Bloom's Modern Critical Views

AlricanAmcrican
Pocts: \olumc !
AlricanAmcrican
Pocts: \olumc !!
Aldous Huxlcy
Allrcd, Lord Tcnnyson
Alicc Valkcr
Amcrican Vomcn
Pocts: 16501950
Amy Tan
Arthur Millcr
AsianAmcrican
Vritcrs
August Vilson
Thc 8iblc
Thc 8ronts
Carson McCullcrs
Charlcs ickcns
Christophcr Marlowc
Cormac McCarthy
C.S. Lcwis
antc Alighicri
avid Mamct
crck Valcott
on cLillo
oris Lcssing
dgar Allan Poc
milc Zola
mily ickinson
rncst Hcmingway
udora Vclty
ugcnc Ncill
F. Scott Fitzgcrald
Flanncry Connor
Franz Kalka
Gabricl Garca
Mrqucz
Gcollrcy Chauccr
Gcorgc rwcll
G.K. Chcstcrton
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Hans Christian
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Hcrmann Hcssc
H.G. Vclls
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Vritcrs
Homcr
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Jamaica Kincaid
Jamcs Joycc
Janc Austcn
Jay Vright
J.. Salingcr
JcanPaul Sartrc
John !rving
John Kcats
John Milton
John Stcinbcck
Jos Saramago
J.R.R. Tolkicn
Julio Cortzar
Katc Chopin
Kurt \onncgut
Langston Hughcs
Lco Tolstoy
Marccl Proust
Margarct Atwood
Mark Twain
Mary Vollstonccralt
Shcllcy
Maya Angclou
Migucl dc Ccrvantcs
Milan Kundcra
Nathanicl Hawthornc
Norman Mailcr
ctavio Paz
Paul Austcr
Philip Roth
Ralph Valdo mcrson
Ray 8radbury
Richard Vright
Robcrt 8rowning
Robcrt Frost
Robcrt Haydcn
Robcrt Louis Stcvcnson
Salman Rushdic
Stcphcn Cranc
Stcphcn King
Sylvia Plath
Tcnncsscc Villiams
Thomas Hardy
Thomas Pynchon
Tom Vollc
Toni Morrison
Tony Kushncr
Truman Capotc
Valt Vhitman
V..8. u 8ois
Villiam 8lakc
Villiam Faulkncr
Villiam Gaddis
Villiam Shakcspcarc
Villiam Vordsworth
Zora Ncalc Hurston
Blooms Modern Critical Views
CARSN McCULLRS
New Edition
Edited and with an introduction by
Harold 8loom
Stcrling Prolcssor ol thc Humanitics
Yalc Univcrsity
Blooms Modern Critical Views: Carson McCullers, New Edition
Copyright 2009 by !nlobasc Publishing
!ntroduction 2009 by Harold 8loom
All rights rcscrvcd. No part ol this publication may bc rcproduccd or utilizcd in any
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An imprint ol !nlobasc Publishing
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Carson McCullcrs / cditcd and with an introduction by Harold 8loom. Ncw cd.
p. cm. (8looms modcrn critical vicws)
!ncludcs bibliographical rclcrcnccs and indcx.
!S8N 9781604133943 (hardcovcr)
1. McCullcrs, Carson, 19171967Criticism and intcrprctation. 2. Vomcn and
litcraturcSouthcrn StatcsHistory20th ccntury. !. 8loom, Harold.
PS3525.A1772Z584 2009
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Contributing ditor: Pamcla Loos
Covcr dcsigncd by Takcshi Takahashi
Printcd in thc Unitcd Statcs ol Amcrica
8ang J8 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
This book is printcd on acidlrcc papcr.
All links and Vcb addrcsscs wcrc chcckcd and vcrilicd to bc corrcct at thc timc ol
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havc changcd sincc publication and may no longcr bc valid.
ditors Notc vii
!ntroduction 1
Harold Bloom
Gray ycs !s Glass: !magc and
Tcmc in Te Member of the Wedding 7
Tony J. Staord
A Mixturc ol clicious and Frcak:
Tc Quccr Fiction ol Carson McCullcrs 17
Rachel Adams
xpanding Southcrn Vhitcncss:
Rcconccptualizing thnic icrcncc in
thc Short Fiction ol Carson McCullcrs 45
Cynthia Wu
Rcvisiting thc Southcrn Grotcsquc:
Mikhail 8akhtin and thc Casc ol Carson McCullcrs 57
Sarah Gleeson-White
Carson McCullcrss Primal Sccncs:
Te Ballad of the Sad Caf 73
Doreen Fowler
Tc claycd ntrancc ol Lily Mac Jcnkins: Quccr
!dcntity, Gcndcr Ambiguity, and Southcrn Ambivalcncc
in Carson McCullcrss Te Member of the Wedding 87
Betty E. McKinnie and Carlos L. Dews
Contents
ividcd Hcarts: Carson McCullcrs and
Harpcr Lcc xplorc Racial Unccrtainty 99
Je Abernathy
Approaching Community in Carson
McCullcrss Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter 117
Jennifer Murray
Tc Altcrlilc ol Covcrturc:
Contract and Gilt in Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal 127
Naomi Morgenstern
Ambiguitythc !dcal Vay ol Having thc Vorld 149
Ellen Matlok-Ziemann
Chronology 177
Contributors 180
8ibliography 183
Acknowlcdgmcnts 187
!ndcx 189
Contcnts
vi
vii
My introduction strcsscs that thc salicnt charactcr trait ol McCullcrss
protagonists is thcir tragic capacity to lovc impossiblc rccipicnts ol thcir
crotic dcsircs.
Tony J. Staord commcnts on thc anguish ol addrcssing an abscnt God
in Te Member of the Wedding, whilc Rachcl Adams vcry scnsitivcly analyzcs
McCullcrss morcthanbiscxual stancc.
For Cynthia Vu, thc short storics ol McCullcrs providc a morc
nuanccd pcrspcctivc on southcrn whitcncss, altcr which Sarah Glccson
Vhitc opcns a 8akhtinian window on notcs ol thc grotcsquc without which
Carson McCullcrs could not havc cxistcd.
Lonclincss in Te Ballad of the Sad Caf is cstablishcd by orccn Fowlcr
as thc motivation lor that works rcturn ol thc rcprcsscd, whilc lor 8ctty .
McKinnic and Carlos L. cws southcrn ambivalcncc brutally triumphs ovcr
thc tcnsc ambiguitics ol Te Member of the Wedding.
Harpcr Lcc is contrastcd with McCullcrs by Jc Abcrnathy, who
implicitly nds morc strcngth in thc cxploration ol racc by McCullcrs, which
sccms to mc right.
Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter, my own lavoritc McCullcrs, rcccivcs an
apprcciation by Jcnnilcr Murray, who sccs that cmpathy is thc books strong
clcmcnt.
Naomi Morgcnstcrn analyzcs thc dialcctic ol crotic contract and crotic
gilt in Te Ballad of the Sad Caf, altcr which this volumc concludcs with
llcn MatlockZicmanns shrcwd argumcnt lor McCullcrss drivc to cxpand
gcndcr boundarics as a way ol rcdcmption lrom patriarchal authority.
Editors Note

1
! bccomc thc charactcrs ! writc about and ! blcss thc Latin poct Tcrcncc who
said, Nothing human is alicn to mc. Tat was thc acsthctic crcdo ol Carson
McCullcrs, and was hcr program lor a limitcd yct astonishingly intcnsc art
ol ction. Rcrcading hcr altcr ncarly twcnty ycars away lrom hcr novcls and
storics, ! discovcr that timc has cnhanccd Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter and
Te Ballad of the Sad Caf and pcrhaps rcndcrcd lcss problcmatic Reections
in a Golden Eye. Vhat timc cannot do is altcr thc burdcn lor critics that
McCullcrs rcprcscnts. Hcr ction, likc hcr pcrson, riskcd that pcrpctual crisis
ol ros ol which .H. Lawrcncc was thc poct and Frcud thc thcorctician.
Call it thc tcndcncy to makc lalsc conncctions, as sct lorth by Frcud with
mordant accuracy in thc sccond paragraph ol his crucial papcr ol 1912, Tc
ynamics ol thc Translcrcncc:
Lct us bcar clcarly in mind that cvcry human bcing has acquircd,
by thc combincd opcration ol inhcrcnt disposition and ol cxtcrnal
inucnccs in childhood, a spccial individuality in thc cxcrcisc
ol his capacity to lovcthat is, in thc conditions which hc scts
up lor loving, in thc impulscs hc gratics by it, and in thc aims
hc scts out to achicvc in it. Tis lorms a clich or stcrcotypc in
him, so to spcak (or cvcn scvcral), which pcrpctually rcpcats and
rcproduccs itscll as lilc gocs on, in so lar as cxtcrnal circumstanccs
and thc naturc ol thc acccssiblc lovcobjccts pcrmit, and is indccd
itscll to somc cxtcnt modiablc by latcr imprcssions. Now our
cxpcricncc has shown that ol thcsc lcclings which dctcrminc
HARL 8 L M
Introduction
Harold 8loom 2
thc capacity to lovc only a part has undcrgonc lull psychical
dcvclopmcnt, this part is dircctcd towards rcality, and can bc
madc usc ol by thc conscious pcrsonality, ol which it lorms
part. Tc othcr part ol thcsc libidinal impulscs has bccn hcld
up in dcvclopmcnt, withhcld lrom thc conscious pcrsonality
and lrom rcality, and may cithcr cxpcnd itscll only in phantasy,
or may rcmain complctcly buricd in thc unconscious so that
thc conscious pcrsonality is unawarc ol its cxistcncc. xpcctant
libidinal impulscs will incvitably bc rouscd, in anyonc whosc
nccd lor lovc is not bcing satislactorily graticd in rcality, by cach
ncw pcrson coming upon thc sccnc, and it is morc than probablc
that both parts ol thc libido, thc conscious and thc unconscious,
will participatc in this attitudc.
All ol McCullcrss charactcrs sharc a particular quirk in thc cxcrcisc ol
thcir capacity to lovcthcy cxist, and cvcntually cxpirc, by lalling in lovc with
a hopclcss hopc. Tcir authcntic litcrary anccstor is Vordsworths poignant
Margarct, in Te Ruined Cottage, and likc his Margarct thcy arc dcstroycd,
not by dcspair, but by thc cxtravagancc ol crotic hopc. !t is no accidcnt that
McCullcrss rst and bcst book should bcar, as titlc, hcr most imprcssivc,
indccd unlorgcttablc mctaphor: Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter.
McCullcrss lcw vcnturcs into litcrary criticism, whcthcr ol Gogol,
Faulkncr, or hcrscll, wcrc not vcry illuminating, cxccpt in thcir obscssion
with lonclincss. Hcr notcs on writing, Tc Flowcring rcam, rccord hcr
violcnt, physical rcsponsc to rcading Annc Franks diary, which causcd a
rash to brcak out on hcr hands and lcct. Tc lcar ol insulation clcarly was
thc cnabling powcr ol McCullcrss imagination. Vhcn shc citcd Faulkncr
and ugcnc Ncill as hcr major inucnccs, shc surprisingly addcd thc
Flaubcrt ol Madame Bovary, whcrc wc might havc cxpcctcd thc Lawrcncc ol
Te Rainbow and Tc Prussian ccr. 8ut it was mmas situation rathcr
than Flaubcrts stancc or stylc that cngrosscd hcr.
Mick Kclly, McCullcrss surrogatc in Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter,
rcmains hcr absolutc achicvcmcnt at rcprcscnting a pcrsonality, prcsumably
a vision ol hcr own pcrsonality at thc agc ol twclvc. \ivid as thc othcr loncly
huntcrs arcthc dcal mutc John Singcr, 8i 8rannon, thc cal proprictor,
Jakc 8lount, alcoholic rcvolutionary, r. 8cncdict Mady Copcland, black
libcral and rclormcrthc book still livcs in thc tormcntcd intcnsity ol Mick
Kclly, who knows carly to bc gricvcd to think how powcr and will / !n
opposition rulc our mortal day, / And why God madc irrcconcilablc / Good
and thc mcans ol Good. Tat is thc dark wisdom ol Shcllcy in Tc Triumph
ol Lilc, but it is also a wisdom rcalizcd pcrlcctly and indcpcndcntly by Mick
Kclly, who rightly lcars thc triumph ol lilc ovcr hcr own intcgrity, hcr own
!ntroduction 3
hopc, hcr own scnsc ol potcntial lor achicvcmcnt or lor lovc. Tc Shcllcyan
passagc bccomcs purc McCullcrs il wc transposc it to: And why God madc
irrcconcilablc / Lovc and thc mcans ol Lovc.
Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter would not maintain its lorcc il its only nal
vision wcrc to bc thc triumph ol lilc, in Shcllcys ironic scnsc. McCullcrs
givcs us a toughgraincd, last scnsc ol Mick Kclly, bcrcavcd, thrown back
into an absolutc lonclincss, but ongoing ncvcrthclcss:
8ut now no music was in hcr mind. Tat was a lunny thing. !t
was likc shc was shut out lrom thc insidc room. Somctimcs a
quick littlc tunc would comc and gobut shc ncvcr wcnt into
thc insidc room with music likc shc uscd to do. !t was likc shc
was too tcnsc. r maybc bccausc it was likc thc storc took all hcr
cncrgy and timc. Voolworths wasnt thc samc as school. Vhcn
shc uscd to comc homc lrom school shc lclt good and was rcady
to start working on thc music. 8ut now shc was always tircd. At
homc shc just atc suppcr and slcpt and thcn atc brcaklast and
wcnt o to thc storc again. A song shc had startcd in hcr privatc
notcbook two months bclorc was still not nishcd. And shc
wantcd to stay in thc insidc room but shc didnt know how. !t
was likc thc insidc room was lockcd somcwhcrc away lrom hcr.
A vcry hard thing to undcrstand.
Mick pushcd hcr brokcn lront tooth with hcr thumb. 8ut
shc did havc Mistcr Singcrs radio. All thc installmcnts hadnt
bccn paid and shc took on thc rcsponsibility. !t was good to havc
somcthing that had bclongcd to him. And maybc onc ol thcsc
days shc might bc ablc to sct asidc a littlc lor a sccondhand
piano. Say two bucks a wcck. And shc wouldnt lct anybody
touch this privatc piano but hcronly shc might tcach Gcorgc
littlc picccs. Shc would kccp it in thc back room and play on it
cvcry night. And all day Sunday. 8ut thcn supposc somc wcck
shc couldnt makc a paymcnt. So thcn would thcy comc to takc
it away likc thc littlc rcd bicyclc: And supposc likc shc wouldnt
lct thcm. Supposc shc hid thc piano undcr thc housc. r clsc shc
would mcct thcm at thc lront door. And ght. Shc would knock
down both thc two mcn so thcy would havc shincrs and brokc
noscs and would bc passcd out on thc hall oor.
Mick lrowncd and rubbcd hcr st hard across hcr lorchcad.
Tat was thc way things wcrc. !t was likc shc was mad all thc
timc. Not how a kid gcts mad quick so that soon it is all ovcr
but in anothcr way. nly thcrc was nothing to bc mad at. Unlcss
Harold 8loom 4
thc storc. 8ut thc storc hadnt askcd hcr to takc thc job. So thcrc
was nothing to bc mad at. !t was likc shc was chcatcd. nly
nobody had chcatcd hcr. So thcrc was nobody to takc it out on.
Howcvcr, just thc samc shc had that lccling. Chcatcd.
8ut maybc it would bc truc about thc piano and turn out .K.
Maybc shc would gct a chancc soon. lsc what thc hcll good had
it all bccnthc way shc lclt about music and thc plans shc had
madc in thc insidc room: !t had to bc somc good il anything
madc scnsc. And it was too and it was too and it was too and it
was too. !t was somc good.
All right!
.K.!
Somc good.
nc can call this Portrait ol thc Artist as a Young Girl and scc Mick as
a visionary ol thc way things wcrc. Shc has thc strcngth ol McCullcrss
cndings that arc not wholly ncgations:
8i wct his handkcrchicl bcncath thc watcr tap and pattcd his
drawn, tcnsc lacc. Somchow hc rcmcmbcrcd that thc awning
had not yct bccn raiscd. As hc wcnt to thc door his walk gaincd
stcadincss. And whcn at last hc was insidc again hc composcd
himscll.
(Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter)
vcn in dcath thc body ol thc soldicr still had thc look ol
warm, animal comlort. His gravc lacc was unchangcd, and his
sunbrowncd hands lay palm upwards on thc carpct as though in
slccp.
(Reections in a Golden Eye)
Tc most rcmarkablc ol thcsc conclusions is thc vigncttc callcd Tc Twclvc
Mortal Mcn that scrvcs as cpiloguc or coda to Te Ballad of the Sad Caf:
Tc Forks Falls highway is thrcc milcs lrom thc town, and it is
hcrc thc chain gang has bccn working. Tc road is ol macadam,
and thc county dccidcd to patch up thc rough placcs and widcn it
at a ccrtain dangcrous placc. Tc gang is madc up ol twclvc mcn,
all wcaring black and whitc stripcd prison suits, and chaincd at
thc anklcs. Tcrc is a guard, with a gun, his cycs drawn to rcd slits
by thc glarc. Tc gang works all thc day long, arriving huddlcd in
!ntroduction 5
thc prison cart soon altcr daybrcak, and bcing drivcn o again in
thc gray August twilight. All day thcrc is thc sound ol thc picks
striking into thc clay carth, hard sunlight, thc smcll ol swcat.
And cvcry day thcrc is music. nc dark voicc will start a phrasc,
hallsung, and likc a qucstion. And altcr a momcnt anothcr voicc
will join in, soon thc wholc gang will bc singing. Tc voiccs arc
dark in thc goldcn glarc, thc music intricatcly blcndcd, both
sombcr and joylul. Tc music will swcll until at last it sccms that
thc sound docs not comc lrom thc twclvc mcn on thc gang, but
lrom thc carth itscll, or thc widc sky. !t is music that causcs thc
hcart to broadcn and thc listcncr to grow cold with ccstasy and
lright. Tcn slowly thc music will sink down until at last thcrc
rcmains onc loncly voicc, thcn a grcat hoarsc brcath, thc sun, thc
sound ol thc picks in thc silcncc.
And what kind ol gang is this that can makc such music: Just
twclvc mortal mcn, scvcn ol thcm black and vc ol thcm whitc
boys lrom this county. Just twclvc mortal mcn who arc togcthcr.
Tc rhctorical stancc or tonc ol this is wholly McCullcrss and is rathcr
dicult to charactcrizc. !n contcxt, its rcvcrbcration is cxtraordinary, working
as it docs against our incapacity to judgc or cvcn comprchcnd thc grotcsquc
tragcdy ol thc doomcd lovc bctwccn Miss Amclia vans and Cousin Lymon,
with its conscqucncc in thc curious owcring and subscqucnt dcmisc ol thc
sad cal. Vc, as rcadcrs, also would rathcr lovc than bc lovcd, a prclcrcncc
that, in thc acsthctic rcgistcr, bccomcs thc dclcnsc ol rcading morc intcnscly
lcst wc oursclvcs bc rcad, whcthcr by oursclvcs or by othcrs. Tc cmotion
rclcascd by thc juxtaposition bctwccn thc music and its origin in thc chain
gang is prcciscly akin to thc acct arising lrom McCullcrss vision ol thc
tragic dignity ol thc dcath ol lovc arising so incongruously lrom thc story ol
Miss Amclia, Cousin Lymon, and thc hidcous Marvin Macy.
7
From American Drama (Fall 1993): pp. 5466. 1993 by Amcrican rama !nstitutc.
TNY J . S TAF F R
Gray Eyes Is Glass: Image and Teme in
Tc Mcmbcr ol thc Vcdding
!n Te Lonely Hunter, \irginia Carrs biography ol Carson McCullcrs, thc
author notcs that McCullcrs, in hcr dcsirc lor warmth and tcndcrncss lrom
thosc around hcr, habitually uscd hcr cycs as a way ol communicating a
closcncss that dcnicd actual physical touching, yct mirrorcd in oncs pupils
thc cxchangc ol souls (296). Carr also obscrvcs that McCullcrs always
lookcd intcntly at a pcrson shc lovcd and cspccially at thc cycs, which shc
gazcd xcdly into (296). !ntcrcstingly cnough, this samc pcrsonal habit
ol gazing xcdly at somconc appcars in thc autobiographical charactcr ol
Frankic Addams in McCullcrs Te Member of the Wedding, and McCullcrs
uscs Frankics pattcrn ol bchavior, along with othcr vision motils, as a way
ol lcading thc rcadcr/vicwcr into a bcttcr undcrstanding ol thc plays morc
clusivc conccrns.
Tc opcning stagc dircctions ol thc play dcscribc Frankic Addams
as standing in thc arbor gazing adoringly at hcr brothcr Jarvis and his
ancc Janicc (1). Casual and trivial though thc action may sccm, thc stagc
picturc ol Frankic staring intcntly at somconc bccomcs, through numcrous
rcpctitions, an action lraught with mcaning. !t is, among othcr things, a
ploy on Frankics bchall to bc noticcd and thus includcd not only in this
couplcs rclationship but in thc rclationships ol othcrs as wcll. Morcovcr, this
opcning tablcau cstablishcs through thc action ol thc cycs a visual motil that
Tony J. Staord 8
lunctions as an intcgral part ol thc plays languagc and providcs a contcxt lor
a dccpcr insight into thc plays philosophical import.
A closc study ol thc opcning sccnc rcvcals that Frankics chicl action
throughout thc sccnc is gazing silcntly at thc couplc. Frankic, altcr thc
opcning tablcau, apparcntly is to hold hcr position until thc timc lor hcr to
hclp 8crcnicc scrvc drinks, whcn shc has nishcd scrving, shc thcn, according
to McCullcrs stagc dircctions, pcrchcs on thc ground bclorc Janicc and
Jarvis and starcs adoringly at thcm (3), which shc continucs to do during
thc cnsuing convcrsation. Yct again, just bclorc thc sccnc closcs, Frankic lcts
hcr look lingcr on Janicc and Jarvis and, linking thc dccd with thc lccling,
languidly announccs that ! ncvcr bclicvcd in lovc until now (89). Soon
altcrwards, Jarvis stands up and gazcs londly around thc yard and arbor and
thcn pulls |Janicc| up and stands with his arm around hcr, gazing around
him (10). As thc sccnc cnds, a tclling stagc picturc is prcscntcd: Frankic
gazcs londly upon thc couplc but is not includcd, whilc Janicc and Jarvis
togcthcr gazc at thc arbor and cxcludc Frankic lrom thcir cmbracc. !t is a
lorcshadowing ol thc painlul cxpcricncc that lics ahcad.
Vhilc visual imagcry occurs in a limitcd way in McCullcrs novcl, shc
has in translating hcr narrativc to thc dramatic lorm rcspondcd to thc stagcs
nccd lor physical action by cxpanding thc act ol staring into a rccurring
dccd, accompanying that bchavior with a numbcr ol allusions to cycs, sight,
and rclatcd mattcrs. Morcovcr, cycs and sight arc thc subjcct ol morc than
a lcw convcrsations, including discussions ol physical sight and cycs, thc
usc ol sccing words as a mctaphor lor various mcntal activitics, talk ol
supcrstitions and lolklorc about sccing and cycs, and storics ol things sccn
and unsccn.
Ultimatcly, thc visual motil lcads into a dccpcr scnsc ol thc plays
thcmcs, which arc, as McCullcrs hcrscll has said, about moral isolation
(Carr, Hunter, 335) and thc will to bclong (Carr, Hunter, 341). vcrything
lrom thc titlc itscll to thc last sccnc conccrns Frankics dcsirc to bclong
to somcbody or somc group, cspccially to Janicc and Jarvis, as a way ol
ovcrcoming hcr lcclings ol isolation and lonclincss. Frankic, it appcars,
is closc to thc philosophical position ol 8ishop 8crkclcy, who holds that
cxistcncc is idcntical with pcrccption: esse = percipi , hc adds, to say that
things cxist whcn no mind pcrccivcs thcm is pcrlcctly unintclligiblc. Hcncc,
to cxist mcans to bc pcrccivcd (Tilly 36061). Frankic sccms to modily
8crkclcys vicw to t hcr own situation: to bc includcd onc must rst bc sccn,
and il onc is not sccn, onc cannot possibly bc includcd. Vhilc shc may bc
surc that as long as a pcrson is not sccn onc is dcnitcly not includcd, shc
also prcsumcs thc oppositcthat thcrclorc to bc sccn is to bc includcd. Hcr
supposition is ol coursc lalsc, and thc drivc ol thc play is toward cxposing its
invalidity. n yct anothcr lcvcl, thc play is about thc isolation and solitudc ol
Gray ycs !s Glass: !magc and Tcmc in Te Member of the Wedding 9
thc human condition in gcncral, and thc song, His yc !s n Tc Sparrow,
draws upon sight imagcry in ordcr to articulatc this largcr conccrn.
!n addition to thc prcscncc ol thc sight motil in Frankics corts with
Janicc and Jarvis, sccing, and somctimcs not sccing, arc important in hcr
intcrchangc with othcrs as wcllthc club mcmbcrs ncxt door, hcr own
lathcr, John Hcnry, and, most signicantly, 8crcnicc.
Frankic hopcs to bc admittcd to thc club ol girls hcr own agc, and hcr
mcthod appcars to bc thc samc, lor shc tclls Janicc that ! watch thcm hcrc
lrom thc yard (6). Vhcn thc girls comc into thc yard, shc says, !m mighty
glad to scc you, thinking that thcy havc comc to announcc hcr sclcction into
thc club, but whcn thcy inlorm hcr that thc ncw mcmbcr is Mary Littlcjohn,
Frankics rcsponsc is, why shcs not cvcn cutc (20). Tus anothcr aspcct ol
Frankics stratcgy is rcvcalcd: not only must onc bc sccn, but onc must also
look acccptablc in ordcr to bc acccptcd, an attitudc which accounts lor hcr
numcrous trips to thc mirror.
!n anothcr sccnc involving thc ncighborhood club, McCullcrs utilizcs
powcrlul stagc tcchniqucs in ordcr to brackct and givc cmphasis to Frankics
dcspcratc cort to starc hcr way into inclusion. Altcr an outburst ol high
cncrgy, punching things with hcr st and shadow boxing (62), Frankic
suddcnly stops. Tc room bccomcs quict. Shc crosscs to thc window, whcrc
shc is joincd by John Hcnry, thc piano ncxt door bccomcs still, and 8crcnicc
turns hcr hcad to scc what has happcncd. A momcnt has bccn crcatcd in
which thc slightcst action bccomcs magnicd. Trcc girls in clcan drcsscs
pass through thc yard, and Frankic watches thcm silcntly at thc window (62,
cmphasis addcd). Tcn, thc tcnsc momcnt is brokcn by mcans ol humorous
incongruity whcn Frankic, rcalizing that hcr tactic has lailcd, givcs vcnt to hcr
scnsc ol bcing cxcludcd, scrcaming out, what do you sonsolbitchcs mcan
crossing my yard: (62) and commanding thcm o hcr Papas propcrty.
8crcnicc givcs Frankic advicc that is applicablc bcyond thc prcscnt situation
by tclling hcr, makc likc you dont scc thcm (62).
Anothcr dimcnsion is addcd whcn shc starcs at a dicrcnt pccr group.
As a prcpubcsccnt girl, Frankic docs not yct undcrstand what transpircs in
physical intimacy. Vhcn 8arncy MacKcan and Hclcn Flctchcr cross hcr yard,
shc watch|cs| thcm lrom thc window, but hcr ignorancc is undcrscorcd
whcn shc says that thcy go bchind thc Vcsts garagc to do somcthing bad,
but ! dont know what it is (59). Pcrhaps il Frankic undcrstood just what
it is thc young couplc docs back thcrc, shc would thcn know why gazing is
powcrlcss as a mcans ol bcing includcd in any couplcs alliancc.
Tc association in Frankics mind bctwccn bcing lookcd at and bcing
lookcd altcr may wcll nd its basis in hcr attitudc toward hcr lathcr, who
is, as thc stagc dircctions indicatc, abscntmindcd, sct in his habits,
and oldlashioncd. Hc is not, in othcr words, a highly awarc, grcgarious,
Tony J. Staord 10
or dcmonstrativc human bcing, and mccting thc cmotional dcmands ol a
thirtccnycarold girl may bc bcyond his rcach. 8ut in Frankics mind, two
lacts comc togcthcr: hc docs not look at hcr and hc docs not carc about hcr.
!n his prcscncc, shc lccls loncly and isolatcd. To 8crcnicc, shc complains
that hc docs not listcn to any ol my plans, that hc just sits thcrc with his
nosc to thc grindstonc and rcsponds to hcr qucstions with kind ol grunts,
and that hc ncvcr listcns to what ! say. 8ascd on this kind ol cvidcncc, shc
wondcrs il Papa lovcs mc or not (54). !n a conlrontation with hcr lathcr,
shc plcads with him to look! at hcr and thcn lamcnts that somctimcs !
think you havc turncd stonc blind. Vhcn hc appcars unccrtain as to what hc
is to look at, shc vcnts hcr lrustration: Papa, why is it you dont cvcr noticc
what ! havc on or pay any scrious mind to mc: You just walk around likc a
mulc with blindcrs on, not seeing or caring (67, cmphasis addcd).
Frankic is, ol coursc, mistakcn. 8crcnicc cxplains to hcr that hc lovcs
you, but hc is just a busy widowmansct in his ways (55). Vhcn hc
rcalizcs thc dcgrcc ol hcr sucring ovcr having bccn cxcludcd lrom thc
wcdding party, hc awkwardly rcachcs out to hcr by asking, what makcs you
want to lcavc your old papa likc this: (99). Tcn, in his own inarticulatc
way, hc trics to includc hcr in his lilc by inviting hcr down to thc storc and
ocring to lct hcr play with thosc old watch springs (103), sharing with hcr
thosc things that hc valucs. Scllabsorbcd though hc may bc and blind as a
mulc to hcr nccds, hc lovcs hcr, and his lathcrly lovc bclics his daughtcrs
invcrtcd logic that not sccing cquals not caring.
!n onc sccnc involving hcr cousin John Hcnry, whosc gold rimmcd
spcctaclcs . . . givc him an oddly judicious look (2), Frankic spcnds valuablc
stagc timc giving him a sccing tcst and concludcs that il ! wcrc you !d just
throw thosc glasscs away. You can scc good as anybody (24). Vhilc it may
at rst sccm dicult to justily thc sccnc in tcrms ol lcngth ol action, on
thc othcr hand, it docs contributc to thc dcvclopmcnt ol thc vision motil
and builds on othcr action rclatcd to sccing and looking. Vhcn 8crcnicc
rcprimands hcr, Frankic cxplains that shc was only doing it lor John Hcnrys
own good bccausc thc glasscs dont look bccoming (24), a lact which, in
Frankics mind, could cndangcr his acccptability. Tc subjcct ol John Hcnrys
vision closcs with Frankic saying, ! bct Janicc and Jarvis arc mcmbcrs ol a
lot ol clubs (24). Vhilc it may sound likc a non scquitur, in Frankics mind
it is logical that thc subjcct ol cycs and sccing brings thoughts ol bclonging.
thcr kinds ol sight rclcrcnccs arc linkcd with John Hcnry. !mmcdiatcly
lollowing thc sccnc abovc, John Hcnry initiatcs a discussion ol 8crcniccs
ncw glass cyc by scarching in hcr pursc lor it. Vhcn hc wcarics ol that
convcrsation, hc turns to pickin at thc dolls cycs, which Frankic tclls him
to takc somcwhcrc out ol my sight (27), acting upon hcr bclicl that not
to scc is to rcjcct. Shc rcjccts thc doll, cvcn though it is a gilt lrom Jarvis,
Gray ycs !s Glass: !magc and Tcmc in Te Member of the Wedding 11
bccausc shc bclicvcs it is a childs toy. Finally, it is John Hcnry who asks thc
prcgnant qucstion, is thc glass cyc your minds cyc: (91) and crcatcs thc
tclling rclrain, grcy cycs is glass (79).
Frankics convcrsations with 8crcnicc arc rcplctc with allusions to
sight, including discussions ol 8crcniccs glass cyc, cachs claim to bc ablc to
scc into thc mind ol thc othcr, 8crcniccs storics ol how vision cxpcricnccs
initiatcd cach ol hcr troublcd aairs with mcn, and Frankics matching talcs
ol hcr own sight cxpcricnccs.
Although 8crcnicc somctimcs wcars a glass cyc, at thc bcginning ol thc
play shc is wcaring a black patch ovcr thc cmpty cyc sockct, a circumstancc
which, in addition to drawing attcntion to thc cycs at thc bcginning ol thc
play, immcdiatcly communicatcs thc lact that hcr physical sight is impaircd
by at lcast lty pcr ccnt and that to 8crcnicc, as to anyonc visually impaircd,
cycs and sight arc mattcrs ol importancc. 8ut 8crcnicc, it soon bccomcs
apparcnt, compcnsatcs with othcr kinds ol vision. Morcovcr, thc glass cyc
itscll gurcs promincntly in scvcral discussions, as, lor cxamplc, whcn John
Hcnry initiatcs a discussion by digging it out ol 8crcniccs pursc. Vhilc
8crcnicc is inscrting thc cyc, John Hcnry rcmarks that thc bluc glass cyc
looks vcry cutc, but Frankic opincs that ! dont scc why you had to gct
that cyc. !t has a wrong cxprcssionlct alonc bcing bluc (25). Vhcn John
Hcnry asks which ol 8crcniccs cycs has bcttcr vision, 8crcnicc cxplains that
hcr glass cyc, hcr right cyc, dont do mc no sccing good at all (25). Still,
! likc thc glass cyc bcttcr, John Hcnry insists, it is so bright and shinya
rcal prctty cyc (25). Suddcnly, with all this talk ol cycs, Frankic incvitably
makcs thc association: Janicc and Jarvis. !t givcs mc this pain just to think
about thcm (25). 8crcnicc thcn closcs thc subjcct by again alluding to cycs:
!t is a known truth that graycycd pcoplc, arc jcalous (25).
Tc imagc ol thc glass cyc bcgins to bc applicd in othcr ways and
thus to acquirc broadcr signicancc. 8crcnicc claims, lor cxamplc, that !
can scc right through thcm two gray cycs ol yours likc thcy was glass (79),
to which John Hcnry rcsponds by chanting thc rclrain, gray cycs is glass
(79). Frankic in turn tcnscs hcr brows and looks stcadily at 8crcnicc
whilc 8crcnicc continucs, ! scc what you havc in mind . . . ! scc through
thcm cycs (80). John Hcnry rcpcats his rclrain twicc morc, gray cycs is
glass, gray cycs is glass (81). And a syllogism is crcatcd: gray cycs arc
glass, Frankics cycs arc gray, crgo, Frankics cycs arc glass, mctaphorically
spcaking, glass cycs, as 8crcnicc has alrcady cstablishcd, dont do . . . no
sccing good at all. Morc spccically, glass cycs, i.c., Frankics gray cycs,
arc inccctivc in thcir looking, and this lact prccludcs Frankics staring hcr
way into Janiccs and Jarvis union, cvcn though Frankics glass cycs do
allow 8crcnicc to scc through thcm, gurativcly spcaking, and know what
Frankic is thinking.
Tony J. Staord 12
8crcnicc concurs with Frankic that cycs arc important in oncs rclations
with othcrs and holds othcr bclicls about thcm. Shc rclatcs scvcral talcs about
hcr involvcmcnt with mcn which bcgan with a sight cxpcricncc. Frankic opcns
thc discussion by tclling 8crcnicc about somcthing quccr that happcncd to
hcr carlicr in thc day whcn shc passcd this allcy and caught a glimpsc ol
somcthing in thc corncr ol my lclt cyc . . . And this glimpsc brought to my
mind . . . my brothcr and thc bridc that ! just stood thcrc and couldnt hardly
bcar to look and scc what it was. 8ut, disappointingly, it turncd out to bc just
two colorcd boys, but it gavc mc such a quccr lccling (73).
8crcnicc starcs at Frankic and asks, can you scc through thcsc boncs
in my lorchcad: Vhcn Frankic attcmpts to claboratc, 8crcnicc says shc has
sharcd thc samc disappointmcnt:
! know what you mcan. You mcan right hcrc in thc corncr ol
your cyc . . . you suddcnly catch somcthing thcrc. And this cold
shivcr run all thc way down you. And you stand thcrc lacing
Jcsus knows what. But not . . . who you wanted it to be. And lor a
minutc you lccl likc you bccn droppcd down a wcll. (73, cmphasis
addcd)
Ycs, thats it, says Frankic, without rcalizing that shc has acknowlcdgcd
that sight can bc unrcliablc and a bctrayal.
8crcnicc, who bclicvcs that cvcrything ! sccn comc to mc as a kind ol
sign (75), continucs thc convcrsation. First camc thc timc whcn in church
shc put hcr hcad down on thc pcw and my cycs wcrc opcn . . . whcn suddcnly
this shivcr ran all thc way through mc. ! had caught sight ol somcthing lrom
thc corncr ol my cyc (76). !t was thc rst timc shc cvcr laid cycs on |that|
big old nogood Jamic 8calc (77) and his smashcd thumb, which rcmindcd
hcr ol Ludics thumb. Sccond camc thc timc whcn ! sccn this shapc appcar
bclorc mc . . . ! almost droppcd dcad thcrc on thc sidcwalk . . . |bccausc|
lrom thc back vicw it lookcd likc hc was Ludics ghost or Ludics twin
(78). Tis turncd out to bc Hcnry Johnson, who wcnt crazy on hcr (78).
Apparcntly intcndcd as cautionary talcs about rclying on sight cxpcricnccs,
thcsc storics, so says 8crcnicc, apply to cvcrybody and arc a warning to
Frankic about that wcdding tomorrow (79).
Ultimatcly, thc rcal cmphasis ol thc looking motil is on Frankic. Altcr
hcr attcmpt in thc opcning sccnc to gazc hcr way into Janiccs and Jarvis
union, thc couplc dcparts lor Summcrhill, and Frankic is lclt to analyzc hcr
lcclings, rccct on what happcncd, and makc plans lor thcir rcturn, all ol
which discussions makc rclcrcncc to cycsight.
!n rcminiscing about thcir initial visit, Frankic dcclarcs that thcy wcrc
thc two prctticst pcoplc ! cvcr saw (15), that ! just ncvcr saw any two
Gray ycs !s Glass: !magc and Tcmc in Te Member of the Wedding 13
pcoplc likc thcm (13), and that, look as hard as shc might, ! couldnt scc all
ol thcm ! wantcd to scc. My brains couldnt gathcr togcthcr quick cnough to
takc it all in (15). Shc tclls 8crcnicc that ! scc thcm just as plain as ! scc you.
Plaincr (48). Shc swcar|s| to Jcsus by my two cycs (42) that shc will gct
hcrscll includcd, and thcn, according to McCullcrs unusual stagc dircctions,
shc gazcs around thc walls ol thc room (42), as though practicing hcr skill.
Vhcn shc qucrics, how did ! act|,| what did ! do, 8crcnicc conrms that
you just watchcd thc pair ol thcm likc thcy was ghosts (39).
Troughout thc rcst ol thc play, sight allusions appcar randomly in
support ol thc cyc motil. Tc stagc dircctions on somc dozcn occasions usc
words such as starc, gazc, watch, look, glancc, and glimpsc to
dcscribc Frankics bchavior, and thc objcct ol hcr sight is cithcr 8crcnicc,
pcoplc passing through hcr yard, thc room, or, most oltcn, thc mirror, in
which shc cithcr practiccs hcr staring or rcgards hcr looks. Shc drcams
ol hcr lilc with thc couplc and thc timc whcn thcy will bc callcd upon to
givc an cyc witncss account about somcthing (61). Finally, shc muscs ovcr
thc phcnomcnon ol passing a strangcr in thc strcct whcn thc cycs makc a
conncction and thcn you ncvcr scc cach othcr again . . . not in your wholc
lilc (86). Vithout rcalizing it, shc has admittcd oncc again thc inccacy ol
cycs in cstablishing conncctions.
Altcr thc wcdding and altcr hcr lathcr has haulcd hcr o thc wcdding
car, which shc had lorccd hcr way into, Frankic is cscortcd by hcr lathcr into
thc kitchcn whcrc shc ings hcrscll on thc kitchcn chair and sobs with hcr
hcad in hcr arms on thc kitchcn tablc (99). Vhcn Janicc and Jarvis rcturn
to consolc hcr, shc rcluscs to look at thcm and kccps hcr lacc buricd in hcr
arms and docs not look up, in which position shc stubbornly rcmains whilc
thcy plcad with hcr. Tis tablcau is thc rcvcrsc ol thc opcning onc in which
Frankic starcd adoringly into thc laccs ol thcsc samc pcoplc, but thc logic
is thc samc, although convcrscly applicd: ! cannot bc lookcd at bccausc !
am not includcd. Janicc bcgs Frankic not to hidc your swcct lacc lrom us
and to sit up. Vhcn Frankic cvcntually raiscs hcr hcad slowly, shc starcs
with a look ol wondcr and miscry, and as Janicc and Jarvis cxit, shc still
starcs at thcm as thcy go down thc hall (100). Tc only usc lor cycs now is
to watch thcm lcavc, thus conrming that shc is cxcludcd and that staring
has lailcd to gain hcr admission into thc rclationship.
Frankic, on thc vcrgc ol pubcrty, can bc sccn in thc coursc ol thc play as
dcvcloping an cxpanding awarcncss not only ol mating and scxual union but
ol a largcr world bcyond thc lamiliar kitchcn and thc intimacy ol 8crcnicc
and John Hcnry. Shc is givcn to adolcsccnt philosophizing and sccks to
makc abstractions bascd on hcr limitcd cxpcricnccs with lilc: shc wondcrs
about idcntitydocsnt it strikc you as strangc that you arc you and ! am
!: (85), about timc whilc wcrc talking right now, this minutc is passing.
Tony J. Staord 14
And . . . no powcr on carth can bring it back again (91), and about thc
ultimatc isolation ol human bcingsthcrc arc all thcsc pcoplc ! will ncvcr
know (86). Morcovcr, thc world ol which Frankic is bccoming awarc is a
suddcn placc. Shc is bcginning to scc that it is a socicty in which thcrc is
bigotry, violcncc, and injusticc (c.g., Honcy Camdcns cncountcrs with thc
lcgal systcm), that it is a world in which thc atomic bomb has bccn cxplodcd,
and that lilc is hauntcd by thc spcctrc ol dcath (8crcnicc cnlightcns Frankic
and John Hcnry with a simplc lact ol lilc, cvcrybody has to dic |71|).
Signicantly, all thcsc bcnumbing thoughts occur in thc sccnc ncar thc
cnd ol Act !!, dcsccnding on thc trio as thcy sit around thc kitchcn tablc.
To ward o thc scary thoughts, John Hcnry bcgins to sing thc rcassuring
words,
! sing bccausc !m happy
! sing bccausc !m lrcc,
For His cyc is on thc sparrow,
And ! know Hc watchcs mc. (91)
Hc is immcdiatcly joincd by 8crcnicc and Frankic. livcr vans asks thc
qucstion, Vhat . . . is onc to makc ol this song: Hc asscrts that thc words
sccm appropriatc in 8crcniccs mouth, that a grim irony cxists in John Hcnrys
singing it, and that lor Frankic thc song is totally inappropriatc and that shc
lccls no such scnsc ol sccurity (151). !ndccd, it may bc that thc songs
rcal signicancc lics in thc lact that it utilizcs cyc and sight imagcry, with
attcndant implications, which would suggcst that thc rcassuring thought that
God is watching thcm is undcrcut by thc inlcrcncc that gazing and watching
do not guarantcc that onc is carcd lor.
Tis invocation ol divinc gazing dccpcns thc sight motil. Tc lonclincss,
isolation, and tcrror that ll thc thrcc charactcrs as thcy huddlc around thc
kitchcn tablc may bc sccn as an analoguc lor thc human condition in gcncral.
To this cxtcnt, Te Member of the Wedding cchocs thc pcrsonal angst ol Carson
McCullcrs, apparcntly, McCullcrs oltcn lclt a scnsc ol alicnation lrom an
indicrcnt God. Carr points out that McCullcrs sucrcd lrom a scnsc ol
abandonmcnt, a loss ol God and godlincss which hauntcd hcr, intcrmittcntly,
much ol hcr lilc (Hunter 194). Carr citcs scvcral incidcnts that givc tcstimony
to McCullcrs thcological vicws, but onc ol thc most dramatic occurrcd onc
cvcning whcn McCullcrs was sitting around with a group ol othcr writcrs
at thc Yaddo Colony and, apropos ol nothing, suddcnly cricd out, !vc lost
thc prcscncc ol God! (195). Such dccp lcclings ol dcspair sccm to bc bchind
thc mctaphysical statcmcnt ol thc play and to undcrscorc thc irony ol thc
comlort lound in thc song by thc thrcc charactcrs, all ol which is brought out
through an cxamination ol cyc and sight imagcry.
Gray ycs !s Glass: !magc and Tcmc in Te Member of the Wedding 15
Vovxs Ci :vb
Carr, \irginia Spcnccr. Te Lonely Hunter: A Biography of Carson McCullers. Ncw York:
Carroll and Gral Publishcrs, !nc., 1985.
. Understanding Carson McCullers. Columbia: Univcrsity ol South Carolina Prcss,
1990.
vans, livcr. Te Ballad of Carson McCullers: A Biography. Ncw York: CowardMcCann,
!nc., 1966.
Mc8ridc, Mary. Lonclincss and Longing in Sclcctcd Plays ol Carson McCullcrs and
Tcnncsscc Villiams. Modern American Drama: Te Female Canon. Ruthcrlord, NJ:
Fairlcigh ickinson Univcrsity Prcss, 1990.
McCullcrs, Carson. Te Member of the Wedding: A Play. Ncw York: Ncw ircctions 8ooks,
1951.
Tilly, Frank. A History of Philosophy. Ncw York: Hcnry Holt and Company, 1952.
Vcalcs, Gcrald. American Drama Since World War II. Ncw York: Harcourt, 8racc, and
Vorld, 1962.
17
From American Literature 71, no. 3 (Scptcmbcr 1999): pp. 551583. 1999 by ukc
Univcrsity Prcss.
RACHL AAMS
A Mixture of Delicious and Freak:
Te Queer Fiction of Carson McCullers
!n April 1963 an aging Carson McCullcrs madc a nal visit to thc dccp
South, whcrc shc mct twcntysixycarold Gordon Langlcy Hall at a party
in Charlcston. At thc cnd ol thc cvcning, shc pullcd him asidc as thc othcr
gucsts bcgan to go homc and studicd him intcntly lor a momcnt without
spcaking, thcn rcmarkcd gcntly, Yourc rcally a littlc girl.
1
Ycars latcr,
physicians concurrcd that Hall, who had bccn scxcd malc at birth, was
biologically lcmalc and capablc ol bcaring childrcn. Classicd as a transscxual,
Gordon Langlcy Hall undcrwcnt gcndcr rcassignmcnt surgcry to bccomc
awn Pcpita Hall. Shc subscqucntly marricd hcr black butlcr, JohnPaul
Simmons, and gavc birth to a daughtcr.
2
!n a 1971 intcrvicw, HallSimmons
crcditcd McCullcrs with giving hcr thc couragc to acknowlcdgc what wcrc
at that timc highly unconvcntional dcsircs: Carson, hcr scnscs sharpcncd by
hcr own aiction, saw mc lor what ! was in a momcnt ol truth and hcr hcart
wcnt out to mc. ! was a lrcak, ycs, a lrcak, likc onc ol hcr own charactcrs.
3

HallSimmons attributcs McCullcrss uncommon insight to hcr aiction,
undoubtcdly a rclcrcncc to thc authors chronic illncss but alsoin thc
contcxt ol an account conccrncd with thc prccisc corrcspondcncc ol scx
and gcndcrpossibly to hcr crotic intcrcst in womcn as wcll as mcn and
hcr prclcrcncc lor triangulatcd rathcr than couplcd lovc aairs.
4
Howcvcr,
it was not only McCullcrss cxpcricnccs but hcr position as an author, a
Rachcl Adams 18
crcator ol lrcaks, that cnablcd hcr to rccognizc HallSimmonss dicrcncc.
McCullcrss ability to author dcviant bodics has, lor HallSimmons, a dircct
rclationship to hcr capacity to rccognizc thc pain cxpcricnccd by rcal pcrsons
dcsignatcd as lrcaks. Likcwisc, HallSimmonss lonclincss and marginality
bccomc mcaninglul through thc cquation ol hcr lrcakish condition with that
ol McCullcrss charactcrs.
!ndccd, as HallSimmonss analogy indicatcs, McCullcrss ction is
populatcd by lrcaks, charactcrs constraincd by corporcal anomalics that dcly
thc imposition ol normativc catcgorics ol idcntity. Tcsc lrcaks sucr an
alicnation lrom thcir bodics that parallcls thcir cxpcricnccs ol cstrangcmcnt
within and isolation lrom thc socicty ol othcrs. Rcpcatcdly, critics ol
McCullcrss work havc attributcd hcr charactcrs sucring to an cxistcntial
anguish inhcrcnt in thc human condition. vcn thosc who rccognizc
particular lorms ol racc or gcndcrbascd opprcssion tcnd to conncct thcm
to thc varicty and complcxity ol human isolation and . . . thc dcstructivc
rcpcrcussions ol that alicnation.
5
Tis pcrspcctivc ignorcs thc historical
spccicity ol McCullcrss writing, in which lrcakish charactcrs point to thc
untcnability ol normativc conccpts ol gcndcr and racc at a momcnt whcn
thcsc catcgorics wcrc dcncd with particular rigidity.
Tis cssay sccks to rccontcxtualizc two ol McCullcrss postVorld Var
!! novclsMember of the Wedding (1946) and Clock without Hands (1961)
by cxploring thc signicancc ol two intcrlocking conccpts that occupy a
privilcgcd position in hcr writing: thc lrcak and thc quccr. As McCullcrs
uscs thcsc tcrms, thcir lunction dcpcnds not upon thcir corrcspondcncc to
any xcd idcntity but upon thcir opposition to normativc bchaviors and
social distinctions. Tc quccr rclcrs looscly to acts and dcsircs that conlound
thc notion ol a normativc hctcroscxuality as wcll as to thc homoscxuality that
is its abjcct byproduct. Frcaks arc bcings who makc thosc quccr tcndcncics
visiblc on thc bodys surlaccs. Frcaks and quccrs sucr bccausc thcy cannot
bc assimilatcd into thc dominant social ordcr, yct thcir prcscncc highlights
thc cxccsscs, contradictions, and incohcrcnccs at thc vcry hcart ol that ordcr.
Somctimcs, as in thc casc ol Gordon Langlcy Hall, thcy inhabit its most
intimatc and sclcctivc social circlcs. Far lrom thc archctypal portraits ol human
alicnation that so many havc dctcctcd in McCullcrss work, this intcrplay ol
pcrsonal sucring and social critiquc is situatcd rmly within thc contcxt ol
historical cvcnts: thc cnd ol Vorld Var !!, thc paranoia and conlormity that
charactcrizcd thc onsct ol thc Cold Var, and thc brcwing dissatislaction ol
racial and scxual minoritics.
6
Morcovcr, thc discomlort lrcaks and quccrs
cxpcricncc docs not takc placc solcly at thc lcvcl ol cxistcntial abstraction but
is concrctizcd in thcir uncasy rclationships to matcrial things. !n thc postwar
Unitcd Statcs, consumcr spcnding was linkcd to an incrcascd cmphasis on
domcsticity and thc lamily. Tc purchasc ol homcs and durablc goods such
A Mixturc ol clicious and Frcak: Tc Quccr Fiction ol Carson McCullcrs 19
as cars, applianccs, and lurniturc sccmcd to hcrald an unprcccdcntcd national
aucncc that promiscd to ncutralizc cconomic dicrcnccs among Amcrican
citizcns.
7
McCullcrss charactcrs participatc in this consumcr cconomy, but
thc matcrial posscssions thcy covct arc always inappropriatc, luxury itcms
that indicatc a dcsirc in cxccss ol rcspcctablc, lamilyoricntcd modcs ol
mass consumption.
8
Rathcr than guarantccing cntry into thc comlortablc
anonymity ol consumcr culturc, thc owncrship ol lrivolous things instcad
draws attcntion to thc irrcconcilablc dicrcnccs ol thc lrcaks body, which
providc thc visiblc cvidcncc ol quccr dcsircs that cannot bc domcsticatcd.
Tc dcviant body is thus a sitc ol cxtrcmc constraint in which any
attcmpt to conccal its dicrcnccs only makcs its abnormality morc apparcnt.
At thc samc timc, McCullcrss lrcaks arc gurcs ol possibility whosc quccr
transgrcssions ol scxcd, gcndcrcd, and racial boundarics cnablc a productivc
rcconsidcration ol normativc social rclations. Vhilc rcsistancc oltcn rcmains
at thc lcvcl ol imagincd potcntial lor hcr charactcrs, thc rcadcr opcn to thc
quccr suggcstions ol McCullcrss ction is lclt to considcr thc possibilitics ol
a world lrcc lrom thc tyranny ol thc normal. !n hcr most lamous and critically
acclaimcd novcl, Member of the Wedding, thc awkward rclationship bctwccn
bodics and things highlights thc limitations ol an idcalizcd lcmininity and
lacilitatcs thc imagination ol a ncw social ordcr, onc that would rcjcct thc
normal in lavor ol thc quccr possibilitics ol thc lrcaks cxtraordinary corporcal
lorm. Tcsc notions rcsurlacc in McCullcrss nal work, Clock without
Hands, whcrc thc bordcrs ol normativc masculinc idcntity arc thrcatcncd by
lrcakish pcrmutations ol racc, agc, and scxual dicrcncc. !n thcsc novcls, thc
lrcak and thc quccr cmcrgc as contradictory gurcs that haunt thc inncrmost
rcccsscs ol thc normal, whcrc dcviant bodics sucr alicnation and violcncc
but also whcrc lantasics ol rcmaking thc world arc gcrminatcd, nurturcd, and
articulatcd. McCullcrs thus cngagcs in a projcct ol social criticism that, at
its most pcnctrating, rcvcals thc links bctwccn scxual intolcrancc and racial
bigotry, and, at its most hopclul, rccognizcsin thc gaps bctwccn charactcrs
longings and thc sucring thcy cndurcthc quccr inconsistcncics and
cxccsscs at thc ccntcr ol thc social ordcr that contain thc possibility lor its
rclashioning.
