with a triple
root at 0 x = and leading term
, x
4
- sketch a polynomial on
a number plane that fts this
information.
15. If a polynomial has a triple root
at 2 x = - and a leading term of
x
8
sketch a polynomial ftting this
information.
16. A polynomial has a triple root
at 4 x = and its leading term is
. x 4
3
- Show this on a number
plane.
17. A monic polynomial has degree
3 and a double root at . x 1 = -
Show on a sketch that the
polynomial has another root in
the domain . x 1 2-
18. A polynomial with leading term
x
8
- has a triple root at 2 x = - .
Show by a sketch that the
polynomial has at least one other
root in the domain . x 2 2-
19. A polynomial has a double root
at 2 x = and a double root at
. x 3 = - Its leading term is 2 x
5
. By
drawing a sketch, show that the
polynomial has another root in
the domain . x 2 2
20. Show that a polynomial with
leading term x
3
- and a double
root at x 1 = has another root at a
point where . x 1 2
Roots and Coeffcients of
Polynomial Equations
In Chapter 10, you studied the relationship between the roots and coeffcients
of the quadratic equation. In this section you will revise this and also study
this relationship for cubic and quartic equations.
Quadratic equation
The quadratic equation ax bx c 0
2
+ + = can be written in monic form as

0 x
a
b
x
a
c
2
+ + =

If the quadratic equation has roots a and , b then the equation can be
written in monic form as ( ) ( )
( )
x x
x x x
x x
0
0
0
2
2
a b
b a ab
a b ab
- - =
- - + =
- + + =

i.e. ( ) x
a
b
x
a
c
x x
2 2
/ a b ab + + - + +
Cubic equation
The cubic equation 0 ax bx cx d
3 2
+ + + = can be written in monic form as

0. x
a
b
x
a
c
x
a
d
3 2
+ + + =

If the cubic equation has roots , a b and c then the equation can be
written in monic form as

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
x x x
x x x x
x x x x x x x
x x x
0
0
0
0
2
3 2 2 2
3 2
a b c
b a ab c
c b bc a ac ab abc
a b c ab bc ac abc
- - - =
- - + - =
- - + - + + - =
- + + + + + - =

( ) ( ) x
a
b
x
a
c
x
a
d
x x x
3 2 3 2
/ a b c ab bc ac abc + + + - + + + + + -
This gives the results below:
For the quadratic equation 0: ax bx c
2
+ + =
Sum of roots:

a
b
a b + = -
Product of roots:

a
c
ab =
For the cubic equation : ax bx cx d 0
3 2
+ + + =
Sum of roots 1 at a time:

a
b
a b c + + = -

a
c
ab ac bc + + =
Product of roots (sum of roots 3 at a time)

a
d
abc = -
Quartic equation
The quartic equation 0 ax bx cx dx e
4 3 2
+ + + + = can be written in monic form
as 0. x
a
b
x
a
c
x
a
d
x
a
e
4 3 2
+ + + + =
If the quartic equation has roots , , a b c and d then the equation can be
written in monic form as

0 =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
[ ( ) ( ) ] ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
x x x x
x x x x
x x x x
x x x
x x x
x
0
0
0
3 2
4 3 3 2
2
4 3 2
a b c d
a b c ab bc ac abc d
d a b c d a b c
ab bc ac d ab bc ac abc abcd
a b c d ad db dc ab bc ac
abd bdc adc abc abcd
- - - - =
- + + + + + - - =
- - + + + + + +
+ + - + + - +
- + + + + + + + + + -
+ + + + =

x
a
b
x
a
c
x
a
d
x
a
e
4 3 2
` + + + +

( ) ( )
( )
x x x
x
4 3 2
/ a b c d ad db dc ab bc ac
abd bdc adc abc abcd
- + + + + + + + + +
- + + + +

For the quartic equation 0: ax bx cx dx e
4 3 2
+ + + + =

a
b
a b c d + + + = -

a
c
ab ac ad bc bd cd + + + + + =

a
d
abc abd acd bcd + + + = -
Product of roots (sum of roots 4 at a time):

a
e
abcd =
This pattern extends to polynomials of any degree.
Class Investigation
Can you fnd results for sums and products of roots for equations of
degree 5, 6 and so on?
EXAMPLES
1. If , , a b c are the roots of , x x x 2 5 1 0
3 2
- + - = fnd
(a ) ( )
2
a b c + +
(b) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 1 1 a b c + + +
(c) .
1 1 1
a
b
c
+ +
Solution
( )
( )
a
b
a
c
a
d
2
5
2
5
2
1
2
1
2
1
a b c
ab ac bc
abc
+ + = -
= -
-
=
+ + =
=
= -
= -
-
=
(a) ( )
2
5
6
4
1
2
2
a b c + + = = c m
(b) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 1 1 a b c + + +
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 1
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
5
1
4
2
1
a bc b c
abc ab ac a bc b c
abc ab ac bc a b c
= + + + +
= + + + + + + +
= + + + + + + +
= + + +
=

1 1 1
2
1
2
1
1
a
b
c
abc
bc ac ab
+ + =
+ +
=
=
(c)
CONTINUED
2. If one root of 2 3 0 x x x
3 2
- + - = is 4, fnd the sum and product of
the other two roots.
Solution
Roots are , , a b c where, say, 4 c = .

( )
a
b
a
d
4 1
3
4 3
4
3
`
`
a b c
a b
a b
abc
ab
ab
+ + = -
+ + =
+ = -
= -
=
=

3. Solve , x x x 12 32 15 9 0
3 3
+ + - = given that 2 roots are equal.
Solution
Let the roots be , a a and . b

( )
( )
( )
a
b
a
c
a
d
2
12
32
1
2
12
15
2
12
9
3
2
2
`
`
`
a a b
a b
aa ab ab
a ab
aab
a b
+ + = -
+ = -
+ + =
+ =
= -
=

From ( ):
( )
Substitute in ( ):
( ) ( )
1
12
32
2 4
2
2
12
32
2
12
15
12 24
12
32
2 15
12 64 48 15
0 36 64 15
2 3 18 5
2 3 0 18 5 0
2 3 18 5
1
2
1
18
5
2
2
2 2
2
b a
a a a
a a a
a a a
a a
a a
a a
a a
a a
= - -
+ - - =
+ - - =
- - =
= + +
= + +
+ = + =
= - = -
= - =
-
c
c
m
m

Substitute in (4):

1 : 2 1
2
1
: 2
18
5
2
12
32
1
12
32
1
2
1
3
18
5
9
a b
a b
= - = - - -
=
= - = - - -
= -
c
c
m
m

Substitute in (3):

, :
, :
1
2
1
3
1
1
2
1
3
1
12
9
4
3
4
3
18
5
2
9
1
18
5
2
9
1
12
9
2
2
a b
a b
= - = - =
=
= - = - - - =
c c
c c
m m
m m

This is impossible as LHS is negative and RHS is positive.
` the roots are 1
2
1
- and
3
1

1. Given that a and b are the roots
of the equation, fnd
(i) a b + and
(ii) ab for the following quadratic
equations.
(a) 2 8 0 x x
2
- + =
(b) 3 6 2 0 x x
2
+ - =
(c) x x 7 1 0
2
+ + =
(d) x x 4 9 12 0
2
- - =
(e) 5 15 0 x x
2
+ =
2. Find
(i) , a b c + +
(ii) , ab ac bc + + and
(iii) , abc where , a b and c are
the roots of the equation, for the
following cubic equations .
(a) 2 8 0 x x x
3 2
+ - + =
(b) 3 5 2 0 x x x
3 2
- + - =
(c) 2 6 2 0 x x x
3 2
- + + =
(d) x x 3 11 0
3 2
- - - =
(e) 7 3 0 x x
3
+ - =
3. For the following quartic
equations, where , , a b c and d are
the roots of the equation, fnd
(i) , a b c d + + +
(ii) , ab ac ad bc bd cd + + + + +
(iii) abc abd acd bcd + + + and
(iv) abcd
(a) 2 5 0 x x x x
4 3 2
+ - - + =
(b) 3 2 7 0 x x x x
4 3 2
- - + - =
(c) 3 2 4 0 x x x x
4 3 2
- + + - + =
(d) 2 2 4 3 2 0 x x x x
4 3 2
- - + - =
(e) 2 12 7 0 x x
4 3
- + =
4. If a and b are the roots of
5 5 0, x x
2
- - = fnd
(a) a b +
(b) ab
(c)
1 1
a
b
+
(d)
2 2
a b +
(e)
3 3
a b +
12.6 Exercises
5. If , a b and c are the roots of
2 5 3 0, x x x
3 2
+ - - = nd
(a) abc
(b) ab ac bc + +
(c) a b c + +
(d)
1 1 1
a
b
c
+ +
(e) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 1 1 a b c + + +
6. If , , a b c and d are the roots of
2 5 3 0, x x x
4 3
- + - = nd
(a) abcd
(b) abc abd acd bcd + + +
(c)
1 1 1 1
a
b
c
d
+ + +
7. One root of 3 2 0 x x k
2
- + - =
is 4. - Find the value of k .
8. One root of 5 21 0 x x x
3 2
- - + =
is 3. Find the sum a b + and
the product ab of the other
two roots.
9. Given ( ) , P x x x x 2 7 4 1
3 2
= - + +
if the equation ( ) 0 P x = has a
root at , x 1 = nd the sum and
product of its other roots.
10. Find the value(s) of k if
( ) x k x k 2 1 0
2
- + + + = has
equal roots (a)
one root equal to 5 (b)
consecutive roots (c)
one root double the other (d)
reciprocal roots (e)
11. Two roots of
15 7 0 x mx x
3 2
+ + - = are equal
and rational. Find m .
12. Two roots of
5 0 x ax bx
3 2
+ + - = are equal
to 4 and 2. - Find the values of
a and b .
13. (a) Show that 1 is a
zero of the polynomial
( ) . P x x x x 2 7 6
4 3
= - + -
If (b) , a b and c are the other
3 zeros, nd the value of
a b c + + and . abc
14. If 2 x = is a double root of
2 8 16 0, ax x x
4 3
- - + = nd the
value of a and the sum of the
other two roots.
15. Two of the roots of
4 0 x px qx
3 2
- - - = are 3 and 5.
Find the other root. (a)
Find (b) p and q .
16. The product of two of the roots
of 2 18 5 0 x x x
4 3
+ - - = is 5. -
Find the product of the other
two roots.
17. The sum of two of the roots of
x x x x 7 14 1 0
4 3 2
+ + + - = is
4. Find the sum of the other
two roots.
18. Find the roots of
8 20 6 9 0, x x x
3 2
- + + = given
that two of the roots are equal.
19. Solve x x x 12 4 3 1 0
3 3
- - + = if
the sum of two of its roots is 0.
20. Solve
6 5 24 15 18 0 x x x x
4 3 2
+ - - + =
if the sum of two of its roots
is zero.
Test Yourself 12
1. Write ( ) p x x x x x 4 14 36 45
4 3 2
= + - - +
2. If , a b and c are the roots of
3 9 0, x x x
3 2
- + - = fnd
(a) a b c + +
(b) abc
(c) ab ac bc + +
(d)
1 1 1
a
b
c
+ +
3. A monic polynomial ( ) P x of degree 3
has zeros 2,1 - and 6. Write down the
polynomial.
4. (a) Divide
( ) P x x x x x 19 49 30
4 3 2
= + - - - by
. x x 2 15
2
- -
Hence, write (b) ( ) P x as a product of its
factors.
5. For the polynomial ( ) , P x x x x 2 3
3 2
= + -
fnd
the degree (a)
the coeffcient of (b) x
the zeros (c)
the leading term . (d)
6. Sketch ( ) ( ) ( ) f x x x 2 3
2
= - + showing the
intercepts.
7. If 3 48 60 0 ax x x x
4 3 2
+ - + = has a
double root at 2, x = fnd
the value of (a) a
the sum of the other two roots . (b)
8. Show that 7 x + is not a factor of
7 5 4. x x x
3 2
- + -
9. If the sum of two roots of
x x x x 2 8 18 9 0
4 3 2
+ - - - = is 0, fnd
the roots of the equation.
10. The polynomial ( ) f x ax bx c
2
= + + has
zeros 4 and 5, and ( ) . f 1 60 - = Evaluate
a , b and c .
11. Find the x - and y -intercepts of the curve
. y x x x 3 10 24
3 2
= - - +
12. Divide ( ) 3 7 8 5 p x x x x
5 3 2
= - + -
by 2, x - and write ( ) p x in the form
( ) ( 2) ( ) ( ). p x x a x b x = - +
13. Solve cos cos cos x x x 2 0
3 2
+ - = for
. x 0 360 c c # #
14. When 8 5 9 x kx
3
- + is divided by 2, x -
the remainder is . 1 - Evaluate k .
15. Find the zeros of ( ) 9 20. g x x x
2
= - + -
16. Sketch ( ) 2 ( 3)( 5), P x x x x = - + showing
intercepts.
17. Find the value of k if the remainder is
4 - when 2 3 x x x k
3 2
+ - + is divided by
2. x -
18. The sum of 2 roots of
7 5 3 0 x x x x
4 3 2
- + - + = is 3. Find the
sum of the other 2 roots.
19. A polynomial is given by
( ) ( )( ) . P x A x x a
3
= - Show that
( ) . a 0 = ( ) P a P = l
20. Show that 5 x - is a factor of
( ) . f x x x x 6 12 35
3 2
= - + -
21. (a) Show that 5 x - is a factor of
f x
3 2
x x x 7 5 75 = - - +
] g
.
Show that (b) ( ) f 5 5 0 = . f = l ] g

What can you say about the root (c)
at 5 x = ?
Write (d) f ( x ) as a product of its factors.
22. The leading term of a polynomial is 3x
3

and there is a double root at 3 x = .
Draw an example of a graph of the
polynomial.
23. A polynomial P ( x ) has a triple root at
6 x = - .
Write an expression for (a) P ( x ) .
If (b) P ( x ) has leading coefcient 3 and
degree 4, draw a sketch showing this
information.
24. Draw an example of a polynomial with
leading term . x 3
5

25. If P x ax bx cx d
3 2
= + + +
] g
has a
remainder of 8 when divided by
, , x P P 1 2 17 1 4 - = - = -
] ] g g
and
0 5 P =
] g
, evaluate a , b , c and d .
1. Write ( ) P x x x x x x 2 2 1
5 4 3 2
= + + - - -
2. A polynomial ( ) ( ) ( ). P x x b Q x
7
= -
Show that (a) ( ) . b 0 = ( ) P b P = l
Hence nd (b) a and b, if ( ) x 1
7
- is a
factor of
( )
.
P x x x ax x x bx
x
3 3
1
7 6 5 4 3 2
= + + + + + -
+
3. Solve
tan tan tan tan 3 3 0
4 3 2
i i i i - - + =
for . 0 360 c c # # i
4. (a) Find the equation of the tangent to
the curve y x
3
= at the point where . x 1 =
Find the point where this tangent (b)
cuts the curve again.
5. (a) Find the remainder when
( ) 2 7 3 9 p x x x ax x
4 3 2
= - + + - is
divided by . x 2 1 -
If the remainder, when (b) ( ) p x is
divided by 2, x + is 17, nd the value
of a.
6. If , a b and c are roots of the cubic
equation 2 8 6 0, x x x
3 2
+ - + = nd
abc (a)
2 2 2
a b c + + (b)
7. Solve sin sin 4 3 1 0
3
i i - - = for
. 0 360 c c # # i
8. Find the value of a if ( ) ( ) x x 1 2 + - is a
factor of 2 2. x x ax
3 2
- + -
9. Prove that if x a - is a factor of
polynomial ( ), P x then ( ) 0. P a =
10. Find the points of intersection between
the polynomial P x x x x 5 4 1
3 2
= + + -
] g

and the line 3 4 0 x y + + = .
11. Write down an example of a polynomial
with the graph below.

y
x
2 -1
12. Sketch an example of a polynomial with
a double root at x a
1
= and a double root
at x a
2
= , if the polynomial is monic and
has even degree . a a
2 1
2 _ i

TERMINOLOGY
13
Permutations and
Combinations
Arrangements: Different ways of organising objects
Combinations: Arrangements of objects without
replacement or repetition when order is not important.
The notation used is C
n
r
for selecting r objects from n
where order doesnt matter
Factorial: A factorial is the product of n consecutive
positive integers from n down to one. For example
6! = 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1
Fundamental counting principle: If one event can occur in
p ways and a second independent event can occur in q
ways, then the two successive events can occur in p x q
different ways
Ordered selections: Selections that are taken in a
particular position
Permutations: The arrangement of objects without
replacement or repetition when order is important. The
notation used is P
r
n
for selecting r objects from n where
order matters
Random experiments: Experiments that are made with no
pattern or order where each outcome is equally likely to
occur
Sample space: The set of all possible outcomes in an event
or series of events
Unordered selections: Selections that are made when
the order of arrangements is not important or relevant
717 Chapter 13 Permutations and Combinations
INTRODUCTION
THIS CHAPTER IS AN introduction to some of the concepts you will meet in
probability in the HSC Course. Probability is the study of how likely it is
that something will happen. It is used to make predictions in different areas,
ranging from games of chance to business decision-making.
In this chapter you will study general counting techniques based on
the fundamental counting principle. These will lead on to the study of
permutations and combinations. These have applications in fnding the size
of the sample space, or the ways that certain events can happen in probability.
It can also tell us the number of postcodes a state can have, the number of
telephone numbers that is possible in a city and the number of combinations
making up serial numbers for appliances.
The probability of an event E happening, P ( E ), is given by the number
of ways the event can occur, n ( E ), compared with the total number of
outcomes possible n ( S ) (the size of the sample space).

( )
( )
E P
n S
n E
=
] g

If 0 P E =
] g
the event is impossible.
If 1 P E =
] g
the event is certain (it has to happen).
P E 0 1 # #
] g

Fundamental Counting Principle
Simple probability
You have studied probability in
earlier stages of mathematics. We
can measure probability in theory.
However, probability only gives us an
approximate idea of the likelihood
of certain events happening.
For example, in Lotto draws,
there is a machine that draws out
the balls at random and a panel of
supervisors checks that this happens
properly. Each ball is independent of
the others and is equally likely to be drawn out.
In a horse race, it is diffcult to measure probability as the horses are not
all equally likely to win. Other factors such as ability, training, experience and
weight of the jockey all affect it. The likelihood of any one horse winning is
not random.
EXAMPLES
1. Alison buys 5 raffe tickets and 100 are sold altogether. What is the
probability that Alison (a) wins (b) doesnt win frst prize in the raffe?
Solution
The size of the sample space, or total number of outcomes is 100, (a)
since there are 100 tickets altogether.
Alison has 5 tickets so has 5 different ways of winning the raffe.

( ) P
100
5
20
1
Win =
=

There are (b) 100 5 - or 95 other tickets that could win if Alison loses.

( ) P
100
95
20
19
Loss =
=

Or, if we know that the sum of all probabilities is 1, we could say

( ) ( ) P P 1
1
20
1
20
19
Loss Win = -
= -
=

2. There are 56 books on music at the school library and there are
2000 books altogether. If Anthony selects a book at random, fnd the
probability that it will be a book on music.
Solution
The size of the sample space is 2000 and there are 56 ways that Anthony
could select a music book.

( ) P
2000
56
250
7
Music book =
=

The sum of all probabilities is 1.
Complementary events:
P E P E 1 not =
] ] g g

or ( ) P E P E 1 = -
^ h
L
where E
L
is the complement of E
P E P E 1 + =
] ^ g h
L

1. A lottery is held in which 20 000
tickets are sold. If I buy 2 tickets,
what is the probability of my
winning the prize in the lottery?
2. The probability of a bus arriving
on time is estimated at
33
17
. What
is the probability that the bus will
not arrive on time?
3. The probability of a seed
producing a pink fower is
9
7
.
Find the probability that the seed
will produce a different coloured
fower.
4. In a lottery, 200 000 tickets are
sold. If Lucia buys 10 tickets,
what is the probability of her
winning frst prize?
5. A machine has a 1.5% chance of
breaking down at any given time.
What is the probability of the
machine not breaking down?
6. A bag contains 6 red balls and
8 white balls. If one ball is
drawn out at random, fnd the
probability that it will be
white (a)
red. (b)
7. A shoe shop orders in 20 pairs
of black, 14 pairs of navy and
3 pairs of brown school shoes.
If the boxes are all mixed up,
fnd the probability that one box
selected at random will contain
brown shoes.
8. A biased coin is weighted so that
heads comes up twice as often
as tails. Find the probability of
tossing a tail.
9. A die has the centre dot painted
white on the 5 so that it appears
as a 4. Find the probability of
rolling
a 2 (a)
a 4 (b)
a number less than 5. (c)
10. A book has 124 pages. If the book
is opened at any page at random,
fnd the probability of the page
number being
either 80 or 90 (a)
a (b) multiple of 10
an odd number (c)
less than 100. (d)
11. In the game of pool, there are
15 balls, each with the number
1 to 15 on it. In Kelly Pool, each
person chooses a number at
random from a container and
has to try and sink the ball with
the corresponding number. If
Tracey chooses a number, fnd the
probability that her ball will be
the eight ball (a)
an odd number (b)
a number less than 10. (c)
13.1 Exercises
A multiple of 10 is
a number that is
divisible by 10.
12. A box containing a light globe
has a
20
1
probability of holding
a defective globe. If 160 boxes are
checked, how many globes would
be expected to be defective?
13. There are 29 red, 17 blue,
21 yellow and 19 green jelly
beans in a packet. If Kate
chooses one at random, fnd the
probability that it will be
red (a)
blue or yellow (b)
not green. (c)
14. The probability of breeding a
white budgie is
15
2
. If Mr Seed
breeds 240 budgies over the year,
how many would be expected to
be white?
15. A die is rolled. Calculate the
probability of rolling
a 6 (a)
an even number (b)
a number less than 3 (c)
4 or more (d)
a multiple of 2. (e)
16. The probability that an arrow will
hit a target is
18
13
.
Find the probability that it (a)
will miss the target.
If 126 arrows are fred, how (b)
many would be expected to hit
a target?
17. A dog can catch a ball in its
mouth 8 times out of 10.
What is the probability of the (a)
dog catching a ball?
If the ball is thrown to the (b)
dog 45 times, how many times
would the dog be expected to
catch it?
18. In a bag there are 21 lollies with
pink wrappers and 23 with blue
wrappers. If Leila chooses a lolly
at random from the bag, fnd the
probability that she selects a lolly
with
a blue wrapper (a)
a pink wrapper. (b)
19. In a survey, it was found that 18
people preferred Brand A of soft
drink while 39 people preferred
Brand B. What is the probability
that a person chosen at random
prefers Brand A?
20. A school has 653 junior and
329 senior students. If a student
is chosen at random, what is the
probability that it will be a senior
student?
21. A class has 12 girls and 19 boys.
Eight of the girls and 12 of the
boys play a sport. If a student
is chosen at random, fnd the
probability that the person
chosen
is a boy (a)
plays a sport (b)
is a girl who doesnt play (c)
a sport
doesnt play a sport. (d)
22. Amies CD collection includes
21 R&B, 14 rock and 24 jazz
albums. If she selects one CD
to play at random, fnd the
probability that the CD is
rock (a)
R&B or rock (b)
jazz (c)
not R&B. (d)
Counting techniques
In the HSC Course you will learn about multi-stage events (events where
there are two or more events such as rolling two dice or tossing two coins).
The counting can become quite diffcult, which is why we introduce counting
techniques in the Preliminary Course.
23. The probability of winning a
game of chance is
8
3
and the
probability of losing is
12
5
. What
is the probability of a draw?
24. In a poll, 39% said they
would vote Labor, 34% said
they would vote Liberal and
8% said they would vote for
independents or small parties.
What percentage would vote for
Greens?
25. An arrow has a 0.37 probability
of hitting a target outside
the bullseye zone and
0.12 probability of missing the
target altogether. What is the
probability of the arrow hitting
the bullseye area?
Class Discussion
Break up into pairs and try these experiments with one doing the activity
and one recording the results.
Toss two coins as many times as you can in a 5-minute period and 1.
record the results in the table:
Result Two heads One head and one tail Two tails
Tally
Compare your results with others in the class. What do you notice? Is this
surprising?
Roll two dice as many times as you can in a 5-minute period, fnd 2.
the total of the two uppermost numbers on the dice and record the
results in the table:
Total 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Tally
Compare your results with others in the class. What do you notice? Is this
surprising?
Why dont these results appear to be equally likely?
There are many examples of where counting techniques are useful,
in probability and in areas such as manufacturing, business, biology and
economics. For example, in genetics, the number of molecules on DNA strands
can be diffcult to fnd.
Investigation
To travel to work, Cassie needs to catch a bus and a train. She lives 1.
near a bus stop and there are three different buses she could catch
into town. When she arrives in town, she needs to catch one of four
trains to work.
If there are three buses and four trains possible for Cassie to catch, in
how many ways is it possible for her to travel to work?
Buses Trains
A
1
C
B
2
3
4
Cassies
house
At a restaurant, there are three entrees, four main meals and two 2.
desserts. Every time Rick eats at the restaurant he chooses to eat a
different combination of courses. How many times would he need to
go to the restaurant to cover all possible combinations?
FUNDAMENTAL COUNTING PRINCIPLE
If one event can happen in a different ways, a second event can happen
in b different ways, a third in c different ways and so on, then these
successive events can happen in abc different ways.
EXAMPLES
1. A personal identifcation number (PIN) has 4 letters followed by
3 numbers. How many different PINs of this type are possible?
Solution
There are 26 letters and 10 numbers ( 0 9 ) possible for the positions in
the PIN.
Here are some examples of counting when there is no repetition or
replacement.
EXAMPLES
1. To win a trifecta in a race, a person has to pick the horses that come
frst, second and third in the race. If a race has 9 horses, how many
different combinations could be a trifecta?
Solution
Any of the 9 horses could come frst.
Any of the remaining 8 could come second.
Any of the remaining 7 horses could come third.

9 8 7
504
Total ways # # =
=

26 26 26 26 10 10 10
26 10
456 976 000
Total number
4 3
# # # # # #
#
=
=
=

So 456 976 000 PINs are possible.
2. A restaurant serves 5 different types of entree, 12 main courses and
6 desserts.
If I order any combination of entree, main course and dessert at (a)
random, how many different combinations are possible?
If my friend makes 3 guesses at which combination I will order, what (b)
is the probability that she will guess correctly?
Solution
(a) 5 12 6
360
Total number of combinations =
=
# #
(b) P
360
3
120
1
correct guess =
=
^ h
The probabilities will
be different for where
each horse will come
in the race, but the
number of possible
different trifecta
combinations will be
the same.
CONTINUED
2. A group of 15 people attend a concert and 3 of them are randomly
given a free backstage pass. The frst person receives a gold pass, the
second one a silver pass and the third one a bronze pass. In how many
different ways can the passes be given out?
Solution
Any of the 15 people can receive the frst pass.
There are 14 people left who could receive the second pass.
Similarly there are 13 people that could receive the third pass.

15 14 13
2 730
Total number of possibilities # # =
=

3. In Lotto, a machine contains 45 balls, each with a different number
from 1 to 45.
In how many ways can 6 balls be randomly drawn? (a)
To win frst prize in Lotto, a person must choose all 6 numbers (b)
correctly. Lisa has 3 tickets in the same draw of Lotto. What is the
probability that she will win frst prize?
Solution
The frst ball could be any of the 45 balls. (a)
The second could be any of the remaining 44 balls and so on.

45 44 43 42 41 40
5 864 443 200
The number of ways # # # # # =
=

(b) P
5 864 443 200
3
1954 814 400
1
first prize =
=
^ h
1. A password has 4 letters. How
many combinations are possible?
2. A motorcycle numberplate is
made up of 2 letters followed
by 2 numbers. How many
numberplates of this type are
available?
3. A password can have up to
5 letters followed by 4 numbers
on it. If I could use any letter of
the alphabet or number, how
many different passwords could
be formed? Leave your answer in
index form.
13.2 Exercises
4. A witness saw most of the
numberplate on a getaway car
except for the frst letter and the
last number. How many different
cars do the police need to check
in order to fnd this car?
5. A certain brand of computer
has a serial number made up of
10 letters then 15 numbers. How
many computers with this type
of serial number can be made?
Leave your answer in index form.
6. Victoria has postcodes starting
with 3. How many different
postcodes are available in
Victoria?
7. A country town has telephone
numbers starting with 63
followed by any 6 other
numbers from 0 to 9. How many
telephone numbers are possible
in this town?
8. Yasmin has 12 tops, 5 pairs of
jeans and 5 pairs of shoes in
her wardrobe. If she randomly
chooses a top, pair of jeans and
shoes, how many combinations
are possible?
9. A car manufacturer produces
cars in 8 different colours, with
either manual or automatic gear
transmission, and 4 different types
of wheels. How many different
combinations can it produce?
10. A PIN has 4 numbers. If I forget
my PIN I am allowed 3 tries to get
it right. Find the probability that
I get it within the 3 tries .
11. A restaurant offers 7 main
courses and 4 desserts, as well as
3 different types of coffee.
How many different (a)
combinations of main
course, dessert and coffee are
possible?
Find the probability that (b)
I randomly pick the combination
voted most favourite.
12. A telephone number in a capital
city can start with a 9 and has
8 digits altogether.
How many telephone (a)
numbers are possible?
If I forget the last 3 digits of (b)
my friends telephone number,
how many numbers would
I have to try for the correct
number?
13. A company manufactures
20 000 000 computer chips. If it
uses a serial number on each one
consisting of 10 letters, will there
be enough combinations for all
these chips?
14. A password consists of 2 letters
followed by 5 numbers. What is
the probability that I randomly
guess the correct password?
15. A city has a population of
3 500 000. How many digits
should its telephone numbers
have so that every person can
have one?
16. A manufacturer of computer
parts puts a serial number on
each part, consisting of 3 letters,
4 numbers then 4 letters. The
number of parts sold is estimated
as 5 million. Will there be enough
combinations on this serial
number to cope with these sales?
17. A bridal shop carries 12 different
types of bridal dresses, 18 types
of veils and 24 different types
of shoes. If Kate chooses a
combination of dress, veil and
Factorial notation
Counting outcomes when repetition or replacement is allowed is quite
straightforward, even when the numbers become very large.
shoes at random, what is the
probability that she chooses
the same combination as her
friend Jane?
18. Kate chooses a different
coloured dress for each of her
3 bridesmaids. If the colours
are randomly given to each
bridesmaid, how many different
possibilities are there?
19. In a computer car race game,
the cars that come rst, second
and third are randomly awarded.
If there are 20 cars, how many
possible combinations of rst,
second and third are there?
20. Jacquie only has 4 chocolates left
and decides to randomly choose
which of her 6 friends will receive
one each. How many possible
ways are there in which can she
give the chocolates away?
21. Three prizes are given away
at a concert by taping them
underneath random seats. If there
are 200 people in the audience, in
how many ways can these prizes
be won?
22. There are 7 clients at a
hairdressing salon. If there are
3 free haircuts randomly given
away, in how many ways could
this be done?
23. A ock of 28 pelicans is fed
6 sh carcasses. If each carcass
is given to a different pelican,
in how many ways can this
happen?
24. A set of cards is numbered 1 to
100 and 2 chosen at random.
How many different (a)
arrangements of ordered pairs are
possible?
What is the probability that (b)
a particular ordered pair is chosen?
25. Each of 10 cards has a letter
written on it from A to J. If
3 cards are selected in order at
random, nd the probability that
they spell out CAB.
EXAMPLE
A card is drawn randomly from a set of 25 cards numbered 1 to 25 in
turn and then replaced before the next is selected. How many possible
outcomes are there if 25 cards are chosen this way? Answer in scientic
notation, correct to 3 signicant gures.
When there is no repetition or replacement, the calculations can be quite
long.
Solution
Each time there is a card drawn, there are 25 possibilities.

. . .
.
25 25 25 25 25
25
8 88 10
Total number times
25
34
# # # #
#
=
=
=
] g

EXAMPLE
A card is drawn randomly from a set of 25 cards numbered 1 to 25 in
turn without replacing it before the next is drawn. How many possible
outcomes are there if all 25 cards are drawn out? Answer in scientifc
notation, correct to 3 signifcant fgures.
Solution
First card: there are 25 possibilities.
Second card: there are only 24 possibilities since one card has already
been drawn out .
Third card: there are 23 possibilities and so on.

.
25 24 23 3 2 1
1 55 10
Total number
25
# # # # # #
#
=
=

Check 0! on your
calculator.
Factorial notation allows us to easily calculate the number of possible
outcomes when selecting all objects in order with no replacement or
repetition.
! . . . n n n n n n 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 # # = - - - -
] ] ] ] g g g g

Since the sequence of numbers multiplied doesnt go further than 1, then
by convention we say that
0! 1 =
This calculation is
quite tedious!
You can nd a x!
key on most scientic
calculators.
EXAMPLES
1. Evaluate
4! (a)
7! (b)
25! (answer in scientifc notation correct to 3 signifcant fgures.) (c)
Solution
(a) ! 4 4 3 2 1
24
# # # =
=

(b) ! 7 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
5040
# # # # # # =
=

(c) ! . 25 1 55 10
25
# =
2. A group of 9 teenagers is waiting to be served in a caf. They are each
randomly assigned a number from 1 to 9.
In how many ways is it possible for the numbers to be assigned? (a)
One of the group needs to be served quickly as he has to leave. (b)
If he is given the frst number, in how many ways is it possible for the
numbers to be assigned?
Solution
The frst number could be assigned 9 ways. (a)
The second number could be assigned 8 ways and so on.

! 9
362 880
Total ways =
=

One of the group is given the frst ticket (this can only happen in one (b)
way)
The second number could be assigned 8 ways and so on.

! 1 8
40 320
Total ways # =
=

It is much easier to use the
x! key on a calculator to
nd this.
1. Evaluate
6! (a)
10! (b)
0! (c)
(d) ! ! 8 7 -
(e) ! 5 4 #
(f)
4!
7!

(g)
5!
12!

(h)
4!9!
13!

(i)
3!5!
8!

(j)
4!7!
11!

13.3 Exercises
2. A group of 9 jockeys are each given
a set of riding colours to wear.
If these are given out in order
randomly, how many different
arrangements are possible?
3. Each of 6 people at a restaurant is
given a different coloured glass.
How many possible combinations
are there?
4. A mountain trail only has
room for one person at a time.
If 12 people are waiting at the
bottom of the trail and are
randomly picked to start out, in
how many ways can this happen?
5. A dog walker has 5 dogs and
5 leashes. In how many different
ways is it possible to put a leash
on each dog?
6. There are 11 people in a choir
and each receives a musical
score.
In how many different ways (a)
could the scores be handed out?
Russell, the musical director, (b)
also needs a musical score. In
how many ways could the scores
be handed out for the choir and
the musical director?
7. A row of seats in a theatre seats 8
people. In how many ways could
a group of 8 friends be randomly
seated in this row?
8. A group of 7 people line up to do
karaoke. If they are each randomly
given a song to sing, how many
possible outcomes are there?
9. A kindergarten class has a rabbit,
a mouse and a parrot. Three
children are selected to take these
pets home for the holidays. If
the pets are randomly given out
to these children, how many
different ways are possible?
10. A PIN consists of 6 numbers, with
no repetition of any numbers
allowed. How many different
PINs are possible?
11. In a chorus for a school musical,
7 students each wear a different
mask. In how many different
ways can the masks be worn by
these students?
12. If 15 people play a game of Kelly
pool, each person in turn chooses
a number at random between
1 and 15. In how many different
ways can this occur? Answer in
scientifc notation, correct to one
decimal place.
13. (a) A school talent quest has
11 performers and each one
is randomly given the order
in which to perform. In how
many ways can the order of
performances be arranged?
If one performer is chosen to (b)
perform frst, in how many ways
can the others be arranged?
14. A group of 6 friends sit in the
same row at a concert.
can they arrange themselves?
If one friend must sit on the (b)
aisle, in how many ways can they
be arranged?
15. A group of 8 friends go to a
restaurant and sit at a round
table. If the frst person can sit
anywhere, in how many ways can
the others be arranged around
the table?
16. In a pack of cards, the 4 aces are
taken out and shuffed.
What is the probability of (a)
picking out the Ace of Hearts at
random?
If all the aces are arranged in (b)
order, what is the probability of
guessing the correct order?
17. At a wedding, each of the
12 tables is to have a centrepiece
with a different coloured rose.
can the roses be arranged at
random?
What is the probability that (b)
the bride will have a pink rose at
her table?
18. In a maths exam, a student has to
arrange 5 decimals in the correct
order. If he has no idea how to do
this and arranges them randomly,
what is the probability that he
makes the right guess for all the
decimals?
19. In a car race, the fastest car is
given pole position and the other
cars are randomly given their
starting positions. If there are
14 cars altogether, in how many
ways can this be arranged?
20. Show that
(a)
!
!
4
8
8 7 6 5 # # # =
(b)
!
!
6
11
11 10 9 8 7 # # # # =
(c)
!
!
r
n

n n n n 1 2 3 = - - -
] ] ] g g g
... r n r 1 where 2 +
] g
(d)
( ) !
!
n r
n
-

n n n n 1 2 3 = - - -
] ] ] g g g
... n r n r 1 where 2 - +
] g
Permutations
Factorial notation is useful for fnding the number of possible outcomes when
arranging all objects in order without replacement. However, sometimes we
need to fnd the number of possible outcomes when arranging only some of
the objects in order without replacement.
It is easy to arrange objects with replacement.
EXAMPLE
In how many ways can 5 cards be selected from a total of 20 cards if each
one is replaced before selecting the next one?
Solution
Each selection can be made in 20 possible ways.

.
20 20 20 20 20
20
3200 000
Total
ways
5
=
=
=
# # # #

For r selections from n objects (with repetitions), the number
of possible outcomes is n n n n # # # f ( r times) or n
r

However, when arranging r objects from n objects in order without
replacement, it is not so easy.
EXAMPLE
In how many ways can 5 cards be selected from a total of 20 cards if there
is no replacement?
Solution
The 1 st card can be selected in 20 different ways.
The 2 nd card can be selected in 19 different ways as the frst card is no
longer being used.
The 3 rd card can be selected in 18 different ways, and so on.

20 19 18 17 16
1860 480
Total
ways
=
=
# # # #

The calculations can become tedious if we select a larger number of
objects.
EXAMPLE
If there are 20 cards and 13 cards are chosen in order at random without
replacement, fnd the possible number of ways the cards can be chosen in
scientifc notation correct to 1 decimal place.
Solution
The frst card can be any of the 20 numbers.
The second card can be any of the remaining 19 numbers.
The third can be any of the remaining 18 numbers.

20 19 18 17 8
4.8 10
The number of ways the cards can be chosen
14
=
=
# # # # #
#
f

For r ordered selections from n objects without replacement, the number
of possible outcomes is 1 2 3 n n n n r times - - - # # # f
] ] ] ] g g g g
or
1 n n n n n r 1 2 3 - - - - + f
] ] ] ] g g g g

Permutation P
n
r
is the number of ways of making ordered selections
of r objects from a total of n objects.

!
!
P
n r
n
n
r
=
-
] g

A permutation describes an arrangement of r objects from a total of
n objects in a certain order without replacement or repetition.
Proof

!
!
P n n n n n r
n n n n n r
n r n r n r
n r n r n r
n r n r n r
n n n n n r n r n r n r
n r
n
1 2 3 1
1 2 3 1
1 2 3 2 1
1 2 3 2 1
1 2 3 2 1
1 2 3 1 1 2 3 2 1
n
r
= - - - - +
= - - - - +
- - - - -
- - - - -
=
- - - - -
- - - - + - - - - -
=
-
#
$ $
$ $
$ $
$ $
f
f
f
f
f
f f
] ] ] ]
] ] ] ]
] ] ]
] ] ]
] ] ]
] ] ] ] ] ] ]
]
g g g g
g g g g
g g g
g g g
g g g
g g g g g g g
g

A special case of this result is:
You can nd a
P
n
r
key on most
scientic calculators.
! P n
n
n
=
Proof

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
P
n r
n
P
n n
n
n
n
n
0
1
n
n
n
r
=
-
=
-
=
=
=
`
]
]
g
g

EXAMPLES
1. Evaluate P
9
4

Solution

!
!
!
!
P
9 4
9
5
9
5 4 3 2 1
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
9 8 7 6
3024
9
4
$ $ $ $
$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $
$ $ $
=
-
=
=
=
=
] g

2. (a) Find the number of arrangements of 3 digits that can be formed
using the digits 0 to 9 if each digit can only be used once.
(b) How many 3 digit numbers greater than 700 can be formed?
Solution
There are 10 digits from 0 to 9. (a)
The 1 st digit can be any of the 10 digits.
The 2 nd digit can be any of the remaining 9 digits.
The 3 rd digit can be any of the remaining 8 digits.

10 9 8
720
Total permutations =
=
# #

!
!
!
!
P
10 3
10
7
10
720
or
10
3
=
-
=
=
] g

CONTINUED
You can evaluate this on a
calculator.
The 1 st digit must be 7 or 8 or 9 (3 possible digits). (b)
The 2 nd digit can be any of the remaining 9 digits.
The 3 rd digit can be any of the remaining 8 digits.

3 9 8
216
Total arrangements =
=
# #

Another method:
There are 3 ways to get the 1 st digit.
The possible arrangements of the remaining 2 digits is P
9
2

3
3 72
216
P Total arrangements
9
2
=
=
=
#
#
There are some special examples that need very careful counting, such
as arrangements around a circle. Others involve counting when there are
identical objects.
EXAMPLES
1. (a) In how many ways can 6 people sit around a circular table?
(b) If seating is random, fnd the probability that 3 particular people
will sit together.
Solution
The 1 st person can sit anywhere around the table so we only need to (a)
arrange the other 5 people.
The 2 nd person can sit in any of the 5 remaining seats.
The 3 rd person can sit in any of the remaining 4 seats and so on.

5!
120
=

The 3 people can sit anywhere around the table together in (b) 3 2 1 # #
or 3! ways.
The remaining 3 people can sit together in 3! ways.

3! 3!
36
Total arrangements # =
=

( )
.
P 3
120
36
10
3
sit together =
=
2. In how many ways can the letters of the word EXCEPTIONAL be
arranged?
Solution
EXCEPTIONAL has 11 letters with the letter E repeated.
If each E was different, i.e. E
1
and E
2
, then there would be 11!
arrangements.
However, we cannot tell the difference between the 2 Es. Since there are
2! ways of arranging the Es, then there are 2! arrangements of the word
EXCEPTIONAL that are identical. We need to divide by 2! to eliminate
these identical arrangements.

!
!
.
2
11
19 958 400
=

The number of different ways of arranging n objects in which
a of the objects are of one kind, b objects are of another
kind, c of another kind and so on, is given by
! ! !
!
a b c
n
f
where
a b c n f# + + +
EXAMPLE
Find the number of ways that the word ANAETHEMA can be arranged.
Solution
There are 9 letters, including 3 As and 2 Es. There are 9! ways of arranging
the letters, with 3! ways of arranging the As and 2! ways of arranging the Es.
! !
!
3 2
9
30 240
=

Some questions involving counting need different approaches and
sometimes it is just a matter of logically working it out.
EXAMPLES
A bag contains 5 balls of different coloursred, yellow, blue, green and
white. In how many ways can these 5 balls be arranged
with no restrictions (a)
if the yellow ball must be frst (b)
if the frst ball must not be red or white (c)
if blue and green must be together (d)
if red, blue and green must be together? (e)
Solution
The 1 st can be any of the 5 balls. (a)
The 2 nd can be any of the remaining 4 balls and so on.

5!
120
=

The 1 st ball must be yellow, so there is only 1 way of arranging this. (b)
The 2 nd ball can be any of the remaining 4 balls.
The 3 rd ball can be any of the remaining 3 balls and so on.

4!
24
=

The 1 (c)

st ball could be yellow, blue or green so there are 3 possible
arrangements.
The 2 nd ball could be any of the remaining 4 balls and so on.

3 4!
72
=
#

When two objects must be together, we treat them as a single object (d)
with 2! possible arrangements.
So we arrange 4 balls in 4! ways: R, Y, BG and W.
But there are 2! ways in which to arrange the blue and green balls.

4! 2!
48
=
#

When three objects are together, we treat them as a single object with (e)
3! possible arrangements.
We are then arranging 3 balls in 3! ways: RBG, Y, W.
But there are 3! ways in which to arrange the red, blue and green balls.

3! 3!
36
=
#

1. Write each permutation in factorial
notation and then evaluate.
(a) P
6
3

(b) P
5
2

(c) P
8
3

(d) P
10
7

(e) P
9
6

(f) P
7
5

(g) P
8
6

(h) P
11
8

(i) P
9
1

(j) P
6
6

2. A set of 26 cards, each with a
different letter of the alphabet, is
placed into a hat and cards drawn
out at random. Find the number
of words possible if selecting
2 cards (a)
3 cards (b)
4 cards (c)
5 cards. (d)
3. A 3 digit number is randomly
made from cards containing the
numbers 0 to 9.
In how many ways can this (a)
be done if the cards cannot be
used more than once and zero
cannot be the frst number?
How many numbers over (b)
400 can be made?
How many numbers less than (c)
300 can be made?
4. A set of 5 cards, each with a
number from 1 to 5 on it, is
placed in a box and 2 drawn out
at random. Find the possible
number of combinations
altogether (a)
of numbers greater than (b)
50 possible
of odd numbers (c)
of even numbers. (d)
5. (a) How many arrangements
of the letters A, B, C and D are
possible if no letter can be used
twice?
(b) How many arrangements of
any 3 of these letters are possible?
6. A 4 digit number is to be selected
at random from the numbers 0
to 9 with no repetition of digits.
How many arrangements can (a)
there be?
How many arrangements of (b)
numbers over 6000 are there?
How many arrangements (c)
of numbers less than 8000 are
there?
7. The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 and
5 are arranged in a line. How
many arrangements are possible if
there is no restriction (a)
the number is less than (b)
30 000
the number is greater than (c)
20 000
the number is odd (d)
any 3 numbers are selected at (e)
random?
8. There are 12 swimmers in a race.
In how many ways could they (a)
fnish?
In how many ways could they (b)
come in frst, second and third?
9. How many different ordered
arrangements can be made from
the word COMPUTER with
2 letters (a)
3 letters (b)
4 letters? (c)
13.4 Exercises
The rst number
cannot be zero.
The rst number
is not zero.
10. How many different ordered
these words?
CENTIPEDE (a)
ALGEBRA (b)
TELEVISION (c)
ANTARCTICA (d)
DONOR (e)
BASKETBALL (f)
GREEDY (g)
DUTIFUL (h)
MANUFACTURER (i)
AEROPLANE (j)
11. A group of friends queue outside
a restaurant in a straight line.
Find how many ways the friends
can be arranged if there are
4 friends (a)
7 friends (b)
8 friends (c)
10 friends (d)
11 friends. (e)
12. A group of friends go into a
restaurant and are seated around
a circular table. Find how many
arrangements are possible if
there are
4 friends (a)
7 friends (b)
8 friends (c)
10 friends (d)
11 friends. (e)
13. A string of beads looks the same
if turned over. Find the number
of different arrangements
possible with
10 beads (a)
12 beads (b)
9 beads (c)
11 beads (d)
13 beads. (e)
14. In how many ways can a group of
6 people be arranged
in a line (a)
in a circle? (b)
15. Find how many different ways
a group of 9 people can be
arranged in
a line (a)
a circle. (b)
16. In how many ways can a set of
10 beads be arranged
in a line (a)
in a circle around the edge of (b)
a poster
on a bracelet? (c)
17. (a) How many different
the playing cards Jack, Queen,
King and Ace?
(b) If I choose 2 of these cards
arrangements could I make?
(c) If I choose 3 of these cards
arrangements could I make?
18. A group of 7 people sit around
a table. In how many ways can
they be arranged
if 2 people want to sit (b)
together
if 2 people cannot sit (c)
together
if 3 people sit together? (d)
19. A group of 5 boys and 5 girls
line up outside a cinema. In how
many ways can they be arranged
with no restriction? (a)
(b) If a particular girl stands in
line frst?
(c) If they alternate between boys
and girls (with either a girl or boy
in frst place)?
20. Find the probability that if
10 people sit around a table,
2 particular people will be seated
together at random.
All beads are
different from each
other.
Vowels are letters
a, e, i, o and u while
consonants are all
other letters.
21. A bookshelf is to hold
5 mathematics books, 8 novels
and 7 cookbooks.
could they be arranged? (Leave
answer in factorial notation.)
If the books are grouped in (b)
categories, in how many ways
can they be arranged? (Answer in
factorial notation.)
If one book is chosen at (c)
random, fnd the probability that
it is a cookbook.
22. (a) How many different
the numbers 3, 4, 4, 5 and 6?
(b) How many arrangements
form numbers greater than 4000?
(c) How many form numbers less
than 5000?
(d) If an arrangement is made at
random, fnd the probability that
it is less than 4000.
23. Find the probability that an
arrangement of the word LAPTOP
will start with T.
24. What is the probability that
if a 3 letter word is formed
randomly from the letters of
PHYSICAL, it will be CAL?
25. A minbus has 6 forward facing
and 2 backward facing seats.
If 8 people use the bus, in how
many ways can they be seated
if one person must sit in a (b)
forward facing seat
if 2 people must sit in a (c)
forward facing seat?
26. If 3 letters of the word VALUED
are selected at random, fnd the
number of possible arrangements if
the frst letter is D. (a)
the frst letter is a vowel. (b)
27. The letters of the word THEORY
are arranged randomly. Find the
number of arrangements.
with no restrictions. (a)
if the E is at the beginning. (b)
if the frst letter is a (c)
consonant and the last letter is
a vowel.
28. Find the number of arrangements
possible if x people are
in a straight line (a)
in a circle (b)
in a circle with 2 people (c)
together
in a straight line with (d)
3 people together
in a circle with 2 people not (e)
together.
29. (a) Use factorial notation to
show that
! !
P P
3 5
8
3
8
5
=
(b) Prove that
! ! r
P
n r
P
n
r
n
n r
=
-
-
] g

30. Prove that P P r P
n
r
n
r
n
r
1
1
= +
+
-

EXAMPLES
1. A committee of 2 is chosen from Scott, Rachel and Kate. In how many
ways can this be done?
Solution

P
6
Number of ordered arrangements
3
2
=
=

However, a committee of Scott and Rachel is the same as a committee
of Rachel and Scott. This is the same for all other arrangements of the
committee. There are 2! ways of arranging each committee of two people.
To get the number of unordered arrangements, we divide the number of
ordered arrangements by 2!