Quvvvs, vvv~xs, ~xb v~ci ~i bi vvvvvxcv
8clorc turning to McCullcrss ction, it is ncccssary to claboratc thc
rclationship bctwccn hcr insistcnt usc ol thc quccr and its currcnt
rcdcploymcnts, thc link bctwccn thc quccr and thc lrcak, and nally, thc
way that cach ol thcsc catcgorics is incxtricably bound to problcms ol racial
dicrcncc. Vhat McCullcrs mcans by thc quccr is vaguc but suggcstivc.
Hcr invocation ol thc tcrm queer is lrcqucntly associatcd with hcr charactcrs
Rachcl Adams 20
rcccptivcncss to othcrwisc unthinkablc pcrmutations ol scx and gcndcr,
which arc dcncd in opposition to normativc catcgorics ol idcntication
and dcsirc. Such a vcilcd dcploymcnt ol thc quccr is unsurprising at a
historical momcnt whcn it rcgularly lunctioncd as a shaming mcchanism
to lcgitimatc discrimination and physical violcncc against homoscxuals.
9

McCullcrss dcpiction ol nonnormativc gcndcr and scxual idcntitics may
bc illuminatcd by rcading hcr ction through thc lcns ol rcccnt work
on quccr thcory. My point is not that McCullcrs, writing during an cra
whcn thc dominant culturc was intcnscly homophobic, anticipatcd thc
prcscnt rcvolutionary politics ol quccr thcory and activism but, rathcr,
that contcmporary articulations ol thc quccr ocr an idcal vocabulary
lor undcrstanding prcviously closctcd aspccts ol hcr ction. At thc samc
timc, hcr undcrstanding ol thc conjoincd historics ol racc and scxuality
is important to quccr thcorys intcrcst in cxploring intcrlocking lorms ol
dicrcncc. !n both Member of the Wedding and Clock without Hands, scxual
dicrcncc always lunctions in rclation to thc hicrarchical rclationship
bctwccn black and whitc that structurcs Southcrn culturc. !n thcsc tcxts,
thc historics ol racial and scxual dicrcncc cannot bc scparatcd lrom thc
owncrship ol matcrial posscssions that cnablc somc lorms ol dcviancc to bc
closctcd whilc bringing othcrs clcarly into vicw.
Tc queer ol quccr thcory and social activism is a scllconscious
rcdcploymcnt ol thc pcjorativc connotations that accompanicd thc tcrm during
McCullcrss lilctimc.
10
Hcr usc ol thc quccr manilcsts an acutc awarcncss ol
thcsc connotations as wcll as thc prcscncc ol rcadcrs who might construc
thc tcrm dicrcntly. Tc multiplc valcnccs ol thc quccr in hcr ction dcrivc
lrom hcr own cncountcrs with thc homophobia ol thc dominant culturc as
wcll as with communitics that cncouragcd a morc divcrsc array ol scx and
gcndcr idcntication. Much ol Member of the Wedding was writtcn during
Vorld Var !!, a pcriod ol incrcascd scxual lrccdom in thc Unitcd Statcs
brought about by thc scparation ol lamilics, thc growth and divcrsication
ol urban populations, and thc disturbancc ol cstablishcd social and cconomic
congurations.
11
Morcovcr, in 1940 McCullcrs and hcr husband, Rccvcs
McCullcrs, movcd to Ncw York, onc ol thc primary ccntcrs lor a ourishing
scxual subculturc. Tcrc hcr pcnchant lor drcssing in mcns clothing was
wcll rcccivcd, shc lcll in lovc with a scrics ol womcn, and shc livcd lor a timc
with a quccr aggrcgatc ol artists
12
that includcd gay poct V. H. Audcn
and strippcr Gypsy Rosc Lcc. Yct outsidc hcr own hctcrogcncous circlc
ol acquaintanccs, queer was a shaming appcllation uscd as an accusation ol
scxual dcviancc and an cxcusc lor violcncc.
13
Member of the Wedding and Clock
without Hands arc narrativcs that undcrstand thc dangcrs ol a publicly visiblc
scxual dicrcncc whilc dcpicting altcrnativc spaccs whcrc thosc dicrcnccs
might bc wclcomcd and cxplorcd.
A Mixturc ol clicious and Frcak: Tc Quccr Fiction ol Carson McCullcrs 21
Although McCullcrs is lrcqucntly dcscribcd as an author who writcs
scnsitivcly about samcscx dcsirc, thc tcrm homosexuality docs not adcquatcly
capturc thc widc array ol crotic idcntications and groupings that appcar
among hcr charactcrs, and it is a word that rarcly appcars in hcr work.
cspitc thc lact that onc ol hcr quccr charactcrs, Jcstcr Clanc, has rcad
about homoscxuals, hc rcsists thc association with scxual pathology and is
dctcrmincd to kill himscll il it turncd out hc was homoscxual likc thc mcn in
thc Kinsey Report.
14
Unlikc thc word homosexual, queer docs not suggcst an
idcntitybascd catcgory, and it morc accuratcly dcscribcs thc hctcrogcncity ol
intimatc crotically chargcd rclationships and currcnts ol dcsirc in McCullcrss
ction. Mirroring thc diusc proclivitics ol hcr charactcrs, McCullcrs in hcr
own lilc rcjcctcd attcmpts to link thc unprcdictablc ows ol human dcsirc to
thc typc ol catcgorical dcnitions suggcstcd by homo or hctcroscxuality. Likc
thc transscxual Gordon Langlcy Hall, thc author cxpcricnccd a discrcpancy
bctwccn normativc gcndcr rolcs and hcr own scxual prclcrcnccs that lcd hcr to
dcclarc to hcr lricnd Ncwton Arvin, Ncwton, ! was born a man.
15
Although
this dcnitivc proclamation suggcsts thc popular bclicl sharcd by many ol
hcr contcmporarics that thc lcsbian was an invcrta woman posscsscd by
malc dcsircsMcCullcrs was attractcd to both mcn and womcn. Shc was
involvcd in at lcast onc intcnsc, triangulatcd crotic rclationship that includcd
hcr husband and composcr avid iamond.
16
!n addition to sharing hcr
husbands lovc lor iamond, Carson was also drawn to womcn such as
Grcta Garbo, Kathcrinc Annc Portcr, and thc Countcss Annamaric Clarac
Schwarzcnbach, with whom shc had a passionatc aair. Similarly intimatc
and complcx crotically chargcd rclations surlacc throughout hcr ocuvrc to
suggcst that, lar lrom bcing thc norm, hctcroscxuality and its institutions arc
always thrcatcncd by thc polymorphous naturc ol dcsirc itscll.
Currcnt dcploymcnts ol quccr thcory not only allow lor a morc supplc
undcrstanding ol intimacy but also hclp to cxplain how McCullcrss ction
rcsists thc rcgimcs ol thc normal that dominatcd Amcrican culturc in hcr
timc. Vriting ol quccr activism in thc 1990s, Michacl Varncr has argucd
that thc insistcncc on quccra tcrm initially gcncratcd in thc contcxt ol
tcrrorhas thc ccct ol pointing out a widc cld ol normalization, rathcr
than simplc intolcrancc, as thc sitc ol violcncc.
17
!n othcr words, thc queer ol
contcmporary quccr politics is conccivcd not in opposition to hctcroscxuality
pcr sc but as a broadcr dcancc ol all kinds ol opprcssivc social norms. !l
homosexuality, and corrcsponding tcrms such as gay and lesbian, dcscribc a
samcscx dcsirc groundcd in a politics ol idcntity, queer countcrs a rangc ol
normalizing rcgimcs and calls into qucstion thc knowlcdgc/powcr systcm
lrom which idcntitybascd catcgorics arc dcrivcd. Quccr, as McCullcrs
cmploys it, poscs a pcrsistcntly mcssy obstaclc to any systcmatic codication
ol bchavior or dcsirc.
Rachcl Adams 22
McCullcrss rccognition ol thc tyranny ol thc normal produccs thc link
bctwccn quccr and lrcak that surlaccs rcpcatcdly in hcr ction. Tc lrcak is
dcncd as such prcciscly by hcr visiblc inability to t into rccognizablc social
and bodily catcgorics. Tc lrcak is associatcd historically with thc sidcshow,
whcrc, throughout thc ninctccnth and carly twcnticth ccnturics, womcn,
pcoplc ol color, and thosc with dcvclopmcntal and physical disabilitics
wcrc cxhibitcd as human curiositics lor cntcrtainmcnt and prot. Tc
spcctaclc ol thc dcviant body, hcightcncd by props and thc barkcrs
hypcrbolic pitch, was intcndcd to rcinlorcc, by contrast, thc normality ol
thc onlookcr, who cnjoycd thc comlortablc anonymity ol hcr position as
a mcmbcr ol thc audicncc.
18
Tc dicrcncc bctwccn thc paying spcctators
and thc lrcak was spatially rcinlorccd by thc lairgocrs distancc lrom thc
display platlorm. Howcvcr, in McCullcrss ction, lrcak shows lail to ccmcnt
thc distinction bctwccn dcviancc and normality, instcad calling thc vicwcrs
own normality into qucstion through thcir idcntication with thc bodics
onstagc, which rcmind thcm ol thcir own loncly, uncomlortablc cxpcricnccs
ol cmbodimcnt. Rathcr than dcpicting thc sidcshow as thc cxclusivc domain
ol lrcaks, McCullcrs suggcsts that cach ol hcr charactcrs is, in somc scnsc,
a lrcak who cannot conlorm to normativc standards ol comportmcnt and
physical appcarancc.
19
Tus thc scnsation ol bcing caught that so many
ol hcr charactcrs cxpcricncc is dcrivcd not lrom thcir status as outsidcrs but
lrom thc lact that thcy inhabit a rcprcssivc social ordcr unablc to rccognizc
thc quccrncss at its ccntcr.
Finally, qucstions ol visibility and closcting gurc promincntly
in McCullcrss ction in rclation to racial, as wcll as scxual, dicrcncc.
McCullcrss usc ol thc quccr is nuanccd by an undcrstanding ol thc way
that racial dicrcnccs havc uncvcnly acctcd thc history ol scxual dicrcncc
within various communitics. clincating thc important luturc projccts lor
quccr studics, Judith 8utlcr writcs that quccring must cntail a history
that considcrs thc dicrcntial lormation ol homoscxuality across racial
boundarics, including thc qucstion ol how racial and rcproductivc rclations
bccomc articulatcd through onc anothcr.
20
McCullcrss ction ocrs
important insights about thc ways in which scx, gcndcr, and racial rclations
arc intcrconncctcd without collapsing thc distinctions among thcm. !n both
Member of the Wedding and Clock without Hands, thc strugglc lor quccr lorms
ol intimacy cannot bc undcrstood apart lrom thc racial hicrarchics that
structurc Southcrn culturc in thc postwar pcriod.
Tnv c~zv ov :nv nvv:~vnvobi :v
Although thc adult McCullcrs lrcqucntly drcsscd in mcns clothing and took
plcasurc in aunting unconvcntional scxual prclcrcnccs much likc thosc ol
A Mixturc ol clicious and Frcak: Tc Quccr Fiction ol Carson McCullcrs 23
hcr lrcakish charactcrs, as a tccnagcr hcr odd clothing and awkward body
drcw thc contcmpt ol hcr morc lcmininc classmatcs, who thrcw rocks at
hcr bccausc shc was lrcakishlooking and quccr.
21
Tc authors own
cxpcricnccs thus attuncd hcr to clothings dual capacity to normalizc and,
whcn worn inappropriatcly, to translorm normality into lrcakishncss.
McCullcrs rccognizcd that in this atmosphcrc thc intcntional abusc ol lashion
could bc uscd to protcst rigid social codcs, but shc was also awarc that othcrs
whosc dicrcnccs could not bc ncutralizcd by clothing or acccssorics wcrc
unablc to cngagc in such playlul cxpcrimcntation. !nstcad, thcy cxpcricnccd
a lcarlul rclationship to thcir bodics, which subjcctcd thcm to cxclusion and
violcncc. !n Member of the Wedding and Clock without Hands, clothing holds
thc powcrlul allurc ol normalizationthc ability to covcr ovcr thc bodys
irrcgulariticsbut at thc samc timc it thrcatcns to unvcil thc charactcrs
quccr tcndcncics through thcir inability to wcar it appropriatcly.
Many ol McCullcrss lcmalc charactcrs, in particular, arc charactcrizcd
by a bodily cxccss that obstructs thcir ability to pcrlorm thc rolcs cxpcctcd
ol thcm or to succcsslully don thc rcquircd accoutrcmcnts ol lcmininity.
22

Frankic Addams, thc boyish twclvcycarold protagonist ol Member of the
Wedding, worrics that hcr cxccssivc hcight will cvcntually rcndcr hcr suitablc
only lor display as a sidcshow cxhibit, bccausc a summcr growth spurt has
madc hcr lccl that shc is almost a big lrcak.
23
8arcloot, wcaring a pair ol
bluc black shorts |and| a 8.\.. undcrvcst, hcr hair . . . cut likc a boys
(MW, 2), Frankic awkwardly attcmpts to conccal hcr bodys dcvclopmcnt
bcncath thc childish androgyny ol boys clothing. !nspccting hcrscll in thc
mirror shc dctcrmincs that according to mathcmatics and unlcss shc could
somchow stop hcrscll, shc would grow to bc ovcr ninc lcct tall. And what
would bc a lady who is ovcr ninc lcct high: Shc would bc a Frcak (MW,
1617). Associating lcmininity with diminutivc staturc, Frankic anxiously
prcdicts that oncc a woman rcachcs a ccrtain hcight hcr gcndcrcd idcntity
is ccctivcly ncgatcd, lor shc ccascs to bc a lady and bccomcs instcad a
Frcak. Fcarlul that shc will bc unablc to stop hcrscll, Frankic cquatcs
bodily sizc with scllcontrol and cxccssivc growth with moral inadcquacy.
!l bodily shapc is indicativc ol pcrsonal worth, a lcmalc giant is grotcsqucly
inappropriatc simply by virtuc ol hcr immcnsity, which signals dcsircs and
aspirations inappropriatc to typical codcs ol lcmininc bchavior. From Frankics
pcrspcctivc, thc body is a visual signpost indicating pcrvcrsc dcsircs that could
othcrwisc rcmain hiddcn. !t is no accidcnt that thc imagincd outcomc ol hcr
unprcccdcntcd growth spurt will bc hcr translormation into a lrcak, lor at
thc sidcshow, whcrc dcviancc is rcprcscntcd as a visiblc quality, thc bodics ol
lrcaks promisc to tcll all thcrc is to know about thc valuc ol thc pcrsons who
inhabit thcm. Troughout thc narrativc, thc adolcsccnt Frankic rcmains torn
bctwccn a quccr croticism that attracts hcr to thc lantastic possibilitics ol all
Rachcl Adams 24
that is lrcakish and thc social codcs that dcnc thc appcarancc and bchavior
ol a normal young woman in contrast to thc abnormality ol thc lrcaks
at thc sidcshow. Tc novcl cnds without rcsolving this tcnsion, howcvcr,
its conclusion implics that shc may bc ablc to translorm hcr cxpcricnccs ol
gcndcr conlusion into morc productivc cncrgics, rathcr than rcprcssing thcm
in lavor ol a socially acccptablc hctcroscxual lcmininity.
Frankics morc conscrvativc lcars about hcr own bodily cxccss arc
closcly associatcd with thc Frcak Pavilion shc visits laithlully at thc annual
Chattahoochcc xposition, whcrc Giants, Midgcts, Fat Ladics, and Vild
Mcn arc displaycd bclorc an audicncc ol astonishcd onlookcrs. A particularly
hcavy crowd surrounds thc booth cxhibiting thc HallMan HallVoman, a
morphiditc and a miraclc ol scicncc (MW, 18) whosc dividcd body poscs a
lascinating challcngc to thc univcrsality ol thc binary opposition bctwccn thc
scxcs. Tc Hcrmaphroditc has thc potcntial to unravcl thc cntirc systcm ol
scxual catcgorization bascd on thc distinction bctwccn malc and lcmalc. Tis
disruptivc ambiguity ncccssitatcs hcr/his classication as a lrcak, a dcsignation
that placcs a salc distancc bctwccn thc spcctaclc ol bodily dcviancc and thc
normally gcndcrcd onlookcrs in thc audicncc. Tc thrcat ol hcrmaphroditism
is lurthcr distillcd by thc absolutc and visiblc division bctwccn gcndcrs, cach
ol which is indicatcd by costuming that covcrs onc hall ol thc body: |T|hc
lclt sidc was a man and thc right sidc a woman. Tc costumc on thc lclt was
a lcopard skin and on thc right sidc a brassicrc and a spanglcd skirt (MW,
18). Tc HallMan HallVomans clothing thus crcatcs thc appcarancc
ol lrcakishncss, whilc warding o thc morc dangcrous indctcrminacy ol a
third scx in which thc dicrcncc bctwccn man and woman would bc
blurrcd and hybridizcd. !n contrast, thc truc Hcrmaphroditc cmbodics thc
biscxuality that McCullcrs saw as inhcrcnt in most human croticism.
24
Tis
morc indctcrminatcly gcndcrcd body surlaccs throughout hcr ction in
charactcrs such as Cousin Lymon and Miss Amclia in Ballad of the Sad Caf,
Singcr, Antonapoulos, and 8i 8rannon in Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter, and
Captain Pcndcrton and Anaclcto in Reections in a Golden Eye, all ol whom
combinc qualitics ol masculinc and lcmininc to suggcst a modcl ol scxuality
bascd on a continuum rathcr than strict binary oppositions.
25
For thc adolcsccnt Frankic at thc bcginning ol thc novcl, tcrricd by
thc maturation ol hcr own body and hurt by thc crucl rcjcction ol hcr pccrs,
thc Hcrmaphroditc signals an unwclcomc scxual indctcrminacy. !nstcad ol
cxploring thc possibilitics ol multiplc scxualitics and gcndcrs, shc attcmpts
unsucccsslully to asscrt hcr own lcmininity through thc lorccd imposition
ol ncw bchavior and clothing. Rcplacing thc undcrshirt and shorts ol thc
prcvious day, which on a morc maturc woman could bc thc costumc ol a butch
lcsbian rathcr than that ol a tomboy, Frankic drcsscs in hcr most grown and
bcst, thc pink organdy, and put|s| on lipstick and Swcct Scrcnadc (MW, 46).
A Mixturc ol clicious and Frcak: Tc Quccr Fiction ol Carson McCullcrs 25
Tis changc in clothing is accompanicd by a ncw namc, F. Jasminc, intcndcd
to hcrald hcr mctamorphosis into a young woman whosc gracc and maturity
will rcplacc thc old Frankics tomboy lilcstylc. Tc lcmininity shc so dcsircs
is cncapsulatcd in thc orangc satin gown shc buys lor hcr brothcrs upcoming
nuptials, a garmcnt that holds thc promisc ol adulthood and inclusion, thc
possibility ol bccoming a mcmbcr ol thc wcdding. Tc ncw drcss is an
important componcnt in hcr imagincd translormation lrom gangly tccnagcr
to attractivc woman, and Frankic rcpcatcdly insists on thc bcauty ol thc
garmcnt rathcr than hcr appcarancc in it, as il thc drcss alonc had thc powcr
to altcr or crasc thc idcntity ol thc wcarcr. Hcr illusions arc challcngcd by
thc black housckccpcr 8crcnicc, who rcccts critically on thc juxtaposition
ol thc bargainbascmcnt cvcning gown with hcr chargcs boyish appcarancc:
Hcrc you got on this grown womans cvcning drcss. rangc satin. And that
brown crust on your clbows. Tc two things just dont mix (MW, 84). Tc
cxccsscs ol thc gown lorcshadow Frankics subscqucnt cxclusion lrom thc
hctcroscxual bliss ol hcr brothcrs honcymoon: its lurid color is inappropriatc
to thc occasion, and it is too largc, signaling hcr unrcadincss to assumc
thc part ol thc maturc woman intcndcd to ll out its contours. !nstcad ol
translorming Frankic into a woman, thc gown highlights thc discrcpancy
bctwccn thc bodys awkward suspcnsion bctwccn youth and adulthood, and
thc garmcnts unlulllcd promisc ol glamour and sophistication.
Although thc mist bctwccn drcss and body proclaims Frankics lailurc
to acquirc a morc convcntional lcmininity, othcr charactcrs in Member of the
Wedding purposclully manipulatc thc trappings ol onc gcndcr or thc othcr
to signal a quccr idcntity that rcsists thc normativc logic ol hctcroscxual
catcgorization. Unlikc thc orangc satin gown, which cannot cnablc Frankics
translormation into a maturc woman, thc pink satin blousc is instrumcntal
in Lily Macs ability to accomplish a similar mctamorphosis. 8crcnicc
cntcrtains hcr incrcdulous chargcs with thc talc ol thc ccminatc malc Lily
Mac Jcnkins, who lcll in lovc with a man namcd Juncy Joncs. A man, mind
you. And Lily Mac turncd into a girl. Hc changcd his naturc and his scx and
turncd into a girl (MW, 76). Lily Mac, who prisscs around with a pink satin
blousc and onc arm akimbo, wcars thc cucs ol an intcntionally pcrlormativc
homoscxuality. 8crcnicc criticizcs Frankics attcmpt to bccomc a woman
simply by putting on morc maturc lcmininc clothing, but hcr account ol
Lily Mac rcinlorccs thc idca ol scxuality as a continuum by suggcsting that
a man who dcsircs anothcr man can voluntarily changc lrom onc scx to thc
othcr, a changc that is hcraldcd by thc cxaggcratcd assumption ol lcmininc
pcrlormancc and clothing. !n 8crcniccs quccr story gcndcr is a mattcr ol
prclcrcncc, and scxual idcntication is dcncd through oncs choicc ol crotic
attachmcnts, thc body litcrally cvolvcs in conlormity with thc dcsircs ol its
inhabitant and thc garmcnts that clothc it. Naturc, as 8crcnicc uscs thc
Rachcl Adams 26
tcrm, rclcrs to oncs crotic tcndcncics rathcr than, as in thc words morc
convcntional usagc, to thosc aspccts ol scll that arc static and unaltcrablc.
8crcniccs story is onc cxamplc ol thc instructivc rangc ol positions on
thc rclationship bctwccn scxuality and gcndcr articulatcd by thc thrcc ccntral
charactcrs in Member of the Wedding. Tc improbably lrcqucnt rcpctition ol
thc word quccr throughout this tcxt lcavcs traccs lor a rcadcr opcn to its
suggcstion that, rathcr than occupying any singular or normativc position,
scxuality is composcd ol multiplc idcntications and crotic possibilitics.
Although it would bc dicult to arguc that Member of the Wedding is a novcl
about homoscxuality, thc rcpcatcd usc ol thc quccr lunctions as an opcn
sccrct. For thosc who wish to cxplorc its possibilitics, thc quccr rcinvcsts
unconvcntional crotic rclations, both rcal and imagincd, with positivc
valcnccs.
26
Lori Kcnschalt has dcscribcd as lcsbian thc imagincd community
ol rcadcrs thc novcl crcatcs, howcvcr, as ! havc argucd, queer sccms a morc
accuratc tcrm bccausc it is gcncratcd by thc vocabulary ol thc novcl itscll.
Morcovcr, it accounts lor thc widc array ol crotic groupings that appcar in
McCullcrss work, many ol which do not involvc thc samcscx dcsirc or
intimacy bctwccn womcn that thc tcrm lesbian connotcs.
27
For Frankic, thc quccr is oltcn associatcd with unplcasant, tcntativc
lorays into thc world ol hctcroscxual romancc, such as thc quccr sin shc
commits with 8arncy MacKcan, a ncighborhood boy, and thc attcntions
shc rcccivcs lrom a drunkcn sailor in a smclly hotcl that makc hcr lccl a
littlc quccr (MW, 68). Such uscs ol thc tcrm work to quccr hctcroscxuality
by rcvcaling that it is ncithcr natural nor univcrsally plcasurablc. At morc
armativc momcnts, thc quccr accompanics various charactcrs attcmpts to
rcimaginc thc world as a spacc morc accommodating to scxual dicrcncc.
Tc kitchcn, whcrc thc novcls primary action takcs placc, is hot and bright
and quccr and dccoratcd with quccr drawings ol Christmas trccs, airplancs,
lrcak soldicrs, owcrs (MW, 7), thcrc, 8crcnicc cntcrtains Frankic and John
Hcnry with storics ol many a quccr thing (MW, 75).
28
Pcrhaps it is thc
talc ol Lily Mac and thc pink satin blousc that inspircs Frankics lantasy ol
rcmaking thc world to allow lor a bcttcr corrcspondcncc bctwccn gcndcrcd
idcntication and biological scx, which thcn lcads to a hcatcd, unrcsolvcd
dcbatc bctwccn thc kitchcns thrcc occupants:
|Frankic| planncd it so that pcoplc could instantly changc back
and lorth lrom boys to girls, whichcvcr way thcy lclt likc and
wantcd. 8ut 8crcnicc would arguc with hcr about this, insisting
that thc law ol human scx was cxactly right just as it was and
could in no way bc improvcd. And thcn John Hcnry Vcst
would vcry likcly add his two ccnts worth about this timc, and
think that pcoplc ought to bc hall boy and hall girl, and whcn
A Mixturc ol clicious and Frcak: Tc Quccr Fiction ol Carson McCullcrs 27
thc old Frankic thrcatcncd to takc him to thc Fair and scll him
to thc Frcak Pavilion, hc would only closc his cycs and smilc.
(MW, 92)
!n contrast with thc tcnor ol hcr prcvious story, 8crcnicc rcsponds ncgativcly
to Frankics proposal by arguing lor a xcd and impcrmcablc law ol human
scx. Vhilc Frankic holds out lor a world whcrc crotic dcsirc would rcmain
opcn to rcconguration whichcvcr way thcy lclt likc and wantcd, hcr
plan arms thc ncccssity ol a corrcspondcncc bctwccn scx and gcndcr
whcn shc makcs thc conscrvativc asscrtion that a body must occupy only
onc sidc ol thc binary dividc at a timc: boys or girls. John Hcnry ocrs
yct anothcr altcrnativc, in which individuals would bc a strangc mix ol
tcndcncicshall boy and hall girlprccluding thc polarizcd opposition
bctwccn malc and lcmalc. Frankics thrcat to takc him to thc Frcak Pavilion
rcccts hcr conviction that onc cannot bc at oncc malc and lcmalc without
bcing a lrcak, suitablc only lor display bclorc an astonishcd audicncc ol
normally scxcd pcoplc. Hcr classication ol thc HallMan HallVoman
as a lrcak, bascd on hcr own anxious cxpcricnccs at thc carnival, conrms
thc ocial mcssagc ol thc Frcak Pavilion by asscrting thc Hcrmaphroditcs
dicrcncc lrom thc vicwcr. !nstcad ol thc cmbodimcnt ol scxual possibilitics,
thc Hcrmaphroditcs quccr mix ol malc and lcmalc is translormcd into a
spcctaclc at thc lrcak show, arming thc normality ol thc audicncc and thc
clcar disccrnability ol scxual dicrcntiation, as cvidcnccd by stcrcotypically
gcndcrcd clothing. Although Frankics anxictics about hcr own quccr dcsircs
lorcc hcr to rcpudiatc John Hcnrys vision, by thc cnd ol thc novcl shc is
morc rcccptivc to thc possibility ol scxual indctcrminacy. Hcr assumption
ol thc adult namc Franccs may signal hcr acccptancc ol a typical adolcsccnt
lcmininity, but it may also indicatc hcr opcnncss to a morc unconvcntional
idcntity, lor, as Kcnschalt has argucd, Franccs may bc lcss aggrcssivcly
boyish than Frankic, but it is ncvcrthclcss androgynous whcn spokcn.
29
Frankic is thus torn bctwccn thc cxcitcmcnt ol awakcning scxual
possibilitics and hcr dcsirc to pass lrom thc quccr scxual indctcrminacy ol
that grccn and crazy summcr into a morc typical rclationship bctwccn
hcr body and thc things that surround it. Hcr cxpcricnccs arc cchocd in
thc story ol Jcstcr Clanc, thc tccnagc protagonist ol Clock without Hands
who is tormcntcd by anxicty ovcr his dcvcloping crotic attraction to othcr
mcn. Vhilc both lccl alicnatcd by rigid codcs ol gcndcrcd comportmcnt
and impcrativc hctcroscxuality, as a malc, Jcstcr cnjoys a largcr dcgrcc ol
lrccdom and social mobility than Frankic. 8ut as a gay malc hc also occupics
a morc dangcrous position bccausc ol thc thrcat hc poscs to thc rabidly
homophobic patriarchal ordcr ol his small Southcrn town.
30
As Gayatri
Spivak has writtcn ol Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter, although womcn and
Rachcl Adams 28
malc homoscxuals arc both marginal as nonscrious vcrsions ol thc malc
norm, thc woman has a rccognizcd usc in thc malc cconomy ol rcproduction,
gcncalogy and thc passagc ol propcrty. Tc malc homoscxual, on thc othcr
hand, has only thc unrccognizcd usc ol sustaining as criminal or monstrous
thc trcmcndous lorcc ol thc rcprcsscd homocroticism ol thc patriarchy.
31

8ccausc McCullcrs namcs homoscxuality morc dircctly in Clock without
Hands, thc quccr sccrct that cannot bc articulatcd in thc carlicr novcl can
bc mobilizcd lor morc dircct criticism ol thc particular social and historical
circumstanccs that gcncratcd such an atmosphcrc ol tcrror. Howcvcr, thc
invocation ol such a clinical tcrm also has thc oppositc ccct ol diusing thc
capacious possibilitics ol thc opcn sccrct positcd by thc quccr.
Jcstcr, likc Frankic, is a tccnagcr plagucd with doubts about his scxuality.
Morc convcntionally attractivc than his lcmalc countcrpart, Jcstcrs body still
bcars an awkward rclationship to thc clothing that covcrs it. !nitially hc is
dcscribcd as a slight limbcr boy ol scvcntccn . . . |who| worc bluc jcans and
a stripcd jcrscy, thc slccvcs ol which wcrc pushcd back to his dclicatc clbows
(CWH, 24). rcsscd in thc typical costumc ol a tccnagc boy ol thc 1950s,
Jcstcrs quccr dicrcncc is implicd by his ccminatc slcndcrncss and dclicacy,
a suggcstion that is lurthcrcd by his grandlathcrs acctionatc rclcrcnccs to
him as Lamboncs and darling. !n thc company ol Jcstcr and his ovcrly
solicitous grandlathcr, thc town pharmacist Malonc obscrvcs that somcthing
about Jcstcr makcs him sccm a strangcrhc had ncvcr bccn likc a Milan
boy. Hc was arrogant and at thc samc timc ovcrpolitc. Tcrc was somcthing
hiddcn about thc boy and his soltncss, his brightncss sccmcd somchow
dangcrousit was as though hc rcscmblcd a silkshcathcd knilc (CWH,
25). Vhat Jcstcrs convcntionally boyish clothing and rcspcctlul bchavior
conccal is thc intcnsc shamc ol his unrcquitcd and dccply quccr lovc lor his
classmatc Tcd Hopkins, thc bcst allaround athlctc in thc school (CWH,
42), and his mannish nglish tcachcr, Miss Paord. !n a small Southcrn
town that adhcrcs to strict codcs ol racial, gcndcr, and class distinction, thc
aucnt whitc Jcstcr is indccd a strangcr who will ultimatcly transgrcss all ol
thcsc boundarics in his sccrctivc passion lor a black man. Rathcr than bcing
dangcrous to othcrs, thc soltncss ol his body, thc visiblc cvidcncc ol scxual
pcrvcrsion, in lact puts him in dangcr ol thc violcncc that will incvitably
accompany thc dctcction ol his sccrct.
!l thc lrcakloving public in Member of the Wedding is lascinatcd by
thc HallMan HallVomans challcngc to strict gcndcr divisions, scxual
panic in thc prcdominantly malc world ol Clock without Hands crystallizcs
around argumcnts ovcr thc Kinsey Report, which documcntcd thc scxual
practiccs ol postwar Amcricans in unprcccdcntcd scicntic dctail. Assuming
thc unbiascd tonc and mcthodology ol scicncc, Kinscy was ablc to discuss
Amcricas scx lilc with cxplicit candor, shocking thc rcading public by
A Mixturc ol clicious and Frcak: Tc Quccr Fiction ol Carson McCullcrs 29
rcvcaling thc pcrvasivcncss ol samcscx dcsirc and practiccs among mcn.
32

Vhilc thc Frcak Pavilion in Member of the Wedding makcs thc dicrcncc
bctwccn dcviancc and normality visiblc, thc Kinsey Report in Clock without
Hands suggcsts that lrcaks havc inltratcd thc normal world. Kinscys study
comlorts Jcstcr by assuring him that hc is not alonc in his dcsirc lor othcr
mcn but disturbs him by classilying his dcsirc as homoscxual, an appcllation
ladcn with connotations ol mcdicalizcd dcviancc. !n an argumcnt with his
grandlathcr, thc rcactionary Judgc Fox Clanc, Jcstcr dclcnds thc Report as
a scicntic survcy ol thc scxual activitics in thc human malc, whilc thc
hypocritical Judgc, who had rcad thc book with salacious plcasurc, rst
substituting lor thc jackct thc dust covcr ol Te Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire (CWH, 83), dcclarcs it pornographic lth (CWH, 84).
Signicantly, thc dcbatc ovcr whcthcr thc Kinsey Report is scicncc
(dcrivcd lrom cmpirical cvidcncc) or pornography (thc product ol dcviant
lantasics) hingcs on thc qucstion ol whcthcr thc ocnscs in qucstion arc
visibly apparcnt. Vhcn Judgc Clanc objccts, Scicncc my loot. ! havc bccn an
obscrvcr ol human sin lor closc on to nincty ycars, and ! ncvcr saw anything
likc that, Jcstcrs impudcnt rctort qucstions thc accuracy ol his vision: Maybc
you ought to put on your glasscs. Likc thc audicncc at thc Frcak Pavilion,
thc Judgc assumcs thc position ol an impartial obscrvcr, a distancing stratcgy
that arms his normality in contrast to thc spcctaclc ol dcviancc hc vicws
bclorc him. !n a socicty conditioncd by such spcctaclcs, thc Hcrmaphroditc
displaycd in thc Housc ol Frcaks is a miraclc ol scicncc, an objcct that
can bc obscrvcd and classicd according to its qualitativc dicrcncc lrom
thc vicwcr. Participating in thc logic ol thc lrcak show by insisting that
dcviancc must bc visiblc, Judgc Clanc shrugs o thc thrcatcning possibility
ol covcrt homoscxual activity as thc lantasy ol an impotcnt, dirty old man
(CWH, 83). !ronically, this hiddcn dcsirc is prcciscly thc strangcncss that
Malonc pcrccivcs in thc youthlul Jcstcr at thc bcginning ol thc novcl. !t is
a sccrct that is rcpcatcdly intimatcd in thc dialoguc bctwccn Jcstcr and his
grandlathcr, a convcrsation that irts with thc possibility ol disclosurc but
is rcndcrcd inccctual by thc Judgcs panickcd inability to listcn to what his
grandson is saying and Jcstcrs lack ol a vocabulary that would cnablc him to
rcvcal his conccrns with honcsty and purposc.
For Jcstcr, thc Kinsey Reports scicntic validity is crucial to thc
armation ol his normality, lor hc was alraid, so tcrribly alraid, that hc
was not normal . . . |bccausc| hc had ncvcr lclt thc normal scxual urgc
and his hcart quakcd with lcar lor himscll, as morc than anything clsc hc
ycarncd to bc cxactly likc cvcryonc clsc (CWH, 84). Jcstcrs dcsirc to bc
cxactly likc cvcryonc clsc rcccts a typically adolcsccnt scllloathing, at
thc samc timc, it participatcs in a largcr cultural obscssion with conlormity
that is charactcristic ol thc Cold Var Unitcd Statcs, with its insistcncc on
Rachcl Adams 30
a dcnitivc opposition bctwccn quccr dcsircs and thc normal scxual urgc
indicativc ol authcntic masculinity. For a public particularly conccrncd with
normality, thc quccr signics a dangcrous rclusal to lorcclosc oncs options
by acccpting a monolithic undcrstanding ol scxuality and idcntication.
33

Howcvcr, thc irony ol Jcstcrs longing to bc cxactly likc cvcryonc clsc is that
ncarly cvcryonc clsc in McCullcrss ction is plagucd by quccr tcndcncics
that cannot bc classicd within a systcm ol normativc hctcroscxuality.
cspitc thc lact that thc story ol Jcstcrs lailcd lovc lor thc mulatto Shcrman
Pcw cnds with thc promisc ol closurchis odysscy ol passion, lricndship,
lovc, and rcvcngc was now nishcdhis luturc rcmains as unnishcd as
that ol thc androgynous Franccs. For a mainstrcam audicncc, this conclusion
may imply that Jcstcr has movcd lrom a childish homocroticism to maturc
hctcroscxuality, lor thc quccr rcadcr, howcvcr, it suggcsts that hc has bcgun
to acccpt dcsirc and idcntication as crazy and complcx (CWH, 202) rathcr
than conlorming to prcdctcrmincd social norms.
Tc possibilitics ol this morc diusc scxuality arc multiplicd by
a prolound conncction in McCullcrss work bctwccn scxual and racial
opprcssion, both ol which opcratc by turning somc pcrsons into lrcaks in
ordcr to conrm thc normativc (whitc) hctcroscxuality ol othcrs. As Tadious
M. avis has argucd, Vithout collapsing thc dicrcncc ol racc and gcndcr,
McCullcrs attcnds in hcr litcrary production, with varying dcgrccs ol
intcnsity, to racc in thc rcprcscntation ol womcn in thc South. Shc assumcs
thc intricatc conncctions ol racc and gcndcr, particularly in conjoining thc
two catcgorics and inscribing racc in gcndcr.
34
cspitc hcr awarcncss ol this
conncction, McCullcrs also is scnsitivc to important distinctions bctwccn
racial and scxual discrimination, lor oltcn thc cmpathctic attraction ol
quccr whitc charactcrs likc Frankic and Jcstcr to black charactcrs rcsults in
misundcrstanding and lurthcr alicnation. Tc crucial distinction bctwccn
racial and scxual dicrcncc is that quccr scxuality has thc potcntial to rcmain
dangcrously undctcctcd, whcrcas racc in McCullcrss ction is thc visiblc
signicr ol dicrcncc in spitc ol hcr charactcrs attcmpts to altcr or conccal
bodily attributcs that makc thcm thc targcts ol discrimination and abusc.
Vnv 8vvvxicv V~x:vb ~ 8iuv vv
8csidcs thc HallMan HallVoman, anothcr Frcak Pavilion cxhibit
dcscribcd in somc dctail in Member of the Wedding is thc Vild Niggcr . . .
lrom a savagc island . . . |who| squattcd in his booth among thc dusty boncs
and palm lcavcs and atc raw living rats. Unlikc thc othcr lrcaks, thc black
mans cxoticism is undcrmincd by thc rumor that hc was not a gcnuinc Vild
Niggcr, but a crazy colorcd man lrom Sclma (MW, 17). Tis spcculation
implics that lrcak is not an inhcrcnt quality, but an idcntity imposcd on
A Mixturc ol clicious and Frcak: Tc Quccr Fiction ol Carson McCullcrs 31
ccrtain bodics to justily thcir cxclusion lrom thc privilcgcs ol an anonymous
normality. Tc grotcsquc spcctaclc ol thc wild man is madc possiblc by
drawing on thc lamiliar cquation ol blackncss with savagcry, dcviancc, and
cxoticism.
35
His promincnt prcscncc in thc account ol thc Frcak Pavilion,
whcrc thc audicnccs anxictics about scxual normality arc provokcd and
assuagcd by thc spcctaclc ol thc HallMan HallVoman, draws attcntion to
thc intimatc rclationship bctwccn racial and scxual dicrcncc in McCullcrss
ction. !n Member of the Wedding and Clock without Hands, black charactcrs
must ncgotiatc, with varying dcgrccs ol succcss, thc complcx divcrsity ol
thcir own communitics and a socicty that vicws thcm as oncdimcnsional
typcs likc thc Vild Niggcr at thc Frcak Pavilion.
Tc conncction bctwccn racial and scxual othcrncss is rcinlorccd by
Frankic and Jcstcr who, in thcir strugglc to comc to tcrms with unconvcntional
crotic urgcs, arc drawn to black charactcrs who havc cxtcnsivc cxpcricncc
with discrimination and bigotry. Frankic, who is attractcd to thc stir ol
company (MW, 124) in 8crcniccs crowdcd homc, idcntics particularly
with thc homoscxual Honcy 8rown, a sickloosc pcrson (MW, 35) who
lccl likc hc just cant brcathc no morc (MW, 114). !nitially Frankic did
not undcrstand thc hiddcn mcaning in his lamilys dcscription ol him as
a boy God has not nishcd. Such a rcmark put hcr in mind ol a pcculiar
hallboyonc arm, onc lcg, hall a lacc (MW, 122). Tc imagc ol a lrcakish
hall pcrson givcs way to sympathctic idcntication as shc bccomcs awarc
ol Honcys plight as a black, homoscxual man. !magining a world whcrc
racc, likc gcndcr, is uid and shilting, Frankic rcplaccs hcr lantasy ol dcviant
corporcality with onc ol racial transgrcssion, in which thc lightskinncd
Honcy lcavcs thc South and changc|s| into a Cuban (MW, 125). Vhilc
this is a momcnt ol cnlightcnmcnt lor Frankic, hcr suggcstion is untcnablc
lor obvious rcasons, and thc cnd ol thc novcl nds Honcy incarccratcd altcr
a druginduccd crimc sprcc. Likcwisc, Jcstcr lalls passionatcly in lovc with
Shcrman Pcw, his grandlathcrs young mulatto sccrctary. Although Shcrman
showcrs thc whitc boy with physical and vcrbal abusc, Jcstcr lccls a crccpy
thrill (CWH, 67) whcn hc listcns to Shcrmans singing. Hc rcsponds to
Shcrmans labricatcd talcs ol collcctivc black protcst with cnvious admiration.
!l Jcstcrs scxual shamc comcs lrom his inability to cxpcricncc passion, his
lcclings lor Shcrman assurc him ol his capacity lor dcsirc, and lantasizing
about thc black boy allows him to bccomc a man by having scx with a
lcmalc prostitutc. As wc will scc, whilc Jcstcr dcrivcs pcrsonal satislaction
lrom his lovc lor Shcrman, thc whitc boys acctions cannot countcract thc
pcrvasivc discrimination that thwarts Shcrmans attcmpts to improvc his
social and cconomic situation.
Part ol 8crcnicc and Shcrmans appcal to whitc tccnagcrs
conluscd about thcir scxual idcntitics is that thcir bodics, likc that ol
Rachcl Adams 32
thc Hcrmaphroditc, rcsist classication into ncatly opposcd catcgorics.
8crcniccs talcs ol many a quccr thing involvc thc transgrcssion ol racial as
wcll as scxual boundarics, suggcsting that thc quccr in McCullcrss ction
cncompasscs multiplc and intcrsccting lorms ol dicrcncc. Vith onc bluc
glass cyc that starcd xcd and wild lrom hcr quict, colorcd lacc (MW, 3),
8crcnicc hcrscll is a lrcakish mix ol thc natural and articial.
36
Although
thc narrativc voicc proclaims thc cyc as thc only . . . thing wrong about
8crcnicc and prolcsscs bcmuscd ignoranccwhy shc had wantcd a bluc
cyc nobody human would cvcr know (MW, 3)as thc story unlolds it
bccomcs clcar that 8crcniccs body mirrors hcr rcjcction ol whitc notions
ol bcauty and hcr dclight in situations ol racial and gcndcr transgrcssion.
Vhilc thc appcal ol thc prosthctic cyc itscll is acsthctic rathcr than
lunctional, its color is trcatcd as an cxccssivc luxury much likc thc lurid
orangc matcrial ol Frankics bargainbascmcnt gown or Lily Macs pink
satin blousc. For 8crcnicc, who always spokc ol hcrscll as though shc was
somcbody vcry bcautilul (MW, 79), thc bluc glass cyc raiscs thc possibility
ol moving bcyond normativc standards ol appcarancc and thc damaging
racial hicrarchics that accompany thcm.
!n Clock without Hands a similar hybridity charactcrizcs Shcrman Pcw,
whosc startling bluc cycs subjcct him to rcpcatcd analysis by thc whitc mcn
hc cncountcrs. Tc visiblc cvidcncc ol misccgcnation, Shcrmans body is
pcrccivcd dicrcntly by various charactcrs whosc rcsponscs to him dclincatc
thcir own lantasics and anxictics about racial mixing. Jcstcr, who is trying
to comc to tcrms with his scxuality, xatcs on Shcrman as thc objcct ol his
dcsirc. Jcstcrs grandlathcr, thc racist Judgc who hircs Shcrman as his sccrctary
and harbors thc quccr lantasy ol rcinstating scgrcgation (CWH, 155), sccs
thc black boy as a vcritablc jcwcl (CWH, 113) and uscs thcir rclationship
as thc rcassuring cvidcncc ol his own bcncvolcnt patcrnalism. Malonc, who
has just discovcrcd that hc is dying ol lcukcmia, cncountcrs Shcrman as hc
cuts through an allcy and noticcs thc boys unnatural appcarancc: ncc
thosc cycs wcrc sccn, thc rcst ol thc body sccmcd also unusual and out ol
proportion. Tc arms wcrc too long, thc chcst too broadand thc cxprcssion
altcrnatcd lrom cmotional scnsitivity to dclibcratc sullcnncss (CWH, 15).
Tc bluc cycs, which appcar unnatural juxtaposcd with dark skin, causc
Malonc to pcrccivc Shcrman as a lrcak whosc cntirc body is grotcsqucly
disproportionatc. Although thc boy docs nothing morc than look at Malonc,
thc pharmacist automatically uscs Shcrmans unusual appcarancc to classily
him as a dclinqucnt. As in his cncountcr with Jcstcr, whom hc classics as
dangcrous and strangc, Malonc, in his trcatmcnt ol Shcrman, arrogantly
assumcs thc powcr to makc moral dctcrminations bascd on an initial visual
pcrccption. As thcy starc at onc anothcr, it sccmcd to Malonc that thc blazc
|in Shcrmans cycs| ickcrcd and stcadicd to a look ol ccric undcrstanding.
A Mixturc ol clicious and Frcak: Tc Quccr Fiction ol Carson McCullcrs 33
Hc lclt that thosc strangc cycs kncw that hc was soon to dic (CWH, 16).
Vhilc Shcrman couldnt possibly know ol Maloncs diagnosis, thc pharmacist
rcads his own lcars about dcath into thc cxchangc, imbuing Shcrmans alicn
gazc with an ccric undcrstanding.
Maloncs rcaction to Shcrmans gazc parallcls Frankics cxpcricncc
in thc Frcak Pavilion, whcrc thc cxhibits lrightcn hcr bccausc thcy look
back at hcr as though to say: wc know you (MW, 18). 8oth Frankic
and Malonc, accustomcd to cxpcricncing thc thcr as a distant spcctaclc,
arc disturbcd by having thcir starc rcturncd. Tcy rcspond by imparting a
mystcrious and improbablc knowlcdgc to thc lrcaks impassivc look. Tc
momcntary discomlort occasioncd by thc rcalization that thc lrcakish thcr
is ablc to look back has thc potcntial to productivcly dcstabilizc thc lamiliar
hicrarchics through which thcsc charactcrs navigatc thc world. Frankic will
cvcntually cmbracc this instability, whilc Malonc will dic having lcarncd
nothing and asscrting that nothing mattcrcd to him (CWH, 207). Tc
ncarcollision ol Malonc and Shcrman, in which Shcrmans mcrc prcscncc
lls Malonc with drcad ol somcthing momcntous and tcrriblc, scrvcs as
a paradigm lor racc rclations throughout Clock without Hands, in which
whitc mcns lcars and dcsircs comc to posc as attributcs ol Shcrmans
pcrson, rcgardlcss ol his actions.
Vhilc Shcrman, likc Jcstcr, longs lor normality, thc crucial dicrcncc
bctwccn thcm is that Jcstcr can conccal his quccr tcndcncics whilc Shcrmans
body makcs him a targct ol discrimination and abusc. Unlikc 8crcnicc,
Shcrmans hostility bars him lrom satislying pcrsonal rclationships in thc
black community, and hc lccls cach act ol violcncc against pcoplc ol color
in his own body, thc visiblc markcr ol dicrcncc that turns him into a lrcak
who is ncithcr black nor whitc. Shcrmans somatic rcsponsc to ncws ol racial
violcncc is couplcd with his dcsirc lor a normativc rcspcctability that would
insulatc him lrom pcrsonally cxpcricncing such violcncc. Rcspcctability, lor
Shcrman, is signicd by a largc vocabulary, which hc consistcntly misuscs
in attcmpts to imprcss Jcstcr, and thc acquisition ol luxury itcms such as
cxpcnsivc whiskcy, caviar, and silk bcdsprcads. !l Jcstcr is attractcd to othcr
mcn, Shcrman bcars a similar crotic rclation to matcrial things: as Shcrman
strokcs his bcdsprcad admiringly, Jcstcr lccls an incxplicablc crccpy
thrill (CWH, 67) lrom obscrving Shcrmans plcasurc. cspitc boasting
ol aairs with womcn, both black and whitc, Shcrmans truc passion is lor
his posscssions, which promisc thc sccurity and lulllmcnt hc is unablc to
attain through intimacy with othcrs. Shcrman is an obcdicnt subjcct ol thc
Cold Var cra, whcn thc owncrship ol things was a lorm ol patriotism that
distinguishcd U.S. citizcns lrom Communist sympathizcrs. Howcvcr, his
dcsircs also thrcatcn morc traditional social divisions in which acccss to
cducation and matcrial posscssions is racially dctcrmincd.
Rachcl Adams 34
Likc Frankic and hcr illtting drcss, Shcrmans inability to usc matcrial
things succcsslully to conccal his dicrcncc highlights thc undcniablc
visibility ol his black body and thc commoditys untcnablc guarantcc ol
privilcgc and inclusion. As in Member of the Wedding, lrivolous clothing is
an important signicr ol Shcrmans distancc lrom his inappropriatc social
aspirations: Hc had two Hathaway shirts and worc a black patch on his cyc,
but it only madc him look pathctic instcad ol distinguishcd and hc bumpcd
into things (CWH, 63). Tc Hathaway shirts advcrtiscmcnt that attracts
Shcrmans attcntion lcaturcs a scrics ol succcsslul whitc mcn wcaring cyc
patchcs. A blank silhoucttc in thc nal slot accompanicd by thc slogan, to
bc announccd soon, suggcsts that thc man to csh out thc spacc might
bc thc consumcr himscll, translormcd by purchasing a Hathaway shirt. !n
his acquisition ol shirt and cyc patch, what Shcrman lails to noticc is that
thc silhoucttc is whitc, that instcad ol indicating unlimitcd possibilitics thc
spacc is rcscrvcd lor somconc alrcady markcd lor wcalth and social privilcgc.
Unablc to sccurc social lcgitimacy through thc owncrship ol such status
symbols yct disdainlul ol thc community inhabitcd by othcr black charactcrs
in thc novcl, Shcrman is a lrcak who occupics a dangcrous liminal spacc
bctwccn black and whitc.
Finally, Shcrmans lctishization ol matcrial things as compcnsation
lor racial incquality, thc dcath ol his parcnts, his lack ol cducation, and thc
abscncc ol crotically satislying rclationships bring about his violcnt dcath.
Having sccrctly lantasizcd that thc bluccycd Judgc who patronizingly
calls him son is his lathcr, Shcrman is cnragcd to discovcr that thc Judgc
was involvcd in thc dcath ol his parcnts, whosc racial idcntitics do not
conlorm to his lantasics about thcm. !nstcad ol thc stcrcotypical sccnario
ol a black woman brutally rapcd by a whitc man, Shcrman unvcils a quccr
rcvcrsal in which his whitc mothcr cngagcd in conscnsual scx with a black
man, likc thcllo, that cuckoo Moor! (CWH, 184). Hc rcsponds to this
unscttling knowlcdgc by sccking out a dangcrous and cxccssivc visibility,
using whitc watcr lountains, bathrooms, churchcs, and rcstaurant countcrs,
whcrc hc bccomcs lrustratcd whcn his transgrcssions lail to attract attcntion.
Ultimatcly Shcrmans shattcrcd lantasy ol political cnlranchiscmcnt givcs
way to dcmands lor anothcr kind ol cqualitythc right to bc a consumcr. !n
contrast to his carlicr dcsirc lor luxury itcms, Shcrman at thc cnd ol thc novcl
attcmpts to bccomc a propcrly domcsticatcd consumcr by rcnting a housc in
a whitc ncighborhood and going on a dcadly shopping sprcc to lurnish it.
37

!l hc can votc only in lantasy, his actions insist that thc right to purchasc on
crcdit is truly colorblind. !n thc 1950s advcrtiscmcnts and tclcvision shows
cquatcd thc posscssion ol commoditics with bcing a normal Amcrican, thus,
purchasing things bccomcs a way lor Shcrman to proclaim his citizcnship.
A black man who has always lclt violcncc to his racc in his own body, who
A Mixturc ol clicious and Frcak: Tc Quccr Fiction ol Carson McCullcrs 35
has livcd in constant awarcncss that black was oncc thc posscssion ol whitc,
Shcrman is litcrally consumcd by an ccstasy ol owncrship (CWH, 196), by
thc possibility ol owning himscll and his posscssions.
Howcvcr, in McCullcrss ction lrcaks cannot casily rcconcilc thcir
inappropriatc bodics with thc ordcrly world ol Cold Var consumcr culturc.
Vhcn Jcstcr rushcs to warn Shcrman that an angry mob is gathcring, Shcrman
rcsponds by showing o his ncw purchascs, rclusing to lcavc thc things that
will cnsurc his dcath at thc hands ol rcscntlul whitc citizcns. Tc housc that
bccomcs all ol Shcrmans world (CWH, 197), a spacc whcrc hc can bricy
cnjoy thc plcasurcs ol owncrship, distracts him lrom thc dangcrs ol his black
body. Noncthclcss, a black man who can own rathcr than bc propcrty poscs
a thrcat to thc whitc citizcns who bomb Shcrmans housc as a mcans ol
violcntly rcasscrting his dicrcncc lrom thcm, lor thcir normality can only bc
sccurcd by translorming him into a dangcrous lrcak. As Robyn Vicgman has
argucd, in a lynching dicrcnccs among mcn arc so violcntly lorcgroundcd
that onc can no longcr cling to thc rhctorical homogcncity attachcd to thc
masculinc.
38
Shcrmans dcath makcs all too clcar thc prolound gull that
scparatcs him not only lrom Jcstcr but also lrom thc rcscntlul workingclass
mcn who scc thcir whitcncss as thcir only claim to supcriority. ramatically
dcmonstrating divisions among mcn, lynching thus givcs thc lic to thc lalsc
lcvcling ol dicrcnccs promiscd by thc consumption ol commoditics. Vhilc
Clock without Hands challcngcs thc cxistcncc ol normativc masculinity by
suggcsting that all ol its malc charactcrsMalonc, dying ol lcukcmia, Judgc
Clanc, disablcd by obcsity and a strokc, Jcstcr, a closctcd quccr, Shcrman, a
mulattoarc lrcaks, it noncthclcss asscrts that somc lorms ol lrcakishncss
arc morc dangcrous than othcrs, and racial dicrcncc rcmains thc most
damaging and divisivc ol all social catcgorics. Tc most important sccnarios
in McCullcrss ction arc thus thosc in which charactcrs ol various raccs
imaginc a world that docs not rcly on hicrarchical distinctions among pcrsons
lor its social organization.
A :i x:uvv ov bviicious ~xb vvv~x
Fantasics in McCullcrss ction arc thc most signicant way ol cnvisioning
altcrnativcs to corporcal incqualitics that crcatc an atmosphcrc ol alicnation
and claustrophobia. !n this rcspcct, thc sccnc in Member of the Wedding
discusscd carlicr, in which Frankic, 8crcnicc, and John Hcnry judgc thc
work ol God, and mcntion thc ways how thcy would improvc thc world
(MW, 91), is crucial.
39
!l thc world around thcm is torn by conicts
audiblc in thc pcrsistcnt buzz ol wartimc ncws on thc radio, thcsc thrcc
charactcrs compcnsatc lor inadcquacics in thcir own livcs by gcncrating
utopian lantasics ol rcmaking thc world. ach occupant ol thc kitchcn takcs
Rachcl Adams 36
a turn wcaving a lantasy that rcccts individual longings whilc, at timcs,
intcrwcaving with thc lantasics ol thc othcr two, so that thcir voiccs crosscd
and thc thrcc worlds twistcd (MW, 92). Tis modcl ol collcctivc imagining
that can momcntarily bridgc dicrcnccs in agc, racc, and gcndcr among its
collaborators is cspccially important in thc work ol rcmaking.
Frankics lantasy, in which pcrsons would bc ablc to changc lrom onc
scx to anothcr at will, rcsponds to anxictics about hcr dcvcloping scxual
idcntity. Louisc Vcstling has argucd that thcsc progrcssivc lantasics arc
undonc by thc novcls movcmcnt towards Frankics ultimatc submission to
thc incxorablc dcmand that shc acccpt hcr scx as lcmalc.
40
Tis rcading placcs
an unduc cmphasis on thc novcls cnding and lorccloscs thc possibilitics ol its
morc radically armativc momcnts.
41
Morcovcr, a ncgativc undcrstanding
ol Frankics acccptancc ol lcmalc scxuality ignorcs thc lcsbian implications
ol thc wondcr ol hcr lovc (MW, 151) lor hcr ncw lricnd Mary Littlcjohn
at thc closc ol thc narrativc. Frankics obscssion with bccoming a mcmbcr
ol thc wcddingthc narrativcs cponymous organizing conccptmight bc
intcrprctcd as cvidcncc ol a conscrvativc socialization proccss that conditions
young girls to dcsirc a convcntional lcmininity that culminatcs in marriagc
and mothcrhood. 8ut instcad ol longing to rcplacc thc bridc, Frankics
ultimatc lantasy is to bccomc a part ol thc community lormcd by Janicc
and Jarvis. Tc quccr dcsirc to bc not a bridc but a mcmbcr challcngcs
thc normativc hctcroscxuality ol thc marriagc couplc by imagining a social
organization bascd on triadic rclations, much likc thosc thc author sought
in hcr own lilc. !n both novcls, alicnatcd charactcrs long lor mcmbcrship, a
modc ol idcntity that is rclational, inclusivc, and nonhicrarchical.
Tc modcls ol scxuality and racc gcncratcd by thc thrcc inhabitants ol
thc kitchcn arc uid and opcn to many dicrcnt pcrmutations. !n 8crcniccs
imagination, thcrc would bc no scparatc colorcd pcoplc in thc world, but all
human bcings would bc light brown color with bluc cycs and black hair. Tcrc
would bc no colorcd pcoplc and no whitc pcoplc to makc thc colorcd pcoplc
lccl chcap and sorry all through thcir livcs (MW, 91). !n this ncw world lrcc ol
racial bigotry, both 8crcnicc, with hcr bluc glass cyc, and Shcrman Pcw, born
with dark skin and bluc cycs, arc modcl citizcns: lrcakish mixturcs ol black
and whitc, naturc and articc, that dcly normativc hicrarchics ol dicrcncc.
8crcniccs proposal cntails a radical rcconguration ol racc that would not
simply rcvcrsc whitc domination ol black but oblitcratc thc cntirc systcm ol
dicrcntiation bascd on bodily appcarancc by making cach pcrson a racial
hybrid. Tc hybridity that causcs 8crcnicc and Shcrman to bc gurcs ol
ridiculcand in Shcrmans casc, violcnccwould instcad bccomc thc norm.
8ut sixycarold John Hcnrys lantasy is thc quccrcst ol all. !n contrast
with Frankics lcarlul cxpcricncc ol thc Frcak Pavilion, John Hcnry is
cnamorcd ol thc Pin Hcad, who skippcd and gigglcd and sasscd around,
A Mixturc ol clicious and Frcak: Tc Quccr Fiction ol Carson McCullcrs 37
with a shrunkcn hcad no largcr than an orangc, which was shavcd cxccpt lor
onc lock ticd with a pink bow at thc top (MW, 18). Unalraid ol thc lrcaks,
John Hcnry dcclarcs, |S|hc was thc cutcst littlc girl ! cvcr saw, indicating
an acccptancc ol thc Pin Hcad as a part ol his world, and cvcn raising thc
possibility ol a growing crotic attraction. !n lact, John Hcnrys dclight at
drcssing in womcns clothing brings out his own lrcakishncss by making him
look likc a littlc old woman dwarl, wcaring thc pink hat with thc plumc,
and thc highhccl shocs (MW, 117). A charactcr whosc illsuitcd clothcs
makc him appcar both young and old, malc and lcmalc, John Hcnry most
complctcly cmbodics thc potcntial ol thc lrcak to providc altcrnativcs to thc
cxclusionary norms that structurc his culturc. !nstcad ol a shamclul inability
to t a proscribcd rolc, wcaring somconc clscs clothing gcncratcs thc
potcntial ol ncw and varicd possibilitics. John Hcnrys modcl ol rcmaking
thc world is onc that, in its disordcr and particularity, can incorporatc a
mixturc ol dclicious and lrcak:
|H|c did not think in global tcrms: thc suddcn long arm that
could strctch lrom hcrc to Calilornia, chocolatc dirt and rains
ol lcmonadc, thc cxtra cyc sccing a thousand milcs, a hingcd
tail that could bc lct down as a kind ol prop to sit on whcn you
wishcd to rcst, thc candy owcrs. (MW, 91)
Unablc to think in global tcrms, John Hcnry imagincs a world that valucs
spccicity ovcr totalizing modcls ol idcntity. Likc rcccnt articulations ol
thc quccr, John Hcnrys proposcd hctcrotopia is not organizcd around a
consistcnt, dctcrmining logic ol idcntication, but, rathcr, it rcvcls in quirky
opposition to all that is normal. Tc long arm and cxtra cyc that allow lor
a morc cxpansivc community outsidc thc Souths stiing rcgionalism, thc
cxcrcmcntal apprcciation ol chocolatc dirt and rains ol lcmonadc, thc
hingcd tail that rccalls our incxtricablc conncction with thc animal world,
all suggcst a sympathctic apprcciation ol thc body and its many variations.
Tc bcst that a lrcak can bc, John Hcnry contracts mcningitis and sucrs
a grucsomc dcath, scrcaming lor thrcc days |with| his cycballs wallcd up
in a corncr stuck and blind (MW, 152), lor in McCullcrss ction, bodily
dicrcncc oltcn must bc hiddcn, normalizcd, or punishcd, lcaving hopc
lor changc in thc utopian imaginings ol a bcttcr world. Howcvcr, as thc
morc maturc Franccs cmbarks on an cxciting ncw rclationship with Mary,
shc holds onto thc quccr possibilitics suggcstcd by John Hcnry, whom shc
rcmcmbcrs at twilight timc or whcn thc spccial hush would comc into thc
room (MW, 153).
At thc cnd ol Member of the Wedding, Franccs and Mary rcturn to thc
lair but not to thc Frcak Pavilion, as Mrs. Littlcjohn said it was morbid
Rachcl Adams 38
to gazc at lrcaks (MW, 152). Tis cxplanation lor thcir avoidancc might
indicatc Frankics submission to thc oldcr womans authority, thus scrving
as cvidcncc ol hcr ultimatc normalization. 8ut such a rcading rcmains
unconvincing in a narrativc so saturatcd with rclcrcnccs to thc quccr. Rathcr
than a sign ol thcir obcdicncc to Mrs. Littlcjohns prohibition, thc young
womcns abstincncc morc plausibly indicatcs thcir rccognition that thc world
is composcd ol lrcaks, that thcy no longcr nccd to sccurc thcir own normality
by cxploiting a lcss lortunatc thcr. Tc logic ol thc lrcak show, which
insists on cordoning o thc dicrcnccs ol somc to proclaim thc samcncss ol
cvcryonc clsc, is prcciscly thc logic that lcd to Shcrmans dcath and to Honcy
and 8crcniccs lccling that wc all caught (MW, 114).
A quccr rcading can movc bcyond this conclusion bccausc it draws
attcntion to lorms ol mcmbcrship that arc not bascd on bcing caught
within thc conncs ol idcntitybascd catcgorics. Tis is not a movc that
McCullcrss charactcrs arc oltcn ablc to makc, but it is somcthing that thcy
consistcntly imaginc and towards which thcy strugglc. Tc quccr and thc
lrcak arc tcrms that countcr thc binary logic ol scxual and racial division
and, by sccing thcmsclvcs in this way, hcr charactcrs arc both ablc to idcntily
thc caughtncss that thcy lccl and thc possibility ol imagining it othcrwisc.
Tis is thc corrcctivc lcsson that quccr thcory brings to thc idcntity politics
that causcd disillusionmcnt in thc wakc ol thc womcns, civil rights, and gay
rights movcmcnts. Rcrcading McCullcrss work lrom this pcrspcctivc docs
not providc a cohcrcnt plan ol action but rathcr a placc to bcgin thinking
about what it would bc likc to inhabit a community rootcd in hctcrogcncity
rathcr than samcncss, dcsirc rathcr than prcscription, whcrc cach mcmbcr
can nd in hcrscll a mixturc ol dclicious and lrcak.
No:vs
! wish to thank Maurizia 8oscagli, Gilcs Gunn, Carl GuticrrczJoncs, and Chris Ncwcld
lor thcir commcnts on carlicr vcrsions ol my work on McCullcrs. ! am also gratclul to my
collcaguc Gina cnt lor hcr insightlul rcading ol this articlc, to my collcaguc avid ng
lor sharing his work on racc and quccr thcory, and to my ablc rcscarch assistant, Marisa
Parham. Particular thanks arc duc Jon Connolly lor his gcncrosity and paticncc at cvcry
stagc ol thc writing proccss.
1. \irginia Spcnccr Carr, Te Lonely Hunter: A Biography of Carson McCullers (Gardcn
City, N.Y.: oublcday, 1975), 519.
2. For a morc complctc account ol Halls lilc in Charlcston, scc Jamcs T. Scars, Lonely
Hunters: An Oral History of Lesbian and Gay Southern Life, 19481968 (8ouldcr, Colo.:
Vcstvicw Prcss, 1997), chap. 5.
3. Carr, Lonely Hunter, 519.
4. vc Scdgwick has discusscd thc croticism ol triangulatcd rclationships in Between
Men: English Literature and Male Homosocial Desire (Ncw York: Columbia Univ. Prcss,
1985), whcrc shc argucs that thc hcroinc in thc Vcstcrn litcrary tradition oltcn lunctions
A Mixturc ol clicious and Frcak: Tc Quccr Fiction ol Carson McCullcrs 39
as thc conduit lor an intimatc crotically chargcd strugglc bctwccn two malc compctitors.
McCullcrss own complcx crotic lilc morc than oncc placcd hcr at thc apcx ol such a
triangulatcd aair, and in what lollows ! will proposc that thcrc may bc plcasurc not only in
thc homosocial bond bctwccn mcn, but in thc womans position as intcrmcdiary.
5. Pamcla 8igclow, Carson McCullcrs, in Gay and Lesbian Literature, cd. Sharon
Malinowski (ctroit, Mich.: St. Jamcs Prcss, 1994), 257. Critics who havc argucd that
McCullcrss charactcrs symbolizc univcrsal human alicnation includc \irginia Spcnccr
Carr, Understanding Carson McCullers (Columbia: Univ. ol South Carolina Prcss, 1990),
!hab Hassan, Contemporary American Literature, 19451972 (Ncw York: Frcdcrick Ungar,
1973), Klaus Lubbcrs, Tc Ncccssary rdcr, in Carson McCullers, cd. Harold 8loom
(Ncw York: Chclsca Housc, 1986), 3352, Franccs Frccman Padcn, Autistic Gcsturcs in
Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter, Modern Fiction Studies 28 (autumn 1982): 45363, Louis .
Rubin, Carson McCullcrs: Tc Acsthctic ol Pain, in Critical Essays on Carson McCullers,
cd. 8cvcrly Lyon Clark and Mclvin J. Fricdman (Ncw York: G. K. Hall, 1996), 11123, and
Lynn \cach Sadlcr, Fixcd in an !nlay ol Mystcry: Languagc and Rcconciliation in Carson
McCullcrss Clock without Hands, Pembroke Magazine 20 (1988): 4953. Among thosc who
acknowlcdgc thc dcpiction ol homoscxuality in McCullcrss work but makc similar claims
lor univcrsality arc Stcphcn . Adams, Te Homosexual as Hero in Contemporary Fiction
(Ncw York: 8arncs & Noblc 8ooks, 1980), Pamcla 8igclow and Clarc Vhatling, Carson
McCullcrs, in Te Gay and Lesbian Literary Heritage, cd. Claudc J. Summcrs (Ncw York:
Hcnry Holt, 1995), 47071. For a usclul ovcrvicw ol McCullcrs criticism, scc Lisa Logan,
introduction to Critical Essays on Carson McCullers, cd. Clark and Fricdman, 116.
6. For discussion ol McCullcrss postwar drama as social criticism, scc Lisa Logan
and 8rook Horvath, Nobody Knows 8cst: Carson McCullcrss Plays as Social Criticism,
Southern Quarterly 33 (wintcrspring 1995): 2333.
7. n thc rclationship bctwccn consumption, domcsticity, and thc postwar cconomy,
scc Stcphanic Coontz, Te Way We Never Were: American Families and the Nostalgia Trap
(Ncw York: 8asic 8ooks, 1992), Jackson Lcars, A Mattcr ol Tastc: Corporatc Cultural
Hcgcmony in a MassConsumption Socicty, in Recasting America: Culture and Politics
in the Age of Cold War, cd. Larry May (Chicago: Univ. ol Chicago Prcss, 1989), 3860,
and lainc Tylcr May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (Ncw
York: 8asic 8ooks, 1998). Tis pcrccivcd homogcncity is, ol coursc, countcrcd by thc
particularity ol many Amcricans livcs. Rcccnt analyscs ol urban lilc, youth culturc, and
scxual and racial minoritics indicatc a prcviously unrccognizcd complcxity and conict
during thc postwar ycars. Scc, lor cxamplc, thc cssays in Te Other Fifties: Interrogating
Midcentury Icons, cd. Jocl Forcman (Urbana: Univ. ol !llinois Prcss, 1997) and in Not
June Cleaver: Women and Gender in Postwar America, 19451960, cd. Joannc Mcycrowitz
(Philadclphia: Tcmplc Univ. Prcss, 1994).
8. For an analysis ol how thc dcsirc lor luxury itcms poscs a quccr rcsistancc to thc
socially sanctioncd consumcrism ol thc Cold Var cconomy, scc Robcrt Corbcr, Rcsisting
thc Lurc ol thc Commodity: Laura and thc Spcctaclc ol thc Gay Malc 8ody, in Corbcr,
Homosexuality in Cold War America: Resistance and the Crisis of Masculinity (urham: ukc
Univ. Prcss, 1997), 5578.
9. n homoscxuality during thc postwar pcriod, scc Robcrt Corbcr, In the Name of
National Security: Hitchcock, Homophobia, and the Construction of Gender in Postwar America
(urham, N.C.: ukc Univ. Prcss, 1993), and Homosexuality in Cold War America, John
milio, Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: Te Making of a Homosexual Minority in the
United States, 19401970 (Chicago: Univ. ol Chicago Prcss, 1983), John milio and
stcllc Frccman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (Ncw York: Harpcr &
Rachcl Adams 40
Row, 1988), Kcnncth Lcwcs, Te Psychoanalytic Teory of Male Homosexuality (Ncw York:
Simon and Schustcr, 1988), and Colin Spcnccr, Homosexuality: A History (London: Fourth
statc, 1996).
10. As Judith 8utlcr dcscribcs thc carlicr signicancc ol thc tcrm, quccr has opcratcd
as onc linguistic practicc whosc purposc has bccn thc shaming ol thc subjcct it namcs or,
rathcr, thc producing ol a subjcct through that shaming intcrpolation (Bodies Tat Matter:
On the Discursive Limits of Sex |Ncw York: Routlcdgc, 1993|, 226).
11. According to milio and Frccman, thc social circumstanccs ol Vorld Var !!
contributcd to thc dcvclopmcnt ol homoscxual subculturcs in major citics such as Ncw York
and San Francisco. cspitc thc rcprcssivc atmosphcrc ol thc Cold Var, thcsc subculturcs
continucd to cxpand, ourishing in thc 1960s (Intimate Matters, part 4). Scc also Corbcr,
Homosexuality in Cold War America, and milio, Sexual Politics, part 1. n thc risc ol
quccr urban spaccs in thc modcrnist pcriod, scc Joscph 8oonc, Quccr Sitcs in Modcrnism:
Harlcm/Tc Lclt 8ank/Grccnwich \illagc, in Te Geography of Identity, cd. Patricia Yacgcr
(Ann Arbor: Univ. ol Michigan Prcss, 1996), 24272.
12. So namcd by poct Louis Untcrmcycr, who rccallcd attcnding a gay (in both scnscs
ol thc word) occasion at which Audcn and Gypsy Rosc Lcc wcrc prcscnt at thc homc
McCullcrs sharcd with Audcn and Gcorgc avis (quotcd in Carr, Lonely Hunter, 199).
13. !ndccd this violcncc has bccn so pcrvasivc that quccr bashing is onc ol thc
compound words listcd undcr quccr in thc OED. Vhilc it is dicult to tracc a prccisc
gcncalogy ol thc tcrm, it is clcar that queer was uscd almost cntircly as a ncgativc labcl
during McCullcrss lilctimc. For bricl rclcrcncc to prcvious pcjorativc uscs ol thc tcrm,
scc Laurcn 8crlant (with lizabcth Frccman), Quccr Nationality, Te Queen of America
Goes to Washington City: Essays on Sex and Citizenship (urham, N.C.: ukc Univ. Prcss,
1997), 14574, 8utlcr, Bodies Tat Matter, Lisa uggan, Making !t Pcrlcctly Quccr, in
Sex Wars: Sexual Dissent and Political Culture, cd. Lisa uggan and Nan . Huntcr (Ncw
York: Routlcgc, 1995), 15572, Spcnccr, Homosexuality, and Michacl Varncr, introduction
to Fear of a Queer Planet: Queer Politics and Social Teory, cd. Michacl Varncr (Minncapolis:
Univ. ol Minncsota Prcss, 1994). Gcorgc Chaunccy dctails thc signicancc ol queer bctwccn
1890 and 1940, whcn it was uscd by malc homoscxuals to dicrcntiatc thcmsclvcs lrom thc
morc ccminatc fairies. According to Chaunccy, queer did not bccomc a dcrogatory tcrm
until thc midtwcnticth ccntury. Scc Chaunccy, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and
the Making of the Gay Male World, 18901940 (Ncw York: 8asic 8ooks, 1994).
Lori Kcnschalt argucs that |i|n 1946, whcn Wedding was publishcd, quccr (likc gay)
was a codc word known to many in thc lilc but lcw outsidc, it was lrcqucntly uscd to
idcntily oncscll to anothcr discrctcly, undcr thc public cyc but without public knowlcdgc
(Homocrotics and Human Conncctions: Rcading Carson McCullcrs As a Lcsbian,
in Critical Essays on Carson McCullers, cd. Clark and Fricdman, 221). cspitc Kcnschalts
asscrtion that queer lunctions as a codc among insidcrs, historical cvidcncc indicatcs that it was
also widcly uscd during this pcriod to condcmn thc innatc abnormality ol thc homoscxual.
Just thrcc ycars latcr, an articlc on homoscxuality as dcviant pcrvcrsity cntitlcd Quccr Pcoplc
would appcar in thc mainstrcam magazinc Newsweek (10 ctobcr 1949, 52).
14. Carson McCullcrs, Clock without Hands (8oston: Houghton Miin, 1961, rcprint,
Ncw York: Pcnguin, 1979), 86. Subscqucnt rclcrcnccs, citcd parcnthctically as CWH, will bc
to thc Pcnguin cdition.
15. Quotcd in Carr, Lonely Hunter, 159.
16. Carrs biography chroniclcs thc numcrous quccr crotic arrangcmcnts in which
McCullcrs and hcr husband cngagcd throughout thcir rclationship. Unlortunatcly, Carrs
dcscriptions arc lrcqucntly tingcd with condcsccnsion or homophobia. Shc ocrs this
A Mixturc ol clicious and Frcak: Tc Quccr Fiction ol Carson McCullcrs 41
summary, lor cxamplc: Having scxual problcms himscll which hc could not rcsolvc, Rccvcs
was incapablc ol coping with his wilcs scxual inclinations or ol helping her to become more
heterosexually oriented. Carson was complctcly opcn to hcr lricnds about hcr trcmcndous
cnjoymcnt in bcing physically closc to attractivc womcn. Shc was as lrank and opcn about
this aspcct ol hcr naturc as a child would be in choosing which toy he most wanted to play with
(Lonely Hunter, 295, italics minc).
17. Varncr, introduction to Fear of a Queer Planet, xxvi.
18. Frcak shows wcrc most popular in thc Unitcd Statcs bctwccn 1840 and 1940, whcn
audicnccs lrom all walks ol lilc paid to starc at thc spcctaclc ol human bodics on display at
lowbudgct travcling shows, Vorlds Fairs, and dimc muscums. Tc bcst historical accounts
ol lrcak shows arc ocrcd by Robcrt 8ogdan, Freak Show: Presenting Human Oddities for
Amusement and Prot (Chicago: Univ. ol Chicago Prcss, 1988), thc contributors to Freakery:
Cultural Spectacles of the Extraordinary Body, cd. Roscmaric Garland Tomson (Ncw York:
Ncw York Univ. Prcss, 1996), and Lcslic Ficdlcr, Freaks: Myths and Images of the Secret Self
(Simon and Schustcr, 1978, rcprint, Ncw York: Anchor 8ooks, 1993). For morc thcorctical
intcrprctations ol thc lrcak, scc lizabcth Grosz, !ntolcrablc Ambiguity: Frcaks as/at thc
Limit, in Freakery, cd. Tomson, 5568, Mary Russo, Te Female Grotesque: Risk, Excess,
and Modernity (Ncw York: Routlcdgc, 1994), Roscmaric Garland Tomson, Extraordinary
Bodies: Figuring Physical Disability in American Culture (Ncw York: Columbia Univ. Prcss,
1997), and Susan Stcwart, On Longing: Narratives of the Miniature, the Gigantic, the
Souvenir, the Collection (8altimorc: Johns Hopkins Univ. Prcss, 1984). Vhilc Grosz and
Russo rcad thc lrcak within thc contcxt ol lcminist thcory, Tomson also links lrcak shows
to thc history ol disability in thc Unitcd Statcs. n lrcaks in thc contcxt ol thc dimc
muscum and Vorlds Fairs, scc Andrca Stulman cnnctt, Weird and Wonderful: Te Dime
Museum in America (Ncw York: Ncw York Univ. Prcss, 1997), and Robcrt Rydcll, All the
Worlds a Fair: Visions of Excess at American International Expositions, 18761916 (Chicago:
Univ. ol Chicago Prcss, 1984). For a dazzling rcading ol thc lrcak show as thc matcrial
unconscious ol Stcphcn Crancs Te Monster, scc 8ill 8rown, Te Material Unconscious:
American Amusement, Stephen Crane, and the Economies of Play (Cambridgc: Harvard Univ.
Prcss, 1996), 199245.
19. Using a somcwhat dicrcnt vocabulary, Rubin wrotc ol McCullcrss ction, |!|t
isnt that lrcaks arc commcntarics or criticisms on normality, thcy are normality (Carson
McCullcrs, 118).
20. 8utlcr, Bodies Tat Matter, 229. Likcwisc, articulating thc possibilitics ol a quccr
Asian Amcrican studics, avid ng rcmarks that in its consistcnt clision ol racc as
a conccptual catcgory lor analysis, mainstrcam gay and lcsbian scholarship lails . . . to
cmbracc quccrncss as a critical mcthodology lor thc undcrstanding ol scxual idcntity as it
is dynamically lormcd through racial cpistcmcs (ut Hcrc and vcr Tcrc: Quccrncss
and iaspora in Asian Amcrican Studics, Social Text 52/53 |lallwintcr 1997|: 4142).
n thc ncccssity ol a morc complcx analysis ol racial dicrcncc within quccr thcory, scc
vc Kosolsky Scdgwick, Quccr and Now, Tendencies (urham, N.C.: ukc Univ. Prcss,
1993), 120, Stcvcn Scidman, cconstructing Quccr Tcory or thc UndcrTcorization
ol thc Social and thc thical, in Social Postmodernism: Beyond Identity Politics, cd. Linda
Nicholson and Stcvcn Scidman (Ncw York: Cambridgc Univ. Prcss, 1995), 11641, and
Varncr, introduction to Fear of a Queer Planet). Roscmary Hcnncsscy has notcd thc ncglcct
ol classbascd analysis among quccr critics (Quccr \isibility in Commodity Culturc, in
Social Postmodernism, cd. Nicholson and Scidman, 14283).
21. Tis is thc standard argumcnt ol lcminist scholarship on McCullcrs, which
conccntratcs on hcr lcmalc charactcrs rcsistancc to lcmininc bchaviors and cxpcctations.
Rachcl Adams 42
Scc, lor cxamplc, llcn Mocrs, Literary Women (Ncw York: oublcday, 1976), Louisc
Vcstling, Sacred Groves and Ravaged Gardens: Te Fiction of Eudora Welty, Carson McCullers,
and Flannery OConnor (Athcns: Univ. ol Gcorgia Prcss, 1985), and 8arbara A. Vhitc,
Loss ol Scll in Te Member of the Wedding, in Carson McCullers, cd. 8loom, 12542. Tc
limitation ol this argumcnt is that by locusing cxclusivcly on lcmalc charactcrs it ncglccts
thc rclations among mcn and bctwccn mcn and womcn in McCullcrss ction that put
prcssurc on traditional gcndcr catcgorics in morc radical ways.
22. Tis anxicty is sharcd by Frankics countcrpart Mick Kclly in McCullcrss rst
novcl, Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter (8oston: Houghton Miin, 1940, rcprint, Ncw York:
8antam, 1953). Pagc rclcrcnccs arc to thc 8antam cdition. Anticipating Frankics torturcd
rclationship to thc lrcak show, Micks lricnd Harry Minowitz attcmpts to quict hcr doubts
about hcr cxccssivc growth with a lcssthancomlorting rcassurancc: ncc ! saw a lady at
thc lair who was cight and a hall lcct tall. 8ut you probably wont grow that big (94).
23. Carson McCullcrs, Te Member of the Wedding (8oston: Houghton Miin, 1946,
rcprint, Ncw York: 8antam, 1969), 2. Subscqucnt rclcrcnccs, citcd parcnthctically as MW,
will bc to thc 1969 cdition.
24. Scc Carr, Lonely Hunter, 169, 171, and 296 lor cxamplcs ol McCullcrss thcory ol
biscxuality as it was manilcst in hcr own lilc.
25. Tis charactcristic ol McCullcrss ction prcgurcs rcccnt thcorics that posit thc
transscxual body as a sitc whcrc rigid distinctions bctwccn scxcs and gcndcrs brcak down.
Scc Judith 8utlcr, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (Ncw York:
Routlcdgc, 1990), Marjoric Garbcr, Vested Interests: Cross Dressing and Cultural Anxiety
(Ncw York: Routlcgc, 1992), Grosz, Intolerable Ambiguity, and Sandy Stonc, Tc Empire
Strikcs 8ack: A Posttransscxual Manilcsto, Camera Obscura 29 (May 1992): 15178. Tcsc
critics scc thc transscxual/transgcndcrcd body not as a lrcakish anomaly but as cvidcncc
that thc scxgcndcr systcm is morc opcn to variation and multiplicity than thc polarizcd
catcgorics ol malc and lcmalc allow.
26. Scc . A. Millcr, Te Novel and the Police (8crkclcy and Los Angclcs: Univ. ol
Calilornia Prcss, 1988), on thc rclationship bctwccn thc opcn sccrct and thc novclistic
lorm. As Kcnschalt rightly points out, a rcadcr who was unlamiliar with gay slang circa
1940 would miss ccrtain implications ol McCullcrss tcxts, cvcn though thosc tcxts could
rcasonably bc rcad and intcrprctcd without that knowlcdgc (Homocrotics and Human
Conncctions, 222).
27. Kcnschalt acknowlcdgcs that lcw ol McCullcrss charactcrs arc adcquatcly
dcscribcd as homoscxual: Tcy arc an adolcsccnt girl lalling in lovc with an cngagcd
couplc, an Amazonian woman inlatuatcd with a birdlikc man, a marricd man who ncvcr
consummatcs thc marriagc but is cntranccd by his wilcs dcsirc lor othcr mcn (Homocrotics
and Human Conncctions, 22627). As thcsc cxamplcs attcst, lesbian may bc too spccic
a catcgory to dcscribc cithcr thc polymorphous dcsircs ol McCullcrss charactcrs or thc
unprcdictablc idcntications ol hcr rcadcrs.
28. !n addition to thcsc rclcrcnccs to thc quccr, scc MW 2, 4, 22, 23, 27, 34, 85, 94,
116, 141.
29. Kcnschalt, Homocrotics and Human Conncctions, 228.
30. For oral historics documcnting thc cxpcricnccs ol gay mcn in thc South during thc
Cold Var/prcStoncwall cra, scc Scars, Lonely Hunters.
31. Gayatri Spivak, A Fcminist Rcading ol Carson McCullcrss Heart Is a Lonely
Hunter, in Critical Essays on Carson McCullers, cd. Clark and Fricdman, 136.
32. For analyscs ol thc social lunction and rcccption ol thc Kinsey Report in postwar
Amcrica scc Chaunccy, Gay New York, milio and Frccman, Intimate Matters, Lcwcs,
A Mixturc ol clicious and Frcak: Tc Quccr Fiction ol Carson McCullcrs 43
Psychoanalytic Teory of Male Homosexuality, lainc Tylcr May, Homeward Bound, and
8arbara hrcnrcich, Te Hearts of Men: American Dreams and the Flight from Commitment
(Ncw York: Anchor, 1983).
33. Rcccnt studics ol homoscxuality during thc Cold Var pcriod dcmonstratc a
conation ol thc dcmonizcd idcntitics ol thc homoscxual, thc Communist, and thc alicn.
Scc, lor cxamplc, John milio, Making Trouble: Essays on Gay History, Politics, and the
University (Ncw York: Routlcdgc, 1992), Robcrt Corbcr, In the Name of National Security
and Homosexuality in Cold War America, Lcc dclman, Tcarooms and Sympathy, or,
pistcmology ol thc Vatcr Closct, Homographesis: Essays in Gay Literary and Cultural
Teory (Ncw York: Routlcdgc, 1994).
34. Tadious M. avis, rasing thc Vc ol Mc and Rcwriting thc Racial Script:
Carson McCullcrss Two Member(s) of the Wedding, in Critical Essays on Carson McCullers,
cd. Clark and Fricdman, 207.
35. n thc rcprcscntation ol racial dicrcncc in lrcak shows, scc 8ogdan, Freak Show,
and Tomson, Freakery.
36. Tadious M. avis argucs that 8crcniccs dicrcntly colorcd cycs ocr a scnsc ol
thc uncxpcctcd in human naturc (rasing thc Vc ol Mc, 208), howcvcr, thc prosthctic
cyc also calls into qucstion thc vcry notion ol human naturc, suggcsting a morc radical
inccntivc to cxpand or cxplodc thc catcgory.
37. Shcrmans lailcd political protcst must bc contrastcd with that ol thc Judgcs savvy
black housckccpcr, \crily. Having cndurcd thc Judgcs racism lor ycars, shc cvcntually
dcmands that hc makc social sccurity paymcnts. Vhcn thc Judgc rcluscs, shc quits hcr job
to takc a morc lcgitimatc and bcttcrpaying position, dcmonstrating an agcncy and political
knowlcdgc that Shcrman docs not posscss. Shcrmans rcjcction ol his whitc acquaintanccs,
as wcll as thc black community ol which \crily is an activc part, makcs him a lrcak
who rcluscs all social catcgorics. \crilys prcscncc in thc narrativc indicatcs McCullcrss
awarcncss ol important dicrcnccs within racial communitics as wcll as bctwccn thcm.
38. Robyn Vicgman, American Anatomies: Teorizing Race and Gender (urham, N.C.:
ukc Univ. Prcss, 1995), 82.
39. For a similarly armativc rcading ol community in thc cal sccncs in Te Heart
Is a Lonely Hunter and Ballad of the Sad Caf, scc Kcnschalt, Homocrotics and Human
Conncctions, 23031.
40. Vcstling, Sacred Groves and Ravaged Gardens, 127.
41. Scc also Horvath and Logan, who rcad thc stagc vcrsion ol Member of the Wedding
as a story ol Frankics normalization, which, thcy arguc, is an allcgory lor thc conlormity ol
postwar Amcrican culturc (Nobody Knows 8cst).
45
From Te Southern Literary Journal 34, no. 1 (Fall 2001): pp. 4455. 2001 by thc cpartmcnt
ol nglish ol thc Univcrsity ol North Carolina at Chapcl Hill.
CY NT H! A VU
Expanding Southern Whiteness:
Reconceptualizing Ethnic Dierence
in the Short Fiction of Carson McCullers
!n Carson McCullcrs 1936 collcction ol short storics, Te Ballad of the
Sad Caf and Other Stories, issucs ol cthnic dicrcncc, whitc racialization,
and thc ncgotiation ol idcntitics play a ccntral rolc. Tis is not surprising,
considcring that thc looscly imagincd body ol tcxts known as thc Southcrn
Rcnaissancc has a strong prcoccupation with thcsc thcmcs. Southcrn
writcrs, both Anglo and Alrican Amcrican, havc long lorcgroundcd thc
racc qucstion in rcprcscnting and imagining thc Ncw South lollowing thc
Civil Var, and McCullcrs is no cxccption. Hcr charactcrs grapplc with what
it mcans to bc whitc in thc South, what it mcans not to bc whitc, and what
it mcans to challcngc or comply with thc standards ol whitcncss. Howcvcr,
what dicrcntiatcs Te Ballad of the Sad Caf and Other Stories lrom most
othcr picccs ol southcrn litcraturc is thc rclativc abscncc ol Alrican Amcrican
charactcrs. !l, as many thcorists ol racc in thc Unitcd Statcs havc pointcd
out, notions ol black and notions ol whitc arc mutually constitutivc and
cxist in a hicrarchical binary, can whitcncss cvcr bc rcconccptualizcd in a
way that docs not dcnc it against and abovc blackncss: !n othcr words, can
whitc cxist apart lrom black:
! arguc that McCullcrs attcmpts to answcr ycs to such qucstions
by introducing uropcan immigrant charactcrs into southcrn ction. Tis
gcsturc intcrrogatcs whitc southcrn idcntity through mcans othcr than
Cynthia Vu 46
comparisons to black southcrn idcntity. !t is important to notc that thc
abscncc ol Alrican Amcrican charactcrs in this collcction ol storics is not an
ovcrsight that rcsultcd lrom prcscnting somc ncw lorm ol cthnic dicrcncc.
Rathcr, this abscncc is lunctional. !t scrvcs to isolatc and cxplorc in somc
dcpth a ncw valancc ol racc cmcrging in thc Ncw South without having to
rcvcrt to thc wclltroddcn path ol imagining racialization within thc black
whitc binary.
McCullcrs conccptual rcplaccmcnt ol thc Alrican Amcrican with
thc uropcan immigrant in hcr cxamination ol racial and cthnic dicrcncc
has its countcrpart in southcrn labor history. uring thc latcninctccnth
and carlytwcnticth ccnturics, many southcrn statcs launchcd campaigns
to attract uropcan immigrants in rcsponsc to thc labor shortagcs causcd
by black migration to thc Vcst and Southwcst immcdiatcly altcr thc Civil
Var and to thc North during thc Grcat Migration. For a South struggling
to rcbuild itscll both cconomically and idcologically, uropcan immigrant
labor sccmcd a viablc and cvcn morc lavorablc rcplaccmcnt lor black labor.
An avid rccruitcr ol uropcan immigrant labor in thc ycars immcdiatcly
lollowing thc Civil Var, Richard Hathaway dmonds loundcd a whitc
suprcmacist ncwslcttcr callcd thc Manufacturers Record to providc covcragc on
southcrn industry and capitalism. dmonds launchcd thc aggrcssivc campaign
to rccruit laborcrs lrom uropc as a way to compcnsatc lor thc dcclining black
laborcr population in thc South. Howcvcr, hc intcndcd lor only immigrants ol
Anglo and northcrn uropcan stock to lulll his goals. 8y thc 1880s, thc wavc
ol immigrants lrom thcsc arcas gavc way to thosc lrom castcrn and southcrn
uropc. Tis ncw inux ol immigrants, dmonds bclicvcd, did not assimilatc
propcrly and thrcatcncd thc Anglouropcan racial intcgrity ol thc South. 8y
thc 1920s, thc Manufacturers Record rcvcrscd its stancc toward immigration,
cmbracing nativist scntimcnts along with thc rcst ol thc Unitcd Statcs and
bccoming onc ol thc most vocal antiimmigrant publications.
vcn il thc Souths dcsirc lor whitc immigrant labor had not bccn
conictcd lrom thc start, thc rcgions attractivcncss to uropcan ncwcomcrs
palcd in comparison to that ol thc North. Southcrn historian Martha
G. Synott argucs that thc Souths attcmpt to lurc and rctain immigrants
was doomcd lrom thc bcginning bccausc it lackcd thc high wagcs and
incxpcnsivc land that could bc lound in thc North. And lrom thc point ol
vicw ol thc cmploycrs, southcrn landowncrs wcrc morc willing to cxploit
black labor bccausc ol thcir imprcssion that Jim Crow laws rcgulatcd thc
autonomy ol blacks, making thcm morc docilc and rcliablc than immigrants.
Morcovcr, thc uropcan immigrants wcrc sccn as bcing both lax about racial
scgrcgation and racially dicrcnt in thcmsclvcs. Tis imprcssion only causcd
morc problcms lor a South that still hcld on to idcals ol maintaining Anglo
Amcrican suprcmacy.
xpanding Southcrn Vhitcncss 47
Tis contcntious dynamic bctwccn black labor and uropcan
immigrant labor was not isolatcd to thc South nor was it ncw to thc post
Civil Var pcriod. Tc northcrn cconomics and thc southcrn cconomics
wcrc intcrdcpcndcnt, labor and cconomic dcvclopmcnts in thc North
had a bcaring on thc South and vicc vcrsa. Tc alrcady sizablc uropcan
immigrant prcscncc in thc northcrn statcs by thc cnd ol thc ninctccnth
ccntury acctcd thc dcmographics ol thc laborcr population in thc southcrn
statcs. Two scparatc articlcs by historian Jay R. Mandlc, who takcs a
qualitativc approach, and cconomist Villiam J. Collins, who rclics on
cmpirical data, asscrt that uropcan immigration to thc North discouragcd
thc cntry ol southcrn blacks and dclaycd thc Grcat Migration. Historian
Nocl !gnaticv claims that during thc ninctccnth ccntury, capitalism pittcd
thc cconomic intcrcsts ol !rish immigrants against thosc ol slavcs and lrcc
blacks. Tis mancuvcr, which mct thc Norths labor dcmands, prolongcd
slavcry in thc South and thc cconomic cxploitation ol lrcc blacks on a
national scalc.
8oth thc conccptual and actual rcplaccmcnt ol thc black southcrncr
with thc uropcan immigrant in thc cconomy ol thc South nds its litcrary
analog in McCullcrs short ction. Just as thc onc could not casily bc rcplaccd
by thc othcr in thc southcrn cconomy without rcaping ccrtain idcological
rcpcrcussions, this substitution in McCullcrs litcraturc crcatcs a similar
shockwavc in thc labric ol southcrn whitcncss. Vhcrcas Alrican Amcrican
charactcrs had traditionally pcrlormcd thc lunctionor, thc laborol
signilying cthnoracial dicrcncc in whitc southcrn litcraturc, McCullcrs
rcplaccs thcm with uropcan immigrants who pcrlorm thc samc task,
albcit with dicrcnt rcsults. As ! mcntioncd carlicr, thc abscncc ol Alrican
Amcrican charactcrs in this collcction ol McCullcrs short ction docs not
rcsult lrom ncglcct: as shc dcmonstratcs in othcr tcxts, McCullcrs crcatcs
complcx Alrican Amcrican charactcrs and intcrrogatcs thc blackwhitc racial
dividc in intricatc ways. Te Member of the Wedding (1946) is onc cxamplc,
and Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter (1940) contains both Alrican Amcrican
and uropcan immigrant charactcrs. Howcvcr, at this stagc ol thc Southcrn
Rcnaissancc, thc abscncc ol Alrican Amcricans charactcrs in Te Ballad of the
Sad Caf and Other Stories is an cnabling dcvicc. !t bccomcs a stratcgic way ol
isolating whitc cthnic dicrcncc in rcconccptualizing whitc idcntitics in thc
Ncw South.
!n Andrc Schwarz8arts novcl, Te Last of the Just, rnic Lcvy, who
dics in a conccntration camp at thc novcls cnd, is onc ol thirtysix just mcn.
Tc just mcn arc martyrs in Jcwish mythology who arc choscn to shouldcr
onc thirtysixth ol thc worlds sucring cach. Vhcncvcr a just man dics,
anothcr rcccivcs a calling to takc his placc, this paralincal dcsccnt continucs,
according to Schwarz8art, until thc cataclysmic cvcnt ol thc Holocaust. Tc
Cynthia Vu 48
calling to bccomc a just man is always rcccivcd with ambivalcncc: it is at thc
samc timc both good and bad ncws, burdcn and honor.
! usc this lcgcnd ol thc thirtysix just mcn as a mctaphor lor thc
ambivalcncc with which Jcws occupy thc catcgory whitc.
1
!n thc two storics
that ! considcr bclow, Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal and Vundcrkind,
Jcwish mcn wavcr lrom ccminatc caricaturc to wicldcr ol whitc patriarchy,
both burdcncd and honorcd by discursivc whitcncss. Tcir inability to bc
pinncd down and lully inscribcd challcngcs whitcncss lrom within and
rcconccptualizcs racialization apart lrom thc blackwhitc tcmplatc.
McCullcrs makcs an obliquc suggcstion to thc possibility ol a racially
intcgratcd blackwhitc community at thc cnd ol Tc 8allad ol thc Sad
Cal. Tc twclvc mortal mcn, thc singing chain gang consisting ol scvcn
black mcn and vc whitc mcn, appcar in thc nal sccnc ol thc novclla as
a somcwhat utopian community against which thc lracturcd scmblancc
ol community in thc small, allwhitc town is unlavorably comparcd. Tis
gcsturc towards scttling thc problcm ol blackwhitc racial discord, howcvcr
contrivcd or unrcalistic, opcns up uncluttcrcd spacc lor thc cxploration ol
cthnic dicrcnccs among whitcs. !ndccd, it is at thc bcginning ol Tc 8allad
ol thc Sad Cal that thc uropcan immigrant makcs his tcntativc cntrancc,
not as an actual charactcr but as a rclcrcncc in a minor charactcrs spccch.
!n an carly sccnc, a hunchbackcd strangcr who latcr bccomcs known
as Cousin Lymon has just arrivcd at thc Cal that Miss Amclia owns.
!n his attcmpt to vcrily a distant kinship with Miss Amclia, hc bccomcs
lrustratcd and bcgins to cry. nc ol thc obscrvcrs notcs ol his bchavior,
!ll bc damncd il hc aint a rcgular Morris Fincstcin (9). Tc narrativc
gocs on to cxplain, Morris Fincstcin was a pcrson who had livcd in thc
town ycars bclorc. Hc was only a quick, skipping littlc Jcw who cricd il you
callcd him a Christkillcr, and atc light brcad and canncd salmon cvcry
day. A calamity had comc ovcr him and hc movcd away to Socicty City.
8ut sincc thcn, il a man wcrc prissy in any way, or il a man cvcr wcpt, hc
was known as a Morris Fincstcin (9). Anothcr obscrvcr agrccs about thc
condition ol thc hunchback and his similarity to thc lormcr Jcwish rcsidcnt
ol thc town: Vcll, hc is aictcd . . . Tcrc is somc causc (9). !n this
dcscription ol Cousin Lymon comparing him to Morris Fincstcin, thcrc is
thc undcrstanding that thc town rcgardcd Fincstcin as an outsidcr. Similar
to Cousin Lymons past, Fincstcins origins arc mystcrious. Fincstcins
initial arrival in thc small town had bccn most likcly rcgardcd with somc
curiosity, givcn thc way thc town had rcccivcd Cousin Lymon, and his
dcparturc to a morc urbanizcd arca to cscapc thc taunting ol his provincial
ncighbors was probably notcd with cqual, il not morc, cxcitcmcnt. Tc
outsidcr status that Fincstcin carrics makcs him susccptiblc to an intcnsc
scrutiny ol his actions and manncrisms.
xpanding Southcrn Vhitcncss 49
For cxamplc, Fincstcins tcndcncy to cry bccomcs associatcd with his
pcrsonhood. Vhat might bc a pcrlcctly rcasonablc rcsponsc to bcing ostracizcd
by his ncighbors bccomcs an aiction by which hc is dcncd. !n addition,
this aiction, his crying, is lcminizcd by thc townspcoplc. Tis wclding ol
ccminacy with what is Jcwishor, in othcr words, lorcignbccomcs
clcar whcn thc narrator statcs that il any othcr man cxhibitcd this prissy
bchavior, hc would thcn bc labclcd a Morris Fincstcin. Tc lcminization
ol thc Jcw has its roots in Nazirclatcd antiScmitism which bclicvcd that,
among othcr things, Jcwish mcn could mcnstruatc, and it stcms lrom thc
Jcwish bodys subjugation undcr various patriarchal mcdical and scicntic
trcatiscs that labclcd it dcviant and inlcrior. As Sandcr Gilman notcs, thc
vcry analysis ol thc naturc ol thc Jcwish body, in thc broadcr culturc or
within thc culturc ol mcdicinc has always bccn linkcd to cstablishing thc
dicrcncc (and dangcrousncss) ol thc Jcw (39). Furthcrmorc, it sccms to
bc impossiblc to spcak ol thc idca ol dicrcncc, such as thc dicrcncc ol thc
Jcw, without cvoking this scnsc ol thc constructcd dicrcncc ol thc body
(242). Tc rcductions ol thc Jcw to his bodyits lcminizationlunctions in
thc samc way womcn havc bccn rclcgatcd to thcir corporcality.
Givcn thcsc lactors, thc namc Morris Fincstcin bcstowcd on Cousin
Lymon is cspccially apt, sincc scicncc and mcdicinc havc similarly crcatcd and
inscribcd pcoplc with disabilitics, rcducing thcm to thcir bodics. cncd as
gcnctically inlcrior by thc totalizing discourscs ol mcdicinc, thc lcminization
ol thc disablcd bascd on physiognomic dicrcncc can cvcn bc disccrncd in
thc rhctoric ol thc ancicnt Grccks. !n his Generation of Animals, Aristotlc
dcscribcs thc lcmalc body as a dclormcd or mutilatcd malc body, conating
lcmininity with physical abcrrancc. Tcsc similarly constructcd catcgorics
ol dcviancc that inscribc thc Jcw and thc disablcd bccomc a way ol marking
dicrcncc, cthnic or othcrwisc, through mcans that do not takc into account
thc blackwhitc racial binary that, at lcast in this story, has bccn dissolvcd in
a harmonious chorus ol song.
cparting lrom this dcscription ol a mcck and lcminizcdor cvcn
dcbilitatcdJcwish man, McCullcrs dcvclops Jcwish masculinity in anothcr
dircction in Vundcrkind, thc story lollowing Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal
in thc collcction. !n this narrativc about thc rclationship bctwccn a ltccn
ycarold pianist and hcr music instructors, Franccs is a lormcr child prodigy
who bcgins to qucstion hcr agging talcnts at thc piano. Hcr instructor,
Mr. 8ildcrbach, and his associatc, Mr. Lalkowitz, sccm bcnign and paticnt
with hcr, but it bccomcs incrcasingly clcar that thcy arc, at lcast in part,
rcsponsiblc lor Franccss musical lrustration. Alicc Hall Pctry argucs that
Franccs is plagucd by thc undcrcurrcnt ol scxual cncrgy running bctwccn hcr
and hcr music instructors, and that hcr ambivalcncc about continuing to bc a
musician stcms not lrom hcr conccption ol hcrscll as a lailcd pianist but lrom
Cynthia Vu 50
thc subtly thrcatcning, croticallytingcd rclationship that hcr instructors havc
cncouragcd. Mr. 8ildcrbach is a loving, gcncrous lathcr gurc to Franccs,
howcvcr, thc rclationship that both hc and Mr. Lalkowitz havc dcvclopcd
with Franccs is qucstionably intimatc. As a budding adolcsccnt unablc to
conlront thc powcr dicrcntial bctwccn hcrscll and thc oldcr mcn who
arc hcr tcachcrs, Franccs bccomcs ustcrcd and disillusioncd with music,
cvcntually giving it up at thc cnd ol thc story.
Pctrys claims, howcvcr, gloss ovcr thc lact that Franccss instructors arc
Gcrmanspcaking immigrants. Shc docs acknowlcdgc Franccss lascination
with thc aura ol lorcignncss surrounding hcr tcachcrs whcn shc writcs that
Franccs long|s| to dcny thc Amcrican namc and idcntity dcrivcd lrom
hcr biological lathcr (who is givcn thc Amcrican gcncric namc ol dad)
and that shc would much prclcr a background likc that ol hcr surrogatc
lathcr, thc utchCzcch, Gcrmanbrcd 8ildcrbach (32), but shc drops thc
implications ol this dynamic in hcr discussion ol thc crotic ovcrturcs that
play in thc background. ! am convinccd, howcvcr, that Franccss pcrccption
ol hcr instructors cosmopolitanism is an intcgral part ol thc scxually chargcd
rclationship shc nds hcrscll maintaining with thcm. Although ! rcalizc that
this is not part ol Pctrys projcct, thc importancc ol what it mcans lor a U.S.
born whitc woman to bc lascinatcd by uropcan lorcignncss and cowcd by
thc crotic ovcrturcs initiatcd by immigrant mcn is lost in hcr articlc. Had
Franccss instructors bccn AngloAmcricans, Vundcrkind would bc a vcry
dicrcnt story.