!
P
2
3
Total arrangements
3
2
=
=

2. There are 3 vacancies on a school council and 8 people who are
available. If the vacancies are flled randomly, in how many ways can this
happen?
Solution
P Number of orderedarrangements
8
3
=
However, order is not necessary here, since the 3 vacancies flled by, say,
Hamish, Amie and Marcus, would be the same in any order.
There are 3! different ways of arranging Hamish, Amie and Marcus.

!
P
3
56
So total arrangements
8
3
=
=

The number of ways of making unordered selections of r
objects from n is
! r
P
n
r
which is the same as
! !
!
n r r
n
-
] g

Combinations
The permutation P
n
r
is the number of arrangements possible for an ordered
selection of r objects from a total of n objects.
When the order is not important, for example when AB is the same as BA ,
the number of arrangements is called a combination .
Proof
P
n
r
is the ordered selection of r objects from n objects.
There are r ! ways of arranging r objects.
If order is unimportant, the unordered selection of r objects from n is given
by
!
.
r
P
n
r

! !
!
!
!
!
!
! !
!
r
P
r
n r
n
n r
n
r
n r r
n
1
n
r
=
-
=
-
=
-
#
]
]
]
g
g
g

Combination C
n
r
or
n
r
a k is the number of ways of making
unordered selections of r objects from a total of n objects.

! !
!
C
n r r
n
n
r
=
-
] g

We can call this choose
notation.
EXAMPLES
1. A bag contains 3 white and 2 black counters labelled W
1
, W
2
, W
3
and
B
1
, B
2
. If two counters are drawn out of the bag, in how many ways can
this happen if order is not important?
Solution
Possible arrangements (unordered) are:

W B
W B
W W W W W B B B
W W W B
W B
W B
1 1
1 2
1 2 2 3 3 1 1 2
1 3 2 1 3 2
2 2

There are 10 different combinations.
Using combinations, the number of different arrangements of choosing
2 counters from 5 is . C
5
2

!2! (5 2)
5!
3!2!
5!
10
C
5
2
=
=
=
-

CONTINUED
2. If 12 coins are tossed, fnd the number of ways of tossing 7 tails.
Solution
The order is not important.
There are C
12
7
ways of tossing 7 tails from 12 coins

!7! (12 7)
12!
5!7!
12!
792
C
12
7
=
=
=
-

3. (a) A committee of 5 people is formed randomly from a group of
15 students. In how many different ways can the committee be
formed?
(b) If the group consists of 9 senior and 6 junior students, in how
many ways can the committee be formed if it is to have 3 senior and
2 junior students in it?
Solution
The order of the committee is not important. (a)

3003
15
Number of arrangements =
=
5
b l

3 senior students can be chosen in (b)
9
3
b l
or 84 ways.
2 junior students can be chosen in
6
2
b l
or 15 ways.

9
3
6
2
84 15
1260
Total number of arrangements =
=
=
#
#
c c m m

4. A team of 6 men and 5 women is chosen at random from a group of
10 men and 9 women. If Kaye and Greg both hope to be chosen in the
team, fnd the probability that
both will be chosen (a)
neither will be chosen. (b)
Solution

C C
210 126
26 460
The number of possible teams
10
6
9
5
#
#
=
=
=

For Kaye to be chosen, then 4 out of the other 8 women will be chosen (a)
i.e. C
8
4

For Greg to be chosen, 5 out of the other 9 men will be chosen i.e. C
9
5

8820
C C
70 126
26 460
8820
3
1
Number of combinations
Probability
8
4
9
5
=
=
=
=
=
#
#

For Kaye and Greg not to be included, then 5 out of the other (b)
8 women and 6 out of the other 9 men will be chosen.

C C
56 84
4704
26 460
4704
45
8
Number of combinations
Probability
8
5
9
6
=
=
=
=
=
#
#

1. Write in factorial notation and
evaluate.
(a)
9
5
b l

(b)
12
7
b l

(c)
8
3
b l

(d) C
10
4

(e) C
11
5

2. (a) Evaluate
(i) C
10
0

(ii) C
7
0

(iii)
14
0
b l

(iv) C
9
9

(v)
11
11
c m

(b) Hence complete
(i) C
n
0
=
(ii) C
n
n
=
3. Find the number of different
ways that a committee of 6
people can be made randomly
from a group of
8 people (a)
9 people (b)
11 people (c)
15 people (d)
20 people. (e)
4. (a) A set of 3 red cards and 3 blue
cards are placed in a box. By
naming the red cards R
1
, R
2
and
R
3
and the blue cards B
1
, B
2
and
B
3
, list the number of different
arrangements possible when
2 cards are drawn out at random,
with order not important. How
many arrangements are possible?
(b) If there are 10 red and 10 blue
cards and 7 are drawn out at
random, how many different
combinations are possible?
5. A coin is tossed 20 times. How
many different arrangements are
there for tossing 5 heads?
13.5 Exercises
The cards are
all distinct from
each other.
6. A set of 10 marbles are placed in
a bag and 6 selected at random.
In how many different ways can
this happen?
7. In poker, 5 cards are dealt from
a pack of 52 playing cards. How
possible?
8. Three cards are drawn randomly
from a set of 10 cards with the
numbers 0 to 9 on them. How
possible if order is
important (a)
unimportant? (b)
9. A debating team of 3 is chosen
from a class of 14 students. In
how many ways can the team be
selected if order is
important (a)
unimportant? (b)
10. A bag contains 12 different
lollies with blue wrappers and
15 different lollies with red
wrappers. If I take 6 lollies out
of the bag, how many different
combinations are possible?
11. A team of 4 players is chosen
at random from a group of
20 tennis players to play an
exhibition match. In how many
ways could the team be chosen?
12. A group of 3 students to go on a
student representative council is
chosen at random from a class of
27. In how many different ways
could this be done?
13. A board of 8 people is chosen
from a membership of 35. How
many different combinations are
possible?
14. A basketball team of 5 players is
selected at random from a group
of 12 PE students.
In how many ways can the (a)
team be selected?
Find the probability that Erik (b)
is selected as one of the team
members.
Find the probability that Erik (c)
and Jens are both selected.
15. A committee of 6 people is to be
selected randomly from a group of
11 men and 12 women. Find the
number of possible committees if
there is no restriction on who (a)
is on the committee
all committee members are to (b)
be male
all members are to be female (c)
there are to be 3 men and (d)
3 women
a particular woman is (e)
included
a particular man is not (f)
included
there are to be 4 women and (g)
2 men.
16. A horse race has 15 horses
competing and at the TAB, a
quinella pays out on the horses
that come in frst and second, in
either order. Ryan decides to bet
on all possible combinations of
quinellas. If it costs him $1 a bet,
how much does he pay?
17. A group of 25 students consist
of 11 who play a musical
instrument and 14 who dont.
Find the number of different
arrangements possible if a group
of 9 students is selected at
random
with no restriction (a)
who all play musical (b)
instruments
where 5 play musical (c)
instruments
where 2 dont play musical (d)
instruments.
18. A set of cards consists of 8 yellow
and 7 red cards.
If 10 cards are selected at (a)
random, fnd the number of
different arrangements possible.
If 8 cards are selected, fnd (b)
the number of arrangements of
selecting
4 yellow cards (i)
6 yellow cards (ii)
7 yellow cards (iii)
5 red cards. (iv)
19. Ten cards are selected randomly
from a set of 52 playing cards.
Find the number of combinations
selected if
there are no restrictions (a)
(answer in scientifc notation
correct to 3 signifcant fgures)
they are all hearts (b)
there are 7 hearts (c)
they are all red cards (d)
there are 4 aces. (e)
20. An animal refuge has 17 dogs and
21 cats. If a nursing home orders
12 animals at random, fnd the
number of ways that the order
would have
7 dogs (a)
9 dogs (b)
10 dogs (c)
4 cats (d)
6 cats. (e)
21. There are 8 white, 9 red and
5 blue marbles in a bag and 7 are
drawn out at random. Find the
number of arrangements possible
with no restriction (a)
if all marbles are red (b)
if there are 3 white and 2 red (c)
marbles
if there are 4 red and 1 blue (d)
marbles
if there are 4 white and 2 blue (e)
marbles.
22. Out of a group of 25 students,
7 walk to school, 12 catch a train
and 6 catch a bus. If 6 students
are selected, fnd the number of
combinations if
all walk to school (a)
none catch a bus (b)
3 walk to school and (c)
1 catches a bus
1 walks to school and 4 catch (d)
a train
3 catch a train and 1 catches (e)
a bus.
23. At a karaoke night, a group of
14 friends decide that 4 of them
will sing a song together. Of the
friends, 5 have previously sung
this song before. In how many
ways can they do this if they
select
friends who have all sung the (a)
song previously
2 of the friends who sang the (b)
song previously
none of the friends who sang (c)
the song previously?
24. (a) Evaluate C
12
5

Evaluate (b) C
12
7

By using factorial notation, (c)
show why C C
12
5
12
7
=
25. By evaluating both sides, show
that C C C
9
6
8
6
8
5
= +
26. Show that
13 13
6
=
7
a a k k
27. Show that
10 9
4
9
3
= +
4
b b b l l l

28. Prove that
n
n r
=
-
r
n
b b l l

29. Prove that C ! P r
n
r
n
r
=
30. Prove that
n
n
k
n 1
1
1
=
-
-
+
-
k k
b b b l l l

All marbles are
distinct.
The cards are all
distinct from each
other.
1. Find the number of ways of arranging
7 people
in a straight line (a)
in a circle. (b)
2. A bag contains 8 red, 5 green and
9 yellow marbles. If a marble is chosen at
random, fnd the probability that it is
red (a)
green or red (b)
not green. (c)
3. A carriage has 2 seats facing forwards
and 2 seats facing backwards. Find the
number of ways of seating 4 people in
the carriage if
there are no restrictions (a)
one person must sit facing forwards. (b)
4. A set of 10 cards, numbered 1 to 10,
is placed into a box and 3 drawn
out at random. Find the number of
arrangements possible if order is
important (a)
unimportant. (b)
5. A group of 10 boys and 16 girls are on
a school excursion. Five of them are
chosen at random to help the teacher
check the rolls. Find the number of ways
these students could be selected if
3 are girls (b)
all are boys. (c)
6. The probability of winning a game of
chance is 59% and the probability of a
draw is 12%. What is the probability of
losing?
7. In how many ways can 3 letter words
be selected at random from the word
RANDOM?
8. A set of cards numbered from 1 to 20 is
arranged randomly. In how many ways
can this be done? (Answer in scientifc
notation, to 2 signifcant fgures.)
9. The probability of a missile hitting a
target is
9
8
. What is the probability of the
missile missing the target?
10. A 5 person committee is selected from a
class of 30 students. In how many ways
can the committee be selected?
11. In a horse race, a person bets at the TAB
on a trifecta. To win, the person must
pick the frst 3 horses in order. In how
many ways is it possible to win if there
are 11 horses in the race?
12. (a) A group of 9 friends go out to dinner
and sit at a round table. In how many
ways can this be done?
(b) The 9 friends then go to a nightclub
and randomly queue up to get in. How
many arrangements are there?
(c) If Jack and Jill queue up together, in
how many ways can the friends line up?
(d) Once they get into the nightclub,
there is only a table for 3 available, and
the others will have to stand up. If the
friends randomly assign who sits at the
table, in how many different ways can
they be seated?
13. How many different arrangements are
there of the word
PERMUTATION (a)
COMBINATION (b)
FACTORIAL (c)
PROBABILITY (d)
SELECTION (e)
Test yourself 13
14. A set of n coins are tossed. Find the
number of ways if tossing k tails.
15. A set of 20 cards is numbered 1 to 20 and
6 selected at random. Find the number of
arrangements of selecting
all odd numbers (a)
the last 2 numbers less than 5. (b)
16. In Australian Idyll, there are 12 singers
who must choose a song to sing from a
list of 32 songs. Each singer takes turns
in order to randomly choose a song.
In how many ways could these choices
be made? Answer in scientifc notation
correct to 2 decimal places.
17. A ballet class has 30 students in it. Of
these students, 21 are practising for a
ballet exam. If 8 students are chosen at
random, fnd the number of ways that
5 are practising for the exam (a)
all are practising for the exam (b)
3 are practising for the exam . (c)
18. Evaluate
(a)
6
4
a k
(b) P
9
7

19. A serial number is made up of 4 letters
and 2 numbers. If zero is not allowed,
fnd how many serial numbers are
possible.
20. (a) Evaluate 0!
(b) Show that
n n
=
n 0
a a k k
1. Numbers are formed from the digits
1, 2, 3, 3, and 7 at random.
In how many ways can they be (a)
arranged with no restrictions?
In how many ways can they be (b)
arranged to form a number greater than
30 000?
2. A charm bracelet has 6 charms on it.
In how many ways can the charms be
arranged if the bracelet
has a clasp (a)
has no clasp? (b)
3. Show that
n
n 1
1
n
k
1
=
-
-
+
-
k k
b b b l l l
for
. k n 1 1 - # #
4. A group of n people sit around a circular
table.
In how many ways can they be (a)
arranged?
How many arrangements are possible (b)
if k people sit together?
5. (a) How many different arrangements of
the word CHALLENGE are there?
(b) How many different arrangements
are possible if 3 letters are randomly
selected from the word CHALLENGE and
arranged into words?
6. A subcommittee of 5 people is formed
from the 12 members of a board.
If this is a random selection, in how (a)
many different ways can the committee
be formed?
If there are 4 NSW members and (b)
3 Queensland members on the board,
what is the probability that 2 NSW and
2 Queensland members will be on the
committee?
7. Prove that C
n
! P r
n
r r
=
8. A management committee is made up
of 5 athletes and 3 managers. If the
committee is formed randomly from a
group of 20 athletes and 10 managers,
fnd
the number of different ways in (a)
which the committee could be formed
the probability that Marcus, an (b)
athlete, is included
the probability that both Marcus and (c)
his girlfriend, Rachel who is a manager,
are included
the probability that Marcus and (d)
Rachel are excluded from the committee.
9. A set of 100 counters, numbered from
1 to 100, is placed in a bag and 4 drawn
out at random in order. Find the number
of different possible arrangements if
all the numbers are 90 or more (b)
all numbers are even (c)
all numbers are less than 20 (d)
the frst number is greater than 60 (e)
the frst 2 numbers are odd. (f)
10. In a group of 35 students, 18 play soccer
and 21 play basketball. All students play
at least one of these sports. If one of
these students is selected at random, fnd
the probability that this student
plays both soccer and basketball (a)
plays basketball but not soccer. (b)
199 PRACTICE ASSESSMENT TASK 1
1. Solve for : . p
p p
2
3
5
1
1
-
-
+
=
2. Factorise fully: . x xy y y 10 2 10 2
2
+ - -
3. Write in index form
(a)
x
1

(b) x
4 3

4. Simplify the expression . y y 8 2 5 - + ^ h
5. Rationalise the denominator of .
5 2
5
-

. x x x 3 5 1
2
- + -
] ^ g h

7. Solve the equation .
x
x
x
1
3
3
2
1 !
+
= - ^ h
8. Simplify .
x x x
5
1
10
2 3
2
'
+ - -

9. Show that ABC T and EDC T are
congruent triangles. Hence, or otherwise,
show that ACE T is an isosceles triangle.
10. Evaluate . , 3 9
4
] g
correct to 1 decimal
place.
11. Simplify . 2 3 27 -
12. Find the size of each interior angle in a
regular octagon.
13. Evaluate . . 0 72 9 82 ' in scientifc
notation, correct to 3 signifcant fgures.
14. Expand and simplify . 2 3 5 2 2 -
^ h

15. Find, correct to 2 decimal places, the
value of
. .
.
.
6 94 3 72
2 14
3
-
] g

16. Simplify .
x
2
2 6 +

17. Solve x x 2 3 1 0
2
- - = correct to
3 signifcant fgures.
18. The radius r of a circle with area A is
given by . r
A
r
= Find r , correct to
2 decimal places, if 7.59. A =
19. Solve x 5 2 3 1 - and sketch the solution
on a number line.
20. Evaluate
20
3
15
1
3
2
12
5
. + + -
21. Solve the equation 4 1 0, x x
2
- + =
giving exact solutions in simplest surd
form.
22. Write 7
2 -
23. Solve simultaneous equations 3 1 y x = -
and 5. y x
2
= -
24. Find integers x and y such that

2 3 3
3
3 . x y
+
= +
25. Evaluate
2
| | | | | |. 2 1 4 - - - +
26. Find the value of x .

27. Factorise . x 8 1
3
-
.
3 5 2
2 3
-

Practice Assessment Task
SET 1
29. Simplify | | | | | |. 2 4 3 2 - - + -
30. Find the sale price if a discount of 8% is
given on a DVD player that usually sells
for $699.
31. Evaluate
. .
. .
3 94 1 76
5 21 4 71
3
#
+
correct to
2 signifcant fgures.
32. Rationalise the denominator of .
2 2 3
5 1
+
+

33. The price of roller skates has increased
by 6.5% to $89. Find the price before the
increase.
34. Find the values of all pronumerals,
giving reasons for each step of your
calculations.

35. Find the area of this fgure.

36. Simplify .
a b
a b
9 1
4
4
3
6
#
#
-
-
^
^
h
h

37. Solve . x 5 9 21 2 -
38. Evaluate
2
4
-
3
39. Simplify . x x 2 5 3 1 - - -
] ] g g

40. Solve . 4 8
x 2 1
=
+

41. Solve . x 9
2
$
42. Write . 0 16
o
as a fraction.
43. Prove that the diagonals in any rhombus
bisect the angles they make with the
sides of the rhombus.
44. Write
x 3
1
+
in index form.
45. Expand and simplify . x 2
3
+
] g

46. Find the value of a b
3 2 -
in index form if
a
2
1
3
= c m and . b
5
4
2
= c m
47. Find the value of x , giving reasons for
each step of your working out.

48. Find values of x and y .

49. Solve .
x
5
1 2
50. Write
2
x 3 2 +
-
1
] g
without an index.
51. Simplify
(a) x y y x 8 7 4 - - +
(b) 124
(c)
x
x
27
9
3
2
+
-

(d)
2 1
1
2 1
2
+
+
-

(e)
x
x
x 1
3
1
2
1
4
2
+
+
-
-
-

(f) x
x
1
- when x 2 3 =
(g)
x y z
x y z
4 3
1
4
2
2
5
4 3
-
-
-
- -
_
^
^
i
h
h

(h)
a ab
a b
b
a ab b
5 20
3 6
2
2
2 2
'
-
+
-
+ +

(i) 8 5 3 20 2 45 - +
(j) ,
a bc
a b c
2
2
5
3 2 4
2
^
^
h
h
if , a b
2
1
3
2
2 3
= = c c m m
and c
9
4
1
=
-
c m
52. Find the values of x and y , correct to
1 decimal place.

53. Evaluate x .

54. The volume of a sphere is given by the
formula . V r
3
4
3
r = Find the exact radius r ,
if the volume V is 10
3
2
cm .
3

55. Find the perimeter of the fgure below,

56. ABCD is a parallelogram with CD
produced to E so that . ED AD =
Prove that . ABC DEA 2 + + =

57. Find the exact value of .
1
6
5
5
2
3
1
-
-

58. Tran spent
3
1
of her salary on rent,
4
1

on food,
5
1
on bus and taxi fares, and
6
1

on going out. If she puts the rest of her
salary into savings, what percentage of
her salary is savings?
59. The speed of light is about
. . 2 99 10 ms
8 1
#
-
If a rocket travels at
one-ffth the speed of light, fnd its speed
in kmh
1 -
(in scientifc notation correct
to 2 signifcant fgures).
. x x kx 2 5 4 25
2 2
+ = + +
] g

61. Simplify . x y 81
2 3

62. The sum of the interior angles in a
regular polygon is . 1620c Find the size
of each interior angle, to the nearest
minute.
63. Find the area of the shaded region
in this fgure, correct to 2 decimal
places.

64. Factorise
(a) a b 5 2 40
3 3
- + ] g
(b) a b c a b c 2 5
2 2
- + - + - ] ] g g
65. Solve
x
2
5
8 1
9 1 # -
-
.
66. ABCD and BCEF are parallelograms.
Show that AFED is a parallelogram.

67. Find the value of b correct to 2 decimal
places.

68. The diagonals of a rhombus are 6 cm and
10 cm long. Find the
exact length of the sides of the (a)
rhombus
area of the rhombus . (b)
69. Write as a single fraction with a rational
denominator
3 3 2
2
2 5
1
-
-
+
.
70. The exterior angles of a regular polygon
are . 18c How many sides has the
polygon?
71. A cable is used to support a 20 m tower
as shown. If the cable is placed 25 m
away from the base of the tower, how
long must it be, to the nearest metre?

20 m
25 m

72. In the fgure, BD is the perpendicular
bisector of AC . Prove that triangle ABC is
isosceles.

B
A D C

73. The diagonals of a rhombus are x and y .
Find the length of its side.
74. Write
x 3 2
1
5
-
] g
in index form .
(a)
3
x 2 -
-
5
] g

(b)
2
x
3
2 -
-
5
] g

(c)
2
3 x 2 -
-
5
] g

(d)
3
x 2
1
-
5
] g

75. Write the number 54 000 000 in
scientifc notation .
5.4 (a) # 10
8

54 (b) # 10
6

5.4 (c) # 10
7

54 (d) # 10
8

76. Simplify
ab
a b 2
2
3
3
]
^
g
h
.
8 (a) a
7
b
8 (b) a
8
b
2 (c) a
7
b
2 (d) a
8
b
77. A computer costs $1850. If it has
increased in cost by 4% since last week,
how much did it cost last week?
$1924.00 (a)
$1778.85 (b)
$1867.80 (c)
$1776.00 (d)
78. Evaluate
2
4
-
3
.
(a) 8 -
(b)
8
1

(c)
6
1

6 (d)
79. Convert 0.36
o
to a fraction .
(a)
25
9

(b)
33
12

(c) 3
3
1

(d)
30
11

80.

C
A
B
E
D

The triangles ABC and CDE can be
proven congruent by using the test
(a) SSS
(b) SAS
(c) RHS
(d) AAS .
SET 2
1. Evaluate sin309 41 c l to 2 decimal places.
2. Simplify 38 52 . sin sin
2 2
c c +
through , 1 3 - ^ h that is perpendicular to
the line . x y 2 5 9 - =
4. Calculate the point of intersection
of the lines x y 2 3 10 0 - - = and
. x y 5 4 2 0 + - =
5. Evaluate cot 107 9 c l to 3 decimal places.
6. ABCD is a parallelogram in which
2 , BC cm = 150 ABC c + = and
. AB 3 cm = Find
the exact area of the parallelogram (a)
the exact lengths of both diagonals. (b)
7. The lines AB and AC have equations
x y 3 4 9 0 - + = and x y 8 6 1 0 + - =
respectively. Show that the lines are
perpendicular and nd the coordinates
of A .
8. If 70 , sin cos x 5 c c + = ^ h nd a possible
value of x .
9. Simplify as a fraction the expression
sin cos tan 60 45 30
2 2 2
c c c - + without
using a calculator.
10. Sketch . x y 5 2 10 0 - - =
11. On the number plane, shade in the region
given by x y 9
2 2
# + and . x y 2 $ -
12. A soccer goal is 8 m wide. A man shoots
for goal when he is 9 m from one post
and 11 m from the other. Within what
angle must a shot be made in order to
score a goal?
13. Find the domain and range of . y
x 2 1
3
=
-

14. (a) On a number plane, draw the
line . x y 2 4 - =
(b) On your diagram, shade the region
given by , . y x y 0 2 4 $ $ -
15. Sketch . y x x 5 4
2
= - +
16. Simplify . sin sin cos
2 2 2
i i i -
17. Find the perpendicular distance from
, 2 3 - ^ h to the line . x y 5 12 20 0 - + =
through , 1 2 ^ h parallel to the line
through , 3 4 - ^ h and , . 5 5 ^ h
19. Solve cos
2
1
i = - for 0 360 . c c # # i
20. Find the gradient of the line through the
origin and , 3 5 - ^ h .
21. Simplify .
tan
tan cot
20
20 70
c
c c +

22. Find a in degrees and minutes.

23. Find the value of y correct to 3 signicant
gures.

24. Find the equation of the line passing
through , 1 2 ^ h that passes through the
intersection of lines x y 2 11 0 - - = and
. x y 5 19 0 - - =
25. Solve . x 3 7 2 1 -
26. If , f x x 9 2
2
= -
] g
fnd the value of . f 1 -
] g

27. Find the value of x if x f 7 =
] g
where
. x f 2 1
x
= -
] g

28. Find the exact value of . tan300c
29. Show that x y 3 4 10 0 - + = is a tangent
to the circle . x y 4
2 2
+ =
30. If g x
x x
x x
3 1
2 1
if
if
2
#
=
-
] g
)
fnd (a) g 2
] g
and g 3 -
] g

sketch the graph of (b) x g
] g
.
31. Find . lim
h
x h xh h 3 4 2
h 0
2 2
- +
"

32. Find the exact value of 135 . cos c
33. A bird at the top of a 10 m tree sees
a mouse on the ground. If the angle
of depression is 34 51, c l how far, to
1 decimal place, does the bird need
to fy to reach the mouse?
34. If the point , 3 7 - ^ h is the midpoint
of , x 3 ^ h and , y 8 ^ h , fnd the values of
x and y .
35.

Find (a) AB , correct to 1 decimal place.
Find the area of (b) T ABC ,
to 3 signifcant fgures.
36. Simplify . sin 9 9
2
i -
37. (a) Find the equation of the straight line
l through , 1 2 - ^ h that is perpendicular to
the line . x y 3 6 7 0 + - =
(b) Line l cuts the x -axis at P and the y -axis
at Q . Find the coordinates of P and Q .
Find the area of (c) T OPQ where O is the
origin.
38. Two points A and B are 100 m apart on
the same side of a tower. The angle of
elevation of A to the top of the tower is
20c and the angle of elevation from B is
27 . c Find the height of the tower, to the
nearest metre.
39. The lines , x y 3 6 - = x y 2 14 + = and
y 0 = enclose a triangle. Find the area of
the triangle.
40. Show that f x x x 3
6 2
= - -
] g
is an even
function.
41. Differentiate . x x 2 1
2
4
+
^ h

42. Solve . y 3 7 20 # -
43. Differentiate .
x
3

44. (a) Find the equation of the tangent
to the curve y x 2
3
= - at the point
, . P 1 1 - ^ h
(b) The curve y x 2
3
= - meets the y -axis
at Q . Find the equation of PQ .
(c) Find the equation of the normal
to y x 2
3
= - at the point , 1 3 - - ^ h .
Find the point (d) R where this normal
cuts the x -axis.
45. Find the distance between the
parallel lines x y 5 12 3 0 - - = and
. x y 5 12 5 0 - + =
46. What is the domain and range of the
function
3
? f x
x 4
=
+
] g

47. Differentiate . x 2 7 -
48. Justin walks for 3.1 km due west, then
turns and walks for 2.7 km on a bearing
of 205 . c How far is he from his starting
point? Give your answer correct to
1 decimal place.
49. Find the derivative of . x x x 4 7 3 5
2 2
- + +
-

50. Find the derivative of .
x
x
1
5
+

51. Differentiate from rst principles
. f x x x 3 2
2
= - +
] g

52. Write as a single fraction
.
x x
x
5
3 4
5
2
2
+
- +
+ x

curve y x x 3 6 9
2
= - + at the point
where . x 2 =
54. If , f x x x x 2 5 4 1
3 2
= - + -
] g
nd f 2 -
] g

and . f 2 - l] g

55. At the point , 2 3 - ^ h on the curve
, y ax bx 7
2
= + + the tangent is inclined
at 135c to the x -axis. Find the values of
a and b .
passing through , 3 6 ^ h that also passes
through the intersection of the lines
x y 2 0 - = and . x y 3 7 0 + + =
curve f x x x 2 7 1
3
= - +
] g
at the point
where . x 3 = -
58. Solve for : . x 4
8
1
x 2 1
=
-

59. Divide the interval AB into the external
ratio 5:4, given , A 2 3 - ^ h and , . B 5 1 - ^ h
60. Find the exact value of 75 . sin c
x y 5 1 0 - - = and . x y 2 3 3 0 + - =
62. Solve cos sin x x 2 0 - = for
. x 0 360 c c # #
63. Sketch . y
x
x
2
=
-

65. Simplify
(a)
1
1
t
t
2
2
+
-
where
2
tan t
i
=
(b) cos cos sin sin i b i b -
(c)
1 7
2 7
tan
tan
2
a
a
-

65. Find . lim
x
x x
2
3
x 3
3
-
+
"

66. Solve .
x 4
3
5 1
-

67. Find the acute angle between the curves
y x
2
= and y x 2 1
2
= - at their points of
intersection.
(a) y x 2 1 = -
(b) y
x 7
5
=
+

(c) y x 4
2
= - -
69. The point , P 3 2 - ^ h divides the interval
AB into the ratio 2:3 where , A 5 4 = ^ h and
, . B a b = ^ h Find the values of a and b .
70. Simplify . sin 1 2
2
i -
71. (a) Find all points of intersection
between the curves y x x 2
3 2
= +
and . y x x 2
4
= +
(b) Find the acute angle between the
two curves at each of these points of
intersection.
(a) cos x
2
1
=
(b) tanx
3
1
=
(c) sinx
2
3
= .
73. For the interval AB where , A 3 2 = - ^ h
and , B 1 4 = - ^ h nd
the midpoint (a)
the exact distance (b)
the gradient (c)
the equation of line (d) AB .
74. Differentiate x x 3 2 2 1
6
- +
] ] g g

(a) x x x 12 3 2 2 1 3 2 1
5 6
- + + +
] ] ] g g g

(b) x 36 2 1
5
+
] g

(c) x x x 6 3 2 2 1 3 2 1
5 6
- + + +
] ] ] g g g

(d) x 18 2 1
5
+
] g
.
75. Find an expression involving i for the
triangle below (there may be more than
one answer) .
7
i a
5
4
(a)
2 5 4
5 4 7
cos
2 2 2
# #
i =
+ -

(b)
4 5
sin sin i a
=
(c)
5 4
sin sin i a
=
(d)
2 5 7
5 7 4
cos
2 2 2
# #
i =
+ -

76. If f x
x x
x x
x
8 3
3 2 0 3
9 0
if
if
if
3
2
2
1
# # = -
] g
*
evaluate f f f 3 1 1 + + -
] ] ] g g g

35 (a)
226 (b)
233 (c)
53 (d)
77. The equation of the normal to the
parabola y x x 3 5 1
2
= - + at the point
, 2 3 ^ h is
(a) 7 11 0 x y - - =
(b) 7 17 0 x y - - =
(c) 7 23 0 x y + - =
(d) 7 19 0 x y + - =
78. The linear function with equation
x y 4 2 3 0 - + = has
gradient (a) , 2 - y -intercept 1
2
1
-
gradient (b)
2
1
, y -intercept
4
3

gradient 2, (c) y -intercept 1
2
1

gradient 4, (d) y -intercept 3 .
79. Write an expression for cos x 2 (there may
be more than one answer)
(a) sin cos x x
2 2
-
(b) cos sin x x
2 2
-
(c) sin x 2 1
2
-
(d) cos x 2 1
2
-
80. Find the point if the interval AB where
, A 4 2 = ^ h and , B 3 5 = - ^ h is divided in
an external ratio of 2:3.
(a) , 1
5
1
3
5
1
c m
(b) , 17 11 - ^ h
(c) , 18 4 - ^ h
(d) ,
5
1
3
5
4
- c m
1. Solve . m m 5 6 0
2
$ - +
2. Find the locus of point P that moves so
that it is equidistant from the points
, A 3 1 - ^ h and , B 5 7 ^ h .
3. Write , x t y t 4 2
2
= = as an equation in
Cartesian form.
4.

AB , AC and CB are tangents with
CZ 3 = cm, ZB 7 = cm and AY 2 = cm.
Find the perimeter of ABC T .
circle with equation
. x x y y 6 10 15 0
2 2
+ + - - =
6. If a and b are the roots of the quadratic
equation , x x 3 2 1 0
2
- - = fnd the
value of
(a) a b +
(b) ab
(c)
2 2
a b +
7. Find the coordinates of the focus and the
equation of the directrix of the parabola
. x y 8
2
= -
8. Solve ( ) . x x 3 5 3 6 0
2
+ + + + =
] g

9. Find the value of k in the equation
x k x k 4 3 0
2
- - + =
] g
if the sum of the
roots is . 5 -
10.

Show that AF CD < given AC and FD are
straight lines.
11. Find the equation of the locus of a
point whose distance from the line
x y 3 4 1 0 - + = is 3 units.
12. Find the coordinates of the vertex and
focus of the parabola . y x x 8 1
2
= + -
13. Solve . . 2 9 2 8 0
x x 2
- + =
14.

Find the value of k correct to 1 decimal
place.
the parabola 16 x y
2
= at the point , . 4 1 - ^ h
16. For what values of b does the equation
4 2 0 x x b
2
+ - = have real roots?
SET 3
17.

0
i
32c

Find . i O is the centre of the circle.
18. A and B are the points , 4 0 - ^ h and
, 4 0 ^ h respectively. Point , P x y ^ h moves
so that . PA PB 64
2 2
+ = Find the
equation of the locus of P and describe
it geometrically.
19. Find the equation of the circle
with centre , 2 3 - - ^ h and radius
5 units.
20. The lines PA and PB are perpendicular,
where A is , , 2 7 - ^ h B is , 5 1 - ^ h and
P is , . x y ^ h Find the equation of the
locus of P .
21.

O is the centre of the circle. Show
. DAE BDC 90c + + = -
22. Find the gradient of the normal to
the curve x y 6
2
. x 4 = -
23. Find the locus of a point moving so that
the ratio of PA to PB is 2:3 where A is
, 3 2 ^ h and B is , . 0 7 ^ h
24. If x x 2 3 1
2
- + ( ) ( ) , a x b x c 1 1
2
/ - + - +
fnd the values of a , b and c .
25.

Find x and y . O is the centre of the circle.
26. Differentiate . x 9
2
-
27. The point , P ap ap 2
2
_ i lies on the
parabola . x ay 4
2
=
Find the equation of the tangent to (a)
the curve at P .
Find the point (b) R where this tangent
meets the directrix.
Find the equation for (c) FR where F is
the focus.
28. Find the locus of the point that is
equidistant from the point , 2 5 ^ h and the
line . y 3 = -
29. Show that ABC D is similar to CDE D and
hence fnd y , correct to 1 decimal place.

the curve x y 2 8
2
- =
] g
at the point
where . x 6 =
, P x y ^ h that moves so that it is always
equidistant from the point , 1 3 - ^ h and
the line . y 5 = -
32. Solve . . 2 5 2 4 0
x x 2
- + =
33. Show that x x 9 0
2
1 - + - for all x .
34. Differentiate . x x 3 1 2 5
4
- + ^ ^ h h
35. Simplify . cot tan x x +
36. Prove that the opposite angles
are supplementary in any cyclic
quadrilateral.
37. Find the centre and radius of
the circle whose equation is
. x x y y 10 6 30 0
2 2
+ + - + =
38.

AC is a tangent and . AC DE < Prove
FGED is a cyclic quadrilateral.
39. Show that x x 3 0
2
2 - + for all x .
40. Find the value of k in the quadratic
equation 3 1 0 x x k
2
- + + = if the roots
are consecutive numbers.
41. Find the equation of the locus of the
point that is equidistant from , 2 1 - ^ h
and , 4 5 ^ h.
42. A ship sails from port due east for
150 km, then turns and sails on a
bearing of 195c for 200 km.
How far from port is the ship, to the (a)
nearest kilometre?
On what bearing, to the nearest (b)
degree, is the ship from port?
43. Find the values of a , b and c if
. x a x bx c 3 7 3
2 2
/ - + + +
] g

44. Solve . x 2 7 1 2 -
45. (a) Change the set of parametric
equations , x t y t 2 4 1
2
= = - into
Cartesian form.
(b) Find the coordinates of the point
where 2. t = -
Find the equation of the normal to (c)
the curve at the point where . t 2 = -
46. Find the value of i in degrees and
minutes.

47.

O is the centre of the circle. Find x .
x x 6 15 0
2
+ - = has 2 real, rational roots.
curve y x x 2 5 1
4 2
= - - at the point
, . 1 4 - - ^ h
50. Find values of k for which the
quadratic equation
x x k 2 2 0
2
- + - = has real roots.
51. Sketch . y
x
x
2 1
=
+

through , 5 4 - ^ h , that is parallel to the
line through , 7 4 ^ h and , . 3 1 - ^ h
53. Divide the interval AB where , A 1 4 - = ^ h
and , B 7 0 = ^ h in the ratio 2:3.
54. Find the exact value of . tan75c
55. Solve .
y
y
1
5 $
+

.
3 3 5
2 1
+
+

57. Find the values of x and y correct to
1 decimal place.

58. Given , f x x 8 3 = -
] g
fnd the value of x
for which . f x 5 =
] g

59. Find the distance between , 0 7 ^ h and
, 2 1 - - ^ h correct to 3 signifcant fgures.
60. Find the value of p correct to 1 decimal
place.

61. Simplify
a b
a b
1
2
7
3 2
4
-
^
^
h
h
if a
3
2
= and . b
9
4
=
62. Solve cos x 2
2
1
= - for . x 0 360 c c # #
through , 3 1 - ^ h perpendicular to the line
. x y 3 2 7 0 - - =
64. Solve . y y 5 3 5 - = -
65. Find the size of each internal angle in a
regular 20-sided polygon.
66.

AB is a diameter of the larger circle
and DB is a straight line. Show AD is a
diameter of the smaller circle.
67. Solve cos x 2 1
2
= for . x 0 360 c c # #
68. Solve equations x xy 1 0
2
+ + = and
x y 3 5 0 - + = simultaneously.
69. Factorise . a b 8
3 3
-
70. Solve .
x x
2
1
3
2
7
+
-
+
=
71. Find the gradient of the normal to the
curve y x x 2 7 1
3
= + + at the point
where . x 2 = -
72. Find the perpendicular distance from
, 3 2 - ^ h to the line . x y 4 3 9 0 - - =
73. Simplify . sec sec 1 1 i i + - ] ] g g
74. Differentiate ( ) . x x 2 5 1
2 4
+ -
] g

75. Find . lim
x
x
4
2
x 2
2
-
-
"

P ( x , y ) if PA is perpendicular to PB , given
3, 2 A = - ^ h and , . B 5 5 = - ^ h
77. Find the coordinates of the focus and the
equation of the directrix of the parabola
. x x y 4 8 20 0
2
- + - =
parabola x y 36
2
= at the point P (18 p , 9 p
2
).
79. Find the equation of the normal to
the parabola x y 12
2
= - at the point
where . x 12 =
80. If points P (2 ap , ap
2
) and Q (2 aq , aq
2
) lie
on the parabola , x ay 4
2
= fnd
the equation of chord (a) PQ
the equation of the locus of the (b)
midpoint of PQ if PQ passes through (0, 2 a )
Describe the shape of this locus. (c)
81. The equation of the locus of point P ( x , y )
that moves so that it is always 4 units
from , 1 3 - ^ h is
(a) x y 1 3 4
2 2
- + + = ^ ^ h h
(b) x y 1 3 4
2 2
+ + - = ^ ^ h h
(c) x y 1 3 16
2 2
+ + - =
]
^
g
h
(d) x y 1 3 16
2 2
- + + = ^ ^ h h
82. If a and b are the roots of the
quadratic equation , x x 5 2 0
2
- + =
evaluate
b
a
a
b
+
11 (a)
2
1

12 (b)
2
1

2 (c)
2
1

10 (d)
2
1

83. The equation of the locus of
point P ( x , y ) moving so that it is
equidistant from (3, 2) and the line
x 1 = - is given by
(a) x x y 2 8 15 0
2
- + - =
(b) y y x 4 8 12 0
2
- - + =
(c) x x y 2 8 17 0
2
- + = -
(d) y y x 4 8 4 0
2
+ = - -
84. The quadratic equation
x k x k 3 0
2
+ + = -
] g
has real roots.
Evaluate k
(a) , k k 1 9 # $
(b) , k 1 9 =
(c) 1 9 k # #
(d) , k k 1 9 1 2
85. Find the centre and radius of the circle
. x x y y 2 8 13 0
2 2
+ + - + =
Centre (a) , , 1 4 - ^ h radius 4
Centre (b) , , 1 4 - ^ h radius 2
Centre (c) , , 1 4 - ^ h radius 2
Centre (d) , , 1 4 - ^ h radius 4
86. In the circle, O is the centre. Evaluate x.
O
x
84
(a) x 42c =
(b) 168 x c =
(c) 84 x c =
(d) 96 x c =
87. Find the Cartesian equation
for , x t 8 = . y t 4
2
=
(a) x y 32
2
=
(b) x y 4
2
=
(c) x y 16
2
=
(d) x y 8
2
=
88. The equation of the normal to
the curve x y 20
2
= at the point
(10 p , 5 p
2
) is
(a) x py p p 5 10
3
+ = +
(b) x py p p 5 10
3
- = -
(c) px y p 15
2
+ =
(d) px y p 15 0
2
- + =
89. AB is a tangent to the circle. Which
statement is true (there may be more
than one answer)?
A
C
B
D
(a)
BC
AB
AB
BD
=
(b)
BC
AB
AB
CD
=
(c) AB BC CD
2
$ =
(d) AB BC BD
2
$ =
90. For the quadratic function
y ax bx c
2
= + + to be positive defnite
(a) , a b ac 0 4 0
2
2 2 -
(b) , a b ac 0 4 0
2
1 2 -
(c) , a b ac 0 4 0
2
2 1 -
(d) , a b ac 0 4 0
2
1 1 -
SET 4
1. Find the zeros of . f x x 2 1
5
= - ^ ^ h h
2. Write P x x x x 4 4
3 2
= + - - ^ h as a
f x x x x 3 2 8
4 3
= - - + ^ h , what graph
does the polynomial approach as x
becomes very large?
4. Find the number of ways of seating
10 people around a table
randomly (a)
if three people are to sit together (b)
if two people must not sit together. (c)
5. Find the zeros of the polynomial
( ) 3 6. f x x x x x
4 3 2
= - + - -
6. Find the coordinates of the point that
divides the interval between ( , ) 3 4 and
( , ) 5 1 - in the external ratio of 2:3.
7. If a , b and c are the roots of
x x x 2 3 4 0
3 2
+ - + = , fnd
(a) abc
(b) a b c + +
(c)
1 1 1
a
b
c
+ +
(d)
2 2 2
a b c + +
8. A and B are the points ( , ) 4 0 - and ( , ) 4 0
respectively. Point ( , ) P x y moves so
that . PA PB 36
2 2
+ = Find the equation
of the locus of P and describe it
geometrically.
9. Find the sum of the interior angles of
a regular polygon with 19 sides. How
large is each angle (in degrees and
minutes)?
10. Prove that the line x y 6 8 40 0 - + = is
a tangent to the circle with centre the
origin and radius 4 units.
( ) , k x x k 1 5 3 4 0
2
- - + + = the roots are
reciprocals of each other. Find the value
of k .

13. Evaluate C
10
3
.
14. Solve . x 4 0
2
2 -
15. A polynomial ( ) P x has a double root at
2. x = Show that ( ) ( ) . P P 2 2 0 = = l
16. If , , and a b c d are the roots of the
equation , x x x 3 2 1 0
4 3
- + + = fnd
(a) abcd
(b) a b c d + + +
(c) ab and a b +
if 2 c = - and . 5 d =
17. In how many different ways can a
committee of 4 people be selected from a
group of 9 people?
18. Find the remainder if
P x x x x x 3 4 2 7 3
5 3 2
= - + - - ^ h is
divided by x 1 + .
19.

CD is a tangent to the circle and
5.6 m, AB = 4.8 m. BC = Find the length
of CD , correct to 1 decimal place.
20. Find the obtuse angle between the
lines x y 2 0 - = and 5 2 3 0. x y + - =
21. (a) Write P x x x x 7 15 9
3 2
= - + -
] g
as a
(b) Sketch the graph of the polynomial
on a number plane.
22. Sketch . y
x
x
4
2
=
-

23. Show that the remainder, on dividing
( ) P x x x x 2 7 9
3 2
= - + - by ( ), x 2 + is
( ) . P 2 -
24. If , , and a b c d are the roots of
x x x 1 0
4 3 2
- + - =
show that (a)
0 abc acd bcd abd + + + =
nd (b) ( )
2
a b c d + + +
nd (c)
2 2 2 2
a b c d + + + .
25. Show that if the polynomial P ( x ) has a
double root at , ( ) x P P 3 3 3 0 = = = l ] g
.
26. A team of 3 boys and 5 girls is chosen at
random from a class of 12 boys and 18
girls. In how many ways can this be done?
27. A circle with centre at the origin O passes
through the point (2, ) 5 . Find the
radius of the circle, and hence its
equation.
28. Find values of a , b and c for which
( ) ( ) . x x a x b x c 3 2 7 2 2
2 2
/ - - + + + +
29. The angle of elevation from a point
A to the top of a tower BC is . 38 54 c l
A is 10 m due south of the tower.

Find the height of the tower, to (a)
1 decimal place.
If point (b) D is 11.2 m due east of the
tower, nd the angle of elevation from D
to the tower.
30. If
3
( ) ( ) ( ) P x x x 1 5
2 2
= - +
nd all zeros of (a) ( ) P x
show (b) ( ) ( ) P P 1 1 0 = = l .
31. What is the domain and range of
? y x 3
2
= -
32. Prove that ABC T is congruent to CDE T .
33. Find the area of the gure below.
through the midpoint of ( , ) 5 7 - and
(1, 3) and making an angle of 135c with
the x -axis.
35. Complete the square on 12 . x x
2
-
x y 3 4 0 - - = and . x y 7 3 1 0 + + =
37. Solve 2 4 9. y $ +
38. Sketch . y
x 1
3
2
=
-

39. Find the point P that divides the
interval AB in the ratio 4:3, given that
A has coordinates ( , ) 3 6 and B has
coordinates ( , ) . 5 8 -
40. (a) Find the equation of the tangent
to the curve y x x 3
3
= - at the point
( , ). P 2 2 - -
(b) Find the equation of the normal to
y x x 3
3
= - at P .
Find the point (c) Q where this normal
cuts the x -axis.
The curve (d) y x x 3
3
= - meets the line
x y 3 2 2 0 - + = at P . Find the angle
between the line and the curve at P .
41. What is the domain and range of the
function ( ) ? f x
x
x
4
2
=
-

42. Simplify
(a) sin cos cos sin a b a b -
(b) cos cos sin sin 15 30 15 30 c c c c -
(c) sin 1 15
2
c -
43. Jason measures the angle of elevation
of a tower as 38 52 c l at a point A ,
185 m due west of the tower. He then
walks to a point B , 140 m due south of
the tower.
What is the height of the tower, (a)
correct to 1 decimal place?
What is the angle of elevation of the (b)
tower from point B ?
44. Point X divides AB externally in the ratio
3:5, given ( , ) A 3 4 and ( , ). B 0 5 - Find the
coordinates of X .
.
tan tan
tan tan
1 75 15
75 15
c c
c c
+
-

46. Solve .
x 1
3
5 1
-

47. Solve sin cos x x 3 2 - = for
. x 0 360 c c # #
48. (a) Find the equation of the normal to
the curve y x x 6 9
2
= - + at the point
where . x 1 = -
(b) This normal cuts the curve again at
point R . Find the coordinates of R .
49. Write sin cos 2 i i + in terms of t where
. tan t
2
i
=
50. Show that 3 x - is a factor of
f x x x x 3 7 5 3
3 2
= - - -
] g
.
51. The function ( ) f x ax bx c
2
= + + has a
tangent at ( , ) 1 3 - with a gradient of . 1 -
It also passes through (4, 3). Find the
values of a , b and c .
52. Find two possible equations for the
straight line passing through ( , ) 1 2 that
intersects the line x y 2 5 0 - + = at an
angle of . 45c
53. In the cone below, the vertical angle
is 54c and the perpendicular height is
20 cm. Find the volume and surface area
of the cone, correct to the nearest whole
number.