Comparcd to 8ildcrbachs cosmopolitanism, Franccss own Cincinnati
upbringing sccms disappointingly banal.
2
Tcn thcrc is Franccss cnvy ol
thc violinist with thc Gcrmanic namc, Hcimc !sraclsky, who is thrcc ycars
hcr junior. Looking at his picturc in a music journal, Franccs notcs with
somc disdain that thc knickcrsclad Hcimc still has his childlikc looks, an
assct lor young classical musicians. Unlikc Franccs, hc has movcd bcyond
thc status ol local talcnt, having pcrlormcd in Carncgic Hall. For a bricl
momcnt, Franccs allows hcrscll to considcr thc possibility that his rcccption
and his succcss havc somcthing to do with his bcing Jcwish bclorc dismissing
thc idca, but not altogcthcr.
Tis somcwhat pctty and immaturc jcalousy that Franccs lccls lor thc
child Hcimc givcs way to hcr lcclings ol intimidation by Mr. 8ildcrbach
and Mr. Lalkowitz. McCullcrs dccision to placc thcsc two charactcrs in
a position ol authority ovcr thc nativcborn whitc woman complicatcs thc
lact that had Mr. 8lidcrbach and Mr. Lalkowitz appcarcd in thc prcvious
story, Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal, thcy would havc bccn thc rccipicnts ol
abusc lrom thcir lcllow charactcrs. At rst, Mr. Lalkowitz is dcscribcd in a
way that would not immcdiatcly labcl him as thrcatcning. Hc was such a
small man himscll, with a wcary look whcn hc was not holding his violin.
xpanding Southcrn Vhitcncss 51
His cycbrows curvcd high abovc his sallow, Jcwish lacc as though asking a
qucstion, but thc lids ol his cycs drowscd languorous and indicrcnt (76).
Although thc patriarchal powcr that Mr. Lalkowitz wiclds is vcilcd bchind
his gcntlc dcmcanor and his voicc almost likc a womans (75), this nod
to thc Jcwish ccminacy that was lorcgroundcd in thc portrayal ol Morris
Fincstcin givcs way to Mr. Lalkowitzs lcchcrous suggcstions to Franccs that
hcr intcrprctation ol 8ach lacks cmotion. Hc stops hcr playing by asking,
o you know how many childrcn 8ach had: Franccs rcsponds, A good
many. Twcnty somc odd. Tis scts Franccs up lor Mr. Lalkowitzs punch
linc: Vcll thcn Tc corncrs ol his mouth ctchcd thcmsclvcs gcntly in his
palc lacc. Hc could not havc bccn so coldthcn (83).
Likcwisc, Mr. 8ildcrbachs ways ol connccting with Franccs sccm
inappropriatcly scxualizcd. cspitc thc lact that hc rcproachcs Mr. Lalkowitz
lor his rcmark about Franccss pcrlormancc, Mr. 8ildcrbachs patcrnalistic
rclationship with Franccs similarly signals thc prcscncc ol an crotically
chargcd domination. Pctry points out that it sccms qucstionablc that a
ltccnycarold girl would spcnd thc night at hcr tcachcrs housc lollowing
hcr lcsson and that a tcachcr would havc a drcss custom madc lor his studcnt.
Shc notcs that 8ildcrbachs most casual rcmarks oltcn sound likc a man
spcaking to his mistrcss (34) and that his sccmingly rcassuring words to
Franccs whcn shc cannot pcrlorm, a tcachcr trying to soothc his studcnt,
sccm morc akin to thosc ol a lovcr trying to consolc his mistrcss lor a lack
ol scxual rcsponsivcncss (35). Furthcrmorc, thc scxual rclationship implicd
hcrc is not an cgalitarian onc, lor it rccks ol thc posscssivcncss that Mr.
8ildcrbach rcvcals in his claim to Franccs that ! know you so wcllas il you
wcrc my own girl (88).
Tcsc wavcring rcprcscntations ol thc Jcwish man indicatc thc cxtcnt to
which whitc racialization is dcstabilizcd by thc introduction ol thc uropcan
immigrant. Hc is, on thc onc hand, caricaturcd in Tc 8allad ol thc Sad
Cal as thc quick, skipping littlc Jcw, a lcminizcd victim. 8utwhcn
givcn voicc and phallic powcr in Vundcrkindhc is translormcd into
a victimizcr, gurc ol authority, and pcdagoguc, who abuscs his status by
inicting patriarchal violcncc onto his young studcnt. Tis cxamination ol
cthnic dicrcncc lrom within thc catcgory ol whitcncss dcmonstratcs that
cvcn within thc purportcdly strict and conning dcnitions ol whitc, thcrc
must bc a tcndcncy lor thosc dcnitions to shilt and cxpand. Hc is both
scll and othcr, not whitc (or powcrlul) cnough and powcrlully whitc, both
objcct and pcrpctrator ol subjugation lor thosc whosc notions ol whitcncss
arc challcngcd by his prcscncc.
Anothcr uropcan immigrant, also a music tcachcr, is thc subjcct ol
Madamc Zilcnsky and thc King ol Finland. !n this tcxt, thc protagonist
is Mr. 8rook, thc chair ol thc music dcpartmcnt at Rydcr Collcgc. Hc has
Cynthia Vu 52
succcsslully rccruitcd Madamc Zilcnsky, a vcry wcll rcspcctcd tcachcr and
composcr lrom Finland, to join his dcpartmcnt. !n addition to making hcr
lccl wclcomc prolcssionally, Mr. 8rook takcs it upon himscll to dcvclop a
morc intimatc, nonprolcssional rclationship with Madamc Zilcnsky, doing
such pcrsonal lavors as nding hcr a housc ncxt to his own and ocring to
rcplacc hcr lost mctronomc. Tis loray into hcr pcrsonal aairs lcads him to
inquirc about hcr childrcn and hcr past.
Mr. 8rook is undccidcd about whcrc Madamc Zilcnsky stands in his
pcrccption ol hcr. Shc is an imposing prcscncc, commanding rcspcct lrom
both studcnts and collcagucs. cspitc bcing a lorcigncr, hcr Nordic stock
would havc madc hcr an idcal immigrant lor thc likcs ol Richard Hathaway
dmonds and thc rcadcrs ol thc Manufacturers Record. McCullcrs dcscribcs
hcr as having somcthing that was noblc and abstract that madc Mr. 8rook
draw back a momcnt and stand ncrvously undoing his cu links (104). At thc
samc timc, hcr ccccntricitics start to wcigh incrcasingly on Mr. 8rook, who
has madc somc invcstmcnt in undcrstanding hcr not mcrcly on a collcgial but
also on a pcrsonal lcvcl. At rst, hc attributcs hcr abscntmindcd, ohand
commcnts as bcing thc cccts ol thc conlusion ol gctting hcrscll and hcr
lamily out ol uropc (103). vcntually, his initial awc and captivation with
his ncwcst collcaguc disintcgratcs lollowing a scrics ol startling rcvclations
about hcr pcrsonal history, and hc rcsolvcs to dcvclop a patcrnalism in his
intcractions with hcr, look|ing| on Madamc Zilcnsky as a doctor looks on a
sick paticnt (109).
xactly what Mr. 8rook is trying to curc in Madamc Zilcnsky is
unclcar. Hc bcgins to lccl troublcd about hcr prcscncc altcr shc rcvcals to
him that thrcc dicrcnt mcn lathcrcd hcr thrcc sons. Adding to thc allurc ol
intcrnationalism that shc alrcady carrics, all ol thcsc mcn wcrc ol a dicrcnt
national origin. Tc narrator statcs, Mr. 8rook rcally did not carc onc way
or thc othcr. Hc had no prcjudiccs, pcoplc could marry scvcntccn timcs
and havc Chincsc childrcn so lar as hc was conccrncd (107). Although
Mr. 8rooks nod towards progrcssivc idcals ol hctcroscxuality is broachcd
in thc abovc passagc, addrcssing such issucs as scrial monogamy and
misccgcnation,
3
his discomlort with what hc sccs as Madamc Zilcnskys
scxual impropricty bccomcs cvidcnt immcdiatcly altcrwards. Hc wondcrs
whcthcr having Madamc Zilcnsky on thc laculty will rcsult in him bcing
similarly cmbarrasscd as in an incidcnt last ycar whcn thc harp tcachcr clopcd
with a garagc mcchanic.
!t is intcrcstingcspccially in a work ol southcrn ction publishcd
thc samc ycar as Absalom, Absalom!that a union across class lincs is morc
worrisomc than onc that crosscs thc racial dividc. Tc turn McCullcrs chooscs
to makc hcrc shilts thc panic lrom misccgcnation onto what bccomc thc
morc prcssing conccrns ol inappropriatcly marrying within oncs own racc
xpanding Southcrn Vhitcncss 53
by marrying down. Tcrc is, howcvcr, no indication that any ol Madamc
Zilcnskys lormcr partncrs wcrc lrom a dicrcnt class background, and thcrc
is cvcn somc indication ol class parity in that at lcast onc ol thcm was also a
musician. Mr. 8rooks conation ol downward class mobility with Madamc
Zilcnskys rclusal to hccd traditional standards ol whitc lcmininc propricty
by marrying only oncc and staying marricd is not arbitrary but, in lact,
rcvcals dccpscatcd conccrns about thc continuing importancc ol lincagc to
propcr whitc lamilics. vcn il thc thrcat ol misccgcnation is not an issuc
hcrc or has, at lcast, rcccdcd into thc background, thc cmphasis rcmains on
kccping thc vcsscl ol a lamilys dcsccndants, thc whitc woman, intact and
uncontaminatcd. As a wcllrcspcctcd whitc woman who has not hccdcd thc
standards ol thc socicty in which shc has madc hcr ncw homc, Madamc
Zilcnsky disturbs Mr. 8rook who, dcspitc his claim to having no prcjudiccs,
cannot rcconcilc his prolcssional admiration lor hcr with his disapproval ol
hcr scxual history.
!n ordcr to compcnsatc lor his scnsc ol dissonancc, Mr. 8rook draws
thc conclusion that Madamc Zilcnsky was a pathological liar. Almost cvcry
word shc said outsidc ol class was an untruth. . . . Tc woman was simply
a pathological liar, and that accountcd lor cvcrything (109). Hc bcgins to
prcoccupy himscll with nding dctails that could indicatc thc discrcpancics
bctwccn what Madamc Zilcnsky says about hcrscll and what actually might
havc happcncd. Mr. 8rook lcrrcts out and clings to small particulars to
support his conviction, such as his obscrvation that all ol Madamc Zilcnskys
childrcn look alikc dcspitc having dicrcnt lathcrs. Hc distrusts thc storics
shc tclls about hcr wclltravclcd past. Shc was a grcat globctrottcr, and hcr
convcrsations wcrc incongruously scasoncd with rclcrcnccs to larlctchcd
placcs. . . . Yct, without cxccption, thcrc was somcthing quccr, in a slantcd
sort ol way, about cvcry cpisodc shc mcntioncd. !l shc spokc ol taking Sammy
to thc barbcrshop, thc imprcssion shc crcatcd was just as lorcign as il shc
wcrc tclling ol an altcrnoon in 8agdad (107108). Hc cvcntually makcs thc
diagnosis that Madamc Zilcnskys compulsion to lic stcms lrom hcr insular
lilcstylc as a hardworking and prolic musician, and through thc lics, shc
livcd vicariously. Tc lics doublcd thc littlc ol hcr cxistcncc that was lclt ovcr
lrom work and augmcntcd thc littlc rag cnd ol hcr pcrsonal lilc (109).
!t is through his pcrccption ol Madamc Zilcnskys nccd to concoct
lalschoods about hcrscll that Mr. 8rook rcvcals thc most about himscll and
his tcndcncy to projcct his own anxictics onto thc gurc ol thc impropcrly
raccd whitc woman. Tc storys cnding instills somc doubt in Mr. 8rooks
ability to trust his own judgmcnt and scnscs whcn, to his astonishmcnt, hc
sccs a dog running backwards. Hc watchcd thc Aircdalc until it was out ol
sight, thcn rcsumcd his work on thc canons which had bccn turncd in by thc
class in countcrpoint (112). Also wcighcd down by his work as a musician,
Cynthia Vu 54
hc tclls lics to himscll as a way ol living vicariously, producing thc typc ol
discoursc hc dccms idcal through thc ctions that may bc morc comlorting
than any typc ol truth, howcvcr mcdiatcd. Trough this mancuvcr, hc is ablc
to qucll thc scnsc ol dissonancc crcatcd by thc whitc woman whosc csscncc
hc cannot pin down, who gcncratcs both rcvcrcncc and shock, and hc rcsolvcs
his intcrnal conict conccrning Madamc Zilcnsky through projccting it onto
hcr. !l hc lccls a typc ol inlcriority conccrning thc storics about hcr cxpansivc
and worldly past, hc scttlcs it by attributing it to hcr tcndcncy to lic rcsulting
lrom hcr actual constriction and immobility. Ultimatcly, it is Mr. 8rook who
is lclt in his occ ovcr a stack ol studcnt assignmcnts, insccurc about his
provincialism. And in this cloistcrcd statc, hc labricatcs a salc, intcrnal world
that rcconcilcs his contradictions.
Tc contradictions surrounding thc prcscncc ol uropcan immigrants
in McCullcrs short ction lorcc whitcncss to lacc its own contradictions
and thc lics that it tclls itscll in ordcr to rcmain uncontcstcd. 8ut, as
Mr. 8rooks situation rcvcals, thcsc licswhich projcct whitcncsss own
anxictics onto othcrscvcntually implodc undcr thc prcssurc gcncratcd
by itscll and its own insularity. Tc castcrn uropcan Jcwish mcn in Tc
8allad ol thc Sad Cal and Vundcrkind do not occupy a comlortablc
spacc in whitcncss or in patriarchy. Tc Nordic woman in Madamc
Zilcnsky and thc King ol Finland likcwisc challcngcs thc Souths idcals ol
whitc scxual propricty. No longcr can whitc bc a monolithic tcrm, and
ncithcr can it rcmain thc unqucstioncd givcn. Tis cxpansion ol thc labcl
whitc in McCullcrs collcction ol storics dcnaturalizcs whitcncss and
providcs a morc nuanccd undcrstanding ol racial position. 8y introducing
thc possibility ol cthnic dicrcncc among whitcs, McCullcrs opcns up ncw
spacc lor conccptualizing racc.
No:vs
1. Sandcr Gilman addrcsscs thc complcxitics bctwccn thc statc ol bcing whitc, thc
statc ol bcing Jcwish, and thc (in)ability within thc catcgory ol whitc to lully cncompass
thc catcgory ol Jcwish. Hc points toward thc history ol Jcws having bccn pcrccivcd as
bcing racially inlcrior and, thus, black in thc scicntic litcraturc ol thc ninctccnth ccntury
as a way to complicatc thc prcscnt day undcrstanding ol Jcws bcing whitc.
2. !t is intcrcsting to considcr thc implications ol sctting Vundcrkind in Cincinnati.
riginally, my articlc was to havc incorporatcd McCullcrs Tc Sojourncr and A
omcstic ilcmma in addrcssing southcrn whitc migration to thc North in conjunction
with uropcan immigration to thc South. Conncctions can bc madc bctwccn thc rhctorics
ol assimilation and adjustmcnt in both intcrnational cmigration and northward migration.
Also, thc qucstion ol what constitutcs southcrn litcraturc is a possiblc topic lor cxploration
hcrc. !s it litcraturc writtcn about thc South: !s it litcraturc writtcn by southcrncrs: Vho
is a southcrncr: id McCullcrs ccasc bcing a southcrn writcr whcn shc migratcd to thc
xpanding Southcrn Vhitcncss 55
North: o thcsc vcry qucstions indicatc a dcrcgionalization ol southcrn litcraturc: Such
qucstions, though provoking, arc bcyond my scopc hcrc.
3. !t is dicult to dctcrminc whcthcr or not Chincsc in thc abovc passagc is
intcrchangcablc with black, a lact that complicatcs Mr. 8rooks sccmingly progrcssivc
stancc on intcrracial unions. Ccrtainly, thcrc wcrc antimisccgcnation laws that prohibitcd
marriagcs bctwccn Mongols and Caucasians, just as thcrc wcrc laws against marriagcs
bctwccn blacks and Caucasians. Howcvcr, thcrc was somc ambivalcncc as to how
biracial Chincscwhitc ospring should bc raccd. Tc oncdrop rulc that applicd to thc
classication ol biracial blackwhitc pcoplc did not always apply to biracial Chincscwhitc
pcoplc. Tc childrcn ol Chincsc mcn and whitc womcn wcrc somctimcs considcrcd
Chincsc, somctimcs whitc. Tc child ol a Chincsc lathcr and a black mothcr was dcsignatcd
a mulatto in much thc samc way that a child ol a whitc lathcr and black mothcr would
havc bccn classicd. For a lullcr discussion, scc Cohcn.
Vovxs Ci :vb
Cohcn, Lucy. Chinese in the PostCivil War South: A People Without History. 8aton Rougc:
Louisiana Univcrsity Prcss, 1984.
Collins, Villiam J. Vhcn thc Tidc Turncd: !mmigration and thc clay ol thc 8lack
Migration. Journal of Economic History 57.3 (1997): 607632.
Gilman, Sandcr. Te Jews Body. Ncw York: Routlcdgc, 1991.
!gnaticv, Nocl. How the Irish Became White. Ncw York: Routlcdgc, 1991.
Mandlc, Jay R. Tc Plantation conomy Modc ol Production in thc Postbcllum South.
Plantation Society in the Americas 2.3 (1989): 279294.
McCullcrs, Carson. Te Ballad of the Sad Caf and Other Stories. 1936. Ncw York: 8antam,
1971.
Pctry, Alicc Hall. Carson McCullcrss Prccocious Vundcrkind. Southern Quarterly 26.3
(Spring 1988): 3139.
Silvcrman, Jason H. Tc ividcd Mind ol thc Ncw South Rcvisitcd: Richard Hathaway
dmonds, Te Manufacturers Record, and thc !mmigrant. Southern Studies 26.1
(1987): 4151.
Synott, Martha G. Rcplacing Sambo: Could Vhitc !mmigrants Solvc thc Labor Problcm in
thc Carolinas: Proceedings of the South Carolina Historical Association (1982): 7789.
57
From Southern Literary Journal 33, no. 2 (Spring 2001): pp. 10823. 2001 by thc Univcrsity
ol North Carolina Prcss.
S ARAH GLS N VH! T
Revisiting the Southern Grotesque:
Mikhail Bakhtin and the Case
of Carson McCullers
Any lorm ol art can only dcvclop by mcans ol singlc mutations by
individual crcators. !l only traditional convcntions arc uscd an art will
dic, and thc widcning ol an art lorm is bound to sccm strangc at rst,
and awkward. Any growing thing must go through awkward stagcs. Tc
crcator who is misundcrstood bccausc ol his brcach ol convcntion may
say to himscll, ! sccm strangc to you, but anyway ! am alivc.
Carson McCullcrs, Tc \ision Sharcd
Vritcrs ol thc southcrn grotcsquc or southcrn gothic
1
lor cxamplc,
udora Vclty, Villiam Faulkncr, Carson McCullcrs, Truman Capotc, and
Flanncry Connorconjurc up thc strangc worlds ol lrcakish outsidcrs
placcd in lovclorn barrcn landscapcs, pcnctrating hcat, and closcd spaccs,
with thcmcs ol misccgcnation, scxual dcviancc and bloody violcncc. Pcrhaps
not surprisingly, critical rcadcrs havc, on thc wholc, concurrcd that thc
southcrn grotcsquc aligns itscll with a gloomy vision ol modcrnity, according
to which thc soul ol man is both aimlcss and lovclcss. Tc grotcsquc worlds
ol southcrn litcraturc, it is argucd, allcgorizc thc human condition itscll as
cxistcntial alicnation and angst.
!n my vicw, howcvcr, thcsc accounts ol thc southcrn grotcsquc do
not tally with thc typc ol art which McCullcrs dcscribcs in thc prclatory
quotation abovc, as wcll as in othcr cssays (lor cxamplc, Tc Russian Rcalists
Sarah GlccsonVhitc 58
and Southcrn Litcraturc and Tc Flowcring rcam: Notcs on Vriting)
and thc ction itscll. McCullcrs, likc Connor in Somc Aspccts ol thc
Grotcsquc in Southcrn Fiction, acccntuatcs thc vitality ol thc grotcsquc
vision. Vithout wanting to dismiss thc rcal pain that is so oltcn at thc
hcart ol thc southcrn grotcsquc, including McCullcrs writings, ! want to
suggcst that thc grotcsquc is not limitcd to an alicnating modcrnity. Rathcr,
it is to do with thc arming qualitics and practiccs ol growth, promisc and
translormation.
Vhat ! am advocating, thcn, is a crucial nccd to rcvisit thc grotcsquc.
!n doing so in this cssay, ! notc dicrcnt thcorics ol thc grotcsquc, and
nd Mikhail 8akhtins conccptualization ol it thc most lruitlul not
only lor dcscribing thc dynamics ol McCullcrs grotcsquc subjccts,
but also lor promising a radically ncw construction ol how wc rcad thc
southcrn grotcsquc.
2
! thcn pcrlorm a rcading ol McCullcrs novcls ol
adolcsccnccTe Heart Is a Lonely Hunter (1940) and Te Member of the
Wedding (1946)as an cxamplc ol how wc might rclramc what ! suggcst
arc limitcd rcadings ol thc southcrn grotcsquc. Julia Kristcva rst brought
8akhtin to thc attcntion ol wcstcrn scholars with hcr 1969 cssay, Vord,
ialoguc and Novcl. Vith thc translation into nglish ol Rabelais and His
World in 1968, and Te Dialogic Imagination and Problems of Dostoevskys
Poetics in thc carly 1980s, 8akhtin bccamc a kcy namc in litcrary studics,
particularly in rcsponsc to his thcory ol thc novcl. Rabelais and His World,
8akhtins rcading ol Gargantua and Pantagruel, contains a rcvolutionary
conccptualization ol thc grotcsquc that ! suggcst can lrcc not just
McCullcrs ction but much southcrn writing lrom thc almost paralyzing
burdcn ol morc traditional accounts ol thc grotcsquc, to cclcbratc, instcad,
McCullcrs pronounccmcnt, but anyway ! am alivc.
As ! havc notcd, most rcadcrs ol thc southcrn grotcsquc submit that
it allcgorizcs a kind ol cxistcntial anguish. Villiam \an Connor accounts
lor thc grotcsquc in southcrn writing as a rcsponsc to a world ol violcncc
and uphcaval, Joscph Millichap makcs a conncction bctwccn thc grotcsquc
and a dark modcrnism, and Lcslic Ficdlcr, in Love and Death in the American
Novel (1960), links thc grotcsquc with tcrror and violcncc. Morc spccically,
McCullcrs worlds arc said to rcprcscnt alicnation, lonclincss, a lack ol human
communication, and thc lailurc ol lovc.
3
Although thcrc is no dcnying thc
validity ol thcsc constructions ol thc southcrn grotcsquc, ! do not think
thcy tcll thc lull story. Tc grotcsquc can also ocr grcatcr possibilitics
lor rcprcscntation and knowlcdgc, and McCullcrs own dcnition ol thc
grotcsquc is dynamic in its cmphasis on crcativc tcnsion: Tc tcchniquc
is bricy this: a bold and outwardly callous juxtaposition ol thc tragic with
thc humorous, thc immcnsc with thc trivial, thc sacrcd with thc bawdy, thc
wholc soul ol a man with a matcrialistic dctail (Russian Rcalists 258).
Mikhail 8akhtin and thc Casc ol Carson McCullcrs 59
No critics thcorizc in any way thc catcgory grotcsquc, mcrcly cquating
it with thc gothic and thc strangc. Alan Spicgcls much ovcrlookcd 1972
articlc, A Tcory ol thc Grotcsquc in Southcrn Fiction, is thc cxccption.
Spicgcl convincingly argucs that thc grotcsquc, as it appcars in Southcrn
ction, rclcrs ncithcr to thc particular quality ol a story . . . nor to its mood
. . . nor to its modc ol cxprcssion. . . . Tc grotcsquc rclcrs rathcr to a type of
character, dcncd by cithcr physical or mcntal dclormity (428). clormcd
charactcrs arc ol coursc ubiquitous in southcrn ction: Faulkncrs mutc, 8cnjy
(Te Sound and the Fury |1929|), McCullcrs brokcback, Cousin Lymon
(Te Ballad of the Sad Caf |1951|), Connors cripplc, Hulga Hopcwcll
(Good Country Pcoplc, A Good Man Is Hard to Find |1955|), and Capotcs
transvcstitc, Randolph (Other Voices, Other Rooms |1948|). !t is this collcction
ol outsidcrswhosc dicrcncc spcctacularly appcars on thc bodythat
invitcs thc classication ol much southcrn litcraturc as grotcsquc.
8akhtins construction ol thc grotcsquc likcwisc cmphasizcs
corporcality, morc spccically, corporcal contortion. !n 8akhtins account,
thc body is a body ol cxccss, and so it qucrics bordcrs and ncat catcgorics.
Pcrhaps most importantly, it is a body in ux, in a constant proccss ol
rclormation and rccmcrgcncc: it is bccoming. Strictly opposcd to thc
acsthctics ol thc grotcsquc is thc classic body and its accompanying poctics
ol closurc, cohcrcncc, and stasis. Tc grotcsquc, thcn, by its vcry naturc,
unncrvcs thc world ol classic idcntity and knowlcdgc, lor it tcsts thc vcry
limits ol thc body and thus ol bcing. Crucially, 8akhtin cclcbratcs this
strangc body, lor it is a sitc ol production: thc grotcsquc . . . discloscs
thc potcntiality ol an cntircly dicrcnt world, ol anothcr ordcr, anothcr
way ol lilc (Rabelais 48). Tis is thc invigorating aspcct ol thc 8akhtinian
grotcsquc: it is transgrcssivc bccausc it challcngcs normativc lorms ol
rcprcscntation and bchavior, it disturbs bccausc it lovcs thc abjcct and will
not rcst, it is always in a statc ol bccoming. Tc carnivalcsquc grotcsquc,
thcn, is a stratcgy ol rcsistancc.
8ccausc thc grotcsquc that 8akhtin cclcbratcs is a positivc modc ol
ontological rcprcscntation, it sharply contrasts with not only traditional
rcsponscs to thc southcrn grotcsquc, but also with carlicr acsthctic thcorics
ol thc grotcsquc morc broadly. For cxamplc, in Vollgang Kayscrs Te
Grotesque in Art and Literature (1957), thcrc is, 8akhtin writcs, no room
lor thc matcrial bodily principlc with its cxhaustivc wcalth and pcrpctual
rcncwal (Rabelais 48). Conncctcd with this is that, lor Kayscr, thc grotcsquc
portrays a world ol violcncc and lcar, alicnation and dcspair, a world in
which all that is lamiliar bccomcs hostilc (rcminisccnt ol Frcuds uncanny).
Unlikc 8akhtin, who draws on thc lolk humor and carnival ol thc Middlc
Agcs, Kayscr draws on Romantic and modcrnist angst lor his thcory ol thc
grotcsquc, just as do rcadcrs ol much southcrn litcraturc. !n sum, this morc
Sarah GlccsonVhitc 60
convcntional lorm ol thc grotcsquc cxprcsscs not thc lcar ol dcath but thc
lcar ol lilc (8akhtin, Rabelais 50).
Tc grotcsquc as it appcars in McCullcrs tcxts has much in
common with 8akhtins account, an account that illuminatcs both thc
oddncss ol cmbodimcnt, as wcll as rcsistancc. McCullcrs sharcs 8akhtins
prcoccupation with thc body, in hcr ubiquitous dcscriptions ol discasc and
dcath, dclormity and disability, strangc physical dcsircs, and cvcn strangcr
gcndcr congurations. 8oth McCullcrs and 8akhtin cndurcd scvcrc physical
disability and pain throughout thcir livcs. Vhilc ostcomyclitis plagucd
8akhtin, lcading to thc amputation ol his right lcg, McCullcrs sucrcd
a scrics ol strokcs that in 1947 lclt hcr paralyzcd down onc sidc ol hcr
body, until thc nal massivc strokc that cndcd hcr lilc twcnty ycars latcr.
\irginia Spcnccr Carr, in hcr biography ol thc loncly huntcr, claims that
McCullcrs also sucrcd psychosomatic hystcrical symptoms. !t is pcrhaps
not surprising, thcn, that thc body lcaturcs so strongly in both writcrs
works, thcy cxpcricnccd rsthand thc immcdiacy ol cmbodimcnt, both its
limitations and its strangc possibilitics.
McCullcrs novcls, plays, and short storics, likc Shcrwood Andcrsons
Winesburg, Ohio, prcscnt us with physically lrcakish charactcrsgiants,
dwarls, mutcs, androgyncs, and so onrcccting hcr own scllstylcd
lrcakishncss and thc cxploration ol gcndcr and scxual idcntity that shc
carricd out in hcr own lilc: shc considcrcd hcrscll an invcrt and lclt shc
was born a man (Carr, Lonely Hunter 167, 159).
4
!t is hcr pcrhaps lcast
obviously dclormcd charactcrs on whom ! want to locus as grotcsquc
gurcs ol rcsistancc: thc tomboys, Mick Kclly (Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter)
and Frankic Addams (Te Member of the Wedding). McCullcrs young girls
arc particularly amcnablc to an cxploration ol thc grotcsquc sincc historically
womcn havc bccn pcrccivcd as lrcakish lcsscr mcnAdams riband
thcir bodics culturally rcprcscntcd as abjcctcd and amorphous. Tc lcmalc
adolcsccnt is pcrhaps cvcn morc grotcsquc than hcr adult countcrpart lor
not only is shc lcmalc, but also shc is in that liminal statc bctwccn childhood
and adulthood and, in thc casc ol Mick and Frankic, bctwccn masculinc and
lcmininc gcndcr idcntication. Tc lact that thc girls arc on thc thrcshold
and so unxcd, mcans that thcy promisc ncw congurations ol human
bcing in tcrms ol bccoming, and so rcsist thc stricturcs ol limits. And this
rcsistancc, ! would arguc, is only undcrscorcd in thc contcxt ol McCullcrs
South, in which modcs ol bchaviorparticularly gcndcr and racial rolcs
wcrc so narrowly circumscribcd and against which McCullcrs scts up tropcs
ol lrcakishncss, gigantism, and ight to dcscribc rccalcitrant adolcsccncc.
arly rcadcrs ol McCullcrs adolcsccnt girls position Mick and
Frankic with thcir malc litcrary countcrpartssuch as Huck Finn and
Holdcn Caulcldas scnsitivc youths, gcndcrncutral cxcmplars ol thc
Mikhail 8akhtin and thc Casc ol Carson McCullcrs 61
univcrsal cxpcricncc ol initiation into adulthood and ol thc modcrn hcro as
rcbclvictim.
5
Yct, oncc McCullcrs adolcsccnt girls stoppcd bcing rcad as
vcrymcn, thcy bccamc somchow lrcakish in thcir apparcnt rcluctancc to
submit to thc idcal ol womanhood.
6
And in thc 1970s, lcminist accounts ol
McCullcrs novcls bcgan to cxplorc lcmalc adolcsccncc as a catcgory in nccd
ol its own tcrms ol dcscription and cxpcricncc and to highlight thc spccic
constraints ol cntcring womanhood in southcrn socicty.
7
Louisc Vcstling
and 8arbara Vhitc, lor cxamplc, concludcd that Mick and Frankics story
is thc story ol lcmalc limits. Howcvcr, ! want to suggcst that McCullcrs
portraits ol grotcsquc adolcsccncc challcngc thc vcry notion ol lcmalc limits.
A ncw account ol thc grotcsquc rcvcals that lcmalc adolcsccncc might,
rathcr, cmbody thc possibility ol cndlcss mctamorphosis, that is to say, thc
promisc ol childhood nccd not dic out with Mick and Frankics cntry into
adulthood.
Vhilc Vcstling and Vhitc tacklcd thc catcgory ol thc grotcsquc
in tcrms ol a lraught lcmalc idcntity in McCullcrs novcls, Mab Scgrcst,
discussing southcrn writing morc broadly, contcnds that thc grotcsquc is
dangcrously cntanglcd with both racism and patriarchy in thc South: 8oth
patriarchy and racism dcpcnd on crcating a catcgory ol thc thcror lrcak,
not normal likc mc. !n southcrn racism, it is thc black pcrson, in patriarchy,
thc lcmalc (27). Similarly wary ol thc risks ol thc grotcsquc, Karcn Sosnoski
and Ann Carlton havc sought to rcjcct thc tcrm altogcthcr in thcir rcspcctivc
accounts ol McCullcrs womcn.
All thcsc rcsponscs havc somcthing valid to add to thc body
ol McCullcrs criticism, not lcast ol all thcir obscrvations on thc lclt
lrcakishncss ol thc adolcsccnt, particularly lcmalc, cxpcricncc. Howcvcr,
thcrc arc also problcms, or ovcrsights, containcd within thcm. 8y
conccntrating on lcmalc limits, thcsc rcsponscs ovcrlook both thc vcry
crcativc challcngc thc girls providc to normativc idcntity politics and thc
powcrlul litcrary tropcs that Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter and Te Member
of the Wedding cmploy to suggcst this challcngc. As ! havc alrcady notcd,
bccausc thc young tomboys arc liminal, thcy cmbody a kind ol dynamism
and activc potcntial. !t is lor this rcason that adolcsccnts in gcncral bcar thc
wcighty burdcn ol thc invcstmcnt socicty as a wholc placcs in thcm: thcy
cmbody thc ncw gcncration, thc luturc as hopc and possibility. !t is this
conguration ol adolcsccnccas plasticthat grotcsquc rcprcscntation
can so wcll acccnt, and thus highlight thc cxtrcmcly subvcrsivc naturc
ol McCullcrs crcativc projcct. Hcr novcls ol rcsistancc prcscnt us with
unscttlcd idcntitics and so push thc vcry boundarics ol how wc undcrstand
human bcing. And thcy do so by cmploying thc cxpansivc tropcs ol
lrcakishncss and ight, sct against thc background ol a dcbilitating idcal
lcmininity, that is, ixics iadcm (Joncs), thc southcrn bcllc.
Sarah GlccsonVhitc 62
Tc imagc ol thc southcrn bcllc and lady rulcd all notions ol whitc
southcrn womanhood and lcmininity, cvcn in thc postbcllum Ncw South,
although such an idcal bccamc morc and morc transparcnt with thc changing
status ol womcn in thc 1940s and 1950s. !n Te Member of the Wedding,
thc southcrn lady is imagcd in thc ncighborhood club mcmbcrs, whom
Frankic watchcs lrom thc kitchcn window passing slowly bclorc thc arbor.
Tc long gold sun slantcd down on thcm and madc thcir skin look goldcn
also, and thcy wcrc drcsscd in clcan, lrcsh drcsscs (38). Janicc, Frankics
brothcrs ancc, who is small and prctty (38), providcs anothcr cxamplc ol
gracious lcmininity lor Frankic to idcally cmulatc. For Mick Kclly, it is hcr
girlish oldcr sistcr who providcs thc rolcmodcl. tta primps and thinks
about movic stars whilc practicing hcr chin cxcrciscs bclorc thc mirror (Heart
4041). A morc parodic imagc ol this southcrn dcbutantc is 8i 8rannons
lourycarold niccc, 8aby Vilson, who, likc Truman Capotcs Miss 8obbitt
in Childrcn on Tcir 8irthdays (A Tree of Night and Other Stories |1950|),
is hidcous in hcr lcmininity. 8aby wcars a littlc whitc drcss with whitc shocs
and whitc socks and cvcn small whitc glovcs (114), or a littlc pink tutu so
that with hcr ycllow hair shc was all pink and whitc and goldand so small
and clcan that it almost hurt to watch hcr (146147).
Vhat comcs out so powcrlully in McCullcrs dcscriptions ol idcal
lcmininity is thc dual cmphasis on clcanlincss and smallncss, suggcsting
that thc lcmalc body is both inhcrcntly dirty and in nccd ol containmcnt.
Accordingly, 8crcnicc, thc Addams cook, instructs Frankic to gct clcan
lor a changc. Scrub your clbows and x yourscll nicc. You will do vcry
wcll (Member 28). 8oth tomboys attcmpt to clcan thcmsclvcs up in ordcr
to bccomc propcr womcnFrankic lor hcr datc with thc soldicr (133) and
Mick lor hcr prom party (Heart 97). Tc nccd to gct clcan chimcs with
cultural pcrccptions ol thc unruly grotcsquc lcmalc body, associatcd with thc
abjcct, and capturcd in Micks grati ol a vcry bad wordpussy (3637),
writtcn in big bold lcttcrs amongst sacrcd namcs likc Mozart. Hcrc, Mick is
also making a conncction bctwccn thc unclcan lcmalc body and scxuality, shc
has intcrnalizcd cultural pcrccptions which construct lcmalcncss as obsccnc,
as pornographic: scx is womanlincss. !t is no wondcr, thcn, that whcn Mick
has hcr rst cncountcr with adult scxuality, with Harry Minowitz, it lcavcs
hcr lccling powcrlcss, as il hcr hcad was brokc o lrom hcr body and thrown
away (243). And Frankic trics to lorgct thc unknown sin committcd
with 8arry MacKcan (Member 33).
Just as thc young tomboys cngagc, cvcn il unwittingly, in a politics
ol purication, thcy also conlrontboth litcrally and gurativclythc
diminutivc status ol classic lcmininity. Firstly, as ! havc notcd, rcprcscntations
ol idcal lcmininity in McCullcrs novcls strcss pctitcncss, thus sctting up
lcmininity as a kind ol arrcstcd dcvclopmcnt, a stuntcdncss and childlikc
Mikhail 8akhtin and thc Casc ol Carson McCullcrs 63
powcrlcssncss. Sccondly, that lcmininity is idcally pockctsizcd, prcscnting
thc pcrlcct woman as a miniaturc and as somcthing to bc collcctcd and
hoardcd. 8aby Vilson, lor cxamplc, who is dcpictcd as a lairychild with
hcr pink tutu and goldcn hair, rcscmblcs thc minutc pcrlcction ol dctail and
a culturcd lorm ol naturc that Susan Stcwart cxplorcs (112). Rcprcscnting
lcmininity in tcrms ol thc miniaturc is rcminisccnt ol thc containmcnt
inhcrcnt in thc acsthctics ol thc classic body. Tus, implicit in notions ol
southcrn daintincss, cxcmplicd by Janicc and parodicd in 8aby, is not only
a loss ol powcr but also a scnsc ol limits.
Mick and Frankic most obviously rcsist thc lcmininc world ol thc lairy
likc southcrn bcllc through thcir ovcrt tomboy bchavior and appcarancc and,
ol coursc, through thcir usc ol masculinc namcs. Vhilc tomboyishncss may
havc bccn acccptablc in thc prcadolcsccnt southcrn girl, at pubcrty, shc was
cxpcctcd to cultivatc hcr charm to bccomc a gcntlcwoman, in othcr words,
to shcd hcr boyishncss lor womanlincss. Sincc both girls pcrscvcrc with thcir
masculinc ways, 8crcnicc lccls compcllcd to advisc Frankic to changc lrom
bcing so rough and grccdy and big. . . . You ought to x yourscll up nicc
in your drcsscs (Member 98), and tta tclls Mick, it makcs mc sick to scc
you in thosc silly boys clothcs. Somcbody ought to . . . makc you bchavc
(Heart 41)that is, somcbody ought to makc hcr bccomc a truc woman.
Notably, both 8crcnicc and tta strcss thc nccd to contain thc young girls,
il thcy arc cvcr to amount to anything. !t sccms that thc highly opprcssivc
burdcn ol social cxpcctation cannot accommodatc thc girls bccoming, thcir
dicrcncc.
Tc atmosphcrc ol containmcnt, a rcsult ol such social dcmands lor
normality, is lurthcr rcgistcrcd in both tcxts through thc constant allusions
to hcat and to small cnclosurcs, crcating an oltcn tcrrilying panic in both
tomboys and rcadcrs. 8crcnicc sums up this scnsc ol capturc: Vc all ol us
somchow caught. Vc born this way or that way and wc dont know why. . . .
And maybc wc wants to widcn and bust lrcc. 8ut no mattcr what wc do wc
still caught (Member 141).
8
Tis allpcrvasivc atmosphcrc ol claustrophobia
manilcsts itscll in thc many captivity tropcs, lrom ostcnsibly bcnign placcs
ol conncmcnta housc, a room, a small townto thc morc sinistcr prisons
and asylums that lcaturc so oltcn in McCullcrs ction. Sccmingly trappcd
in thc kitchcn or thc small town strccts, Frankic cvcn cnvics thc prisoncrs in
thc town jail, lor it was bcttcr to bc in a jail whcrc you could bang thc walls
than in a jail you could not scc (84). Mick dcscribcs this scnsc ol captivity
as likc thc cciling was prcssing slowly down towards hcr lacc (Heart 273)
and drcams that shc is swimming through grcat crowds ol pcoplc. . . . Tc
biggcst crowd in thc world. And somctimcs . . . !m knocking thcm all down
. . . and othcr timcs !m on thc ground and pcoplc arc trompling all ovcr mc
(3839). Furthcrmorc, both narrativcs takc placc in hot southcrn summcrs,
Sarah GlccsonVhitc 64
and Frankic makcs a dircct association bctwccn hcat and cntrapmcnt whcn
shc obscrvcs thc bars ol sunlight |which| crosscd thc back yard likc thc bars
ol a bright strangc jail (Member 95). !n contrast to thc opprcssivc hcat ol thc
small homctowns, both Mick and Frankic drcam ol thc cool ol othcr climcs:
lor Frankic, this is Alaska, lor Mick, Switzcrland. Tus, hcat only intcnsics
thc alrcadystiing atmosphcrc crcatcd by thc strccts ol thc monotonous
southcrn towns and thc cncloscd spaccs, such as thc ubiquitous kitchcns or
cals that thc tomboys lrcqucnt.
Vith such dcmands and rolc modcls bclorc thcm, manilcstcd in
opprcssivc imagcs ol miniaturcs, hcat and claustrophobia, both Mick and
Frankic lrcak out. Mick wants to knock down all thc walls ol thc housc
and thcn march through thc strccts as big as a giant (Heart 220), and Frankic
did things and got hcrscll into rcal troublc. Shc brokc thc law. And oncc
having bccomc a criminal, shc brokc thc law again, and thcn again (Member
33). Tc girls dcsirc to bust lrcc rcscmblcs thc impulsc ol thc grotcsquc
that cannot cndurc thc contours ol normalclassicidcntity. And bccausc
thc girls rcsist such normativc claims in thc high stakcs ol idcntity, thcy
idcntily, and arc idcnticd, with thc gurcs ol thc lrcakshow, whom Frankic
cncountcrs at thc Chattahoochcc lair: thc Giant, thc FatLady, thc Midgct,
thc Vild Niggcr, thc Pin Hcad, thc Alligator 8oy, and thc HallMan Hall
Voman. !t turns out that Frankic, who has alrcady scnscd hcr association
with lrcakishncss (Member 89), was alraid ol all thc Frcaks, lor it sccmcd
to hcr that thcy had lookcd at hcr in a sccrct way and tricd to conncct thcir
cycs with hcrs, as though to say: wc know you (27).
!n lact, both Frankic and Mick arc grotcsquc through lcss ovcrt
allusions to thc lrcaks, particularly thc HallMan HallVoman and thc
Giant. 8oth girls rcscmblc thc HallMan HallVoman, that morphoditc
and a miraclc ol scicncc (Member 27), in thcir dcancc ol ncat and propcr
gcndcr assignmcnt. As young tomboys, thcy arc hybrid gurcs, ncithcr wholly
masculinc nor wholly lcmininc, but both. Tc imagc ol hcrmaphroditism
powcrlully suggcsts thcir lailurc, or pcrhaps inability, to conlorm to normativc
gcndcr practiccs, that is, to thc rolc ol thc southcrn bcllc. And bccausc thcy
lail in thc gcndcring stakcs, thcy intcrnalizc socictys act ol branding thcm
lrcaks. Furthcr, as scvcral commcntators havc notcd (Vcstling 143, 111,
Ficdlcr, Freaks 30), thc androgynous HallMan HallVoman also conjurcs
up thc uncasc ol thc adolcsccnt conlrontcd with a strangc, cmcrging scxuality
and changing body, as wcll as thc problcms ol corrcct gcndcr idcntication
and bchavior. Connor also dcploys thc lrcakshow Hcrmaphroditc in A
Tcmplc ol thc Holy Ghost to suggcst thc horror ol thc adolcsccnts changing
pubcsccnt body.
Morc challcnging, ! think, in McCullcrs portrayal ol lcmalc
adolcsccncc, is thc association ol thc young girls with thc lrcakshow Giant,
Mikhail 8akhtin and thc Casc ol Carson McCullcrs 65
an csscntially grotcsquc gurc.
9
8oth Frankic and Mick worry about thcir
cxtrcmc hcight: Frankic cstimatcs that shc would grow to bc ovcr ninc lcct
tall, a thought that tcrrics hcr lor shc knows that a lady who is ovcr ninc
lcct tall . . . would bc a Frcak (Member 25) and would ncvcr gct marricd or
go to a wcdding (27). Mick similarly cxpcricnccs hcr staturc as a hindrancc
to social poisc and acccptancc: on thc night ol hcr party, shc acknowlcdgcs
that no boy wantcd to prom with a girl so much tallcr than him (Heart
101). And thc hcalthy appctitcs ol both girls only cnhancc thcir rcscmblancc
to giants (Heart 144, Member 29, 34, 126). 8oth Portia, thc Kcllys cook,
and 8crcnicc warn thc girls to cut down on thcir lood intakc, as grccdincss is
unladylikc and may incrcasc thcir alrcady lrcakish hcight.
Gigantism dccs thc morc appropriatc, dclicatc hcight ol ladics,
somcthing that is particularly striking whcn wc comparc Mick and Frankic
with thc pctitc Janicc and 8aby Vilson. As Lori Mcrish has argucd,
cutcncss, an cpithct which thc Shirlcy Tcmplclikc 8aby clcarly cmbodics,
acsthcticizcs thc most primary social distinctions, rcgulating thc (shilting)
boundarics bctwccn Sclvcs and thcrs, cultural insidcrs and cultural
outsidcrs, humans and lrcaks (188). Vhilc thc cmphasis on pctitcncss
cnshrincs thc lcmininc imagc ol thc domcsticatcd littlc woman, thc giant
is a part ol thc masculinc world (Stcwart 112), again undcrscoring thc crror
in Mick and Frankics idcntity as thcy stray lrom thc bounds ol good tastc
and appropriatc bchavior.
!magcs ol lrcakishncss powcrlully rclay thc strangcncss ol thc
adolcsccnt cxpcricncc, in tcrms ol thc changing body, scxual anxicty, and
social dcmands lor conlormity. Howcvcr, thcsc lrcakish imagcs arc also a
part ol thc morc crcativc proccss ol bccoming, thc domain ol thc grotcsquc.
McCullcrs rcgistcrs thc closc alignmcnt ol bccoming with thc liminality ol
thc adolcsccnt in hcr outlinc lor Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter: Mick is a crudc
child on thc thrcshold ol a pcriod ol quick awakcning and dcvclopmcnt.
Hcr cncrgy and thc possibilitics bclorc hcr arc without limits (Authors
utlinc 139). Unsurprisingly, both Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter and Te
Member of the Wedding contain many imagcs ol thcir protagonists appcaring
on litcral thrcsholds (Heart 20, 48, Member 7, 14, 33, 133, 149). Vhcn
Frankic rccounts hcr drcam ol standing in a doorway to thc clairvoyant 8ig
Mama, shc is told that it signals thc arrival ol changc in hcr lilc (Member
149150). 8ccausc thc liminality ol adolcsccncc promiscs bccoming, it has
thc capacity to puncturc and cxpand upon thc ovcrwhclming atmosphcrc
ol containmcnt against which both narrativcs arc sct. Tc tropc ol thc
unnishcd undcrscorcs this promiscol ncw possibilitics, ol ncw worlds.
Vhilc 8akhtin dcscribcs thc grotcsquc body as unnishcd, |it| outgrows
itscll, transgrcsscs its own limits (Rabelais 2526), Mick and Frankic arc
similarly unnishcd. !n lact, Frankic scvcral timcs uscs, or at lcast invokcs,
Sarah GlccsonVhitc 66
thc cpithct unnishcd to dcscribc hcrscll and thc world around hcr
(Member 7, 30, 32, 47, 142143). !n McCullcrs short story Tc Sojourncr,
John rcads thc imagc ol unnishcd music: Tcrcs nothing that makcs
you so awarc ol thc improvisation ol human cxistcncc as a song unnishcd
(29, cmphasis addcd). To bc unnishcd is to participatc in an opcncndcd
subjcctivity, a prcludc to bccoming.
Rcconsidcring thc tropc ol thc lrcak rcvcals that it docs not mcrcly
signal adolcsccnt oddncss, in tcrms ol thc lailurc to conlorm. Tc HallMan
HallVoman rcprcscnts an unnishcd lorm ol subjcctivity visavis gcndcr,
just as Mick and Frankic uctuatc bctwccn boyishncss and girlishncss
throughout thcir rcspcctivc narrativcs. And gigantism has an cmphasis not
mcrcly on magnitudc but, importantly, on growing. Tc giant is unbridlcd,
cxpansivc, and so rcsists conlormity to cncloscd modcls ol bcing. !t is lor
this rcason that thc gurc ol thc giant is a thrcatcning gurc, and lor this
rcason that Mick wishcs to march through thc strccts as big as a giant
(Heart 3839). Tc proccss ol growth rcccts Micks and Frankics ycarnings
and actual attcmpts to push bcyond rcstrictivc bounds ol nishcd idcntity,
cxcmplicd, as wc havc sccn, in thc opprcssivc gcndcr rcgimc ol thc South.
Tus, thc tropc ol thc giant docs not mcrcly dcscribc Micks and Frankics
painlul cxpcricncc ol lrcakish adolcsccncc, it also challcngcs congurations
ol idcntity as static and limitcd, lor thc giant grows bcyond what is normal
and natural and might rcprcscnt thc possibility ol a ncw subjcctivity in
tcrms ol bccoming.
Rathcr than rcading thc grotcsquc modc as a kind ol cxistcntial allcgory
or rcjccting it altogcthcr in dcscribing McCullcrs tcxts, to maintain it is
to pinpoint thc crcativity that ! bclicvc is thc vital clcmcnt ol McCullcrs
vision ol thc human bcing. !n this way, wc can locus on thc inhcrcnt human
possibility ol translormation, what Gillcs clcuzc and Fclix Guattari call
lincs ol ight. Flight lincs arc litcrally manilcstcd in thc rccurrcnt imagcs
ol ying throughout McCullcrs writings. Jamcs Johnson claims that ight
was an important imagc in thc novcls ol adolcsccncc in thc dccadcs lollowing
thc 1930s and rcprcscnts thc adolcsccnt hcros dcsirc lor cscapc. !n his bricl
discussion ol Te Member of the Wedding, hc writcs that Frankic ran away to
avoid lacing hcr humiliation (7) lollowing thc nightmarc ol thc wcdding.
Morc rcccntly, lcminist discussion ol ying has suggcstcd it is a tropc ol
lcmalc lrccdom. !n rica Jongs Fear of Flying (1973), lor cxamplc, ight
bccomcs an cxprcssion ol thc rcclamation ol lcmalc scxuality lor oncs scll,
and in Nights at the Circus (1984), Angcla Cartcr writcs ol thc Ncw Agc in
which no woman will bc bound down to thc ground (25). Finally, Mary
Russo, who discusscs acrialism in Te Female Grotesque, suggcsts that ight is
thc lantasy ol a lcmininity which dccs thc limits ol thc body, cspccially thc
lcmalc body (44). Accordingly, ight bcars within it thc potcntial lor tcsting
Mikhail 8akhtin and thc Casc ol Carson McCullcrs 67
limits and stcpping out ol bounds. Russos rcading ol ight in particular
suggcsts thc modcs ol rcsistancc and translormationnot cscapismthat !
havc argucd arc at thc hcart ol McCullcrs grotcsquc portraits.
McCullcrs always uscs ight imagcs in rclation to adolcsccncc,
rcsonating oncc morc with liminality sincc ight takcs placc bctwccn sky
and carth. Howcvcr, it is not mcrcly lcmalcs whom McCullcrs associatcs
with ight. For cxamplc, in Clock Without Hands, Jcstcr Clanc bclicvcs that
cvcryonc should bc ablc to y and own a planc (69), and in thc short story
Untitlcd Piccc, a glidcr suggcsts to both thc young boy and his youngcr
sistcr thc cxpcctancy ol a journcy (112): it was as though thcy had ncvcr
wantcd anything cxccpt this glidcr and its ight lrom thc carth up toward
thc bluc sky (113). And in Authors utlinc ol Tc Mutc, (which bccamc
Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter), both Mick and Harry arc madc rcstlcss by
thc abundancc ol undircctcd cncrgy. !n thc spring thcy try to construct a
glidcr togcthcr in thc Kcllys backyard, and although bccausc ol inadcquatc
matcrials thcy can ncvcr gct thc contraption to y, thcy work at it vcry hard
togcthcr (140141).
!n Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter itscll, Mick, whilc standing on thc
rool ol an cmpty housc, with hcr arms sprcad out likc wings, dccidcs that
shc will onc day invcnt ying machincs (3334). And Frankic, likc Jcstcr
Clanc, plans an idcal world in which cvcryonc is cntitlcd to an acroplanc and
a motorcyclc (Member 115) and drcams ol ying acroplancs in thc war.
Micks and Frankics dcsirc to carvc out ncw lincs ol ight bclongs to thc
girls rcspcctivc wishcs to bc lorcign (Heart 106) and to bc somcbody clsc
cxccpt mc (Member 12). Mick considcrs bccoming an invcntor, or a grcat
worldlamous composcr . . . and conduct all ol hcr music hcrscll (Heart
211). Signicantly, hcr drcams arc no vain dcsircs, cvidcnccd by hcr dccision
to takc mcchanical shop ovcr typing class, hcr attcmpt to makc a violin (43),
and hcr sacricing ol lunch moncy to pay lor piano lcssons (144). Frankics
dcsircs involvc wanting to run away and join thc war (Member 3031), going
to Hollywood (175), and bccoming a grcat poctor clsc thc lorcmost
authority on radar (186). Frankics crcativc ycarning lor othcr ways ol bcing
is undcrscorcd by hcr various namc changcs: lrom thc rcgular Franccs, to thc
tomboyolaction Frankic, to thc drcamy F. Jasminc. Flight imagcs, thcn,
rccct thc young girls dcsirc to bust lrcc, to soar to ncw hcights, and to
crcatc ncw lorms ol subjcctivity.
Tcrc is, ol coursc, always an immancnt risk in ight, which thc
Grccks callcd hubris and which is cpitomizcd in thc latclul ight ol !carus.
!n McCullcrs novcls ol adolcsccncc, Micks paintings ol lailcd ightSca
Gull with 8ack 8rokcn in Storm, and anothcr illustrating an airplanc
crashing down and pcoplc jumping out to savc thcmsclvcs (Heart 42)
suggcst risktaking and its dcadly conscqucnccs. And, standing on a rooltop,
Sarah GlccsonVhitc 68
whcrc cvcrybody wantcd to stand, Mick lccls that thcrc was somcthing
about gctting to thc vcry top that gavc you a wild lccling and madc you
want to ycll or sing or raisc up your arms and y. Howcvcr, pondcring that
il you lost grip and rollcd o thc cdgc it would kill you (3336), Mick is
acknowlcdging thc painlul hazards ol othcr ways ol bcing.
!n this prcliminary rcvision ol thc grotcsquc, ! havc argucd that
McCullcrs novcls construct adolcsccnt subjcctivity in thc grotcsquc rcalms
ol bccomingin tcrms ol gigantism and ightand in doing so, challcngc
thosc normativc dcmands lor idcntity which scck to constrain thc promisc
ol adolcsccncc. And it is at thc location ol thc body that transgrcssion takcs
placc, signicd by attcmpts to mastcr thc young girls through disciplincs ol
appropriatc lashion, bchavior, and dcsircs, as wcll as thc cvcrprcscnt thrcat
ol bcing brandcd a lrcak. At thc samc timc, thc novcls sccm to warn ol thc
dangcrs ol ights ol lancy, lor thosc who lail to conlorm to prcscriptivc
modcs ol bchavior arc painlully punishcd and ostracizcd. !n McCullcrs ncxt
novcl, Te Ballad of the Sad Caf, wc witncss thc lull cccts ol grotcsquc
transgrcssion: thc imagc ol thc Amazonian Miss Amclia vans immurcd
in thc boardcdup cal litcrally cncloscs hcr narrativc. Amclias latc would
sccm to dramatizc thc rcsponscs ol many commcntators to McCullcrs
grotcsquc adolcsccnts, in similar attcmpts at closurc, cntanglcd with notions
ol lcmalc limits. 8y rcmapping thc cld ol thc grotcsquc, in this casc by
dcploying 8akhtins conccptualization, wc can nally considcr McCullcrs
litcrary output as an armation ol crcativity. Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter
and Te Member of the Wedding arc not mcrcly ctional accounts ol volatilc
childish rcbcllion, thcy arc, rathcr, powcrlul narrativcs ol thc dynamics ol
bcing human. Vhilc ! hopc that this stratcgic rcrcading ol thc grotcsquc
might lcad to a complctc ovcrhaul ol how wc rcad much southcrn litcraturc,
wc arc yct lclt to wondcr at McCullcrs radical cxprcssions ol gigantism and
acrialism, cmcrging as thcy do lrom a culturc ol lcmininc stuntcdncss and
submission.
No:vs
1. Gothic and grotcsquc havc long bccn uscd intcrchangcably to dcscribc southcrn
writing. !n this cssay, ! usc grotcsquc to distinguish thc litcraturc lrom talcs ol thc
supcrnatural which gothic invokcs.
2. Patricia Yacgcr has alrcady opcncd thc way lor ncw accounts ol udora Vcltys
grotcsquc, sidc by sidc with 8akhtin, in diblc Labor, Southern Quarterly 30.23 (1992):
150159, and 8cyond thc Hummingbird: Southcrn Vomcn Vritcrs and thc Southcrn
Gargantua, Haunted Bodies: Gender and Southern Texts, cds. Annc Goodwyn Joncs and
Susan \. onaldson (Charlottcsvillc: UP ol \irginia, 1997), 287318.
3. Scc lor cxamplc, Frank 8aldanza, Plato in ixic, Georgia Review 12.2 (1958):
151167, !hab Hassan, Carson McCullcrs: Tc Alchcmy ol Lovc and Acsthctics ol
Mikhail 8akhtin and thc Casc ol Carson McCullcrs 69
Pain, Modern Fiction Studies 5.4 (19591960): 31126, Chcstcr isingcr, Carson
McCullcrs and thc Failurc ol ialoguc, Fiction of the Forties (Chicago: U ol Chicago
P, 1963), 243258, Franccs Frccman Padcn, Autistic Gcsturcs in Te Heart Is a Lonely
Hunter, Modern Fiction Studies 28.3 (1982): 453463, onna 8aucrly, Tcmcs ol ros
and Agapc in thc Major Fiction ol Carson McCullcrs, Pembroke Magazine 20 (1988):
7276, Adclaidc Frazicr, Tcrminal Mctaphors lor Lovc, Pembroke Magazine 20 (1988):
7781, Lcroy Tomas, Carson McCullcrs: Tc Plight ol thc Loncly Huntcr, Pembroke
Magazine 20 (1988): 1015, Mary Vhitt, Tc Mutcs in Carson McCullcrs Te Heart Is a
Lonely Hunter, Pembroke Magazine 20 (1988): 2429, Raphacl Johstoncaux, Tc Forccs ol
chumanization: Reections in a Golden Eye, Encyclia 66 (1989): 97104, Mary Mc8ridc,
Lonclincss and Longing in Sclcctcd Plays ol Carson McCullcrs and Tcnncsscc Villiams,
Modern American Drama: Te Female Canon, cd. Junc Schluctcr (Ruthcrlord, NJ: Fairlcigh
ickinson UP, 1990), 14350, and Ruth \andc Kiclt, Tc Lovc thos ol Portcr, Vclty, and
McCullcrs, Te Female Tradition in Southern Literature, cd. Carol Manning (Urbana: U ol
!llinois P, 1993), 235258.
4. \irginia Spcnccr Carr writcs that McCullcrs had a passing acquaintancc with
Andcrson (Lonely Hunter 145). livcr vans comparcs Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter to
Quccr, and a sccnc in Te Ballad of the Sad Caf to Tc gg, Winesburg, Ohio (Carr,
Understanding McCullers 54, 135). ! comparc Hands with Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter
visavis homoscxual dcsircin Grotcsquc Subjccts: A Rcading ol Carson McCullcrs
(iss. U ol Ncw South Valcs, 1997).
5. Scc !hab Hassan, Tc !dca ol Adolcsccncc in Amcrican Fiction, American
Quarterly 10.3 (1958): 312324, Radical Innocence: Studies in the Contemporary American
Novel (Princcton: Princcton UP, 1961), and Tc Charactcr ol PostVar Fiction, Te
English Journal 51.1 (1962): 18. Scc also Lcslic Ficdlcrs chaptcr Adolcsccncc and
Maturity in thc Amcrican Novcl in An End to Innocence: Essays on Culture and Politics
(8oston: 8cacon, 1966), 191210, Frcdcric Carpcntcr, Tc Adolcsccnt in Amcrican
Fiction, Te English Journal 46.6 (1957): 313319, and Jamcs Johnson, Tc Adolcsccnt
Hcro: A Trcnd in Modcrn Fiction.
6. Scc lor cxamplc, Maurccn Howard, !ntroduction, Seven American Women Writers
of the Twentieth Century: An Introduction, cd. Maurccn Howard (Minncapolis: U ol
Minncsota P, 1963), 327, !rving 8uchcn, Carson McCullcrs: A Casc ol Convcrgcncc, Te
Bucknell Review 21 (Spring, 1973): 1528, Ann Carlton, 8cyond Gothic and Grotcsquc:
A Fcminist \icw ol Trcc Fcmalc Charactcrs ol Carson McCullcrs, Pembroke Magazine
20 (1988): 56, 58, Richard Cook, Carson McCullers (Ncw York: Frcdcrick Ungar, 1975),
64, Ficdlcr, An End to Innocence 203, Linda Hul, Tc Hcart !s a Loncly Huntcr: Carson
McCullcrs |sic| Young Voman with a Grcat Futurc 8chind Hcr, A Portrait of the Artist as
a Young Woman: Te Writer as Heroine in American Literature (Ncw York: Ungar, 1983), 111,
Margarct 8. Mcowcll, Carson McCullers (8oston: Twaync, 1980), 85, Sosnoski 86, and
Vcstling 111, 115.
7. Scc lor cxamplc, lainc Ginsbcrg, Tc Fcmalc !nitiation Tcmc in Amcrican
Fiction, Studies in American Fiction 3 (1975): 2738, Vcstling, Hul, Kathcrinc alsimcr,
Prcadolcsccncc: Te Member of the Wedding, Female Adolescence: Psychoanalytic Reections
on Works of Literature (Ncw Havcn: Yalc, 1986), 1326, Constancc M. Pcrry, Carson
McCullcrs and thc Fcmalc Wunderkind, Southern Literary Journal 19 (1986): 3645, Alicc
Hall Pctry, Carson McCullcrss Prccocious Vundcrkind, Southern Quarterly 26.3 (1988):
3139, and Vhitc.
8. !mportantly, 8crcnicc adds that shc is caught worst bccausc shc is black. . . .
vcrybody is caught onc way or anothcr. 8ut thcy donc drawn complctcly cxtra bounds
Sarah GlccsonVhitc 70
around all colorcd pcoplc. . . . Somctimcs it just about morc than wc can stand (McCullcrs,
Member 141). !n Winesburg, Ohio, Andcrson also portrays his grotcsqucs as trappcd: mcn
and womcn grab hold ol onc truth but thc momcnt onc ol thc pcoplc took onc ol thc
truths to himscll, callcd it his truth, and tricd to livc his lilc by it, hc bccamc a grotcsquc
and thc truth hc cmbraccd bccamc a lalschood (Tc 8ook ol thc Grotcsquc, Winesburg,
Ohio 24). Vhilc lor Andcrson thc cxpcricncc ol bcing trappcd might bc symbolic ol somc
lorm ol psychic alicnation or anguish, ! want to strcss that lor McCullcrs, it is primarily a
bodily cxpcricncc.
9. Scc Yacgcrs 8cyond thc Hummingbird lor hcr account ol gigantism in Vclty.
Vovxs Ci :vb
Andcrson, Shcrwood. Winesburg, Ohio. 1919. London: Picador, 1988.
8akhtin, Mikhail. Te Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays by M. M. Bakhtin. Trans. Caryl
mcrson and Michacl Holquist. Austin: U ol Tcxas P, 1981.
. Problems of Dostoevskys Poetics. 1929. d. and trans. Caryl mcrson. Minncapolis:
U ol Minncsota P, 1984.
. Rabelais and His World. 1965. Trans. Hclcnc !swolsky. 8loomington: !ndiana UP,
1984.
Carlton, Ann. 8cyond Gothic and Grotcsquc: A Fcminist \icw ol Trcc Fcmalc
Charactcrs ol Carson McCullcrs. Pembroke Magazine 20 (1988): 5462.
Carr, \irginia Spcnccr. Te Lonely Hunter: A Biography of Carson McCullers. Ncw York:
Carroll and Gral, 1975.
. Understanding Carson McCullers. Columbia: U ol South Carolina P, 1990.
Cartcr, Angcla. Nights at the Circus. London: Chatto and Vindus, 1984.
clcuzc, Gillcs, and Fclix Guattari. Kafka: For a Minor Literature. Trans. ana Polon.
Minncapolis: U ol Minncsota P, 1986.
Ficdlcr, Lcslic. Freaks: Myths and Images of the Secret Self. London: Pcnguin, 1978.
Johnson, Jamcs Villiam. Tc Adolcsccnt Hcro: A Trcnd in Modcrn Fiction, Twentieth
Century Literature 5.1 (1959): 311.
Joncs, Annc Goodwyn. ixics iadcm. Tomorrow is Another Day: Te Woman Writer in
the South, 18591936. 8aton Rougc: Louisiana Statc UP, 1981. 350.
Kayscr, Vollgang. Te Grotesque in Art and Literature. 1957. Trans. Ulrich Vcisstcin.
Glouccstcr, MA: P. Smith, 1968.
Kristcva, Julia. Vord, ialoguc and Novcl. Desire in Language: A Semiotic Approach to Art
and Literature. 1969. Trans. Tomas Gora, Alicc Jardinc, and Lcon S. Roudicz. Ncw
York: Columbia UP, 1980.
McCullcrs, Carson. Authors utlinc ol Tc Mutc (Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter). Te
Mortgaged Heart. London: Pcnguin, 1972. 136159.
. Clock Without Hands. 1961. London: Pcnguin, 1965.
. Tc Flowcring rcam: Notcs on Vriting. Te Mortgaged Heart. London:
Pcnguin, 1972. 280287.
. Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter. 1940. London: Pcnguin, 1961.
. Te Member of the Wedding. 1946. London: Pcnguin, 1962.
. Tc Russian Rcalists and Southcrn Litcraturc. Te Mortgaged Heart. London:
Pcnguin, 1972. 258264.
. Tc Sojourncr. 1951. Te Ballad of the Sad Caf. London: Pcnguin, 1963. 121
133.
. Untitlcd Piccc. Te Mortgaged Heart. London: Pcnguin, 1972. 111135.
Mikhail 8akhtin and thc Casc ol Carson McCullcrs 71
Mcrish, Lori. Cutcncss and Commodity Acsthctics: Tom Tumb and Shirlcy Tcmplc.
Freakery: Cultural Spectacles of the Extraordinary Body. d. Roscmaric Garland
Tomson. Ncw York: Ncw York UP, 1996. 185203.
Millichap, Joscph. istortcd Mattcr and isjunctivc Forms: Tc Grotcsquc as Modcrnist
Gcnrc. Arizona Quarterly 33 (1977): 339347.
Connor, Flanncry. Somc Aspccts ol thc Grotcsquc in Southcrn Fiction. Mystery and
Manners: Occasional Prose. d. Sally and Robcrt Fitzgcrald. Ncw York: Noonday,
1994. 3650.
Connor, Villiam \an. Tc Grotcsquc: An Amcrican Gcnrc. Te Grotesque: An American
Genre and Other Essays. Carbondalc, !L: Southcrn !llinois P, 1962. 319.
Russo, Mary. Te Female Grotesque: Risk, Excess and Modernity. Ncw York: Routlcdgc,
1994.
Scgrcst, Mab. Southcrn Vomcn Vriting: Toward a Litcraturc ol Vholcncss. My Mamas
Dead Squirrel: Lesbian Essays on Southern Culture. !thaca, NY: Fircbrand, 1985. 19
42.
Sosnoski, Karcn. Socictys Frcaks: Tc ccts ol Scxual Stcrcotyping in Carson McCullcrs
Fiction. Pembroke Magazine 20 (1988): 8288.
Spicgcl, Alan. A Tcory ol thc Grotcsquc in Southcrn Fiction. Te Georgia Review 26
(1972): 426437.
Stcwart, Susan. On Longing: Narratives of the Miniature, the Gigantic, the Souvenir, the
Collection. urham: ukc UP, 1993.
Vcstling, Louisc. Sacred Groves and Ravaged Gardens: Te Fiction of Eudora Welty, Carson
McCullers, and Flannery OConnor. Athcns: U ol Gcorgia P, 1985.
Vhitc, 8arbara. Loss ol Scll in Carson McCullcrs Te Member of the Wedding. Growing
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1985. 89111.
73
From Critique 43, no. 3 (Spring 2002): pp. 26070. 2002 by Hcldrcl Publications.
RN F VLR
Carson McCullerss Primal Scenes:
Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal
Thc signaturc charactcristic ol Carson McCullcrss ction is hcr abiding
prcoccupation with lonclincss. Timc and again McCullcrs has acknowlcdgcd
this prcoccupation, and it has bccomc commonplacc among critics to
obscrvc that a drcad ol alicnation drivcs hcr ction.
1
! call attcntion to this
obscssion to notc thc convcrgcncc ol southcrn writcr McCullcrss pcrccption
that unspcakablc isolation is thc lundamcntal human condition and Frcnch
psychoanalyst Jacqucs Lacans thcory that idcntity is prcdicatcd on alicnation.
According to Lacan, wc arc not alonc in thc bcginning bccausc thc child
pcrccivcs itscll as part ol thc mothcrs body, but to dcnc itscll as an !
scparatc lrom thc mothcr, thc child must submit to lossthc loss ol thc
mothcrs body. All ol McCullcrss works sccm to dramatizc thc cstrangcd
condition that Lacan maintains is prcrcquisitc lor human subjcctivity.
Accordingly, wc can supcrimposc Lacans thcory ol idcntity onto McCullcrss
narrativcs ol lonclincss.
2
8oth Frcud and Lacan thcorizc about thc unconscious and ultimatcly
claim that what is buricd in thc unconscious is a guilty dcsirc lor a lost
prcsumptivc holistic unity. Furthcr, Frcud and Lacan proposc that rcprcsscd
matcrial always rcturns in disguiscd lormsin drcams, in slips ol thc tonguc,
and in litcraturc.
3
McCullcrss 8allad ol thc Sad Cal rcprcscnts, ! claim,
such a disguiscd rcturn ol buricd mcanings. Tc 8allad opcns with a drcam
orccn Fowlcr 74
imagc: a ghostlikc lacc pccrs lrom thc window ol a boardcdup housc, likc
thc tcrriblc dim laccs known in drcams (3). Tis imagc scrvcs as noticc
that wc arc cntcring thc tcrrain ol thc unconscious, that likc a drcam imagc,
McCullcrss 8allad constitutcs a disguiscd mcssagc lrom thc unconscious
mind. Lacans rclormulation ol Frcuds thcory ol thc unconscious can hclp
us to dcciphcr this mcssagc.
Lacan holds that in thc bcginning, bclorc thc lormation ol idcntity, in
what hc calls thc imaginary or prcocdipal phasc, wc cxpcricncc no lonclincss,
no lack ol any kind. !n thc mothcrs womb and in thc rst lcw months ol
thc childs lilc, thc mothcr and child cxist as onc continuous, complctc,
unbrokcn circuit, thc child docs not cxist as a scparatc subjcct. For idcntity
and cultural mcaning to cxist, thcrc must bc dicrcncc, which is prcdicatcd
upon cxclusion. Spccically, thc mothcr must bc cxcludcd and must bccomc
thc rst to bc thcr. (Many othcrslor cxamplc, cthnic, rcligious, or racial
othcrslollow.) Tis act ol cxclusion, which Lacan calls a symbolic scll
castration, is thc pivotal momcnt in thc cmcrgcncc ol thc human subjcct.
At this critical splitting, a dcsirc lor a lost imagincd intcgration is drivcn
undcrground, and, in thc words ol Tcrry aglcton, this buricd guilty dcsirc
just is what is callcd thc unconscious (165). Tis rcprcssion marks thc ncwly
constitutcd subjccts cntry into thc symbolic ordcr, a rcgistcr ol bcing that
ovcrlays thc imaginary and is bascd in abscncc. Tc scll, thcn, is born through
a division and comcs into bcing lragmcntcd. Tis narrativc ol idcntity as thc
conscqucncc ol loss ocrs a way to rcad McCullcrss 8allad. !n lact, thc
cvcnts ol thc novclla appcar rcpcatcdly to stagc thc disguiscd rcturn and thc
subscqucnt rcprcssion ol thc dcsirc to ovcrcomc loss.
A rcjcction ol thc lcmininc, idcnticd with thc matcrnal, charactcrizcs
both Lacans symbolic ordcr and thc world ol McCullcrss 8allad bclorc
Lymons arrival. Panthca 8roughton was thc rst to obscrvc that Tc 8allad
rcccts a culturc in ight lrom thc lcmininc (41). Miss Amclia, who dcnics
hcr lcmininity, is a casc in point. As countlcss critics havc obscrvcd, bclorc
Lymons appcarancc, Miss Amclia is masculinc not only in hcr appcarancc
but also in hcr bchavior. !n stark antithcsis to thc lcmininc matcrnal, shc
is dominccring, ruthlcss, aggrcssivc, and cxploitativc. 8oth 8roughton and
Suzannc Morrow Paulson dcmonstratc that thcsc arc thc qualitics that this
culturc admircs and aspircs to. Paulson, in particular, richly documcnts that
Miss Amclias town is not only malcdominatcd but is also intcnt on thc
murdcr ol thc lcmininc (188). Arguably, thc androccntrism ol Miss Amclias
community rcccts our own social ordcr writ largc, which Lacan submits is
malcccntcrcd (or phalloccntric) bccausc thc symbolic ordcr, thc rcgistcr ol
languagc, law, and culturc, is bascd in abscncc, an abscncc idcnticd with
thc matcrnal body.
4
!n thc constitutivc momcnt, thc child rcjccts thc mothcr
and takcs lor thc objcct ol dcsirc thc lathcr as prcsumcd originator ol bcing.
5

Carson McCullcrss Primal Sccncs: Te Ballad of the Sad Caf 75
!n othcr words, Paulsons charactcrization ol Carson McCullcrss ctional
world, namcly that |c|vcryonc wants to bc thc lathcr and to bclong to thc
gang (194), is also a disturbingly accuratc dcscription ol Lacans symbolic
ordcr, thc ordcr ol cultural cxchangc: onc nccd only rcad lathcrbccomc
Fathcr lor lathcr and symbolic ordcr lor gang.
Tis rigid cultural rcprcssion ol thc lcmininc is rclaxcd, howcvcr, whcn
Lymon appcars, and Miss Amclia takcs him in. !t is notcworthy that Lymon
claims to bc rclatcd to Miss Amclia through his dcad mothcr who hc allcgcs
is thc hallsistcr ol Miss Amclias dcad mothcr. Lymon is associatcd with
thc dcad mothcr or, in Lacanian tcrms, thc displaccd mothcr ol carlicst
mcmorics. Pcrhaps that is why Miss Amclia, who is a solitary pcrson and
was ncvcr known to invitc anyonc to cat with hcr unlcss shc was planning
to trick thcm in somc way, or makc moncy out ol thcm (11), now adopts a
nurturing attitudc toward Lymon. Tc narrator cxplains thc pcculiar tic that
dcvclops bctwccn Lymon and Miss Amclia in tcrms ol lovc and obscrvcs that
thc bclovcd is only a stimulus lor all thc storcd up lovc which has lain quict
within thc lovcr lor a long timc hithcr to (26). Vhat thc narrator idcntics
as lalling in lovc is anothcr way ol naming a disguiscd cruption ol a long
buricd dcsirc. Tc lovcrs storcd up lovc may rcprcscnt mctaphorically
what Lacan calls thc rcprcsscd, thc dcsirc lor incorporation that was drivcn
undcrground at thc momcnt ol splitting. Vhat Lymon scrvcs to triggcr,
thcn, may bc a rcprcsscd dcsirc to hcal thc split subjcct.
Tc thcorics ol Nancy Chodorow ocr a way to intcrprct Miss Amclias
attachmcnt to Lymon. Chodorow maintains that all adults look lor a rcturn
to this cmotional and physical union |cxpcricnccd with thc mothcr bclorc
thc cntry into languagc and culturc| and that womcn scck to rcproducc
this union by bccoming mothcrs thcmsclvcs (199). Undcniably, Miss Amclia
adopts a matcrnal rolc toward thc childlikc Lymon.
6
Shc carrics Lymon
on hcr back and sits by his bcdsidc until hc lalls aslccp. As lor Lymon, thc
narrator is at pains to point out his childlikc qualitics: hc rcachcs only to
thc bclt bucklc ol most mcn, hc sucks on candy instcad ol snu, and hc has
an instinct which is usually lound in small childrcn, an instinct to cstablish
immcdiatc vital contact bctwccn himscll and all things in thc world (20).
Tus thc rclationship bctwccn Miss Amclia and Cousin Lymon appcars to
attcmpt to rcproducc thc prcsumptivc unity and intcgration cxpcricnccd in
an carlicr phasc ol dcvclopmcntthc mirror stagc.
Tc mirror stagc is an intcrmcdiatc phasc bctwccn thc imaginary and
thc symbolic. Tcrc can bc no rccnactmcnt ol cxistcncc in thc imaginary
bccausc in that stagc thc child cxists as an uncognizcd, matcrial, somatic
cxistcncc (Mcllard 12). !n thc mirror stagc, thc child bcgins thc work ol
constructing an !. !n thc intcrmcdiatc mirror stagc, subjcctivity is bascd in
idcntication with thc mothcr whcrcas, in thc latcr symbolic phasc, idcntity
orccn Fowlcr 76
is prcdicatcd upon alicnation. Tc child bcgins to locatc a scll, and this scnsc
ol scll is bcstowcd on thc child by thc mothcr, that is, thc mothcr is thc
mirror that givcs thc child a scnsc ol a unicd scll.
Tc imagc is thc languagc ol thc unconscious, and in Tc 8allad an
imagc appcars to signal covcrtly thc rcturn ol mirrorstagc lusion. n thc
cvcning that thc cal has its origin, whcn Miss Amclia rst pcrmits hcr
customcrs to buy and drink whisky in thc warm, bright storc (21), shc |. . .|
stood most ol thc cvcning in thc doorway lcading to thc kitchcn and most
ol thc timc hcr cycs wcrc lastcncd loncsomcly on thc hunchback (23). A
doorway is a lramc and, as a lramc, suggcsts a mirror. Looking out lrom thc
doorlramc, Miss Amclia sccs Lymon on thc othcr sidc as hcr mirror imagc,
thc idcnticatory imago ol mirrorstagc lusion.
Miss Amclias ambivalcnt lcclings on that cvcningaccording to
thc narrator, thcrc was in hcr cxprcssion pain, pcrplcxity and unccrtain
joy (23)can also bc intcrprctcd in tcrms ol mirrorphasc idcntication.
Although in this intcrmcdiatc stagc, idcntity is bascd on idcntication and
thc yawning gap ol thc ocdipal phasc has not yct opcncd up, ncvcrthclcss, in
thc mirror phasc thcrc is not thc complctc incorporation ol thc imaginary:
Tcrc is a distancc bctwccn thc scll and thc idcnticatory imago. Tat spacc
may cxplain why Miss Amclia wcars, in thc narrators words, thc loncsomc
look ol thc lovcr (23). Vhat thc narrator calls loncsomc Lacan would
idcntily as a rcprcsscd dcsirc lor incorporation, which has now surlaccd
disguiscd. Such dcsirc would causc thc lovcr, in thc narrators words, to
cravc any possiblc rclation with thc bclovcd, cvcn il this cxpcricncc can
causc him only pain (27). Tc satislaction ol thc dcsirc lor incorporation
would indccd causc thc bclovcd pain, it would cacc thc dicrcncc that
constitutcs idcntity. Tus thc bclovcd lcars and hatcs thc lovcr (27) with
good rcason: Tc lovcrs dcsirc lor assimilation thrcatcns thc bclovcds scnsc
ol idcntity.
A Lacanian lramcwork also providcs a lrcsh way to rcad thc mcaning
ol thc cal that comcs into bcing as a rcsult ol Miss Amclias rclationship
with Cousin Lymon. Tc cal is a manilcstation ol this momcntary
rclaxation ol rcprcssion. uring its bricl cxistcncc, thc pcoplc ol Miss
Amclias town convcrgc. Tc cal bccomcs thc warm bright ccntcr point ol
thc town (54), that is, it is a symbol ol unity, community, and intcgration
as opposcd to thc lragmcntation that charactcrizcs thc postocdipal subjcct.
!ntcrcstingly, thc cal is associatcd with warmth and thc color rcd. Miss
Amclia makcs rcd curtains lor thc windows, thc grcat iron stovc at thc
back ol thc room roarcd, cracklcd, and turncd rcd (54). Tc cmphasis on
warmth and thc color ol blood associatcs thc cal with thc body, and it is
thc body, particularly a somatic unity with thc mothcr, that is displaccd,
lcaving a void on acccssion to thc symbolic planc. Tc cal ol McCullcrss
Carson McCullcrss Primal Sccncs: Te Ballad of the Sad Caf 77
titlc, thcn, is thc sitc ol a rcturn ol a buricd dcsirc lor a timc bclorc alicnation
and division.
7
At this juncturc, thc narrativc itscll cnacts a rcturn in thc lorm ol
a ashback that thc narrator dcscribcs as a curious cpisodc lrom long
ago (27). Vc arc told that Marvin Macy lcll in lovc with Miss Amclia,
and thcy marricd. ! rcad Marvin Macys lovc lor Miss Amclia, likc Miss
Amclias lor Cousin Lymon, as a disguiscd cmcrgcncc ol a dcsirc that
was rcprcsscd at thc constitution ol subjcctivity. ncc again, Chodorows
thcory can bc usclully invokcd. According to Chodorow, mcn scck to
rccnact thc cmotional and physical union that charactcrizcd thc mothcr
child rclationship in thc prcocdipal phasc by taking wivcs as substitutcs lor
thc rcjcctcd mothcr (199). Applying that thcsis to this cpisodc, wc can say
that Marvin marrics Miss Amclia in an attcmpt to rcplacc thc banishcd
mothcr ol thc imaginary planc.
Tcir tcnday marriagc, ! suggcst, is an attcmpt to rccnact mirrorstagc
idcntication. Hcrc, also is an imagc in thc tcxt that signics a rcturn to
thc mirror phasc ol dcvclopmcnt. According to thc narrator, Marvin dclays
dcclaring himscll to Miss Amclia lor two ycars. uring thosc ycars, whilc
hc improvcd himscll, |h|c would stand ncar thc door ol hcr prcmiscs his
cap in his hand, his cycs mcck and longing and misty gray (29). Standing
lramcd in thc door, Marvin sccs Amclia on thc othcr sidc as il shc wcrc his
mirror imagc, and hc longs lor grcatcr intimacy, lor total immcrsion.
Tis craving lor assimilation surlaccs on Miss Amclia and Marvins
disastrous wcdding night. !n psychoanalytic tcrms, Marvin longs lor thc
incorporation ol thc imaginary phasc and sccks it in thc marriagc bcd.
Marvin Macy, thc lovcr, urgcntly dcsircs what Miss Amclia, thc bclovcd,
drcadsthc oblitcration ol distinctions that scxual coupling gurcs. Tus
thc unsucccsslul outcomc ol thcir wcdding night is a lorcgonc conclusion.
At anothcr lcvcl, Marvins lailurc to bring his bclovcd bridc to bcd
constitutcs an abortivc primal sccnc and prcgurcs thc climactic primal
sccnc that is playcd out at thc novcllas conclusion. A primal sccnc,
Frcud cxplains, is a childs buricd mcmory ol having witncsscd parcntal
intcrcoursc. !n his latcr writing, Frcud acknowlcdgcs that thc child may
not bc rcmcmbcring an actual witncsscd cvcnt but may bc cxpcricncing
a drcam or lantasy mcmory, that is, an archctypal imagc out ol thc
unconscious mind. Tis imagc rcccts thc childs ocdipal dcsircs and his
or hcr rclatcd castration anxicty. !n thc primal tablcau, thc child obscrvcs
thc lathcr lullling thc childs dcsirc both to posscss and to mastcr thc
powcrlul mothcr. As thc child intcrprcts thc imagc ol parcntal intcrcoursc,
thc lathcr sccms to bc both satislying his dcsirc lor thc mothcr as wcll as
thc mothcrs dcsirc, paradoxically, thc lathcr also appcars to bc hurting thc
mothcr, cvcn castrating hcr, and thc child imagincs this is why thc mothcr
orccn Fowlcr 78
docs not havc a pcnis. Tis obscrvcd tablcau scrvcs as a thrcat to thc child:
Tc child will likcwisc bc castratcd il shc or hc continucs to dcsirc physical
union with thc mothcr. Undcr thc thrcat ol castration, thc child rcnounccs
thc mothcr, and thus this primal imagc lunctions in what Frcud calls thc
ocdipal crisis and what Lacan latcr rcwritcs as a momcnt ol division that
constitutcs thc lragmcntcd scll.
Marvin Macys lailurc to consummatc his marriagc to Miss Amclia
rcprcscnts a lailcd primal sccnc. !t is a sccnc ol unsucccsslul scxual intcrcoursc
bctwccn a marricd couplc, obscrvcd by songurcs, thc young boys who
watchcd through thc window on that night (31). !n this cvocation ol thc
primal sccnc, thc lathcrgurc, Marvin, is wrctchcdly unablc to play thc
lathcrs rolc. As thc narrator sagcly obscrvcs, A groom is in a sorry x whcn
hc is unablc to bring his wcllbclovcd bridc to bcd with him, and thc wholc
town knows it (31). 8clorc thc watching cycs ol thc young boys, Marvin is
unablc to satisly his dcsirc or thc mothcrs dcsirc, cqually important, hc lails
to appcar to discmpowcr thc mothcr. Miss Amclia cmcrgcs lrom thc marriagc
bcd as powcrlul as cvcr, and Marvin appcars to bc hclplcss, as hclplcss as thc
watching boys to satisly or subduc thc powcrlul mothcr. Vhcn, bclorc thc
childwitncsscs, Miss Amclia rcluscs scxual intcrcoursc, stomp|s| down thc
stairs in brccchcs and a khaki jackct (31), slam|s| thc kitchcn door and
givc|s| it an ugly kick, and, pcrhaps most tcllingly, ha|s| a smokc with hcr
lathcrs pipc (31), shc assumcs thc aspcct ol thc childs lantasy ol thc phallic
mothcr, thc powcrlul mothcr ol thc prcocdipal phasc, bclorc thc appcarancc
ol thc lathcr. Tc phallic mothcr is a childs projcction, thc child imagincs
that thc mothcr ol thc prcocdipal stagc, who appcars to bc allpowcrlul and
complctc, posscsscs a pcnis.
Tc rolc ol thc lathcr in thc primal sccnc is rclatcd to what Lacan calls
thc phallus.
8
Tc phallus is a dicult Lacanian conccpt largcly bccausc ol
thc connotations thc word carrics in our culturc. !n Lacanian tcrminology,
thc phallus is not thc pcnis, thc phallus is a symbol. !t symbolizcs thc critical
momcnt in thc dcvclopmcnt ol subjcctivity, thc momcnt whcn thc child, in
obcdicncc to thc Law ol thc Fathcr, pcrlorms thc symbolic scllcastration
that constitutcs idcntity. Givcn that thc primal sccnc is an imagc out ol thc
unconscious lor this constitutivc momcnt, thc phallus signics thc lathcrs rolc
in this tablcau, and in this rst rcndition ol thc primal sccnc in Tc 8allad,
Marvin Macy lails to rcprcscnt thc phallus. Howcvcr, both bclorc and altcr his
lall into loving abjcction with Miss Amclia, Marvin, who comcs bctwccn Miss
Amclia and Cousin Lymon, is idcnticd in thc tcxt with imagcs that align him
with thc phallic signicr, spccically, hc is inlamous lor having pcrlormcd acts
ol mutilation that symbolizc castration. Tc narrator rclatcs that, as a boy, lor
ycars, Marvin carricd about with him thc dricd and saltcd car ol a man hc
had killcd in a razor ght and that hc had choppcd o thc tails ol squirrcls
Carson McCullcrss Primal Sccncs: Te Ballad of the Sad Caf 79
in thc pincwoods just to plcasc his lancy (2728). !n my rcading, without his
conscious knowlcdgc, Marvin lanc|ics| cutting o bodyparts ol squirrcls and
pcoplc bccausc such acts ol mutilation symbolizc thc scvcring that constitutcd
idcntity, thcy symbolizc thc always mythical powcr ol thc phallus.
9
Miss Amclia cannot lathom Cousin Lymons obscssion with Marvin
Macy, but il wc rcad Marvin in tcrms ol phallic signication, Lymon, who
is rccnacting with Miss Amclia mirrorstagc lusion, dcsircs a rcprcscntativc
ol thc phallic thcr, thc thcr who intcrvcncs in thc dyadic rclation and
ordains subjcctivity and loss. Mans dcsirc, Lacan writcs, is thc dcsirc ol thc
thcr (crits 289). 8y this, Lacan mcans that wc look to acccdc to thc placc
ol thc thcr, thc placc ol thc constitution ol thc scll, thc privilcgcd signicr
that appcars to hold all signicds in thrall but docs not.
10
Vhcn Lymon
attcmpts to cxplain his lascination with Marvin Macy to Miss Amclia, shc is
mysticd, but Lymons words imply that hc is drawn to Marvin bccausc ol
his dicrcncc: h Marvin Macy, groancd thc hunchback, and thc sound
ol thc namc was cnough to upsct thc rhythm ol his sobs so that hc hiccupcd.
Hc has bccn to Atlanta. |. . .| Hc has bccn to thc pcnitcntiary, said thc
hunchback, miscrablc with longing (53). Macy is lrom a world outsidc ol thc
closcd unit that Lymon and Miss Amclia lorm. For Lymon, thc pcnitcntiary
in Atlanta gurcs thc placc ol thc thcr, and hc long|s| to acccdc to this
placc that hc mistakcnly imagincs cxists outsidc ol loss.
All ol McCullcrss 8allad has bccn building incxorably toward
onc climactic cvcnt, thc battlc bctwccn Miss Amclia and Marvin. !n thc
psychoanalytic narrativc, thcrc is onc momcnt that mattcrs, thc momcnt
whcn thc dcsirc lor thc mothcr is rcprcsscd and thc lathcr takcs thc mothcrs
placc as thc objcct ol dcsirc. Tis crucial dcvclopmcnt in thc construction ol
thc cgo appcars translormcd in McCullcrss 8allad as thc cpic battlc bctwccn
Marvin Macy and Miss Amclia, which, in turn, takcs thc lorm ol thc novcllas
sccond and nal primal sccnc.
Tc 8allads sccond rccnactmcnt ol thc primal sccnc
11
invcrts thc
traditional lormula. Vhcrcas in thc traditional primal sccnc thc child
vicwcr rcads scxual coupling as a violcnt strugglc, in McCullcrss vcrsion,
a violcnt strugglc takcs on thc appcarancc ol scxual coupling. Tc ght is
cvokcd in distinctly scxual tcrms, as onc scxual imagc altcr anothcr appcars,
wc incvitably rccall that Miss Amclia and Marvin arc still husband and wilc
but havc not as yct scxually consummatcd thcir marriagc. !t is as il this ght
is that consummation:
And now that Miss Amclia and Marvin wcrc lockcd in a hold
togcthcr thc crowd camc out ol its dazc and prcsscd closcr. For
a whilc thc ghtcrs grapplcd musclc to musclc, thcir hipboncs
orccn Fowlcr 80
braccd against cach othcr. 8ackward and lorward, lrom sidc to
sidc, thcy swaycd in this way. (67)
Tis blurring ol scx and strugglc, which obtains in both thc primal sccnc
and in McCullcrss disguiscd rcprcscntation ol thc primal drama, implics a
disturbing unconscious knowlcdgc that lovc is aligncd with powcr and scx
with violcncc. Tc psychoanalytic narrativc ol idcntity ocrs a way to intcrprct
this troubling alignmcnt: lovc and scxual intcrcoursc gurc thc dyadic unity
cxpcricnccd with thc mothcr ol thc imaginary planc, and this original unity
cnds in a traumatic, violcnt sundcring that constitutcs thc lracturcd subjcct.
Tc climax ol thc novcl is thc cpic strugglc bctwccn Miss Amclia and
Marvin, and thc climax (in all scnscs ol thc word) ol thc battlc is Lymons
dccisivc intcrvcntion.
12
Just as Miss Amclia sccms to havc won thc battlc,
just as shc has Marvin pinncd and hcr hands cncirclc his throat, Lymon
sailcd through thc air as though hc had grown hawk wings, lands on Miss
Amclias back, and clutchc|s| at hcr ncck with his clawcd littlc ngcrs (68).
As a rcsult, Miss Amclia is dclcatcd. At onc lcvcl, Lymans intcrvcntion
signics thc momcnt ol primary rcprcssion, thc momcnt whcn thc child
rcjccts thc mothcr. Although thc Law ol thc Fathcr rcquircs this scparation,
it is not thc lathcr, but thc child who disrupts thc original dyadic unity.
Tus Lymons act ol bctrayal can bc rcad as a disguiscd imagc lor thc childs
rcnunciation ol thc mothcr, a ncccssary stcp in thc lormation ol idcntity.
At thc samc timc, Lymons mythic soaring ight and hawklikc dcsccnt
invitcs a complcmcntary rcading. Tc ght takcs thc lorm ol a primal
sccnca sccnc that makcs palpably cvidcnt thc lathcrs tcrriblc powcr and
prccipitatcs thc childs rcjcction ol thc mothcr. !n this rccnactmcnt ol thc
primal sccnc, howcvcr, as in thc lailcd primal sccnc on thc wcdding night, it
appcars that thc mothcrgurc is strongcr than thc lathcrgurc. cscribing
thc tcrriblc contcst bctwccn Miss Amclia and Marvin, thc narrator twicc
avcrs that Miss Amclia is thc strongcr:
Now thc tcst had comc, and in thcsc momcnts ol tcrriblc
cort, it was Miss Amclia who was thc strongcr. Marvin Macy
was grcascd and slippcry, tricky to grasp, but shc was strongcr.
Gradually shc bcnt him ovcr backward, and inch by inch shc
lorccd him to thc oor. !t was a tcrriblc thing to watch and thcir
dccp hoarsc brcaths wcrc thc only sound in thc cal. At last shc
had him down, and straddlcd, hcr strong big hands wcrc on his
throat. (67)
ncc again, Marvin Macy is unablc to play thc lathcrs part in thc
primal drama, and at thc critical momcnt, just as thc ght was won (67) by
Carson McCullcrss Primal Sccncs: Te Ballad of the Sad Caf 81
Miss Amclia, Lymon appcars to assumc supcrnatural powcrs and succccds
whcrc Marvin had lailcd. !n this rcprisc ol thc primal sccnc, Lymon, thc
watching childgurc, assumcs thc rolc ol lathcr. Hc symbolically cnacts
thc lathcrs powcr both to copulatc with thc mothcr and to discmpowcr hcr.
Vhcn hc sails through thc air and land|s| on thc broad strong back ol Miss
Amclia, hc assumcs thc lathcrs position in thc act ol anal intcrcoursc,
13
and
altcr this gurativc intcrcoursc, Miss Amclia is bcatcn and lay sprawlcd
on thc oor, hcr arms ung outward and motionlcss, thc picturc ol total
abjcction (68).
Tc battlc bctwccn Marvin and Miss Amclia, which simulatcs scxual
intcrcoursc, cnds in a mctaphorical scxual consummation, but it is Lymon
who cxpcricnccs this consummation. bscrving thc ght, Lymon cxhibits
signs ol scxual arousal: thc cxcitcmcnt had madc him brcak out in a rash,
and his palc mouth shivcrcd (67). At thc momcnt whcn Lymon sccms
to assumc supcrnatural powcrs and springs onto Miss Amclias back lrom
twclvc lcct away, hc uttcrs a cry that causcd a shrill bright shivcr to run
down thc spinc (67). Lymons cry is thc cry ol a man cxpcricncing orgasm
or, in Lacanian tcrms, jouissancc. Jouissancc is ultimatc scxual cnjoymcnt, in
Frcnch, jouissancc litcrally mcans orgasm. !t is thc lorbiddcn satislaction ol
thc scxual drivc that Lacan, lollowing Frcud, dcncs as a drivc toward scll
complction through thc thcr. Jouissancc is thc always momcntary rapturc
cxpcricnccd in attcmpting to rcclaim thc missing phallus. Lacan uscs thc
scxual tcrm jouissancc lor this ccstasy bccausc scxual intcrcoursc also cnacts
our dcsirc to havc thc phallus. !n scxual intcrcoursc, thc woman is thc lctish
objcct substituting lor thc missing phallus and allowing thc man to conccal
his phallic lack (Lcc 180). Tus jouissancc, idcnticd with thc mythical
phallus, is a momcntary lccling ol cmpowcrmcnt and complction. Lymon
cxpcricnccs this rapturous scnsc ol lulllmcnt whcn hc ritually cnacts thc
satislaction ol thc childs lorbiddcn dcsirc to acccdc to thc placc ol powcr, to
takc thc lathcrs placc and rcstorc thc phallus that can conncct us with thc
mothcr. To rcprcscnt jouissancc, McCullcrs imaginativcly invokcs Lymons
orgiastic cry, his cjaculatory lcap, and his coital land|ing| on Miss Amclia.
!mmcdiatcly lollowing this momcnt ol triumph Lymon disappcars
(68). Tc narrator sccms hardprcsscd to account lor this disappcarancc,
howcvcr, lrom a psychoanalytic point ol vicw, it is thc incvitablc conscqucncc
ol Lymons lorbiddcn jouissancc. Jouissancc marks thc momcnt ol violating
thc law against a narcissistic mcrging
14
and momcntarily ovcrcoming lack,
howcvcr, bccausc idcntity is dcncd by abscncc, whcrc thcrc is no lack,
thcrc is no subjcct. Jouissancc marks thc dissolution ol thc scparatc subjcct
and a rcturn to an imaginary unity that prcccdcd subjcctivity. !t is, Lacan
says, dc trop (crits 319), it is too much, it is thc last gasp ol thc subjcct
as it dissolvcs into an imaginary rclation with thc thcr. Accordingly,
orccn Fowlcr 82
immcdiatcly altcr cxhibiting signs ol scxual cxcitation and ritually rccnacting
thc rcstoration ol thc lorbiddcn phallic signicr, Lymon tcmporarily at lcast
slip|s| out ol vicw (68).
Tc novclla cnds with Miss Amclias dclcat. To drivc homc that dclcat,
lollowing thc ght, Marvin and Lymon do cvcrything ruinous thcy could
think ol without actually brcaking into thc occ whcrc Miss Amclia staycd
thc night (69). Tc list ol ruinous dccdslrom taking thc curios in Miss
Amclias privatc cabinct to sctting out a poisoncd dish ol hcr lavoritc lood
suggcsts that Marvin and Lymon pcrlorm cvcry act thcy can think ol to
cnact ritually thc castration ol thc mythic phallic mothcr ol thc prcocdipal
stagc. And thcn, thc narrator tclls us, Lymon and Macy go away, opcning up
thc alicnation that charactcrizcs thc ! in thc symbolic ordcr.
Tc conclusion ol this lovc story is writtcn in our cultural mcmory.
Tcrc can bc only onc outcomc. 8oth McCullcrss subtcxt and thc
psychoanalytic narrativc proposc that all lovc is in somc way an attcmpt to
rccnact thc rst lovc, and this mothcrchild rclationship must givc way to
thc Law. Tc imaginary must givc way to thc symbolic, thc mothcr must
givc way to thc Fathcr.
15
Vhcn a dcsirc lor rcturn slips past unconscious
ccnsors and is rccognizcd, it must bc rcprcsscd again. Miss Amclias tcrriblc
dclcat at thc hands ol Lymon and Marvin symbolizcs this rcprcssion. Also it
rccnacts thc allimportant momcnt, thc momcnt ol primary rcprcssion whcn
a rcprcscntativc ol thc sign ol dicrcncc appcars and thc mothcr is cxcludcd.
Tc cvcnts ol Tc 8allad conlorm to a primal script. Rcpcatcdly throughout
thc novclla a lorbiddcn dcsirc lor a lost prcsumptivc wholcncss rcasscrts
itsclland is rcprcsscd. Vhcn Marvin takcs his ncw bridc to bcd, whcn
Miss Amclia livcs with Lymon and mothcrs him, whcn Lymon ritually
cnacts a narcissistic mcrging with thc lost mothcrall thcsc acts arc disguiscd
lormulations ol a dcsirc to hcal thc split subjcct and to rcstorc thc missing
part lost long ago in an cxplosivc momcnt ol division, thc lounding momcnt.
ndlcssly this dcsirc is rcprcsscd and cndlcssly it rcturns bccausc, according
to Frcud, rcprcssion, by its vcry naturc, lcads to cxactly what rcprcssion was
mcant to prcvcnt, thc rcturn ol thc rcprcsscd. Tc dcsirc to brcak out ol
human isolation is doomcd, at thc samc timc, that dcsirc will ncvcr dic.
Carson McCullcrss lablc, Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal, is an cxprcssion ol a
lorbiddcn undying dcsirc no longcr to bc alonc.
No:vs
1. !n thc prclacc to Tc Squarc Root ol Vondcrlul, lor cxamplc, McCullcrs writcs:
My ccntral thcmc is thc thcmc ol spiritual isolation. Ccrtainly ! havc always lclt alonc
(viii). Two critics who havc articulatcd McCullcrs conccrn with lonclincss particularly
cloqucntly arc Harold 8loom and livcr vans. !n thc words ol 8loom, a lcar ol insulation
Carson McCullcrss Primal Sccncs: Te Ballad of the Sad Caf 83
is thc cnabling powcr ol McCullcrss imagination (2). vans writcs: Vhat shc conccivcs
to bc thc truth about human naturc is a mclancholy truth: cach man is surroundcd by a zonc
ol lonclincss, scrving a lilc scntcncc ol solitary conncmcnt (126).
2. ! am not proposing that McCullcrs was inucnccd by Lacan. Almost ccrtainly
McCullcrs did not know his work. Jacqucs Lacans thcorics wcrc not widcly circulatcd in
thc Unitcd Statcs until thc publication ol crits in 1966, and Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal
was writtcn in thc summcr ol 1941. 8ut a writcr docs not nccd a lormal knowlcdgc ol a
thcory lor mcanings that arc intcrprctablc by that thcory to gurc in his or hcr work. Frcud
lrcqucntly rcitcratcd thc dictum that pocts oltcn discovcr what philosophcrs and othcrs
comc to thcorizc about latcr.
3. !n his lamous cssay, Rcprcssion (1915), Frcud statcs that rcprcssion itscll
|. . .| produccs substitutivc lormations and symptoms, |. . .| indications ol a rcturn ol thc
rcprcsscd. choing Frcud, Lacan statcs atly, rcprcsscd, it rcappcars (crits 311.)
4. Lacan statcs that thcrc is woman only as cxcludcd by thc naturc ol things which
is thc naturc ol words (Fcmininc Scxuality 144). Lacanian intcrprctcr Jonathan Scott Lcc
cxplains that Lacan mcans that woman nds hcrscll systcmatically cxcludcd lrom rcality
as constructcd in tcrms ol thc androccntric symbolic ordcr (177). Jacquclinc Rosc cautions
against intcrprcting Lacans statcmcnt to mcan that womcn arc cxcludcd lrom languagc.
Shc writcs: Voman is cxcludcd by thc naturc ol words, mcaning that thc dcnition poscs
hcr as cxclusion. Notc that this is not thc samc thing as saying that woman is cxcludcd
lrom thc naturc ol words, a misrcading which lcads to thc rccasting ol thc wholc problcm
in tcrms ol womans placc outsidc languagc, thc idca that womcn might havc ol thcmsclvcs
an cntircly dicrcnt spccch (49).
5. !t is notcworthy that this Lacanian paradigm is playcd out in Miss Amclias lilc.
Hcr mothcr is crascd in thc tcxt (shc is mcntioncd only onccon Miss Amclias wcdding
day, shc wcars hcr dcad mothcrs wcdding drcss) and is rcplaccd by hcr lathcr, whom, cvcn in
dcath, Miss Amclia appcars to rcvcrc. Miss Amclia, thcn, may bc rcad as thc child who has
rcnounccd thc mothcr and idcntics with thc phallic lathcr and with thc Law that lorbids
mcrgcr.
6. Applying a Frcudian pcrspcctivc, Gilbcrt and Gubar suggcst that Lymon rcprcscnts
thc (lalsc) baby as phallus, whosc dclormity and lakc masculinity rcprcscnt thc dclormity
and lakcry that (as Miss Amclia must lcarn) arc associatcd with hcr own sclldcluding malc
impcrsonation (150).
7. 8clorc Lymons appcarancc, thc world ol Tc 8allad can bc rcad to rccct an
imbalancc bctwccn thc imaginary and thc symbolic, that is, a culturc in which thc ordcr
idcnticd with thc Law that stands lor cxclusion is dangcrously asccndant. Tc two ordcrs
arc dcpcndcnt on onc anothcr, and thcorists arguc that thcrc nccds to bc a balancc bctwccn
thcm. Lacanian intcrprctcrs, particularly lcminist oncs, havc laborcd to show what Janc
Gallop calls thc positivc and ncccssary lunction ol thc imaginary. According to Gallop,
thc imaginary cmbodics, cshcs out thc skclctal symbolic (aughtcrs Scduction 149).