54. Solve y
y 3
2
1
+
-

55. If sin x
5
3
= and , tan y
5
12
= express
( ) cos x y - as a fraction.
56. Solve for x 0 360 c c # #
(a) sin cos x x 3
2 2
=
(b) 1 0 sin cos x x + - =
(c) cos sin x x 1 0
2
+ + =
57. (a) Find . lim
x
x
5
1
x 2
-
-
"3

(b) Sketch
5
1
. y
x
x
2
=
-
-

58. Find the general solution of . sin 2 1 i = -
59. Find the angle between the curves y x
3
=
and y x
2
= at ( , ) . 1 1
60. The point (1, 2) P divides the interval
( , ) A x 3 and , B y 5 - ^ h in the external ratio
of 5:4. Find the values of x and y .
f x x x x x 2 2
4 3 2
= - + - + -
] g
, what
graph does the polynomial approach as
x becomes very large?
62. If , , and a b c are the roots of the cubic
equation x x x 4 3 2
3 2
- - + , evaluate
(a) a b c + +
(b) abc
(c) ab bc ac + +
(d)
1 1 1
a
b
c
+ +
(e)
2 2
a b c + +
2

63. By dividing the polynomial
P x x x x 2 3
3 2
= - + +
] g
by
x 2 - , write P ( x ) in the form
. P x x Q x R x 2 = - +
] ] ] ] g g g g

64. How many committees of 5 people could
be formed randomly from a meeting of
20 people?
65. Write the polynomial
P x x x x 3 9 5
3 2
= - + + +
] g
as a product of
its factors.
66. A string of beads is made up of 5 orange
and 5 black beads. If they are randomly
arranged around the necklace, how many
possible combinations are there?
67. An example of a polynomial with leading
coeffcient 3 - and degree 4 is
(a)

y
x

(b)

y
x

(c)

y
x
(d)

y
x
68. What is the number of possible outcomes
when arranging the letters of the word
LITERATURE?
(a)
! !
!
2 2
10

(b)
! ! !
!
2 2 2
10

10! (c)
(d)
!
!
3
10

69. The graph of the polynomial
P x x x 3
3 2
= + ^ ^ h h is
(a)

x
y
3

(b)

x
3
y

(c)

(d)

70. The polynomial P x x x x 5 3 8
3 2
= - + - ^ h
is monic (a)
has degree 3 (b)
has leading coeffcient (c) 8 -
has constant term (d) 8 - .
(there may be more than one answer)
71. The number of possible different PINs
with a combination of 4 numbers and
2 letters is
4 435 236 (a)
6 760 000 (b)
1 000 000 (c)
10 676 (d)
72. The number of possible seating
positions for 12 people sitting at a round
table is
(a) C
12
11

11! (b)
12! (c)
(d) P
12
11

73. The graph below is of the polynomial
(a) P x x x 2
2
= - ^ ^ h h
(b) P x x x 2
2
= + ^ ^ h h
(c) P x x x 2
2
= + ^ ^ h h
(d) P x x x 2
2
= - ^ ^ h h

2
x
y

74. Combination
n
C
r
is equal to
(a) ! n r P
n
r
-
] g

(b)
( ) ! n r
P
n
r
-

(c) ! r P
n
r

(d)
! r
P
n
r

-3
x
y
x
-3
y
75. The graph below could have a leading
term of
(a) x
6

(b) x
5

(c) x
4
-
(d) x
3
-

x
y

Answers
Chapter 1: Basic arithmetic
Problem
5
Exercises 1.1
1. (a) Rational (b) Rational (c) Rational (d) Irrational
(e) Rational (f) Irrational (g) Irrational (h) Rational
(i) Rational (j) Irrational
2. (a) 18 (b) 11 (c) 6 (d) 11 (e) . 4 3 - (f) 1 (g) 2
15
7

(h) 1
20
19
(i) 2 (j) 3
3
1

3. (a) 16.36 (b) 21.87 (c) 8.80 (d) 22.71 (e) . 13 20 -
(f) 0.17 (g) 0.36 (h) 1.20 (i) . 4 27 - (j) 8.16
4. 1300 5. 950 6. 3000 7. 11 000
8. 600 9. $8 000 000 10. $34 600 000
11. 844 km 12. 0.73 13. 33 14. 3.248 15. 4.21
16. 1.7 17. 79 cents 18. 2.73 19. 1.1 20. 3.6 m
21. $281.93 22. 1.8 g 23. $3.20
24. (a) 7.95 (b) 30.03 (c) 0.37 (d) 5.74 (e) 0.52 25. 0.2
Exercises 1.2
1. 1 2. 11 - 3. 56 - 4. 10 5. 4 -
6. . 1 2 - 7. . 7 51 - 8. . 35 52 - 9. 6.57
10. 2
15
4
- 11. 7 - 12. 23 13. 10 14. 1
15. 5 16. 3 17. 1 18. 60 19. 20 20. 9
Exercises 1.3
1. (a)
25
16
(b)
1000
51
(c) 5
20
1
(d) 11
5
4

2. (a) 0.4 (b) 1.875 (c) . 0 416
o
(d) . 0 63
oo

3. (a)
50
1
(b)
8
3
(c)
1000
1
(d) 1
1000
97

4. (a) 0.27 (b) 1.09 (c) 0.003 (d) 0.0623
5. (a) 35% (b) % 33
3
1
(c) % 226
3
2
(d) 0.1%
6. (a) 124% (b) 70% (c) 40.5% (d) 127.94%
7. (a) . ; 0 52
25
13
(b) . ; 0 07
100
7
(c) . ; 0 168
125
21

(d) . ; 1 09 1
100
9
(e) . ; 0 434
500
217
(f) . ; 0 1225
400
49

8. (a) . 0 83
o
(b) . 0 07
oo
(c) . 0 13
oo
(d) . 0 16
o
(e) . 0 6
o
(f) . 0 15
oo

(g) . 0 142857
o o
or 0. 142857 (h) . 1 18
oo

9. (a)
9
8
(b)
9
2
(c) 1
9
5
(d) 3
9
7
(e)
99
67
(f)
11
6
(g)
45
7

(h)
60
13
(i)
990
217
(j) 1
495
37

10. (a) . 0 5
o
(b) 7.4 (c) 0.73
o
(d) . 0 68
oo
(e) . 1 72
oo

11. (a)
8
5
(b) 2
8
1
(c)
11
8
(d) 2
18
7
(e)
45
4

12. 74% 13. 77.5% 14. 17.5% 15. 41.7%
Exercises 1.4
1.
20
3
2.
20
7
3. (a)
20
17
(b)
10
7
(c) 1
20
1

(d)
28
3
(e)
5
3
4. $547.56 5. 714.3 g 6.
24
7
7. $65
8. 179 cm 9. (a) 11.9 (b) 5.3 (c) 19 (d) 3.2 (e) 3.5
(f) 0.24 (g) 0.000 18 (h) 5720 (i) 0.0874 (j) 0.376
10. $52.50 11. 54.925 mL 12. 1152.125 g 13. $10.71
14. 5.9% 15. 402.5 g 16. 41.175 m 17. $30.92
18. 3.2 m 19. 573 20. $2898
Problem
5
11
5
minutes after 1 oclock.
Exercises 1.5
1. (a) 500 (b) 145 (c)
64
1
(d) 3 (e) 2
2. (a) 13.7 (b) 1.1 (c) 0.8 (d) 2.7 (e) . 2 6 - (f) 0.5
3. (a) a
17
(b) y 1
0
= (c) a
4 -
(d) w (e) x
5
(f) p
10

(g) y
6
(h) x
21
(i) x 4
10
(j) y 81
8 -
(k) a (l)
y
x
45
10

(m) w
10
(n) p
5
(o) x
3 -
(p) a b
a
b
or
2 3
2
3
-

(q) x y
x
y
or
5 2
5
2
-

4. (a) x
14
(b) a
7 -
(c) m
4
(d) k
10
(e) a
8 -
(f) x (g) mn
2

(h) p
1 -
(i) 9 x
22
(j) x
21

5. (a) p
5
q
15
(b)
b
a
8
8
(c)
b
a 64
12
3
(d) 49 a
10
b
2
(e) 8 m
17

(f) x
4
y
10
(g)
k
27
2
23
(h) 16 y
47
(i) a
3
(j) x y 125
21 18 -

757 ANSWERS
6. 4
2
1
7. 324 8. 2
27
10
9. (a) a
3
b (b)
25
1

10. (a) pq
2
r
2
(b)
32
7
11.
9
4
12.
18
1
13.
27
4

14.
81
1
15.
108
1
16.
12
1
17.
2
5
58
22
18.
3888
49

Exercises 1.6
1. (a)
27
1
(b)
4
1
(c)
343
1
(d)
10 000
1
(e)
256
1
(f) 1
(g)
32
1
(h)
81
1
(i)
7
1
(j)
81
1
(k)
64
1
(l)
9
1
(m) 1
(n)
36
1
(o)
125
1
(p)
100 000
1
(q)
128
1
(r) 1
(s)
64
1
(t)
64
1

2. (a) 1 (b) 16 (c) 1
2
1
(d) 1
25
11
(e) 1 (f) 125 (g) 1
3
1

(h) 49 (i) 3
8
3
(j) 32 (k) 2
3
1
(l) 1 (m) 1
36
13
(n) 1
81
19

(o) 1 (p) 16 (q) 15
8
5
- (r)
23
7
- (s) 1 (t)
25
16

3. (a) m
3 -
(b) x
1 -
(c) p
7 -
(d) d
9
(e) d
5
(f) x
2 -

(g) 2x
4 -
(h) 3 y
2
(i)
2
1
z
6 -
or
2
z
6 -
(j)
5
3t
8 -
(k)
7
2x
1 -

(l)
2
5m
6 -
(m)
3
2y
7 -
(n) 3 4 x
2
+
-
] g (o) a b
8
+
-
] g
(p) 2 x
1
-
-
] g (q) 5 1 p
3
+
-
^ h (r) 2 4 9 t
5
-
-
] g
(s)
4
1 x
11
+
-
] g
(t)
9
5 3 a b
7
+
-
] g

4. (a)
1
t
5
(b)
1
x
6
(c)
1
y
3
(d)
1
n
8
(e)
1
w
10
(f)
2
x
(g)
3
m
4

(h)
5
x
7
(i)
8
1
x
3
(j)
4
1
n
(k)
1
1
x
6
+ ] g
(l)
8
1
y z +

(m)
3
1
k
2
- ] g
( n)
3 2
1
x y
9
+ ^ h
(o) x
5
(p) y
10
(q)
2
p

(r) a b
2
+ ] g (s)
x y
x y
+
-
(t)
2
3
w z
x y
7
-
+
e o

Exercises 1.7
1. (a) 9 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 2 (e) 7 (f) 10 (g) 2 (h) 8
(i) 4 (j) 1 (k) 3 (l) 2 (m) 0 (n) 5 (o) 7 (p) 2
(q) 4 (r) 27 (s)
2
1
(t)
16
1

2. (a) 2.19 (b) 2.60 (c) 1.53 (d) 0.60 (e) 0.90 (f) 0.29
3. (a) y
3
(b) y y or
2
3 3
2
_ i (c)
1
x
(d) 2 5 x +
(e)
3 1
1
x -
(f) 6q r
3
+ (g)
x x 7
1
7
1
or
2 5 5
2
+ +
] ^ g h

4. (a)
2
t
1
(b)
5
y
1
(c)
2
x
3
(d) x 9
3
1
- ] g (e)
2
s 4 1 +
1
] g
(f)
2
t 2 3 +
-
1
] g (g)
-
2
x y 5 -
3
^ h (h)
2
x 3 1 +
5
] g
(i)
3
x 2 -
-
2
] g (j)
2
y
2
1
7 +
-
1
^ h (k)
-
3
x 5 4 +
1
] g
(l) y
3
2
1
2
1
-
-
2
a k
(m) x
5
3
2
4
3
+
-
2
_ i

5. (a) x
2
3
(b) x
2
1
-
(c) x
3
2
(d) x
3
5
(e) x
4
5

6. (a) x x x 2
2
3
+ +
2
(b) a b
3
2
3
2
- (c) p p p 2
2
1
+ +
1 - 2

(d) 2 x x
1
+ +
-
(e) x x x 3
2
1
2
3
2
5
- +
- - -

7. (a)
2
1
a b
3
-
(b)
3
1
y
2
3
- ^ h
(c)
6 1
4
a
4 7
+ ] g

(d)
3
1
x y
5
4
+ ^ h
(e)
7 3 8
6
x
2 9
+ ] g

Exercises 1.8
1. (a) . 3 8 10
3
# (b) . 1 23 10
6
# (c) . 6 19 10
4
#
(d) 1.2 10
7
# (e) . 8 67 10
9
# (f) . 4 16 10
5
#
(g) 9 10
2
# (h) . 1 376 10
4
# (i) 2 10
7
# (j) 8 10
4
#
2. (a) . 5 7 10
2
#
-
(b) . 5 5 10
5
#
-
(c) 4 10
3
#
-

(d) 6.2 10
4
#
-
(e) 2 10
6
#
-
(f) 8 10
8
#
-

(g) 7.6 10
6
#
-
(h) 2.3 10
1
#
-
(i) 8.5 10
3
#
-
(j) 7 10
11
#
-

3. (a) 36 000 (b) 27 800 000 (c) 9 250 (d) 6 330 000
(e) 400 000 (f) 0.072 3 (g) 0.000 097
(h) 0.000 000 038 (i) 0.000 007 (j) 0.000 5
4. (a) 240 000 (b) 9 200 000 (c) 11 000 (d) 0.36
(e) 1.3 (f) 9.0 (g) 16 (h) 320 (i) 2900 (j) 9.1
5. (a) 6.61 (b) 0.686 (c) 8.25 (d) 1.30
6. 1.305 10
10
# 7. 6.51 10
10
#
-

Exercises 1.9
1. (a) 7 (b) 5 (c) 6 (d) 0 (e) 2 (f) 11 (g) 6 (h) 24
(i) 25 (j) 125 2. (a) 5 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 14 (e) 4
(f) 67 (g) 7 (h) 12 (i) 6 (j) 10 3. (a) 3 (b) 3
(c) 1 (d) 3 (e) 1 4. (a) a (b) a - (c) 0 (d) 3 a
(e) 3 a (f) 0 (g) 1 a + (h) a 1 - - (i) 2 x -
(j) 2 x -
5. (a) | | 6 a b + = | | | | a b 6 + = | | | | | | a b a b ` # + +
(b) | | 3 a b + = | | | | a b 3 + = | | | | | | a b a b ` # + +
(c) | | 1 a b + = | | | | a b 5 + = | | | | | | a b a b ` # + +
(d) | | 1 a b + = | | | | a b 9 + = | | | | | | a b a b ` # + +
(e) | | a b 10 + = | | | | a b 10 + = | | | | | | a b a b ` # + +
6. (a) | | 5 x x
2
= = (b) | | 2 x x
2
= = (c) | | 3 x x
2
= =
(d) | | 4 x x
2
= = (e) | | 9 x x
2
= =
7. (a) x x x x 5 5 5 5 for and for 2 1 + - - - -
(b) b b b x 3 3 3 3 for and for 2 1 - -
(c) a a a a 4 4 4 4 for and for 2 1 + - - - -
(d) y y y y 2 6 3 6 2 3 for and for 2 1 - -
(e) 3 9 3 3 9 3 x x x x for and for 2 1 + - - - -
(f) 4 4 4 4 x x x x for and for 1 2 - -
(g) 2 1 2 1 k k k k
2
1
2
1
for and for 2 1 + - - - -
(h) 5 2 5 2 x x x x
5
2
5
2
for and for 2 1 - - +
(i) a b a b a b a b for and for 2 1 + - - - -
(j) p q p q q p p q for and for 2 1 - -
8. x 3 ! = 9. 1 ! 10. , x 1 2 ! !
Test yourself 1
1. (a)
20
9
(b) 0.14 (c) 0.625 (d)
200
157
(e) 1.2%
(f) 73.3% 2. (a)
49
1
(b)
5
1
(c)
3
1

3. (a) 8.83 (b) 1.55 (c) 1.12 (d) 342 (e) 0.303 4. (a) 1
(b) 1 (c) 39 (d) 2 (e) 10 - (f) 1 - (g) 4 5. (a) x
9

(b) 25y
6
(c) a b
11 6
(d)
27
8x
18
(e) 1 6. (a)
40
29

(b) 3
7
1
(c) 12 (d) 2
2
1
(e) 12
2
1
7. (a) 4 (b) 6 (c) 19
(d)
64
1
(e) 4 (f) 3 (g)
7
1
(h) 2 (i) 1 (j) 4
8. (a) a
5
(b) x
30
y
18
(c) p
9
(d) 16 b
36
(e) 8 x
11
y 9. (a)
2
n
1

(b) x
5 -
(c) x y
1
+
-
^ h (d)
4
x 1 +
1
] g (e)
7
a b +
1
] g
(f) 2x
1 -
(g)
2
1
x
3 -
(h)
3
x
4
(i)
7
x 5 3 +
9
] g (j)
4
m
-
3

10. (a)
1
a
5
(b) n
4
(c) 1 x + (d)
1
x y -
(e)
4 7
1
t
4
- ] g

(f) a b
5
+ (g)
1
x
3
(h) b
3 4
(i) 2 3 x
4 3
+ ] g (j)
1
x
3

11. | | 2 a b + = | | | | 8 a b + = | | | | | | a b a b ` # + +
12. 1 13.
192
1
14. 689 mL 15. (a) 6 h (b)
12
7
(c)
8
1

(d) 33.3% 16. $38 640 17. 70% 18. 6.3 10
23
#
19. (a)
2
x
1
(b) y
1 -
(c)
6
x 3 +
1
] g (d) 2 3 x
11
-
-
] g (e)
3
y
7

20. (a) 1.3 10
5
#
-
(b) 1.23 10
11
# 21. (a)
9
7
(b)
330
41

22. (a)
1
x
3
(b)
2 5
1
a +
(c)
a
b
5
c m
23. 14 500
24. | | , 2 5 7 LHS = - + - = | | | | . 2 5 7 RHS = - + - =
So | | | | | | a b a b # + + since . 7 7 #
Challenge exercise 1
1. 4
303
278
2. 1
18
11
3. . , %, , . 0 502 51
99
51
0 5
o

4. 53
3
1
% 5.
16
1
6. 3.04 10
14
# 7. 83% 8. 1
9990
3271

9. 18 h 10. 1.98

11.

2 2 1 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 1
2 2 1 2 2 2 1
LHS
RHS
k k
k k
k
k
k k k
1
1 1
1
1
1 1
:
`
= - +
= - +
= -
= -
=
- + = -
+
+ +
+
+
+ +
^
^
^ ^
h
h
h h

12. 2
4

.
3
5
13. . , , . , , 0 34 2 1 5 0
7
3
-
o
14. 6
3
2
%
15. ,
x
x
x
x
1
1
1
1
1
1 when when 2 1
-
-
-
- 16. 0.73
17. 0.6% 18 4.54 19. 4.14 10
20
#
-

20.

| | | | | | , , ;
| | | | | | , , ;
a b a b a b a b
a b a b b b a
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
when or
when or a
2 2 1 1
1 2 1 1 2
+ = +
+ +

| | | | a b a b ` # + + for all a , b
Chapter 2: Algebra and surds
Exercises 2.1
1. 7 x 2. 3 a 3. z 4. 6 a 5. 3 b 6. 3 r
7. y - 8. 5 x 9. 0 10. 3 k 11. 9 t 12. 10 w
13. m - 14. x - 15. 0 16. 5 b 17. 11 b 18. 10x -
19. 6 6 x y - 20. 3 a b - 21. 4 2 xy y + 22. 6ab
2
-
23. m m 6 12
2
- + 24. 2 6 p p
2
- - 25. 8 3 x y +
26. 2 10 ab b - + 27. 2bc ac - 28. 2 9 1 a x
5 3
- +
29. 2 3 2 x xy x y y
3 2 2 3
- + + 30. 3 7 6 x x x
3 2
+ - -
Exercises 2.2
1. b 10 2. xy 8 3. p 10
2
4. wz 6 -
5. ab 15 6. xyz 14 7. abc 48 8. d 12
2

9. a 12
3
10. y 27
3
- 11. x 32
10

12. a b 6
2 3
13. a b 10
3 2
- 14. p q 21
3 4

15. a b 5
3 3
16. n 8
10
- 17. k p
3 3
18. t 81
12
19. 14m
11
- 20. x y 24
6 3
Exercises 2.3
1. 6 x 2. 2 3. 4a
2
4. 8 a 5. 4 a 6.
2
y
7. 3 p
8.
2
ab
9.
3
4
y
10. 3x
3
- 11. 3 a 12.
3
1
ab
2
13.
2
qs
-

14.
3
2
c d
2
15.
x
z
2
2
2
16. 6p q
4
17.
4c
a b
4 7
18.
2a
b
6

19.
3y
x z
3 3
- 20.
2b
a
6
13

Exercises 2.4
1. x 2 8 - 2. h 6 9 + 3. a 5 10 - + 4. xy x 2 3 +
5. x x 2
2
- 6. a ab 6 16
2
- 7. a b ab 2
2 2
+ 8. n n 5 20
2
-
9. 3x y x y 6
3 2 2 3
+ 10. k 4 7 + 11. t 2 17 -
12. y y 4 11
2
+ 13. b 5 6 - - 14. x 8 2 -
15. m 3 1 - + 16. h 8 19 - 17. d 6 - 18. a a 2 4
2
- +
19. x x 3 9 5
2
- - 20. ab a b b 2 2
2
- + 21. x 4 1 -
22. y 7 4 - + 23. b 2 24. t 5 6 - 25. a 2 26 +
Exercises 2.5
1. 7 10 a a
2
+ + 2. 2 3 x x
2
+ - 3. 2 7 15 y y
2
+ -
4. 6 8 m m
2
- + 5. 7 12 x x
2
+ + 6. 3 10 y y
2
- -
7. 2 6 x x
2
+ - 8. 10 21 h h
2
- + 9. 25 x
2
-
10. 15 17 4 a a
2
- + 11. 8 6 9 y y
2
+ - 12. 7 4 28 xy x y + - -
13. 2 3 6 x x x
3 2
- + - 14. 4 n
2
- 15. 4 9 x
2
-
16. 16 49y
2
- 17. 4 a b
2 2
- 18. 9 16 x y
2 2
- 19. 9 x
2
-
20. 36 y
2
- 21. 9 1 a
2
- 22. 4 49 z
2
-
759 ANSWERS
23. 2 11 18 18 x xy x y
2
- + - + 24. 2 2 7 6 3 ab b b a
2
+ - - +
25. x 8
3
+ 26. 27 a
3
- 27. 18 81 a a
2
+ +
28. 8 16 k k
2
- + 29. 4 4 x x
2
+ + 30. 14 49 y y
2
- +
31. 4 12 9 x x
2
+ + 32. 4 4 1 t t
2
- +
33. 9 24 16 a ab b
2 2
+ + 34. 10 25 x xy y
2 2
- +
35. 4 4 a ab b
2 2
+ + 36. a b
2 2
- 37. 2 a ab b
2 2
+ +
38. 2 a ab b
2 2
- + 39. a b
3 3
+ 40. a b
3 3
-
Exercises 2.6
1. 8 16 t t
2
+ + 2. 12 36 z z
2
- + 3. 2 1 x x
2
- +
4. 16 64 y y
2
+ + 5. 6 9 q q
2
+ + 6. 14 49 k k
2
- +
7. 2 1 n n
2
+ + 8. 4 20 25 b b
2
+ + 9. 9 6x x
2
- +
10. 9 6 1 y y
2
- + 11. 2 x xy y
2 2
+ + 12. 9 6 a ab b
2 2
- +
13. 16 40 25 d de e
2 2
+ + 14. 16 t
2
- 15. x 9
2
-
16. 1 p
2
- 17. 36 r
2
- 18. 100 x
2
- 19. 4 9 a
2
-
20. 25 x y
2 2
- 21. 16 1 a
2
- 22. 49 9x
2
- 23. 4 x
4
-
24. 10 25 x x
4 2
+ + 25. 9 16 a b c
2 2 2
- 26. 4
4
x
x
2
2
+ +
27.
1
a
a
2
2
- 28. 2 4 4 x y x y y
2 2 2 2
- - = - + - ^ h
29. 2 2 2 2 a b a b c c a ab b ac bc c
2 2 2 2 2
+ + + + = + + + + + ] ] g g
30. 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 x x y y x x xy y y
2 2 2 2
+ - + + = + + - - + ] ] g g
31. 12a 32. 32 z
2
- 33. 9 8 3 x x
2
+ -
34. 3 2 x xy y x
2 2
+ + - 35. 14 4 n
2
-
36. 12 48 64 x x x
3 2
- + - 37. x
2
38. 2 x x y y
4 2 2 4
- +
39. 8 60 150 125 a a a
3 2
+ + +
40. 4 16 15 4 4 x x x x
4 3 2
+ + - -
Problem
2, a = 7, b = 9, c = 4, d = 3, e = 8, f = 0, g = 6, h = 1 i =
Exercises 2.7
1. y 2 3 + ^ h 2. x 5 2 - ] g 3. m 3 3 - ] g 4. x 2 4 1 + ] g
5. y 6 4 3 - ^ h 6. x x 2 + ] g 7. m m 3 - ] g 8. y y 2 2 + ^ h
9. a a 3 5 - ] g 10. ab b 1 + ] g 11. xy x 2 2 1 - ] g
12. mn n 3 3
2
+
^ h
13. xy x z 2 4 - ] g 14. a b a 6 3 2 + - ] g
15. x x y 5 2 - + ^ h 16. q q 3 2
2 3
- _ i 17. b b 5 3
2
+ ] g
18. a b a b 3 2
2 2
- ] g 19. 5)( 7) (m x + + 20. 1 2 y y - - ^ ^ h h
21. 7 )(4 3 ) ( y x + - 22. 2 6 5 a x - + ] ] g g
23. 2 1 t x y + - ]
^
g
h 24. 3 2 2 3 x a b c - + - ] ] g g
25. 3 2 3 x x
2
+ ] g 26. 3 2 q pq
3 2
- _ i 27. ab a b 3 5 1
3 2
+
^ h

28. 4 6 x x
2
- ] g 29. 5 7 5 m n mn
2 3
-
^ h
30. 4 6 4 ab ab
2 3
+
^ h

31. r r h 2r + ] g 32. 3 2 x x - + ] ] g g 33. ( )( ) x y 4 2
2
+ +
34. 1 a - + ] g 35. ( )( ) a ab 1 4 3
2
+ -
Exercises 2.8
1. 4 2 x b + + ] ] g g 2. 3 y a b - + ^
]
h
g 3. 5 2 x x + + ] ] g g
4. 2 3 m m - + ] ] g g 5. d c a b - + ] ] g g 6. 1 3 x x
2
+ + ] ^ g h

7. 5 3 2 a b - + ] ] g g 8. 2y x x y - + ^ ^ h h 9. 1 1 y a + + ^
]
h
g
10. 5 1 x x + - ] ] g g 11. 3)(1 ) (y a + + 12. 2)(1 2 ) (m y - -
13. 5 2 3 x y x y + - ^ ^ h h 14. 4 a b ab
2
+ -
^ ] h g
15. 5 3 x x - + ] ] g g 16. 7)( 4) (x x
3
+ - 17. 3 7 x y - - ]
^
g
h
18. 3 4 d e + - ] ] g g 19. 4 3 x y - + ]
^
g
h 20. 3 2 a b + - ] ] g g
21. 3)( 6) (x x
2
- + 22. 3 q p q - + ^ ^ h h
23. 2 3 5 x x
2
- - ] ^ g h
24. 3 4 a b c - + ] ] g g
25. 7 4 y x + - ^
]
h
g 26. 4)( 5) (x x
3
- -
27. (2 3)(2 4) (2 3)( ) x x x x 2 2
2 2
- + = - +
28. ( )( ) a b a 3 2 3 + + 29. 5( 3)(1 2 ) y x - +
30. r r 2 3 r + - ] ] g g
Exercises 2.9
1. 3 1 x x + + ] ] g g 2. 4 3 y y + + ^ ^ h h 3. 1 m
2
+ ] g
4. 4 t
2
+ ] g 5. 3 2 z z + - ] ] g g 6. 1 6 x x + - ] ] g g
7. 3 5 v v - - ] ] g g 8. 3 t
2
- ] g 9. 10 1 x x + - ] ] g g
10. 7 3 y y - - ^ ^ h h 11. 6 3 m m - - ] ] g g
12. 12 3 y y + - ^ ^ h h 13. 8 3 x x - + ] ] g g
14. a 2
2
- ] g 15. 2 16 x x - + ] ] g g
16. 4 9 y y + - ^ ^ h h 17. 6 4 n n - - ] ] g g 18. x 5
2
- ] g
19. 9 1 p p + - ^ ^ h h 20. 2 5 k k - - ] ] g g 21. 4 3 x x + - ] ] g g
22. 7 1 m m - + ] ] g g 23. 10 2 q q + + ^ ^ h h
24. 5 1 d d - + ] ] g g 25. 9 2 l l - - ] ] g g
Exercises 2.10
1. 2 1)( 5) ( a a + + 2. 5 2 1 y y + + ^ ^ h h
3. 3 7)( 1) ( x x + + 4. 3 2)( 2) ( x x + + 5. 2 3)( 1) ( b b - -
6. 7 2)( 1) ( x x - - 7. 3 1 2 y y - + ^ ^ h h 8. 2 3 4 x x + + ] ] g g
9. 5 2 3 p p - + ^ ^ h h 10. 3 5 2 1 x x + + ] ] g g
11. 2 1)( 6) ( y y + - 12. 5 1 2 1 x x - + ] ] g g
13. 4 1)(2 3) ( t t - - 14. 3 4)(2 3) ( x x + -
15. 6 1 8 y y - + ^ ^ h h 16. 4 3 2 n n - - ] ] g g
17. 4 1 2 5 t t - + ] ] g g 18. 3 2 4 5 q q + + ^ ^ h h
19. r r r r 4 1 2 6 4 1 2 3 - + - + = ] ] ] ] g g g g
20. 2 5 2 3 x x - + ] ] g g 21. 6 1 2 y y - - ^ ^ h h
22. 2 3 3 2 p p - + ^ ^ h h 23. 8 7)( 3) ( x x + +
24. 3 4 4 9 b b - - ] ] g g 25. 6 1)( 9) ( x x + -
26. 3 5 x
2
+ ] g 27. 4 3 y
2
+ ^ h 28. 5 2 k
2
- ] g
29. 6 1 a
2
- ] g 30. 7 6 m
2
+ ] g
Exercises 2.11
1. 1 y
2
- ^ h 2. ( 3) x
2
+ 3. ( 5) m
2
+ 4. ( 2) t
2
-
5. ( 6) x
2
- 6. 2 3 x
2
+ ] g 7. 4 1 b
2
- ] g 8. 3 2 a
2
+ ] g
9. 5 4 x
2
- ] g 10. 7 1 y
2
+ ^ h
11. 3 5 y
2
- ^ h 12. 4 3 k
2
- ] g 13. 5 1 x
2
+ ] g 14. 9 2 a
2
- ] g
15. 7 6 m
2
+ ] g 16.
2
1
t
2
+ d n 17.
3
2
x
2
- d n 18. 3
5
1
y
2
+ d n
19.
1
x
x
2
+
c m
20. 5
2
k
k
2
- d n
Exercises 2.12
1. 2)( 2) (a a + - 2. 3)( 3) (x x + - 3. 1)( 1) (y y + -
4. 5 5 x x + - ] ] g g 5. 2 7)(2 7) ( x x + - 6. 4 3)(4 3) ( y y + -
7. 1 2 )(1 2 ) ( z z + - 8. 5 1 5 1 t t + - ] ] g g 9. 3 2 3 2 t t + - ] ] g g
10. 3 4 3 4 x x + - ] ] g g 11. 2 )( 2 ) (x y x y + -
12. 6 6 x y x y + - ^ ^ h h 13. 2 3 2 3 a b a b + - ] ] g g
14. 10 10 x y x y + - ^ ^ h h 15. 2 9 2 9 a b a b + - ] ] g g
16. 2 2 x y x y + + + - ^ ^ h h 17. 3)( 1) (a b a b + - - +
18. 1 1 z w z w + + - - ] ] g g 19.
2
1
2
1
x x + - d d n n
20.
3
1
3
1
y y
+ -
e e o o
21. 2 3 2 1 x y x y + + - + ^ ^ h h
22. ( )( ) ( )( )( ) x x x x x 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2
+ - = + + -
23. 3 2 3 2 x y x y
3 3
+ - _ _ i i 24. 4 2 2 x y x y x y
2 2
+ + - _ ^ ^ i h h
25. 1)( 1)( 1)( 1) (a a a a
4 2
+ + + -
Exercises 2.13
1. 2)( 2 4) (b b b
2
- + + 2. 3 3 9 x x x
2
+ - + ] ^ g h

3. 1 1 t t t
2
+ - + ] ^ g h
4. 4)( 4 16) (a a a
2
- + +
5. 1 )(1 ) ( x x x
2
- + + 6. 2 3 4 6 9 y y y
2
+ - + ^ _ h i
7. ( )( ) y z y yz z 2 2 4
2 2
+ - + 8. 5 )( 5 25 ) (x y x xy y
2 2
- + +
9. 2 3 4 6 9 x y x xy y
2 2
+ - + ^ _ h i 10. 1 1 ab a b ab
2 2
- + + ] ^ g h

11. 10 2 )(100 20 4 ) ( t t t + - +
2
12.
2
3
4 2
3
9
x x x
2
- + + d e n o

13.
10 1 100 10 1
a
b a ab b
2 2
+ - + d e n o
14. 1 2 1 x y x x xy y y
2 2
+ - + + + + + ^ _ h i
15. xy z x y xyz z 5 25 30 6 36
2 2 2
+ - + ^ _ h i 16. a a 1 9
2
- + -
^ h

17. 1
3
1
3 9
x x x
2
- + + d e n o
18. 3 3 9 6 x y y y xy x x
2 2
+ + - - + + + ^ _ h i
19. 1 4 5 7 x y x x xy y y
2 2
+ - + - + - + ^ _ h i
20. 2 6 )(4 24 2 6 36) ( a b a a ab b b
2 2
+ - + + + + +
Exercises 2.14
1. x x 2 3 3 + - ] ] g g 2. p p 3 3 4 + - ^ ^ h h
3. y y y 5 1 1
2
- + + ^ _ h i 4. )( ab a b a 2 2 2 1 + - ^ h
5. 5 1 a
2
- ] g 6. x x 2 3 4 - - -] ] g g 7. z z z 3 5 4 + + ] ] g g
8. ab ab ab 3 2 3 2 + - ] ] g g 9. x x x 1 1 + - ] ] g g
10. x x 2 3 2 2 - + ] ] g g 11. 5 3 m n - + ] ] g g 12. x 7 2 1 - + ] g
13. 5 4 4 y y y + + - ^ ^ ^ h h h 14. 1 2 2 4 x x x x
2
- + - + ] ] ^ g g h

15. x x x x x x 1 1 1 1
2 2
+ - + - + + ] ^ ] ^ g h g h

16. x x x 2 5 + - ] ] g g 17. ( ) x x 3 3
2
+ - ] g
18. ( )( ) xy xy y 2 1 2 1 + - 19. b b b 3 2 4 2
2
- + + ] ^ g h

20. x x 3 3 2 2 5 - + ] ] g g 21. x 3 1
2
- ] g
22. 2)( 5)( 5) (x x x + + - 23. 3 z z
2
+ ] g
24. 1 1 2 3 2 3 x x x x + - + - ] ] ] ] g g g g
25. x x x y x xy y 2 2 2
2 2
+ - + - + ] ]
^ _ g g
h i
26. ( )( ) a a a 4 3 3 + - 27. x x x x 2 4 2 5
2
- + + ] ^ g h

28. 2)( 2)( 3)( 3) (a a a a + - + - 29. 4 ( 5) k k
2
+
30. 3( 1) 1) 3) ( ( x x x + - +
Exercises 2.15
1. 4 4 2 x x x
2 2
+ + = + ] g 2. 6 9 3 b b b
2 2
- + = - ] g
3. 10 25 5 x x x
2 2
- + = - ] g 4. 8 16 4 y y y
2 2
+ + = + ^ h
5. 14 49 7 m m m
2 2
- + = - ] g 6. 18 81 9 q x q
2 2
+ + = + ^ h
7. 2 1 1 x x x
2 2
+ + = + ] g 8. 16 64 8 t t t
2 2
- + = - ] g
9. 20 100 10 x x x
2 2
- + = - ] g
10. 44 484 22 w w w
2 2
+ + = + ] g
11. 32 256 16 x x x
2 2
- + = - ] g 12. 3
4
9
2
3
y y y
2
2
+ + = + d n
13. 7
4
49
2
7
x x x
2
2
- + = - d n 14.
4
1
2
1
a a a
2
2
+ + = + d n
15. 9
4
81
2
9
x x x
2
2
+ + = + d n 16.
5
y
y
y
16
25
4
5
2
2
2
- + = - d n
17.
11
k
k
k
16
121
4
11
2
2
2
- + = - d n
18. 6 9 3 x xy y x y
2 2 2
+ + = + ^ h 19. 4 4 2 a ab b a b
2 2 2
- + = - ] g
20. 8 16 4 p pq q p q
2 2 2
- + = - ^ h
Exercises 2.16
1. 2 a + 2. 2 1 t - 3.
3
4 1 y +
4.
2 1
4
d -
5.
5 2 x
x
-

6.
4
1
y -
7.
a
b a
3
2 2
-
- ] g
8.
3
1
s
s
+
-
9.
1
1
b
b b
2
+
+ +

10.
3
5 p +
11.
3
1
a
a
+
+
12.
2 4
3
x x
y
2
+ +
+
13. 3 x -
14.
4 2 1
2
p p
p
2
- +
-
15.
2a b
a b
-
+

761 ANSWERS
Exercises 2.17
1. (a)
4
5x
(b)
15
13 3 y +
(c)
12
8 a +
(d)
6
4 3 p +
(e)
6
13 x -

2. (a)
2 1 a
b
-
(b)
1
2 1
q
p q q
2
+
- - + ^ _ h i
(c)
b
x y b
2 1
2
10
2
-
+
]
^
g
h

(d)
ab
x xy y
2 2
- +
(e)
5 2
3 1
x x
x x
- -
- -
] ]
] ]
g g
g g

3. (a)
5
x
(b)
x
x
x 1
2
-
- +
] g
(c)
3
a b
a b
+
+ +
(d)
2
2
x
x
+

(e)
p q
p q p q
p q
p q 1 1
2 2
+
+ -
=
+
- + + ^ ^ h h
(f)
x x
x
1 3
1 2
+ -
-
] ]
]
g g
g

(g)
2 2
3 8
x x
x
+ -
- +
] ] g g
(h)
1
2
a
a
2
+
+
] g

(i)
y y y
y y
2 3 1
3 14 13 2
2
+ + -
+ +
^ ^ ^
_
h h h
i
(j)
x x x
x
4 4 3
5 22
+ - +
+ -
] ] ]
]
g g g
g

4. (a)
y y
x x
3 9
2
8
2
2
- +
+
_
]
i
g
(b)
15
2 1
y
y y + + ^ ^ h h

(c)
x x
x x
2 3 4
10 24
2
- -
+ -
] ] g g
(d)
b
b b
b 1
3 5 10
2
2
+
- -
] g
(e) x
5. (a)
5 2 3
3 13
x x x
x
- - +
-
] ] ] g g g
(b)
2 2
3 5
x x
x
+ -
-
] ] g g

(c)
p q p q
p pq q
pq
3 5 2
2 2
+ -
+ -
^ ^ h h
(d)
2 1
a b a b
a ab b
2 2
+ -
- - +
] ] g g

(e)
x y x y
x y y 1
+ -
+ +
^ ^
^
h h
h

Exercises 2.18
1. (a) 7.1 - (b) 6.9 - (c) 48.1 (d) 37.7 - (e) 0.6
(f) 2.3 (g) 5.3 - 2. 47 3. 7 - 4. 375 5. 196 -
6. 5.5 7. 377 8. 284 9. 40 - 10. 51.935 11. 1
4
3
-
12. 22.4 13. 1838.8 14.
4
3
15. 15 16. 10
17. 2 3 18. 23.987 19. 352.47 20. 93 21. 4
Exercises 2.19
1. (a) 2 3 (b) 3 7 (c) 2 6 (d) 5 2 (e) 6 2
(f) 10 2 (g) 4 3 (h) 5 3 (i) 4 2 (j) 3 6
(k) 4 7 (l) 10 3 (m) 8 2 (n) 9 3 (o) 7 5
(p) 6 3 (q) 3 11 (r) 5 5
2. (a) 6 3 (b) 20 5 (c) 28 2 (d) 4 7 (e) 16 5
(f) 8 14 (g) 72 5 (h) 30 2 (i) 14 10 (j) 24 5
3. (a) 18 (b) 20 (c) 176 (d) 128 (e) 75
(f) 160 (g) 117 (h) 98 (i) 363 (j) 1008
4. (a) 45 x = (b) 12 x = (c) 63 x = (d) 50 x =
(e) 44 x = (f) 147 x = (g) 304 x = (h) 828 x =
(i) 775 x = (j) 960 x =
Exercises 2.20
1. 3 5 2. 2 3. 6 3 4. 3 3 5. 3 5 - 6. 3 6
7. 7 2 - 8. 8 5 9. 4 2 - 10. 4 5 11. 2 12. 5 3
13. 3 - 14. 2 15. 5 7 16. 2 17. 13 6
18. 9 10 - 19. 47 3 20. 2 2 3 5 - 21. 7 5 2 -
22. 2 3 4 5 - - 23. 7 6 3 5 + 24. 2 2 3 - -
25. 17 5 10 2 - +
Exercise 2.21
1. 21 2. 15 3. 3 6 4. 10 14 5. 6 6 - 6. 30
7. 12 55 - 8. 14 9. 60 10. 12 2 3 =
11. 2 48 8 3 = 12. 15 28 30 7 =
13. 2 20 4 5 = 14. 84 - 15. 2
16. 28 17. 30 18. 2 105 - 19. 18
20 . 30 50 150 2 = 21. 2 6 22. 4 3 23. 1 24.
6
8

25. 2 3 26.
3 10
1
27.
2 5
1
28.
3 5
1
29.
2
1

30.
2 2
3
31.
2
3
32.
2 5
9
33.
2 2
5
34.
3
2
35.
7
5

Exercises 2.22
1. (a) 10 6 + (b) 2 6 15 - (c) 12 8 15 +
(d) 5 14 2 21 - (e) 6 4 18 6 12 2 - + = - +
(f) 5 33 3 21 + (g) 6 12 6 - - (h) 5 5 15 -
(i) 6 30 + (j) 2 54 6 6 6 6 + = +
(k) 8 12 12 8 24 3 - + = - + (l) 210 14 15 -
(m) 10 6 120 - (n) 10 2 2 - - (o) 4 3 12 -
2. (a) 10 3 6 3 5 9 3 + + +
(b) 10 35 2 14 - - +
(c) 2 10 6 10 15 15 6 - + -
(d)

12 18 8 12
24 36 8 12
20 60 10 30
5 15 10 30
+ - - =
+ - -

(e) 52 13 10 - (f) 15 15 18 10 6 6 - + -
(g) 4 (h) 1 - (i) 12 - (j) 43 (k) 3 (l) 241 -
(m) 6 - (n) 7 2 10 + (o) 11 4 6 - (p) 25 6 14 +
(q) 57 12 15 + (r) 27 4 35 -
(s) 77 12 40 77 24 10 - = - (t) 53 12 10 +
3. (a) 18 (b) 108 2 (c) 432 2 (d) 19 6 2 + (e) 9
4. (a) 21, 80 a b = = (b) 19, 7 a b = = -
5. (a) 1 a - (b) p p p 2 1 2 1 - - - ^ h
6. 25 k = 7. 2 3 5 x y xy - - 8. 17, 240 a b = =
9. 107, 42 a b = = - 10. 9 5 units
2
+
Exercises 2.23
1. (a)
7
7
(b)
4
6
(c)
5
2 15
(d)
10
6 14
5
3 14
=
(e)
3
3 6 +
(f)
2
12 5 2 -
(g)
5
5 2 10 +

(h)
14
3 14 4 7 -
(i)
20
8 5 3 10 +
(j)
35
4 15 2 10 -

2. (a) 4 4 3 2 4 3 2 - - = ^ h (b)
47
6 7 3 + -
^ h

(c)
19
2 15 4 18
19
15 6 2 2 -
=
- - -
^ ^ h h

(d)
13
19 8 3
13
8 3 19 -
=
- -
^ h
(e) 6 2 5 3 5 2 + + +
(f)
2
6 15 9 6 2 10 6 - + -

3. (a) 2 2
(b) 2 3 3 2 6 3 2 3 3 6 2 3 - + - + = - - + -
^ h

(c)
39
22 5 14 2 +

(d)

10
6 6 16 3 84 8 14
6 21 14
5
3 8 3 4
- - - +
=
- + + -
^ h

(e) 4 - (f) 4 2
(g)
15
20 12 19 6 25 3 6
15
19 6 65 3 6 + + -
=
+ -

(h)
6
6 9 2 2 3 + +
(i)
21
4 6 9 3 +

(j)
4 15
30
3 30 30 5 - -
(k)
13
28 2 6 7 3 - -

(l)
2
2 15 2 10 2 6 3 5 + - - -

4. (a) 45, 10 a b = = (b) 1, 8 a b = = (c)
2
1
,
2
1
a b = - =
(d) 1
9
5
,
9
8
a b = - = - (e) 5, 32 a b = =
5.
2
2
3 2 2
3
2 1
2 1
2
4
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2
4
2
2
2 1
2 1 2 1
2
4 2
2 1
2 2 2 1
2
1
3 2 2
2
2 2
2
2
# #
+
-
+
=
+
-
-
-
+
=
-
- -
+
=
-
- - +
+
=
-
+
= - +
=
^
^ ^
h
h h

So rational
6. (a) 4 (b) 14 (c) 16
7.
3
3 5 2 15 3 - - -

8.
3 2 2
2
2
8
3 2 2
2
3 2 2
3 2 2
2
8
2
2
3 2 2
2 3 2 2
2
8 2
9 4 2
6 4 2
4 2
1
6 4 2
4 2
6 4 2 4 2
6
2
2
# #
#
+
+
=
+ -
-
+
=
-
-
+
=
-
-
+
=
-
+
= - +
=
^
^
h
h

So rational
9. x 3 2 = - +
^ h
10.
4
4 4
b
b b
-
+ +

Test yourself 2
1. (a) 2y - (b) 4 a + (c) 6k
5
- (d)
15
5 3 x y +
(e) 3 8 a b -
(f) 6 2 (g) 4 5
2. (a) 6 6 x x + - ] ] g g (b) 3 1 a a + - ] ] g g (c) ab b 4 2 - ] g
(d) 3)(5 ) (y x - + (e) n p 2 3 2 - + ^ h
(f) 2 )(4 2 ) ( x x x
2
- + +
3. (a) 4 6 b - (b) 2 5 3 x x
2
+ - (c) 4 17 m +
(d) 16 24 9 x x
2
- + (e) 25 p
2
- (f) 1 7a - -
(g) 2 6 5 3 - (h) 3 3 6 21 2 7 - + -
4. (a)
a a b 3 9
8
2 2
+ +
^ h
(b)
2
15
m
2
- ] g

5. 157.464 V = 6. (a) 17 (b)
17
6 15 9 -

7.
3 2
4 5
x x
x
+ -
+
] ] g g
8. (a) 36 (b) 2 - (c) 2 (d) 216 (e) 2
9. (a)
5
1
(b) 8 10. 11.25 d =
11. (a)
15
2 3
(b)
2
2 6 +

12. (a) 3 6 6 4 3 4 2 - - + (b) 11 4 7 +
13. (a) 3( 3)( 3) x x - + (b) x x 6 3 1 - + ] ] g g
(c) y y y 5 2 2 4
2
+ - + ^ _ h i
14. (a)
3y
x
4
3
(b)
3 1
1
x -

15. (a) 99 (b) 24 3
16. (a) a b
2 2
- (b) 2 a ab b
2 2
+ + (c) 2 a ab b
2 2
- +
17. (a) a b
2
- ] g (b) a b a ab b
2 2
- + + ] ^ g h

18.
2
3 3 1 +
19. (a)
4 3
ab
b a +
(b)
10
3 11 x -

20.
7
21 5 46 2 - -

763 ANSWERS
21. (a) 6 2 (b) 8 6 - (c) 2 3 (d)
3
4
(e) 30a b
2

(f)
3n
m
4
(g) 2 3 x y -
22. (a) 2 6 4 + (b) 10 14 5 21 6 10 3 15 - - +
(c) 7 (d) 43 (e) 65 6 14 -
23. (a)
7
3 7
(b)
15
6
(c)
5 1
2
+

(d)
15
12 2 6 -
(e)
53
20 3 15 4 10 3 6 + + +

24. (a)
10
10 x +
(b)
21
17 15 a -
(c)
( 1)( 1) x x
x 3 2
+
-
-

(d)
1
1
k -
(e)
3
15 6 15 3 15 2 - - -

25. (a) 48 n = (b) 175 n = (c) 392 n =
(d) n 5547 = (e) 1445 n =
26. 3
121
71
27. (b), (c) 28. (d) 29. (a), (d) 30. (c)
31. (c) 32. (b) 33. (a) 34. (d) 35. (b)
1. (a) 2 8 6 a b ab a
2 2 3
- + (b) 4 y
4
-
(c) 8 60 150 125 x x x
3 2
- + -
2.
17
17 3 2 5 20 + +
3.
2 2
1
4
2
or
4.
a
b
x
a
b
x
a
b
x
4
2
2
2
2 2
+ + + = d n
5. (a) x x 4 9 + + ] ] g g
(b) ( )( ) x y x y x y x y x y 3 2 3 3 2
2 2 2
- + = + - + _ _ _ i i i
(c) 5 7 25 35 49 x x x
2
+ - + ] ^ g h
(d) 2 2 2 b a a - + - ] ] ] g g g
6. 4 12 9 2 3 x x x
2 2
+ + = + ] g 7.
x
y
1
1
2 -
+
] g
8. 2 5
9.
1
1
a a
a
2
2
- +
+ ] g
10.
2 2
x
b
a
x
b
a
+ - d d n n
11.
x x x
x x x xy y
3 3 2
3 6 3 6 4
3 2
- + -
- + + -
] ] ] g g g