Laplanchc calls thc imaginary thc vital ordcr (125). Tc passagc into subjcctivity, howcvcr,
is a passagc away lrom thc imaginary and into thc symbolic, and thc imaginary, idcnticd
with thc rcjcctcd mothcrchild rclation and an original lormlcssncss, is rcsistcd and
subordinatcd as wc acccdc to what Janc Gallop calls thc cthical impcrativc |. . .| to disrupt
thc imaginary to rcach thc symbolic (Rcading Lacan 59).
8. Tc phallus stands lor thc loss that is constitutivc ol idcntity, and it is associatcd
with thc lathcrbccomcFathcr who ordains this scparation. 8ccausc this momcnt ol
splitting constitutcs idcntity and bccausc thc lathcr ordains it, thc child associatcs thc
phallus with powcr, thc powcr to constitutc thc scll. 8ut, as Jacquclinc Rosc points out,
orccn Fowlcr 84
this is thc ultimatc lantasy (32). Tc phallus cannot conlcr complctc idcntity, thc phallus
is mcrcly a symbol lor thc rupturc that madc idcntity possiblc. Howcvcr, human bcings
continuc to idcntily thc phallus with thc powcr to makc good our loss.
9. Although thcy do not apply a Lacanian mcthodology, Gilbcrt and Gubar sccm to
imply a similar rcading ol Marvins symbolic rolc in thc tcxt. Tcy writc that Miss Amclia
is caught bctwccn two phallic bcings, thc onc cxploitativc, thc othcr vcngclul (150).
10. Lacan dcncs thc thcr as thc always positcd but ncvcr graspcd original signicr ol
bcing. Vc look to thc thcr to guarantcc mcaning, but, in Lacans words, thcrc is no thcr
ol thc thcr (crits 311), that is, thcrc is no transccndcntal or xcd sign that imbucs our
cultural signicrs with mcaning.
11. Gilbcrt and Gubar havc obscrvcd that thc strugglc bctwccn Miss Amclia and
Marvin takcs thc lorm ol a primal sccnc. Tcy statc that thc spcctacular ght in which
Marvin Macy and Miss Amclia cngagc bclorc a mass ol spcctators |. . .| is thc primal sccnc
ol scxual consummation which did not takc placc on thcir wcdding night (151).
12. Gilbcrt and Gubar ocr scvcral provocativc othcr intcrprctations ol Lymons
dccisivc intcrvcntion in thc strugglc. ach ol thcm rcsonatcs intcrcstingly with my own.
!n onc Frcudian rcading, thcy intcrprct Miss Amclia as bcing punishcd lor pcnis cnvy. !n
anothcr, thc ght signals thc momcnt whcn shc is lorccd to conlront hcr dcsirc lor Marvin
Macy. !n thc third, Miss Amclia is thc mcdium lor a homoscxual bonding bctwccn Lymon
and Macy. !t should pcrhaps also bc cxplaincd that Gilbcrt and Gubars purposc is to rcvcal
that McCullcrs has intcrnalizcd just thc horror at indcpcndcnt womanhood which marks
thc writings ol litcrary mcn lrom Faulkncr to Vylic (147). ! would modily that statcmcnt
and say that McCullcrs has psychically intcrnalizcd an cxclusionary modcl ol idcntity and
thc social ordcr.
13. Frcud uncovcrs thc primal sccnc in thc coursc ol analyzing a paticnt idcnticd as
thc Voll Man, who, as a child, cithcr witncsscd his parcnts cngagcd in coitus a tcrgo or
imagincd such a sccnc altcr having obscrvcd animals copulating. For a lull discussion ol
thc primal sccnc, scc Frcuds casc study ol thc Voll Man, Standard dition 17:36, 7780,
10709. Scc also 8rooks, Fictions ol thc Voll Man: Frcud and Narrativc Undcrstanding
in Rcading lor thc Plot.
14. All attcmpts to rcstorc thc phallus arc prohibitcd by thc Law ol thc Fathcr. !n
lact, Lacan writcs that thc Law is thc Law against jouissancc: 8ut wc must insist that
jouissancc is lorbiddcn to him who spcaks as such, although it can only bc said bctwccn
thc lincs lor whocvcr is subjcct ol thc Law, sincc thc Law is groundcd in this vcry
prohibition (crits 319).
15. !n thc words ol Tcrry aglcton, Tc prcscncc ol thc lathcr, symbolizcd by thc
phallus, tcachcs thc child that it must takc up a placc in thc lamily which is dcncd by scxual
dicrcncc, by cxclusion (it cannot bc its parcnts lovcr) and by abscncc (it must rclinquish its
carlicr bonds to thc mothcrs body) (167).
Vovxs Ci :vb
8loom, Harold. !ntroduction. Carson McCullcrs. d. Harold 8loom. Ncw York: Chclsca,
1986.
8rooks, Pctcr. Rcading lor thc Plot: csign and !ntcntion in Narrativc. Ncw York: Knopl,
1984.
8roughton, Panthca. Rcjcction ol thc Fcmininc in Carson McCullcrss Tc 8allad ol thc
Sad Cal. Twcnticth Ccntury Litcraturc 20 (January 1974): 3443.
Carson McCullcrss Primal Sccncs: Te Ballad of the Sad Caf 85
Chodorow, Nancy. Tc Rcproduction ol Mothcring: Psychoanalysis and thc Sociology ol
Gcndcr. 8crkclcy: U ol Calilornia P, 1978.
Clark, 8cvcrly Lyon and Mclvin J. Fricdman, cds. Critical ssays on Carson McCullcrs.
Ncw York: Hall, 1996.
aglcton, Tcrry. Litcrary Tcory: An !ntroduction. Minncapolis: U Minncsota P, 1983.
vans, livcr. Tc Casc ol Carson McCullcrs. Clark and Fricdman 12428.
Frcud, Sigmund. Tc Standard dition ol thc Complctc Psychological Vorks ol Frcud. d.
and trans. Jamcs Strachcy. 24 vols. London: Hogarth, 1961.
Gallop, Janc. Tc aughtcrs Scduction: Fcminism and Psychoanalysis. !thaca: Corncll UP,
1982.
. Rcading Lacan. !thaca: Corncll UP, 1985.
Gilbcrt, Sandra M. and Susan Gubar. Fighting lor Lilc. Clark and Fricdman 14754.
Lacan, Jacqucs. crits: A Sclcction. Trans. by Alan Shcridan. 1966. Ncw York: Norton,
1977.
Laplanchc, Jcan. Lilc and cath in Psychoanalysis. Trans. by Jcrcy Mchlman. 8altimorc:
Johns Hopkins UP, 1976.
Lcc, Jonathan Scott. Jacqucs Lacan. Amhcrst: U ol Massachusctts P, 1990.
McCullcrs, Carson. Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal and thcr Storics. Ncw York: 8antam,
1971.
. Prclacc. Tc Squarc Root ol Vondcrlul: A Play. 8oston: Houghton, 1971.
Mcllard, Jamcs M. Using Lacan, Rcading Fiction. Urbana: U ol !llinois P, 1991.
Mitchcll, Julict, cd. Fcmininc Scxuality: Jacqucs Lacan and thc colc Frcudicnnc. d. and
trans. Jacquclinc Rosc. Ncw York: Norton, 1992.
Paulson, Suzannc Morrow. Carson McCullcrss Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal: A Song Hall
Sung, Misogyny, and Ganging Up. Clark and Fricdman 187205.
Rosc, Jacquclinc. !ntroduction. Mitchcll 2757.
87
From Southern Women Playwrights: New Essays in Literary History and Criticism, cditcd by
Robcrt L. Mconald and Linda Rohrcr Paigc, pp. 6172. 2002 by thc Univcrsity ol
Alabama Prcss.
8 T T Y . Mc K! NN! ~ x b CARL S L . VS
Te Delayed Entrance of Lily Mae Jenkins: Queer
Identity, Gender Ambiguity, and Southern Ambivalence
in Carson McCullerss Tc Mcmbcr ol thc Vcdding
cspitc thc importancc thc South plays in hcr ction and drama,
Carson McCullcrs was ambivalcnt about hcr nativc rcgion. clma ugcnc
Prcslcy, in Carson McCullcrs and thc South, and Louis Rubin, in Carson
McCullcrs: Tc Acsthctic ol Pain, providc insight into thc possiblc sourccs
ol hcr lcclings toward thc South and thc impact thcsc lcclings had on hcr
work, yct both critics lail to considcr pcrhaps thc most important rcason lor
hcr dcsirc to cscapc thc South. ur cssay, through thc cxamination ol an
obscurc charactcr oncc proposcd thcn rcmovcd lrom hcr rst novcl and only
mcntioncd in a latcr novcl and play, suggcsts that McCullcrss ambivalcncc
comcs lrom hcr rcsponsc to thc Souths homophobia and its strict dcmands
ol gcndcrcd bchavior. Vc not only lurnish a ncw rcading ol McCullcrs
as a playwright and as an unconvcntional Southcrn woman, but wc also
cncouragc a morc gcncral rcading ol quccr and gcndcr idcntity in all ol hcr
work. Tis ncw kcy to rcading McCullcrss rcsponsc to thc South appcars
in thc ghostly lorm ol a waish Ncgro homoscxual, Lily Mac Jcnkins
(McCullcrs, Authors utlinc 140).
!n 1938, Carson McCullcrs submittcd an outlinc ol hcr rst novcl, Tc
Mutc (publishcd as Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter), to Houghton Miin as an
cntry in a rst novcl contcst. Tc author dcscribcd Tc Mutc in hcr outlinc
as thc story ol vc isolatcd, loncly pcoplc in thcir scarch lor cxprcssion and
8ctty . McKinnic and Carlos L. cws 88
spiritual intcgration with somcthing grcatcr than thcmsclvcs. nc ol thcsc
vc pcrsons is a dcal mutc, John Singcr and it is around him that thc wholc
book pivots (125). McCullcrs dcscribcs onc ol thc proposcd sccondary
charactcrs as an abandoncd, waish Ncgro homoscxual who haunts thc
Sunny ixic show whcrc Jakc |8lount| works. Hc is always dancing. His
mind and lcclings arc childish and hc is totally unt to carn his living (140).
McCullcrs also incorporatcd in thc outlinc what othcr charactcrs would say
about Lily Mac, including Portias dcscription ol Lily Mac lor hcr lathcr,
r. Copcland:
Lily Mac is right pitilul now. ! dont know il you cvcr noticcd
any boys likc this but hc carcs lor mcns instcad ol girls. Vhcn
hc wcrc youngcr hc uscd to bc rcal cutc. Hc wcrc all thc timc
drcssing up in girls clothcs and laughing. vcrybody thought hc
wcrc rcal cutc thcn. (14041)
!n anothcr scction ol Tc Mutc outlinc, thc rcadcr lcarns why othcr
charactcrs tolcratc Lily Mac. McCullcrs wrotc, 8ccausc ol |Lily Macs|
skill in music and dancing hc is a lricnd ol Villics. |Lily Mac| is always
hall starvcd and hc hangs around Portias kitchcn constantly in thc hopcs
ol gctting a mcal. Vhcn Highboy and Villic arc gonc Portia takcs somc
comlort in Lily Mac (140). Portia says, |Lily Mac| gctting old and hc
sccm dicrcnt. Hc all thc timc hungry and hc rcal pitilul. Hc lovcs to
comc sct and talk with mc in thc kitchcn. Hc danccs lor mc and ! givcs
him a littlc dinncr (141). According to thc outlinc, altcr thc charactcr
Villic rcturns homc lrom scrving a prison scntcncc, Villics story is
rcpcatcd ovcr and ovcr in sullcn monotoncs. Tcn this atmosphcrc bcgins
to changc. Villic sits up on thc cot and bcgins to play his harp. Lily Mac
starts dancing. As thc cvcning progrcsscs, thc atmosphcrc changcs to a
wild articial rclcasc ol mcrrimcnt (143). A lcw signicant dctails lrom
thcsc dcscriptions hclp cxplain McCullcrss intcndcd usc ol thc charactcr
ol Lily Mac in thc proposcd novcl. As thc words uscd to dcscribc Lily
Mac at his introduction suggcstabandoncd, waish, homoscxual,
unt (140)hc scrvcs as an cxamplc ol thc isolatcd, shunncd, and loncly
charactcr, an cmblcm ol thc lundamcntal isolatcd naturc ol all humans, a
sourcc ol solacc and commiscration lor similarly isolatcd charactcrs, and an
inspiration lor pity.
!n lact, Portia and othcr charactcrs, instcad ol acccpting him lully,
scc Lily Mac only as a distraction lrom cvcryday lilc. Tc lact that Portia
takcs somc comlort lrom Lily Mac signics McCullcrss dcpiction ol this
charactcr as transccndcnt ol rigid gcndcr and scxual boundarics and ablc to
providc comlort to anothcr outsidcr. Portia uscs Lily Mac as a distraction
Tc claycd ntrancc ol Lily Mac Jcnkins 89
lrom hcr own lonclincss bccausc shc idcntics with his status, lor cxamplc,
shc works as a domcstic scrvant in a whitc houschold. Ultimatcly Lily
Mac lunctions simultancously as an insidcr and outsidcr: hc rcprcscnts thc
ambivalcncc with which thc community dcals with thosc outsidc its rigid
boundarics ol acccptablc bchavior, yct hc also has valuc lor his shamanistic,
curativc, or cmpathctic qualitics.
!t is pcrhaps incorrcct to dcscribc Carson McCullcrs as a dramatist,
and in many ways thc play Te Member of the Wedding can bc sccn as an
anomaly in thc corpus ol hcr work. McCullcrs pcnncd only two plays and
onc ol thcsc, Te Member of the Wedding, was an adaptation ol hcr novcl by
thc samc namc. Hcr only play writtcn as such, Te Square Root of Wonderful,
was a dramatic and litcrary lailurc whcn it appcarcd bricy on 8roadway in
1957. McCullcrs wrotc ol hcr lack ol training in writing lor thc stagc and hcr
adaptation ol Member in an introduction shc wrotc lor thc publishcd vcrsion
ol Square Root in 1958:
Tcnncsscc Villiams wrotc mc about thc book and askcd mc il !
could comc and spcnd thc summcr with him on Nantuckct and
! acccptcd thc invitation. uring that scasummcr lit with thc
glow ol a ncw lricndship hc suggcstcd ! do Te Member of the
Wedding as a play. ! was hcsitant at rst, knowing nothing about
thc thcatrc. ! had sccn only about tcn plays in my lilc, including
high school Hamlets and Vagabond Kings. (viii)
!l McCullcrs did not considcr hcrscll primarily a playwright, had so littlc
cxpcricncc with drama, and prclcrrcd writing prosc, what might cxplain thc
strcngth, skilllul naturc, and maturc drama ol Member (adaptcd lor thc stagc in
1946) and thc rclativc wcakncss, immaturc stylc, and haphazard construction
ol Square Root writtcn a dccadc latcr: Tc biographically ovcrdctcrmincd
naturc ol thc charactcr ol Lily Mac Jcnkins as wcll as thc inhcrcnt strugglcs
with McCullcrss idcntity as a Southcrncr in writing ol hcr own adolcsccncc
in thc South might also providc an answcr to this qucstion.
Lily Mac Jcnkins might not bc known to thosc lamiliar with Te Heart
Is a Lonely Hunter, lor whcn thc novcl was publishcd in 1940 thc waish
Ncgro homoscxual (140) had bccn rcmovcd lrom thc manuscript. Portia
turns to othcr charactcrs lor distraction and solacc, Highboy docs thc dancing
at thc tclling ol Villics talc, and othcr charactcrs (Jakc 8lount, Portia, r.
Copcland, and Mick) ll thc rolc ol outsidcr. Six ycars altcr thc publication
ol Heart, McCullcrs rcsurrcctcd Lily Mac Jcnkins in hcr novcl thcn play Te
Member of the Wedding. Unlikc thc proposcd appcarancc in Tc Mutc, Lily
Mac docs not actually appcar as a charactcr in Member, onc ol thc ccntral
charactcrs mcrcly mcntions him. Additionally, unlikc his appcarancc in Tc
8ctty . McKinnic and Carlos L. cws 90
Mutc outlinc, whcrc hc scrvcs various contradictory or ambiguous lunctions,
Lily Mac appcars to havc a singlc purposc in Member.
Te Member of the Wedding dramatizcs thc story ol Frankic Addams,
a loncly girl on thc brink ol scxual maturity, and dctails hcr scarch lor a
mcaninglul conncction with anothcr human bcing and thc world outsidc hcr
small Southcrn homctown. Altcr Frankic Addams has rcvcalcd hcr plan to join
hcr brothcr and his ncw bridc altcr thcir wcdding in hcr wc ol mc, a social
and spiritual unit sccn as a solution to hcr isolation and lonclincss, 8crcnicc,
thc lamilys cook and housckccpcr, attcmpts to dissuadc Frankic lrom lcaving.
!n a pivotal sccnc in thc play, 8crcnicc attcmpts to instill in Frankic a rcvcrcncc
lor what might bc callcd naturalizcd monogamous hctcroscxuality:
8RN!C: Truly, Frankic, what makcs you think thcy want
you taggin along with thcm: Two is company and thrcc is
a crowd. And thats thc main thing bout a wcdding. Two is
company and thrcc is a crowd.
FRANK!: You wait and scc.
8RN!C: Rcmcmbcr back to thc timc ol thc ood. Rcmcmbcr
Noah and thc Ark. (55)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FRANK!: Tats all right. 8ut you wait and scc. Tcy will takc
mc.
8RN!C: And il thcy dont:
FRANK!: !l thcy dont, ! will kill myscll. (5556)
Frankic bclicvcs that dcath providcs thc only rccoursc lor non
acccptancc ol naturalizcd hctcroscxuality, committing suicidc sccms to bc
hcr only option, thc thrcat ol which undcrscorcs (to 8crcnicc) thc scriousncss
ol Frankics dcsirc lor a wc ol mc. Frankics strong ncgativc rcsponsc to
8crcnicc, hcr thrcat ol suicidc, and hcr rclusal to acccpt cxclusion lrom thc
wcdding lorcc 8crcnicc to ocr cxamplcs ol dcviant bchavior as ncgativc
guidcposts. 8crcnicc continucs:
8RN!C: . . . ! havc hcard ol many a pcculiar thing. ! havc
kncw mcn to lall in lovc with girls so ugly that you wondcr il
thcir cycs is straight.
JHN HNRY: Vho:
8RN!C: ! havc kncw womcn to lovc vcritablc satans and
thank Jcsus whcn thcy put thcir split hoovcs ovcr thc thrcshold.
! havc kncw boys to takc it into thcir hcads to lall in lovc with
othcr boys. You know Lily Mac Jcnkins:
Tc claycd ntrancc ol Lily Mac Jcnkins 91
FRANK!: !m not surc. ! know a lot ol pcoplc.
8RN!C: Vcll, you cithcr know him or you dont know him.
Hc prisscs around in a girls blousc with onc arm akimbo. Now
this Lily Mac Jcnkins lcll in lovc with a man namc Juncy Joncs.
A man, mind you. And Lily Mac turncd into a girl. Hc changcd
his naturc and his scx and turncd into a girl.
FRANK!: Vhat:
8RN!C: Hc did. To all intcnts and purposcs . . .
FRANK!: !ts lunny ! cant think who you arc talking about. !
uscd to think ! kncw so many pcoplc.
8RN!C: Vcll, you dont nccd to know Lily Mac Jcnkins.
You can livc without knowing him.
FRANK!: Anyway, ! dont bclicvc you.
8RN!C: ! aint arguing with you. Vhat was wc spcaking
about:
FRANK!: About pcculiar things. (57)
Lily Mac lunctions in this sccnc solcly as an cxamplc ol thc bizarrc, ol
what socicty tolcratcs but docs not lully acccpt. 8crcniccs suggcstion that
you dont nccd to know Lily Mac Jcnkins. You can livc without knowing
him limits Lily Macs lunction in thc play to his usc as a cautionary modcl.
8crcniccs usc ol Lily Mac robs him ol his subjcctivity and undcrscorcs thc
obviously disposablc naturc ol thc scxual transgrcssivc. Louisc Vcstling
writcs thc lollowing in hcr cssay Tomboys and Rcvolting Fcmininity:
!magcs ol scxual ambivalcncc arc carclully cultivatcd throughout thc novcl
in thc Ncgro transvcstitc Lily Mac Jcnkins. . . . Always such hcrmaphroditic
or androgynous rclcrcnccs arc placcd in a ncgativc lramc, lor thc novcls
cntirc movcmcnt is toward Frankics ultimatc submission to thc incxorablc
dcmand that shc acccpt hcr scx as lcmalc (127). Latcr in thc samc sccnc
8crcnicc rcturns to thc lcsson shc attcmpts to tcach Frankic, saying: 8ut
what !m warning is this. !l you start out lalling in lovc with somc unhcardol
thing likc that, what is going to happcn to you: !l you takc a mania likc this,
it wont bc thc last timc and ol that you can bc surc. So what will bccomc ol
you: Vill you bc trying to brcak into wcddings thc rcst ol your days: (80).
8crcnicc considcrs Frankics lalling in lovc with a wcdding cvcn
morc quccr than shc vicws Lily Macs changcd naturc. 8crcnicc sccms to
associatc what Frankic wants to do with what Lily Mac has donc bccausc
both arc considcrcd unacccptablc bchavior by socicty. Conccrncd lor
Frankics luturc, 8crcnicc issucs hcr cautionary talc to pcrsuadc Frankic
to conlorm, to go along to gct along. Hcr warning to thc young girl
illustratcs that hctcroscxuality rcmains thc norm, and rcsistancc to pcrccivcd
normalcy is lutilc.
8ctty . McKinnic and Carlos L. cws 92
Lily Macs proposcd rolcs in Tc Mutc, his subscqucnt rcmoval lrom
thc work in progrcss, and his cvcntual rcappcarancc in McCullcrss play and
novcl, Member, can bcst bc cxplaincd within thc contcxt ol McCullcrss own
strugglc with scxual/gcndcr idcntity and with hcr ambivalcnt rclationship
with hcr nativc South. Carson McCullcrss living and writing conditions
during thc pcriods in which shc wrotc thc works whcrc Lily Mac appcars arc
signicant. McCullcrs wrotc thc outlinc lor hcr proposcd rst novcl, Tc
Mutc, and rcviscd thc complctcd manuscript (by thcn changcd to Te Heart
Is a Lonely Hunter) whilc living with hcr husband, Rccvcs McCullcrs, in
Charlottc and Faycttcvillc, North Carolina, bctwccn 1938 and 1940. Upon
publication ol thc novcl, Carson and Rccvcs movcd to Ncw York in 1940,
whcrc thcy soon divorccd, and Carson bccamc involvcd with a widc rangc
ol lricnds lrom intcrnational artistic, musical, and litcrary circlcs. uring
this pcriod McCullcrs also rcccivcd hcr illumination, as shc dcscribcd
inspiration in hcr autobiography, lor Member (32).
Signicantly, McCullcrs composcd Member primarily in Ncw York
City and in thc Yaddo arts colony ol Saratoga Springs, Ncw York, bctwccn
1940 and 1945. Tc adaptation ol thc novcl into thc play took placc undcr
thc inucncc ol Tcnncsscc Villiams, who, as McCullcrs rccallcd, suggcstcd
thc adaptation and providcd lricndship and inspiration during thc summcr
ol 1946 on Nantuckct !sland (Carr 27078).
Lori Kcnschalt, in Homocrotics and Human Conncctions: Rcading
Carson McCullcrs As a Lcsbian, dctails this pcriods rclcvancc to
McCullcrss growing scxual and gcndcr scllconccpt:
Te Ballad of the Sad Caf was writtcn in thc summcr ol 1941,
Te Member of the Wedding was an ongoing projcct lrom 1939
to 1946. !n 1940 McCullcrs lcll in lovc with Anncmaric
ClaracSchwarzcnbach, whom shc latcr considcrcd thc grcatcst
passion ol hcr lilc. According to hcr biographcr, McCullcrss
husband was alrcady accustomcd to hcr lrcqucnt crushcs on
womcn. Tat lall thcy scparatcd and shc movcd into a group
housc. Hcr houscmatcs includcd 8cnjamin 8rittcn and Pctcr
Pcars, who wcrc lilclong lovcrs, Christophcr !shcrwood, and
V. H. Audcn, whosc ncw lovcr, Chcstcr Kallman, soon movcd
in. Tc ncxt summcr at Yaddo, McCullcrss mcns clothcs
and boyish haircut madc hcr casily idcntiablc as a mannish
woman. (221)
!n hcr cssay How ! 8cgan to Vritc, McCullcrs dcscribcd hcr lcclings
about hcr homctown and hcr dcsirc to lcavc lor Ncw York as carly as agc
scvcntccn: 8y that wintcr |193435| thc lamily rooms, thc wholc town,
Tc claycd ntrancc ol Lily Mac Jcnkins 93
sccmcd to pinch and cramp my adolcsccnt hcart. ! longcd lor wandcrings. !
longcd cspccially lor Ncw York (Mortgaged 251).
Tc ncgativc rcaction by thosc around hcr to hcr androgynous naturc
and masculinc drcss provcd a likcly lactor in hcr dcsirc lor cscapc. !n hcr
biography ol McCullcrs, Te Lonely Hunter, \irginia Spcnccr Carr cxplains
McCullcrss adolcsccnt cxpcricncc with this cultural anxicty: Vhcn Carson
was youngcr, somc ol thc girls gathcrcd in littlc clumps ol lcmininity and
thrcw rocks at hcr whcn shc walkcd ncarby, snickcring loud asidcs and
tossing within hcaring distancc such dcscriptivc labcls as wcird, lrcakish
looking, and quccr (2930).
McCullcrs articulatcd hcr dcsirc to lcavc thc South by including a
similar ycarning lor cscapc in hcr charactcrs Frankic Addams and Mick Kclly.
As livcr vans writcs ol thc autobiographical naturc ol Mick and Frankic:
Ccrtainly thc rcscmblanccs bctwccn Lula Carson Smith and Mick Kclly arc
too obvious to bc ignorcd: both arc tall lor thcir agc, both arc tomboys, and
thc lathcrs ol both arc smalltown jcwclcrs. Tc rcscmblanccs bctwccn Lula
Carson Smith and Frankic Addams arc strongcr still (18). And as Prcslcy
has obscrvcd, For both Mick and Frankic, lcaving homc would havc bccn a
mcans ol cscaping thc incvitablc trap (105).
Carr rcvcals thc ambivalcncc McCullcrs lclt about thc South: Hcr
work dcmandcd that shc go back lrom timc to timc, just as shc had told
lcanor Clark at Yaddo a lcw ycars carlicr that shc must pcriodically rcturn
to thc South to rcncw hcr scnsc ol horror (313). !ndccd, in an intcrvicw
with Esquire magazinc McCullcrs oncc rcmarkcd, Pcoplc ask mc why !
dont go back to thc South morc oltcn. 8ut thc South is a vcry cmotional
cxpcricncc lor mc, lraught with all thc mcmorics ol my childhood. Vhcn !
go back South ! always gct into argumcnts, so that a visit to Columbus is a
stirring up ol lovc and antagonism (qtd. in Prcslcy 109).
Ncgativc rcaction to charactcrs in hcr sccond novcl, Reections in a
Golden Eye, would conrm any lcars McCullcrs had about thc rcccption ol
Lily Mac had hc rcmaincd in Tc Mutc. !n hcr unnishcd autobiography,
Illumination and Night Glare, McCullcrs rccalls thc rcaction shc laccd during
a visit to hcr homctown altcr thc publication ol Reections: Rccctions !n A
Goldcn yc was just publishcd, and this, with thc attcndant publicity madc
quitc a stir in town and cspccially at Ft. 8cnning, thc Army Post ncarby. . . .
Tc Ku Klux Klan cvcn callcd mc and said, wc arc thc Klan and wc dont likc
niggcr lovcrs or lairics. Tonight will bc your night (31).
!l such a rcaction conrmcd hcr anxicty whcn contcmplating thc
Souths rcaction to hcr work, McCullcrs cxpcricnccd rcinlorccmcnt ol
hcr positivc associations with lilc in thc North. Living with a group that
bccamc hcr pcrsonal wc ol mc and working in a sctting that lostcrcd hcr
political and social progrcssivcncss, McCullcrs bcgan to lully comprchcnd
8ctty . McKinnic and Carlos L. cws 94
thc intolcrancc ol thc South. As Prcslcy writcs, !n 8rooklyn, thc young
Mrs. McCullcrs lound what, in thc simplc logic ol Te Heart Is a Lonely
Hunter, could havc savcd Mick Kclly: a placc whcrc shc could rclish bcing
dicrcnt, a sympathctic community in which shc could nd uncritical
acccptancc (103), or as McCullcrs hcrscll wrotc in thc cssay 8rooklyn !s
My Ncighbourhood, Tat is onc ol thc things ! lovc most about 8rooklyn.
vcryonc is not cxpcctcd to bc cxactly likc cvcryonc clsc (220).
8y thc timc McCullcrs publishcd Member, shc also had cxpcricnccd an
acccptancc ol hcr lcsbianism or biscxuality. Having movcd to Ncw York, shc
discovcrcd a ncw socicty that allowcd hcr to pursuc any typc ol rclationship
shc dcsircd. Finding a community that cmbraccd homoscxuality hclpcd
McCullcrs rccxaminc hcr notions about thc Souths rigidity and rcprcssivcncss.
Upon rcvicwing thc Souths attitudc toward scxual transgrcssion, McCullcrs
pcrhaps rcalizcd thc aws in hcr thinking about thc South and saw hcr
attcmpts to ccct lasting social changc thcrc as lutilc.
McCullcrss dcvcloping idcas about thc racism and intolcrancc ol thc
South would latcr bc articulatcd in hcr nal novcl, Clock Without Hands.
According to \irginia Spcnccr Carr, Tc South which Carson dcpictcd
in Clock Without Hands, as in hcr carlicr works, was sadly lacking in thc
dimcnsions ol justicc and humanity. !t was a South shc had lclt but still
vicwcd with thc ambivalcnt lcclings ol acction and rancor (493). Prcslcy
misundcrstands McCullcrss rcaction to thc South Carr dcscribcs as an
indication ol McCullcrss lack ol knowlcdgc ol thc South: !n Clock Without
Hands Mrs. McCullcrs attcmptcd to go back homc, but thc South as shc
dcscribcd it ncvcr cxistcd, and it docs not cxist in this ction (108). Howcvcr,
givcn hcr ncgativc cxpcricnccs with racism and, pcrhaps most importantly,
homophobia, thc South that ncvcr cxistcd in McCullcrss work was a just
and acccpting South.
!n an attcmpt to comc to tcrms with hcr isolation as a scxual
transgrcssivc in thc South, McCullcrs crcatcd charactcrs through whom shc
could illustratc hcr lrustration. According to livcr vans, Tc . . . rcason
Mrs. McCullcrs has sucrcd unlavorablc criticism is hcr choicc ol charactcrs
and situations. !t must bc admittcd that hcr charactcrs arc not always thc
kind onc is likcly to cncountcr in ordinary cxpcricncc, and that thc situations
in which shc placcs thcm arc lrcqucntly uncommon, cvcn implausiblc (127).
8y crcating charactcrs who do not sccm lamiliar to us, McCullcrs crcatcs an
ccctivc isolation lor thcsc individuals which rcplicatcs hcr own cxpcricncc
as a progrcssivc Southcrncr in thc rcprcssivc South.
cspitc thcir signicant contribution ol dctail and biographical
background to a considcration ol McCullcrss rclationship with thc South
and thc impact ol that rclationship on hcr work, Prcslcy and Rubin lail to
considcr thc rcasons McCullcrs might havc had to want to cscapc hcr nativc
Tc claycd ntrancc ol Lily Mac Jcnkins 95
rcgion. 8y lailing to undcrstand thc inucncc ol thc Souths homophobia
on McCullcrs, Prcslcy appcars to blamc hcr lor hcr cscapc and suggcsts thc
unbcarably painlul lilc ol a quccr woman in thc South should bc crcditcd with
at lcast providing artistic inspiration: Tc lact that shc was a Southcrncr was
a grcat burdcn shc strugglcd to displacc vcry carly in hcr carccr. Signicantly,
out ol thc strugglc cmcrgcd somc litcraturc ol thc rst ordcr. 8ut oncc
shc abandoncd thc landscapc ol hcr agony, shc wrotc works which lack
distinction. Hcr carly succcss and hcr ultimatc lailurc, ! maintain, can bc
attributcd in largc mcasurc to this pattcrn ol strugglc in hcr rclationship to
thc South (99).
Prcslcy also sccms to blamc McCullcrs lor hcr continucd distrust ol thc
South without rccognizing thc rcalitics ol thc South: Carson McCullcrs
rclationship to thc land ol hcr youth rcminds us that shc cngagcd in
somcthing othcr than a lovcrs quarrcl with thc South. A quarrcl bctwccn
lovcrs implics that both partics havc mutual undcrstanding, mutual rcspcct,
as it wcrc (105). Prcslcys idca that McCullcrss chicl dicultics as a writcr
stcmmcd lrom hcr disrcgard ol hcr own past might bc bcttcr undcrstood in
rcvcrsc. McCullcrs did not abandon thc South, thc South disrcgardcd hcr.
A ight lrom a homophobic and misogynistic socicty sccms justiablc lor
McCullcrs and many ol hcr lcllow quccr Southcrncrs: Tcnncsscc Villiams
and Truman Capotc, lor cxamplc, to namc only two ol hcr lricnds and lcllow
cxpatriatc Southcrncrs.
!n Carson McCullcrs Tc Acsthctic ol Pain, Louis . Rubin posits
this cxplanation lor McCullcrss dcsirc to movc to Ncw York:
Ncw York was thc placc ol art, ol culturc, ol lulllmcnt, whcrc thc
drcams ol thc loncly provincial could comc truc. . . . Tc particular
vision ol Carson McCullcrs, thc capacity lor rccognizing
and portraying and sympathctically idcntilying with pain and
lonclincss, could arisc only out ol a social situation in which thc
pattcrns and lorms and cxpcctations ol conduct and attitudc arc
vcry rmly and lormidably prcscnt, so that thc inability or lailurc
to lunction within thosc pattcrns sccms crucial. . . . !l thcrc is a
strong sct ol cxpcctations, and onc is unablc to lulll thcm and
yct bc oncscll, thcn onc scarchcs out lor kindrcd sucrcrs, in
ordcr to lccl lcss loncly through assurancc ol thcir pain as wcll.
(113, 119)
For McCullcrs and hcr charactcrs, howcvcr, this privatc distancc is onc ol
ncccssity bccausc ol thc Souths rcsponsc to dicrcncc. Tc vaguc onc rcason
or othcr ocrs an unlortunatc cliding ol thc vcry signicancc ol thc Souths
intransigcnt homophobia and racism.
8ctty . McKinnic and Carlos L. cws 96
Although vcry littlc is known ol thc proccss by which McCullcrs
translormcd hcr outlinc ol Tc Mutc into thc novcl Heart, at lcast two
plausiblc cxplanations cxist lor hcr rcmoval ol Lily Mac Jcnkins. McCullcrs
pcrhaps rcmovcd Lily Mac lrom thc publishcd vcrsion ol thc novcl bccausc
shc bclicvcd thc South would not tolcratc a story ol scxual transgrcssion
both in thc tclling ol thc story ol thc transgrcssion (by McCullcrs in thc
act ol writing thc novcl) and in thc rccord ol thc transgrcssivc (in thc
dcpictcd lilc ol Lily Mac Jcnkins). Pcrhaps McCullcrs bclicvcd Lily Mac
would bc unacccptablc to towns such as hcr nativc Columbus, Gcorgia, or
that a charactcr likc Lily Mac Jcnkins, with his multiplc social rolcs, was
unimaginablc in a placc likc Columbus.
McCullcrss original conccption ol Lily Mac Jcnkins in thc South and
hcr rcmoval ol him lrom hcr rst novcl and subscqucnt rcturn to him lor hcr
play Member arc articulations ol hcr ambivalcncc toward thc South and thc
rcgions rcsponsc to gcndcr ambiguity and scxual transgrcssion. Vith littlc
cxpcricncc away lrom hcr nativc South and pcrhaps an inability to imaginc
a placc lor Lily Mac in thc South, or in hcr novcl, McCullcrs lclt compcllcd
to rcmovc him. Lily Macs abscncc might thcn bc simply thc cditorial
rcmoval ol a charactcr thc author could not imaginc in thc sctting ol thc
work (pcrhaps not unlikc McCullcrss inability to imaginc hcr own luturc
in thc South). Lily Macs rcmoval lrom thc novcl allows McCullcrs to sparc
hcr charactcr lrom scarching lor a rcsolution to thc paradox ol Southcrn
quccr idcntity, a paradox lraught with its concomitant ambivalcnccsand
with which McCullcrs lound hcrscll struggling. McCullcrss cxtraction ol
Lily Mac lrom thc novcl was a gcncrous gcsturc. 8y rcmoving Lily Mac,
McCullcrs sparcd him thc painlul dcath ol spiritual and pcrsonal starvation
which would havc bccn his latc in thc South McCullcrs kncw all too wcll.
Rcturning oncc again to McCullcrss introduction to thc publishcd
cdition ol hcr lailcd play Te Square Root of Wonderful, onc can pcrhaps scc
McCullcrs hcrscll providing answcrs to thc lingcring qucstions as to thc
sourcc ol thc powcr ol thc adolcsccnt dilcmma dramatizcd in Member, lor
which Lily Mac Jcnkins scrvcs as a simulacrum:
Vhcn pcoplc ask why ! writc lor thc thcatrc ! can only countcr
with anothcr qucstion. Vhy docs anyonc writc at all: ! supposc
a writcr writcs out ol somc inward compulsion to translorm his
own cxpcricncc (much ol it is unconscious) into thc univcrsal
and symbolical. Tc thcmcs thc artist chooscs arc always dccply
pcrsonal. ! supposc my ccntral thcmc is thc thcmc ol spiritual
isolation. Ccrtainly ! havc always lclt alonc. !n addition to bcing
loncly, a writcr is also amorphous. A writcr soon discovcrs hc has
no singlc idcntity but livcs thc livcs ol all thc pcoplc hc crcatcs
Tc claycd ntrancc ol Lily Mac Jcnkins 97
and his wcathcrs arc indcpcndcnt ol thc actual day around him. !
livc with thc pcoplc ! crcatc and it has always madc my csscntial
lonclincss lcss kccn. (viii)
Pcrhaps thc abovc pronounccmcnt providcs not only a cluc to thc qucstions
rcgarding Lily Mac Jcnkinss charactcrization in hcr novcl and play but also
to thc qucstions about McCullcrs as a dramatist. Pcrhaps as a rccapitulation
ol hcr own childhood drama, Member was thc only story that McCullcrs
could succcsslully dramatizc. McCullcrs might wcll bc said to havc bccn
dramatizing hcr own adolcsccnt strugglcs with gcndcr and scxuality and
calling upon unrcsolvcd psychic (unconscious) matcrial in hcr adaptation ol
Member rathcr than mcrcly dramatizing hcr novcl lor thc stagc. Lily Mac
could thcn bc rcad as onc ol thc charactcrs McCullcrs crcatcd to livc with
in ordcr to lccl hcr lonclincss lcss kccnly. Howcvcr, this rolc lor Lily Mac
docs not considcr McCullcrss usc ol Lily Mac as a critiquc ol thc South and
docs not hclp cxplain hcr wavcring usc ol Lily Mac.
Vhcn McCullcrs rcintroduccs Lily Mac Jcnkins in Member and
mcrcilully lcavcs him out ol sight, shc uscs him only to rccct ncgativcly
on thc South and its lack ol imagination in providing a placc lor such a
charactcr. Had hc rcmaincd in Heart, Lily Mac would havc scrvcd as a mirror
placcd in lront ol McCullcrss lacc, rcccting a toopainlul imagc ol hcr own
sucring. !nstcad, McCullcrs rcmovcd him lrom thc novcl and rccallcd him
in Te Member of the Wedding to scrvc as an alltoohoncst rccction ol thc
South and its intolcrant naturc, a South McCullcrs kncw in an alltoorcal
way as an intolcrant placc whcrc hcr work lor changc was lutilc.
Vovxs Ci :vb
Carr, \irginia Spcnccr. Te Lonely Hunter: A Biography of Carson McCullers. Gardcn City,
NY: oublcday, 1975.
vans, livcr. Tc Casc ol Carson McCullcrs. Critical Essays on Carson McCullers. d.
8cvcrly L. Clark and Mclvin J. Fricdman. Ncw York: Hall, 1996. 12328.
Kcnschalt, Lori J. Homocrotics and Human Conncctions: Rcading Carson McCullcrs As
a Lcsbian. Critical Essays on Carson McCullers. d. 8cvcrly L. Clark and Mclvin J.
Fricdman. Ncw York: Hall, 1996. 22033.
McCullcrs, Carson. Authors utlinc ol Tc Mutc (Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter). Te
Mortgaged Heart. d. Margarita G. Smith. 8oston: Houghton, 1971. 12449.
. 8rooklyn !s My Ncighbourhood. Te Mortgaged Heart. d. Margarita G. Smith.
8oston: Houghton, 1971. 21620.
. Clock Without Hands. 8oston: HoughtonRivcrsidc, 1953.
. Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter. Ncw York: Modcrn Library, 1993.
. How ! 8cgan to Vritc. Te Mortgaged Heart. d. Margarita G. Smith. 8oston:
Houghton, 1971. 24951.
8ctty . McKinnic and Carlos L. cws 98
. Illumination and Night Glare: Te Unnished Autobiography of Carson McCullers. d.
Carlos L. cws. Madison: U ol Visconsin P, 1999.
. Te Member of the Wedding (Play). Ncw York: Ncw ircctions, 1951.
. Te Member of the Wedding. 8oston: Houghton, 1973.
. Reections in a Golden Eye. Cambridgc: Rivcrsidc, 1941.
. Te Square Root of Wonderful. !ntroduction. unwoody, GA: 8crg, 1971. viix.
Prcslcy, clma ugcnc. Carson McCullcrs and thc South. 1974. Critical Essays on Carson
McCullers. d. 8cvcrly Lyon Clark and Mclvin J. Fricdman. Ncw York: Hall, 1996.
99110.
Rubin, Louis ., Jr. Carson McCullcrs: Tc Acsthctic ol Pain. 1977. Critical Essays on
Carson McCullers. d. 8cvcrly Lyon Clark and Mclvin J. Fricdman. Ncw York: Hall,
1996. 11123.
Vcstling, Louisc. Tomboys and Rcvolting Fcmininity. Sacred Groves and Ravaged Gardens:
Te Fiction of Eudora Welty, Carson McCullers, and Flannery OConnor. Athcns: U ol
Gcorgia P, 1985. 11032.
99
From To Hell and Back: Race and Betrayal in the Southern Novel, pp. 84106. 2003 by thc
Univcrsity ol Gcorgia Prcss.
J F F A8 RNAT HY
Divided Hearts:
Carson McCullers and Harper Lee
Explore Racial Uncertainty
Tcrc was a stagc, whcn wc wcrc about thirtccn, in which wc wcnt
Ncgro. Vc tricd to broadcn our acccnts to sound likc Ncgrocs, as il
thcrc wcrc not cnough similarity alrcady. Vc consciously walkcd likc
young Ncgrocs, mocking thcir swinging gait, moving our arms thc way
thcy did, cracking our knucklcs and whistling bctwccn our tccth.
Villic Morris
! hardly lct charactcrs spcak unlcss thcy arc Southcrn. Vollc wrotc
brilliantly ol 8rooklyn, but morc brilliantly ol thc Southcrn cadcncc and
ways ol spccch. Tis is particularly truc ol Southcrn writcrs bccausc it
is not only thcir spccch and thc loliagc, but thcir cntirc culturcwhich
makcs it a homcland within a homcland. No mattcr what thc politics,
thc dcgrcc or nondcgrcc ol libcralism in a Southcrn writcr, hc is still
bound to this particular rcgionalism ol languagc and voiccs and loliagc
and mcmory.
Carson McCullcrs
Popular narrativcs ol racc in thc South appcarcd morc lrcqucntly in thc
wakc ol Vorld Var Two. Tc pattcrn ol initiation and rcvcrsal ! havc traccd
took hold in thc popular imagination in postwar Amcrica, cvcn as civil
unrcst among Alrican Amcricans in thc Jim Crow South was bcginning. !n
Jc Abcrnathy 100
thc two dccadcs lollowing thc war, racial ccrtaintics spun apart in popular
culturc as in thc southcrn novcl. Vhcn lvis Prcslcy rccallcd his turbulcnt
rst days as a rock singcr, hc rcmcmbcrcd what it mcant to sound black lor a
whitc audicncc: |V|hcn thc rccord camc out a lot ol pcoplc likcd it and you
could hcar lolks around town saying, !s hc, is hc: and !m going, Am !, am
!: (qtd. in Marcus, Mystery Train 152).
Tc potcntial ol racial unccrtainty charactcrizcs Carson McCullcrss
Te Member of the Wedding and Harpcr Lccs To Kill a Mockingbird, both
ol which rcpcat thc pattcrn ol invcrsion wc havc bccn tracing thus laran
cmcrging Amcrican mythos pcrtaining to raccin narrativcs that locus upon
thc dcvclopmcnt ol adolcsccnt charactcrs through thcir rclationships with
marginalizcd and cxotic Alrican Amcrican charactcrs. Vhilc both novcls
portray whitc girls whosc mothcrs arc abscnt and who look to thcir black
scrvants lor counscl, McCullcrs cquips Frankic Addamss black mcntor,
8crcnicc, with a dcgrcc ol autonomy comparablc to that ol Faulkncrs Lucas
8cauchamp. Lcc, by contrast, portrays Alrican Amcrican charactcrs wholly
dcpcndcnt upon thc whitc community.
A S~b ~xb Uciv Roo:
Frankic Addams ol Carson McCullcrss Te Member of the Wedding discovcrs
hcr idcntity in moving back and lorth bctwccn black and whitc worlds, a
thcmc alludcd to by hcr rccurrcnt namc and costumc changcs. 8ccausc hcr
mothcr has dicd and shc is incrcasingly alicnatcd lrom hcr lathcr, Frankic
looks to 8crcnicc, hcr lamilys black cook, as moral guidc and as modcl lor
sclldiscovcry. Shc vacillatcs bctwccn conicting dcsircs to rcmain in thc
cxoticizcd black world ol 8crcniccs kitchcntcrritory owncd by Frankics
lathcr but rulcd by 8crcnicc aloncand to cscapc to a whitc onc symbolizcd
by hcr brothcrs immincnt wcdding. Shc lcars discovcring a marginalizcd
black idcntity within hcrscll as shc movcs into adolcsccncc, a timc whcn shc
will lccl compcllcd to shcd all association with blackncss. Frankics attcmpts
to cscapc thc black world that 8crcnicc rcprcscnts as wcll as hcr rcpcatcd
corts to rcturn to that world givc shapc and locus to thc brokcn idcntity
shc lorms. Frankic pcrccivcs 8crcnicc in a scrics ol lamiliar stcrcotypcs: as
Margarct Mcowcll writcs, lor Frankic, 8crcnicc is variously acctionatc
or stcrn mothcr, thc primitivc sccr, and thc black quccn who oncc livcd with
hcr drcam lovcr (81). Frankic sccs hcr mcntor through thc prism ol whitc
socictys gazc, 8crcnicc, howcvcr, pcrsistcntly attcmpts to compcl Frankic to
vicw hcr as an individual outsidc ol thc socially cnlorccd constructs ol scll
and othcr.
For Frankic, thc black world dominatcd by 8crcnicc is lracturcd and
incomplctc and thus an accuratc rccction ol hcr own statc ol mind. !n hcr
Carson McCullcrs and Harpcr Lcc xplorc Racial Unccrtainty 101
romantic notions ol joining hcr oldcr brothcr and his ncw wilc on thcir
honcymoon, shc bclicvcs that shc has lound a path that will lcad hcr to thc
wholcncss shc associatcs with whitcncss and away lrom thc childhood world
incxtricably ticd to 8crcnicc and to a marginalizcd black idcntity. Vhcn
8crcnicc cautiously trics to dissuadc Frankic lrom hcr plan, Frankic suspccts
hcr ol jcalousy.
From thc opcning pagcs ol thc novcl, Frankic lccls ill at casc in
8crcniccs kitchcn, lor it is a sad and ugly room in which thc walls arc
covcrcd with Frankics cousin John Hcnrys quccr, child drawings, as lar up
as his arm would rcach (4). !n hcr longing to cscapc childhood, shc likcwisc
wishcs to grow out ol hcr rclationship with 8crcnicc: thc kitchcn soon looks
to hcr likc that ol a room in thc crazyhousc. And now thc old kitchcn madc
Frankic sick. Tc namc lor what had happcncd to hcr Frankic did not know,
but shc could lccl hcr squcczcd hcart bcating against thc tablc cdgc (4). !n
hcr dcparturcs lrom thc kitchcn, Frankic cscapcs all guilt: it is a placc lrom
which Frankic wishcs shc could just light out, yct hcr dcpcndcncc upon
8crcnicc lcavcs hcr unablc to do so (6).
Yct Frankic pcrsistcntly rcturns to that kitchcn, lor il shc cxpcricnccs
guilt thcrc, shc also nds solacc. 8crcnicc rccognizcs Frankics dilcmma
throughout, insisting that Frankic conlront hcr own idcntity. You jcalous
|ol thc wcdding|, said 8crcnicc. Go and bchold yourscll in thc mirror. ! can
scc lrom thc color in your cyc (2). Frankic attcmpts to undcrstand hcr own
cxpcricncc through thc ltcr ol 8crcniccs pcrspcctivc. !mmcdiatcly altcr hcr
brothcr and his ancc comc to visit, Frankic asks 8crcnicc to rccount thc
visit lor hcr oncc again:
Tcll mc, shc said. Tcll mc cxactly how it was.
You know! said 8crcnicc. You sccn thcm.
8ut tcll mc, Frankic said. (26)
Frankic validatcs hcr cxpcricnccs by channcling thcm through
8crcnicc, and, whilc shc strugglcs throughout thc novcl to achicvc an idcntity
indcpcndcnt ol hcr mammy, shc ncvcr quitc achicvcs thc goal. Tcll mc,
Frankic says again. xactly what did thcy look likc: Frankic says oncc
8crcnicc has intcrprctcd thc visit lor hcr (27). Vinthrop Jordan writcs ol thc
nccd wcstcrncrs havc always lclt to scc thcmsclvcs through thc cxpcricncc
ol thc colonizcd othcr, lor Jordan, thc nglish uscd pcoplcs ovcrscas as
social mirrors that rccctcd thc vcry traits thc nglish lcarcd in thcmsclvcs
(40). Hcrc Frankic rcics hcr own cxpcricncc through that ol hcr black
companion, rcccting a likc dcpcndcncc in Amcrican culturc in which thc
dominant socicty has always dcncd itscll by thc margin, by what it claims
not to bc.
Jc Abcrnathy 102
cspitc hcr statcd dcsirc to bccomc a mcmbcr ol thc wcdding and
lcavc with hcr brothcr whcn hc marrics, Frankic rcmains cntranccd by
thc mystcrious blackncss shc associatcs with 8crcnicc. Vhcn 8crcniccs
son, Honcy, and hcr suitor, T.T., intcrrupt a discussion bctwccn Frankic
and 8crcnicc onc cvcning, Honcy pcrplcxcs Frankic. Tat surc is a cutc
suit you got on, Honcy, 8crcnicc says. Vhcrcd you gct it: Honcys
rcsponsc initially troublcs Frankic: Honcy could talk likc a whitc school
tcachcr, his lavcndcr lips could movc as quick and light as buttcrics. 8ut hc
only answcrcd with a colorcd word, a dark sound lrom thc throat that can
mcan anything. Ahhnnh, hc said (36). Alrcady lorbiddcn and unknown,
blackncss bccomcs morc lascinating to Frankic as it bccomcs lcss articulatc.
Honcys contradictions attract Frankic, lor hc is, likc hcrscll and likc
8crcnicc, caught bctwccn a whitc world and a black onc. Frankic lccls a
strong communion with 8crcnicc and thc two mcn: whcn thc thrcc paticntly
wait lor Frankic to lcavc so that thcy can drink whiskcy, |s|hc stood in thc
door and lookcd at thcm. Shc did not want to go away (36). And yct oncc
Frankic lcavcs, shc suspccts 8crcnicc will bctray hcr plan to join thc wcdding
party. Shc closcd thc door, but bchind hcr shc could hcar thcir voiccs. Vith
hcr hcad against thc kitchcn door shc could hcar thc murmuring dark sounds
that rosc and lcll in a gcntlc way. Ayccaycc (36). McCullcrs cmphasizcs
Frankics curiosity with black dialcct and black culturc whilc lurthcr
cstablishing thc matcrnal bond bctwccn Frankic and 8crcnicc. Tc words ol
thc thrccmurmuring dark soundsnurturc rathcr than thrcatcn Frankic
as shc cavcsdrops. Tc marginal idcntity thcy sharc providcs Frankic what
scnsc ol scll shc has, and il shc aspircs to join thc whitc world symbolizcd
by thc wcdding, shc ncvcrthclcss takcs comlort in thc black onc shc has
discovcrcd in thc kitchcn. Tc nurturing Frankic rcccivcs is ol coursc limitcd:
shc hcars thc sounds as shc docs only bccausc shc is cavcsdropping. Vhcn
Honcy asks 8crcnicc what shc and Frankic had bccn discussing, to Frankics
surprisc 8crcnicc docs not bctray thc girls condcncc: Just loolishncss,
shc says (36).
Frankics awarcncss ol 8crcniccs othcrcd status throughout thc novcl
draws hcr to thc oldcr woman: shc thinks that nobody human (3) would cvcr
know why 8crcnicc chooscs to havc a bluc glass cyc, and yct as a mcmbcr ol
nothing in thc world and an unjoincd pcrson (1), Frankic idcntics with
prcciscly this scnsc ol alicnation, ultimatcly, it is 8crcniccs blackncss with
which Frankic claims cmpathy. Tc black world to which 8crcnicc is a kind
ol cnvoy ocrs Frankic a dcnition ol hcr prcscnt scll, sincc, likc hcr, it is
incomplctc and abstract, by contrast, thc whitc world, associatcd strongly
with thc wcdding, givcs hcr hopc lor luturc wholcncss.
Latcr in thc novcl, 8crcnicc attcmpts to casc Frankics distrcss by
pointing to thc similaritics bctwccn thcm: Vc all ol us somchow caught.
Carson McCullcrs and Harpcr Lcc xplorc Racial Unccrtainty 103
Vc born this way or that way and wc dont know why. 8ut wc caught
anyhow (113). 8ut 8crcnicc rcluscs to allow Frankic, who has adoptcd thc
namc F. Jasminc, to yokc thcir troublcs too closcly, asscrting,
!m caught worsc than you is. . . . 8ccausc ! am colorcd.
vcrybody is caught onc way or anothcr. 8ut thcy donc drawn
complctcly cxtra bounds around all colorcd pcoplc. Tcy donc
squcczcd us o in onc corncr by oursclvcs. So wc caught that
rstway ! was tclling, as all human bcings is caught. And wc
caught as colorcd pcoplc also. Somctimcs a boy likc Honcy lccl
likc hc just cant brcathc no morc. Hc lccl likc hc got to brcak
somcthing or brcak himscll. Somctimcs it just about morc than
wc can stand. (11314)
McCullcrs thus cngagcs thc nations anxictics ovcr racc, cxplicitly rclcrcncing
thc Jim Crow cra, allowing 8crcnicc a critical voicc lrcc ol irony that contrasts
sharply with Frankics juvcnilc longings. Frankic cxprcsscs a dcsirc to brcak
somcthing, too, so as to sharc in 8crcniccs scnsc ol bcing cast out dcspitc
8crcniccs attcmpts to isolatc thc black cxpcricncc (114). Yct 8crcniccs
asscrtion that thcy donc squcczcd us o in onc corncr only draws Frankic
closcr, lor shc hcrscll has a squcczcd hcart (4). !n dclincating thc tcrms
ol hcr own lilc, Frankic appropriatcs 8crcniccs blackncss, attcmpting to
cxplain hcr alicnation lrom whitc socicty through 8crcniccs cxplanation ol
racial opprcssion.
8crcnicc rcjccts any such yoking: though willing to act as a matcrnal
gurc to both Frankic and John Hcnry, shc will not allow cithcr ol thcm
authority ovcr hcr own cxpcricncc: ! am black . . . ! am colorcd (113).
Latcr, 8crcnicc obscrvcs Frankics inability to pass as black, ironically
proposing a rcvcrsal ol racial idcntity as Frankic attcmpts to undcrstand why
shc cannot changc hcr namc as shc sccs t. Vhy is it against thc law to
changc your namc: Frankic asks. 8crcnicc rcsponds with pointcd mockcry:
Supposc ! would suddcnly up and call myscll Mrs. lcanor Rooscvclt. And
you would bcgin naming yourscll Joc Louis. And John Hcnry would try to
pass o as Hcnry Ford. Now what kind ol conlusion do you think that would
causc: (107). 8crcniccs lcvity is hardly innoccnt: Frankics proposal ol a
sharcd racial idcntity thrcatcns 8crcniccs authority ovcr hcr own idcntity,
so 8crcnicc insists that no such cxchangc can takc placc. Shc claims hcr
sucringand hcr idcntityas hcr own.
cspitc 8crcniccs objcctions, Frankic pcrsists in associating hcr own
alicnation with that ol 8crcnicc and so with thc black community. And,
having latchcd on to blackncss as kcy to hcr own dcvclopmcnt, Frankic
cannot now rcmovc it lrom hcr undcrstanding ol hcrscll, lor all ol 8crcniccs
Jc Abcrnathy 104
objcctions. Vc scnsc hcr alicnation whcn latcr, lclt bchind by 8crcnicc,
Frankic wandcrs to John Hcnrys housc, whcrc shc trics to communicatc
with hcr cousin to no avail.
1
Vith dusk lalling, shc stands apart lrom John
Hcnry, watching him as a blucs hornthc sad horn ol somc colorcd boy
bcgins to play lrom somcwhcrc in thc town (41). cspitc thc lact that shc
docs not know thc playcr, Frankic immcdiatcly lccls a kinship with him that
shc docs not lccl with hcr cousin: Frankic stood sti, hcr hcad bcnt and hcr
cycs closcd, listcning. Tcrc was somcthing about thc tunc that brought back
to hcr all ol thc spring: owcrs, thc cycs ol strangcrs, rain (41). Tc horn
playcr acts as musc to Frankics alicnation, his music rcccting thc tanglc ol
hcr consciousncss and drawing hcr into hcrscll cvcn as shc strains to hcar.
Shc bclicvcs thc playcr, likc 8crcnicc, spcaks to hcr in a lragmcntcd lorm
ol communication hcr cousin cannot comprchcnd. 8lackncss thus bccomcs
mctaphor lor Frankics alicnation. Tc cxprcssion that thc colorcd boy
givcs to his blucs brings Frankic to rcminiscchcr own blucsabout thc
spring, a timc bclorc shc lclt cast out ol childhood, a timc bclorc hcr prcscnt
long scason ol troublc (41).
And yct, likc 8crcnicc, thc horn playcr stops short ol ocring anything
bcyond mcrc association: Just at thc timc whcn thc tunc should bc laid, thc
music nishcd, thc horn brokc o (41). Frankic awaits guidancc that will
not comc, and in placc ol nding hcr own dircction shc mimics thc black
blucs that shc has hcard: in hcr own blucs, shc bcgan to talk aloud but pays
no attcntion to hcr own words (42). Hcr improvisation lcads hcr not toward
thc black world that inspircd it but toward a whitc world in which blackncss
itscll is supprcsscd:
For it was just at that momcnt that Frankic undcrstood. Shc
kncw who shc was and how shc was going into thc world. Hcr
squcczcd hcart suddcnly opcncd and dividcd. Hcr hcart dividcd
likc two wings. And whcn shc spokc hcr voicc was surc.
! know whcrc !m going, shc said. (42)
mbracc and rcpulsc, unitc and bctray. !n thc litcrary union ol black
and whitc, thc onc lollows thc othcr. Frankic dccidcs to go to thc wcdding,
toward what shc bclicvcs will bc an cnvcloping whitcncss that will takc hcr
away lrom thc ambivalcncc and lrustration ol 8crcniccs black world. Hcr
cvasion ol darkncss, ol thc placc ol blackncss in hcr nasccnt idcntity, comcs
to constitutc thc major conict in thc novcl, yct Frankics rcsolution yiclds no
dcnitivc action. 8ccausc shc has dccidcd to sct hcr sights on a whitc idcntity
and to cscapc 8crcnicc, hcr hcart is no longcr squcczcd, as it had bccn, but
altcr hcr dccision to bccomc a mcmbcr ol thc wcdding, shc momcntarily
rctrcats into childhood and hcr dcpcndcncc upon 8crcnicc. Shc vcnturcs to
Carson McCullcrs and Harpcr Lcc xplorc Racial Unccrtainty 105
thc shorcs ol a whitc world only to rcturn to thc comlorting watcrs ol a black
onc. !n thc cnd, howcvcr, what growth shc docs attain comcs as a rcsult ol
hcr rcjcction ol any conncction shc might lccl to a black idcntity.
8ack in 8crcniccs kitchcn, Frankic rcmains uncomlortablc with thc
rcmnants ol hcr participation in a black world and with thc cxtcnt to which
hcr dcsircs and tastcs arc shapcd by that world. Frankic qucstions 8crcnicc
about thc namc ol hcr lavoritc lood, hoppingjohn, shc is rcluctant to call
it by its southcrn namc now that shc plans to join thc whitc world that
thc wcdding has comc to rcprcscnt. Southcrn lood, ol coursc, likc southcrn
idcntity, cmcrgcs out ol thc conation ol black and whitc culturcs, and
Frankic dcmonstratcs dccp discomlort with this multicultural rcality.
Tcll mc. !s it just us who call this hoppingjohn: r is it known
by that namc through all thc country. !t sccms a strangc namc
somchow.
. . . Vcll, ! havc hcard it callcd pcas and ricc. r ricc and pcas
and potliquor. r hoppingjohn. You can vary and takc your
pick.
8ut !m not talking about this town, F. Jasminc said. ! mcan
in othcr placcs. ! mcan through all thc world. ! wondcr what thc
Frcnch call it.
h, said 8crcnicc. Vcll, you ask mc a qucstion ! cannot
answcr. (8081)
8crcnicc, who knows a thing or two about signicrs, dismisscs thc
importancc ol such translormations ol languagc in much thc samc way that shc
has tricd to dissuadc Frankic lrom changing hcr namc to F. Jasminc. 8crcnicc
dismisscs Frankics longing lor a dicrcnt namc lor hoppingjohn that is lcss
southcrn, and lcss black, whilc Frankic pondcrs: ! wondcr what thc Frcnch
call it. !n slighting thc namc hoppingjohn, Frankic symbolically rcjccts
thc black and southcrn cxpcricncc ol which 8crcnicc is a constant rcmindcr,
likcwisc, shc rcluscs to scc thc contributions ol this racial blcnding to hcr
own tastcs and dcsircs. Hoppingjohn is, altcr all, hcr prclcrrcd dish: Now
hoppingjohn was F. Jasmincs vcry lavoritc lood. Shc had always warncd thcm
to wavc a platc ol ricc and pcas bclorc hcr nosc whcn shc was in hcr con, to
makc ccrtain thcrc was no mistakc (76). ncc again shc aims to ovcrcomc hcr
discomlort by cmbracing whitcncss. ! know whcrc !m going, Frankic tclls
us, and hcr choscn dcstination is hcr brothcrs wcdding, thc rcncd ritual in
which shc nds a purity that contrasts with thc mongrcl idcntity shc has takcn
on in 8crcniccs kitchcn (42).
Frankics distrcss at hcr prcscnt circumstancc incrcascs whcn 8crcnicc
tclls hcr that hcr changc ol namcs is just as illogical as would bc a changc ol
Jc Abcrnathy 106
racc. Frankic rcacts by circling thc kitchcn tablc with a knilc in hcr hand,
lrustratcd that shc cannot bring hcrscll to tcll 8crcnicc ol hcr plans to go
dancing, plans that also rcprcscnt lor hcr an cscapc lrom thc black world ol
8crcniccs kitchcn. 8crcnicc nally stops hcr: Sct hcrc in my lap . . . |a|nd
rcst a minutc.
F. Jasminc put thc knilc on thc tablc and scttlcd down on 8crcniccs
lap. Shc lcancd back and put hcr lacc against 8crcniccs ncck, hcr
lacc was swcaty and 8crcniccs ncck was swcaty also, and thcy both
smcllcd salty and sour and sharp. Hcr right lcg was ung across
8crcniccs kncc, and it was trcmblingbut whcn shc stcadicd hcr
tocs on thc oor, hcr lcg did not trcmblc any morc. . . .
F. Jasminc rollcd hcr hcad and rcstcd hcr lacc against
8crcniccs shouldcr. Shc could lccl 8crcniccs solt big ninnas
against hcr back, and hcr solt widc stomach, hcr warm solid lcgs.
Shc had bccn brcathing vcry last, but altcr a minutc hcr brcath
slowcd down so that shc brcathcd in timc with 8crcnicc, thc two
ol thcm wcrc closc togcthcr as onc body, and 8crcniccs sticncd
hands wcrc claspcd around F. Jasmincs chcst. (11213)
Tc passagc rcvcals thc two cmbraccd as onc body, a nurturing in
which Frankic momcntarily acccpts 8crcnicc as mothcr, somcthing shc
has bccn rcluctant to do throughout thc novcl. And lor this onc momcnt
8crcniccs compassion, cvcn lorgivcncss, ovcrcomcs Frankics ambivalcncc
ovcr hcr association with blackncss. Frankic will turn yct again lrom 8crcnicc,
but shc nds momcntary solacc amid thc conlusion ol racial idcntity that
conlronts hcr just as shc ncars adolcsccncc. Vhilc McCullcrs dcscribcd John
Hcnry as Frankics invcrtcd doublc (qtd. in Carr 235), wc know, ol coursc,
that hcr truc doublc, or twin, to usc Arnold Rampcrsads tcrm, is 8crcnicc,
and thcir bond cncompasscs all ol thc charactcristics ol thcsc litcrary unions
so uniquc to Amcrican culturc: lratcrnity, matcrnity, scxuality. At thc
conclusion ol thc novcl, oncc Frankic has lound that shc will not bc acccptcd
as a mcmbcr ol thc wcdding, shc lashcs out at 8crcnicc, who sits ncxt to hcr
on thc long bus ridc homc: Shc was sitting ncxt to 8crcnicc, back with thc
colorcd pcoplc, and whcn shc thought ol it shc uscd thc mcan word shc had
ncvcr uscd bclorc, niggcrlor now shc hatcd cvcryonc and wantcd only to
spitc and shamc (135). Frankic, now scnsing thc powcr to lorm an idcntity
through bctrayal, rccalls thc stcrcotypcs ol hcr southcrn culturc in ordcr to
cnd thcir rclationship.
!l Frankics rcjcction ol 8crcnicc is purcly symbolic, shc soon achicvcs
a nal brcak lrom hcr mcntor whcn shc and hcr lathcr movc out ol thcir
housc, lcaving 8crcnicc bchind. For hcr part, 8crcnicc had givcn quit noticc
Carson McCullcrs and Harpcr Lcc xplorc Racial Unccrtainty 107
and said that shc might as wcll marry T.T. Tc Addamscs dccision to movc
to thc ncw suburb ol town anticipatcs thc whitc ight that would changc
thc racial dynamic ol cvcry southcrn town and city in thc latcr ycars ol thc
ccntury and marks thc bcginning ol Frankics nal brcak with 8crcnicc
(149). Tc two gathcr in thc kitchcn a nal timc (and thc rst timc in a
long whilc), and Frankic rccognizcs thc translormation ol thcir world and
ol thcir rclationship: !t was not thc samc kitchcn ol thc summcr that now
sccmcd so long ago. Tc pcncil picturcs had disappcarcd bcncath a coat ol
calciminc, and ncw linolcum covcrcd thc splintcry oor. vcn thc tablc had
bccn movcd, pushcd back against thc wall, sincc now thcrc was nobody to
takc mcals with 8crcnicc (149).
Tc altcration ol thc kitchcn signals thc loss ol thc black world
that Frankic, now Franccs, associatcs with hcr childhood: John Hcnrys
manic pcncil drawings arc paintcd ovcr, covcrcd in whitc just as Frankic
vchcmcntly cuts o hcr own association with thc black world thosc drawings
rcprcscntcd. McCullcrs lurthcr cmphasizcs Frankics symbolic rcjcction ol
8crcnicc as Frankic makcs sandwichcs (thus supplanting 8crcniccs rolc
as sustcnancc providcr) lor Mary Littlcjohn, a ncw lricnd who is coming
to scc hcr: Franccs glanccd at 8crcnicc, who was sitting idlc in a chair,
wcaring an old ravclcd swcatcr, hcr limp arms hanging at hcr sidcs (150).
8crcnicc has scrvcd hcr purposc lor Frankic, who at thc conclusion ol thc
narrativc has madc a nal brcak lrom thc black world shc has altcrnatcly
cmbraccd and rcjcctcd.
Frankics vicw ol hcrscll dcpcnds on thc contribution ol othcrncss to
hcr idcntity, yct shc nally rcprcsscs that knowlcdgc in a bittcr rccoiling.
8crcniccs arms hang limp at hcr sidcs, hcr authority in thc kitchcn having
bccn usurpcd and, so, hcr conncction to Frankic brcachcd. Tc litcrary
rclationship bctwccn black and whitc can only bc maintaincd whcn lorccs
outsidc ol it cxcrt littlc prcssurc upon thc whitc charactcr: Huck vicws Jim
as an individual only whcn thcy arc on thc rivcr. !n likc manncr, Frankic
abandons 8crcniccand blackncssupon nding hcr own Tom Sawycr in
Mary. McCullcrs scts hcr black charactcr apart lrom Twains in that 8crcnicc
lacks Jims rcmarkablc paticncc. Vhilc Jim rcacts with only mild displcasurc
as hc watchcs Huck and Tom lrittcr away thc possibility ol casy cscapc,
8crcnicc rcacts with thc vitriol ol a spurncd lovcr whcn Frankic announccs
that shc and Mary Littlcjohn will travcl around thc world togcthcr altcr
shc movcs:
Mary Littlcjohn, said 8crcnicc, in a tingcd voicc. Mary
Littlcjohn.
8crcnicc could not apprcciatc Michclangclo or poctry, lct alonc
Mary Littlcjohn. Tcrc had at rst bccn words bctwccn thcm on
Jc Abcrnathy 108
thc subjcct. 8crcnicc had spokcn ol Mary as bcing lumpy and
marshmallowwhitc, and Franccs had dclcndcd crccly. . . .
Tcrcs no usc our discussing a ccrtain party. You could not
possibly undcrstand hcr. !ts just not in you. Shc had said that
oncc bclorc to 8crcnicc, and lrom thc suddcn ladcd stillncss in
hcr cyc shc kncw that thc words had hurt. (15051)
For thc rst timc in thc novcl, Frankic prcparcs hcr own lood, and, not
coincidcntally, thc mcal is lor hcr and Mary Littlcjohn, who has supplantcd
8crcnicc. Marys surnamc (pcrhaps Frankic has lound hcr ncw namc lor
hoppingjohn:) associatcs both girls at thc cnd ol thc novcl with whitcncss,
lor it was littlc John Hcnry who, as wcvc sccn, was associatcd throughout
thc tcxt with whitc idcntity. 8crcniccs conspicuous dislikc lor Mary lurthcr
undcrscorcs hcr distancc lrom Frankic at thc cnd ol thc novcl.
!n particular, it is Mary Littlcjohns whitcncss that ocnds: Frankic
had dclcndcd |Mary| crccly against 8crcniccs asscrtion that Mary was
lumpy and marshmallowwhitc. 8crcnicc sccms to objcct to thc rcjcction ol
thc black world that Frankics ncw lricndship rcprcscnts. Frankics asscrtion
that 8crcnicc could not possibly undcrstand Mary Littlcjohn ironically
symbolizcs Frankics growth in thc coursc ol thc novcl, a growth that will
rcgistcr only altcr shc lorsakcs hcr rclationship with 8crcnicc.
Tc nal lincs ol thc novcl rcvcal thc cxtcnt to which Frankics idcntity
rcmains lragmcntcd, yct shc has rcdircctcd hcr scarch lor wholcncss to
thc whitc world cxclusivc ol 8crcnicc: ! am simply mad about 8ut
thc scntcncc was lclt unnishcd lor thc hush was shattcrcd whcn, with
an instant shock ol happincss, shc hcard thc ringing ol thc bcll (153).
Frankic no longcr associatcs hcr lragmcntation with 8crcnicc, rathcr, at thc
conclusion ol thc novcl shc has rcjcctcd hcr union with hcr mammy in lavor
ol a possiblc wholcncss in hcr rclationship with Mary Littlcjohn. At thc
cnd, wc nd 8crcnicc at thc margins ol Frankics consciousncss and, as cvcr,
at thc margins ol southcrn socicty. No longcr romanccd by an cxoticizcd
black world, Frankic participatcs in 8crcniccs marginalization at thc novcls
conclusion and gains a whitc idcntity as a rcsult. Tc proccss rcccts thc
rcality ol southcrn childhood lor middlc and uppcrclass whitcs through
thc cnd ol Jim Crow who almost invariably grcw up to lcavc black mammics
bchind, rcccting thc rcality ol thc largcr Amcrican culturc.
ouniv Livvs
Likc Te Member of the Wedding, Harpcr Lccs To Kill a Mockingbird
conlronts thc opprcssion ol blacks in thc modcrn South, with Spcnccrs Voice
and Shirlcy Annc Graus Te Keepers of the House, it commcnts upon thc civil
Carson McCullcrs and Harpcr Lcc xplorc Racial Unccrtainty 109
rights movcmcnt lrom an ostcnsibly libcral position within southcrn socicty.
Atticus Finchs lcgal dclcnsc ol Tom Robinson, a local black man wrongly
accuscd ol raping a whitc woman, parallcls his daughtcr Scouts growing
undcrstanding ol thcir mystcrious ncighbor, Arthur Radlcy. Tc didactic
impcrativcs ol thc novcl cmcrgc lrom thc intcrworkings ol thc two narrativcs:
Lcc tics Scouts curiosity about Radlcy (whom Scout calls 8oo) to Atticuss
dclcnsc ol Robinson. Scouts moral dcvclopmcnt in thc coursc ol thc novcl
comcs largcly lrom Atticus, whom Lcc dcpicts as a modcrn and cnlightcncd
southcrn gcntlcman. Atticus instructs through his intcractions with black
culturc and in particular through his pro bono dclcnsc ol Robinson. Lcc
portrays Tom Robinson, thc namcsakc ol Harrict 8ccchcr Stowcs Tom, as
thc maligncd victim who can only bc savcd by Atticus, patcr lamilias in this
southcrn socicty.
Vhilc Scout initially assumcs 8oo to bc a lascivious dcmon haunting
hcr ncighborhood, by thc cnd ol thc novcl shc has rcmovcd him lrom this
csscntializcd position and comc to scc him outsidc such conncs. Just as thc
townspcoplc typc Tom Robinson as a mcnacc, Scout, hcr brothcr, Jcm, and
thcir lricnd ill vicw 8oo Radlcy as a bogcyman, at onc point daring onc
anothcr to go as closc as possiblc to his housc. !n thc cnd, 8oo bccomcs an
ironic mctaphor lor whitc undcrstanding ol blacks in thc novcl, givcn thc
whitcncss with which hc is so strongly associatcd.
Tc childrcn initially undcrstand 8oo only through thc storics thcy havc
bccn told: likc Tom Robinson, 8oo is suspcctcd ol abcrrant scxual bchavior
and blamcd lor Maycombs morc bizarrc crimcs. Vhcn thc citizcns ol thc
town bcgin to nd thcir chickcns and pcts mutilatcd, thcy blamc 8oo, and
though thc actual culprit is latcr lound, pcoplc still lookcd at thc Radlcy Placc,
unwilling to discard thcir initial suspicions (9). Such suspicions, ol coursc,
mirror thosc whitcs havc ol thc black community, and Lcc dcmonstratcs thc
ways in which Scout lcarns to ovcrcomc hcr basclcss lcars ol 8oo cvcn as hcr
lathcr dcmonstratcs Toms innoccncc to all Maycomb.
Scout comcs to undcrstand blackncss through hcr rclationship with
hcr black mammy, Calpurnia. Likc Frankic Addams, Scout sccks solacc
and sclldcnition in hcr mammy, who, likc 8crcnicc, scrvcs as a matcrnal
gurc in thc abscncc ol a biological mothcr. 8lack mammics ll thc abscnccs
in thcir domcstic spaccs, but thc protagonists comc to associatc blackncss
with a passivity that hardly thrcatcns thc stasis ol thc whitc domcstic spacc.
Calpurnia is moral guidc lor Scout, but hcr guidancc largcly rcarms thc
whitc social ordcr within which shc is cmploycd. Vhcn, lor instancc, Scout
is rudc to Valtcr Cunningham, a poor whitc boy whom shc has invitcd to
cat with thc lamily, Calpurnia scts hcr chargc straight: Yo lolks might
bc bcttcrn thc Cunninghams but it dont count lor nothin thc way yourc
disgracin cmil you cant act t to cat at thc tablc you can just sct hcrc
Jc Abcrnathy 110
and cat in thc kitchcn! (27). Calpurnias scnsc ol propricty lalls salcly
within thc paramctcrs ol patriarchal whitc culturc, in this, shc contrasts with
McCullcrss 8crcnicc, whosc matriarchal rclugc ocrs an cxotic modcl ol
lcmininc scxuality.
!n Scouts supcrstitions, wc nd a movcmcnt toward a black world
that Calpurnia would disallow. Vhcn, lor cxamplc, Scout and Jcm discuss
thc supcrstitions surrounding Hot Stcams, thc warm spaccs in thc air that
arc rcputcd to bc spirits who cant gct to hcavcn, Scout rcmcmbcrs that
Calpurnia dismisscd thc idca as niggcrtalk (41). Tc idca appcals to thc
childrcn noncthclcss, just as blackncss and thc possibility ol intcrracial union
intrigucs thcm. !l wc cncountcr Jcm spcnding his days rcading thc spccchcs
ol Hcnry Grady, thc Ncw South hc cnvisions will bc rathcr dicrcnt lrom
that ol thc cditor ol thc Atlanta Constitution: lor Lcc, as lor McCullcrs,
blackncss cmcrgcs as thc catalyst lor thc moral growth ol a whitc protagonist.
Lcc, howcvcr, dcncs that idcntity within thc narrow conncs ol whitc
pcrccption.
Still, thc novcls multiplc voiccs allow thc rcadcr to glimpsc thc
broadcr possibilitics. Vhcn Calpurnia takcs Scout and Jcm to hcr church,
thc narrativc momcntarily cscapcs a whitc pcrspcctivc and thc concomitant
rcjcction ol black idcntity. 8ccausc ol thc controvcrsy surrounding Tom
Robinsons arrcst, somc ol thc church mcmbcrs arc rcluctant to acccpt thc
whitc childrcn:
! lclt Calpurnias hand dig into my shouldcr. Vhat you want,
Lula: shc askcd, in toncs ! had ncvcr hcard hcr usc. Shc spokc
quictly, contcmptuously.
! wants to know why you bringin whitc chillun to niggcr
church.
Tcys my compny, said Calpurnia. Again ! thought hcr
voicc strangc: shc was talking likc thc rcst ol thcm.
Ycah, an ! rcckon yous compny at thc Finch housc durin thc
wcck. (135)
Lulas challcngc to thc childrcn and Calpurnia rcccts black rcscntmcnt ol
thc whitc community in Maycomb and pcrhaps as wcll thc condcsccnsion
inhcrcnt in thc rolc Atticus Finch has madc lor himscll. Lula points to
thc incscapablc lact that Calpurnia lorgcts: though Cal carlicr calls Scout
and Jcm my childrcn, thcirs is primarily an cconomic arrangcmcnt (134).
Scouts surprisc at Calpurnias strangc voicc, now incctcd with hcr Alrican
Amcrican dialcct, rcprcscnts hcr rcmovc lrom this black world. Tc spccial
wclcomc thc childrcn rcccivc lrom thc pastor only scrvcs to isolatc thcm
lurthcr lrom thc congrcgation.
Carson McCullcrs and Harpcr Lcc xplorc Racial Unccrtainty 111
Still, thc childrcn comc to rccognizc thc mcmbcrs ol thc black
community as individuals outsidc ol thc csscntializing gazc ol whitcs. Scout
and Jcm cxprcss thcir surprisc whcn thc town garbagc collcctor, Zccbo, lcads
thc congrcgation in a hymn. For thc Finch childrcn, Zccbo thus cmcrgcs as
an individual capablc ol a complcxity thcy could not havc imagincd carlicr.
As thcy lcavc thc church, Scout ycarns to stay and cxplorc, hcr curiosity
having bccn piqucd by this cncountcr with blackncss, but Calpurnia wont
allow it (140). Scout rcmains cntranccd: Vhy do you talk niggcrtalk to
thcto your lolks whcn you know its not right: (143). Scouts curiosity
and surprisc at Calpurnias modcst doublc lilc lcads hcr to dcsirc a bond
with Calpurnia outsidc thc whitc world in which thcy havc lunctioncd
prcviously, much likc thc bond shc will ultimatcly lorm with 8oo Radlcy
(143). For Scout thcrc is an cnthralling mystcry in blackncss itscll that shc
will rcturn to throughout thc novcl, and thc doublcncss shc now pcrccivcs
is Amcrican lilc itscll, always charactcrizcd by a multilaycrcd racial idcntity,
Calpurnias dcnials notwithstanding.
Scout intcrrogatcs racc as thc novcl unlolds, sccking to undcrstand
thc mystcry ol thc black world at thc cdgcs ol Maycomb. As shc bccomcs
incrcasingly awarc ol hcr lathcrs rolc in thc mcdiation bctwccn black and
whitc in Maycomb, shc qucstions him in thc languagc shc has adoptcd
lrom hcr schoolmatcs, asking: o you dclcnd niggcrs, Atticus: Tc
cxplanation Atticus ocrs Scout lor his dccision to rcprcscnt Tom Robinson
rcvcals his rolc as whitc patriarch. l coursc ! do, hc rcplics. ont say
niggcr, Scout. Tats common (85). Atticuss initial acccptancc ol thc word
points to thc position hc takcs in rcgard to Tom, whcrcas his insistcncc that
Scout not usc thc tcrm bccausc it is common dcmonstratcs his link to thc
traditional southcrn ctional rcprcscntations ol racc and class. Hc lorbids
Scout to usc thc word not bccausc it is dcgrading to blacks but bccausc it
rcccts poorly upon thc Finch lamily, which Atticus holds up as a bastion ol
southcrn pridc. Vhilc class is thc primary motivating lorcc lor Atticus, racc
will rcmain Scouts obscssion.
Lcc rclics hcavily upon numcrous convcntions ol southcrn litcraturc
that charactcrizc thc whitc Souths conlrontation with blackncss. Rcpcatcdly
in thcsc southcrn novcls wc cncountcr sccncs ol bcsct justicc in which a whitc
charactcr rcscucs an unjustly accuscd black man lrom ccrtain dcath at thc
hands ol an angry mob. As wc havc sccn, lizabcth Spcnccr cmploys irony in
just such a sccnc in Te Voice at the Back Door to rcvcal thc complcxity ol both
hcr whitc and black charactcrs as thcy rcsist thc csscntializing stcrcotypcs
that thc culturc lorccs upon thcm. Lcc, on thc othcr hand, dclivcrs thc
sccnc straight to thc rcadcr, inating thc traditional clichs with pathos.
Hcr approach anticipatcs thc pattcrn wc nd in popular southcrn novcls
lollowing hcr own.
Jc Abcrnathy 112
Altcr Atticus takcs a dclcnsivc position in lront ol thc Maycomb jail
whcrc Tom Robinson is bcing hcld, an angry mob conlronts him, intcnding
to lynch thc prisoncr. Vhcn thc mob dcmands to know il Tom is in thc jail,
Atticus coolly rcsponds that hc is, and hcs aslccp. ont wakc him up
(172). Not to bc put o by this patcrnal warning, thc mob prcsscs on, but
Scout ultimatcly thwarts thcir intcntions whcn shc quictly asks altcr thc son
ol onc mcmbcr ol thc mob. Hcr innoccncc amidst this racially chargcd sccnc
lcads him to call thc lynching o, yct Lccs hcavy scntimcnt undcrmincs thc
intcndcd wcight ol thc sccnc. Altcr thc mob has lclt, Tom calls to thcm on
thc strcct:
Mr. Finch:
A solt husky voicc camc lrom thc darkncss abovc: Tcy
gonc:
Atticus stcppcd back and lookcd up. Tcyvc gonc, hc said.
Gct somc slccp, Tom. Tcy wont bothcr you any morc. (176)
Atticus maintains his willingncss to sacricc himscll lor Tom Robinson, yct
hc has plainly cstablishcd a distancc bctwccn himscll and Tom which hc
makcs no cort to bridgc: Gct somc slccp, Tom, hc says. And whcn Jcm
worrics that thc mob might casily havc killcd his lathcr, Atticus rcsponds
in thc manncr ol Twains Coloncl Shcrburn: vcry mob in cvcry littlc
Southcrn town is always madc up ol pcoplc you knowdocsnt say much
lor thcm, docs it: (180). Tc cmotional distancc that Atticus cstablishcs
through his condcsccnsion is prcciscly thc samc as that which Scout will
cstablish bctwccn hcrscll and 8oo Radlcy at thc cnd ol thc novcl. Having
takcn hcr lcsson lrom hcr lathcr, Scout will spcak to 8oo, twcnty ycars hcr
scnior, as il hc wcrc a child.
Toms trial undcrscorcs thc thcmc ol intcrracial union cvcn as it
rcasscrts whitc hcgcmony in Maycomb. Sccrctly watching thc procccdings
lrom among thc blacks sitting in thc courtroom balcony, Jcm and Scout havc
bccomc likc Mr. olphus Raymond, thc whitc man who so lascinatcs Scout
bccausc hc chooscs to livc among blacks. Vhcn Jcm cxplains to Scout that
Raymonds childrcn arc to bc considcrcd Ncgrocs in thc tcrms ol thcir
southcrn culturc, Scout rccognizcs thc absurdity ol racial catcgorics: Vcll
how do you know wc aint Ncgrocs: shc asks (185). !t is a qucstion hc
cant conclusivcly answcr, sincc racc undcr such tcrms is inhcrcntly uid. Vc
will scc Atticuss two childrcn moving toward knowlcdgc ol thc absurdity ol
racial tcrms as thcy witncss thcir lathcrs dclcnsc ol Tom Robinson lrom thc
black gallcry.
Scout cvaluatcs Tom lrom hcr pcrch in thc balcony: Hc sccmcd to
bc a rcspcctablc Ncgro, and a rcspcctablc Ncgro would ncvcr go up into
Carson McCullcrs and Harpcr Lcc xplorc Racial Unccrtainty 113
somcbodys yard ol his own volition, as Mayclla wcll has accuscd him ol
doing (220). And Scout likcwisc nds Tom attractivc: Tom was a black
vclvct Ncgro, not shiny, but solt black vclvct. . . . !l hc had bccn wholc, hc
would havc bccn a nc spccimcn ol a man (220). Lcc convcys Scouts ability
to scc thc human traits that Tom posscsscs, cvcn as hcr languagc contradicts
such a vicw: Tom is no man on cqual looting with othcr mcn but rathcr a sort
ol laboratory animal, and a damagcd onc at that, givcn his limp arm. vcn
as hcr protagonist movcs closcr to a rccognition ol thc placc ol blackncss in
thc lormation ol hcr own idcntity, Lcc rcmovcs hcr black charactcrs lrom thc
rcalm ol humanity. !n thc cnd, thc marginal idcntity that so lascinatcs will
rcmain only as a moral mcasurc ol thc whitc charactcrs ol Maycomb.
Likc Stowcs Tom, Tom Robinson rcacts with indicrcncc to thc harsh
trcatmcnt hc rcccivcs. Hc is unablc to spcak out in thc lacc ol bittcr injusticc
throughout thc courtroom sccncs, in which wc discovcr him to havc bccn
uttcrly passivc during thc cvcnts that lcd to thc crimc ol which hc stands
accuscd.
2
Upon hcaring Toms dcscription ol thc cvcnts, Scout dccidcs that in
thcir own way, Tom Robinsons manncrs wcrc as good as Atticuss, a scnsiblc
cnough conclusion, lor Tom Robinson is Atticus Finchs black idcal (222).
Lamc, docilc, victimizcd, hc rcprcscnts thc black man that whitc libcrals
prop up timc and again in novcls that ostcnsibly call lor bcttcr trcatmcnt
ol Alrican Amcricans: hc is loil to thc novcls ccntral gurc ol masculinity,
Atticus. For Atticus, a lcmininc or politc masculinity is an cxprcssion ol
his rolc in southcrn gcntility, by contrast, thcsc samc charactcristics in Tom
dcmonstratc his passivity and his status as victim. Vhy wcrc you scarcd:
Atticus Finch asks altcr Tom has tcsticd. Mr. Finch, il you was a niggcr
likc mc, youd bc scarcd, too (223). Tom, it sccms, has lantasics ol his own
about whitc idcntity.
!n his summation, Atticus Finch dcbunks Maycombs csscntializcd
pcrccption ol blacks, arguing that thc statcs tcstimony against Tom Robinson
has bccn dcsigncd to play upon thc whitc jurys stcrcotypcs ol black bchavior
in thc cynical condcncc that thc jury would assumc that all Ncgrocs lic,
that all Ncgrocs arc basically immoral bcings, that all Ncgro mcn arc not to
bc trustcd around our womcn (233). Atticus associatcs such manipulation
on thc part ol thc statc with minds ol thcir calibcr, suggcsting again that
thc likcs ol 8ob wcll arc to blamc lor racism in thc South (233).
Atticus rcminds thc jury that this stcrcotypc ol blacks is unloundcd,
a lic as black as Tom Robinsons skin, a lic ! do not havc to point out
to you. You know thc truth, and thc truth is this: somc Ncgrocs lic, somc
Ncgrocs arc immoral, somc Ncgro mcn arc not to bc trustcd around
womcnblack or whitc. 8ut this is a truth that applics to thc human racc
and to no particular racc ol mcn. Tcrc is not a pcrson in this courtroom
Jc Abcrnathy 114
who has ncvcr told a lic, who has ncvcr donc an immoral thing (233). Tc
summation conrms Atticus as thc whitc patriarch wc havc always suspcctcd
him to bc, hc attcmpts to dcvclop and complicatc thc whitc communitys
vicw ol Alrican Amcricans by dcnying thc prcdominant stcrcotypc. Yct wc
scc hcrc thc sccds ol stcrcotypc as wcll: Atticus asscrts that thc lic is as black
as Tom Robinsons skin, ironically linking Tom with thc vcry stcrcotypc
lrom which hc ostcnsibly attcmpts to lrcc him. And though surcly Atticus
spcaks lor Lcc, shc crcatcs in Tom Robinson an aablc, compliant victim to
symbolizc thc prcdicamcnts ol southcrn blacks. Likc both Stowc and Twain
in thc prcvious ccntury, Lcc crcatcs a charactcr who poscs no thrcat to thc
dominant paradigm, allowing onc stcrcotypc to rcplacc anothcr.
Tc jury acts in a morc straightlorward manncr. For all ol Atticuss
plcading, thcy nd Tom guilty ol rapc. Vhcn thc black community
ncvcrthclcss rcvcrcs Atticus lor his corts to hclp Tom, wc scc thc nal
valuation ol whitc idcntity ovcr black that thc novcl has bccn moving toward
throughout. Tc contcmporary rcadcr may wcll sharc Scouts astonishmcnt
that thc loss ol Tom Robinsons casc rcsults not in black protcst but in black
adulation ol thc whitc lawycr. Sitting quictly in thc balcony in thc momcnts
altcr thc announccmcnt ol thc vcrdict, Scout marvcls whcn thc Alrican
Amcrican mcn and womcn around hcr stand to honor hcr lathcr as hc lcavcs
thc courtroom: ! lookcd around. Tcy wcrc standing. All around us and
in thc balcony on thc oppositc wall, thc Ncgrocs wcrc gctting to thcir lcct.
Rcvcrcnd Sykcs voicc was as distant as Judgc Taylors: Miss Jcan Louisc,
stand up. Your lathcrs passin (242). Maycombs black community sharcs
Tom Robinsons docilc naturc as wcll as his rcvcrcncc lor whitc idcntity,
wc nd that only rarcly in thc novcl docs a black charactcr brcak lrcc lrom
thc sort ol csscntializcd vicw ol racc that Atticus so cloqucntly dcnounccs.
Tc courtroom sccnc is a whitc lantasy ol black bchavior, in which thc black
community pays homagc to thc lailcd but noblc corts ol a libcral whitc
southcrncr, much as gcncrations ol rcadcrs ol Huckleberry Finn havc paid
homagc to Huck in cclcbrating his dccision to go to hcll and ovcrlooking his
lailurc to takc up rcsidcncc thcrc.
Vhcn, at thc cnd ol thc novcl, Scouts tcachcr announccs a pagcant lor
thc schoolchildrcn, shc chooscs Scout to portray an cxcccdingly appropriatc
Maycomb County agricultural product: a ham. Lcc is a bit ol a ham, too,
particularly in this nal scction, in which shc complctcs thc link bctwccn
8oo Radlcys plight and Tom Robinsons.
8ob wcll cmcrgcs as a sort ol whitc trash sacricc lor middlcclass
guilt. Vhcn wcll attacks Jcm and Scout on thcir way homc lrom thc
pagcant, 8oo Radlcy comcs upon thc sccnc and kills him. Scout latcr sccs
hcr savior in dctail, in contrast to thc stcrcotypcs shc had assigncd to him
carlicr in thc novcl.
Carson McCullcrs and Harpcr Lcc xplorc Racial Unccrtainty 115
Likc Tom Robinson, 8oo Radlcy is an outcast impaircd: his sickly
whitc hands (310) and thc dclicatc indcntations at his tcmplcs (311)
distinguish him lrom thc Finchcs, and thcsc charactcristics also lcad Scout
to takc a bcncvolcnt and nally patcrnalistic attitudc toward him. Scouts
avcrsion to 8oos whitcncsshis sickly whitc hands that stood out
garishly against thc dull crcam wall (310) rcmind us ol Paps shbclly
whitcrcccts on hcr discomlort with hcr own whitc idcntity, givcn what
shc has witncsscd in thc coursc ol thc novcl. 8ut thc condcsccnsion inhcrcnt
in hcr patcrnal stancc at thc cnd ol thc novcl bclics any such anxicty. At thc
cnd, Scout has rcturncd to a whitc world shc could ncvcr lully cscapc. Tc
control shc assumcs ovcr 8oo Radlcy parallcls that which Atticus takcs ovcr
Tom Robinson in court, and il both Atticus and Scout arc protcctivc ol thcir
chargcs, thcy also limit thcm with thcir condcsccnsion.
Ficuvvs i x 8i~cx
Carson McCullcrs and Harpcr Lcc cmploy lamiliar paramctcrs ol thc
rclationship bctwccn black and whitc in dcvcloping thcir whitc protagonists
through rclationships with Alrican Amcricans. Vhilc McCullcrs portrays
8crcnicc as an autonomous and complcx gurc, Lcc portrays Calpurnia as a
gurc cvcr ticd to thc patriarchal world hcadcd by Atticus Finch. Likc Tom
Robinson, Calpurnia mcrcly rcarms hcr chargcs whitc idcntity, whcrcas
8crcnicc cndcavors in vain to cncouragc Frankic to conrm an idcntity
within thc black world.
!n thc contcmporary pcriod, thc pattcrn has bccomc commonplacc,
and wc nd it in thc work ol southcrn writcrs ol nonction likc Annc Moody
(Coming of Age in Mississippi) and rskinc Caldwcll (In Search of Bisco) as
wcll as in thc work ol a wcalth ol southcrn novclists.
No:vs
1. 8crcniccs association ol John Hcnry with Hcnry Ford subtly criticizcs whitc
idcntity as wcll: throughout thc novcl, John Hcnry acts as an agcnt provocatcur lor whitc
idcntity, sincc hc docs not sharc Frankics idcntication with blackncss and is much closcr
in charactcr to Frankics lathcr than to 8crcnicc.
2. Tom Robinson is implausibly passivc in his courtroom dcscription ol his latclul
mccting with Mayclla wcll:
Tc witncss swallowcd hard. Shc rcachcd up an kisscd mc sidc ol th lacc.
Shc says shc ncvcr kisscd a grown man bclorc an shc might as wcll kiss a
niggcr. Shc says what hcr papa do to hcr dont count. Shc says, Kiss mc back,
niggcr. ! say Miss Mayclla lcmmc outa hcrc an tricd to run but shc got hcr
back to thc door an !da had to push hcr. ! didnt wanta harm hcr, Mr. Finch,
Jc Abcrnathy 116
an ! say lcmmc pass, but just whcn ! say it Mr. wcll yondcr hollcrcd through
th window.
Vhat did hc say:
Tom Robinson swallowcd again, and his cycs widcncd. Somcthin not
ttin to saynot ttin lor thcsc lolksn chillun to hcar
Vhat did hc say, Tom: You must tcll thc jury what hc said.
Tom Robinson shut his cycs tight. Hc says you goddamn whorc, !ll kill ya.
Tcn what happcncd:
Mr. Finch, ! was runnin so last ! didnt know what happcncd. (222)
117
From Southern Quarterly 42, no. 4 (Summcr 2004): pp. 107114. 2004 by thc Univcrsity ol
Southcrn Mississippi.
J NN! F R MURRAY
Approaching Community in Carson McCullerss
Tc Hcart !s a Loncly Huntcr
The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter givcs us a day, a ycar, and a day in thc livcs ol
vc distinct charactcrs: Singcr, Mick, 8rannon, 8lount, and r. Copcland.
Tcir livcs arc shot through with lrustration and discouragcmcnt and thc
intcnsc privacy ol thcir inncr livcs givcs thc rcadcr thc imprcssion that thcy
arc isolatcd, loncly bcings. Howcvcr, thc lrustrations thcy cxpcricncc arc
most oltcn a product ol thcir vcry passionatc attcmpts to lollow thcir dcsircs
or convictions. Morcovcr, McCullcrs cmploys scvcral dcviccs which work
against thc scnsc ol lonclincss and which lcnd a tcnuous scnsc ol unity, an
cchoing ol scnsibility, to thc discrctc voiccs ol thc charactcrs.
Tc vcry rcal ambiguitics which structurc our pcrccption ol thc
livcs ol thc charactcrs ol Lonely Hunter havc givcn risc to vastly dicring
opinions on thc novcls mcaning and on Carson McCullcrss conclusions
conccrning human rclationships: livcr vans, lor cxamplc, suggcsts that
what |McCullcrs| conccivcs to bc thc truth about human naturc is a
mclancholy truth: cach man is surroundcd by a zonc ol lonclincss, scrving
a lilc scntcncc ol solitary conncmcnt (Clark 126). L. . Rubin, Jr. ocrs
thc samc vicw in thc lorm ol a complaint: |nc would think| that so rarc
a talcnt lor obscrving and undcrstanding and lccling compassion lor othcrs
would producc somcthing othcr than thc anguishcd conviction ol cmptincss
and solitudc (Clark 117). At thc samc timc, many rcadcrs ol Lonely Hunter
Jcnnilcr Murray 118
havc cxprcsscd a scnsc ol thc bcauty ol thc cxpcricncc ol rcading thc novcl,
a lccling which thc trajcctorics ol thc charactcrs, and thc cvcnts ol thc story,
cannot account lor. arly rcvicwcrs such as Richard Vright wrotc ol thc
novcls shccn ol wcird tcndcrncss (Clark 17), and statcd that onc puts thc
novcl down with a lccling ol having bccn nourishcd by thc truth (Clark
20). Julian Symons ocrs thc vicw that McCullcrss poctic vision allows
hcr to translorm our common lonclincss into somcthing rich and strangc
(Clark 22).
Tc unilying clcmcnts ol thc novcl which constitutc this poctic vision
do not, ! would arguc, cxist at thc lcvcl ol individual charactcrization, but arc
dcploycd in tcrms ol symbolic rcprcscntation, structurc, and narrativc voicc.
Tcy arc disscminatcd, not within thc dicgcsis, but within thc narration
takcn as a wholc, and thcy implicitly providc thc rcadcr with an imaginativc
spacc in which to conccivc ol a lcss compartmcntalizcd cxistcncc than thc
dcpiction ol any ol thc individual livcs can ocr.
Tc thirdpcrson narrating voicc, which adopts thc pcrspcctivc ol cach
charactcr in turn, is onc ol thc most ccctivc unilying dcviccs ol thc novcl.
Vhilc thc point ol vicw is intcrnal and thcrclorc pcrsonal, thc thirdpcrson
tcchniquc rctains a slight distancc, and dcvclops an intcrmcshing ol voiccs.
nc ol thc ways in which it docs this is through a carclul construction ol
thc tcmporal dimcnsion ol thc novcl. Timc in Lonely Hunter is sccn cithcr as
unrcala sort ol lairytalc oncc upon a timc spacc (part 1, chaptcrs 1 and
6)or as bclonging to thc cyclcs ol natural timc, giving us charactcrs who
arc shown in thc spacc ol a day (part 1, chaptcrs 25), a ycar (part 2), and a
day (part 3). 8oth ol thcsc modcs ol rcprcscnting timc suggcst a tcmporal
ordcr which is morc symbolic than historical and which is thcrclorc morc
casily acccssiblc to rcadcr idcntication.
A languagc ol thc unspccic undcrscorcs this symbolic dimcnsion,
thc rst lincs ol thc novcl arc: !n thc town, thcrc wcrc two mutcs, and
thcy wcrc always togcthcr. arly cvcry morning thcy would comc out lrom
thc housc whcrc thcy livcd and walk arm in arm down thc strcct to work.
Tc prcscntation ol placca townand ol timccvcry morningis
such that thcy could bc anywhcrc and in any pcriod in history. Tc phrascs
always togcthcr and arm in arm suggcst thc closcncss and harmony that
rcign bctwccn thc two charactcrs who arc oltcn rclcrrcd to simply as thc
mutcs. Tcy arc charactcrs who partakc ol vcryman, a duo ol oppositcs
whosc rclationship parallcls thc macrocosmic structurc ol thc novcl and,
simultancously, |thcy rcprcscnt| thc pcrsonality ol mythic modcrn man
caught up in that macrocosm (Shcrrill 14).
Tc lairytalc quality ol thc opcning scction is rcinlorccd cvcn as thc
spccic rcalistic aspccts ol thc narration bccomc dcnscr. Tc domcstic lilc ol
Approaching Community in McCullcrss Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter 119
Singcr and Antonapoulos dcscribcd in thc lollowing passagc, lor cxamplc,
rcminds us ol thc housc ol thc Trcc 8cars:
n thc oil stovc in thc kitchcn Antonapoulos cookcd all ol thcir
mcals. Tcrc wcrc straight, plain kitchcn chairs lor Singcr and an
ovcrstucd sola lor Antonapoulos. Tc bcdroom was lurnishcd
mainly with a largc doublc bcd covcrcd with an cidcrdown
comlortcr lor thc big Grcck and a narrow iron cot lor Singcr.
(23)
Furthcrmorc, thc pcacclul coursc ol thc livcs ol Singcr and Antonapoulos
will mcct with disruption. !t comcs in thc lorm ol illncss: Tcn onc day
thc Grcck bccamc ill (4). Tc nal blow is carricd out by thc wickcd Grcck
unclc who scnds Antonapoulos away to an asylum. Tc novcl is not a lairy
talc, but it lcans on thc languagc ol thc talc in its opcning momcnts so as to
takc thc mcaning attributcd to Singcr and his story bcyond thc pcrsonal and
into thc symbolic.
Following on lrom thc prcscntation ol Singcr, cach ol thc charactcrs
is introduccd in succcssion within thc samc day. !n this way, thcy arc
linkcd togcthcr, lor thc pcrspcctivc ol cach charactcr must bc prcscntcd in
turn to complctc thc choscn cyclc ol timc, which is cxactly onc day. Tis
day, paradoxically, bcgins at midnight: n a black, sultry night in carly
summcr 8i 8rannon stood bchind thc cash rcgistcr ol thc Ncw York Cal.
!t was twclvc oclock (10). 8rannon is introduccd in his rolc as obscrvcr
ol humanity, watching ovcr thc wrctchcd souls ol thc night, thc lost and
dcspcratc, ocring his cal as a rampart against thc absolutc solitudc ol thc
dark hours.
His introductory chaptcr cnds as hc lalls aslccp at dawn with Tc hard
ycllow rays ol thc sun |coming| in through thc window so that thc room was
hot and bright (27). Tc sun providcs thc transition to thc ncxt charactcrs
story which bcgins Tc sun wokc Mick carly (27). Tc pcnctrating and
somcwhat harsh rays ol thc sun providc thc common clcmcnt bctwccn onc
charactcr nding slccp and anothcr bcing rouscd lrom it.
Not light but sound providcs thc shilt bctwccn Jakc 8lounts chaptcr
to that ol r. Copcland. n pagc 59, as carly cvcning cnds and 8lount is
scttling to stay with Singcr lor a lcw days, wc rcad, From alar o thcrc was
thc solt, silvcr ring ol church bclls. Tc samc bclls ladc out ol hcaring scvcral
lincs latcr: Far lrom thc main strcct, in onc ol thc Ncgro scctions ol thc
town, octor 8cncdict Mady Copcland sat in his dark kitchcn alonc. !t was
past ninc oclock and thc Sunday bclls wcrc silcnt now (60).
No timc is lclt unaccountcd lor as thc narrator blcnds togcthcr imagcs
and sounds lrom thc closc ol onc charactcrs cnvironmcnt to thc opcning ol thc
Jcnnilcr Murray 120
ncxt, so that cvcn as thc loncly imagc ol r. Copcland in his kitchcn marks thc
rcadcr, thcrc is an attcnuation ol thc ncgativc impact ol this imagc through thc
linking ol thcir worlds.
1
r. Copcland, wc lccl, is not cntircly alonc, bccausc
thc bclls hc hcars arc hcard by othcrs, and thc sun which shincs on 8rannon
shincs also on Mick. Tc charactcrs unawarcncss ol thc synchronicity ol othcr
happcnings in thc town docs not prcvcnt thc rcadcrs (unconscious) pcrccption
ol it, and it is thc rcadcr who thcn bcgins to scc conncctions and to projcct a
lorm ol community onto thcsc charactcrs livcs.