12. (a) 8 12 6 1 x x x
3 2
- + - (b)
2 1
3 4
x
x
2
-
+
] g

13. x x x 9 7 15
3 2
+ - -
14.
13
66 6 4 2 15 4 5 65 3 - + - + -

15. x
x
x
3
2
9
1
3
1
2
2
+ + = + d n 16. 2 x =
17.
10
400 59 5 -
18. (a) 3
121
71
(b) , a b
23
17
23
14
= = -
19. 1
2
1
i = 20.
4
r
4
3 3
r
r
r
= =
21. 2 6 3 s = +
Chapter 3: Equations
Exercises 3.1
1. 5 t = - 2. 5.6 z = - 3. 1 y = 4. 6.7 w = 5. 12 x =
6. 4 x = 7.
15
1
y = 8. 35 b = 9. 16 n = - 10. 4 r =
11. 9 y = 12. 6 k = 13. 2 d = 14. 5 x = 15. 15 y =
16. 20 x = 17. 20 m = 18. 4 x = 19. 7 a = - 20. 3 y =
21. 4 b = - 22. 3 x = 23. 1
3
2
a = - 24. 4 t = -
25. 1.2 x = 26. 1.6 a = 27.
8
1
b = 28. 39 t =
29. 5 p = 30. 4.41 x Z
Exercises 3.2
1. 3
3
1
b = 2. 35 x = 3. 4
9
4
y = 4. 1
35
9
x = 5. 5
8
5
k =
6. 36 x = 7. 0.6 t = 8. 3 x = - 9. 1.2 y = - 10. 69 x =
11. 13 w = 12. 30 t = 13. 14 x = 14. 1 x = -
15. 0.4 x = - 16. 3 p = 17. 8.2 t = 18. 9.5 x = -
19. 22 q = 20. 3 x = - 21. 0.8 b = 22. 0.375 a = -
23. 3 x = 24. 1 y = 25. 1
3
2
t = -
Exercises 3.3
1. 8.5 t = 2. 122 l = 3. 8 b = 4. 41 a = 5. 4 y =
6. 6.68 r = 7. 6.44 x = 8. 15 n = 9. 3
3
2
y
1
=
10. 3.7 h = 11. (a) 25.39 BMI = (b) 69.66 w =
(c) 1.94 h = 12. 0.072 r = 13. 9 x
1
= - 14. 2.14 t =
15. x 2 ! = 16. 2.12 r = 17. 10.46 r = 18. 1.19 x =
19. 5.5 x = 20. 3.3 r =
Exercises 3.4
1. (a) x 3 2
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
(b) y 4 #
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
2. (a) 7 t 2 (b) x 3 $ (c) 1 p 2 - (d) x 2 $ - (e) 9 y 2 -
(f) a 1 $ - (g) y 2
2
1
$ - (h) x 2 1 - (i) a 6 # -
(j) y 12 1 (k) b 18 1 - (l) 30 x 2 (m) x 3
4
3
#
(n) m 14
3
2
2 (o) b 16
4
1
$ (p) r 9 # - (q) 8 z 2
(r) w 2
5
4
1 (s) x 35 $ (t) t 9 $ - (u) 6 q
5
2
2 -
(v) 1 x
3
2
2 - (w) b 11
4
1
# -
3. (a) x 1 7 1 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(b) p 2 5 1 # -
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
(c) x 1 4 1 1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
(d) y 3 5 # # -
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
(e) y
6
1
1
3
2
1 1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Exercises 3.5
1. (a) x 5 ! = (b) y 8 ! = (c) 4 4 a 1 1 -
(d) , k k 1 1 $ # - (e) 6, 6 x x 1 2 -
(f) p 10 10 # # - (g) 0 x = (h) , a a 14 14 2 1 -
(i) 12 12 y 1 1 - (j) , b b 20 20 $ # -
2. (a) , x 5 9 = - (b) , n 4 2 = - (c) , a a 2 2 1 2 -
(d) x 4 6 # # (e) , x 3 6 = - (f) , x 5 4
7
5
= -
(g) 3 2 y
2
1
1 1 - (h) , x x 9 6 $ # - (i) x 12 ! =
(j) a 2 10 # #
3. (a) 1
4
1
x = (b) , a 3
3
1
= - (c) 2
3
1
b =
(d) No solutions (e) 2
7
2
y = - (f) 7 x = (g) , m 5 1
3
2
=
(h) , d 2
2
1
1
4
3
= - (i) , y
5
4
2 = - (j) No solutions
4. (a) , x 2
2
1
= - (b) 3, 2
3
1
y = (c) 10, 1
5
3
a = -
(d) , x 4 7
3
1
= - (e) , d 4 5 = -
5. (a) , t 3 1
5
2
= - (b) 1 3 t
5
2
1 1 -
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Exercises 3.6
1. (a) 3 x = (b) y 8 ! = (c) 2 n ! = (d) 2 x 5 ! =
(e) 10 p = (f) x 5 ! = (g) y 3 ! = (h) 2 w =
(i) n 4 ! = (j) 2 q = -
2. (a) 6.71 p ! = (b) 4.64 x = (c) 2.99 n = (d) 5.92 x ! =
(e) 1.89 y = (f) . d 2 55 ! = (g) 4.47 k ! = (h) 2.22 x =
(i) . y 3 81 ! = (j) 3.01 y =
3. (a) 27 n = (b) 16 t = (c) 32 x = (d) 8 t =
(e) 243 p = (f) 625 m = (g) 216 b = (h) 27 y =
(i) 128 a = (j) 81 t =
4. (a)
5
1
x = (b)
2
1
a = (c)
2
1
y = (d) x
7
1
! =
(e)
3
2
n = (f) 2 a = (g) 2 x ! = (h) 9 b =
(i) x
3
2
! = (j) b 1
2
1
! =
5. (a) x
512
1
= (b) 6
4
1
x = (c)
81
1
a = (d)
625
1
k =
(e) x
8
1
= (f) 4 x = (g) 8 y = (h) n 7
32
19
=
(i) 8 b = (j) 1
216
127
m =
6. (a) 4 n = (b) 5 y = (c) 9 m = (d) 5 x = (e) 0 m =
(f) 3 x = (g) 2 x = (h) 2 x = (i) 1 x = (j) k 2 =
7. (a) 2 x = (b) 1 x = (c) 2 x = - (d) 2 n = (e) 0 x =
(f) 6 x = (g) y
3
1
= (h) 2 x = (i) 2 x = (j) a 0 =
8. (a)
2
1
m = (b)
3
1
x = (c)
3
1
x = (d)
2
1
k = -
(e)
3
2
k = - (f)
4
3
n = (g) 1
2
1
x = (h)
3
2
n =
(i)
6
1
k = - (j) 1
3
2
x =
9. (a) x 1 = - (b) x 1
3
1
= - (c) k 4 = - (d) n 3 =
(e) x 2
1
2
= - (f) x
3
2
= - (g) x 4
2
1
= - (h) x 1
11
7
= -
(i) x 1
5
4
= (j) x 18 =
10. (a)
4
1
m = (b) 2
4
3
k = - (c) 2
8
3
x = (d) 1
2
1
k =
(e)
18
1
n = (f)
2
1
n = - (g)
5
4
x = (h) 3
6
1
b = -
(i) 1
7
1
x = - (j) 5 m =
Puzzle
1. All months have 28 days. Some months have more days
as well. 2. 10 3. Bottle $1.05; cork 5 cents
4. 16 each time 5. Friday
Exercises 3.7
1. , y 0 1 = - 2. , b 2 1 = - 3. , p 3 5 = - 4. , t 0 5 =
5. , x 2 7 = - - 6. q 3 ! = 7. x 1 ! = 8. , a 0 3 = -
765 ANSWERS
9. , x 0 4 = - 10. x
2
1
! = 11. , x 1 1
3
1
= - -
12. , y 1 1
2
1
= - 13. , b
4
3
2
1
= 14. , x 5 2 = - 15. , x 0
3
2
=
16. , x 1 2
2
1
= 17. 0, 5 x = 18. 1, 2 y = - 19. , n 5 3 =
20. 3, 4 x = 21. 6, 1 m = - 22. , , x 0 1 2 = - -
23. , , y 1 5 2 = - - 24. , x 5 7 = - 25. , m 8 1 = -
Exercises 3.8
1. (a) x 5 2 ! = - (b) 3 a 7 ! = + (c) 4 y 23 ! = +
(d) 1 x 13 ! = - (e) p 44 7 2 11 7 ! ! = - = -
(f) x 28 5 2 7 5 ! ! = + = +
(g) 5 10 y 88 2 22 22 10 2 ! ! ! - = - = - =
^ h

(h) 1 x 2 ! = + (i) 12 n 137 ! = -
(j)
3
y
2
5 !
=
+

2. (a) . , . x 3 45 1 45 = - (b) . , . x 4 59 7 41 = - -
(c) . , . q 0 0554 18 1 = - (d) . , . x 4 45 0 449 = -
(e) . , . b 4 26 11 7 = - - (f) . , . x 17 7 6 34 =
(g) . , . r 22 3 0 314 = - (h) . , . x 0 683 7 32 = - -
(i) . , . a 0 162 6 16 = - (j) . , . y 40 1 0 0749 = -
Exercises 3.9
1. (a) . , . y 0 354 5 65 = - - (b) , . x 1 1 5 =
(c) . , . b 3 54 2 54 = - (d) , . x 1 0 5 = -
(e) . , . x 0 553 0 678 = - (f) . , . n 0 243 8 24 = -
(g) , m 2 5 = - - (h) , x 0 7 = (i) , x 1 6 = -
(j) . , . y 2 62 0 382 =
2. (a) x
2
1 17 !
=
-
(b) x
6
5 13 !
=
(c) q
2
4 28
2 7
!
! = =
(d) h
8
12 128
2
3 2 2 ! !
=
-
=
-

(e) s
6
8 40
3
4 10 ! !
= =
(f) x
2
11 133 !
=
-
(g) d
12
5 73 !
=
-

(h) x
2
2 32
1 2 2
!
! = = (i) t
2
1 5 !
=
(j) x
4
7 41 !
=
Exercises 3.10
1. , y y 1 0 2 1 2. x 0
2
1
1 1 3. 0, 1 x x
2
1
2 1
4. m 0
7
2
1 # 5. , x x
5
3
0 > 1 - 6. b 2 0 1 # -
7. x 1 1
4
1
1 1 8. z 3
5
1
3 1 1 - - 9. x 2 2
4
3
1 #
10. , x x 2 2
6
1
1 2 11. x 4
9
5
4 1 # - -
12. x 1
3
1
1
15
7
1 1 13. , a a 3
4
1
2
2
1
1 2 - -
14. x
2
1
9
5
1 1 15. , y y 2 1 1 2 - -
16. , x x
8
7
4 2 # - 17. 4 26 p
2
1
1 1
18. , x x 1
5
1
2 # - - 19. , t t
5
2
2
3
2
2 #
20. 0 m
9
8
1 1 - 21. 5, 0 1 x x 1 1 1 -
22. , n n 0 2 4 1 # $ 23. , x x 5 3 0 1 1 2 -
24. 2, 1 6 m m 1 # # - - 25. , x x 1 3 4 1 # # -
26. , x x 2
2
1
3
2
1 # # - 27. , x x 3 1 2 1 $ # -
28. , n n 1 3 5 1 1 1 - 29. , x x 4
3
2
7
4
1 1 1 - - -
30. , x x
2
1
1 7 1 # #
Exercises 3.11
1. 3 0 x 1 1 - 2. 0 4 y 1 1 3. , n n 0 1 # $
4. , x x 2 2 # $ - 5. , n n 1 1 1 2 - 6. n 5 3 # # -
7. , c c 1 2 1 2 - 8. x 4 2 # # - - 9. 4 5 x 1 1
10. , b b 2
2
1
# $ - - 11. , a a 1
3
1
1 2 -
12. , y y 1
2
1
2 1 2 - 13. , x x
3
2
1 # $
14. , b b 3
5
2
1 2 - 15. x 1
2
1
3
1
# # - -
16. y 4 3 # # - 17. , x x 4 4 1 2 - 18. a 1 1 # # -
19. 2 3 x 1 1 - 20. , x x 1 3 # $ - 21. 0 2 x 1 1
22. a 1 1
2
1
# # 23. , y y 2
5
4
# $ -
24. , m m 1
3
2
1
2
1
1 2 - 25. x 1 1
3
1
# #
26. 0 x
2
1
1 1 27. , x x 0
2
1
1 $
28. , y y 1
5
4
1 2 - - 29. 3 3 n
2
1
1 #
30. , x x 8 5 2 # - - 31. , x x
5
2
7
3
1 2
32. , x x 4
5
1
5 2 # 33. , x x 1
4
1
1 2 # - -
34. , x x 3 2 1 2 - 35. x
4
3
5
3
1 # - -
Exercises 3.12
1. , a b 1 3 = = 2. , x y 2 1 = = 3. , p q 2 1 = = -
4. , x y 6 17 = = 5. , x y 10 2 = - = 6. , t v 3 1 = =
7. , x y 3 2 = - = 8. , x y 64 39 = - = - 9. , x y 3 4 = = -
10. , m n 2 3 = = 11. , w w 1 5
1 2
= - = 12. , a b 0 4 = =
13. , p q 4 1 = - = 14. , x x 1 1
1 2
= = -
15. , x y 1 4 = - = - 16. , s t 2 1 = = -
17. , a b 2 0 = - = 18. , k h 4 1 = - =
19. , v v 2 4
1 2
= - = 20. , . x y 2 1 41 Z =
Problem
23 adults and 16 children.
Exercises 3.13
1. , x y 0 0 = = and , x y 1 1 = =
2. , x y 0 0 = = and , x y 2 4 = - =
3. , x y 0 3 = = and , x y 3 0 = =
4. , x y 4 3 = = - and , x y 3 4 = = - 5. , x y 1 3 = - = -
6. , x y 3 9 = = 7. , t x 2 4 = - = and , t x 1 1 = =
8. , m n 4 0 = - = and , m n 0 4 = = -
9. , x y 1 2 = = and , x y 1 2 = - = -
10. , x y 0 0 = = and , x y 1 1 = =
11. , x y 2 1 = = and , x y 1 2 = - = - 12. , x y 0 1 = =
13. , x y 1 5 = = and , x y 4 11 = =
14. , x y
4
1
4 = = and , x y 1 1 = - = - 15. , t h
2
1
4
1
= - =
16. , x y 2 0 = =
17. , x y 0 0 = = and , x y 2 8 = - = - and , x y 3 27 = =
18. , x y 0 0 = = and , x y 1 1 = = and , x y 1 1 = - =
19. , x y
2
1
2
4
3
= = 20.
13
5
,
13
12
x y = - = -
Exercises 3.14
1. , , x y z 2 8 1 = - = - = - 2. , , a b c 2 1 2 = - = - =
3. , , a b c 4 2 7 = - = = 4. , , a b c 1 2 3 = = = -
5. , , x y z 5 0 2 = = = - 6. , , x y z 0 5 4 = = - =
7. , , p q r 3 7 4 = - = = 8. , , x y z 1 1 2 = = - =
9. , , h j k 3 2 4 = - = = - 10. , , a b c 3 1 2 = = - = -
Test yourself 3
1. (a) 10 b = (b) 116 a = - (c) 7 x = -
(d) , x x 4
3
1
3 2 # - - (e) p 4 #
2. (a) 1262.48 A = (b) 8558.59 P =
3. (a) x x x 8 16 4
2 2
- + = - ] g (b) k k k 4 4 2
2 2
+ + = + ] g
4. (a) , x y 2 5 = - = (b) , x y 4 1 = = and , x y
2
1
8 = - = -
5. (a) 2 x = (b)
4
1
y =
6. (a) , b 2 1
3
1
= - (b) , g 2
4
1
= (c) , x x 4 3 $ #
7. (a) 36 A = (b) 12 b = 8. , x
2
1
1 =
9. 1 3 y 1 # -
10. (a) . , . x 0 298 6 70 = - - (b) . , . y 4 16 2 16 = -
(c) . , . n 0 869 1 54 = -
11. (a) 764.5 V = (b) 2.9 r = 12. x 71
4
1
2
13. , x x 2 9 1 2 14. . , . x y 2 4 3 2 = = 15. (a) 2100 V =
(b) 3.9 r = 16. (a) ii (b) i (c) ii (d) iii (e) iii
17. , , a b c 3 2 4 = = = -
18. , n n 0 3
3
1
2 1 -
19. 4 x = - 20. 2 x = - 21. (a) 3 y 2 (b) n 3 0 # # -
(c) 2 x = (d) 2 x = (e) , x 3 1
5
2
= - (f) 1, 2 t t $ # -
(g) 4 2 x # # - (h) 3 x = - (i) , y y 2 2 2 1 -
(j) 1, 1 x x # $ - (k)
6
5
x = (l)
2
1
2 b # # -
(m) No solutions (n) 2
3
1
,
5
3
t = (o) 1 3 x 1 1 -
(p) , m m 3 2 # $ - (q) , t t 1 0 1 2 - (r) 1 3 y 1 1
(s) 2 2
5
2
n 1 # (t) x
2
1
5
1
1 # -
1. 1 y = 2. , x a x a 1 2 - 3. , a b 3 2 ! = =
4. . , . x 2 56 1 56 = - 5. , y y 2 0 3 1 # # -
6. ; , x x x x x x 3 3 2 2 4 3 2
2
! + - - + + = ] ] ] ^ g g g h

7. , x y 1 2 = = and , x y 1 0 = - =
8. ; . , . b x 4 17 4 8 12 0 123 ! Z = = + - 9. x 1 ! =
10. 1 1 t 1 1 - 11. x 3 8 # # - 12.
4
1
x =
13. 2.31 r = 14. No solutions 15. x b a a
2
! = + +
16. , y y 2
2
1
3
2
1 # # - 17. 2247.36 P =
18. x
3
4 10 2 !
=
^ h
19. , . . x x 4 2 2 0 7 1 1 1 - -
20. , y y 1
5
3
1 2 -
767 ANSWERS
Chapter 4 : Geometry 1
Exercises 4.1
1. (a) 47 y c = (b) 39 x c = (c) 145 m c = (d) 60 y c =
(e) 101 b c = (f) 36 x c = (g) 60 a c = (h) 45 x c =
(i) 40 y c = (j) 80 x c = 2. (a) 121c (b) 72 29 c l
(c) 134 48 c l 3. (a) 42c (b) 55 37 c l (c) 73 3 c l
4. (a) (i) 47c (ii) 137c (b) (i) 9c (ii) 99c (c) (i) 63c
(ii) 153c (d) (i) 35c (ii) 125c (e) (i) 52c (ii) 142c
(f) (i) 15c7l (ii) 105c7l (g) (i) 47c36l (ii) 137c36l
(h) (i) 72c21l (ii) 162c21l (i) (i) 26c 1 1 l (ii) 116c 1 1 l
(j) (i) 38c 1 5 l (ii) 128c 1 5 l 5. (a) 49 x c = (b) 41c
(c) 131c 6. (a) , y x z 15 165 c c = = =
(b) , , x y z 142 48 28 c c c = = =
(c) , , a b c 43 137 101 c c c = = =
(d) , , a b d c 97 41 42 c c c = = = =
(e) , , a b c 68 152 28 c c c = = = (f) , a b 10 150 c c = =
7. 0 x x x x
x
x
8 10 2 10 10 7 10 36
18 360
20
- + - + + + + =
=
=
(angleof revolution)

( )
( )
ABE x
EBC x
ABE EBC
8 10
8 20 10
150
2 10
2 20 10
30
150 30
180
c
c
c c
c
+
+
+ +
= -
= -
=
= -
= -
=
+ = +
=

ABC `+ is a straight angle

( )
DBC x
DBC EBC
7 10
7 20 10
150
150 30
180
c
c c
c
+
+ +
= +
= +
=
+ = +
=

DBE `+ is a straight angle
` AC and DE are straight lines
8.
AFC x
CD bisects
`
`
+ =
AFE +
( )
( )
( )
( )
DFB x
x
CFE x x
x
AFC CFE
AFB
AFB
180 180
180 180 2
is a straight angle
is a straight angle
`
c c
c c
+
+
+ +
+
+
= - -
=
= - + -
=
=

9. ABD DBC + + +

110 3 3 70
180
x x
c
= - + +
=

So ABC + is a straight angle.
AC is a straight line.
10. AEB BEC CED + + + + +

y y y 50 8 5 20 3 60
90c
= - + - + +
=

So AED + is a right angle.
Exercises 4.2
1. (a) , a b e f c d g 148 32 c c = = = = = = =
(b) , x z y 70 110 c c = = =
(c) , , x y z 55 36 89 c c c = = = (d) , y x z 125 55 c c = = =
(e)
, n e g a c z x 98c = = = = = = =

82 o m h f b d y w c = = = = = = = =
(f) , , a b c 95 85 32 c c c = = =
(g) , , a b c 27 72 81 c c c = = =
(h) , , , x y z a b 56 124 116 64 c c c c = = = = =
(i) 61 x c = (j) 37 y c =
2. (a) CGF
BFG CGF
180 121
59
59
( is a straight angle) FGH
`
c c
c
c
+
+ +
= -
=
= =

These are equal alternate angles.
AB CD ` <
(b) BAC 360 292 68
(angle of revolution)
c c c + = - =
BAC DCA 68 112
180
` c c
c
+ + + = +
=

These are supplementary cointerior angles.
AB CD ` <
(c) 180 76
104
104
BCD
ABC BCD
c
c
+
+ +
= -
=
= =
( BCE + is a straight angle)

AB CD ` ;
(d)
180 128
52
52
CEF
CEF ABE
c
c
+
+ +
= -
=
= =
( CED + is a straight angle)

These are equal corresponding angles.
AB CD ` ;
(e) 180 23 115 CFH + = - + ] g ( EFG + is a straight angle)
42c =
42 BFD ` c + = (vertically opposite angles)

ABF BFD 138 42
180
c c
c
+ + + = +
=

AB CD ` ;
Exercises 4.3
1. (a) 60 x c = (b) 36 y c = (c) 71 m c = (d) 37 x c =
(e) 30 x c = (f) 20 x c = (g) 67 x c = (h) 73 a c =
(i) , , a b c 75 27 46 c c c = = =
(j) , , a b c 36 126 23 c c c = = =
(k) , , x y z w 67 59 121 c c c = = = =
2. All angles are equal. Let them be x .
x x x 180 Then (angle sumof ) D + + =

x
x
3 180
60
=
=

So all angles in an equilateral triangle are 60 . c
3. x 90 c - ] g

4. 50
180 (50 45 )
ACB
ABC
DEC ABC
85
85
(angle sumof )
`
c
c c c
c
c
+
+
+ +
D
=
= - +
=
= =
AB DE ` <
5.

124 68
ACB
CBA
CBA
CBA ACB
ABC
180 124
56
68 124
56
56
is isosceles
( is a straight angle)
(exterior angle of )
DCB
`
`
c c
c
c c
c c
c
c
+
+
+
+ +
D
D
= -
=
+ =
= -
=
= =

6. 38 y c =
7. (a) x 64c = (b) , x y 64 57 c c = = (c) 63 x c =
(d) , a b 29 70 c c = =
8. 180 (35 25 )
120
180 120
60
180 (90 30 )
60
180 (60 60 )
60
HJI
IJL
JIL
ILJ
(angle sumof )
( is a straight angle)
(angle sumof )
(angle sumof )
HJI
HJL
IKL
JIL
c c c
c
c c
c
c c c
c
c c
c
+
+
+
+
D
D
D
= - +
=
= -
=
= - +
=
= - +
=

Since 60 , IJL JIL ILJ c + + + = = =
IJL D is equilateral

( )
( )
( )
KJL
JLK
KJI
JKL
180 60
120
180 30 120
30
is a straight angle
angle sumof
c c
c
c c c
c
+
+ D
= -
=
= - +
=

JLK JKL 30 `+ + = =
JKL `D is isosceles
9. BC BD =
BDC 46 ` c + = (base angles of isosceles triangle)

CBD 180 2 46
88
#
c
+ = -
=

CBD BDE 88 ` c + + = =
AB ED ` ;
10. 180
32
OQP 75 73
c
+ = - +
=
] g (angle sum of triangle)
MNO OQP 32 ` c + + = =
MN QP ` ;
Exercises 4.4
1. (a) Yes
5 AB EF cm = = (given)
6 BC DF cm = = (given)
8 AC DE cm = = (given)
ABC DEF ` / D D ( SSS )
(b)Yes
4.7 XY BC m = = (given)
XYZ BCA 110c + + = = (given)
2.3 YZ AC m = = (given)
XYZ ABC ` / D D ( SAS )
(c) No
(d) Yes
PQR SUT 49c + + = = (given)
PRQ STU 52c + + = = (given)
8 QR TU cm = = (given)
PQR STU ` / D D ( AAS )
(e) No
2. (a)
,
AB KL
B L
BC JL
ABC JKL
4
38
5
by SAS
(given)
(given)
(given)
`
c + +
/ D D
= =
= =
= =

(b)
,
Z B
XY AC
YZ BC
RHS XYZ ABC
90
7
2
by
(given)
(given)
(given)
`
c + +
/ D D
= =
= =
= =

(c)
,
MN QR
NO PR
MO PQ
MNO PQR
8
8
5
by SSS
(given)
(given)
(given)
` / D D
= =
= =
= =

(d)
.
Y T
Z S
XY TR
XYZ STR
90
35
1 3
by AAS,
(given)
(given)
(given)
`
c
c
+ +
+ +
/ D D
= =
= =
= =

(e)
,
BC DE
C E
AC EF
ABC DEF
4
90
7
by SAS
(given)
(given)
(given)
`
c + +
/ D D
= =
= =
= =

3. (a) B C
BDA CDA
AD
ABD ACD
90
is common
by AAS,
(base angles of isosceles )
(given)
`
c
+ +
+ +
/ D D
D =
= =

769 ANSWERS
(b) BD DC
AD BC bisects
(corresponding sides in congruent s) `
`
D =
4. , ) AB CD ABD BDC ernate angles + + < = (alt

( , ) ADB DBC
BD
ABD CDB
AD BC
AD BC
is common
by AAS,
alternate angles
`
`
+ +
/
<
D D
D
=
=

5. (a) OA OC = (equal radii)
OB OD = (similarly)
AOB COD + + = (vertically opposite angles)
AOB COD ` / D D ( SAS )
(b) AB CD = (corresponding sides in congruent
triangles)
6. (a) AB AD = (given)
BC DC = (given)
AC is common
ABC ADC ` / D D ( SSS )
(b) ABC ADC + + = (corresponding angles in congruent
triangles)
OB is common
AOB COB 90c + + = = (given)
OAB OBC ` / D D ( SAS )
(b) OCB OBC + + = (base angles of OBC, an isosceles
right angled triangle)
But OCB OBC 90c + + + = (angle sum of triangle)
So OCB OBC 45c + + = =
Similarly 45 OBA c + =
45 45 90 OBA OBC ` c c c + + + = + =
So ABC + is right angled
8. (a) 90 AEF BDC c + + = = (given)
AF BC = (given)
FE CD = (given)
AFE BCD ` / D D ( RHS )
(b) AFE BCD + + = (corresponding angles in
congruent triangles)
OB is common
AB BC = (given)
OAB OBC ` / D D ( SSS )
(b) OBA OBC + + = (corresponding angles in
congruent triangles)
But 180 OBA OBC c + + + = ( ABC is a straight angle)
So 90 OBA OBC c + + = =
OB is perpendicular to AC.
10. (a) AD BC = (given)
ADC BCD 90c + + = = (given)
DC is common
ADC BCD ` / D D ( SAS )
(b) AC BD = (corresponding sides in congruent
triangles)
Exercises 4.5
1. (a) . x 15 1 = (b) 4.4 x = (c) 6.6 m =
(d) , , 76 23 81 c c c a i b = = = (e) 4.5 b =
(f) , , . x y 115 19 3 2 c c a = = = (g) 9.7 p =
2. . , . a b 1 81 5 83 = =
3. ( , )
( )
BAC EDC
ABC DEC
ACB ECD
AB ED alternate angles
(similarly)
+ +
+ +
+ +
< =
=
=

` since 3 pairs of angles are equal, | CDE D | | ABC D
4.
.
.
.
.
.
.
GFE EFD
EF
GF
DF
EF
EF
GF
DF
EF
2 7
1 5
0 5
4 86
2 7
0 5
(given)
`
+ + =
= =
= =
=
o
o

Since two pairs of sides are in proportion and their
included angles are equal, then | FGE D | | DEF D
5.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
DE
AB
DF
AC
EF
BC
DE
AB
DF
AC
EF
BC
1 82
1 3
0 714
5 88
4 2
0 714
6 86
4 9
0 714
`
= =
= =
= =
= =

Since three pairs of sides are in proportion,
| DEF D | | ABC D
y 41c =
6. (a) OA OB
OC OD
OD
OA
OC
OB
AOB COD
(equal radii)
(similarly)
`
+ +
=
=
=
=

included angles are equal, | OCD 3 | | OAB 3
(b) 5.21 AB cm =
7. (a) A + is common

( , ) ABC ADE
ACB AED
BC DE corresponding angles
(similarly)
+ +
+ +
< =
=

` since 3 pairs of angles are equal, | ADE D | | ABC D
(b) . , . x y 2 17 2 25 = =
8. ( , )
( , )
( )
ABF BEC
CBE BFA
C A
s AB CD
BC AD
s
alternate angle
similarly
angle sumof `
+ +
+ +
+ +
z
z
D
=
=
=

` since 3 pairs of angles are equal, | CEB D | | ABF D
9. A + is common

.
.
.
.
AB
AD
AC
AE
AB
AD
AC
AE
3
1 2
0 4
2
0 8
0 4
`
= =
= =
=

included angles are equal, | , . ABC m 4 25 D = | | AED D
10.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
CD
AB
AC
BC
AD
AC
CD
AB
AC
BC
AD
AC
2 6
2
0 769
3 9
3
0 769
5 07
3 9
0 769
`
= =
= =
= =
= =

Since three pairs of sides are in proportion,
, c | , ACD x y 109 47c D = = | | ABC D
11. (a) 7.8 x = (b) . , . m p 4 0 7 2 = = (c) 6.5 x =
(d) . , . x y 6 2 4 4 = = (e) . , . x y 1 4 9 2 = =
12. (a)
BC
AB
DE
AD
DE
AD
FG
AF
BC
AB
FG
AF
Also
`
=
=
=
(b)
AC
AB
AE
AD
AE
AD
AG
AF
AC
AB
AG
AF
Also
`
=
=
=

(c)
CE
BD
AE
AD
AE
AD
EG
DF
CE
BD
EG
DF
Also
`
=
=
=

13. . , . a b 4 8 6 9 = = 14. 0.98 y = 15. . , . x y 3 19 1 64 = =
Exercises 4.6
1. (a) 6.4 x = (b) 6.6 y = (c) 5.7 b = (d) 6.6 m =
2. (a) 61 p = (b) 58 t = (c) 65 x = (d) 33 y =
3. . s 6 2 m = 4. . CE 15 3 cm =
5. 81, 144, 225 AB CB CA
2 2 2
= = =
AB CB
CA
81 144
225
2 2
2
+ = +
=
=

ABC `D is right angled
6. 1 XY YZ = =
XYZ `D is isosceles

, YZ XY XZ
YZ XY
XZ
1 2
1 1
2
2 2 2
2 2
2
= = =
+ = +
=
=

XYZ `D is right angled
7. AC AB BC
BC
BC
BC
BC
AC
BC
2 3
4 3
1
1
2
2 1
2
2 2 2
2
2
2
2
2
`
#
= +
= +
= +
=
=
=
=
=
^ h

8. (a) 5 AC =
(b) , , AC CD
AD
25 144
169
2 2
2
= =
=

25 144
169
AC CD
AD
2 2
2
+ = +
=
=

ACD `D has a right angle at ACD +
AC ` is perpendicular to DC
9. AB b 3 = 10.
x
x y
2 2
+

11. d t t
t t t t
t t
20 3 15 2
400 120 9 225 60 4
13 180 625
2 2 2
2 2
2
= - + -
= - + + - +
= - +
] ] g g
12. 1471 mm 13. 683 m 14. 12.6 m 15. 134.6 cm
16. 4.3 m 17. 42.7 cm
18. 1.3 1.1 2.9 1.5 2.25 and
2 2 2
+ = =
. . . 1 3 1 1 1 5
2 2 2
! + so the triangle is not right angled
` the property is not a rectangle
19. No. The diagonal of the boot is the longest available
space and it is only 1.4 m.
20. (a) 6 4 BC
2 2 2
= -
20 =
20 BC =
6 AO cm = (equal radii)
So 6 4 AC
2 2 2
= -
20 =
20 AC =
Since , BC AC = OC bisects AB
(b) OCA OCB 90c + + = = (given)
OA OB = (equal radii)
OC is common
OAC OBC ` / D D ( RHS )
So AC BC = (corresponding sides in congruent triangles)
` OC bisects AB
Exercises 4.7
1. (a) x 94c = (b) y 104c = (c) x 111c = (d) x 60c =
(e) y 72c = (f) , x y 102 51 = = (g) , x y 43 47 = =
771 ANSWERS
2. ABE D is isosceles.

( s )
( )
B E
CBE DEB
76
180 76
104
base equal
straight s
` c
c c
c
+ +
+ +
+
+
= =
= = -
=

D
D
D
62 104 104 360
270 360
90
(angle sumof quadrilateral) c c c c
c c
c
+
+
+
+ + + =
+ =
=

` CD is perpendicular to AD `
3. (a)
( )
( , )
( , )
( , )
D x
C x
x
x
A C x
B x
B D x
A D AB DC
C D AD BC
B C AB DC
180
180 180
180 180
180
180
and cointerior angles
`
`
c
c c
c c
c
c
+
+
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
<
<
<
= -
= - -
= - +
=
= =
= -
= = -

(b) x x x x 180 180
360
Angle sum c c
c
= + + - + -
=

4. , a b 150 74 c c = =
5. (a) 5 , 3 , 108 , 72 a b x z y m m c c = = = = =
(b) , , x y z 53 56 71 c c c = = =
(c) 5 , 68 x y cm c a b = = = =
(d) , , 121 52 77 c c c a b i = = =
(e) 60 x c = (f) , x y 3 7 = =
6. ( )
, )
,
ADB CDB
CDB ABD
ADB DBC
ABD DBC
BD ABC
BD ADC
AB DC
AD BC
bisects
bisects
(alternate angles
(alternate angles )
`
`
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
+
<
<
=
=
=
=

7. (a) .
.
AD BC
AB DC
3 8
5 3
cm
cm
(given)
(given)
= =
= =

Since two pairs of opposite sides are equal, ABCD is a
parallelogram.
(b) AB DC
AB DC
7cm (given)
(given) <
= =
Since one pair of opposite sides is both equal and
parallel, ABCD is a parallelogram.
(c) 54 126
180
X M c c
c
+ + + = +
=

XY MN ` <
XM YN Also, (given) <
` XMNY is a parallelogram
(d) AE EC
DE EB
5
6
cm
cm
(given)
(given)
= =
= =

Since the diagonals bisect each other, ABCD is a
parallelogram.
8. (a) , x 5 66 cm c i = = (b) , , 90 25 65 c c c a b c = = =
(c) , x y 3 5 cm cm = = (d) , x y 58 39 c c = =
(e) x 12 cm =
9. 6.4 cm 10. 59 , 31 , 59 ECB EDC ADE c c c + + + = = =
11. 4 2 cm 12. 57 x y c = =
Exercises 4.8
1. (a) 540c (b) 720c (c) 1080c (d) 1440c (e) 1800c
(f) 2880c 2. (a) 108c (b) 135c (c) 150c (d) 162c
(e) 156c 3. (a) 60c (b) 36c (c) 45c (d) 24c
4. 128 34 c l 5. (a) 13 (b) 152 18 c l 6. 16 7. 3240c
8. 2340c 9. 168 23 c l
10. ( )
.
n n
n n
n
n
145
145 180 360
35
10 3
2 180 Sum # c = = -
= -
=
=

But n must be a positive integer.
` no polygon has interior angles of 145 . c
11. (a) 9 (b) 12 (c) 8 (d) 10 (e) 30
12. (a) ABCDEF is a regular hexagon.
AF BC = (equal sides)
FE CD = (equal sides)
AFE BCD + + = (equal interior angles)
AFE BCD ` / D D ( SAS )
(b)
( )
S n
AFE
6
720
6
720
120
2 180
2 180
#
#
c
c
c
c
c
+
= -
= -
=
=
=
] g
Since , AF FE = triangle AFE is isosceles.
So FEA FAE + + = (base angles in isosceles triangle)
FEA
2
180 120
30
`
c
c
+ =
-
=
(angle sum of triangle)
ED A 120 30
90
c
c
+ = -
=

Similarly, DE B 90c + =
So ED DE A B 180c + + + =
These are supplementary cointerior angles
AE BD ` <
13. A regular octagon has equal sides and angles.
AH AB = (equal sides)
GH BC = (equal sides)
AHG ABC + + = (equal interior angles)
AHG ABC ` / D D ( SAS )
So AG AC =
(corresponding sides in congruent triangles)
( )
S n
8
1080
2 180
2 180
#
#
c
c
c
= -
= -
=
] g

AHG
8
1080
135
`
c
c
+ =
=

HGA HAG + + = (base angles in isosceles triangle)
HAG
2
180 135
22 30
`
c
c
+ =
-
= l

GAC 135 2 22 30
90
# c
c
+ = -
=
l

We can similarly prove all interior angles are 90c and
adjacent sides equal .
So ACEG is a square .
14. EDC
5
5
108
2 180 # c
c
+ =
-
=
] g

ED CD = (equal sides in regular pentagon)
So EDC is an isosceles triangle.
DEC ECD `+ + = (base angles in isosceles triangle)

36
DEC
2
180 108c
c
+ =
-
=

108 36
72
AEC c
c
+ = -
=

Similarly, using triangle ABC , we can prove that
72 EAC c + =
So EAC is an isosceles triangle.
(Alternatively you could prove EDC and ABC congruent
triangles and then AC EC = are corresponding sides in
congruent triangles.)
15. (a)
p
360

(b) Each interior angle:

180
360
180
360
180 360
180 2
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
-
= -
=
-
=
- ^ h

Exercises 4.9
1. (a) . 26 35 m
2
(b) . 21 855 cm
2
(c) . 18 75 mm
2
(d) 45 m
2

(e) 57 cm
2
(f) 81 m
2
(g) . 28 27 cm
2
2. . 4 83 m
2

3. (a) . 42 88 cm
2
(b) . 29 5 m
2
(c) . 32 5 cm
2
(d) . 14 32 m
2

(e) . 100 53 cm
2
4. (a) 25 m
2
(b) . 101 85 cm
2

(c) . 29 4 m
2
(d) . 10 39 cm
2
(e) 45 cm
2

5. 7 51 98 7 51 14 cm
2
+ = +
^ h
6. . 22 97 cm
2

7. $621.08 8. (a) . 161 665 m
2
(b) 89 m
2
(c) 10.5 m
9. (a) 48 cm (b) 27 cm 10. w 12 units
2

Test yourself 4
1. (a) , , x y z 43 137 147 c c c = = = (b) 36 x c =
(c) , , a b c 79 101 48 c c c = = = (d) 120 x c =
(e) 7.2 r cm = (f) 5.6 , 8.5 x y cm cm = = (g) 45c i =
2. ) AGF HGB (vertically opposite + + i =
AGF CFE So + + i = =
These are equal corresponding . s +
AB CD ` <
3. 118.28 cm
2

4. (a)
( )
DAE BAC
ADE ABC
AED ACB
ABC ADE AAA and are similar
(common)
(corresponding angles, DE BC)
(similarly)
`
+ +
+ +
+ +
<
D D
=
=
=

(b) 3.1 , 5.2 x y cm cm = =
5. 162c 6. 1020.7 cm
3
7. 36 m
8. (a) AB AD
BC DC
(adjacent sides in kite)
(similarly)
=
=

AC is common
` ABC and ADC are congruent (SSS)
(b) AO CO
BO DO
AOB COD
(equal radii)
(similarly)
(vertically opposite angles) + +
=
=
=

` AOB and COD are congruent (SAS)
9. 73.5 cm
2

10. 6 2 7 36 28 64 8
2
2
2
+ = + = =
^ h

` ABC is right angled (Pythagoras)
11.
AG
AF
AE
AD
AE
AD
AC
AB
AG
AF
AC
AB
(equal ratios on intercepts)
(similarly)
`
=
=
=

12. (a)
(base s of isosceles + D)
( , )
AB AC
B C
BD DC AD BC
(given)
bisects given
+ +
=
=
=

ABD ACD SAS ` / D D ] g
(b)
180
ADB ADC
ADB ADC But
(corresponding s in congruent s)
(straight ) c
+ +
+ +
+
+
D =
+ =

So 90 ADB ADC c + + = =
So AD and BC are perpendicular.
13.
34
34
( )
( )
ACB
CAD
CAD ADC
68
68 34
base s of isosceles
exterior of
`
c
c c
c
c
+
+
+ +
+
+
D
D
=
= -
=
= =

So ACD is isosceles base s equal + ^ h
14.
773 ANSWERS

( , )
, )
DAC ACB
BAC ACD
AD BC
s AB DC
alternate s
(alternate
+ +
+ +
+
+
<
<
=
=

AC is common

ABC ADC
AB DC
(AAS)
`
`
/ D D
D =

Similarly, AD BC =
` opposite sides are equal
15. (a) 24 cm
2
(b) 5 cm 16. 9
17. BFG FGD x x 109 3 3 71
180
c c
c
+ + + = - + +
=

These are supplementary cointerior . s +
AB CD ` <
18. 57 cm
2

19. (
(
( )
)
)
ACB A B
x y
ACD ACB
z x y
x y
x y
180
180
180
180 180
180 180
sumof
straight
c
c
c
c c
c c
+ + +
+ +
+
+
D = - +
= - -
= -
= - - -
= - + +
= +
] g
20. (a)
.
.
.
.
.
.
A E
EF
AC
DE
AB
EF
AC
DE
AB
2 7
2 97
1 1
3 6
3 96
1 1
given
`
+ + =
= =
= =
=
^ h
So ABC and DEF are similar (two sides in proportion,
included s + equal).
(b) 4.3 x cm =
1. 94c 2. , , x y z 75 46 29 c c c = = = 3. , 1620 32 44 c c l
4.
, )
( )
BAD DBC
ABD BDC
ADB DCB
AB DC
(given)
(alternate angles
angle sumof `
+ +
+ +
+ +
<
D
=
=
=

` since 3 pairs of angles are equal,
BCD D ; ABD < D
6.74 d cm =
5. AB DC
A D 131 49
180
(given)
c c
c
+ +
=
+ = +
=

A + and D + are supplementary cointerior angles
AB DC ` <
Since one pair of opposite sides are both parallel and
equal, ABCD is a parallelogram.
6. . 27 36 m
2

7.
Let ABCD be a square with diagonals AC and BD and

D
AD DC
90
(adjacent sides of square)
c + =
=

ADC
DAC DCA
DAC DCA
DAC DCA
BAC BCA
90
45
45
is isosceles
Similarly,
(base angles of isosceles )
(angle sumof )
(other angles can be proved similarly)
`
`
`
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
D
D
D
=
+ =
= =
= =

8.
Let ABCD be a kite

AD AB
DC BC
(given)
(given)
=
=

AC is common

, ADC ABC
DAC BAC
AD AB
DAE BAE
by SSS
(corresponding angles in congruent s)
(given)
(found)
`
` + +
+ +
/ D D
D
=
=
=

AE is common

,
(
( )
ADE ABE
DEA BEA
DEA BEA
DEA BEA
DEB 180
90
by SAS
But
the diagonals are perpendicular
corresponding angles in congruent s)
is a straight angle
`
`
`
`
c
c
+ +
+ +
+ +
/ D D
D =
+ =
= =

9. 84 (15 112 ) )
( )
MNY
MNY
XYZ
XYZ
MNY XYZ
MNZ
XYZ
43
69 112
43
43
(exterior angle of
exterior angle of
`
`
`
c c c
c
c c
c
c
+
+
+
+
+ +
D
D
+ = +
=
+ =
=
= =

These are equal corresponding angles.
MN XY ` <
10. . x 2 12 m = 11. (a) 6 m
2
(b) 10 2 5 2 5 5 m + = +
^ h

12. . , . x y 28 7 3 8 cm cm = = 13. 7.40 , 4.19 x y m m = =
14. (a) AB BC
ABE CBE 45
(adjacent sides in square)
(diagonals in square make 45 with sides) c
+ +
=
= =

EB is common.

, ABE CBE
AE CE
by SAS
`
`
/ D D
D =

Since AB BC = and , AE CE = ABCE is a kite.

(b) BD x x
x
x
DE BD
x
2
2
2
1
2
2
units
2 2
2
= +
=
=
=
=

Practice assessment task set 1
1. 9 p = 2. 2 5 y x y + - ^ ^ h h 3. (a) x
1 -
(b)
3
x
4

4. 6 10 y - 5.
23
25 5 2 +
6. 2 16 3 x x x
3 2
+ - +
7.
7
2
x = 8.
3
2
x -

9. ABC EDC
ACB ECD
AB ED
ABC EDC
AC EC
ACE
90
by AAS
is isosceles
(given)
(given)
(corresponding sides in congruent triangles)
`
`
`
+ +
+ +
/ D D
D
= =
=
=
=

10. 231.3 11. 3 - 12. 135c 13. 7.33 10
2
#
-

14. 3 10 4 - 15. 3.04 16. 3 x + 17. . , . x 1 78 0 281 = -
18. 1.55 r = 19. x 1 2
20.
15
7
21. x
2
4
2 3
12 !
! = = 22.
49
1

23. 4, 11 1, 4 x y x y or = = = - = - 24. , x y 2 1 = = -
25. 7 26. 7.02 cm 27. 2 1 4 2 1 x x x
2
- + + ] ^ g h

28.
43
6 15 2 6 +
29. 7 30. $643.08 31. 1.1
32. 2 10 3 5 2 2 3 - + - + 33. $83.57
34. , , x y w z 22 29 90 c c c = = = = 35. 56.7 cm
2

36. a b
a
b
21 10
21
10
=
-
37. , x x 6 2
5
2
2 1 - 38.
8
1

39. x 7 - - 40.
4
1
x = 41. , x x 3 3 # $ - 42.
6
1

43. Given diagonal AC in rhombus ABCD :

)
)
AB BC
DAC ACB
BAC ACB
DAC BAC
AD BC
ABC
(adjacent sides in rhombus)
(alternate s,
`
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
+
<
D
=
=
=
=

` diagonal AC bisects the angle it meets.
Similarly, diagonal BD bisects the angle it meets.
44. x 3
1
+
-
] g 45. 6 12 8 x x x
3 2
+ + + 46.
2
5
17
4
47. 53 x c =
48. , x y 98 41 c c = = 49. x 0 5 1 1 50.
3 2
1
x +

51. (a) 12 8 x y - (b) 2 31 (c)
3 9
3
x x
x
2
- +
-
(d) 3 2 1 +
(e)
1 1
5
x x
x
+ -
- +
] ]
]
g g
g
(f)
6
11 3
(g) x y z
x z
y
14 7 11
14 11
7
=
- -

(h)
5 1 2
3
a a b b + + ] ] g g
(i) 8 5 (j) 13
2
1

52. . , . x y 2 7 3 1 = = 53. 25 x = 54. r
2
cm
3
r
=
55. 17.3 cm
56. DEA x
EAD x
CD x x
x
ABC x
ABC DEA
A
2
2
2
Let
Then (base s of isosceles )
(exterior of )
(opposite s of gramare equal)
EAD
`
`
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+ <
D
D
=
=
= +
=
=
=

57.
5
2
58. 5% 59. 2.2 10 kmh
8 1
#
-
60. 20 k =
61. 9xy y 62. 147 16 c l 63. 5.57 m
2

64. (a) a b a a ab b b 5 2 2 4 2 4 4 4
2 2
+ - - - + + + ] ^ g h

(b) 3 4 6 2 a b a b c + - + ] ] g g
65. x 1
8
1
5
4
3
1 # -
66.
(BCEF is a gram) <
( BC AD ABCD
BC FE
AD FE
is a gram)
`
< <
<
<

BC AD
BC FE
AD FE
Also opposite sides of gram
similarly
`
< =
=
=
^
^
h
h

Since AD and FE are both parallel and equal, AFED is a
parallelogram.
67. 11.95 b m = 68. (a) 34 cm (b) 30 cm
2

775 ANSWERS
69.
75
18 3 31 2 25 5 + -
70. 20 71. 32 m
72. BD bisects AC
So AD DC =
90 BDC BDA c + + = = (given)
BD is common
BAD BCD ` / D D ( SAS )
AB CB ` = (corresponding sides in congruent
triangles)
So triangle ABC is isosceles
73.
2
x y
2 2
+
74. (b) 75. (c) 76. (a) 77. (b) 78. (b)
79. (d) 80. (d)
Chapter 5 : Functions and graphs
Exercises 5.1
1. Yes 2. No 3. No 4. Yes 5. Yes 6. Yes 7. No
8. Yes 9. Yes 10. No 11. Yes 12. No 13. Yes
14. No 15. Yes
Exercises 5.2
1. 4, 0 f f 1 3 = - = ] ] g g 2. , , h h h 0 2 2 2 4 14 = - = - = ] ] ] g g g
3. 25, 1, 9, 4 f f f f 5 1 3 2 = - - = - = - - = - ] ] ] ] g g g g 4. 14
5. 35 - 6. 9 x = 7. x 5 ! = 8. x 3 = - 9. , z 1 4 = -
10. 2 9, 2 2 9 f p p f x h x h = - + = + - ^
]
h
g
11. 1 2 g x x
2
- = + ] g 12. f k k k k 1 1
2
= - + + ] ] ^ g g h

13. ; , t t 1 2 4 = - = - 14. 0
15. 125, 1, 1 f f f 5 1 1 = = - = - ] ] ] g g g
16. 0 4 1 3 f f f 2 2 1 - - + - = - + = - ] ] ] g g g
17. 10 18. 7 19. 28 -
20. (a) 3 (b) 3 3 3 0 x - = - =
Denominator cannot be 0 so the function doesnt exist
for . x 3 = (c) 4
21. 2 5 f x h f x xh h h
2
+ - = + - ] ] g g 22. 4 2 1 x h + +
23. x c 5 - ] g 24. 3 5 k
2
+ 25. (a) 2 (b) 0 (c) 2 n n
4 2
+ +
Exercises 5.3
1. (a) x -intercept
3
2
, y -intercept -2
(b) x -intercept -10, y -intercept 4
(c) x -intercept 12, y -intercept 4
(d) x -intercepts 0, -3, y -intercept 0
(e) x -intercepts 2 ! , y -intercept -4
(f) x -intercepts -2, -3, y -intercept 6
(g) x -intercepts 3, 5, y -intercept 15
(h) x -intercept 5
3
- , y -intercept 5
(i) x -intercept -3, no y -intercept
(j) x -intercept , 3 ! y -intercept 9
2. 2
( )
f x x
x
f x
2
even function
2
`
- = - -
= -
=
2
] ] g g
3. (a) 1 f x x
2 6
= +
^ h
(b) f x x x 2 1
2 6 3
= + + ] g 7 A
(c) 1 f x x
3
- = - + ] g (d) Neither odd nor even
4.
( )
g x x x x
x x x
g x
3 2
3 2
even function
8 4 2
8 4 2
`
- = - + - - -
= + -
=
] ] ] ] g g g g
5. f x x f x - = - = - ] ] g g
` odd function
6. 1
( )
f x x
x
f x
1
even function
2
2
`
- = - -
= -
=
] ] g g
7. f x x x
x x
x x
f x
4
4
4
odd function
3
3
3
`
- = - - -
= - +
= - -
= -
] ] ]
^
]
g g g
h
g

8. f x x x
x x
f x
even function
4 2
4 2
`
- = - + -
= +
=
] ] ]
]
g g g
g

0 f x f x - - = ] ] g g
9. (a) Odd (b) Neither (c) Even (d) Neither (e) Neither
10. (a) Even values i.e. , , , n 2 4 6 f =
(b) Odd values i.e. , , , n 1 3 5 f =
11. (a) No value of n (b) Yes, when n is odd (1, 3, 5, )
12. (a) (i) x 0 2 (ii) x 0 1 (iii) Even
(b) (i) x 2 1 (ii) x 2 2 (iii) Neither
(c) (i) x 2 2 1 1 - (ii) , x x 2 2 1 2 - (iii) Neither
(d) (i) All real x 0 ! (ii) None (iii) Odd
(e) (i) None (ii) All real x (iii) Neither
Exercises 5.4
1. (a) x -intercept 2, y -intercept -2
(b) x -intercept 1
2
1
- , y -intercept 3
(c) x -intercept
2
1
, y -intercept 1
(d) x -intercept -3, y -intercept 3
(e) x -intercept
3
2
, y -intercept
3
1
-
2. (a)
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1

(b)
y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1
(c) y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1
(d)
y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1

(e) y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1
1
2

(f)
y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1

(g) y
x
-4
-5
-3-2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1
2
3
-

(h)
y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1

777 ANSWERS
(i)
y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1

(j)
y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1
1
1
2

3. (a) , x y all real all real " " , , (b) : , x y y 2 all real = " " , ,
(c) : , x x y 4 all real = - !
"
+
, (d) : , x x y 2 all real = !
"
+
,
(e) , : x y y 3 all real = !
"
+
,
4. (a) Neither (b) Even (c) Neither (d) Odd (e) Odd
5.
y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1
1
1
2
(3, -1)
Exercises 5.5
1. (a) x -intercepts 0, -2, y -intercept 0
(b) x -intercepts 0, 3, y -intercept 0
(c) x -intercepts ! 1, y -intercept -1
(d) x -intercepts -1, 2, y -intercept -2
(e) x -intercepts 1, 8, y -intercept 8
2. (a) y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2-1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
6
-3
-4
-2
-1
1

(b)
y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
6
-3
-4
-2
-1
1

(c) y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
6
-3
-4
-2
-1
1

(d)
y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
6
-3
-4
-2
-1
1

(e) y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
6
-3
-4
-2
-1
1

(f)
y
x
-4
-10
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
4
6
8
2
10
12
-6
-8
-4
-2
1

(g) y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-6
-2
-1
1

(h)
y
x
-5
-3 -4 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-6
-2
-1
1

(i)
y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-6
-2
-1
2 1
1
1
2

(j)
y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-6
-2
-1
1

3. (a) (i) x -intercepts 3, 4, y -intercept 12 (ii) {all real x },
: y y
4
1
$ - ( 2
(b) (i) x -intercepts 0, -4, y -intercept 0 (ii) {all real x },
: y y 4 $ - " ,
(c) (i) x -intercepts -2, 4, y -intercept -8 (ii) {all real x },
: 9 y y $- " ,
(d) (i) x -intercept 3, y -intercept 9 (ii) {all real x }, : y y 0 $ " ,
(e) (i) x -intercepts , 2 ! y -intercept 4 (ii) {all real x },
: y y 4 # " ,
4. (a) {all real x }, : y y 5 $ - " , (b) {all real x }, : y y 9 $- " ,
779 ANSWERS
(c) {all real x }, : y y 2
4
1
$ - ( 2 (d) {all real x }, : y y 0 # " ,
(e) {all real x }, : 0 y y $ " ,
5. (a) y 0 9 # # (b) y 0 4 # # (c) y 1 24 # # -
(d) y 4 21 # # - (e) y 18 2
4
1
# # -
6. (a) (i) x 0 2 (ii) x 0 1 (b) (i) x 0 1 (ii) x 0 2
(c) (i) x 0 2 (ii) x 0 1 (d) (i) x 2 1 (ii) x 2 2
(e) (i) x 5 2 - (ii) x 5 1 -
7.
( )
f x x
x
f x
even
2
2
`
- = - -
= -
=
] ] g g
8. (a) Even (b) Even (c) Even (d) Neither
(e) Neither (f) Even (g) Neither
(h) Neither (i) Neither (j) Neither
Exercises 5.6
1. (a) x -intercept 0, y -intercept 0
(b) No x -intercepts, y -intercept 7
(c) x -intercepts , 2 ! y -intercept -2
(d) x -intercept 0, y -intercept 0
(e) x -intercepts , 3 ! y -intercept 3
(f) x -intercept -6, y -intercept 6
(g) x -intercept
3
2
, y -intercept 2
(h) x -intercept
5
4
- , y -intercept 4
(i) x -intercept
7
1
, y -intercept 1
(j) No x -intercepts, y -intercept 9
2. (a) y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1

(b)
y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1

(c) y
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1

(d)
y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1

(e) y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1

(f)
y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1

(g) y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1

(h)
y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1

(i)
y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1

(j)
y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1

3. (a) {all real x }, : y y 0 $ " ,
(b) {all real x }, : y y 8 $ - " ,
(c) {all real x }, : y y 0 $ " ,
(d) {all real x }, : y y 3 $ - " ,
(e) {all real x }, : y y 0 # " ,
4. (a) (i) x 2 2 (ii) x 2 1 (b) (i) x 0 2 (ii) x 0 1
(c) (i) x 1
2
1
2 (ii) x 1
2
1
1 (d) (i) x 0 2 (ii) x 0 1
(e) (i) x 0 1 (ii) x 0 2
5. (a) 0 2 y # # (b) y 8 4 # # - - (c) 0 6 y # #
(d) 0 11 y # # (e) y 1 0 # # -
6. (a) x 3 2 - (b) x 0 1 (c) x 9 2 (d) x 2 2
(e) x 2 1 -
7. (a) x 3 ! = (b) , x x 1 1 2 1 - (c) x 2 2 # # -
(d) , x 1 3 = - - (e) 3 x = (f) , x 1 2 = (g) x 3 5 1 1 -
(h) x 4 2 # # - (i) , x x 4 0 2 1 (j) , x x 2 4 # $
(k) x 4 1 # # - (l) , x x 0 1 # $ (m) , x 2
2
1
= -
(n) No solutions (o) 0 x = (p) 1 x = (q) , x 0 2 = -
(r) No solutions (s)
3
1
x = ( t) 0, 6 x =
Exercises 5.7
1. (a) (i) {all real x : x ! 0}, {all real y : y ! 0} (ii) no y -intercept
(iii)
y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1
(b) (i) {all real : }, x x 0 ! {all real : y y 0 ! }
(ii) no y -intercept
(iii)
y
x
-2 -1 2
2
1
-2
-1
1
781 ANSWERS
(c) (i) {all real : x x 1 ! - }, {all real : 0 y y ! } (ii) 1
(iii)
y
x
-2 -1 2
2
1
-2
-1
1
(d) (i) {all real : x x 2 ! }, {all real : 0 y y ! } (ii) 1
2
1
-
(iii)
y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1
(e) (i) {all real : x x 2 ! - }, {all real : 0 y y ! } (ii)
6
1

(iii)
y
x
-2 -1 2
2
1
-2
-1
1

(f) (i) {all real : x x 3 ! }, {all real : y y 0 ! } (ii)
3
2

(iii)
y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1
(g) (i) {all real : 1 x x ! }, {all real : 0 y y ! } (ii) -4
(iii)
y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1
(h) (i) {all real : 1 x x !- }, {all real : 0 y y ! } (ii) -2
(iii)
y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2-1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1
(i) (i) :
2
1
x x all real ! ' 1 , {all real : 0 y y ! } (ii)
3
2
-
(iii)
y
x
-2
-1
2
2
1
-2
-1
1
2
3
-
1
2
(j) (i) {all real : x x 2 ! - }, {all real : y y 0 ! } (ii) -3
(iii)
y
x
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1
2.
( )
f x
x
x
f x
2
2
odd function `
- =
-
= -
= -
] g
3. (a) 1 y
9
1
# # (b) 1 y
3
1
# # (c) y 2
2
1
2
1
# # - -
(d) 3 y
7
3
# # (e) 2 y
8
1
# # - -
4. (a) 1 3 x # # (b) 1 4 x # # (c) 6 0 x # # -
(d) 1 4 x # # (e) 1 2 x # #
Exercises 5.8
1. (a) (i)
y
x
-3
3
3
-3

(ii) : , : x x y y 3 3 3 3 # # # # - - !
"
+
,
(b) (i)
y
x
-4
4
4
-4

(ii) : , : x x y y 4 4 4 4 # # # # - - !
"
+
,
(c) (i)
(2, 1)
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1
y
x

783 ANSWERS
(ii) : 0 4 , : 1 3 x x y y # # # # - !
"
+
,
(d) (i)
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-2
-1
1
y
x
(ii) : , : x x y y 4 2 3 3 # # # # - - !
"
+
,
(e) (i)
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
-2
-1
(-2, 1)
1
y
x
(ii) : , : x x y y 3 1 0 2 # # # # - - !
"
+
,
2. (a) (i) Below x -axis
(ii)
y
x
-5 5
-5
(iii) : , : x x y y 5 5 5 0 # # # # - - !
"
+
,
(b) (i) Above x -axis
(ii)
y
x
-1
1
1
(iii) : , : x x y y 1 1 0 1 # # # # - !
"
+
,
(c) (i) Above x -axis
(ii)
y
x
-6
6
6
(iii) : , : x x y y 6 6 0 6 # # # # - !
"
+
,
(d) (i) Below x -axis
(ii) y
x
-8 8
-8
(iii) : , : x x y y 8 8 8 0 # # # # - - !
"
+
,
(e) (i) Below x -axis
(ii) y
x
- 7
- 7
7
(iii) : , : x x y y 7 7 7 0 # # # # - -
" # , -
3. (a) Radius 10, centre (0, 0) (b) Radius 5 , centre (0, 0)
(c) Radius 4, centre (4, 5) (d) Radius 7, centre (5, -6)
(e) Radius 9, centre (0, 3)
4. (a) 16 x y
2 2
+ =
(b) 6 4 12 0 x x y y
2 2
- + - - =
(c) 2 10 17 0 x x y y
2 2
+ + - + =
(d) 4 6 23 0 x x y y
2 2
- + - - =
(e) 8 4 5 0 x x y y
2 2
+ + - - =
(f) 4 3 0 x y y
2 2
+ + + =
(g) 8 4 29 0 x x y y
2 2
- + - - =
(h) 6 8 56 0 x x y y
2 2
+ + + - =
(i) 4 1 0 x x y
2 2
+ + - =
(j) 8 14 62 0 x x y y
2 2
+ + + + =
Exercises 5.9
1. (a) {all real x }, {all real y } (b) {all real x }, {y: y = -4}
(c) {x: x = 3}, {all real y } (d) {all real x }, { y : y $ -1 }
(e) {all real x }, {all real y } (f) {all real x }, : 12
4
1
y y # ' 1
(g) { : 8 8}, { : 8 8} x x y y # # # # - -
(h) {all real : t t 4 ! }, {all real ( ): ( ) f t f t 0 ! }
(i) {all real : 0 ! z z }, {all real : g g 5 ! z z ^ ^ h h }
(j) {all real x }, { : y y 0 $ }
2. (a) { x : 0 x $ }, { y : y 0 $ } (b) { x : x 2 $ }, { y : y 0 $ }
(c) {all real x }, { y : y 0 $ } (d) {all real x }, { y : y 2 $ - }
(e) : 2
2
1
, { : } x x y y 0 $ # - ' 1
(f) {all real x }, { : y y 5 # } (g) {all real x }, { : } y y 0 2
(h) {all real x }, { : } y y 0 1
(i) {all real : x x 0 ! }, {all real : y y 1 ! }
(j) {all real : x x 0 ! }, {all real : y y 2 ! }
3. (a) , x 0 5 = (b) , , x 3 1 2 = - (c) , , x 0 2 4 =
(d) , x 0 4 ! = (e)

x 7 ! = 4. (a) x 1 1 # # -
(b) { : } x x 1 1 # # -
5. (a) { : , } x x x 1 2 # $ - (b) { : , } t t t 6 0 # $ -
6. (a) { y : y 9 3 # # - }
(b) { y : y 0 9 # # } (c) { y : y 8 1 # # - }
(d) :
5
1
1 y y # # ' 1 (e) { y : 0 4 y # # }
(f) { y : y 1 15 # # - } (g) { y : y 1 0 # # - }
(h) : y y 1 8 # # - " , (i) { y : 4 21 y # # - }
(j) : y y 6
1
6
4
# # - ' 1
7. (a) {all real : x x 1 ! - }
(b) x -intercept: 0 y =
0
1
3
x
=
+

0 3 =
This is impossible so there is no x -intercept
(c) {all real : y y 0 ! }
8. (a) {all real : x x 0 ! } (b) {all real : y y 1 ! ! }
9. (a) y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
10
5
15
20
25
-15
-10
-5
1

(b)
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4
4
2
6
8
-6
-8
-4
-2
1

(c) y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
10
5
15
20
25
-15
-10
-5
1
785 ANSWERS
(d)
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4
4
2
6
8
-6
-8
-4
-2
1

(e) y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4
4
2
6
8
-6
-8
-4
-2
1

(f)
y
x
-10 10
10
-10

(g)
y
x
-1
1
2
3
-1
1

10. (a) : : 0 x x y y 1 $ $ " " , ,
(b) y
x
2 3
2
1
-1
1
11.
y
x
-1
4
3
2
1
5
6
-1
1
12. (a) (i) {all real x }, {all real y } (ii) All x (iii) None
(b) (i) {all real x }, : y y 2 2 - " , (ii) x 0 2 (iii) x 0 1
(c) (i) {all real : x x 0 ! }, {all real : 0 y y ! } (ii) None
(iii) All 0 x !
(d) (i) {all real x }, {all real y } (ii) All x (iii) None
(e) (i) {all real x }, : y y 0 2 " , (ii) All x (iii) None
13. (a) 2 2 x # # - (b) (i) { x : 2 2 x # # - }, { y: 0 2 y # # }
(ii) { x : 2 2 x # # - }, { y: 2 0 y # # - }
Exercises 5.10
1. (a) 21 (b) 10 - (c) 8 (d) 3 (e) 3 (f) 75 (g) 0
(h) 6 - (i)
4
1
(j) 1 (k) 7 - (l) 3 x x
2
-
(m) 2 3 5 x x
3
+ - (n) 3c
2

2. (a) Continuous (b) Discontinuous at 1 x = -
(c) Continuous (d) Continuous (e) Discontinuous at
x 2 ! =
3. (a)
(b)
(c)
Exercises 5.11
1. (a) 0 (b) 0 (c) 0 (d) 2 (e) 1 (f) 6 (g)
3
2

(h) 0 (i) 5 x (j) 3
2. (a)
x
x
x
x x
1
1 3
3
RHS
LHS
2
2
2
= + +
=
+ +
=

(b) 1 from above (c) 1 from below
3. (a) 2 from below (b) 2 from above
4. (a)
3
x
(b)
4
5x
2

5. (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
787 ANSWERS
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
Exercises 5.12
1. 0 x
2
1
1 1 - 2. 0 x
3
1
1 1 3. x 0 1 1 #
4. x
2
1
0 1 # - 5. 1 1 x
3
1
1 1 6. , x x 1 2 1 $ - -
7. x 2 2
5
2
1 # 8. , x x 6 3 1 2 - -
9. , x x
3
2
1 2 # 10. x 2
3
2
2 1 # - -
Exercises 5.13
1. (a)
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
6
-3
-4
-2
-1
1
(b)
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
6
-3
-4
-2
-1
1

(c) y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
6
-3
-4
-2
-1
1

(d)
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
6
-3
-4
-2
-1
1

(e)
y = x +1
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
6
-3
-4
-2
-1
1

(f)
y = 2x-3
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
6
-3
-2
-1
1

(g)
x +y = 1
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
6
-3
-2
-1
1
-4

(h)
3x -y -6 =0
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
6
-3
-2
-1
1
-4
-5
-6

(i)
x + 2y -2=0
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
6
-3
-2
-1
1
-4
-5
-6

789 ANSWERS
(j)
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4 1
y
2
1
3
4
5
6
-3
-2
-1
-4
-5
-6
x =
1
2

2. (a) x 3 2 - (b) y 2 $ - (c) y x 1 $ + (d) y x 4
2
2 -
(e) y 2
x
$
3. (a) y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-2
-1
1
-4
-5
y =x
2
- 1
(b)
-3 3
3
-3
y
x
(c) y
x
-1 1
1
-1
(d)
x
-3 -4 -2 -1 2 3 4 5 1
y =x
2
y
1
2
3
4
5
-3
-2
-1
-4
-5
(e) y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4
4
2
6
8
-6
-8
-4
-2
1
y
=
x
3
4. (a) y x 3 2 1 -
(b) y x 2
2
2 +
(c) x y 49
2 2
1 +
(d) x y 81
2 2
2 +
(e) , x y 5 2 1 2
5. (a) y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4
3
1
2
4
5
-2
-1
1
(b)
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4
3
1
2
4
5
-2
-1
1
(c) y
x
-4 -5 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4
3
1
2
4
5
-2
-1
1
6. (a) y
x
-4 -3 -1 -2 2 3 4
3
1
2
4
5
6
-2
-3
-4
-1
1
(b)
y
x
-4 -3 -1 -2 2 3 4
3
1
2
4
5
6
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-1
1
y =x -3
(c) y
x
-4 -3 -1 -2 2 3 4
3
1
2
4
5
6
-2
-3
-4
-5
-1
1
y =3x 5
-6
(d)
y
x
-4 -3 -1 -2 2 3 4
3
1
2
4
5
6
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-1
1
y =x +1
y =3 x
791 ANSWERS
(e) y
x
-3 3
3
-3
y =1
(f)
y
x
-1 -2 2
1
2
-2
x =1
(g) y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-2
-1
1
-4
-5
y =x
2
y =4
(h)
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4
4
2
6
8
-6
-4
-2
1
-8
y = x
3
y = 3
x =-2
(i)
y
x
-1 1
1
1
-1

(j)
y
x
-4 -3 -1 -2 2 3 4
3
1
2
4
5
6
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-1
1
x -y =2
x -y =-1
7. (a) y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-2
-1
1
-4
-5
y =x
2
(b)
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4
4
2
6
8
-6
-4
-2
1
-8
y =x
3
y =1
(c) y
x
1 -2 2
2
-2
x =1
(d)
1 -1 2 3 4
1
2
-2
y
x
y =
2
x
(e)
-1 2 3 -2 -3 -4 1 4
1
2
-1
-2
y =
1
x +2
x
y
8. (a)
x
2 3 4 5 1 -1 -3 -4 -2
y
y =x
2
y =5
x =2
3
2
1
4
5
-2
-1
-3
-4
-5
793 ANSWERS
(b)
x
2 3 4 1 -1 -3 -4 -2
y
x =3
y =-1
y =x -2
3
2
1
4
5
6
-2
-1
-3
-4
-5
-6
(c)
x
2 3 4 1 -1 -3 -4 -2
y
y =2x +1
2x -3y =6
3
2
1
4
5
6
-2
-1
-3
-4
-5
-6

(d)
-3 3
3
-3
x
x =-3
y =2
y
(e)
x
2 3 4 1 -1 -3 -4 -2
y
y =3
y =|x|
x =2
3
2
1
4
5
6
-2
-1
-3

Test yourself 5
1. (a) f 2 6 - = ] g (b) f a a a 3 4
2
= - - ] g (c) , x 4 1 = -
2. (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Answer S1-S5.indd 793 8/11/09 11:31:52 AM
(f)
(g)
(h)
3. (a) Domain: all real x ; range: y 6
4
1
$ -
(b) Domain: all real x ; range: all real y
(c) Domain: 1 1; x # # - range: 1 1 y # # -
(d) Domain: 1 1; x # # - range: 0 1 y # #
(e) Domain: 1 1; x # # - range: 1 0 y # # -
(f) Domain: all real ; x 0 ! range: all real y 0 !
(g) Domain: all real x ; range: all real y
(h) Domain: all real x ; range: y 0 $
4. 15 5. (a) 4 (b) 5 (c) 9 (d) 3 (e) 2
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11. (a) y 3 # (b) y x 2 2 + (c) , y x y 0
2
$ # -
12. (a) Domain: all real , x 3 ! range: all real y 0 !
(b)
13. (a)
(b) (i) , x 2 4 = - (ii) 4 2 x 1 1 - (iii) , x x 2 4 2 1 -
795 ANSWERS
14. (a) 2 (b) 3
3
2
x = (c) 1
3
1
15. (a) x -intercept , 10 - y -intercept 4 y
(b) x-intercepts , , 2 7 , - y-intercept y 14 -
16. (a) i (b) iii (c) ii (d) i (e) iii
17. (a) 4 (b)
5
2
(c) 1
2
1
- (d) 3
18.
19. (a) Domain: 2, x $ range: 0 y $
(b)
20. (a) ( ) 1
( )
( )
f x ( x x 3
f x (
x
f x (
1
3 1 x
4 2
33
4 2
4 2
3x
= x
4
= )
= x
4
=
] x -xg g xxx ] 3
4
3
4
So f x ] g is even.
(b) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
f x ( x x
f x ( (
x x
f x (
3
3
3
3
= x
= )
= - +
= -
= -
] g x -x
So f x ] g is odd.
2211.. (aaa))
y
x
1
(b)
x
y
-1 1
(c)
x
y
-4 4
2
(d)
y
x
1
(e) y
x
-4 -3 -1
-2
-2 3 4 5
1
2
2 1
1
4
-
1. , b
3
2
3 = -
2.
3.
x
2
y
-2
4.
5.
6. , , f f f 3 9 4 16 0 1 = - = = ] ] ] g g g

7. Domain: all real ; x 1 ! ! range: , y y 1 0 2 # -
8.
9. Domain: ; x 0 $ range: y 0 $ 10. , , x 0 3 2 = -
11.
12. h h h 2 1 0 3 0 1 2 + - - = - + - - = - ] ] ] ] g g g g

797 ANSWERS
13.
14.
15. ( ) ( )
( )
f a a
a
f a
2 1
2 1
2 2
2
2
- = - -
= -
=
^ h
16. x
4
1 41 !
=
17. (a) 2
2
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
3
1
3
2 3
3
1
3
2 6 1
3
2 7
3
2 7
3
1
RHS
LHS
`
= +
+
=
+
+
+
+
=
+
+ +
=
+
+
=
+
+
= +
+
] g

(b) Domain: all real ; x 3 ! - range: all real y 2 !
(c)
18.
19.
20. Domain: ; x 3 $ range: 0 y $ 21. Domain: x 2 2 # # -
22.
23. (a) 0
(b)
24.
Chapter 6: Trigonometry
Exercises 6.1
1. , , cos sin tan
13
5
13
12
5
12
i i i = = =
2. , , sin cot sec
5
4
4
3
3
5
b b b = = =
3. , , sin tan cos
74
7
5
7
74
5
b b b = = =
4. , , cos tan cosec x x x
9
5
5
56
56
9
= = =
5. , cos sin
5
3
5
4
i i = =
6. , , tan sec sin
2
5
2
3
3
5
i i i = = =
7. , cos tan
6
35
35
1
i i = =
8. , tan sin
7
51
10
51
i i = =
9. (a) 2 (b) 45c
(c) , , sin cos tan 45
2
1
45
2
1
45 1 c c c = = =
10. (a) 3 (b) , , sin cos tan 30
2
1
30
2
3
30
3
1
c c c = = =
(c) , , sin cos tan 60
2
3
60
2
1
60 3 c c c = = =
11. . sin cos 67 23 0 92 c c = = 12. . sec cosec 82 8 7 19 c c = =
13. . tan cot 48 42 1 11 c c = = 14. (a) 2 61 2 29 cos sin or c c
(b) 0 (c) 0 (d) 1 (e) 2
15. 80 x c = 16. 22 y c = 17. 31 p c = 18. 25 b c =
19. 20 t c = 20. 15 k c =
Exercises 6.2
1. (a) 47c (b) 82c (c) 19c (d) 77c (e) 52c
2. (a) 47 13 c l (b) 81 46 c l (c) 19 26 c l
(d) 76 37 c l (e) 52 30 c l
3. (a) 77.75c (b) 65.5c (c) 24.85c
(d) 68.35c (e) 82.517c
4. (a) 59 32 c l (b) 72 14 c l (c) 85 53 c l
(d) 46 54 c l (e) 73 13 c l
5. (a) 0.635 (b) 0.697 (c) 0.339 (d) 0.928 (e) 1.393
6. (a) 17 20 c l (b) 34 20 c l (c) 34 12 c l
(d) 46 34 c l (e) 79 10 c l
Exercises 6.3
1. (a) 6.3 x = (b) 5.6 y = (c) 3.9 b = (d) 5.6 x =
(e) 2.9 m = (f) 13.5 x = (g) 10.0 y = (h) 3.3 p =
(i) 5.1 x = (j) 28.3 t = (k) 3.3 x cm = (l) 2.9 x cm =
(m) 20.7 x cm = (n) 20.5 x mm = (o) 4.4 y m =
(p) 20.6 k cm = (q) 17.3 h m = (r) 1.2 d m =
(s) 17.4 x cm = (t) 163.2 b m =
2. 1.6 m 3. 20.3 cm 4. 13.9 m
5. (a) 18.4 cm (b) 13.8 cm 6. 10 cm and 10.5 cm
7. 47.4 mm 8. 20.3 m 9. (a) 7.4 cm (b) 6.6 cm
(c) 9.0 cm
10. (a) 6.8 cm (b) 6.5 cm 11. 38 cm
Exercises 6.4
1. (a) x 39 48 c = l (b) 35 06 c a = l (c) 37 59 c i = l
(d) 50 37 c a = l (e) 38 54 c a = l (f) 50 42 c b = l
(g) x 44 50 c = l (h) 3 1 0 5 c i = l (i) 29 43 c a = l
(j) 45 37 c i = l (k) 57 43 c a = l (l) 43 22 c i = l
(m) 37 38 c i = l (n) 64 37 c i = l (o) 66 16 c b = l
(p) 29 56 c a = l (q) 54 37 c i = l (r) 35 58 c a = l
(s) 59 2 i = l (t) 56 59 c c = l
2. 37 57 c l 3. 22 14 c l 4. 36 52 c l 5. 50c
6. (a) 11.4 cm (b) 37 52 c l 7. , 31 58 45 44 c c a b = = l l
8. (a) 13 m (b) 65 17 c l 9. (a) 11 19 c l (b) 26 cm
10. 4.96 cm and 17.3 cm 11. (a) 12.9 m (b) 56 34 c l
Exercises 6.5
1. (a)
100c
Boat
Beach
house
North
799 ANSWERS
(b)
320c
Campsite
Jamie
North
(c)
200c
Seagull
Jetty
North
(d)
50c
Alistair
Bus stop
North
(e)
B Hill
285c
Plane
North
(f)
12c
Dam
Farmhouse
North
(g)
160c House
Mohammed
North
(h)
80c
Town
Mine shaft
North
(i)
349c
School
Yvonne
North
(j)
Island
Boat ramp
280c
North
2. (a) 248c (b) 145c (c) 080c (d) 337c (e) 180c
3. 080c 4. 210c 5. 160c 6. 10.4 m
7. 21 m 8. 126.9 m 9. 72 48 c l
10. (a) 1056.5 km (b) 2265.8 km (c) 245c
11. 83.1 m 12. 1.8 km 13. 12 m 14. 242c 15. 035c
16. 9.2 m 17. 171 m 18. 9.8 km 19. 51 41 c l 20. 2.6 m
21. 9 21 c l 22. 1931.9 km 23. 34.6 m 24. 149c
25. 198 m 26. 4.8 km 27. 9.2 m 28. 217c
29. (a) 1.2 km (b) 7.2 km 30. (a) 13.1 m (b) 50 26 c l
Exercises 6.6
1. (a)
2
3 1 +
(b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 4 (e)
3
4 3
(f)
3
2 3

(g) 1
4
1
(h)
4
6 2
4
2 3 1 +
=
+
^ h
(i) 3
(j) 2 3 - +
^ h
(k) 0 (l) 1 (m) 2 2 1 -
^ h
(n) 6
(o) 1
3
1
(p) 3 2 2 - (q) 2 3 (r)
2
1
- (s) 6
3
2
(t)
2 3
2
-

2. (a)
2
3 2
x = (b)
2
9 3
y = (c) 2 3 p =
3. 60c 4. 2 m 5. 3 m 6.
3
10 3
m
7. (a) 6 2 m (b) 4 m 8. 0.9 m 9.
3
5 3 3
m
+
^ h

10. 100 3 m
Exercises 6.7
1. (a) 1 st , 4 th (b) 1 st , 3 rd (c) 1 st , 2 nd (d) 2 nd , 4 th
(e) 3 rd , 4 th (f) 2 nd , 3 rd (g) 3 rd
(h) 3 rd (i) 2 nd (j) 4 th
2. (a) 3 rd (b)
2
1
- 3. (a) 4 th (b)
2
1
-
4. (a) 2 nd (b) 3 - 5. (a) 2 nd (b)
2
1

6. (a) 1 st (b)
2
3
7. (a) 1 (b)
2
1
(c) 3 - (d)
2
1

(e)
2
1
- (f)
2
1
- (g)
2
3
(h)
3
1
- (i)
2
3
- (j)
2
1
-
8. (a)
2
1
- (b)
2
3
- (c) 3 (d)
2
3
- (e)
2
3
-
(f) 3 - (g)
2
1
(h)
3
1
- (i)
2
1
(j)
2
1
-
9. (a)
2
3
- (b) 3 (c)
2
3
(d)
2
1
(e)
2
1
- (f) 3
(g)
2
1
(h)
2
1
(i) 1 (j)
2
1

10. , sin cos
5
3
5
4
i i = - = -
11. , cos tan
7
33
33
4
i i = - = -
12. , cos cosec x x
89
8
5
89
= = -
13. , , cosec cot tan x x x
21
5
21
2
2
21
= - = - = -
14. , cos sin x x
74
7 74
74
5 74
= - = -
15. , tan sec
65
4
65
9
i i = - =
16. , , tan sec cosec x x x
3
55
3
8
55
8
= = - = -
17. (a)
10
3
sinx = (b)
10
91
,
91
3
cos tan x x = - = -
18. , , cot sec cosec
6
5
5
61
6
61
a a a = - = = -
19. , sin cot
10
51
51
7
i i = = -
20. (a) sin i (b) cos x (c) tan b (d) sin a - (e) tan i -
(f) sin i - (g) cos a (h) tan x -
Exercises 6.8
1. (a) , 20 29 159 31 c c i = l l (b) , 120 240 c c i =
(c) , 135 315 c c i = (d) , 60 120 c c i = (e) , 150 330 c c i =
(f) , 30 330 c c i =
(g) , , , 30 120 210 300 0 2 720 c c c c c c # # i i = ] g
(h) 70 , 110 , 190 , 230 , 310 , 350
0 3 1080
c c c c c c
c c # #
i
i
=
] g

801 ANSWERS
(i) , , , 30 150 210 330 c c c c i =
(j) , , , , , , , ,
, , ,
15 45 75 105 135 165 195 225
255 285 315 345
c c c c c c c c
c c c c
i =
2. (a) 79 13 ! c i = l (b) , 30 150 c c i = (c) , 45 135 c c i = -
(d) , 60 120 c c i = - - (e) , 150 30 c c i = -
(f) , 30 150 ! ! c c i =
(g) , , , 22 30 112 30 67 30 157 30 c c c c i = - - l l l l
(h) , , , , , 15 45 75 105 135 165 ! ! ! ! ! ! c c c c c c i =
(i) , 135 45 c c i = - (j) , , , 30 60 120 150 ! ! ! ! c c c c i =
3.
4. 1 -
5.
6. , , x 0 180 360 c c c = 7. 1 - 8. 1
9. , x 0 360 c c =
10.
11. 0 12. 270 x c = 13. , , x 0 180 360 c c c =
14. , , x 0 180 360 c c c = 15. , x 270 90 c c = -
16.
17.
Exercises 6.9
1. (a) cos i (b) tan i - (c) cos i (d) tan i (e) sec a -
2. (a) sin i (b) sec i (c) cosec x (d) cos
2
x (e) sin a
(f) cosec
2
x (g) sec
2
x (h) tan
2
i (i) cosec 5
2
i
(j) sin
2
x (k) 1 (l) sin cos i i
3. (a) 1 cos x LHS
2
= -

sin
sin
x
x
1 1
RHS
2
2
= - -
= -
=

So cos sin x x 1
2 2
- = -
(b) sec tan LHS i i = +

cos cos
sin
cos
sin
1
1
RHS
i i
i
i
i
= +
=
+
=

So sec tan
cos
sin 1
i i
i
i
+ =
+

(c) 3 3 tan LHS
2
a = +

( ) tan
sec
cos
sin
3 1
3
3
1
3
RHS
2
2
2
2
a
a
a
a
= +
=
=
=
-
=

So tan
sin
3 3
1
3
2
2
a
a
+ =
-

(d) sec tan
tan tan
cosec cot
x x
x x
x x
1
1
LHS
RHS
2 2
2 2
2 2
= -
= + -
=
= -
=

So sec tan cosec cot x x x x
2 2 2 2
- = -
(e) sin cos
sin cos sin cos
sin cos sin sin cos cos
sin cos sin cos
sin sin cos cos sin cos
x x
x x x x
x x x x x x
x x x x
x x x x x x
2
1 2
2 2
LHS
RHS
2 2
2 2
= -
= - -
= - - +
= - -
= - - +
=
3
2
]
] ]
] ^
] ]
g
g g
g h
g g

So sin cos sin sin cos cos
sin cos
x x x x x x
x x
2
2
2
2
- = - -
+
3
] g
(f)
sin cos
sin sin
sin cos
cos sin
sin cos
cos
sin cos
sin
sin
cos
cos
cot sec
1 2
2
2
2
2
RHS
LHS
2
2
2
i i
i i
i i
i i
i i
i
i i
i
i
i
i
i i
=
- +
=
+
= +
= +
= +
=

So cot sec
sin cos
sin sin
2
1 2
2
i i
i i
i i
+ =
- +

(g) cos cot
sin cot
sin
sin
cos
sin cos
90 LHS
RHS
2
2
2
#
c i i
i i
i
i
i
i i
= -
=
=
=
=
] g
So 90 cos cot sin cos
2
c i i i i - = ] g
(h) cosec cot cosec cot
cosec cot
cot cot
x x x x
x x
x x 1
1
LHS
RHS
2 2
2 2
= + -
= -
= + -
=
=
] ] g g
So cosec cot cosec cot x x x x 1 + - = ] ] g g
(i)
( )
cos
sin cos
cos cos
sin cos
sec sin
tan cos
tan cos
tan cos
1
1
1 1
1 1
LHS
RHS
2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
i
i i
i i
i i
i i
i i
i i
i i
=
-
= -
= -
= + - -
= + - +
= +
=

So
cos
sin cos
tan cos
1
2
2 2
2 2
i
i i
i i
-
= +
(j)
cosec
cot
cos
cosec
cot cos cosec
cosec
cot cos
sin
cosec
cot cot
cosec
sin
1
1
1
1
1
1
LHS
#
b
b
b
b
b b b
b
b b
b
b
b b
b
b
=
+
-
=
+ -
=
+ -
=
+ -
=
=

tan cot
sec
cos
sin
sin
cos
sec
sin cos
sin cos
sec
sin cos
sec
sec
cos sin
cos
cos sin
sin
1
1
1
1
RHS
2 2
#
#
b b
b
b
b
b
b
b
b b
b b
b
b b
b
b
b b
b
b b
b
=
+
=
+
=
+
=
=
=
=

LHS RHS =
So
cosec
cot
cos sin
1
b
b
b b
+
- =
4.
( )
cos sin
cos sin
cos sin
x y
2 2
4 4
4
4 1
4
LHS
RHS
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
i i
i i
i i
= +
= +
= +
= +
=
=
=
] ]
]
g g
g

So 4 x y
2 2
+ =
5.
( )
cos sin
cos sin
cos sin
x y
9 9
81 81
81
81 1
81
LHS
RHS
2 2
2 2
2 2
i i
i i
i i
= +
= +
= +
= +
=
=
=
2 2
] ]
]
g g
g

So 81 x y
2 2
+ =
803 ANSWERS
Exercises 6.10
1. (a) 8.9 x = (b) 9.4 y cm = (c) 10.0 a =
(d) 10.7 b m = (e) 8.0 d =
2. (a) 54 57 c i = l (b) c 61 23 a = l (c) x 43 03 c = l
(d) 87 04 c a = l (e) 150 56 c i = l
3. 126 56 c l 4. (a) 13.5 mm (b) 25 mm
5. (a) 1.8 m (b) 2.7 m 6. 5.7 cm
7. (a) 10.3 m (b) 9.4 m 8. (a) 60 22 c l (b) 57 9 c l
9. (a) 14.1 cm (b) 15.6 cm
10. (a) 54.7 mm (b) 35.1 mm
Exercises 6.11
1. (a) 5.8 m = (b) 10.4 b m = (c) 7.4 h cm =
(d) 16.4 n = (e) 9.3 y =
2. (a) 51 50 c i = l (b) 60 27 c i = l (c) x 57 42 c = l
(d) 131 31 c b = l (e) 73 49 c i = l
3. 32.94 mm 4. 11.2 cm and 12.9 cm
5. (a) 11.9 cm (b) 44 11 c l (c) 82 13 c l
6. , XYZ XZY YXZ 66 10 47 40 c c + + + = = = l l
7. (a) 18.1 mm (b) 80 49 c l 8. (a) 6.2 cm (b) 12.7 cm
9. 12.9 cm 10. (a) 11 cm (b) 30c
Exercises 6.12
1. 12.5 cm and 4.7 cm 2. (a) 040c (b) 305c 3. 16.4 m
4. 103c 5. 1.97 m 6. 11c
7. (a) 1.21 km (b) 1 minute 8. 32 m 9. 107 m
10. (a)
.
sin
sin
AC
101 36
5 8 42 29
c
c
=
l
l
(b) 74 50 c i = l
11. 8.5 h = 12. 7.7 km 13. 5.7 km and 5.4 km
14. 1841 km 15. 35.8 m 16. 89 52 c l 17. 9.9 km
18. 163.5 km 19. 64.1 m 20. 3269 km
21. (a) 11.3 cm (b) 40 44c l 22. 141c
23. (a) 11.6 cm (b) 73 14 c l
24. (a) 265.5 km (b) 346 33 c l
25. (a) 35 5 c l (b) (i) 4.5 m (ii) 0.55 m
Exercises 6.13
1. (a) 7.5 cm
2
(b) 32.3 units
2
(c) 9.9 mm
2

(d) 30.2 units
2
(e) 6.3 cm
2

2.
2
15 3
m
2
3. 7.5 cm
2
4. 15.5 cm
2
5. 34.8 cm
2

6. 1.2 m
2
7. 42 cm
2
8. 247.7 mm
2

9. (a) 7.8 cm (b) 180.8 cm
2

10. (a) 5.6 cm (b) 18.5 cm
2
(c) 19.1 cm
2

Exercises 6.14
1. (a) 2 m (b) 2.2 m (c) 65 21 c l 2. (a) 1.9 m (b) 49 46 c l
3. (a) 109 cm
2
(b) 16 20 c l 4. 9 65c l
5. (a) 9 m (b) 25 7 c l 6. (a) 56 m (b) 89.7 m
7. (a) 48 m (b) 128.6 m (c) 97.7 m 8. 84 m
9. 16 50 c l 10. 11 10 c l
Exercises 6.15
1. (a) sin cos cos sin a b a b - (b) cos cos sin sin p q p q -
(c)
tan tan
tan tan
1 a b
a b
-
+
(d) sin cos cos sin x x 20 20 c c +
(e)
tan tan
tan tan
x
x
1 48
48
c -
+
(f) cos cos sin sin 2 2 i a i a +
(g) cos cos sin sin x x 75 75 c c - (h)
tan tan
tan tan
x y
x y
1 5 7
5 7
+
-

(i) sin cos cos sin 4 4 a b a b - (j)
tan tan
tan tan
1 3
3
a b
a b
+
-

2. (a) sin a b + ] g (b) tan 65c (c) cos 55c (d) 2 3 sin x y + ^ h
(e) tan 2i (f) sin 32c (g) sin cos a b 2 (h) cos sin x y 2
(i) sin sin x y 2 (j) cos cos m n 2
3. (a)
2 2
1 3
4
2 6 +
=
+
(b)
2 2
1 3
4
2 6 +
=
+

(c)
3 1
1 3
2
2 3 4
3 2
-
+
=
+
= +
(d)
1 3
1 3
2
2 3 4
3 2
-
+
=
- +
= - +
^
^
h
h

(e)
2 2
1 3
4
2 6 -
=
-
(f)
2 2
3 1
4
6 2 -
=
-

(g)
2 2
1 3
4
2 6 +
=
+

S6.indd 803 8/11/09 11:38:03 AM
(h)
1 3
1 3
2
4 2 3
2 3
-
+
=
- +
= - +
^
^
h
h

(i) sin cos x x
2
3 1
2
1 3 -
+
+
e e o o

(j) cos cos y y
2
2
2 =
4. tan x 2 5. (a)
12
6 35 +
(b)
12
3 5 2 7 +

(c)
3 5 2 7
6 35
17
32 5 27 7
-
+
=
+

6. (a) sin cos 2 i i (b) cos sin
2 2
i i - (c)
tan
tan
1
2
2
i
i
-

7. (a) sin cos sin 3
2 3
i i i -
(b) cos sin cos 3
3 2
i i i - (c)
tan
tan tan
1 3
3
2
3
i
i i
-
-

8. (a) tan 4i (b) sin cos cos sin 7 3 7 3 i i i i -
9. cos cos sin sin x x x x 2 7 2 7 - 10. (a)
2
1
(b) 3
(c)
2
3
- (d)
2
3
- (e)
3
1

11. (a)
5
4
(b)
13
12
(c)
65
33
- (d)
5
12
(e) 3
16
15
-
12. (a) cos cos x y 2 (b) [ 115 ] cos cos
2
1
15 c c + - ] g
13. (a) sin cos x y 2 (b) sin sin x y 2 - (c) cos sin x y 2
(d) cos cos sin sin sin cos cos sin x y x y x y x y - + -
(e)
tan tan
tan tan
x y
x y
1
2 1
2 2
2
-
+ _ i
(f)
tan tan
tan tan
x y
y x
1
2 1
2 2
2
-
+
^ h

14. (a) sin cos b b 2 (b)
tan
tan
1
2
2
i
i
-
(c) cos sin
2 2
i i -
(d) sin cos cos sin
sin cos sin cos sin cos
x y x y
x y y x y y
2 2
2
2 2
+
= - + _ i

(e) cos cos sin sin
cos sin cos sin cos sin
2 2
2
2 2
a b a b
a a b a a b
-
= - -
^ h

(f)
tan tan
tan tan
tan tan tan
tan tan tan tan
x y
x y
y x y
x x y y
1 2
2
1 2
2
2
2
-
+
=
- -
- +

(g) sin cos cos sin
sin cos cos cos sin sin sin
2 2
2
2 2
i d i d
i i d i d i d
-
= - +

(h) cos cos sin sin
cos cos sin sin sin cos
2 2
2
2 2
i c i c
i c c i c c
+
= - + _ i

(i)
tan tan
tan tan
tan tan tan
tan tan tan tan
x z
x z
z x z
x x z z
1 2
2
1 2
2
2
2
+
-
=
- +
- -

(j) sin cos cos sin
sin cos cos sin
sin cos cos sin
x y x y
x x y y
y y x x
2 2 2 2
2
2
2 2
2 2
-
= -
- -
_
^
i
h

15. (a) sin x 6 (b) cos y 14 (c) tan10i (d) cos y 2
(e) sin
2
1
12i (f) sin x 1 2 + (g) cos 6a (h) cos 80c
(i) tan 2b (j) sin x 1 6 -
16. (a)
2 2
1
4
2
= (b)
2
1
(c)
3
1
(d)
2
1
(e) 3 (f)
2
3

(g)
2
1
(h) 1 (i)
2 2
1
(j)
2
1
-
17. , cos sin x x 2
32
7
2
32
5 39
= - =
18. (a)
65
63
(b)
25
7
(c)
169
120
(d)
56
33
-
19. 4 sin cos cos sin
sin cos sin cos 4 4
2 2
3 3
i i i i
i i i i
- =
-
^ h

20. (a) tan x (b)
2 3
1
2 3
+
= -
21. 2 1 -
22. (a) 2
( )
sin tan
sin cos tan
sin cos
cos
sin
sin
sin sin tan
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
RHS
LHS
2
2
`
i i
i i i
i i
i
i
i
i i i
=
=
=
=
=
=

(b)
2
2
2
sin
cos
sin cos
cos sin
sin cos
cos sin
sin cos
sin sin
sin cos
sin
cos
sin
tan
tan
sin
cos
1
2
2 2
1
2 2
2 2
1
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
RHS
LHS
2 2
2 2
2 2
2
`
i
i
i i
i i
i i
i i
i i
i i
i i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
=
-
=
- -
=
- +
=
+
=
=
=
=
=
-
d n

805 ANSWERS
23. 11 3
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
sin sin
sin sin
sin cos cos sin
sin cos cos sin
sin cos cos sin
sin sin sin sin
sin sin sin sin sin sin
sin sin
7 4 7 4
7 4 7 4
7 4 7 4
7 4 7 4
7 1 4 1 7 4
7 7 4 4 7 4
7 4
RHS
LHS
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2
i i
i i i i
i i i i
i i i i
i i i i
i i i i
i i i i i i
i i
=
= + -
= +
-
= -
= - - -
= - - +
= -
=

sin sin sin sin 7 4 11 3
2 2
` i i i i - =
24.
( )
( )
( )
cos
cos
cos cos sin sin
cos sin cos sin cos
cos sin cos sin cos
cos sin cos
cos cos cos
cos cos cos
cos cos
3
2
2 2
2
2
3
3 1
3 3
4 3
LHS
RHS
2 2 2
3 2 2
3 2
3 2
3 3
3
i
i i
i i i i
i i i i i
i i i i i
i i i
i i i
i i i
i i
=
= +
= -
= - -
= - -
= -
= - -
= - +
= -
=

cos cos cos 3 4 3
3
` i i i = -
25. sin sin x x 3 4
3
-
Exercises 6.16
1. (a) tan i (b) cos i (c) tan 20c (d) cos 50c
(e) sin 2i (f) cos i
2. (a)
2
3
(b)
2
1
(c)
2
1
(d) 0
3. (a)
t
t
2
1
2
+
(b)
1
1
t
t
2
2
-
+
(c)
2
1
t
t
2
-
(d)
1
2 1
t
t t
2
2
+
+ -

(e)
1
1 2
t
t t
2
2
-
- +
(f)
1
1
t
t
2
2
-
+
(g)
1
3 3 8
t
t t
2
2
+
- +
(h)
1
t

(i)
1
1
t
t
-
+
(j)
1
4 1
t
t t
2
2
2
+
-
^
^
h
h

4.
sin cos
sin cos
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t t t
t
t t t
t
t t
t
t t
t
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1 2 1
1
1 2 1
2 2
2 2
2 1
2 1
LHS
RHS
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
i i
i i
=
+ +
+ -
=
+
+
+
+
-
+
+
-
+
-
=
+
+ + + -
+
+ + - +
=
+
+
=
+
+
=
=
]
]
g
g

sin cos
sin cos
t
1
1
`
i i
i i
+ +
+ -
=
5.
t
t t t t
1
4 4 1 6
2
2
3 2 4
+
- - + -
^ h

6. (a) sin 5 26 34 c i + l ] g (b) sin 2 60c i + ] g
(c) sin 2 45c i + ] g (d) sin 29 21 48 c i + l ] g
(e) sin 17 14 2 c i + l ] g (f) sin 10 18 26 c i + l ] g
(g) sin 13 56 19 c i + l ] g (h) sin 65 60 15 c i + l ] g
(i) sin 41 38 40 c i + l ] g (j) sin 34 59 2 c i + l ] g
7. (a) sin 2 45c i - ] g (b) sin 5 63 26 c i - l ] g
(c) sin 2 60c i - ] g (d) sin 2 30c i - ] g
(e) sin 29 21 48 c i - l ] g
8. cos 10 18 26 c i - l ] g 9. cos 2 60c i + ] g
10. (a) sin 85 12 32 c i + l ] g (b) cos 85 77 28 c i - l ] g
Exercises 6.17
1. (a) , x 45 225 c c = (b) , x 30 210 c c =
(c) , , , , x 0 60 180 300 360 c c c c c =
(d) , , , , x 0 45 180 225 360 c c c c c =
(e) , , x 90 210 330 c c c = (f) 0 , 60 , 300 , 360 x c c c c =
( g) 0 , 45 , 180 , 225 , 360 x c c c c c = (h) 0 , 180 , 360 x c c c =
(i) 30 , 135 , 150 , 315 x c c c c = (j) 0 , 360 x c c =
2. (a) , 126 52 306 52 c c i = l l (b) , 35 58 189 16 c c i = l l
(c) 60 , 240 c c i = (d) 180 , 270 c c i =
(e) , 240 43 327 21 c c i = l l (f) 90 , 180 c c i =
(g) , 90 340 32 c c i = l (h) , 56 34 176 34 c c i = l l
(i) , 51 2 190 54 c c i = l l (j) , 160 32 270 c c i = l
3. (a) 180 30 n 1
n
# c i = + - ] g (b) 180 60 n c a = +
(c) n 360 30 ! c i = (d) x n 180 1 30
n
# c = - - ] g
(e) 180 45 n c i = - (f) n 45 360 ! c b =
(g) n 180 60 ! c c = (h) 180 30 n c i = +
(i) n 360 75 49 ! c i = l (j) n 180 1 23 31
n
# c a = + - l ] g
4. , , , x 52 30 82 30 97 30 127 30 c c c c = - - l l l l
5. , x n n 180 1 30 0 90 36 # ! c c = + -
n
] g
6. , , , x 180 0 90 180 c c c c = -
7. (a) n 180 i = (b) 360 x n = (c) 180 x n =
(d) ( ) n 1 270 180
n
c i = + - (e) n 360 90 ! c
8. (a) (i) , x 30 150 c c = (ii) x n 180 1 30
n
! c = + - ] g
(b) (i) , x 41 25 318 35 c c = l l (ii) x n 360 41 25 ! c = l
(c) (i) , x 71 34 251 34 c c = l (ii) x n 180 71 34 c = + l
(d) (i) , x 161 34 341 34 c c = l l (ii) x n 180 18 26 c = - l
(e) (i) 45 x c = (ii) 180 ( 1) x n 45 90
n
c c = + - -
9. 180 30 , 180 ( 1) 270 x n n 1
n
# c c = + - + -
n
] g
10. (a) , , , x 0 120 240 360 c c c c = (b) , n n 360 360 120 ! c
Test yourself 6
1. , cos sin
34
5
34
3
i i = =
2. (a) cos x (b) 2 (c) cosec A (d) cos i (e) cos 20i
3. (a) 0.64 (b) 1.84 (c) 0.95
4. (a) 46 3 c i = l (b) 73 23 c i = l (c) 35 32 c i = l
5.
( )
sin
cos
sin
sin
sin
sin sin
sin
sin
1
2
1
2 1
1
2 1 1
2 1
2 2
LHS
RHS
2
2
i
i
i
i
i
i i
i
i
=
-
=
-
-
=
-
+ -
= +
= +
=
^
] ]
h
g g

2 2
sin
cos
sin
1
2
So
2
i
i
i
-
= +
6. b 40c = 7. (a)
2
1
(b)
2
3
- (c) 3 -
(d)
2
1
- (e)
221
140
-
8. , x 120 240 c c =
9.
, x 90 270 c c =
10. 122 km 11. 5 3 12. (a) 6.3 cm (b) 8.7 m
13. (a) 65 5 c i = l (b) 84 16 c i = l (c) 39 47 c i = l
14. 65.3 cm
2
15. (a) , x 60 120 ! ! c c =
(b) , , , x 15 105 75 165 c c c c = - -
(c) , , , x 0 180 30 150 ! c c c c = -
16. , sin cot
5
3
3
4
i i = - = 17. (a) 209c (b) 029c
18. n 180 1 30 53 8
n
c c i = + - + l ] g
19. (a)
sin
sin
AD
99
20 39
c
c
= (b) 8.5 m
20. 2951 km 21. (a)
2 2
3 1
4
2 3 1 +
=
+
^ h

(b)
2 2
1 3
4
2 1 3 -
=
-
^ h
(c)
2 2
1
4
2
=
22. (a) x n 360 60 ! c = (b) 180 45 x n c = +
(c) 180 60 x n 1
n
# c = + - ] g
23. , , 0 120 360 c c c i = 24. 51 40 c a = l
25. (a) cos x y + ^ h (b) cos cos cos sin sin
cos sin
sin sin
sin
x x x x x x
x x
x x
x
1
1 2
2 2
2 2
2
+ = -
= -
= - -
= -
]
^
g
h

1. 92 58 c l 2. 50.2 km 3. 12.7 x cm =
4. (a)
.
sin
sin
AC
41 21
25 3 39 53
c
c
=
l
l
(b) 25.2 h cm = 5. 4.1 km
6. cos x - 7. 16 3 cm
2
8.
2
1

9. , , , x 22 30 112 30 202 30 292 30 c c c c = l l l l 10. 75 45 c i = l
11. 5.4 m 12. , 110 230 c c i = 13. 6.43 km
14.
9
56
- 15. 31 m 16.
sin
cos sin cos
cos
cos
sin cos
cos
sin cos
tan
1
1
LHS
RHS
2
2
i
i i i
i
i
i i
i
i i
i
=
-
+
=
+
=
+
= +
=
]
]
g
g

17. 4 5 0 x y y
2 2
+ + - = 18. (a) 65 m (b) 27 42 c l
19. (a) 52 37 c l (b) 9 m 20. 30 8 c l
21. 6 4 6 4
( )
( )
cos cos sin sin
cos
cos
cos sin
cos cos
cos
6 4
10
5 5
5 1 5
2 5 1
LHS
RHS
2 2
2 2
2
i i i i
i i
i
i i
i i
i
= -
= +
=
= -
= - -
= -
=

6 4 6 4 2 5 1 cos cos sin sin cos
2
` i i i i i - = -
22. 30.1 , 0.5 m ms
1 -
23. , , 30 150 270 i =
24. 180 ( 1) 270 n
n
c i = + - 25. t -
807 ANSWERS
Chapter 7: Linear functions
Exercises 7.1
1. (a) 5 (b) 10 (c) 13 2. (a) 13 (b) 65
(c) 85 (d) 52 2 13 =
3. (a) 9.85 (b) 6.71 (c) 16.55 4. 12 units
5. , 1 34 128 Two sides side = =
6. Show 85 AB BC = =
7. Show points are 17 units from , 7 3 - ^ h
8. 3 , 9 x y Radius units equation
2 2
= + =
9. Distance of all points from , 0 0 ^ h is 11, equation
11 x y
2 2
+ = 10. 3 a = 11. a 6 2 ! = -
12. All 3 sides are 2 units. 13. , a 10 2 = -
14. , , MQ NP QP MN 37 20 = = = = so parallelogram
15. 98 BD AC = = 16. (a) , AB AC BC 40 4 = = =
(b)

OC OB 2 = = 17. 2 101 18. 61 units
19. 29, 116, 145 AB BC AC = = =

AB BC
AC
29 116
145
2 2
2
+ = +
=
=

So triangle ABC is right angled (Pythagoras theorem)
20. , , XY YZ XZ 65 130 65 = = =
Since

XY YZ = , triangle XYZ is isosceles.

XY XZ
YZ
65 65
130
2 2
2
+ = +
=
=

So triangle XYZ is right angled. (Pythagoras theorem)
Problem
30.2
Exercises 7.2
1. (a) , 2 4 ^ h (b) , 1 1 - ^ h (c) , 2 1 - ^ h (d) , 3 2 - ^ h
(e) , 1 1 - ^ h (f) , 3 2 - ^ h (g) , 3
2
1
d n (h) , 1
2
1
1 d n
(i) ,
2
1
2
2
1
d n (j) , 0 5
2
1
d n
2. (a) , a b 9 3 = = - (b) , a b 5 6 = - =
(c) , a b 1 2 = - = - (d) , a b 1 2 = - = -
(e) , a b 6 1 = =
3. ,
2
3 3
0
2
4 4
0
+ -
=
- +
=
] g
4. , P Q 2 1 = = - ^ h
5. , 4 3 ^ h 6. 3 x = is the vertical line through
midpoint , 3 2 ^ h .
7. Midpoint of , . AC BD 2
2
1
3
2
1
midpoint of = = d n
Diagonals bisect each other
8. 125, AC BD = = midpoint AC midpoint =
, BD 4
2
1
= - ; d n rectangle 9. , 8 13 - ^ h
10. (a) , , , X Y Z
2
1
3
2
1
2
1
2
1
1 1 = - = = , , d d ^ n n h
(b) , ; , XY BC XZ 10 40 2 10
2
34
= = = =
; , AC YZ AB 34
2
2
2 = = =
11. 4 x y
2 2
+ = 12. 1 x y
2 2
+ =
Exercises 7.3
1. (a) 2 (b) 1
3
1
(c) 1
3
1
- (d) 2
5
2
- (e)
3
2
(f)
8
1
-
(g) 4
2
1
- (h)
3
2
- (i) 2
4
1
(j) 2 - 2. 21 y
1
=
3. 1.8 x = 4. 9 x = 5. (a) Show
5
3
m m
1 2
= =
(b) Lines are parallel .

y
-3 -2 -1 3 4 5 6 7
1
3
4
-2
-1
2
(2, -1)
(-2, 1)
(7, 2)
(3, 4)
1
2

6. Gradient of 1 AB CD
2
1
gradient of = =
Gradient of 0 BC AD gradient of = =
7. Gradient of 1 AB CD
3
1
gradient of = = -
Gradient of BC AD
4
3
gradient of = =
Gradient of , AC 5
2
1
= -
gradient of
2
1
BD = -
8. Gradient of 1, AC = gradient of BD 1 = -
9. (a) Show AB BC AC
2 2 2
+ =
(b) Gradient of
4
5
, AB =
gradient of
5
4
BC = -
10. (a) , , , F G 1 2 4
2
1
= - = ^ d h n
(b) Gradient of FG BC
6
5
gradient of = =
11. 4 3 11 0 x y - - = 12. Gradient of , 2 4 - ^ h and
, , 3 1 3 1 gradient of - = - ^ ^ h h and , 5 5 3 = ^ h
13. 1 14. 0.93 15. 21 16. 50 12 c l 17. 108 26 c l
18. (a) 3 (b)
3
1
(c) 3 -
19.
tan
tan
m
m
7 4
5 2
3
3
1
1
180 45 2
135
nd quadrant ` c c
c
i
i
i
=
-
- - -
=
-
= -
=
- =
= -
=
]
^
g
h

20.
3
2 3 3
x =
+
^ h

Exercises 7.4
1. (a) (i) 3 (ii) 5 (b) (i) 2 (ii) 1 (c) (i) 6 (ii) 7 -
(d) (i) 1 - (ii) 0 (e) (i) 4 - (ii) 3 (f) (i) 1 (ii) 2 -
(g) (i) 2 - (ii) 6 (h) (i) 1 - (ii) 1 (i) (i) 9 (ii) 0
(j) (i) 5 (ii) 2 - 2. (a) (i) 2 - (ii) 3 (b) (i) 5 - (ii) 6 -
(c) (i) 6 (ii) 1 - (d) (i) 1 (ii) 4 (e) (i) 2 - (ii)
2
1

(f) (i) 3 (ii) 1
2
1
(g) (i)
3
1
- (ii) 2 - (h) (i)
5
4
- (ii) 2
(i) (i) 3
2
1
(ii)
2
1
- (j) (i) 1
3
2
(ii)
3
2
3. (a) 4 (b) 2 -
(c) 0 (d) 2 - (e) 1 - (f) 3 - (g) 2 (h)
4
1
- (i) 1
2
1

(j) 1
4
1
(k)
3
2
(l)
2
1
(m)
5
1
(n)
7
2
(o)
5
3
-
(p)
14
1
- (q) 15 (r) 1
2
1
- (s)
6
1
(t)
8
3
-
Exercises 7.5
1. (a) 4 1 y x = - (b) y x 3 4 = - + (c) 5 y x =
(d) 4 20 y x = + (e) 3 3 0 x y + - = (f) x y 4 3 12 0 - - =
(g) 1 y x = - (h) 5 y x = + 2. 8 0 x y + - =
3. (a) 4 3 7 0 x y - + = (b) 3 4 4 0 x y - + =
(c) 4 5 13 0 x y - + = (d) 3 4 25 0 x y + - =
(e) 2 2 0 x y - + = 4. 4 8 0 x y + - = 5. (a) 3 y =
(b) x 1 = - 6. y x 2 = - 7. 3 4 12 0 x y - - =
8. 2 3 0 x y + - = 9. 4 x = - 10. 3 8 15 0 x y + - =
Exercises 7.6
1. (a) 3 - (b)
3
1
(c)
4
3
(d) 1
2
1
(e) 1 (f)
6
5
- (g)
3
1

(h)
3
1
(i)
3
1
(j)
5
1

2. (a) 1 0 x y - + = (b) 3 16 0 x y - + = (c) 5 0 x y + - =
(d) 2 5 0 x y + + = (e) 2 4 0 x y - + =
(f) 3 1 0 x y + - = (g) 3 4 13 0 x y + + =
3. 3 m m
1 2
= = so parallel
4. m m
5
1
5 1
1 2
# = - = - so perpendicular
5. 1
5
1
m m
1 2
= =
6. m m
3
7
7
3
1
1 2
# # = - = - 7.
3
2
k = - 8. 4 m m
1 2
= =
9. AB CD m m 3
1 2
< = = _ i and BC AD m m
8
5
1 2
< = = - d n
10. Gradient of : , AC m
2
1
1
= gradient of BD : 2, m
2
= -
m m
2
1
2 1
1 2
# # = - = -
11. (a) y x = - (b) 5 8 0 x y - - = (c) 2 2 0 x y + + =
(d) 2 3 16 0 x y - + = 12. 7 6 24 0 x y + - =
13. 3 0 x y + - = 14. 2 5 0 x y - - =
15. 2 3 18 0 x y - + =
Exercises 7.7
1. (a) , 2 4 - ^ h (b) , 1 3 - - ^ h (c) , 4 4 ^ h (d) , 0 2 - ^ h
(e) , 5 1 - ^ h (f) , 1 1 - ^ h (g) , 3 7 ^ h (h) , 4 0 ^ h (i) , 41 26 ^ h
(j) ,
19
1
19
7
- d n 2. Substitute , 3 4 - ^ h into both lines
3. , , , 2 5 4 1 ^ ^ h h and , 1 1 - - ^ h 4. All lines intersect
at , 2 3 - ^ h
5. All lines meet at , 5 0 - ^ h 6. 11 6 0 x y + =
7. 5 6 27 0 x y + - = 8. x y 4 7 23 0 + = +
9. 1 0 x y + - = 10. 2 2 0 x y + - =
11. 3 0 x y + - = 12. 2 3 0 x y - - =
13. x y 1 0 - + = 14. 3 2 0 x y - + =
15. 3 7 0 x y + - = 16. 5 13 0 x y + + =
17. 27 5 76 0 x y - - = 18. 3 14 0 x y - - =
19. 2 1 0 x y - - = 20. 3 11 0 x y - - =
21. 5 17 0 x y - + =
809 ANSWERS
Exercises 7.8
1. (a) 2.6 (b) 1
13
3
(c) 2.5 (d) 2.4 (e)
13
8

2. (a) 3.48 (b) 1.30 (c) 0.384 (d) 5.09 (e) 1.66
3. (a)
13
7 13
(b) 5 (c)
205
4 205
(d)
13
5 26
(e)
13
14 13

4. d d d 1
1 2 3
= = =
5. : , : A d B d
5
14
5
3
= =
-

Opposite signs so points lie on opposite sides of the line
6. , : , , : d d 2 3
10
13
9 2
10
5
- = = ^ ^ h h
Same signs so points lie on the same side of the line
7. , : , , : d d 3 2 4 4 1 2
5
1
- = - = ^ ^ h h
8. 2 d d
1 2
= = so the point is equidistant from both lines
9. , : , , : d d 8 3
37
55
1 1
37
9
- = = ^ ^ h h
Same signs so points lie on same side of the line
10. , : , , : d d 3 2
5
6
4 1
5
7
- =
-
= ^ ^ h h
11. 4 d d
1 2
= = so same distance 12.
5
8 5
units
13. 1 14. 4.2 15. 9 17 x
3
2
or = - 16. 3 1 b
4
1
12
1
or = -
17. m 1 18
3
2
3
1
or = - -
18. Show distance between , 0 0 ^ h and the line is 5
19. Show distance between , 0 0 ^ h and the line is greater than 1
20. (a) , , , , , 3 1 3
7
4
7
1
2 2 - - ^ d ^ h n h (b) , ,
5
2 10
5
13 5
119
26 34

Exercises 7.9
1. (a) 18 26 c l (b) 29 45 c l (c) 82 52 c l (d) 26 34 c l
(e) 10 29 c l (f) 41 49 c l (g) 72 15 c l (h) 18 26 c l
(i) 74 56 c l (j) 36 52 c l
2. (a) 149 2 c l (b) 119 45 c l (c) 143 58 c l (d) 172 14 c l
(e) 135c 3. 12 20 c l 4. 53 58 c l
5. , , 21 2 120 58 38 c c c l l 6. , m 3
3
1
= -
7. . , . m 5 4 1 53 = - 8. . , . k 1 64 0 095 Z -
9. (a) , A C B D 63 26 116 34 c c + + + + = = = = l l
(b) 124 31 c l 10. , A B C 61 56 59 2 c c + + + = = = l l
Exercises 7.10
1. (a) ,
5
3
1
5
2
- d n (b) , 2
5
1
3
5
3
d n (c) , 2
9
4
1
9
8
- d n
(d) , 4
7
1
1
7
2
- d n (e) , 2
10
9
2
2
1
- d n (f) , 5 2
4
1
- d n
(g) , 2
7
6
7
7
6
d n (h) , 3
11
4
1
11
1
- - d n (i) ,
7
6
1
7
4
- d n
(j) , 1
3
2
1
3
2
- d n
2. (a) , 4 3
2
1
- d n (b) , 6
5
4
2 d n (c) , 19 25 ^ h (d) , 12 5
2
1
d n
(e) , 40 12 ^ h (f) , 9 1
7
4
- d n (g) , 6
2
1
- - d n (h) , 9 1
3
2
d n
(i) , 58 30 - ^ h (j) , 10 13 ^ h
3. (a) , E
3
2
2 = d n (b) , F 1
3
2
2 = d n
(c) , EF AC AC EF 1 3 3 ` = = =
4. A B
(3, 2) (-1, 6) (1 , 3 )
2
3
1
3
( , 4 )
1
3
2
3

5. , , , P Q PQ 1
5
3
5
1
16 19 24 units = = - = , d ^ n h
6. , B 9
5
4
12
5
2
= - d n 7. , p q 4
5
3
20 = =
8. (a) ,
3
2
1
3
2
d n (b) Each ratio gives , .
3
2
1
3
2
d n This means
that the intersection of the medians divides each
median in the ratio : . 2 1
9. , a b 8 18 = = 10.
9
2
, 3
9
8
P = d n
Test yourself 7
1. 6.4 units 2. , 2
2
1
2 - d n
3. (a) 1
5
1
- (b) 2 (c)
3
1
(d)
5
3

4. (a) 7 11 0 x y - - = (b) 5 6 0 x y + - = (c) 3 2 0 x y + =
(d) 3 5 14 0 x y + - = (e) 3 3 0 x y - - =
5.
5
6 5
units
6. , m m
4
1
4
1 2
= - = so m m 1
1 2
= -
` lines are perpendicular.
7. x -intercept 5, y -intercept 2 -
8. (a) 2 1 0 x y + - = (b)
2
1
(c)
2
5
units
9. 5, m m
1 2
= = so lines are parallel 10. 3 4 0 x y - =
11. , 1 1 - ^ h 12. , a b 6 1 = = 13. 66 48 c l
14. Solving simultaneously, 4 0 x y - - = and
2 1 0 x y + + = have point of intersection , . 1 3 - ^ h
Substitute , 1 3 - ^ h in 5 3 14 0: x y - - =
5 1 3 3 14 0 LHS RHS # # = - - - = =
` point lies on 5 3 14 0: x y - - =
Substitute , 1 3 - ^ h in 3 2 9 0: x y - - =
3 1 2 3 9 0 LHS RHS # # = - - - = =
` point lies on 3 2 9 0: x y - - =
` lines are concurrent
15. , 2
9
5
1
3
1
- d n 16. 0.499 - 17. , c 13 65 = - -
18. 3 y = 19. , 4 7 ^ h 20. 1
5
4
x = 21. 93 22 c l
22. , : , , : d d 2 1
13
8
6 3
13
2
- =
-
= ^ ^ h h
23. 63 26 c l 24. 4 0 x y - - = 25. 3 7 14 0 x y - - =
1. 2 k = - 2. 3 3 3 0 x y - - = 3. 10 10 81 x y
2 2
+ =
4. Show AC and BD have the same midpoint , 1 2 ^ h and
m m 1
AC BD
# = -
5. Show distance of all points from , 0 0 ^ h is 3; radius 3;
equation 9 x y
2 2
+ =
6.
13
4 13
7. 45 ; ( ) OBA a b sides of isosceles c + D = =
8.
13
12 13
9. 113 12 c l 10. 2 3 13 0 x y + + =
11.
. angled
, , ;
,
BC AC AB
m m
18 6
1
so is isosceles
so is right
BC AC
#
D
D
= = =
= -
12. , 3 5 - ^ h
13. , a b 2 3 = = 14. 2 5 14 0 x y + + = 15. 45c
16. 3 3 2 3 0 x y + + - = 17. 6 0 x y - + =
18. , b 2
3
1
21 = - 19. , , , 2
3
1
2
3
1
1
3
2
3
3
2
- - d d n n
20.
m m
m m
m m
m m
m m m m
m m m m
m m
m m
m m m m
m m m m
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
or
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2 1 2
1 2 2 1
`
+
-
=
+
-
=
+ = -
= - -
+
-
= -
- = - -
= - -

21. , P
p
p
p
p
1
4 1
1
7 3
=
-
- -
-
-
f p
22. (a) AB : 7 5 14 0 x y + + =
, 7 7 - ^ h lies on the line (show by substitution)
(b) : 1 2 - or : 1 2 -
23. , x y 16
3
2
17 = = - 24. . , . m 0 059 9 2 = - -
25. (a) , P 1
3
2
3
3
1
= d n (b) , Q 4
3
1
3
3
1
= d n
(c) PQ has gradient 0 m
1
=
AC has gradient 0 m
2
=
Since , m m PQ AC
1 2
< =
(d) , R 6
3
1
0 = d n
(e) PR has gradient
7
5
m
1
= -
BC has gradient
7
5
m
2
= -
Since , m m PR BC
1 2
< =
Chapter 8: Introduction to calculus
Exercises 8.1
1.
2.
3.
811 ANSWERS
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Exercises 8.2
1. Yes, 0 x = 2. Yes, x x
1
= 3. No 4. Yes, 0 x =
5. Yes, , x x x x
1 2
= = 6. Yes, 0 x = 7. Yes, x 3 = -
8. Yes, 2 x = 9. Yes, , x 2 3 = - 10. Yes, x 1 0 1 # -
11. Yes, , x 90 270 c c = 12. Yes, 0 x = 13. No 14. No
15. Yes, x 3 ! =
Exercises 8.3
1. (a) 3 (b) 7 - (c) 3 (d) 8 (e) 2 (f) 3 - (g) 2
(h) 1 - (i) 10 (j) 1 -
2. (a) 2 4 x x
2
- - (b) 2 1 x x
3
+ - (c) 7 1 x - -
(d) 4x x
4 2
- (e) 4 3 x - + (f) 2 6 x
2
+ (g) 2x -
(h) 4x
2
(i) 3 1 x - (j) 2 9 x x
2
- +
Exercises 8.4
1. (a) 4.06 (b) 3.994 (c) 4
2. (a) 13.61 (b) 13.0601 (c) 12.9401 (d) 13 3. 6
4. (a) 2 f x h x xh h
2 2
+ = + + ] g
(b)
( ) ( ) f x h f x x xh h x
xh h
2
2
2 2 2
2
+ - = + + -
= +

(c)
h
f x h f x
h
xh h
h
h x h
x h
2
2
2
2
+ -
=
+
=
+
= +
] ]
]
g g
g

(d) ( )
( )
lim
lim
f x
h
f x h f x
x h
x
2
2
h
h
0
0
=
+ -
= +
=
"
"
l
] ] g g

5. (a) ( ) ( )
( )
f x h x h x h
x xh h x h
x xh h x h
2 7 3
2 2 7 7 3
2 4 2 7 7 3
2
2 2
2 2
+ = + - + +
= + + - - +
= + + - - +
] g
(b)
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
f x h f x x xh h x h
x x
x xh h x h
x x
xh h h
2 4 2 7 7 3
2 7 3
2 4 2 7 7 3
2 7 3
4 2 7
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
+ - = + + - - +
- - +
= + + - - +
- + -
= + -

(c)
h
f x h f x
h
xh h h
h
h x h
x h
4 2 7
4 2 7
4 2 7
2
+ -
=
+ -
=
+ -
= + -
] ]
]
g g
g

(d) f x x 4 7 = - l] g
6. (a) f 2 11 = ] g (b) 2 5 11 f h h h
2
+ = + + ] g
(c) f h f h h 2 2 5
2
+ - = + ] ] g g
(d)
h
f h f
h
h h
h
h h
h
2 2
5
5
5
2
+ -
=
+
=
+
= +
] ]
]
g g
g

(e) f 2 5 = l] g
7. (a) f 1 7 - = - ] g
(b) f h f h h h 1 1 4 12 12
3 2
- + - - = - + ] ] g g (c) 12
8. (a) f 3 8 = ] g (b) f h f h h 3 3 6
2
+ - = + ] ] g g (c) f 3 6 = l] g
9. (a) f 1 13 = - l] g (b) 17
10. (a) 2 y x x
2
= +
Substitute , x x y y d d + + _ i :

( )
2
y y x x x x
x x x x x x
y x x
y x x x x
2
2 2 2
2 2
Since
2
2 2
2
2
d d d
d d d
d d d d
+ = + + +
= + + + +
= +
= + +
] g

(b)
x
y
x
x x x x
x
x x x
x x
2 2
2 2
2 2
2
d
d
d
d d d
d
d d
d
=
+ +
=
+ +
= + +
] g

(c) 2 2
dx
dy
x = +
11. (a) 2 (b) 5 (c) 12 - (d) 15 (e) 9 -
12. (a) f x x 2 = l] g (b) 2 5
dx
dy
x = +
(c) f x x 8 4 = - l] g (d) 10 1
dx
dy
x = -
(e) 3
dx
dy
x
2
= (f) f x x 6 5
2
= + l] g
(g) 3 4 3
dx
dy
x x
2
= - + (h) x x f 6
2
= - l] g
13. (a) 0.252 (b) 0.25 (c) 0.2498
14. (a) 0.04008 - (b) 0.03992 - (c) 0.04 - 15. 1 -
Exercises 8.5
1. (a) 1 (b) 5 (c) 2 3 x + (d) 10 1 x - (e) 3 4 7 x x
2
+ -
(f) 6 14 7 x x
2
- + (g) 12 4 5 x x
3
- +
(h) 6 25 8 x x x
5 4 3
- - (i) 10 12 2 2 x x x
4 2
- + -
(j) 40 63 x x
9 8
-
2. (a) 4 1 x + (b) 8 12 x - (c) 2 x (d) 16 24 x x
3
-
(e) 6 6 3 x x
2
+ -
3. (a)
x
3
1 - (b) x x 2
3 2
- (c)
3
8
6
x
x
7
5
- (d) 4 x (e)
4
1

(f) 2 2 2 x x
2
- +
4. f x x 16 7 = - l] g 5. 56 -
6. 60 40 35 3
dx
dy
x x x
9 7 4
= - + - 7. 10 20
dt
ds
t = -
8. g x x 20
5
= -
-
l] g 9. 30
dt
dv
t = 10. 40 4
dt
dh
t = -
11.
dr
d
r
V
4
2
r = 12. 3 13. (a) 5 (b) 5 - (c) 4 x =
14. (a) 12 (b) x 2 ! = 15. 18
Exercises 8.6
1. (a) 72 (b) 13 - (c) 11 (d) 18 - (e) 18 (f) 27
(g) 11 (h) 136 (i) 4 - (j) 149
2. (a)
26
1
- (b)
25
1
(c)
20
1
(d)
43
1
- (e)
10
1

(f)
7
1
(g)
71
1
- (h)
20
1
(i)
8
1
- (j)
5
1
-
3. (a) (i) 6 (ii)
6
1
- (b) (i) 8 (ii)
8
1
-
(c) (i) 24 (ii)
24
1
- (d) (i) 8 - (ii)
8
1

(e) (i) 11 (ii)
11
1
-
4. (a) 27 47 0 x y - - = (b) 7 1 0 x y - - =
(c) 4 17 0 x y + + = (d) 36 47 0 x y - - =
(e) 44 82 0 t v - - =
5. (a) x y 24 555 0 + - = (b) 8 58 0 x y - + =
(c) 17 516 0 x y - - = (d) 45 3153 0 x y - + =
(e) 2 9 0 x y + - =
6. (a) (i) 7 4 0 x y - + = (ii) 7 78 0 x y + - =
(b) (i) 10 36 0 x y - + = (ii) 10 57 0 x y + - =
(c) (i) 10 6 0 x y + - = (ii) 10 41 0 x y - - =
(d) (i) 2 2 0 x y + + = (ii) 2 19 0 x y - - =
(e) (i) 2 2 0 x y - + = (ii) 2 9 0 x y + - =
7. x 3 ! = 8. (1, 2) and ( 1 - , 0) 9. ( 5 - , 7 - )
10. (0, 1) 11. (1, 2) 12. , 1
4
3
4
16
15
- - d n
13. (a) (1, 1 - ) (b) 6 7 0 x y - - =
14. 10 7 0 t h - - = 15. x y 4 2 19 0 - - =
813 ANSWERS
Exercises 8.7
1. (a) 3x
4
-
-
(b) 1.4x
0.4
(c) 1.2x
0.8 -
(d)
2
x
2
1
-
1

(e)
2
x x 3
2
+
-
-
1
(f)
3
x
-
2
(g)
4
x 6
-
1
(h)
2
x
-
3

2. (a)
x
1
2
- (b)
2
5
x
(c)
6
1
x
5 6
(d)
10
x
6
- (e)
15
x
4

(f)
2
1
x
3
- (g)
3
x
7
- (h)
2
3 x
(i)
3
2
x
2
-
(j)
2
1 12
x x
3 5
- -
3.
27
1
4. 3 5.
32
1
6. 3 7. 2 3 1 x x + +
8.
8
1
9. 3 16 8 0 x y + - = 10. 9 0 x y - + =
11. (a)
2
1
x
3
- (b)
16
1
- 12. x y 16 0 16 + - = 13. (9, 3)
14. 4 x = 15. , , , 5
5
2
5
5
2
- - d d n n
Exercises 8.8
1. (a) 4 3 x
3
+ ] g (b) 6 2 1 x
2
- ] g (c) 70 5 4 x x
2
6
-
^ h

(d) 48 8 3 x
5
+ ] g (e) 5 1 x
4
- - ] g (f) 135 5 9 x
8
+ ] g
(g) x 4 4 - ] g (h) 4 6 3 2 3 x x x
2 3
3
+ +
^ ^ h h

(i) 8 2 5 5 1 x x x
2
7
+ + - ] ^ g h

(j) 6 6 4 2 3 x x x x
5 6 2
5
- - +
^ ^ h h
(k)
2
x
2
3
3 1 -
-
1
] g
(l) 2 4 x
3
-
-
] g (m) 6 9 x x
2
4
- -
-
^ h
(n)
-
3
x
3
5
5 4 +
2
] g
(o)
-
4
x x x x x
4
3
3 14 1 7
2 3 2
- + - +
1
^ ^ h h
(p)
2 3 4
3
x +

(q)
5 2
5
x
2
-
- ] g
(r)
1
8
x
x
2
5
-
+
^ h
(s)
7 3
2
x
3
-
-

(t)
2 4
5
x
3
-
+ ] g
(u)
4 3 1
3
x
3
-
- ] g
(v)
2 2 7
27
x
10
-
+ ] g

(w)
3 3
4 9 3
x x x
x x
4 3
2
3 2
-
- +
- +
^
^
h
h
(x)
3
16 4 1 x
3
+
(y)
4 7
5
x
9 4
- ] g

2. 9 3. 40 4. (4, 1) 5. , x 2 1
2
1
= - 6. 8 7 0 x y + + =
Exercises 8.9
1. (a) 8 9 x x
3 2
+ (b) 12 1 x - (c) 30 21 x +
(d) 72 16 x x
5 3
- (e) 30 4 x x
4
-
(f) 5 2 1 x x x
2
+ + ] ] g g (g) 8 9 1 3 2 x x
4
- - ] ] g g
(h) x x x 3 16 7 4
3 2
- - ] ] g g (i) 10 13 2 5 x x
3
+ + ] ] g g
(j) x x x x x x x
x x x x x
10 5 3 1 3 10 1
13 60 3 20 1
3 2 2
4
2 2
5
3 2 2
4
+ - + + + +
= + + - +
^ ^ ^ ^
^ ^
h h h h
h h

(k)
x
x
x
x
x
2 2
2
2 2
4 3
-
-
+ - =
-
-

(l)
x
x
x
x 2 1
2 5 3
2 1
5
2 1
11
2 2
-
- +
+
-
= -
- ]
]
] g
g
g

2. 26 3. 1264 4. 7
7
1
7
8
+ = 5. 176
6. 10 9 0 x y - - = 7. 69 129 0 x y - - =
8. x
3
6 30 !
=
-
9. 34 29 0 x y - + =
Exercises 8.10
1. (a)
x 2 1
2
2
-
-
] g
(b)
5
15
x
2
+ ] g
(c)
x
x x
x
x x
4
12
4
12
2
2
4 2
2
2
2 2
-
-
=
-
-
^ ^
^
h h
h

(d)
5 1
16
x
2
+ ] g
(e)
14 14
x
x x
x
x
4
2
3
- +
=
- +
(f)
3
11
x
2
+ ] g

(g)
2
2
x x
x
2
2
2
-
-
^ h
(h)
2
6
x
2
-
-
] g
(i)
x 4 3
34
2
-
-
] g
(j)
x 3 1
14
2
+
-
] g

(k)
3 7
3 6 7
x
x x
2
2
2
-
- - -
^ h
(l)
x
x x
x
x x
2 3
4 12
2 3
3 4
2
2
2
-
-
=
-
-
] ]
]
g g
g

(m)
x
x
5
18
2
2
-
-
^ h
(n)
x
x x
x
x x
4
2 12
4
2 6
2
3 2
2
2
+
+
=
+
+
] ]
]
g g
g

(o)
x
x x
3
2 9 7
2
3 2
+
+ +
] g
(p)
3 4
3 8 5
x
x x
2
2
+
+ -
] g

(q)
x x
x x x
1
2 4 1
2
2
4 3 2
- -
- - -
^ h
(r)
-
2 2
x
x x x
5
2 5 5
+
+ - +
1 1
] ] g g

(s)
(t)
28
x
x x x
x
x
7 2
7 1 7
7 2
21 30 2 2
8 5
4 3
+
-
=
+
- + + - +
]
] ] ]
] g
g g g
g

(u)
x
x x x x
x
x x
2 5
15 2 5 3 4 6 3 4 2 5
2 5
3 3 4 4 33
6
3 4 5 2
4
4
-
- + - + -
=
-
+ -
]
] ] ] ]
]
] ]
g
g g g g
g
g g

(v)
x
x x
x
x
x
1
1 2 1
3 1
2 1
3 5
3
+
+ +
+
=
+
+ - 3
] g

(w)
x
x
x
x
x x
x
2 3
2 1
2 3
1
2 1 2 3
2 1
2 2
-
-
-
-
=
- -
- + 2 -
] ] g g

(x)
x
x
x x
x x
x x
x x
9
1
9
9 1
1 9
9 2
4
2
2
2
2 3
2
-
+
-
- +
=
+ -
- - - 2 -
]
]
]
]
g
g
g
g

x
x x x
x
x x
5 1
6 5 1 2 9 5 2 9
5 1
2 9 20 51
2
2 3
2
2
+
+ - - -
=
+
- +
]
] ] ]
]
] ]
g
g g g
g
g g
2.
8
1
3. 1
9
5
- 4. 0, 1 x = 5. 9, 3 x = -
6. 18 8 0 x y - + = 7. 17 25 19 0 x y - - =
Exercises 8.11
1. (a)
(b) Substitute Q into both equations .
(c) 4 y x
2
= - has 4 m
1
=
8 12 y x x
2
= - + has 4 m
2
= -
(d) 28 4 c l
2. (a)

(b) , P 3 9 = ^ h (c) 6 m = (d) 0c 3. 8 8 c l
4. 71 34 c l 5. 162 54 c l 6. (a) , , , X Y 4 16 1 6 = = - ^ ^ h h
(b) : ,
: ,
X m m
Y m m
12 7
8 3
At
At
1 2
1 2
= =
= - = -

(c) : : X Y 3 22 11 19 At At c c l l
7. , 71 34 8 58 c c l l 8. (a) (0, 0), (2, 8), ( 1 - , 1 - )
(b) 63 26 c l at (0, 0), 4 42 c l at (2, 8), 71 34 c l at ( 1 - , 1 - )
9. At (0, 0), 0 4 m m and
1 2
= =
At (2, 4), 4 0 m m and
1 2
= = Angle at both is 75 58 c l
10. 164 45 c l at (0, 0), 178 37 c l at ( 3 - , 33 - ), 146 19 c l at (1, 3)
Test yourself 8
1. (a)

(b)
2. 10 3
dx
dy
x = - 3. (a) 42 9 2 8
dx
dy
x x x
5 2
= - + -
(b)
2 1
11
dx
dy
x
2
=
+ ] g
(c)
8
( )( )
dx
dy
x x x 9 2 4 4 2
2
= + + -
(d) 40 5 5 (10 1)
dx
dy
x x x x x 2 1 2 1 2 1
3 4 3
= - + - = - - ] ] ] g g g
(e)
2
5
dx
dy
x
3
= (f)
10
dx
dy
x
3
= -
4.
dt
dv
t 4 3 = - 5. (a) 1 (b) 20 6. 10 7. 42
8. (a) 2 x = - (b) 1 x = (c) 2 x =
9. (a) 32 4 9 f x x
3
= + l] ] g g (b)
3
5
dx
dy
x
2
= -
- ] g

(c)
dx
dy
x x 9 1 3 1 = - - ] ] g g (d)
4
dx
dy
x
2
= -
(e) f x
x 5
1
4 5
= l] g
10. y
11. 9 7 0 x y - - = 12. (2, 3) 13.
dr
dS
r 8r =
14. ( 2 - , 71), (5, 272 - ) 15. 4 6 0 x y - - = 16. 3525
17. 9 18. x y 12 4 0 + - = 19. ,
5
1
dt
ds
u at t = + =
20.
10
7
21. 17 6 c l at (3, 9), 8 53c l at ( 1 - , 1)
22. 175 26 c l at (2, 4), 177 40 c l at (4, 16)
815 ANSWERS
1. , f f 1 3 1 36 = - = - l ] ] g g 2.
18
13
-
3. ; , .
dt
dx
t t t 8 300 0 37 5
3 2
= + = -
4. , , x y x y x y 2 0 3 3 0 6 12 0 + = - - = - + =
5. , , , , 12 26 0, 12 170 0 x y x y 2 2 2 14 - - + - = + + = ^ ^ h h
6.
4
3

7. 5 5 1 9 15 9 5 1
10 5 1 9 (4 13)
x x x x
x x x
3 4 5 2
2 4
+ - + - +
= + - -
] ] ] ]
] ]
g g g g
g g

8.
x
x x x
x
x
4 9
2 4 9 16 2 1 4 9
4 9
2 12 17
8
4 3
5
-
- - + -
=
-
- +
]
] ] ]
]
]
g
g g g
g
g

9. x
12
6 204
6
3 51 ! !
=
-
=
-
10. 2 25 0 x y + - =
11.
27
1
a = - 12. , P 2
4
1
6
16
1
= - d n 13. , x
3
1
3
1 13 !
=
14.
2
1
15. , , , x y Q PQ 3 5 0 0 5 10 - + = = = ^ h
16. (a) Substitute (1, 1) into both curves:
3 2 : y x
5
= - ] g

1
3 1 2
1
1
LHS
RHS
LHS
5
5
#
=
= -
=
=
=
] g

So (1, 1) lies on the curve 3 2 y x
5
= - ] g

1
5 3
y
x
x
=
+
-
:

1
1 1
5 1 3
2
2
1
LHS
RHS
LHS
#
=
=
+
-
=
=
=

So (1, 1) lies on the curve
1
5 3
y
x
x
=
+
-

` (1, 1) is a point of intersection
(b) 22 45 c l
17. 8 n = 18. , , x y 1
12
11
2
3 3
12 3 0 12 31 - + =
e o

19. , , x
2
1
1
2
1
1
5
3
= - 20. (a) , x 90 270 c c =
(b)
y
x
1
90c 180c 270c 360c

21. , 4 73 - - ^ h 22. 3 9 14 0 x y - - = 23.
x x
x
4 3 2
4 5 3
4
-
- ] g

24. (a) , x y x y 16 32 1 0 4 2 1 0 + + = - - =
(b) 2 m m
2
1
1
1 2
$ # = -
= -

So perpendicular
25. 0, 2, 6 x = 26. , a b 14 7 = - = 27.
22
5 22

28. 1
2
1
p = 29.
dr
dV
3
8
3
r
= 30. 4 k = 31. 4 0 x y - - =
32. 4 13 0 x y - - = 33.
48
1
- 34. , , a b c 1 2 4 = - = =
35. 8 8 2 S r rh r r r = - +
36. (a) 6 5 3 1 3 5 x x x
2 3
- - - ] ] g g (b)
x x
x
3 2 1
5 6
4
- +
+ -
]
]
g
g

37. x
6
4 13 !
=
38. (a) 7 80 0 x y + - =
(b) , Q 4
7
1
12
49
1
= - d n
1. 0.77 - 2. 1 3. 5 2 1 0 x y + - = 4. , 2 2 - ^ h
5. 0.309 - 6. (a) 3 cm
2
(b) , 1 AC BD 13 cm cm = =
7. 1; , m m A
4
3
6
8
1 1
2
1
1 2
# = - = - = - d n 8. x 15c =
9.
12
7

10.

11.
12. 45 49 c 13. Domain: all real ; x
2
1
! range: all
real y 0 !
14.
15.
16. sin
4
i 17. 2 units 18. 8 15 0 x y - + =
19. , 120 240 c c i = 20. 1
3
2
- 21. 2 22. 11 56 5c a = l
23. . y 16 5 = 24. 3 5 0 x y + - = 25. x 1
3
2
3 1 1
26. 7 27. 3 x = 28. 3 -
29. Show perpendicular distance from , 0 0 ^ h to the line is
2 units, or solving simultaneous equations gives only
one solution.
30. (a) , g g 2 1 3 6 = - = - ] ] g g
(b)
31. 3 4 x x
2
- 32.
2
1
- 33. 17.5 m
34. , x y 2 17 = - = - 35. (a) 7.0 AB m = (b) 27.8 m
2

36. cos 3 i 37. (a) 2 4 0 x y - + = (b) , , , P Q 2 0 0 4 - ^ ^ h h
(c) 4 units
2

38. 127 m 39. 15 units
2
40. ( )
( )
f x x x
x x
f x
3
3
6 2
6 2
- = - - - -
= - -
=
] ] g g
41. 16x x x x x 1 1 18 1 2 1 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
3 3 4
+ + + + + =
^ ^ ^ ^ h h h h
42. y 4
3
1
9 # # - 43.
3
x
2
-
44. (a) 3 4 0 x y - - = (b) 2 0 x y - - =
(c) 3 10 0 x y + + = (d) , R 10 0 = - ^ h
45.
13
8
units 46. Domain: all ; x 4 !- range: all y 0 !
47.
2 7
1
x -
48. 4.9 km 49. 8 7 10 x x
3
- -
-

50.
1
5
x
2
+ ] g
51. 2 3 x - 52.
x x
x
x x
x
5
17 2
5
17 2
2 2
+
- -
=
+
+ -] g

53. 6 56 0 x y + - = 54. , f f 2 45 2 48 - = - - = l ] ] g g
55. , a b 2 9 = = - 56. 7 5 9 0 x y - + =
57. 47 109 0 x y - + = 58. 0.25 x = - 59. , 33 17 - ^ h
60.
2 2
3 1
4
6 2 +
=
+
61. 67 37 c l
62. , x 63 26 243 26 c c = l l
817 ANSWERS
63.
64. (a) cos i (b) cos i b + ^ h (c) tan14a 65. 3
66. , . x x 4 4 6 1 2 67. 12 32 c l at both points
68. (a) domain: x
2
1
$ range: y 0 $
(b) domain: all real x 7 !- range: all real y 0 !
(c) domain: x 2 2 # # - range: y 2 0 # # -
69. , a b 15 1 = - = - 70. cos 2i
71. (a) (0, 0), (1, 3), ( 1 - , 1 - ), (2, 20)
(b) 6 26 3c l at (0, 0), 2 20 c l at (1, 3), 40 36 c l at ( 1 - , 1 - ),
2 0 2 c l at (2, 20)
72. (a) x n 360 45 ! c = (b) x n 180 30c = +
(c) x n 180 1 60
n
# c = + - ] g
73. (a) (1, 1) (b) 2 13 units (c) 1
2
1
-
(d) 3 2 5 0 x y + - =
74. (a) 75. (b), (d) 76. (a) 77. (c) 78. (c)
79. (b), (d) 80. (c)
Chapter 9: Properties of the circle
The proofs given as answers to this chapter are informal. Also,
they may not be the only way to answer the question.
Exercises 9.1
1. (a) 32c i = (b) 8 x cm = (c) 68 30 c i a = = l (d) 31c i =
(e) 9 x mm = (f) 30 22c i = l
2.
9
16
cm
r
3. (a) 29c i = (b) 18 x c =
(c) , 83 42 c c a b = = (d) 68 x c = (e) 10 x cm =
(f) 97 y c = (g) , , x y z 15 150 75 c c c = = =
(h) , , x y z 47 43 94 c c c = = = (i) 40c b =
(j) 39 x y c = =
4. (a) , , x y z 112 56 34 c c c = = = (b) 49 x c =
(c) , x y 55 43 c c = = (d) , x y 166 7 c c = =
(e) , x 62 31 c c b = =
(f) , , , x y z v w 32 58 32 17 c c c c = = = = = (g) 5 x c =
(h) 102 y c = (i) 57 30 , 32 30 x y c c = = l l
(j) , , x y z 75 77 13 c c c = = =
5. (a) (vertically opposite )
( s in the same segment)
(similarly)
DCE ACB
EDC BAC
DEC ABC
s + + +
+ + +
+ +
=
=
=

` Since all pairs of s + are equal,
DEC D ; < ABC D
(b) 5.5 x cm =
6.

(angle at centre is double the at the circumference)
( ) ( sumof isosceles )
x
y
30
180 30 2
75
'
c
+
+ D
=
= -
=

7. ( at the centre is double the
at the circumference)
(similarly)
x
x
y
360 2 110
140
70
#
`
+
+
- =
=
=

8. ( in semicircle)
( sumof )
( in same segment)
ABC
BAC
x
90
90 29
61
61
`
`
c
c c
c
c
+ +
+ +
+
D
=
= -
=
=

9. ( in same segment)
(similarly)
(vertically opposite )
STV WUV
TSV UWV
TVS UVW s
+ + +
+ +
+ + +
=
=
=

` Since all pairs of angles are equal,

| WUV D | |
.
STV
x 2 4 cm
D
=

10.
( ) B
AC AB BC
AC
AC
90
6 3
36 9
45
45
3 5
2
1
2
3 5
in semicircle
Radius
cm
2 2 2
2 2
c + + =
= +
= +
= +
=
=
=
=
=

11. (Base s of isosceles )
(similarly)
( at the centre is double the
at the circumference)
OAC
BAO
CAB
x CAB
30
25
30 25
55
2
2 55
110
`
#
c
c
c c
c
c
c
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
D =
=
= +
=
=
=
=
12. (a) , x y 2 76 5 c c = =
(b) AC BD = (equal diameters)
Diagonals are equal so ABCD is a rectangle.
AD BC ` = (opposite sides of a rectangle)
13. 33 ECB c + = (angles in same segment)
EBC 180 114 33 + = - + ] g (angle sum of triangle)
33 =
ECB ADE `+ + =
AD BC ` <
14. (a) 90 AOB c + = (given)
ABC 90c + = (angle in semi-circle)
AOB ABC `+ + =
A `+ is common
| ABC D | | AOB `D ( AAA )
(Note 2 pairs of angles equal means 3 pairs will be equal
by angle sum of triangle.)
(b) AO BO = (equal radii)

AB r r
r
r
r
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
#
= +
=
=
=

By similar triangles

AB
AO
BC
BO
=
But so AO BO AB BC = =
So BC r 2 =
15. Obtuse 2 BOD + i = (angle at centre double
angle at circumference)
Refex 360 2 BOD + i = - (angle of revolution)

2
1
BCD BOD + + = (angle at centre double
angle at circumference)

(360 2 )
180
2
1
i
i
= -
= -

So BCD + and DAB + are supplementary (add to180c)
Exercises 9.2
1. (a) 5 x cm = (b) 15 y cm = (c) 2.4 x m = (d) 42 x c =
(e) 90 z c = (f) 10.3 x m Z (g) 6 , 3 x y m m = =
(h) . m 13 4 cm Z (i) 5 y cm Z (j) 5 x mm =
2. 41 cm 3. 144 mm 4. 25.6 cm
5. . .
.
.
.
(perpendicular from bisects chord) O
CE
CD
AB
11 5 6 9
9 2
2 9 2
18 4
2 2
#
= -
=
=
=
=

6. 8.3 OB cm = 7. . , . x y 4 7 1 8 m m = =
8. 4.4 , 78 , 38 , 64 x m c c c Z a b i = = =
9. OA r =

2
AC
x
= (perpendicular from the
centre bisects a chord)

2
OC r
x
2
2
= -d n (Pythagoras theorem)

r
x
r x
r x
r x
4
4
4
4
4
4
2
4
2
2
2 2
2 2
2 2
= -
= -
=
-
=
-

CD r
r x
r r x
2
4
2
2 4
2 2
2 2
= +
-
=
+ -

10. (a) ECD ACB + + = (vertically opposite angles)
A E + + = (angles in same segment)
CDE D | | | ABC `D ( AAA )
(b) By similar triangles

CE
AC
CD
BC
=

. .
AC CD BC CE =
Exercises 9.3
1. (a) , x y 107 94 c c = = (b) , 134 90 c c i c = =
(c) , , x y z 112 112 68 c c c = = = (d) , x y 92 114 c c = =
(e) , , 73 107 107 c c c b a c = = = (f) , x y 141 63 c c = =
(g) , x y 65 43 c c = =
(h) , , , w x y z 89 86 54 35 c c c c = = = =
(i) , , , w x y z 69 111 82 98 c c c c = = = = (j) 118 x c =
2. (a) , x y 62 31 c c = = (b) , x y 75 105 c c = =
(c) , x y 88 65 c c = = (d) , , x y z 62 82 36 c c c = = =
(e) , x y 90 113 c c = = (f) , x y 38 71 c c = =
(g) , x y 85 95 c c = = (h) , x y 48 78 c c = =
(i) , x y 107 73 c c = =
(j) , , , , a b c d e 81 55 83 16 28 c c c c c = = = = =
3. (a) 180 58 A c c + = - ( A + and B + cointerior angles,
AD BC ; )
180 58 D c c + = - ( C + and D + cointerior angles,
AD BC ; )
So A C 180c + + = - and D B 180c + + = -
Since opposite angles are supplementary, ABCD is a
cyclic quadrilateral.
(b) 90 B D c + + = = (given)
180 B D ` c + + = -
Let A x + =
360 90 90 C x + = - + + ] g (angle sum of quadrilateral)
819 ANSWERS
x
x
A
360 180
180
180 +
= - -
= -
= -

(c) CDA 180 + i = - (straight angle)
B CDA 180 ` c + + = -
Let A x + =
360 90 90 C x + = - + + ] g (angle sum of quadrilateral)
x
x
A
360 180
180
180 +
= - -
= -
= -

cyclic quadrilateral .
Exercises 9.4
1. (a) 47c i = (b) 5 x m = (c) 11.3 y cm =
(d) 26 x y c = = (e) , a b 64 32 c c = = (f) 57c i =
(g) 12 p 145 cm Z = (h) 10 y mm = (i) 5.79 x cm Z
(j) , x y 33 33 c c = =
2. (a) 10 x cm = (b) , x y 64 26 c c = = (c) 13 x cm =
(d) , x y 27 54 c c = = (e) 5 y cm = (f) , x y 32 7 c c = =
(g) , x y 72 42 c c = = (h) , x y 35 90 c c = =
(i) , , , m n p q 23 67 67 23 c c c c = = = =
(j) , x y 71 62 c c = =
3.
( )
(tangent o radius)
( sumof )
( radii)
(base s of isosceles )
( mof )
(opposite s of cyclic quad.)
( at centre twice at circumference)
OAB
z
OA OC
OAC OCA y
y
ACD AED
y u
u
u
BAC OAB OAC
x
v AOC
AOB
OAC
90
90 48
42
180 48 2
66
180
180 62
66 118
52
90 66
24
2
1
2
1
48
24
t
equal
su
`
`
'
`
`
#
c
c c
c
c c
c
c
c c
c c
c
c c
c
c
c
= +
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
D
D
D
=
= -
=
=
= =
= -
=
= -
+ = -
+ =
=
= -
= -
=
=
=
=

4. 21 cm
5. . .
.
.
.
( )
AC BC
AB
AB AC BC
ACB
3 9 5 2
42 25
6 5
42 25
90 by Pythagoras theorem
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2
`
` c +
+ = +
=
=
=
= +
=

` A lies on a diameter of the circle (tangent radius)
6. (a) x 67c = (b) 7.5 y cm Z (c) , x y 72 121 c c = =
(d) , x y 63 126 c c = = (e) 8.9 , 5.1 x y m m Z =
(f) , x y 63 63 c c = = (g) , , x y z 98 65 17 c c c = = =
(h) , x y 57 57 c c = = (i) , x y 72 15 c c = =
(j) , , x y z 61 70 52 c c c = = =
7. (a) , , x y z 26 74 48 c c c = = = (b) 68 , 44 , 68 x y z c c c = = =
(c) 45 x y z c = = = (d) , x y 70 31 c c = =
(e) , , x y z 20 57 103 c c c = = = (f) 5.4 x cm Z
(g) . x 7 7 cm Z (h) , x y 77 13 c c = =
(i) 1.2 , 2.1 x y cm cm Z Z (j) , , x y z 55 112 57 c c c = = =
8. 13 AB m Z
Test yourself 9
1. 56c i = 2. 2.3 y mm = 3. 7.2 x m =
4. 12 x y cm = =
5.
c
c
c c
c
c
( )
( )
( )
( )
z
y
x
19
180 131 19
30
30
s in same segment
sumof
s in same segment
+
+
+
D
=
= - +
=
=

6. 10 x cm =
7. , , 3 44 136 c c c a b c = = =
8.
90
(
a
OCA
b
OC OE
OCE
2
1
100
50
90 83
7
is isosceles
at centre twice at circumference)
(tangent perpendicular to radius)
(equal radii)
#
`
`
c
c
c
c c
c
+
+ +
D
=
=
=
= -
=
=
( )
OCE OEC c
c
c
c
2 100 180
2 80
40
sumof
`
c c
c
c
+ +
+ D
= =
+ =
=
=

360 100
( )
(
(
COE
d
260
360 260 50 7
43
Reflex of revolution)
sumof quadrilateral)
c c
c
c c c c
c
+ +
+
= -
=
= - + +
=

9. 17 cm 10. 5.3 m 11. , a b 101 98 c c = =
12. , 61 29 c c a b = = 13. 14.9 cm 14. 4.9 x m =
15. 18 cm 16. 127 , 53 c c a b = =
17. ( )
47
( )
( )
D
y
180 80 53
47
sumof
s in same segment `
c c c
c
c
+ + T
+
= - +
=
=

x 47c = ( s + in alternate segment)
18. , , x y z 55 56 54 c c c = = =
19. C + is common
A CBD + + = ( s + in alternate segment)
| ABC D | | BCD AAA `D ] g
20. (a)
( )
OCB OCA
OA OB
90 (given)
equal radii
c + + = =
=

OC is common
OAC OBC RHS ` / D D ] g
(b) AC BC = (corresponding sides in ) s / D
OC bisects AB
1. 6 cm
2.
Then
(base s of isosceles )
( )
( radii)
( of s of isosceles )
DOB DCB x
EDO x
EO DO
OED EDO x
ODC
EOD
2
2
Let
ext. of
equal
base `
+ +
+
+ +
+
+
+
D
D
D
= =
=
=
= =
180 ( )
( )
( )
( sumof )
( straight )
EOD OED EDO
x
AOE EOD DOB
x x
x
AOE DCB
EOD
AOC
180 4
180
180 180 4
3
3 `
c
c
c
c c
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
+
+ +
D = - +
= -
= - +
= - - +
=
=

3. and
Then
180 ( )
180 ( )
180
( in alternate segment)
(similarly)
( sumof )
( sumof )
( is straight )
DAB x CAB y
DAC x y
ACB DAB x
ADB CAB y
DBA x y
CBA x y
DBA CBA
ADB
ACB
DBC
Let
s
c
c
c
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
D
D
= =
= +
= =
= =
= - +
= - +
+ =

( ) ( ) x y x y 180 180 180 ` c c c - + + - + =
( ) x y
x y
DAC
180 2
90
90
`
`
`
c
c
c +
= +
= +
=
4. (a) AD DB BE EC CF FA (equal radii) = = = = =
AB BC CA ` = =
ABC is equilateral `D
(b) r units r
(c) r r r 3
2
1
2
2 3
units
2 2 2 2
r
r
- =
-
e o

5. ( ) BDE ABD BAD
ABD
ABD
BAD
2
ext. of
`
+ + +
+
+
+
a a
a
D = +
= +
=

BAD AD BD is isosceles with `D =
( ) CDE ACD CAD
ACD
ACD
CAD
2
ext. of
`
+ + +
+
+
+
b b
b
D = +
= +
=
CAD AD CD
AD BD CD
is isosceles with `
`
D =
= =
So a circle can be drawn through A , B and C with centre D .
6. Let ODC x + = and . OAB y + =
Then you can fnd all these angles (giving reasons).

AOC COB BOD AOD 360c + + + + + + + =
( + of revolution)

y x COB y x
AOD
90 90
360
c c
c
+
+
- + + + + - +
=

180 360
180
COB AOD
COB AOD `
c c
c
+ +
+ +
+ + =
+ =

7.
B
A
D
C

Let ABCD be a kite with AB AD = and , BC DC = and
. ADC ABC 90 + + = =
AC is common.
by SSS (or RHS) ABC ADC / D D
BAC DAC BCA DCA and `+ + + + = =
(corresponding s 1 in congruent s D )

Then
90 ( sumof )
BAC DAC
BAD
BCA DCA
BCD
2
180 2
Let
`
c
c
+ +
+
+ +
+
+
a
a
a
a
D
= =
=
= = -
= -

Opposite angles are supplementary.
ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral, and A , B , C and D are
concyclic points
Since , ABC 90c + = AC is a diameter. ( + in semicircle)
8.
r
28
25
units
2
2
r

821 ANSWERS
9. Let interval AB subtend angles of x at ADB + and . ACB +

Assume A , B , C and D are not concyclic. Draw a circle
through A , B and C that cuts AD at E .

Then AEB BCA x + + = = ( s + in same segment)
But AEB + and EDB + are equal corresponding angles.
| DB | EB ` (this is impossible!)
A , B , C , D must be concyclic
10. Let ABCD be a quadrilateral with opposite angles
supplementary.
i.e. A C 180c + + + = and B D 180c + + + =
Assume the points are not concyclic. Draw a circle
through A , B and C , cutting CD at E .

Now ABCE is a cyclic quadrilateral, so
180 AEC B c + + + = (opposite s + supplementary)
Also, 180 D B c + + + = (given)
D AEC + + =
These are equal corresponding angles, so
DA EA < (this is impossible!)
A , B , C and D must be concyclic
ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral.
Chapter 10: The quadratic function
Exercises 10.1
1. Axis of symmetry 1, x = - minimum value 1 -

2. Axis of symmetry 1.5, x = - minimum value 7.5 -
3. Axis of symmetry 1.5, x = - minimum value 0.25 -
4. Axis of symmetry 0, x = minimum value 4 -
5. Axis of symmetry
8
3
, x = minimum point ,
8
3
16
7
d n
6. Axis of symmetry 1, x = maximum value 6 -
7. Axis of symmetry 1, x = - maximum point , 1 7 - ^ h
8. Minimum value , 1 - 2 solutions
9. Minimum value 3.75, no solutions
10. Minimum value 0, 1 solution
11. (a) ; x 3 = - (-3, -12) (b) ; x 4 = - (-4, 17)
(c) ; , x 1
4
1
1
4
1
3
8
1
= d n (d) ; , x 1
4
1
1
4
1
13
4
1
= - - - d n
(e) ; , x 3 3 23 = - - - ^ h
12. (a) (i) x 1 = - (ii) -3 (iii) (-1, -3)
(b) (i) 1 x = (ii) 1 (iii) (1, 1)
13. (a) Minimum (-1, 0)
(b) Minimum (4, -23)
(c) Minimum (-2, -7)
(d) Minimum (1, -1)
(e) Minimum (2, -11)
(f) Minimum ,
4
1
3
8
1
- - d n
(g) Maximum (-1, 6)
(h) Maximum (2, 11)
(i) Maximum , 7
2
1
4
3
d n
(j) Maximum (1, -3)
14. (a) (i) -2 (ii) Minimum 0
(iii) y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2
3
2
1
4
5
-2
-3
-1
1
(b) (i) -1, 3 (ii) Minimum -4
(iii)
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-2
-1
1
-4
-5
(c) (i) 5.83, 0.17 (ii) Minimum -8
(iii) y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5 6
4
2
6
8
10
-6
-4
-2
1
-8
-10
(d) (i) -2, 0 (ii) Minimum -1
(iii)
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-2
-1
1
(e) (i) 3 ! (ii) Minimum -18
(iii)
y
x
-2 -3 -4 -1 1 2 5
1
2
-6
-8
-10
-12
-14
-16
-18
-4
-2
4 3
(f) (i) -1,
3
2
(ii) Minimum 2
1
12
-
823 ANSWERS
(iii)
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-4
-5
-6
-2
-1
-2
1
1
12
2
3
(g) (i) 1.65, -3.65 (ii) Maximum 7
(iii)
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
7
6
-3
-2
-1
1
(h) (i) 1.3, -2.3 (ii) Maximum 3
4
1

(iii)
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-2
-1
1
3
1
4
(i) (i) 0.56, -3.56 (ii) Minimum 4
4
1

(iii)
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
-3
-2
-1
1
4
1
4
(j) (i) 2.87, -0.87 (ii) Maximum 7
(iii)
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
6
7
-3
-2
-1
1
15. (a) 4 (b) None
(c)
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
1
3
4
5
6
7
-3
-2
-1
1
16. (a) None (b) 6
4
3

(c) y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
4
2
6
8
10
12
14
-3
-2
-1
1

17. (a) 3
8
7
- (b) None
(c)
18. (a) y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
4
2
6
8
-3
-2
-1
1
(b) , x x 2 3 1 2 (c) x 2 3 # #
19.
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
4
2
6
8
-6
-4
-2
1
Graph is always above the x -axis so y 0 2 for all x
x x 3 2 4 0
2
` 2 - + for all x
20.
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
4
2
6
8
-6
-4
-2
1
Graph is always above the x -axis so y 0 2 for all x
x x 2 0
2
` 2 + + for all x
21.
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
2
4
-18
-10
-12
-14
-16
-8
-6
-4
-2
1

Graph is always below the x -axis so y 0 1 for all x
x x 2 7 0
2
` 1 - + - for all x
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
1
2
-18
-16
-14
1
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
825 ANSWERS
22.
Graph is always below the x -axis so y 0 1 for all x
x x 5 4 1 0
2
` 1 - + - for all x
Exercises 10.2
1. , x x 3 3 1 2 - 2. 1 0 n # # - 3. 0, 2 a a # $
4. , x x 2 2 1 2 - 5. y 0 6 # # 6. 0 2 t 1 1
7. 4, 2 x x 1 2 - 8. 3, 1 p p # $ - - 9. , m m 2 4 1 2
10. 3, 2 x x # $ - 11. h 1
2
1
2 1 1 12. 4 5 x # # -
13. 2 7 k
2
1
# # - 14. , q q 6 3 1 2 15. All real x
16. , n n 4 3 # $ - 17. x 3 5 1 1 - 18. t 6 2 # # -
19. , y y
3
1
5 1 2 - 20. , x x 2 4 # $ - 21. x
2
1
0 1 1 -
22. x 0
3
1
1 1 23. x 0 1 1 # 24. 0 x
2
1
1 # -
25. x 1 1
3
1
1 1 26. , x x 1 2 1 $ - - 27. 2 2 x
5
2
1 #
28. , x x 6 3 1 2 - - 29. , x x
3
2
1 2 #
30. x 2
2
2
2 1 # - -
Exercises 10.3
1. (a) 20 (b) -47 (c) -12 (d) 49 (e) 9 (f) -16 (g) 0
(h) 64 (i) 17 (j) 0
2. (a) 17 unequal real irrational roots
(b) -39 no real roots (c) 1 unequal real rational roots
(d) 0 equal real rational roots
(e) 33 unequal real irrational roots
(f) -16 no real roots (g) 49 unequal real rational roots
(h) -116 no real roots (i) 1 unequal real rational roots
(j) 48 unequal real irrational roots
3. 1 p = 4. k 2 ! = 5. b
8
7
# - 6. p 2 2 7. k 2
12
1
2 -
8. a 3 0 2 =

b ac 4 1 4 3 7
83
0
2 2
1
- = - -
= -
] ] ] g g g

So x x 3 7 0
2
2 - + for all x
9. , k k 5 3 $ # - 10. k 0 4 1 1 11. , m m 3 3 1 2 -
12. , k k 1 1 # $ - 13.
3
p
1
1 - 14. b 0 2
2
1
# #
15. , p p 2 6 # $ -
16. Solving simultaneously:
2 6 y x = + (1)
3 y x
2
= + (2)
Substitute (2) in (1):

x x
x x
b ac
3 2 6
2 3 0
4 2 4 1 3
16
0
2
2
2 2
2
+ = +
- - =
- = - - -
=
] ] ] g g g
So there are 2 points of intersection
17. 3 4 0 x y + - = (1)
5 3 y x x
2
= + + (2)
From (1):
3 4 y x = - + (3)

5 3 3 4
8 1 0
4 8 4
68
0
x x x
x x
b ac 1 1
2
2
2 2
2
+ + = - +
+ - =
- = - -
=
] ] g g
So there are 2 points of intersection
18. 4 y x = - - (1)
y x
2
= (2)

4
4 0
4 1 4
15
0
x x
x x
b ac 1 4
2
2
2 2
1
= - -
+ + =
- = -
= -
] ] g g
So there are no points of intersection
19. 5 2 y x = - (1)
3 1 y x x
2
= + - (2)

x x x
x x
b ac
3 1 5 2
2 1 0
4 2 4 1 1
0
2
2
2 2
+ - = -
- + =
- = - -
=
] ] ] g g g

So there is 1 point of intersection
` the line is a tangent to the parabola
20. 3
4
1
p =
21. (c) and (d)
y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
1
2
-5
-6
-7
-4
-3
-2
-1
1
Exercises 10.4
1. (a) , , a b c 1 2 6 = = = -
(b) , , a b c 2 11 15 = = - =
(c) , , a b c 1 1 2 = = = -
(d) , , a b c 1 7 18 = = =
(e) , , a b c 3 11 16 = = - = -
(f) , , a b c 4 17 11 = = =
(g) , , a b c 2 12 9 = = - = -
(h) , , a b c 3 8 2 = = - =
(i) , , a b c 1 10 24 = - = = -
(j) , , a b c 2 0 1 = - = = -
2. , , m p q 2 5 2 = = - =
3. 4 5 2 2 1 3 4 x x x x x
2
- + = - - + + + ] ] g g
4. a x x b x c
x x x
x x x x
x x
2 3 2
1 2 3 1 2 17
3 2 6 2 17
2 9
RHS
RHS
2
2
= - + + - +
= - + + - +
= + - - + - +
= + +
=
] ] ]
] ] ]
g g g
g g g

` true
5. , , A B C 1 5 6 = = = - 6. , , a b c 2 1 1 = = = -
7. , , . K L M 1 6 7 5 = = = 8. 12 5 2 3 65 2 x x
2
+ + - - - ] ] g g
9. , , a b c 0 4 21 = = - = -
10. (a) 5 y x x
2
= - - (b) 3 y x x
2
= -
(c) 2 3 7 y x x
2
= - + (d) 4 9 y x x
2
= + -
(e) 2 1 y x x
2
= - - +
Exercises 10.5
1. (a) , 2 1 a b ab + = - =
(b) . , 1 5 3 a b ab + = = -
(c) . , . 0 2 1 8 a b ab + = = -
(d) , 7 1 a b ab + = - =
(e) , 2
3
2
1 a b ab + = =
2. (a) 3 (b) 6 - (c) 0.5 - (d) 21
3. (a) 3 10 0 x x
2
+ - = (b) 4 21 0 x x
2
- - =
(c) 5 4 0 x x
2
+ + = (d) x x 0 8 11
2
- + =
(e) 2 27 0 x x
2
- - =
4. 0.5 m = 5. 32 k = - 6. 4 b = 7. 1 k = 8. 13 p =
9. 5 k = - 10. m 3 ! = 11. 1 k = - 12. , n 1 3 = -
13. , p r 2 7 = = - 14. , b c 6 8 = - = 15. , a b 0 1 = = -
16. 1
1
` ab b
a
= =
17. (a) 1 k = - (b) 1, 0 k = - (c) 1.8 k = - (d) 3 k =
(e) , k k 1 0 # $ -
18. (a) p 2 3 ! = (b) , p p 2 3 2 3 # $ -
(c) p
2
3 3
! =
19. (a) k 2 = (b) 3 k = - (c) 2 k =
20. (a) 1 m = (b) , m m
2
3 10
2
3 10
1 2
- +

(c) 3 m = -
Exercises 10.6
1. (a) , x 1 4 = - - (b) 2, 5 y = (c) 4, 2 x = -
(d) 1, 4 n = - (e) 3, 5 a = - (f) 3, 4 p = (g) , x 2 4 = -
(h) 5, 12 k = (i) , t 6 4 = - (j) , b 12 4 = - -
2. (a) 2, 3 x = - (b) 2, 3 x = (c) 4, 5 x = (d) 3, 5 x =
(e) 1
2
1
x = , 4
3. (a) x 3 ! = (b) , y 2 2 ! ! = (c) x
2
1 5 !
=
(d) . , . , . , . x 1 37 4 37 0 79 3 79 = - - (e) , a 2 2 6 ! = - -
4. (a) 0, 3 x = (b) 1 p = (c) 1 x = (d) 1 x = (e) 1, 3 x =
5. 2 , x 1 ! ! = 6. 1 x = -
7. . , . , . , . x 2 19 0 46 1 93 0 52 ! ! ! ! =
8. (a) , , , x 0 90 180 360 c c c c = (b) , , x 90 180 270 c c c =
(c) , , x 90 210 330 c c c = (d) , , , x 60 90 270 300 c c c c =
(e) , , , x 0 180 270 360 c c c c =
9. (a) , , , , x 0 45 180 225 360 c c c c c =
(b) , , x 0 180 360 c c c =
(c) , , , , x 0 30 150 180 360 c c c c c =
(d) 45 , 60 , 135 , 120 , 225 , 240 , 315 , 300 x c c c c c c c c =
(e) 30 , 60 , 120 , 150 , 210 , 240 , 300 , 330 x c c c c c c c c =
10.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
x
x
x x
x
x x
x x
x x
3
3
2
5
3 3
3
2
3 5 3
3 2 5 3
3 5 3 2 0
2
2
# # #
+ +
+
=
+ + +
+
+ = +
+ + = +
+ - + + =
]
] ]
] ]
g
g g
g g

Let 3 u x = +

u u
b ac
5 2 0
4 5 4 1 2
17
0
2
2 2
2
- + =
- = - -
=
] ] ] g g g

So u has 2 real irrational roots.
x 3 ` + and so x has 2 real irrational roots
Test yourself 10
1. (a) x 0 3 # # (b) , n n 3 3 1 2 - (c) 2 2 y # # -
2. , , a b c 1 9 14 = = - = 3. (a) 2 x = (b) 3 -
4. a
b ac
1 0
4
2 4 1 7
24
0
positive definite
2
# #
`
2
1
D
=
= -
= - -
= -
2
] g

827 ANSWERS
5. (a) 6 (b) 3 (c) 2 (d) 18 (e) 30 6. , x 1
3
2
3
1
=
7. (a) iv (b) ii (c) iii (d) ii (e) i
8.
( ) ( )
a
b ac
1 0
4
3 4 1 4
7
0
2
2
# #
1
1
D
= -
= -
= - - -
= -

x x 4 3 0
2
` 1 - + - for all x
9. (a)
4
1
x = - (b) 6
8
1

10. 3 2 12 3 41 x x
2
- + + - ] ] g g 11. , , x 30 150 270 c c c =
12. (a) 3
4
1
k = (b) 1 k = (c) 3 k = (d) 3 k = (e) 2 k =
13. , x
2
1
3 = - 14. m
16
9
1 - 15. , x 0 2 =
16. (a) i (b) i (c) iii (d) i (e) ii
17. (a) iii (b) i (c) i (d) ii
18.
a
c
k
k
1
1
1
For reciprocal roots
LHS RHS
b
a
ab
a
a
=
=
=
= =

roots are reciprocals for all x .
19. (a) 3 28 0 x x
2
+ - = (b) 10 18 0 x x
2
- + =
20. 1, 3 x =
21. (a) , x x 1
7
4
1 2 - - (b) , n n 3 3 2 # -
(c) y
5
1
3
1
1 1 (d) , x x 10 2
2
1
2 # - - (e) x 4 7 1 #
1. k 4 0
2
$ D= - ] g and a perfect square real,
rational roots
2. y x x 5 4
2
= - + 3. , , a b c 4 3 7 = = - = 4. x 2 ! =
5. 11 6. 2.3375 n = - 7. . p 0 75 2 8. Show 0 D =
9. x 1 ! =
10. 2, 19, 67 2, 13, 61 A B C A B C or = = - = = - = = -
11.
2
4 1
2
3
1
1
x x
x
x x
2
- -
+
=
-
+
+

12. , k k
2
1 21
2
1 21
# $
- +

13. , , x 30 90 150 c c c = 14. , x 1
2
3 5 !
=
15. , , , x 60 90 270 300 c c c c = 16. 23 -
Chapter 11: Locus and the parabola
Exercises 11.1
1. A circle 2. A straight line parallel to the ladder.
3. An arc 4. A (parabolic) arc 5. A spiral
6. The straight line 2 2 | | 2 x x or 1 1 1 -
7. A circle, centre the origin, radius 2 (equation
4 x y
2 2
+ = i
8. lines y 1 ! = 9. lines x 5 ! = 10. line 2 y =
11. Circle 1 x y
2 2
+ = (centre origin, radius 1)
12. Circle, centre , , 1 2 - ^ h radius 4 13. 5 y = -
14. Circle, centre (1, 1), radius 3 15. x 7 = - 16. 3 x =
17. y 8 ! = 18. x 4 ! =
19. Circle, centre , , 2 4 - ^ h radius 6
20. Circle, centre , , 4 5 - ^ h radius 1
Exercises 11.2
1. x y 1
2 2
+ = 2. 2 2 79 0 x x y y
2 2
+ + + - =
3. 10 4 25 0 x x y y
2 2
- + + + = 4. 8 6 13 0 x y - + =
5. 12 26 1 0 x y - - = 6. y x ! =
7. 3 32 3 50 251 0 x x y y
2 2
- + - + =
8. 5 102 5 58 154 0 x x y y
2 2
- + + - =
9. 4 20 36 0 x x y
2
- + - = 10. 20 0 x y
2
- =
11. 8 32 0 y x
2
+ - = 12. 2 8 7 0 x x y
2
- + - =
13. 12 0 x y
2
+ = 14. 5 2 11 0 x x y y
2 2
- + - - =
15. 3 4 0 x x y y
2 2
+ + - - =
16. 2 17 0 x x y y
2 2
+ + - - =
17. 2 4 2 6 47 0 x x y y
2 2
+ + - + =
18. 2 2 2 4 27 0 x x y y
2 2
+ + + + =
19. 3 4 25 0, 3 4 15 0 x y x y + + = + - =
20. , x y x y 12 5 14 0 12 5 12 0 - - = - + =
21. x y 2 3 5 5 0 ! - - =
22. 7 9 0, 7 5 0 x y x y - + = + - =
23. 7 4 30 0, 32 56 35 0 x y x y - - = + - =
24. 16 7 40 0 xy x y - - + =
25. 6 3 12 9 0 x x y y
2 2
- - - + =
Problem
, x y x y 12 5 40 0 12 5 38 0 + - = + + =
Exercises 11.3
1. (a) Radius 10, centre (0, 0) (b) Radius 5 , centre (0, 0)
(c) Radius 4, centre (4, 5) (d) Radius 7, centre (5, 6)
(e) Radius 9, centre (0, 3)
2. (a) 16 x y
2 2
+ = (b) 6 4 12 0 x x y y
2 2
- + - - =
(c) 2 10 17 0 x x y y
2 2
+ + - + =
(d) 4 6 23 0 x x y y
2 2
- + - - =
(e) 8 4 5 0 x x y y
2 2
+ + - - =
(f) 4 3 0 x y y
2 2
+ + + = (g) 8 4 29 0 x x y y
2 2
- + - - =
(h) 6 8 56 0 x x y y
2 2
+ + + - = (i) 4 1 0 x x y
2 2
+ + - =
(j) 8 14 62 0 x x y y
2 2
+ + + + =
3. 18 8 96 0 x x y y
2 2
- + + + =
4. 4 4 8 0 x x y y
2 2
+ + + - = 5. 2 48 0 x x y
2 2
- + - =
6. 6 16 69 0 x x y y
2 2
+ + - + =
7. 10 4 27 0 x x y y
2 2
- + + + = 8. 9 0 x y
2 2
+ - =
9. 2 10 25 0 x x y y
2 2
- + - + =
10. 12 2 1 0 x x y y
2 2
+ + - + =
11. 8 6 22 0 x x y y
2 2
- + - + = 12. 6 1 0 x y y
2 2
+ + + =
13. (a) Radius 3, centre (2, 1) (b) Radius 5, centre (4, 2)
(c) Radius 1, centre (0, 1) (d) Radius 6, centre (5, 3)
(e) Radius 1, centre (1, 1) (f) Radius 6, centre (6, 0)
(g) Radius 5, centre (3, 4) (h) Radius 8, centre (10, 2)
(i) Radius 5, centre (7, 1) (j) Radius 10 , centre (1, 2)
14. Centre , 3 1 - ^ h , radius 4 15. Centre , 2 5 ^ h , radius 5
16. Centre , 1 6 - - ^ h , radius 7 17. Centre (4, 7), radius 8
18. Centre , 1
2
1
1 - d n , radius 2
2
1

19.
20. Show perpendicular distance from the line to , 4 2 - ^ h is
5 units, or solve simultaneous equations.
21. (a) Both circles have centre , 1 2 - ^ h
(b) 1 unit
22. 2 2 23 0 x x y y
2 2
+ + + - =
23. 56 units 24. 34 units
25. (a) 5 units (b) 3 units and 2 units
(c) XY is the sum of the radii. The circles touch each
other at a single point, , 0 1 ^ h .
26. Perpendicular distance from centre , 0 0 ^ h to the line is
equal to the radius 2 units; perpendicular distance from
centre , 1 2 - ^ h to the line is equal to the radius 3 units.
27. (a) 2 6 15 0 x x y y
2 2
+ + - - =
(b) , , , 2 7 1 2 - - ^ ^ h h (c) , Z 1 8 = - ^ h
(d) m m
3
1
3
1
zx yx
# # = -
= -

ZXY 90 ` c + =
28. (a) 4 units (b) 4 10 13 0 x x y y
2 2
- + + + =
Exercises 11.4
1. (a) 20 x y
2
= (b) 36 x y
2
= (c) 4 x y
2
= (d) 16 x y
2
=
(e) 40 x y
2
= (f) 12 x y
2
= (g) 24 x y
2
= (h) 44 x y
2
=
(i) 8 x y
2
= (j) 48 x y
2
=
2. (a) x y 4
2
= - (b) 12 x y
2
= - (c) 16 x y
2
= -
(d) 28 x y
2
= - (e) 24 x y
2
= - (f) 36 x y
2
= -
(g) 32 x y
2
= - (h) 8 x y
2
= - (i) 60 x y
2
= -
(j) 52 x y
2
= -
3. (a) (i) (0, 1) (ii) y 1 = - (b) (i) (0, 7) (ii) 7 y = -
(c) (i) (0, 4) (ii) 4 y = - (d) (i) (0, 9) (ii) 9 y = -
(e) (i) (0, 10) (ii) 10 y = - (f) (i) (0, 11) (ii) 11 y = -
(g) (i) (0, 3) (ii) 3 y = - (h) (i) (0, 1
2
1
c m (ii) 1 y
2
1
= -
(i) (i) 0, 2
2
1
c m (ii) 2 y
2
1
= - (j) (i) 0, 3
4
3
c m
(ii) 3 y
4
3
= -
4. (a) (i) (0, 1) (ii) 1 y = (b) (i) (0, 6) (ii) 6 y =
(c) (i) (0, 2) (ii) 2 y = (d) (i) (0, 12) (ii) 12 y =
(e) (i) (0, 5) (ii) 5 y = (f) (i) (0, 4) (ii) 4 y =
(g) (i) (0, 8) (ii) 8 y = (h) (i) (0, 10) (ii) 10 y =
(i) (i) 0,
2
1
- c m (ii)
2
1
y = (j) (i) 0, 5
2
1
- c m (ii) 5
2
1
y =
5. (a) 28 x y
2
= (b) 44 x y
2
= (c) 24 x y
2
= -
(d) 8 x y
2
= (e) 12 x y
2
! = (f) 32 x y
2
! =
(g) 32 x y
2
= (h)
7
1
x y
2
=
6. (a) Focus , , 0 2 ^ h directrix 2, y = - focal length 2
(b) Focus , , 0 6 ^ h directrix 6, y = - focal length 6
(c) Focus , , 0 3 - ^ h directrix 3, y = focal length 3
(d) Focus , , 0
2
1
d n directrix , y
2
1
= - focal length
2
1

(e) Focus , , 0 1
4
3
- d n directrix 1
4
3
, y = focal length 1
4
3

(f) Focus , , 0
8
1
d n directrix , y
8
1
= - focal length
8
1

829 ANSWERS
7. 2 y = 8. , 4 4 ^ h 9. , X 1
2
1
8
3
= - - d n
10. 4, 2 - ^ h and 4, 2 - - ^ h ; 8 units
11. (a) 12 x y
2
= - (b) 3 y = (c) 33
3
1
units
12. (a) Substitute the point into the equation.
(b) 3 4 3 0 x y + - = (c) , 2
4
3
- d n
13. (a) 4 2 0 x y - + = (b) 0, 1 ^ h does not lie on the line
(c) 4 2 1 0 x x y y
2 2
- + - + =
(d) Substitute , 0 1 ^ h into the equation of the circle.
14. (a) Substitute Q into the equation of the parabola.
(b) 1 2 2 0 q x qy aq
2
- - + = _ i
(c) Equation of latus rectum is . y a = Solving with
4 x ay
2
= gives two endpoints , , , A a a B a a 2 2 - ^ ^ h h .
Length of 4 AB a = .
Exercises 11.5
1. (a) 8 y x
2
= (b) 20 y x
2
= (c) 56 y x
2
= (d) 36 y x
2
=
(e) 32 y x
2
= (f) 24 y x
2
= (g) 28 y x
2
= (h) 12 y x
2
=
(i) 16 y x
2
= (j) 4 y x
2
=
2. (a) y x 36
2
= - (b) 16 y x
2
= - (c) 40 y x
2
= -
(d) y x 24
2
= - (e) 8 y x
2
= - (f) 48 y x
2
= -
(g) 44 y x
2
= - (h) y x 20
2
= - (i) 12 y x
2
= -
(j) 28 y x
2
= -
3. (a) (i) (2, 0) (ii) x 2 = - (b) (i) (3, 0) (ii) 3 x = -
(c) (i) (4, 0) (ii) 4 x = - (d) (i) (1, 0) (ii) 1 x = -
(e) (i) (7, 0) (ii) 7 x = - (f) (i) (8, 0) (ii) 8 x = -
(g) (i) (6, 0) (ii) 6 x = - (h) (i) (9, 0) (ii) x 9 = -
(i) (i)
4
1
, 0 c m (ii)
4
1
x = - (j) (i) 4
2
1
, 0 c m (ii) 4 x
2
1
= -
4. (a) (i) (2, 0) (ii) 2 x = (b) (i) (3, 0) (ii) 3 x =
(c) (i) (7, 0) (ii) 7 x = (d) (i) (1, 0) (ii) 1 x =
(e) (i) (6, 0) (ii) 6 x = (f) (i) (13, 0) (ii) 13 x =
(g) (i) (15, 0) (ii) 15 x = (h) (i)
2
1
, 0 - c m (ii)
2
1
x =
(i) (i) 6
2
1
, 0 - c m (ii) 6
2
1
x = (j) (i) 1
4
1
, 0 - c m (ii) 1
4
1
x =
5. (a) 20 y x
2
= (b) 4 y x
2
= (c) 16 y x
2
= - (d) 12 y x
2
=
(e) 36 y x
2
! = (f) 8 y x
2
! = (g) 12 y x
2
= (h)
2
1
y x
2
=
6. (a) Focus , , 2 0 ^ h directrix 2, x = - focal length 2
(b) Focus , , 1 0 ^ h directrix 1, x = - focal length 1
(c) Focus , , 3 0 - ^ h directrix 3, x = focal length 3
(d) Focus , , 1
2
1
0 d n directrix 1
2
1
, x = - focal length 1
2
1

(e) Focus , , 1
4
1
0 - d n directrix 1
4
1
, x = focal length 1
4
1

(f) Focus , ,
12
1
0 d n directrix , x
12
1
= - focal length
12
1

7. 4 x = (latus rectum) 8. , , , , 12 3 6 3 6 - ^ ^ h h
9. , , , 9 6 81 18 - ^ ^ h h
10. (a) 5 12 25 0 x y - - = (b) , 5 4
6
1
- - d n (c) 10
12
5
units
2

(d) 4
13
2
units (e) 11.7 units
2

Exercises 11.6
1. (a) y x 3 8 3
2
- = + ]
^
g
h (b) 5 4 6 x y
2
- = + ]
^
g
h
(c) x y 1 4 3
2
= + - ]
^
g
h (d) 12 x y 4 3
2
- = - - ]
^
g
h
(e) 6 8 7 x y
2
- = + ]
^
g
h (f) 16 x y 7 3
2
+ = - - ]
^
g
h
(g) 4 x y 2 5
2
- = - - ]
^
g
h (h) 9 12 6 x y
2
+ = + ]
^
g
h
(i) x y 1 4 2
2
+ = - - ]
^
g
h (j) 3 8 1 x y
2
- = + ]
^
g
h
2. (a) 4 4 4 y x
2
- = + ^
]
h
g (b) 1 8 2 y x
2
- = + ^
]
h
g
(c) y x 2 12 1
2
+ = + ^
]
h
g (d) 10 4 29 y x
2
- = - - ^
]
h
g
(e) 3 16 1 y x
2
+ = - - ^
]
h
g (f) 6 8 4 y x
2
- = + ^
]
h
g
(g) 5 24 2 y x
2
+ = - - ^
]
h
g (h) 12 4 36 y x
2
+ = + ^
]
h
g
(i) y x 2 20 1
2
- = - - ^
]
h
g (j) 4 8 2 y x
2
+ = - - ^
]
h
g
3. (a) 2 8 9 0 x x y
2
+ - + = (b) x x y 8 4 16 0
2
+ - + =
(c) 4 8 12 0 x x y
2
- - - = (d) 6 8 41 0 x x y
2
- - + =
(e) 4 16 20 0 x x y
2
+ - + = (f) 2 16 1 0 x x y
2
+ + + =
(g) x x y 8 20 4 0 2
2
- + - = (h) 10 8 1 0 x x y
2
+ + + =
(i) 6 12 45 0 x x y
2
+ + + = (j) x y 4 24 0
2
+ + =
(k) 6 12 3 0 y y x
2
- - - = (l) 8 4 8 0 y y x
2
- - + =
(m) 8 32 0 y x
2
- + = (n) y y x 4 16 2 0 1
2
+ - = -
(o) 2 8 7 0 y y x
2
+ - - = (p) y y x 8 12 0 4
2
+ + + =
(q) 2 4 11 0 y y x
2
- + - = (r) 6 16 25 0 y y x
2
- + + =
(s) 4 2 5 0 y y x
2
- + + = (t) y y x 2 2 0 6
2
- + = -
4. (a) (i) (3, 2) (ii) 4 y = - (b) (i) (1, 1) (ii) y 3 = -
(c) (i) (2, 0) (ii) 2 y = - (d) (i) (4, 2) (ii) 4 y = -
(e) (i) (5, 1) (ii) 5 y = - (f) (i) (3, 1) (ii) 3 y =
(g) (i) (1, 0) (ii) 4 y = (h) (i) (2, 0) (ii) 2 y =
(i) (i) (4, 2) (ii) 4 y = (j) (i) (2, 3) (ii) 5 y =
5. (a) (i) (0, 1) (ii) 2 x = - (b) (i) (2, 4) (ii) 4 x = -
(c) (i) (0, 3) (ii) 4 x = - (d) (i) (3, 2) (ii) x 5 = -
(e) (i) (7, 1) (ii) 5 x = - (f) (i) (1, 5) (ii) 5 x =
(g) (i) (11, 7) (ii) 13 x = (h) (i) (3, 6) (ii) 7 x =
(i) (i) (7, 2) (ii) 9 x = (j) (i) 10
2
1
, 3 - - c m (ii) 9
2
1
x =
6. 12 36 0 x y
2
- + =
7. , x x y x x y 4 8 4 0 4 8 12 0
2 2
+ - - = + + + =
8. 2 4 19 0 x x y
2
- - - = 9. 12 12 12 0 y y x
2
- + + =
10. x x y 2 1 1 0 2
2
- - + = 11. 2 28 29 0 x x y
2
- - + =
12. 4 24 44 0 y y x
2
+ + - = 13. 6 32 9 0 y y x
2
- - + =
14. 6 8 15 0 x x y
2
- + - = 15. 2 16 49 0 y y x
2
+ - + =
16. 6 4 7 0 x x y
2
+ + - = 17. 4 12 8 0 x x y
2
- - - =
18. 2 16 95 0 y y x
2
+ + - =
19. (a) Vertex , 2 1 - ^ h , focus , 2 3 - ^ h , directrix 1 y = -
(b) Vertex , 3 2 ^ h , focus , 3 5 ^ h , directrix 1 y = -
(c) Vertex , 1 1 - ^ h , focus , 1 2 - ^ h , directrix 0 y =
(d) Vertex , 3 4 ^ h , focus , 7 4 ^ h , directrix x 1 = -
(e) Vertex , 0 2 - ^ h , focus , 6 2 - ^ h , directrix 6 x = -
(f) Vertex , 5 0 - ^ h , focus , 7 0 - ^ h , directrix x 3 = -
20. Vertex , 1 4 - ^ h , focus 1, 3 - - ^ h , directrix 11, y = axis
1, x = - maximum value 4
21. 4 8 12 0 x x y
2
- - + = or 4 8 36 0 x x y
2
- + - =
22. (a) 8 9 72 0 x y
2
+ - = (b) , , y 0 7
32
23
8
32
9
= d n
23. (a)

(b) 1, 8 , y
4
3
4
9
1
- - = - d n

24. 4 8 20 0 x x y
2
+ + - = 25. 0.3 m
Exercises 11.7
1.
3
1
m = 2. m 4 = - 3. m 1 = - 4.
2
1
m =
5.
dx
dy
x = 6. 2 0 x y - - = 7. 2 12 0 x y - + =
8. 6 0, 18 0 x y x y + - = - - =
9. 2 2 0, 2 9 0 x y x y - - = + - =
10. , , x y M 1
8
7
2
1
4 8 0 + - = = d n
11. , , x y P 9 0 18 27 + - = = - ^ h
12. 33, 60.5 Q = ^ h
13. , , x y x y 4 144 0 4 2 9 0 + + = + + = , . 18 40 5 - ^ h ; show
the point lies on the parabola by substituting it into the
equation of the parabola
14. , , x y R 4 0 4 0 - - = = ^ h
15. (a) Substitute P into the equation of the parabola
(b) 2 0 x py p p
3
+ - - =
(c) Substitute 0, 1 ^ h into the equation of the normal.

( )
Since 0, 1 0
p p p
p p
p p
p p
0 2 0
0
1
3
3
2
2
!
+ - - =
= +
= +
+ =

Exercises 11.8
1. (a)
(b)

(c)
(d)
(e)

831 ANSWERS
(f)
2. (a) 2 2 0 x y - - = (b) 2 11 0 x y - - =
(c) 3 2 y x x
2
= + + (d) 16 1 y x
2
= - (e) 2 xy =
3. (a) , x t y t 2
2
= = (b) , x t y t 6 3
2
= =
(c) , x t y t 4 2
2
= - = - (d) , x t y t 8 4
2
= =
(e) , x t y t 18 9
2
= - = - (f) , x t y t 10 5
2
= =
(g) , x t y
t
3
2
3
2
= - = - (h) , x
t
y
t
2 4
2
= =
(i) , x
t
y
t
4 8
2
= = (j) , x t y
t
5
2
5
2
= - = -
4. (a) 16 x y
2
= (b) 20 x y
2
= (c) 4 x y
2
= (d) 28 x y
2
= -
(e) 8 x y
2
= - (f) 4 x ay
2
= (g) x y 4
2
= - (h) 24 x y
2
=
(i) x y 2
2
= - (j) 4 x ay
2
=
5. (a) Substitute , t t 6 3
2
- _ i into the equation
(b) , P 12 12 = - - ^ h
(c) 2 12 0 x y - + =
6. (a) , Q 8 4 - = ^ h (b) 12 0 x y - + =
7. , , x 4 0 4 = - ^ h 8. , ; x y P 4 4 4 3 4 0 = - + - = ^ h
9. (a) 24 x y
2
= (b)
4
1
10. 3 18 0 x y - - =
Exercises 11.9
1. (a) (i)
2
t n +
(ii)
2
1
4 0 y t n x tn - + + = ] g
(b) (i)
2
p q +
(ii) 0 y p q x pq
2
1
2 - + + = ^ h
(c) (i)
2
m n +
(ii) 0 y m n x mn
2
1
3 - + + = ] g
(d) (i)
2
p q +
(ii) 0 y p q x pq
2
1
5 - + + = ^ h
(e) (i)
2
a b +
(ii) 0 y a b x ab
2
1
- + + = ] g
(f) (i)
2
p q
-
+
(ii) y p q x pq
2
1
2 0 + - = + ^ h
(g) (i)
2
a b
-
+
(ii) y a b x ab
2
1
6 0 + - = + ] g
(h) (i)
p q
2
+
(ii) y p q x pq
2
1
4 0 + = - - ^ h
(i) (i)
2
s t
-
+
(ii) y s t x st
2
1
0 + - = + ] g
(j) (i)
p q
2
+
(ii) y p q x pq
2
1
7 0 + = - - ^ h
2. (a) (i) p (ii)
1
p
- (iii) 0 y px p
2
- + =
(iv) 2 x py p p
3
+ = +
(b) (i) q (ii)
1
q
- (iii) 3 0 y qx p
2
- + =
(iv) 3 6 x qy q q
3
+ = +
(c) (i) t (ii)
1
t
- (iii) 2 0 y tx t
2
- + =
(iv) 2 4 x ty t t
3
+ = +
(d) (i) n (ii)
1
n
- (iii) 5 0 y nx n
2
- + =
(iv) 5 10 x ny n n
3
+ = +
(e) (i) p (ii)
1
p
- (iii) 6 0 y px p
2
- + =
(iv) 6 12 x py p p
3
+ = +
(f) (i) k (ii)
1
k
(iii) 4 0 y kx k
2
+ - =
(iv) 4 8 x ky k k
3
- = +
(g) (i) q (ii)
1
q
- (iii) 0 y qx q
2
- - =
(iv) 2 x qy q q
3
+ = - -
(h) (i) t (ii)
1
t
(iii) 2 0 y tx t
2
+ - =
(iv) 2 4 x ty t t
3
- = +
(i) (i) m (ii)
1
m
- (iii) 3 0 y mx m
2
- - =
(iv) x my m m 3 6
3
+ = - -
(j) (i) a (ii)
1
a
(iii) 8 0 y ax a
2
+ - =
(iv) 8 16 x ay a a
3
- = +
3. (a) (i) , p q pq + ^ h (ii) , pq p q p pq q 2
2 2
- + + + + ^ h 7 A
(b) (i) 4 , 4 p q pq + ^ h 7 A
(ii) , pq p q p pq q 4 4 2
2 2
- + + + + ^ _ h i 8 B
(c) (i) 2 , 2 a b ab + ] g 6 @
(ii) , ab a b a ab b 2 2 2
2 2
- + + + + ] ^ g h 7 A
(d) (i) 3 , 3 s t st + ] g 6 @
(ii) 3 , 3 st s t s st t 2
2 2
- + + + + ] ^ g h 7 A
(e) (i) 5 , 5 t w tw + ] g 6 @
(ii) 5 , 5 tw t w t tw w 2
2 2
- + + + + ] ^ g h 7 A
(f) (i) , p q pq 6 6 + - ^ h 7 A
(ii) , pq p q p pq q 6 6 2
2 2
- + - + + + ^ _ h i 8 B
(g) (i) , m n mn 4 4 + - ] g 6 @
(ii) 4 , 4 mn m n m mn n 2
2 2
- + - + + + ] ^ g h 7 A
(h) (i) , p q pq 10 10 + - ^ h 7 A
(ii) 10 , 10 pq p q p pq q 2
2 2
- + - + + + ^ _ h i 8 B
(i) (i) , h k hk 5 5 + - ] g 6 @
(ii) 5 , 5 hk h k h hk k 2
2 2
- + - + + + ] ^ g h 7 A
(j) (i) 3 , 3 p q pq - + - ^ h 7 A
(ii) , pq p q p pq q 3 3 2
2 2
+ - + + + ^ _ h i 8 B
4. (a) (i) 4 xx y y
1 1
= + _ i (ii)
4
y y
x
x x
1
1
1
- = - - _ i
(b) (i) 6 xx y y
1 1
= + _ i (ii)
6
y y
x
x x
1
1
1
- = - - _ i
(c) (i) 8 xx y y
1 1
= + _ i (ii) y y
x
x x
8
1
1
1
- = - - _ i
(d) (i) 2 xx y y
1 1
= + _ i (ii) y y
x
x x
2
1
1
1
- = - - _ i
(e) (i) 10 xx y y
1 1
= + _ i (ii) y y
x
x x
10
1
1
1
- = - - _ i
(f) (i) 2 xx y y
1 1
= - + _ i (ii)
2
y y
x
x x
1
1
1
- = - _ i
(g) (i) xx y y 4
1 1
= - + _ i (ii)
4
y y
x
x x
1
1
1
- = - _ i
(h) (i) 12 xx y y
1 1
= - + _ i (ii)
12
y y
x
x x
1
1
1
- = - _ i
(i) (i) 22 xx y y
1 1
= - + _ i (ii)
22
y y
x
x x
1
1
1
- = - _ i
(j) (i) 14 xx y y
1 1
= - + _ i (ii)
14
y y
x
x x
1
1
1
- = - _ i
5. (a) 8 xx y y
1 1
= + _ i (b) 2 xx y y
1 1
= + _ i
(c) 4 xx y y
1 1
= + _ i (d) 6 xx y y
1 1
= + _ i
(e) 10 xx y y
1 1
= + _ i (f) xx y y 2
1 1
= - + _ i
(g) 12 xx y y
1 1
= - + _ i (h) xx y y 4
1 1
= - + _ i
(i) 8 xx y y
1 1
= - + _ i (j) xx y y 18
1 1
= - + _ i
6. (a) 0 y px ap
2
- + = (b) 2 xx a y y
0 0
= + _ i
7.
2
1
2 0 y t r x tr - + + = ] g 8. 2 36 0 x y + - =
9.
,
y
x
dx
dy
x
t
t
dx
dy
t
t
18
9
9
2
9
9
9
At
2
2
= -
= -
- -
= -
-
=
e
d
o
n

For normal, m m 1
1 2
= -
m
t
1
2
` = -
The equation is given by

( )
( )
( )
y y m x x
y
t
t
x t
ty t x t
x t
x ty t t
2
9 1
9
2 9 2 9
2 18
2 2 9 18 0
1 1
2
3
3
`
- = -
+ = - +
+ = - +
= - -
+ + + =

10. 2 x ty at at
3
+ = + 11. 3 4 4 0 x y - + =
12. Substitute focus , 0 1 - ^ h into equation
3 4 4 0 x y + + = .
13. Equation of chord
y p q x apq
2
1
0 + + = - ^ h
Substitute , a 0 ^ h into equation

a apq
pq
0
1
+ =
= -
( ) a p q apq
apq a
2
1
0 0 - + + =
= -

14. , 2 1 - - ^ h
15. Equation of tangent at P :
0 y px ap
2
- + = (1)
Equation of tangent at Q :
0 y qx aq
2
- + = (2)
: 1 2 - ] ] g g

0
( ) ( ) 0
( ) ( )( ) 0
( ) 0
( )
px qx ap aq
x q p a q p
x q p a q p q p
x a q p
x a q p
2 2
2 2
- + + - =
- - - =
- - + - =
- + =
= +

Substitute in (1):

( ) 0
0
0
y pa q p ap
y apq ap ap
y apq
y apq
2
2 2
- + + =
- - + =
- =
=

16. (a) 3 4 8 0 x y + - = (b) Substitute , 0 2 ^ h into equation.
17. (a) For proof, see no. 9 above (b) , N ap a 0 2
2
= + _ i
18. (a) 15 8 4 0 x y + + = (b) , N
4
1
32
1
= - - c m
19. (a) 3 3 0 x y + - = (b) , , 6 3 2
3
1
- ^ c h m
20. (a) , F 0 6 = ^ h
(b) 3 4 24 0 x y + - =
(c) , Q 24 24 - = ^ h
(d) : 2 3 0; : 2 24 0 P x y Q x y - - = + + =
(e) , m m
2
1
2 1
1 2
# = - = - ` tangents at P , Q are
perpendicular
(f) 9, 6 R = - - ^ h
(g) directrix: 6, y a = - = - ` R lies on directrix
21. , . P 2 1 5 = - - ^ h
22. 9 0 x y - + =
23.
1(since 1 for focal chord)
m m pq
pq
1 2
=
= - = -

` tangents are perpendicular
24. Tangents intersect at , a p q apq + ^ h 6 @
(since for focal chord)
Directrix:
y apq
a pq
y a
1
i.e. =
= - = -
= -

` tangents meet on the directrix
25.
4
2
y
a
x
dx
dy
a
x
2
=
=

At , , x y P
0 0
_ i

2 dx
dy
a
x
0
=
833 ANSWERS
The equation is given by

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
y y m x x
y y
a
x
x x
ay ay x x x
xx x
xx ay x ay
ay ay xx
a y y xx
2
2 2
4 4
2 2
2
since
1 1
0
0
0
0 0 0
0 0
2
0 0 0
2
0
0 0
0 0
`
- = -
- = -
- = -
= -
= - =
+ =
+ =

Exercises 11.10
1. (a) 3 4 8 0 x y + - =
(b) , Q 2
2
1
= d n
(c) (3, 2)
(d)
4 dx
dy
x
=
At P (8, 8):
dx
dy
m
4
8
2
1
`
=
-
= -

At , q 2
2
1
c m :

4
2
2
1
dx
dy
m
2
`
=
=

m m 2
2
1
1
1 2
# = -
= -

So the tangents are perpendicular.
2. (a) 0 y px p
2
- + =
(b) 1 p
2
+
(c) , R p 0
2
= - _ i and 0, 1 F = ^ h

1 FR p
PF
2
= +
=

3. (a) 3 0 y tx t
2
- + =
(b) , Y t 0 3
2
= - _ i
(c) , F 0 3 = ^ h
3 1 TF FY t
2
= = +
^ h

4. (a) 5 0 y qx q
2
+ - =
(b) 0, 5 R q
2
= _ i
(c) , F 0 5 = - ^ h
5 1 FR FQ q
2
= = + _ i
So triangle FQR is isosceles.
FQR FRQ `+ + = (base angles of isosceles triangle)
5. (a) 4 3 9 0 x y + - =
(b) Focus (0, 3)
Substitute into equation:

4 3 9 0 3
0
LHS
RHS
= + -
=
=
] ] g g

So it is a focal chord.
(c) Directrix y 3 = -
Point of intersection 8, 3 = - - ^ h
So the point lies on the directrix.
6. 2 2 x a y a
2
= - ^ h
7. ; ; y px p y qx q y 2 0 2 0 2
2 2
- + = - + = = -
8. x y 16 6
2
= - ^ h 9. x a y a 2
2
= - ^ h
10. (a) y a = - (b) 2 x a y a
2
= - ^ h
11. 4 4 x y
2
= - + ^ h
12. (a) PO has gradient
2
;
p
QO has gradient
2
q

m m
p q
pq
2 2
1
4
1 2
#
`
= = -
= -

(b) 2 4 x a y a
2
= - ^ h
(c) 2 4 x a y a
2
= - ^ h is a parabola in the form
( ) 4 x h a y k
2
0
- = - ^ h where , h k ^ h is the vertex and
a
0
is the focal length
` vertex is , a 0 4 ^ h and focal length is
2
a

13. 2 x ay a
2 2
= - or 2
2
x a y
a
2
= - d n
14. (a) , a p q apq T + = ^ h 6 @ (b) 6 y a = -
15. (a) 5 a y a x 9
2
= - ^ h
Test yourself 11
1. 8 6 29 0 x y + - = 2. 4 8 4 0 x x y
2
- - - =
3. Centre , , 3 1 ^ h radius 4 4. (a) , 1 3 - ^ h (b) 4, 3 - ^ h
5. (a) , 8 8 ^ h (b) 2 8 0 x y - - =
6. 25 x y
2 2
+ = 7. (a) 2 y = (b) , 0 2 - ^ h
8. 3 10 0 x x y y
2 2
+ + - - = 9. 8 16 16 0 x x y
2
- + - =
10. (a) (i) , 1 1 ^ h (ii) , 1 2 ^ h (b) 0 y =
11. 2 3 6 0 x y + + = 12. 14 units
13. 24 y x
2
= - 14. 8 16 0 x y
2
- + =
15. , x y x y 4 3 16 0 4 3 14 0 - - = - + =
16. , y x y x = = - 17. 20 y x
2
= 18. (a)
2
1
- (b) 2
19. (a) 12 x y
2
= (b) 32 y x
2
= -
20. (a) 4 72 0 x y - + = (b) , 9 20
4
1
d n
21. Sub , 0 4 ^ h: 7 0 3 4 12 0 LHS RHS # # = - + = =
22. ,
9
2
7 - d n 23. 3 2 40 0 x y - + =
24. 10 100 0 x y
2
- + = 25. 3 9 0 y x a - + =
26. (a) 3 0 x y - - = (b) , R 0 3 = - ^ h
(c) , F FP FR 0 3 6 = = = ^ h
27. (a)
2
1
0 y p q x apq - + + = ^ h (b) Sub , a 0 ^ h :

a apq
pq
0
1
+ =
= -
( ) a p q apq
apq a
2
1
0 0 # - + + =
= -

28. 2 48 0 x y - + =
29. (a) 3 0 x y - + = (b) , 6 9 ^ h and , 2 1 - ^ h 30. y a = -
1. (a) 8 6 29 0 x y + - =
(b) Midpoint of AB lies on line; m m 1
1 2
= -
2. (a) 2 6 15 0 x x y y
2 2
- + - - =
(b) Put 0 y = into equation
3. 1 2 y x
2
= - 4. , 2
2
1
3 - d n
5. (a) ; x y x y 4 2 9 0 2 24 0 - + = + - =
(b) 1 m m
1 2
= - (c) , . X 3 10 5 = ^ h
(d) 3 4 8 0; x y - + = focus , 0 2 ^ h lies on the line
6. , 0 0 ^ h
7. (a) ; x y x y 2 4 1 0 2 4 0 - - = + + =
(b) Point lies on line 1 y = -
8. 2 4 2 y x x
2
= - + - 9. 3 2 0 x y + + =
10.
11. (a) 4 10 21 0 x x y y
2 2
+ + - + =
(b) 2 5 8; x y
2 2
+ + - = ]
^
g
h centre , ; 2 5 - ^ h
2 8 2 radius = =
12.
3
2 3
-
13. (a) 4 16 52 0 y y x
2
+ - + = (b) 2 6 0 x y - - =
14. 4 2 units 15. 2 2 0 x y y
2 2
+ - - =
16. 696 mm from the vertex
17. ; x y x y 141 127 32 0 219 23 58 0 + + = + + =
18. (a) , N
ap aq ap aq
5
6 4
5
3 2
2 2
=
+ +
f p

(b) 2 2 x a y a
2
= + ^ h
19. 0 y =
20. (a) , T 6 20 = - ^ h (b) , P t s ats a = + ] g
6 @
(c)
1
1
1
( )
( )
tan
tan
m t m s
m m
m m
ts
t s
ts
t s
ts
t s
ts t s
s t ts
t s
s
s
t
ts
t s
ts t s
s t ts
t s
s
s
t
45
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
and
or
1 2
1 2
x y
c
i
= =
=
+
-
=
+
-
=
+
-
=
+
-
+ = -
+ = -
= -
-
+
=
- =
+
-
- - = -
- = +
= +
+
-
=

1. , m m 2 3 2. 4 3 16 0 x y + - = 3. 8 x y
2
=
4. 24 cm 5. Centre , , 3 5 - ^ h radius 7
6. (a)
3
2
(b)
3
1
- (c) 1
9
1

7. Focus , , 0 2 - ^ h directrix 2 y =
8. 5 x = - or 6 - 9. 1 k = -
10.
180
( equal to opp. interior
in cyclic quadrilateral)
( s supplementary in cyclic
quadrilateral)
AFE CBE
CBE EDC
AFE EDC 180
ext.
opp.
`
c
c
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
+
+
=
= -
= -

| CD | AF `
11. , x y x y 3 4 14 0 3 4 16 0 - - = - + =
12. Vertex , 4 17 - - ^ h , focus , . 4 16 75 - - ^ h
13. , x 0 3 = 14. 7.2 k cm = 15. 2 2 0 x y + + =
16. b 2 $- 17. 16c i = 18. 16, x y
2 2
+ = circle centre
, 0 0 ^ h and radius 4
19. 4 6 12 0 x x y y
2 2
+ + + - =
835 ANSWERS
20. x x y y 3 6 17 0
2 2
- + - - =
21. ( in semicircle)
(similarly)
( s in same segment)
( sumof )
BCD
DAB
DBC DAE
BDC DBC BDC
BDC DAE
DAE BDC
90
90
90
90
90
`
`
c
c
c
c
c
+ +
+
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
+ +
D
=
=
=
= -
= -
= -

22. 0.75 - 23. 5 54 5 20 79 0 x x y y
2 2
- + + - =
24. , , a b c 2 1 0 = = = 25. , x y 33 57 = =
26.
9 x
x
2
-
-

27. (a) 0 y px ap
2
- + = (b) , R
p
p
a
a 1
2
=
-
-
_
f
i
p

(c) 2 1 0 px p y a ap
2 2
+ - + - = _ i
28. 4 16 20 0 x x y
2
- - + =
29. and (given)
AC BC CD CE
CD
AC
CE
BC
ACB ECD
`
+ +
= =
=
=

` since two sides are in proportion and their included
angles are equal, ABC is similar to CDE
5.3 cm y =
30. 4 0 x y - - =
31. 2 16 15 0 x x y
2
+ - - = 32. , x 0 2 =
33. 0
4
1 4( 1)( 9)
35
0
a
b ac
2
2
1
1
D = -
= - - -
= -

Since a 0 1 and 0, 9 0 x x
2
1 1 D - + - for all x
34. ( )( ) ( ) x x x 8 3 2 5 3 2 5 1
3 4
+ + + - ( ) x x 30 7 2 5
3
= + + ] g
35. sec cosec x x
36.
Let ABCD be a cyclic quadrilateral of circle, centre O .
Join AO and CO .

Obtuse 2
Reflex
( at centre double at circumference) AOC ADC
AOC ABC 2 (similarly)
+ +
+ +
+ + =
=

Obtuse reflex
It can be proved similarly that
by drawing and .
( of revolution) AOC AOC
ADC ABC
ADC ABC
BAD BCD
BO DO
360
2 2 360
180
180
`
c
c
c
c
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + =
+ =
+ =
+ =
` opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral are
supplementary
37. Centre , , 5 3 - ^ h radius 2
38.
( , )
( )
( )
( )
( )
DBA x EBC y
EDB x DEB y
FDE x
GED y
FGB DBA x
GFB EBC y
FDE FGB
GED GFB
DE AC
FDB
GEB
180
180
180
180
Let and
Then and
and
alternate s
straight
straight
s in alternate segment
similarly
`
c
c
c
c
+ +
+ +
+
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
+
<
= =
= =
= -
= -
= =
= =
= -
= -

Since opposite angles are supplementary, FGED is a
39.
( )( )
a
b ac
0
4
1 4 1 3
11
0
2
2
2
1
D = -
= - -
= -
] g

Since 0 a 2 and , 0 1 D x x 3 0
2
2 - + for all x
40. 1 k = 41. 3 2 9 0 x y + - =
42. (a) 217 km (b) 153c
43. , , a b c 3 18 34 = = - = - 44. , x x 4 3 2 1
45. (a) 1 y x
2
= - (b) , 4 15 - ^ h (c) 8 124 0 x y - + =
46. 95 44 c i = 47. x 11c =
48. 361 0 and a perfect square T 2 = ^ h
49. 2 9 0 x y + + = 50. k 3 #
51.
52. 5 4 41 0 x y - - = 53. , 3
5
2
2
5
2
- d n 54.
3 1
1 3
-
+

55. y 1
4
1
1 1 # - - 56.
22
3 6 10 3 3 5 - + -

57. 4.9 , 11.1 x y cm cm = = 58. 1 x = 59. 8.25 units
60. 4.5 m 61.
2187
128
62. , , , x 60 120 240 300 =
63. 2 3 3 0 x y + - = 64. , y 1
3
1
2
1
= - 65. 162c
66. 90
90
( semicircle)
( straight )
ACB
DCA DCB
in
`
c
c
+
+
+
+ +
=
=

` AD is a diameter of the circle
67. , , , x 45 135 225 315 =
68. 1, 2 or , 4 x y x y
4
1
4
1
= - = = - =
69. a b a ab b 2 2 4
2 2
+ - + ] ^ g h
70. 43 x = 71.
31
1
-
72. 1.8 units 73. tan i
74. 8 2 5 ( 1) 2( 1) x x x x
2 3 2 4
+ - + - ] g
( ) ( ) x x x 2 1 9 20 1
2 3 2
= - + -
75.
4
1
76. 2 3 25 0 x x y y
2 2
+ + - - =
77. Focus (2, 1), directrix 5 y =
78. 9 0 px y p
2
- - = 79. 2 36 0 x y - - =
80. (a)
2
1
0 y p q x apq - + + = ^ h (b) 2 2 x a y a
2
= - ^ h
(c) Concave upward parabola, vertex (0, 2 a )
81. (c) 82. (d) 83. (b) 84. (a) 85. (c) 86. (a)
87. (c) 88. (a) 89. (a), (d) 90. (c)

Chapter 12: Polynomials 1
Exercises 12.1
1. (a) 7 (b) 4 (c) 1 (d) 11 (e) 3 (f) 0 (g) 4
2. (a) 19 - (b) 10 - (c) 1 - 3. (a) 6 - (b) 5
(c) 2 (d) 1 (e) 2 4. (a) 5 (b) 4 (c) 3 - (d) 0
5. (a) 3 ! (b) 5 - (c) , 2 1 - (d) 4 (e) 0
6. (a) ; P x x x x 12 6 2 4 3
3 2
= - - + l] g (b) ; P x x 10 1 = l] g
(c) ; P x x x 108 35 8 11
11 4
= - + l] g
(d) ; P x x x x 7 9 2 7 6
6 2
= - + - l] g (e) 8; 0 P x = l] g
7. (a), (b), (g) 8. (a) 0 a = (b) 10 b = (c) c 6 = -
(d) a 1 = - (e) 4 a = 9. (a) 2
2
1
- (b) , x 2 1 = -
(c) 3 (d) 3 (e) x
5

10. (a) b ac 4
8
8 0
2
1
D = -
= -
-

f x ` ] g has no zeros
(b) 9x
3
(c) 2 - (d) 9 (e) , x
3
2
1 = -
11. (a) 2 (b) 0 (c) 2 (d) 0 (e) 2 (f) 4 (g) 3
12. , x 3 2 = - 13. 0, 1 x =
14. P x x x 3 2 9
2
= - + l] g
b ac 4 104 0
2
1 - = -
So ( ) P x l has no real roots
15. Q x x x 3 6 3
2
= - + l] g
4 0 b ac
2
- =
So Q x l] g has equal roots
Exercises 12.2
1. 3 2 5 4 3 10 45 x x x x
2
+ + = + - + ] ] g g
2. 7 4 1 6 2 x x x x
2
- + = - - - ] ] g g
3. 2 1 3 4 14 41 x x x x x x
3 2 2
+ + - = - + + + ] ^ g h

4. 4 2 3 2 3 2 2 3 x x x x
2
+ - = + - + ] ] g g
5. 5 2 3 8 25 2 x x x x x x x
3 2 2
- + + = + - + +
^ ] ] h g g
6. 3 2 3 5 7 x x x x x x
3 2 2
+ - - = - + + + ] ^ g h

7. 5 2 3 1 5 7 10 1 x x x x x x x
3 2 2
- + + = + - + +
^ ] ] h g g
8. 2 3
281
x x x x
x x x x 4 5 18 71
4 3 2
3 2
- - + -
= + - + - + ] ^ g h

9. 2 5 2 2 5 2 2 2 5 x x x x x x x x x
4 3 2 2 2
- + + - = - - + -
^ ^ ] h h g
10. 4 2 6 1 2 1 2 2 4 5 x x x x x x
3 2 2
- + - = + - + - ] ^ g h

11. 6 3 1 3 2 2
3
1
1
3
2
x x x x
2
- + = - + + ] d g n
12. x x x x x x x x 2 2 2 2 2
4 3 2 2 2
- - - = - - - + - -
^ ^ ] h h g
13. 3 2 3 1 x x x x x
x x x x x 2 3 8 13 25 49 99
5 4 3 2
4 3 2
- - + - -
= + - + - + - ] ^ g h

14. 5 2 1 4 6 x x x x
2
+ - = + + - ] ] g g
15. 2 5 4 3 3 7 26 82 x x x x x x x
4 2 3 2
- + + = - + + + + ] ^ g h

16. 2 5 2 2 3 6 12 5 x x x x x x x
4 3 2 2
- + = - + + + +
^ ^ ] h h g
17. 3 3 1 5 3 2 14 x x x x x x
3 2 2
- + - = + - + - +
^ ] ] h g g
18. 2 4 8 3 2 2 2 12 x x x x x x x
3 2 2
+ - + = + + - + +
^ ] ] h g g
19. 2 4 2 5 x x x x
x x x x x 2 1 4 13 28 18
4 3 2
2 2
- + + +
= + - - + + - +
^ ^ ] h h g

20. 3 2 1 1 3 3 2 3 x x x x x x x x
5 3 4 3 2
- + - = + - + - + - ] ^ g h

Exercises 12.3
1. (a) 41 (b) 3 - (c) 43 - (d) 9424 (e) 0 (f) 37
(g) 47 (h) 2321 (i) 31 174 (j) 3 -
2. (a) 8 k = (b)
7
2
k = (c) k 15 299 = (d) k
9
6
8
=
(e) k 2 ! =
3. (a) 0 (b) Yes
(c) 4 6 2 2 3 x x x x x x
3 2 2
- + + = - - - ] ^ g h

(d) 2 3 1 f x x x x = - - + ] ] ] ] g g g g
837 ANSWERS
4. (a) 3 81 81 81 81 0 P - = - - + = ] g
x 3 ` + is a factor
(b) P x x x x 3 3
2
= + - ] ] ] g g g
5. , a b 1
12
7
1
48
17
= - = - 6. 6 a = -
7. (a) P 3 140 0 ! = ] g
x 3 ` - is not a factor of P x ] g
(b) 39 k = - 8. , a b 2 1 = - = -
9. (a) , a b 3 11 = =
(b) 1 3 8 7 2 f x x x x x
3 2
= + + + + ] ] ^ g g h

(c) g 1 0 - = ] g (d) 3 2 1 f x x x
3
= + + ] ] ] g g g
10. (a) 2 4 x x + - ] ] g g (b) 2 1 x x x + - ] ] g g
(c) 1 4 2 x x x - + - ] ] ] g g g (d) 5 3 2 x x x + - + ] ] ] g g g
(e) 3 1 7 x x x - - - ] ] ] g g g (f) 2 9 5 x x x + - - ] ] ] g g g
(g) 3 2 x x
2
- - ] ] g g (h) x x x 4 1
2
+ + ] ] g g
(i) 1 2 x x
2
- + ] ] g g (j) 1 3 2 x x x + - + ] ] ] g g g
11. (a) 1 3 2 P x x x x = - + - ] ] ] ] g g g g (b) , , 3 1 2 - (c) Yes
12. (a) Dividing f x ] g by 5 2 x x + - ] ] g g gives
5 2 7 12 f x x x x x
2
= + - + + ] ] ] ^ g g g h

x x 5 2 ` + - ] ] g g is a factor of f x ] g
(b) 5 2 3 4 f x x x x x = + - + + ] ] ] ] ] g g g g g
13. 1 4 3 P x x x x
2
= + - + ] ] ] ] g g g g
14. (a) P P 6 5 0 - = = ] ] g g (b) 4 6 5 P x x x x = - + - ] ] ] ] g g g g
15. (a) P u u u 2 1
2
= - - ] ] ] g g g (b) 2, 3 x =
16. (a) 1 2 3 f p p p p = - + - ^ ^ ^ ^ h h h h (b) , , x 0 1
2
1
1 = -
17. (a) 2 1 1 P k k k
2
= - + ] ] ] g g g (b) , , x 30 150 270 c c c =
18. (a) 1 3 9 f u u u u = - - - ] ] ] ] g g g g (b) 0, 1, 2 x =
19. , , x 5 4 2 = - - -
20. , , , , , 0 90 120 240 270 360 c c c c c c i =
21. (a) , , , a b c d 1 3 4 2 = = = = -
(b) , , , a b c d 1 1 8 12 = = - = = -
(c) , , , a b c d 2 0 1 6 = = = - =
(d) , , , a b c d 1 1 11 12 = = = = -
(e) , , , a b c d 3 0 1 8 = = = - =
(f) , , , a b c d 1 1 4 7 = = = - = -
(g) , , , a b c d 5 2 19 43 = = - = - = -
(h) , , , a b c d 1 4 1 1 = - = = - = -
(i) , , , a b c d 1 3 6 4 = - = = = -
(j) , , , a b c d 1 10 27 20 = - = - = - = -
22. 12 P x x x x
3 2
= - - ] g 23. , , a b c 1 3 6 = = - = -
24. 2 4 10 12 P x x x x x
4 3 2
= - - + ] g
25. P ( x ) has degree 3.
Suppose P ( x ) has 4 zeros, a
1
, a
2
, a
3
and a
4
.
Then x a x a x a x a
1 2 3 4
- - - - _ _ _ _ i i i i is a factor of P ( x ) .
So P x x a x a x a x a Q x
1 2 3 4
= - - - - ]
_ _ _ _
] g
i i i i
g .
` P ( x ) has at least degree 4
But P ( x ) only has degree 3.
So it cannot have 4 zeros .
Exercises 12.4
1. (a)
y
x
- 2 1 3
6
(b)

y
x
-4 2
(c) y
x
1 3
(d)
y
x
-2
(e)
2. (a) (i) 4 2 P x x x x = - + ] ] ] g g g

(ii)
(b) (i) 1 5 f x x x x = - - + ] ] ] g g g
(ii)

y
x
-5 1
(c) (i) 1 2 P x x x x
2
= + + ] ] ] g g g
(ii) y
x
-1 -2
(d) (i) 2 5 3 A x x x x = - + ] ] ] g g g
(ii)
(e) (i) 3 1 P x x x x
2
= - - + ] ] ] g g g
(ii) y
x
-1 3
3. (a) , , x 0 1 2 = -
(b) y
x
-2 1
4. (a) P 2 8 12 8 12
0
= - - +
=
] g
(b) 2 3 2 P x x x x = - - + ] ] ] ] g g g g
(c) y
x
-2 2 3
12
y
x
-2 5
50
-5
y
x
2
1
2
-3
y
x
-2 4
839 ANSWERS
5. (a) y
x
-4 -2
-24
3

(b) y
x
-3 -1
-9
3
(c) y
x
12
1 3 4
(d)
y
x
12
1 3 -4
(e)
y
x
2
3
-3
-18
(f) y
x
2 -2
-8
(g) y
x
1 2
-4
(h) y
x
1
3
-3
(i)
y
x
4 -2
(j)
y
x
1
1 -1

Exercises 12.5
1. (a) 3, x = double root (b) 0, 2, 7, x = single roots
(c) 0, x = double root, 3, x = single root
(d) 2, x = - single root, 2, x = double root
(e) 2, x = - triple root (f) , , x 0 2 = single roots,
1, x = double root
(g) 1, 3, x = - double roots (h) 0, x = triple root,
4, x = double root (i) 1, x = triple root, 5, x = -
single root (j) 1
2
1
, x = triple root
2. (a) (i) Positive (ii) Even (b) (i) Negative (ii) Odd
(c) (i) Negative (ii) Even (d) (i) Negative (ii) Odd
(e) (i) Positive (ii) Odd (f) (i) Positive (ii) Even
(g) (i) Positive (ii) Odd (h) (i) Negative (ii) Even
(i) (i) Positive (ii) Odd (j) (i) Positive (ii) Even
3. P x x 4 = +
2
] ] g g Yes, unique
4. (a) P x k x 1 = -
3
] ] g g Not unique (b) 5 1 P x x
3
= - ] ] g g
5. (a) 4 8 16 x x x
2 2
- = - + ] g
Dividing by 8 16 x x
2
- + gives
7 8 16 8 16 1 x x x x x x
3 2 2
- + + = - + +
^ ] h g so x 4 -
2
] g is
a factor
(b) 1 4 P x x x
2
= + - ] ] ] g g g
(c) 4 4 1 4 4 P
2
= + - ] ] ] g g g
0 =

( )
( ) ( )
P x x x
P
3 14 8
4 3 4 14 4 8
0
2
2
= - +
= - +
=
l
l ] g
6. (a) x x x x 3 9 27 27
3
+ = + + +
3 2
] g
Dividing by 9 27 27 x x x
3 2
+ + + gives
7 9 27 54 9 27 27 2 x x x x x x x x
4 3 2 3 2
+ + - - = + + + -
^ ] h g
so x 3
3
+ ] g is a factor
(b) f x x x 2 3 = - +
3
] ] ] g g g
(c) f 3 3 2 3 3 - = - - - +
3
] ] ] g g g
0 =

( )
( ) ( )
f x x x x
f
4 21 18 27
3 4 3 21 3 18 3 27
0
3 2
3 2
= + + -
- = - + - + - -
=
l
l ] ] g g
7. (a) P x x k Q x
3
= - ] ] ] g g g where Q ( x ) has degree 3 n -
(b) P k k k Q k
3
= - ] ] ] g g g
0 =

( ) P x l u v v u = + l l

( ) P k l
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Q x x k x k Q x
Q k k k k k Q k
3
3
0
3 2
3 2
= - + -
= - + -
=
l
l
] ]
] ]
g g
g g
8. (a)
y
x
(b)
y
x
841 ANSWERS
(c)
y
x

(d) y
x
(e)

y
x
9. y
x
2

10. y
x
-1

11.
y
x
2

12.
y
x
-3

13.
y
x
1

14.
y
x

15. y
x
-2

16.
y
x
4
17. Odd function with positive leading coeffcient starts
negative and turns around at the double root. It then
becomes positive as x becomes very large so it must
cross the x -axis again. So there is another root at k 1 2 -

k
y
x
-1
18. Even function with negative leading coeffcient is
negative at both ends. The triple root has a point of
infexion so the curve must cross the x -axis to turn
negative again. So there is another root at k 2 2 -
y
x
k -2
19. Odd function with positive leading coeffcient starts
negative and turns around at both the double roots.
It then becomes positive as x becomes very large so it
must cross the x -axis again. So there is another root at
k 2 2

y
x
k -3 2
843 ANSWERS
20. Odd function with negative leading coeffcient starts
positive and turns around at the double root. It then
becomes negative as x becomes very large so it must
cross the x -axis again. So there is another root at k 1 2
y
x
k 1

Exercises 12.6
1. (a) (i) 2 (ii) 8 (b) (i) 2 - (ii)
3
2
- (c) (i) 7 - (ii) 1
(d) (i) 2
4
1
(ii) 3 - (e) (i) 3 - (ii) 0 2. (a) (i) 1 - (ii) 2 -
(iii) 8 - (b ) (i) 3 (ii) 5 (iii) 2 (c) (i)
2
1
(ii) 3
(iii) 1 - (d) (i) 3 - (ii) 0 (iii) 11 - (e) (i) 0 (ii) 7 (iii) 3
3. (a) (i) 2 - (ii) 1 - (iii) 1 (iv) 5 (b) (i) 1 (ii) 3 -
(iii) 2 - (iv) 7 - (c) (i) 1 (ii) 3 - (iii) 2 - (iv) 4 -
(d) (i) 1 (ii) 2 - (iii) 1
2
1
- (iv) 1 - (e) (i) 6 (ii) 0
(iii) 0 (iv) 3
2
1
4. (a) 5 (b) 5 - (c) 1 - (d) 35
(e) 200 5. (a)
2
3
(b)
2
1
- (c)
2
5
- (d)
3
1
-
(e)
2
1
-
6. (a) 3 - (b) 5 - (c) 1
3
2
7. 26 k = -
8. , 2 7 a b ab + = = - 9. , 2
2
1
2
1
a b ab + = = -
10. (a) 0 k = (b) 4 k = (c) 1 k = (d) , k
2
1
1 = -
(e) 0 k = 11. m 9 = - 12. , a b 1
8
3
9
4
1
= - = -
13. (a) 1 0 P = ] g (b) , 1 6 a b c abc + + = = -
14. ; a 1 2 a b = + = - 15. (a)
15
4

(b) , p q 8
15
4
17
15
2
= = - 16. 1 17. 5 -
18. , x
2
1
1
2
1
= - 19. , x
3
1
2
1
! = 20. , , x 3 1
2
1
3
2
! = -
Test yourself 12
1. 3 3 5 1 p x x x x x = + - + - ] ] ] ] ] g g g g g
2. (a) 3 (b) 9 (c) 1 (d)
9
1

3. ( ) ( )( )( ) P x x x x
x x x
6 1 2
5 8 12
3 2
= - - +
= - - +

4. (a) 3 2 x x
2
+ + (b) 5 3 1 2 p x x x x x = - + + + ] ] ] ] ] g g g g g
5. (a) 3 (b) 3 - (c) , , 3 0 1 - (d) x
3

6.
7. (a) 3 a = (b) 5 -
8. ( ) ( ) p 7 7 7 7 5 7 4
725 0
3 2
!
- = - - - + - -
= -
] ] g g
9. , x 1 3 ! = - 10. , , a b c 2 18 40 = = - =
11. x -intercepts , , ; 3 2 4 - y -intercept 24
12.
( ) ( )
x x x
x x x x x
3 7 8 5
2 3 6 5 18 36 67
5 3 2
4 3 2
- + -
= - + + + + +

13. 60 , 90 , 180 , 270 , 300 x c c c c c = 14. 7.4 k =
15. 4, 5
16.
17. 14 k = - 18. 4
19. ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
P a A a a a
P x A x x a A x x a
P a A a a a A a a a
0
3
3
0
3
2 3
2 3
= -
=
= - + -
= - + -
=
l l
l l
]
] ]
] ]
g
g g
g g

20. f 5 5 6 5 12 5 35 0
3 2
= - + - = ] ] ] g g g
21. (a) f 5 5 7 5 5 5 75
3
= - - +
2
] ] ] g g g
0 =
(b) f x x x 3 14 5
2
= - - l] g

( ) ( ) f 5 3 5 14 5 5
0
2
= - -
=
l ] g

(c) Double root at 5 x = (d) f x x x 3 5 = + -
2
] ] ] g g g
22.
3
y
x

23. (a) P x x Q x 6 = +
3
] ] ] g g g
(b)
y
x
-6
24.
y
x
25. (a) , , , a b c d 2 3 4 5 = = - = =
1. 1 1 1 P x x x x x
2 2
= - + + + ] ] ] ^ g g g h

2. (a) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
P b b b Q b
P x x b Q x Q x x b
P b b b Q b Q b b b
0
7
7
0
7
7 6
7 6
= -
=
= - + -
= - + -
=
l l
l l
]
] ]
] ]
g
g g
g g

(b) , a b 1 7 = - = -
3. , , , , , , , , 0 45 60 120 180 225 240 300 360 c c c c c c c c c i =
4. (a) 3 2 0 x y - + = (b) , 2 8 ^ h 5. (a)
4
33 a -

(b) a 14 = -
6. (a) 3 - (b) 17 7. 90 , 210 , 330 c c c i = 8. 5 a = -
9. If x a - is a factor of P x ] g

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
P x x a Q x
P a a a Q a
0
Then
`
= -
= -
=

10. , , , 1 1 3 5 - - - ^ ^ h h 11. P x x x 1 2 = - + -
2 3
] ] ] g g g
12.
y
x
a
1
a
2

845 ANSWERS
Chapter 13: Permutations and combinations
Exercises 13.1
1.
10 000
1
2.
33
16
3.
9
2
4.
20 000
1

5. 98.5% 6. (a)
7
4
(b)
7
3
7.
20
3

8.
3
1
9. (a)
6
1
(b)
3
1
(c)
6
5

10. (a)
62
1
(b)
31
3
(c)
2
1
(d)
124
99

11. (a)
15
1
(b)
15
8
(c)
5
3
12. 8
13. (a)
86
29
(b)
43
19
(c)
86
67
14. 32
15. (a)
6
1
(b)
2
1
(c)
3
1
(d)
2
1
(e)
2
1
16. (a)
18
5
(b) 91
17. (a)
5
4
(b) 36 18. (a)
44
23
(b)
44
21
19.
19
6

20.
982
329
21. (a)
31
19
(b)
31
20
(c)
31
4
(d)
11
31

22. (a)
59
14
(b)
59
35
(c)
24
59
(d)
59
38
23.
24
5

24. 19% 25. 0.51
Exercises 13.2
1. 456 976 2. 67 600 3. 26 10
5 4
# 4. 260
5. 26 10
10 15
# 6. 1 000 7. 1 000 000
8. 300 9. 64 10.
10 000
3

11. (a) 84 (b)
84
1
12. (a) 10 000 000 (b) 1000
13. Yes 14.
67 600 000
1
15. 7 16. Yes
17.
5184
1
18. 6 19. 6840 20. 360
21. 7 880 400 22. 210 23. 271 252 800
24. (a) 9900 (b)
9900
1
25.
720
1

Exercises 13.3
1. (a) 720 (b) 3 628 800 (c) 1 (d) 35 280 ( e) 120
(f) 210 (g) 3 991 680 (h) 715 (i) 56 (j) 330
2. 362 880 3. 720 4. 479 001 600 5. 120
6. (a) 39 916 800 (b) 479 001 600 7. 40 320
8. 5040 9. 6 10. 720 11. 5040
12. 1.3 10
12
# 13. (a) 39 916 800 (b) 3 628 800
14. (a) 720 (b) 120 (c) 48 15. 5040
16. (a)
4
1
(b)
24
1

17. (a) 479 001 600 (b)
12
1
18.
120
1

19. 6 227 020 800
20. (a)
!
! 8 7 6 ... 2 1
4
8
4 3 2 1
8 7 6 5
# # #
# # # # #
# # #
=
=

(b)
!
! 11 10 9 ... 2 1
6
11
6 5 4 3 2 1
11 10 9 8 7
# # # # #
# # # # #
# # # #
=
=

(c)
.
.
.
. !
!
...
... ...
...
( 1)( 2) ... ( )
r
n
r r r
n n n r r r
n n n r
n n n r
1 2 3 2 1
1 2 1 1 3 2 1
1 2 1
1
# # # #
# #
=
- -
- - + -
= - - +
= - - +
] ]
] ] ] ]
] ] ]
g g
g g g g
g g g

(d)
. .
. .
!
!
...
... ...
...
n r
n
n r n r n r
n n n n r n r
n n n n r
1 2 3 2 1
1 2 1 3 2 1
1 2 1
-
=
- - - - -
- - - + -
= - - - +
] ] ] ]
] ] ] ]
] ] ]
g g g g
g g g g
g g g

Exercises 13.4
1. (a)
6 3 !
6!
120
-
=
] g
(b)
5 2 !
5!
20
-
=
] g
(c)
8 3 !
8!
336
-
=
] g

(d)
!
!
10 7
10
640 800
-
=
] g
(e)
!
!
9 6
9
60 480
-
=
] g

(f)
7 5 !
7!
2520
-
=
] g
(g)
!
!
8 6
8
20 160
-
=
] g

(h)
!
!
11 8
11
6 652 800
-
=
] g
(i)
9 1 !
9!
9
-
=
] g

(j)
6 6 !
6!
720
-
=
] g

2. (a) 650 (b) 15 600 (c) 358 800 (d) 7 893 600
3. (a) 648 (b) 432 (c) 144 4. (a) 20 (b) 4 (c) 12 (d) 8
5. (a) 24 (b) 24 6. (a) 4536 (b) 2016 (c) 3528
7. (a) 120 (b) 48 (c) 96 (d) 72 (e) 60
8. (a) 479 001 600 (b) 1320
9. (a) 56 (b) 336 (c) 1680
10. (a) 60 480 (b) 2520 (c) 907 200 (d) 151 200 (e) 60
(f) 453 600 (g) 360 (h) 2520 (i) 59 875 200
(j) 90 720
11. (a) 24 (b) 5040 (c) 40 320 (d) 3 628 800
(e) 39 916 800
12. (a) 6 (b) 720 (c) 5040 (d) 362 880 (e) 3 628 800
13. (a) 181 440 (b) 19 958 400 (c) 20 160
(d) 1 814 400 (e) 239 500 800
14. (a) 720 (b) 120 15. (a) 362 880 (b) 40 320
16. (a) 3 628 800 (b) 362 880 (c) 181 440
17. (a) 24 (b) 12 (c) 24
18. (a) 720 (b) 240 (c) 480 (d) 144
19. (a) 3 628 800 (b) 362 880 (c) 28 800
20.
9
2
21. (a) 20! (b) 5!8!7!3! (c)
20
7

22. (a) 60 (b) 48 (c) 36 (d)
5
1
23.
1
6

24.
1
336
25. (a) 40 320 (b) 30 240 (c) 21 600
26. (a) 20 (b) 60 27. (a) 720 (b) 120 (c) 192
28. (a) x ! (b) 1 ! x - ] g (c) 2! 2 ! x - ] g (d) ! ! x 3 2 - ] g
(e) 3 2 ! x x - - ] ] g g
29. (a)
! !
!
!
!
!
!
P
3 3
8 3
8
5
8
3
8
3
'
=
-
=
] g

8
8 8
!
!
!
! !
!
! !
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
! !
!
! !
P
P P
5
8
3
1
5 3
8
5 5
8 5
8
3
8
5
3
8
5
1
5 3
8
3 5
5
3 5
#
'
#
=
=
=
-
=
=
=
` =
] g

(b)
n
! !
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
! !
!
! !
( )!
!
r
P
r
n r
n
n r
n
r
n r
n
r
n r r
n
n r
P
n r
n n r
n
1
n
r
n r
'
#
=
-
=
-
=
-
=
-
-
=
-
- -
-
]
]
]
]
] ]
g
g
g
g
g g
5 ?

`
n n
!
!
( )!
!
!
!
! !
!
! !
n n r
n
n r
r
n
n r
n r r
n
r
P
n r
P
1
r n r
'
#
=
- +
-
=
-
=
-
=
-
-
]
]
]
]
g
g
g
g
30.
n
n
n
1 +
n
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
! ! ! !
!
! !
!
!
!
!
P
n r
n
P r P
n r
n
r
n r
n
n r
n
r
n r
n
n r
n
n r
rn
n r n r
n r n
n r
rn
n r
n r n
n r
rn
n r
n n n rn rn
n r
nn n
n r
n n
n r
n
P P r P
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
r
r
n
r
n
r r r
1
1
1
$
`
=
+ -
+
+ =
-
+
- -
=
-
+
- -
=
-
+
- +
=
+ - -
+ -
+
+ -
=
+ -
+ -
+
+ -
=
+ -
+ - +
=
+ -
+
=
+ -
+
=
+ -
+
= +
-
+
-
]
]
]
^
]
^
] ]
] ]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
g
g
g
h
g
h
g g
g g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
5
5
?
?

Exercises 13.5
1. (a)
9 5 !5!
9!
126
-
=
] g
(b)
12 7 !7!
12!
792
-
=
] g

(c)
! !
!
8 3 3
8
56
-
=
] g
(d)
10 4 !4!
10!
210
-
=
] g

(e)
11 5 !5!
11!
462
-
=
] g

2. (a) (i) 1 (ii) 1 (iii) 1 (iv) 1 (v) 1
(b) (i)
n
C 1
0
= (ii)
n
C 1
n
=
3. (a) 28 (b) 84 (c) 462 (d) 5005 (e) 38 760
4. (a) Number of arrangements 15 =
R
1
R
2
R
2
R
3
R
3
B
1
B
1
B
2
B
2
B
3
R
1
R
3
R
2
B
1
R
3
B
2
B
1
B
3
R
1
B
1
R
2
B
2
R
3
B
3
R
1
B
2
R
2
B
3
R
1
B
3
(b) 77 520
847 ANSWERS
5. 15 504 6. 210 7. 2 598 960
8. (a) 720 (b) 120 9. (a) 2184 (b) 364
10. 296 010 11. 4845 12. 2925
13. 23 535 820 14. (a) 792 (b)
12
5
(c)
33
5

15. (a) 100 947 (b) 462 (c) 924 (d) 36 300 (e) 26 334
(f) 74 613 (g) 27 225
16. $105
17. (a) 2 042 975 (b) 55 (c) 462 462 (d) 30 030
18. (a) 3003 (b) (i) 2450 (ii) 588 (iii) 56 (iv) 1176
19. (a) 1.58 10
10
# (b) 286 (c) 15 682 524 (d) 5 311 735
(e) 12 271 512
20. (a) 395 747 352 (b) 32 332 300 (c) 4 084 080
(d) 145 495 350 (e) 671 571 264
21. (a) 170 544 (b) 36 (c) 20 160 (d) 17 640 (e) 6300
22. (a) 7 (b) 27 132 (c) 13 860 (d) 20 790 (e) 27 720
23. (a) 5 (b) 360 (c) 126
24. (a) 792 (b) 792
(c)
12
12
12
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
C
C
C C
12 5 5
12
7 5
12
12 7 7
12
5 7
12
5
7
12
5 7
`
=
-
=
=
-
=
=
]
]
g
g

25.
9
8
9
8
8 8
C
C C
C C C
84
28 56
84
6
6 5
6 6 5
`
=
+ = +
=
= +

26.
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
13
7
13 7 7
13
6 7
13
13
6
13 6 6
13
7 6
13
13
7
13
6
`
=
-
=
=
-
=
=
b
]
b
]
b b
l
g
l
g
l l

27.
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
! !
! !
! !
!
! !
!
10
4
10 4 4
10
6 4
10
9
4
9
3
9 4 4
9
9 3 3
9
5 4
9
6 3
9
6 5 4
6 9
4 6 3
4 9
6 4
6 9
6 4
4 9
6 4
6 9 4 9
6 4
10 9
6 4
10
10
4
9
4
9
3
#
#
#
#
# #
# #
#
`
=
-
=
+ =
-
+
-
= +
= +
= +
=
+
=
=
= +
b
]
b b
] ]
b b b
l
g
l l
g g
l l l

28.
! !
!
( )! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
n
r
n r r
n
n
n r
n n r n r
n
n n r n r
n
r n r
n
n
r
n
n r
`
=
-
-
=
- - -
=
- + -
=
-
=
-
b
]
b
]
] ]
]
b b
l
g
l
g
g g
g
l l
5 ?

29.
! r
! r
n
!
!
!
! !
!
!
!
P
n r
n
C r
n r r
n
n r
n
P
r
n
r
n
r
n
r
#
`
=
-
=
-
=
-
= C
]
]
]
g
g
g

30.
! !
!
n
k
n k k
n
=
-
b
]
l
g

! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
n
k
n
k
n k k
n
n k k
n
n k k
n
n k k
n
k n k k
k n
n k n k k
n k n
n k k
k n
n k k
n k n
n k k
k n k n
n k k
n n
n k k
n
n
k
1
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
1
1
-
-
+
-
=
- - - -
-
+
- -
-
=
- -
-
+
- -
-
=
- -
-
+
- - -
- -
=
-
-
+
-
- -
=
-
+ - -
=
-
-
=
-
=
b b
] ] ]
]
]
]
] ]
]
]
]
] ]
]
] ]
] ]
]
]
]
] ]
]
] ]
]
]
]
b
l l
g g g
g
g
g
g g
g
g
g
g g
g
g g
g g
g
g
g
g g
g
g g
g
g
g
l

Test yourself 13
1. (a) 5040 (b) 720 2. (a)
11
4
(b)
22
13
(c)
22
17

3. (a) 24 (b) 12 4. (a) 720 (b) 120
5. (a) 65 780 (b) 25 200 (c) 252 6. 29%
7. 120 8. 2.4 10
18
# 9.
9
1
10. 142 506
11. 990 12. (a) 40 320 (b) 362 880
(c) 80 640 (d) 168
13. (a) 19 958 400 (b) 4 989 600 (c) 181 440
(d) 9 979 200 (e) 181 440
14.
! !
!
n
n k k
n
k
=
-
b
]
l
g
15. (a) 151 200 (b) 881 280
16. 1.08 10
17
#
17. (a) 1 709 316 (b) 203 490 (c) 167 580
18. (a) 15 (b) 181 440 19. 37 015 056
20. (a) 1
(b)
n
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
n
n
n
n
n
n
n n n
n
n
n
n n
n
0 0
0
1
0
1
0
`
=
-
=
=
=
-
=
=
=
0
c
]
c
]
c c
m
g
m
g
m m

1. (a) 60 (b) 72 (c) 30 2. (a) 360 (b) 60
3.
! !
!
n
k
n k k
n
=
-
b
]
l
g

( )! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
! !
! !
! !
!
! !
!
! !
!
n
k
n
k
n k k
n
n k k
n
n k k
n
n k k
n
k n k k
k n
n k n k k
n k n
n k k
k n
n k k
n k n
n k k
k n n k n
n k k
n k n k
n k k
n n
n k k
n
1
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
1 1
1
1
-
-
+
-
=
- - - -
-
+
- -
-
=
- -
-
+
- -
-
=
- -
-
+
- - -
- -
=
-
-
+
-
- -
=
-
- + - -
=
-
- + -
=
-
-
=
-
b b
]
]
]
]
] ]
]
]
]
] ]
]
] ]
] ]
]
]
]
] ]
]
] ] ]
]
]
]
]
]
l l
g
g
g
g
g g
g
g
g
g g
g
g g
g g
g
g
g
g g
g
g g g
g
g
g
g
g
5
5
?
?

n
k
n
k
n
k
1
1
1
` =
-
-
+
-
b b b l l l
4. (a) 1 ! n - ] g (b)
!
!
k
n k 1 - + ] g
5. (a) 90 720 (b) 246
6. (a) 792 (b)
44
5

7.
n
!
!
! !
! !
!
!
!
!
P
n r
n
r C r
n r r
n
n r
n
P r C
r
n
r
n
r
n
r
`
=
-
=
-
=
-
=
]
]
]
g
g
g

8. (a) 1 860 480 (b)
4
1
(c)
40
3
(d)
40
21

9. (a) 94 109 400 (b) 7920 (c) 5 527 200 (d) 93 024
(e) 37 643 760 (f) 23 289 700
10. (a)
35
4
(b)
35
17

1.
2
1
2. 1 1 4 P x x x x = - + + ] ] ] ] g g g g 3. 3 y x
4
=
4. (a) 362 880 (b) 4320 (c) 282 240 5. , 1 2 -
6. , 19 10 ^ h 7. (a) 4 - (b) 2 (c)
4
3
(d) 10
8. 2; x y
2 2
+ = circle centre , 0 0 ^ h radius 2
9. ; 3060 161 3 c c l
10. Distance from centre , 0 0 ^ h to line is

| |
d
a b
ax by c
10
40
4
radius
line is tangent
2 2
1 1
`
=
+
+ +
=
=
=

11. k 2
2
1
= -
12. x 74c = ( s + in alternate segment)

( )
( )
y 180 74 2
53 sumin isosceles
' c c
c + D
= -
=

13. 120 14. , x x 2 2 1 2 -
15.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
P x x Q x
P x x Q x x Q x
P Q
P Q Q
2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0
= -
= - + -
= -
=
= - + -
=
2
2
2
2
l l
l l
] ] ]
]
]
]
g g g
g
g
g

16. (a) 1 (b) 3 (c) ,
10
1
0 ab a b = - + =
17. 126 18. 7 19. 7.1 m 20. 131 38 c l
849 ANSWERS
21. (a) 1 3 P x x x
2
= - - ] ] ] g g g
(b)
y
x
3 1
-9
22.
23. P
x x x x
P
2 55
2 2 11 23
2 is the remainder
2
`
- = -
+ - +
-
P 55 on division = -
]
] ] ^
]
g
g g h
g

24. (a) 0
a
d
abc acd bcd abd + + + = - = (b) 1 (c) 1 -
25.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
P x x Q x
P Q
Q
P x x Q x x Q x
P Q Q
Q Q
3
3 3 3 3
0 3
0
2 3 3
3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3
2 0 3 0 3
0
2
= -
= -
=
=
= - + -
= - + -
= +
=
2
2
2
l l
l l
l
] ] ]
] ] ]
]
] ] ] ] ]
]
g g g
g g g
g
g g g g g
g

26. 1 884 960 27. Radius 3; 9 x y
2 2
+ =
28. , , a b c 3 14 9 = = - =
29. (a) 8.1 m (b) 35 46 c l
30. (a) 1 !
(b) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
P
P x x x x x x
P
1 1 1 1 5
0
6 1 5 1 2
1 6 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 2 1
0
2
3
2
2
2
2 2
3
2
2
2 2
3
$
$
= - +
=
= - + + -
= - + + -
=
l
l
^
^ ^
^ ^
h
h h
h h

31. Domain: all real x ; range: y 3 $ -
32.
) | ED (
,
ACB ECD
ABC CED
AC CD
ABC CDE by AAS
alternate angles
given
AB|
`
+ +
+ +
/ D D
=
=
=
^
^
h
h

33. 46 m
2
34. 3 0 x y + - =
35. x x x 12 36 6
2 2
- + = - ] g 36. 41 38 c l
37. . , . y y 2 5 6 5 $ # -
38.
39. , 1
7
4
7
7
1
- d n
40. (a) x y 9 16 0 - + = (b) x y 9 20 0 + + =
(c) , Q 20 0 = - ^ h (d) 27 21 c l
41. Domain: all real ; x 2 ! ! range: all real y
42. (a) sin a b - ^ h (b) 45 cos
2
1
c = (c)
8
3 1
2
+
^ h

43. (a) 149.1 m (b) 46 48 c l 44. 7.5,17.5 X = ^ h
45. 3 46. , . x x 1 1 6 1 2 47. x 150c =
48. (a) 8 129 0 x y - + = (b) , R 7
8
1
17
64
1
= d n
49.
t
t t t t
1
2 6 2 1
2
4 3 2
+
+ - + +
2
^ h

50. f x x x x
f
3 7 5 3
3 3 3 7 3 5 3 3
81 63 15 3
0
3 2
3
= - - -
= - - -
= - - -
=
2
]
] ] ] ]
g
g g g g

So x 3 - is a factor of f x x x x 3 7 5 3
3 2
= - - - ] g
51. , , a b c 1 3 1 = = - = -
52. , x y x y 3 1 0 3 7 0 - - = + - =
53. 2175 cm
3
; 1045 cm
2

54. , y y 3 2 1 1 1 1 - - - 55.
65
56

56. (a) , , , x 60 120 240 300 c c c c = (b) , , x 0 90 360 c c c =
(c) x 270c =
57. (a) 0
(b)
58. n 90 1 135 # # c c i = + -
n
] g 59. 8 8 c l
60. . , . x y 6 5 2 8 = - = 61. y x
4
= -
62. (a) 4 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 1
2
1
(e) 22
63. 2 1 5 P x x x
2
= - + + ] ] ^ g g h
64. 15 504
65. P x x x 5 1 = - - +
2
] ] ] g g g 66. 63 67. (a)
68. (b) 69. (c) 70. (a), (b), (d)
71. (b) 72. (b) 73. (a) 74. (d)
75. (d)

Maths in Focus Preliminary 3 Unit

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Maths in Focus Preliminary 3 Unit

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Mathematics Extension 1

= = - = - so they are all rational.

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