Tc novcls sccond part covcrs just a ycar in timc and thcrcby allows
lor thc cxploration ol thc charactcrs in thcir hopcs and aspirations ovcr a
signicant pcriod. Similar transition tcchniqucs to thosc dcscribcd carlicr arc
uscd, but thc cccts arc, at timcs, morc cxtcnsivc. At thc start ol Fcbruary, wc
arc in thc prcscncc ol r. Copcland, and thc narrator givcs us a dcscription
ol a changc in thc wcathcr:
Tcn altcr a lcw days winter was upon thc town again. Tc mild
skies darkened. A chill rain fell and thc air turned dank and bittcrly
cold. !n thc town thc Ncgrocs sucrcd badly. Supplics ol lucl had
bccn cxhaustcd and thcrc was a strugglc cvcrywhcrc lor warmth.
An cpidcmic ol pncumonia ragcd through thc wct, narrow strccts,
and lor a wcck octor Copcland slcpt at odd hours, lully clothcd.
Still no word camc lrom Villiam. (215, cmphasis addcd)
Hcrc, thc voicc ol thc narrator givcs us changcs in thc wcathcr which arc
prcscntcd, not lrom thc point ol vicw ol any ol thc charactcrs in particular,
but as gcncral truths in which thc wintcr, thc skics, thc rain, and thc air
arc in thc subjcct position ol thc phrascs. Similar to lairy talc dcscription,
thc prcscntation ol thc wcathcr suggcsts that its cccts will bc gcncral
and undiscriminating within thc black community which is thc locus ol
thc narrators discoursc at this point. Vhilc thc rcadcr rcmains awarc that
thc sucring ol thc black community is largcly a rcsult ol thc povcrty and
thc miscry ol thcir living conditions, thcrc is noncthclcss a scnsc ol sharcd
strugglc which inlorms thc dcscription.
Timc advanccs, and wccks latcr, r. Copclands daughtcr Portia brings
ncws ol Villic. Shc rcsituatcs thc ncws so that thc rcadcr undcrstands that it
rclcrs back to thc onsct ol thc wintcr wcathcr:
!t wcrc about six wccks ago, Portia said. You rcmcmbcr that
cold spcll thcn. Tcy put Villic and thcm boys in this room likc
icc . . . and thcir lccts swollcd up and thcy lay thcrc and strugglc
on thc oor and hollcr out. And nobody comc. Tcy hollcrcd
thcrc lor thrcc days and thrcc nights and nobody comc. (217)
Approaching Community in McCullcrss Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter 121
Tc rcsult is that Villics lcct lrcczc and arc amputatcd. Tc sucring
cndurcd by thc poor, black community during thc cold wintcr months is
amplicd in its symbolic scopc whcn it bccomcs thc ally ol a grcatcr cruclty:
thc torturc ol a human bcing. Tc blankct ol cold ovcr thc town bccomcs
thc cohcring lactor against which thc community ol thc opprcsscd must
strugglc, but also, a catalyst lor thc rcadcrs lcclings ol cmpathy. Vhcrcas a
gcncral situation appcals to our scnsc ol humanity on an intcllcctual lcvcl, a
particular cxamplc, through thc onctoonc idcntication which it provokcs,
makcs a morc cmotional appcal to our scnsitivity.
Tis dialoguc bctwccn thc gcncral and thc particular is an important
structuring lorcc in thc charactcrization in thc novcl. nc might rcasonably
suggcst that McCullcrss choicc ol hcr vc main charactcrs is an attcmpt to
rcprcscnt human socicty. Tis rcprcscntation is partial and biascd, with an
ovcrwhclming prcscncc ol middlcagcd malc gurcs, but it is noncthclcss
widcranging. Tc oppositcs ol youth and agc arc rcprcscntcd by Mick and
r. Copcland, lcmalc and malc by Mick and thc lour othcrs, as wcll as lorms
ol androgyny rcprcscntcd by Mick and 8rannon
2
, workingclass and small
busincssman in 8lount and 8rannon, black and whitc in r. Copcland and
thc lour othcrs.
3
n onc lcvcl, thcrclorc, thc charactcrs arc rcprcscntativc ol
various social, scxual, and racial positions, and thc lailurc ol thcir individual
qucsts lor mcaning suggcsts that thc causcs ol disillusionmcnt cannot bc
rcstrictcd to any givcn position, sincc all cxpcricncc discouragcmcnt and
disillusion.
Yct McCullcrs docs not rcducc cvcrything to onc and thc samc,
whcrc thc choicc ol charactcrs, through its partial rcprcscntation ocrs thc
lramcwork ol thc gcncral, thc individuality ol thc charactcrization givcs
voicc to thc spccicity ol human livcs. Jakc 8lount, lor instancc, bclicvcs in
thc idcals ol communism and strivcs to raisc thc consciousncss ol thc workcrs
ol thc town. Similarly, r. Copcland dcsircs lor his lcllow mcmbcrs ol thc
black community to rccognizc thc opprcssion to which thcy arc subjcctcd and
to ght against it. Tcir goals arc similar in structurc and arc rclatcd, but thc
dicrcnt locuscs ol thcir strugglcscconomic and racialarc important, as
arc thcir prolcsscd mcans ol achicving thcir goals. 8lount advocatcs workcr
solidarity and social strugglc, whcrcas Copcland is convinccd that salvation
lics csscntially in thc cducation and lormation ol luturc gcncrations. Togcthcr,
thcy ocr thc rcadcr thc possibility ol idcntilying with thc dcsirc lor social
advanccmcnt and commitmcnt to thc common good. Paradoxically, thc
novcl also cxoncratcs thc rcadcr lrom any rcal cngagcmcnt ol this naturc
sincc all thc corts ol thcsc two mcn comc to nothing concrctc.
Micks driving dcsircs arc morc pcrsonal, as arc 8rannons. Tcsc
charactcrs rcprcscnt thc nccd lor pcrsonal lulllmcnt: Mick through artistic
cndcavors, and music in particular. Vhcn Mick sits listcning to music by
Jcnnilcr Murray 122
8ccthovcn, shc lccls that it cncompasscs cvcrything and abolishcs timc: Tc
wholc world was this music and shc could not listcn hard cnough! . . . Tis
music did not takc a long timc or a short timc. !t did not havc anything to
do with timc going by at all (100). Trough a plcasurc savorcd alonc, Mick
lccls transportcd bcyond thc limits ol hcr objcctivc scll: !t was likc shc could
knock down all thc walls ol thc housc and thcn march through thc strcct big
as a giant (214). Micks young agc givcs hcr an intcnsity ol cxprcssion which
is lar morc attcnuatcd in 8rannon. Yct hc, too, savors individual plcasurcs,
lantasy worlds and qucstioning:
Along with thc Agua Florida hc lound in thc closct a bottlc ol
lcmon rinsc Alicc had always uscd lor hcr hair. nc day hc tricd
it on himscll. Tc lcmon madc his dark, whitcstrcakcd hair
sccm uy and thick. Hc likcd it. . . . Ccrtain whims that hc had
ridiculcd in Alicc wcrc now his own. Vhy: (19293)
Trough thcsc two charactcrs, thc novcl addrcsscs thc sccrct dcsircs ol thc
rcadcr, thosc dcsircs which lall outsidc ol thc dcmands ol socicty and arc
nurturcd in solitudc.
csirc, howcvcr, is not ncccssarily lovc, and contrary to what thc titlc
ol thc novcl might suggcst, what thc loncly hcarts ol thc story arc looking
lor is not primarily romantic lovc. For most ol thcm, it is quitc plainly a
nonqucstion. Tis is not thc casc, howcvcr, lor Singcr whosc dccp lovc and
attachmcnt to a spccic pcrson is his onc sustaining dcsirc. All clsc is killing
timc. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak dcscribcs thc rclationship bctwccn thcm as
a human rclationship ol lovc and scxuality at lurthcst rcmovc lrom socallcd
normal rclationships. . . . !t is an unconsummatcd and, indccd, scxually
unacknowlcdgcd rclationship bctwccn two dcalmutc malc homoscxuals ol
complctcly incompatiblc pcrsonalitics (133). Singcrs lovc lor Antonapoulos
is spccic, absolutc, nontranslcrablc and bcyond cxplanation: Somctimcs
hc thought ol Antonapoulos with awc and scllabascmcnt, somctimcs with
pridcalways with lovc unchcckcd by criticism, lrccd ol will. Vhcn hc
drcamcd at night thc lacc ol his lricnd was always bclorc him, massivc and
gcntlc. And in his waking thoughts thcy wcrc ctcrnally unitcd (276). Vhcn
Antonapoulos dics, Singcr is unablc to invcst his lovc/dcsirc clscwhcrc (his
bricl contact with othcr dcalmutcs altcr Antonapouloss dcath lcavcs him
lccling tcrribly isolatcd |279|) and hc chooscs dcath.
Tc rcadcr wondcrs what thc ccct ol Singcrs dcath will bc on thosc
who havc comc to dcpcnd on him, lor hc is thcir sort ol homcmadc God,
according to 8rannon (198). Tcrc is, howcvcr, a lundamcntal dicrcncc
bctwccn Singcr and thc othcrs: whcrcas Singcrs wholc bcing is invcstcd in
his imaginary construction ol a pcrlcct Antonapoulos, whosc happincss is
Approaching Community in McCullcrss Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter 123
Singcrs principal sourcc ol satislaction, thc othcrs arc not rcally conccrncd
with Singcrs happincss. Tcir rclationship to him is morc akin to that ol
thc paticnt and thc psychiatrist, a sitc ol projcction and translcr, whcrc
inncr conicts may bc aircd and workcd on. !n losing Singcr, thcy arc (only)
losing a carclul listcncr, not thc rcccptaclc ol all ol thcir lovc and pcrsonal
invcstmcnt.
Covcring just a daya day in which Singcr is no morcthc nal
chaptcrs ol thc novcl attcst to thc rcsilicncc ol thc charactcrs pcrsonalitics.
Tcir livcs arc not any simplcr, and, ccrtainly, onc could casily build a casc
showing that thcir spirits havc bccn bcatcn. Klaus Lubbcrs, lor cxamplc,
chooscs to quotc that r. Copcland lcavcs town cxhaustcd and sick in
spirit and that Jakc will lorcvcr bc a strangcr in a strangc land (192). 8ut
McCullcrs also ocrs lorms ol optimism which suggcst an altcrnativc rcading:
8lount will go o to anothcr town in scarch ol ncw workcrs to prcach to, lor
|thcrc| was hopc in him, and soon pcrhaps thc outlinc ol his journcy would
takc lorm (299). !n spitc ol his lailing hcalth and rcgular discouragcmcnt,
r. Copcland has not lost thc dcsirc to ght lor black cquality: Tc words
in his hcart grcw big and thcy would not bc silcnt (287). Mick is rcsigncd
to a job as a cashicr, but hcr youth and cnthusiasm, cxprcsscd in hcr nal
wordsAll right! .K.! Somc good (302)allow thc rcadcr to supposc
that shc will nd ncw dcsircs, ncw journcys ol hcr own.
Finally, 8rannon, who ncvcr stops qucstioning lilc (Vhy: Tc
qucstion owcd through 8i always, unnoticcd, likc thc blood in his vcins
|190|) comcs to a tcntativc lccling ol having gaincd somc suddcn scnsc ol
undcrstanding: For in a swilt radiancc ol illumination hc saw a glimpsc
ol human strugglc and ol valor. l thc cndlcss uid passagc ol humanity
through cndlcss timc. And ol thosc who labor and ol thosc whoonc
wordlovc. His soul cxpandcd (306). Howcvcr, 8rannons nal thoughts
also havc thcir darkcr sidc, lor along with this glimpsc ol lovc comcs tcrror,
a tcrror which throttlcs and dclorms him: Swcat glistcncd on his tcmplcs
and his lacc was contortcd (306). vcn as 8rannons intcllcct scizcs upon
somc ncw, morc cnriching way ol bcing, his cmotional dclcnscs arc alrcady
cxprcssing thcir rcsistancc to translormation.
Tcrc is hopc in Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter, but most ol all, thcrc
is ambivalcncc in thc cndings ol thcsc charactcrs pcrsonal voyagcs. Tc
novcl may bc rcad as dcspcratcly pcssimistic or laintly hopclul, as a parablc
on thc incvitablc lrustrations ol human hopc and dcsirc, or as a tcntativc
tributc to thc rcsistancc ol thc human spirit. No ccrtaintics about 8rannons
luturc or thc luturc ol any ol thc othcr charactcrs arc ocrcd. !ndccd, cvcn
considcrcd in its positivc clcmcnts, 8i 8rannons momcnt ol rcvclation at
thc novcls closc is rathcr puzzling. !t may suggcst that thcrc is a lorm ol
lovc to bc rcachcd lor which lics bcyond thc social and thc pcrsonal. Tc
Jcnnilcr Murray 124
rcgistcr ol lccling cxprcsscd in 8rannons pcrccption ol thc cndlcss uid
passagc ol humanity through cndlcss timc (306) would bc cohcrcnt with
thc occanic lccling dcscribcd by Frcud in Civilisation and Its Discontents.
4

Frcud dcscribcs this lccling as an imprcssion ol limitlcssncss and ol a bond
with thc univcrsc, in which thc individuals pcrccption ol thc boundarics
bctwccn scll and othcr might bc tcmporarily caccd, lcaving thcm with a
suddcn scnsc ol bcing at onc with thc world. !l this occanic lccling wcrc
indccd thc contcnt ol thc awkwardly statcd onc wordlovc ol McCullcrss
tcxt, it would bc hard to undcrstand what could bc lrightcning about it,
sincc by dcnition, it is outsidc political and individual action, closcr in its
structurc to an allcmbracing Christian attitudc ol brothcrly lovc.
!t may bc worth looking back to Singcr to undcrstand 8rannons
momcnt ol illuminationpcrhaps thc imagc ol Singcr paticntly listcning to
thc lrustrations ol his lricnds might awakc in 8rannon a grcatcr awarcncss
ol thc intcrconncctcdncss ol human livcs. Yct, il Singcr witncsscs, hc docs
not bcar witncss, nor docs hc transmit anything to anyonc clsc, apart lrom
Antonapoulos who sccms cithcr unablc to undcrstand what hc is bcing told,
or is complctcly indicrcnt to it. Conccrning his rclationship with 8lount
and Copcland, Singcr lccls that what thcy wantcd him to sanction hc did
not know and, thinking ol Mick, Singcr rcccts that shc said a good dcal
that hc did not undcrstand in thc lcast (275). Morcovcr, bclorc taking his
lilc, Singcr is not shown to givc a thought to any ol thosc who havc comc
to dcpcnd on his lricndship. !l 8rannons rcvclation ol lovc is bascd on
Singcrs lcclings towards thc townspcoplc, thcrc is somcthing ironic bcing
suggcstcd.
Tc undcniablc strcngth ol thc novcl is not, ! bclicvc, to bc lound in
thc livcs ol any ol thc charactcrs in particular. Tcrc is no kcy pcrspcctivc or
philosophy to bc discovcrcd in any ol thcir scparatc paths or choiccs. Rathcr,
thc novcls lorcc is in thc ovcrall movcmcnt ol cmpathy with sucring,
hardship, and lailurc, but also with lovc, companionship, and dcsirc that it
provokcs in thc rcadcr. McCullcrss narrator ocrs no transccndcntal valucs
against which to cvaluatc thc charactcrs, no judgmcnt ol thcir choiccs. Vc
arc givcn only thc unapologctic cxposurc ol thcir strcngths and wcakncsscs
and arc thcrcby placcd in a position ol undcrstanding towards thcm. Vc
idcntily with thcm not bccausc ol thcir agc, scx, color, or politics, but bccausc,
togcthcr, thcy crcatc thc ovcrall imprcssion ol a community ol rich, complcx
crcaturcs, and wc rccognizc thc dcsircs that animatc thcm: without hcr
drcam, which shc clings to so stubbornly . . . Mick would lack thc intcrcst
that shc has lor us, and ccrtainly thc samc is truc ol octor Copcland.
(vans, Carson McCullers 48).
Tis tcntativc scnsc ol community is supportcd by thc array ol
undcclarcd tcxtual stratcgics which ! havc undcrlincd throughout this cssay
Approaching Community in McCullcrss Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter 125
and which givc thc rcadcr an altcrnativc, morc positivc, pcrccption ol thc
story told. Tc rcsult is a ctional world into which wc, not unlikc thc
charactcrs in thcir subjcctivc constructions ol Singcr, might projcct our own
hcsitations, lrustrations, and aspirations, and lccl that our scnsibility thcrcin
nds its ccho. Likc thc various charactcrs who pcoplc thc night cal, wc
lccl (momcntarily) rcconcilcd to thc spacc wc sharc with a world ol divcrsc
othcrs.
No:vs
1. Tcsc dcviccs also includc thc rcpctition ol allitcratcd sounds such as From alar
o, a chiastic rcpctition ol Far lrom (5960).
2. Tc androgynous aspccts ol thc charactcrs Mick and 8rannon arc thc ccntral
conccrn ol Tactzschs articlc.
3. Morcovcr, sccondary charactcrs, such as Portia (adult woman), 8ubbcr, Ralph,
and 8aby (childrcn), Harry ( Jcwish), Simms (rcligious lanatic), add to this scnsc ol a
rcprcscntativc group.
4. A lccling which was rccountcd to Frcud by a lricnd and suggcstcd as thc origin
ol rcligious lccling.
Vovxs Ci :vb
Clark, 8cvcrly Lyon, and Mclvin J. Fricdman. Critical Essays on Carson McCullers. Ncw
York: Hall, 1996.
vans, livcr. Carson McCullers: Her Life and Work. London: Pctcr wcn, 1965.
.Tc Casc ol Carson McCullcrs. Clark 12428.
Frcud, Sigmund. Civilisation and Its Discontents. 1929. d. Jamcs Strachcy. Trans. Joan
Rivirc. London: Hogarth P, 1973.
Lubbcrs, Klaus. Tc Ncccssary rdcr: A Study ol Tcmc and Structurc in Carson
McCullcrs Fiction. Jahrbuch fr Amerikastudien 8 (1963): 187200.
Rubcn, L. ., Jr. Carson McCullcrs: thc Acsthctics ol Pain. Clark 11123.
McCullcrs, Carson. Te Heart is a Lonely Hunter. 1940. Ncw York: 8antam, 1953.
Shcrill, Rowland. McCullcrs Te Heart is a Lonely Hunter: Tc Missing go and thc
Problcm ol thc Norm. Kentucky Review 2.1 (1968): 517.
Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. |A Fcminist Rcading: McCullcrs Heart is a Lonely Hunter|.
Clark 12942.
Symons, Julian. Tc Loncly Hcart. Clark 2225.
Vright, Richard. !nncr Landscapc. Clark 1718.
127
From Dierences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies 16, no. 1 (Spring 2005): pp. 10325.
2005 by 8rown Univcrsity and Dierences.
NAM! MRGNS T RN
Te Afterlife of Coverture:
Contract and Gift in
Te Ballad of the Sad Caf
Tc sturdy gurc ol thc workcr, thc artisan, in clcan ovcralls, with a
bag ol tools and lunchbox, is always accompanicd by thc ghostly gurc
ol his wilc.
Patcman 131
!snt that thc ultimatc homcland sccuritystanding up and dclcnding
marriagc:
Scnator Rick Santorum (RPa.), Chairman
Amcrican litcraturc is rcplctc with cxamplcs ol womcn trying to ncgotiatc
altcrnativc rclationships to thc marriagc contract. From Hannah Fostcrs Te
Coquette (1797), in which liza Vharton pays with hcr lilc lor imagining
that shc and hcr malc lricnds can cntcr into contracts other than thc marriagc
contract, to Hcstcr Prynncs imagining ol a ncw scxual contract in Hawthorncs
Te Scarlet Letter (1850) (As a rst stcp, thc wholc systcm ol socicty is to
bc torn down |113|), to !sabcl Archcrs tragic attcmpt to marry hcrscll
in Jamcss Te Portrait of a Lady (1881), Amcrican ction has rcpcatcdly
cxposcd thc paradox at thc hcart ol thc gcndcrlcss contract. !n narrativcs
by Harrict Jacobs, Hannah Cralts, Katc Chopin, Villiam can Howclls,
and dith Vharton, thc dcpiction ol womans paradoxical rclationship to
contract idcology urgcs us, indccd, to rcconsidcr thc crucial though oltcn
Naomi Morgcnstcrn 128
ovcrlookcd opposition bctwccn contracts and gilts. !n this papcr, ! will arguc
that womcns cquivocal rclationship to contracta rclationship sustaincd by
what ! call thc altcrlilc ol covcrturchas cvcrything to do with a pcrvasivc
dcsirc to kccp contract and gilt apart. To that cnd, ! will turn to a mid
twcnticthccntury novclla, Carson McCullcrss Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal,
which mourns lor an cxpcricncc ol incalculablc giving cvcn as it conlronts
qucstions ol scxual and cxplicitly marital violcncc with unusual lorcc and
cconomy.
Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal tclls thc story ol a quccr marriagc that
takcs placc nowhcrc and in an isolatcd Southcrn mill town in thc middlc ol thc
twcnticth ccntury. !t is thc marriagc ol Miss Amclia vans to Marvin Macy,
and it was unlikc any othcr marriagc cvcr contractcd |. . .|, it was a strangc
and dangcrous marriagc lasting only lor tcn days, |it| lclt thc wholc town
wondcring and shockcd (45). McCullcrss story ol thc marriagc contracts
sorry bargain translorms thc ballads convcntional prcoccupation with
cohcrcnt social ordcring (thc ballad is a collcctivc lorm)
1
into somcthing ol a
lcminist critiquc ol marriagc. !lluminating thc paradox ol a patriarchal logic
whcrcby thc woman appcars as both thc subjcct and objcct ol contractual
cxchangc, McCullcrss strangc and dangcrous marriagc also rcminds us that
marriagc marks thc sitc ol a lounding violcncc (marriagc, as wc arc rcgularly
rcmindcd, is csscntial to thc statcthc last barricr ol civilization).
2
8ut as a ballad, McCullcrss novclla also dcmonstratcs a prcoccupation
with tragic lovc, a prcoccupation that risks lrustrating straightlorward
lcminist critiqucs ol thc institution ol marriagc. Tc 8allad ol thc Sad
Cals tragic lovcr docs not simply sucr lrom thc abscncc ol lull politico
lcgal cnlranchiscmcnt. Shc also sucrs lrom thc warring knot ol dcsircs that
circulatc around thc ambiguitics ol contract and gilt. utsidc ol an cconomy
ol cxchangc, cvcn as it might bc said to haunt its origins, thc gilt signals an
originary loss at work in any systcm ol circulation. Rclusing all rcciprocity,
thc gilt also maintains an uncasy rclationship with thc violcncc that lounds
a ncw lcgal or contractual ordcr. Miss Amclias cxcruciatingly ambivalcnt
rclationship to thc gilts ol lovc, as ! hopc to show, rchcarscs thc pcrvcrsity
and thc violcncc ol contract idcology cvcn as it cccts hcr cvcntual isolation.
Hcncc, to contcmplatc thc rclationship bctwccn gilts and contractsis thc
gilt a primitivc lorm ol thc contract, or is thc gilt thc sublimc and clusivc
othcr ol contract, that which contract can only cvcr dclc:is simultancously
to tracc Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cals complcx translormation ol a storc
into a cal and a cal into a tomb. !s it Miss Amclias lurious rcsistancc
to thc gilt or hcr pcculiar undcrstanding ol its impossibility that cxplains
hcr displaccmcnt lrom thc ccntcr ol cxchangc to thc collapsing intcrior ol a
ghost housc:
3
!ndccd, it is only by considcring thc novcllas lascination with
gilts (gilts that dcmand, gilts that poison, gilts ol lack) that wc can bcgin
Contract and Gilt in Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal 129
to apprcciatc Miss Amclias cnigmatic rclationship to marriagc and to thc
circuit ol cxchangc. Tc marriagc contract, as McCullcrss novclla continucs
to inlorm us sixty ycars altcr its publication, marks thc sitc ol an cngagcmcnt
with contracts and gilts, violcncc and thc cthical, that pcrsistcntly rcluscs to
comc out cvcn.
4
Cox:v~c: ~xb \ioivxcv
Tc marriagc contracts cxcmplary political status has long bccn lamiliar
to Amcrican historians. As an intcntional and harmonious juncturc ol
individuals lor mutual protcction, cconomic advantagc, and common
intcrcst, writcs historian Nancy Cott, thc marriagc bond rcscmblcd thc
social contract that produccd govcrnmcnt. As a lrccly choscn structurc ol
authority and obligation it was an irrcsistiblc modcl (16). Historians ol
marriagc in thc ninctccnth and carly twcnticth ccntury wcrc also quick to
rcinlorcc thc rclationship bctwccn contract and marriagc. Gcorgc liot
Howard, author ol A History of Matrimonial Institutions (1904), triumphantly
asscrts, Vhcthcr rcgardcd historically or biologically, monogamy and scll
bctrothal |i.c., contract| appcar simply as two aspccts ol thc samc institution,
thcy arc conncctcd by a psychic bond, and togcthcr thcy constitutc thc
highcst typc ol marriagc and thc lamily (22223).
At thc samc timc, howcvcr, ninctccnthccntury Amcrican law
articulatcd unccrtainty about thc cxtcnt to which marriagc should conlorm
to thc gcncral privilcging ol contractual rclations cstablishcd bctwccn lrcc
individuals unbcholdcn to public notions ol cquity. Hcncc, thc varicd
but dctcrmincd rcsistancc to voluntary divorcc, notcs Michacl Grossbcrg,
and |thc| rcpcatcd asscrtions ol statc nuptial rcsponsibility |that| actcd
as constant rcmindcrs ol thc limits ol matrimonial contractualism. |. . .|
Marriagc rcmaincd simply too important, Grossbcrg continucs, to bc
lclt cntircly to thc invisiblc hand ol thc nuptial markctplacc (21). Finally,
Linda Kcrbcr has shown most pcrsuasivcly that dcspitc bcing wcll awarc ol
thc discoursc on cqual rights lor womcn, thc Amcrican loundcrs chosc to
maintain nglish law conccrning marriagc, thus cxtcnding covcrturc into
thc dcmocratic cra. Not until 1992, Kcrbcr points out, with thc Suprcmc
Courts dccision in Planned Parenthood of Pennsylvania v. Casey, did thc
Court spccically announcc that it would no longcr rccognizc thc powcr
ol husbands ovcr thc bodics ol thcir wivcs. Tat is thc momcnt, writcs
Kcrbcr, whcn covcrturc, as a living lcgal principlc, dicd (307). !n othcr
words, somcthing analogous to a conjugal kingdom continucd to lunction
within thc dcmocratic statc long altcr thc Amcrican Rcvolution. Tc 1907
xpatriation Act is only onc ol thc cxamplcs wc might look at in this rcspcct.
Undcr this lcgislation, Amcrican womcn wcrc compcllcd to lollow thc
Naomi Morgcnstcrn 130
citizcnship ol thcir husbands: an Amcrican man could makc his lorcignborn
wilc into a citizcn, but an Amcrican woman would losc hcr citizcnship upon
marrying a lorcign man.
5
Marriagc, thcn, could bc said to maintain, likc
scdimcntary laycrs, rclationships to various lorms ol political organization:
thc hicrarchizations ol lcudalism, as wcll as thc social contractualism ol thc
nlightcnmcnt and thc aggrcssivc individualism ol markct contractualism.
8ut marriagc is also, as Carolc Patcman has shown, an cxcmplary
instancc ol thc spccically lratcrnal violcncc ol contract idcology. !n Te
Sexual Contract, Patcman rcturns to thc loundational myth ol modcrn civil
socicty (thc story ol an original contract cstablishing lrcc social rclations
bctwccn individuals) and asks what thc lrccdom ol thc original contract is
lrcc lrom and what it has powcr or right ovcr. Tc answcr is clcar. cspitc thc
rhctoric ol gcndcrncutral individuality associatcd with thc nlightcnmcnt
brcak lrom patriarchal lcudalism, thc individual ol dcmocratic contract
idcology is a man: postlcudal political powcr is fraternally dcmocratic.
6

dd things happcn to womcn, Patcman concludcs, whcn thc assumption
is madc that thc only altcrnativc to thc patriarchal construction ol scxual
dicrcncc is thc ostcnsibly scxncutral individual (187).
!n Patcmans vcrsion ol things, thc individual ol contract thcory is a
man with impcrmcablc boundarics, a man who can own things, a man who
is ncvcr compromiscd by his rclationship to anothcr. At thc samc timc, what
Patcman calls lratcrnal patriarchy has insistcd that thc scxual contract
and thc social contract arc scparablc cntitics and that thc scxual contract
mcrcly conccrns thc privatc sphcrc. Hcncc, contracts lunction paradoxically
whcn it comcs to womcn. And wc scc this clcarly in thc casc ol marriagc,
sincc it is hcrc that civil socictys insistcncc on thc scparation ol privatc and
public sphcrcs comcs up against contract thcorys invocation ol lrcc social
rclations bctwccn individuals. Tc marriagc contract rcquircs that womcn,
thosc crcaturcs classically considcrcd incapablc ol lull participation in thc
public sphcrc, also bc cntircly compctcnt individuals who can cntcr into
contractual rclationships.
As Patcman rcminds us, morcovcr, thcrc arc two momcnts to thc
marriagc contract: thc spccch act (! do) and thc scx act (thc consummation).
Vhilc thc distinction bctwccn thc vcrbal and thc bodily is ccrtainly a highly
rclcvant onc, ! would likc to suggcst instcad a dcstabilizing supplcmcntary
rcading: lor thc rst act (thc spccch act) is also thc onc that tcmporarily
grants thc woman status as individual, whilc thc sccond act (thc scx act)
is thc act that revokes prcciscly that status (as onc lcminist critic writcs,
|V|hcn a woman says ! do, shc givcs up hcr right to say ! wont |qtd. in
Russcll x|). !n othcr words, Patcmans paradox ol thc marriagc contract is
narratablc. !t manilcsts itscll as two chronologically ordcrcd momcnts. And,
! will suggcst, it is spccically thc sccond act that subordinatcs. To apprcciatc
Contract and Gilt in Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal 131
this wc only havc to rcmind oursclvcs that rapc within marriagc was not
lcgally rccognizcd in most ol thc Unitcd Statcs until thc 1970srcgardlcss
ol how violcnt or apparcntly conscnsual thc particular act ol consummation.
!n 1975 Susan 8rownmillcr could writc, Rapc, as thc currcnt law dcncs
it, is thc lorciblc pcrpctration ol an act ol scxual intcrcoursc on thc body ol
a woman not oncs wilc (380). Tc incohcrcncc ol marital rapc throughout
most ol thc twcnticth ccntury is surcly thc most tangiblc sign ol thc altcrlilc
ol covcrturc in thc Unitcd Statcs, whcrc it was not until 1978 that a husband
was chargcd with raping his wilc. Rapc is not mcrcly an cvcnt that may
or may not happcn, rathcr, it is (or was) part ol thc structurc that givcs
(social) mcaning to marriagc.
7
To contcmplatc a rapc that is not a crimc is
to contcmplatc an cxamplc ol loundational violcnccpcrhaps wc should say
the loundational violcncc: thc violcncc ol a political primal sccnc that makcs
an apparcntly nonviolcnt contractual ordcr possiblc. Rapc within marriagc
(rapc that docs not count as rapc) rcstagcs not only thc irrcduciblc violcncc
ol any rcvolutionary lounding but also thc spccically gcndcrcd violcncc that
ushcrs in a lratcrnal political ordcr undcr thc discursivc cloak ol contractual
cquality.
Tc political philosophcrs ol contractual social rclations havc not, it
should bc addcd, cntircly ignorcd thc problcm ol a lounding violcncc. !ndccd,
onc could show that Hobbcs and Rousscau, to takc only two cxamplcs,
arc obscsscd with trying to managc thc placc ol violcncc in any lounding
contractual momcnt. 8clorc thc namcs ol Just and Unjust can havc placc,
writcs Hobbcs, thcrc must bc somc cocrcivc powcr, to compcll mcn cqually
to thc pcrlormancc ol thcir covcnants, by thc tcrrour ol somc punishmcnt,
grcatcr than thc bcnct thcy cxpcct by thc brcach ol thcir Covcnant (202).
Tc burdcn ol Hobbcss political philosophy is to ncgatc thc violcncc ol this
cocrcivc supplcmcnt by rcminding his rcadcrs (with what oltcn sound likc
tautological lormulations) that what is gaincd through contract canccls out
thc cxccss ol this ncccssary tcrror. Similarly, Rousscau managcs to arguc that
cvcn dcath cannot bc considcrcd too high a pricc to pay in rcturn lor what
thc contract givcs. !l thc statc says to onc ol its citizcns, !t is in thc statcs
intcrcst that you should dic, writcs Rousscau, hc must dic, bccausc it is
only on this condition that hc has hithcrto livcd in salcty, his lilc bcing no
longcr only a bcnct duc to naturc, but a conditional gilt ol thc statc (71).
Surcly it is only political philosophys slcight ol hand that is ablc to makc thc
giving ol oncs own lilc into a good dcal.
8
From a lcminist pcrspcctivc, onc ol thc most pcrsistcnt displaccmcnts
ol contractualisms lounding violcncc takcs placc whcncvcr thc marriagc
contract cccts thc subordination ol womcn to mcn. Tus lor Carolc Patcman
thc social contracts rclationship to a violcnt scxual contract undcrmincs, or
ought to undcrminc, cvcry attcmpt to combat scxual injusticc simply by
Naomi Morgcnstcrn 132
lully opcning up thc social contract to womcn. Vhcn lcminism uncritically
occupics thc samc tcrrain as contract, shc writcs, a rcsponsc to patriarchy
that appcars to conlront thc subjcction ol womcn hcadon also scrvcs to
consolidatc thc pcculiarly modcrn lorm ol patriarchal right (17). A lcminist
cngagcmcnt with thc politics ol contractual rclations, in othcr words, cannot
procccd without dcconstructing thc opposition bctwccn contract and its
dicult othcrs: violcncc and thc gilt.
A Sovvv 8~vc~i x
Tc protagonist ol Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal is a largc, rich, and powcrlul
woman who livcs alonc. Miss Amclia vans is solitary as hcr lathcr was
bclorc hcrand rcgulatcs most ol thc cxchangcs in hcr community: Shc
would havc bccn as rich as a congrcssman, il it wcrc not lor hcr onc grcat
lailing, and that was hcr passion lor lawsuits and thc courts |. . .|. !t was
said that il Miss Amclia so much as stumblcd ovcr a rock in thc road shc
would glancc around instinctivcly as though looking lor somcthing to suc
about it (5). !n addition to bcing voraciously litigious, Miss Amclia owns
and runs thc towns storc and thc towns still, and shc is thc local doctor.
Miss Amclia is consumcd with thc work ol calculation, with wcighing
and mcasuring: cvcrything should comc out cvcn. Tcrc is nothing sorricr,
shc bclicvcs, than a sorry bargain (36). Shc gocs so lar as to display
hcr own kidncy stoncs, rcmovcd lrom hcr in a tcrriblc opcration, in a
big glassdoorcd cabinct. To admit that thcsc stoncs arc anything lcss
than trcasurcs would bc to admit that shc had gottcn thc short cnd ol thc
stick. Vith all things which could bc madc by thc hands Miss Amclia
prospcrcd. Shc only lails whcn it comcs to pcrsonal dcalings with human
bcings. For pcoplc unlcss thcy arc nillywilly or vcry sick cannot bc takcn
into thc hands and changcd ovcrnight to somcthing morc worthwhilc and
protablc (5).
Vhcn Marvin Macy, an cvil charactcr and thc most handsomc man in
thc rcgion, lalls in lovc with Miss Amclia, that solitarygangling quccrcycd
girl, hc rcvcrscs charactcr and bcgins to court hcr (27, 28). Shc, howcvcr,
rcsists any such translormation. Macy comcs to Miss Amclias housc with
a bunch ol swamp owcrs, a sack ol chittcrlins, and a silvcr ring (30), and
Miss Amclia appcars to acccpt thcsc gilts and thc accompanying proposal ol
marriagc. A wcdding takcs placc: Amclia wcars hcr mothcrs wcdding gown,
at lcast twclvc inchcs too short lor hcr, and gropcs in an impaticnt, borcd
and cxaspcratcd manncr lor thc pockct ol hcr ovcralls. 8ut oncc marricd,
shc rcluscs to livc up to hcr cnd ol thc dcal. Shc rcluscs to go to bcd with hcr
husband, shc spcnds thcir wcdding night smoking, drinking cocc, rcading
thc Farmcrs Almanac, and lcarning to usc hcr ncw typcwritcr. Shc is morc
Contract and Gilt in Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal 133
than happy to trcat hcr groom likc a customcr, this bcing thc only modcl
ol human rclationships that shc is willing to cntcrtain, anything morc or clsc
is out ol thc qucstion.
nc ol thc appcaling charactcristics ol McCullcrss hcroinc is that
Miss Amclia is simultancously an cxccptional woman, codcd, in lact, as an
invcrt (with hcr short haircut, hcr ovcralls, hcr muscular biccps and big
hairy thighsin youth shc had grown to bc six lcct two inchcs tall which in
itscll is not natural lor a woman 14), and at thc vcry ccntcr ol things. Shc
is not abjcctcd. Vhilc signicrs ol invcrsion suggcst lcsbianism, crucially
and charactcristically this is not in any simplc way thc story ol a womans
lovc lor anothcr woman. McCullcrss invcstmcnt is in thc quccr as opposcd
to thc homoscxual. Hcr intcrcst is in what cxcccds or challcngcs thc laws
ol gcndcr and scxual normativity. Tc townspcoplc hopc thc marriagc to
Marvin Macy will put a bit ol bridclat on |Miss Amclia| and changc hcr
at last into a calculablc woman (31). 8ut Miss Amclia lails to bc lcminizcd,
lails to do what womcn do, to look thc way womcn look. Shc rcsists marriagc
and in thc cnd shc is doomcd lor it. 8ctraycd and abandoncd, thc ghost in
hcr own hauntcd housc, shc is ultimatcly associatcd with scxlcss|ncss| (3).
|T|hc grcat musclcs ol hcr body shrank until shc was thin as old maids
arc thin whcn thcy go crazy (70). To cxcccd thc laws ol scx and gcndcr,
in McCullcrss world, is to bc associatcd with sadncss and dclcat. Vc lcarn
in Te Member of the Wedding that lrcaks ncvcr gct marricd or cvcn go to
wcddings (27172). !t is prcciscly this scnsc ol doom, or thc prcscriptcd,
! would add, that makcs McCullcrss story both appcaling and dicult lor
lcminist critics.
9
Rcccnt criticism ol Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal claims that
McCullcrss novclla is a lcminist tcxt that critiqucs thc lorccd social proccss
ol gcndcring. Such criticism wants to assumc that thc novclla is about gcndcr
congurations that in all thcir pathos could and should bc dicrcnt. Gilbcrt
and Gubar, lor cxamplc, arguc that Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal rcvcals thc
culturally dctcrmincd psychic logic that condcmns thc autonomous woman
as a lrcak who must ncccssarily bc scntcnccd to thc dclcat that is lcmininity
(10405).
10
!ndccd, McCullcrs is pcrhaps bcst known lor hcr morc rcalistic
portraits ol lcmalc adolcsccnts, ol girls who arc rcluctant to givc in to
lcminizationwhat Gaylc Rubin rclcrs to as signing thc social contract
(196). Howcvcr, it is notcworthy that scxual initiation in McCullcrss tcxts
is lrcqucntly allcgorizcd, or doublcd, by a violcncc donc to anothcr body. !n
Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter, lor cxamplc, Micks scxual initiation makcs hcr
lccl as il hcr hcad was brokc o lrom hcr body and thrown away (235). Tis
lccling and gurc is doublcd whcn Villic Copcland, who is bcing hcld undcr
crucl conditions in a labor camp, loscs his lcct to gangrcnc (21718). !n Te
Member of the Wedding thc rupturc ol Frankics drcam ol a wc ol mc, ol
Naomi Morgcnstcrn 134
gctting marricd along with thc bridc and grooma lantasy so quccr that
it is straightis lollowcd shortly thcrcaltcr by hcr childhood companions
violcnt dcath lrom mcningitis.
Yct, dcspitc this violcnt pattcrn in McCullcrss work, wc might
still cxpcct Miss Amclia to bc at casc with marriagc. A woman with hcr
good busincss scnsc might bc cxpcctcd to scc and acccpt thc institution ol
marriagc prcciscly lor its institutionality, lor its cmbcddcdncss in lcgal and
cconomic codcs. Vhy rclusc to cntcr into an cxchangc with thc groom,
husbandascustomcr, unlcss Miss Amclia has a dicrcnt scnsc ol this
situation altogcthcr: Miss Amclias cnigmatic rcsponsc to marriagc with
Marvin Macy (Vithin hall an hour Miss Amclia had stompcd down thc
stairs in brccchcs and a khaki jackct. Hcr lacc had darkcncd so that it
lookcd quitc black 31) is, howcvcr, cntircly in kccping with thc pcculiar
status ol womcn in civil socicty: shc is both that which is cxchangcd and
that which cntcrs into thc act ol cxchanging. Marriagc turns thosc who
would likc to bc individuals (scc thc rcpcatcd cmphasis on Miss Amclias
solitary naturcshc is nothing il not thc proud owncr, thc contractual
subjcct, who mcticulously scparatcs out hcr privatc lilc lrom hcr public onc)
into husbands and wivcs, and thcsc tcrms havc lcgal bcaring and historical
wcight. Howcvcr sacricing that hangdog Marvin Macy might appcar to
bc, thc law and history arc on his sidc. His rolc is prcscriptcd: A groom is
in a sorry x whcn hc is unablc to bring his wcllbclovcd bridc to bcd with
him, and thc wholc town knows it (31).
11
8ut what givcs McCullcrss story grcatcr dcpth, and at thc samc timc,
pcrhaps, allows it to lulll thc ballads lunction as a story ol doomcd and
tragic lovc, is its prcoccupation with thc logic and illogic ol thc gilt. Gilts
punctuatc and drivc thc narrativc ol McCullcrss story: lrom thc gilts Marvin
Macy brings to Miss Amclia, to thc gilts shc givcs to Cousin Lymon and
hcncc to thc townspcoplc (culminating in thc gilt ol thc Cal itscll). Tis is
not to mcntion thc poison that Macy and Miss Amclia attcmpt to givc to
cach othcr and that bcars a signicant ctymological rclationship to thc gilt
(thc ctymology ol gift, translation ol thc Latin dosis, itscll a transcription ol
thc Grcck dosis, dosc, dosc ol poison |crrida 36|).
12
Tnv Gi v: ov L~cx
!l wc try to givc a namc to what might bc contracts othcr, or to what haunts,
troublcs, disrupts contract cvcn as it sccms indissociablc lrom contract
whcncvcr it comcs into vicw, it is hard to avoid languagc that sccms morc
at homc in litcrary rcprcscntation, psychoanalytic thcory, and dcconstructivc
philosophy than in political philosophy, yct this othcr was alrcady availablc
to Tomas Hobbcs in 1651:
Contract and Gilt in Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal 135
Tc mutuall translcrring ol right is that which mcn call contract
|. . .|. Vhcn thc translcrring ol right is not mutuall, but onc ol
thc partics translcrcth, in hopc to gain thcrcby lricndship, or
scrvicc lrom anothcr, or lrom his lricnds, or in hopc to gain thc
rcputation ol charity, or magnanimity, or to dclivcr his mind
lrom thc pain ol compassion, or in hopc ol rcward in hcavcn, this
is not contract, but G!FT, FRG!FT, GRAC, which words
signic onc and thc samc thing. (19293)
Hobbcss lormulation hcrc might sccm to rcvcrsc ccrtain lamiliar vcrsions
ol thc gilt. Giltncss, lor Hobbcs, involvcs thc sanguinc calculation ol a
protablc rcturn, whilc contract, by its vcry mutuality, sccms to canccl out
any hopc ol cxtra contractual gain. Tis scnsc ol nothing bcing lost with
thc social contracts original rcnunciation ol lrccdom rccurs in Rousscaus
lamous account ol onc hundrcd ycars latcr. ach in giving himscll to all
givcs himscll to nonc, writcs Rousscau, |A|nd sincc thcrc arc no associatcs
ovcr whom hc docs not acquirc thc samc rights as hc ccdcs, hc gains thc
cquivalcnt ol all that hc loscs |. . .| (55). From thc pcrspcctivc ol this
political philosophy, as lrom that ol Miss Amclia, a gilta giving up without
ccrtainty ol cqual or, idcally, grcatcr rcturnwould rcprcscnt a sorry bargain.
Tc problcm, ol coursc, is how to kccp contract and gilt lrom appcaring to
contaminatc cach othcr. How can onc bc pcrsuadcd to rcnouncc somcthing
bclorc thc lruits ol that rcnunciation havc comc to pass: Altcr all, giving up
without rcturn is thc vcry dcnition ol madncss: To say that a man givcs
himscll lor nothing, writcs Rousscau, is an absurd and incomprchcnsiblc
statcmcnt, such an action is illcgitimatc and void, simply bccausc anyonc
who docs it is not in his right mind. To say thc samc about an cntirc pcoplc
is to imaginc a nation ol madmcn, and madncss docs not makc rights (50).
Tc gilt, wc might say, is as troubling lrom thc pcrspcctivc ol nlightcnmcnt
political lounding as tyrannical violcncc only insolar as it imagincs that it has
transccndcd thc madncss ol both lounding violcncc and thc gilt docs thc
modcrn social contract convinccs itscll that it has inauguratcd a ncw cra.
Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal has its own tyrant: Marvin Macy, who
has distinguishcd himscll by scvcring othcrs body parts (bc thcy squirrcls
tails or human cars), tcmpting thc dcspondcnt towards dcath and shaming
young girls. 8ut Macy is also thc storys rst and most insistcnt giltgivcr (hc
rst comcs to Miss Amclias housc, wc rccall, ocring a bunch ol swamp
owcrs, a sack ol chittcrlins, and a silvcr ring |30|). Vhcn it bccomcs clcar
that Miss Amclias willingncss to marry him docs not mcan that shc will lct
him into hcr bcdroom, Macy rcsponds by buying hcr morc gilts (which shc
promptly rcsclls as mcrchandisc in hcr storc, acting as il shc owcs nothing in
rcturnas il thc gilts wcrc not, in lact, contractual). Tis pattcrn ol giving
Naomi Morgcnstcrn 136
and ol rclusing to rccognizc any dcbt cscalatcs until on thc lourth day
|Marvin Macy| docs an cxtrcmcly simplcmindcd thing (32). Hc brings in a
lawycr to hclp him lcgally sign ovcr all ol his posscssions to Miss Amclia. Shc
agrccs and lcs away thc lcgal documcnt, but shc is on hcr guard. Vhcn a
drunkcn Marvin Macy approachcs his bridc with wct widc cycs and placcs
a hand on hcr shouldcr (Hc was trying to tcll hcr somcthing |32|), shc
punchcs him in thc lacc. !n lact, Miss Amclia mccts all hcr bridcgrooms
lurthcr corts with blows until hc lcavcs town. So, rcmarks thc narrator,
all hc |Marvin Macy| had cvcr donc was to makc |Miss Amclia| richcr and
bring hcr lovc. 8ut, strangc to say, shc ncvcr spokc ol him but with a tcrriblc
and spitclul bittcrncss (33).
13
Marvin Macys gilts makc Miss Amclia lurious, thcn, and it is as
il what makcs hcr lurious is hcr vcry scnsc that thcrc is no gilt, that cvcn
as a gilt is givcnindccd, cvcn il all is givcnsomcthing is cxpcctcd in
cxchangc. Tc problcm with gilts is that thcy do not rcquirc conscnt. !l gilts
can bc sccn to bc abovc and bcyond thc markctplacc, thcy arc also bclorc it. !t
could cvcn bc said that thcrc is a primitivc violcncc to thc gilt: onc is bound
whcthcr onc likcs it or not, says thc gilt! !l a gilt is whcn somconc givcs
somcthing to anothcr, this giving also ncvcr takcs placc (A subjcct, writcs
crrida, will ncvcr givc an objcct to anothcr subjcct |. . .| |24|). !t is as il
Miss Amclia agrccd to rcccivc but not to rcccivc thc cxccssasobligation,
thc prcscnccaslack that thc gilt (which is thcrclorc in somc crucial scnsc
not a gilt) implics. Macys gilts dcmand that shc acquicscc in thc cxccss as
obligation ol thc marriagc bcd. !t is thc gilt ol unrcstrictcd scxual acccss
(thc structurcd rcpctition ol a lounding primal rapc) that Miss Amclia
cvcntually rccognizcs and dcspiscs in Marvin Macys gilts. Tc 8allad ol
thc Sad Cal, in othcr words, implicitly rcgistcrs an unbcarablc intimacy
bctwccn gilts and thc lratcrnal violcncc prcscrvcd in thc lcgal invisibility
ol marital rapc. Macys gilts gurc and dcmand thc gilt ol rapc that both
lounds and rcmains lorcvcr outsidc ol thc marriagc contract. !t is this gilt
that hclps to maintain lratcrnal contract idcologys promisc ol individual
complctcncss. !t is lratcrnalisms sccrct gilt to itscll.
Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal is doubly ambivalcnt whcn it comcs
to thc gilt, howcvcr, bccausc it acknowlcdgcs that thc gilt bcars not only
a rclationship to thc gcndcrcd violcncc ol thc lratcrnal marriagc contract
but also to dcsirc. And as ! havc alrcady suggcstcd, thc story rcluscs to
rcvcal dcnitivcly whcthcr Miss Amclia is thc subjcct tragically incapablc
ol rccognizing dcsirc or tragically bound to undcrstand dcsirc bcttcr than
anyonc clsc in town. For il thcrc is somcthing impossiblc about giltsthc gilt
rupturcs cconomy, rcciprocity, and tcmporalityit is also hard to imaginc
lovc and dcsirc without giving.
14
Tc gilt, ! would asscrt, and particularly thc
lovcrs gilt, is always asking lor more than a lair rcturn. My gilt is a dcmand
Contract and Gilt in Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal 137
that you givc mc prcciscly what ! do not dcscrvc: your lovc. My gilt is a
tokcn ol my lack, it is bccausc ! havc nothing ol valuc to givc that ! can givc
cndlcssly. !t is lor this rcason, McCullcrss narrator suggcsts, that most ol
us would rathcr lovc than bc lovcd. Almost cvcryonc wants to bc thc lovcr.
And thc curt truth is that, in a dccp sccrct way, thc statc ol bcing lovcd is
intolcrablc to many (27). Such is what Lacan calls thc radical lorm ol thc
gilt, to givc what onc docs not havc (286). |Tis| is callcd lovc, but it is also
hatrcd and ignorancc (263). Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal poscs a riddlc thc
answcr to which is thc kcrncl ol wisdom that thc storytcllcr wants to pass
on: When is giving really taking? When the gift is the gift of the lovers lack. Tc
vcry thought ol thc gilt disrupts both political and marital invcstmcnts in thc
autonomous individual, whcthcr that individual is onc pcrson (thc citizcn) or
onc pcoplc unicd in thc body that is thc political or marital statc.
And, ol coursc, Marvin Macy is not thc only giltgivcr in Tc 8allad
ol thc Sad Cal. vcrything wc know about Miss Amclia would lcad us to
bclicvc that thc cal ol thc novcllas titlc (likc hcr marriagc) should bc an
impossibility. Tc cal bcgins to takc shapc whcn Miss Amclia stops, whcn
shc is givcn pausc and suspcnds hcr calculations: shc givcs thc tcarlul strangcr
who has appcarcd out ol nowhcrc to claim kin (hc is hcr cousin Lymon)
a lrcc swallow ol hcr whiskcy. !n a gcsturc that rccalls Marvin Macy placing
his hand on Miss Amclias shouldcr, shc rst rcachcs out and touchcs thc
hump on his back:
Tcn Miss Amclia did a rarc thing, shc pullcd out a bottlc lrom
hcr hip pockct and altcr polishing o thc top with thc palm ol
hcr hand shc handcd it to thc hunchback to drink. Miss Amclia
could scldom bc pcrsuadcd to scll hcr liquor on crcdit, and lor
hcr to givc so much as a drop away lrcc was almost unknown.
rink, shc said. !t will livcn your gizzard. (9)
Vhy docs Amclia givc to Lymon: Lymon introduccs himscll by producing
an cnigmatic photo that in thc shadowicst ol ways connccts thc two
mists through thcir mothcrs. Tc vcry insubstantiality ol thc cvidcncc
Lymon ocrs sccms vcry much to thc point hcrc. Miss Amclia lalls lor
thc somcthing and somconc that links hcr to hcr mothcr, somcthing that
promiscs thc rcturn ol an impossiblc rclationship with an original and
always lost objcct.
15
!n addition, in his vcry undccidability (Lymon is not
man, not woman, not child) hc is thc idcal lovc objcct, in loving him onc
givcs up nothing.
16
For thcsc rcasons, Lymon cncouragcs Miss Amclia
to givc whcrc shc had ncvcr givcn bclorc. !n othcr words, whilc lovc lor
Lymon is irrcducibly cnigmatic, it is also ovcrdctcrmincd: hc is a quccr
lovc objcct, rcprcscnting thc instability ol thc law ol scxual dicrcncc (in
Naomi Morgcnstcrn 138
choosing Lymon, onc nccd not makc a singular choicc), hc appcars to ocr
thc rcturn ol an impossiblc lost lovc objcct, and hc dcmands allthc
rcjcction ol a contractual rclation is his sum and substancc. Lymon, that is
to say, is thc uncanny cmbodimcnt ol dcsirc.
ncc Miss Amclia starts giving gilts to Lymon, shc ncvcr sccms to
stop. Tc swallow ol whiskcy is lollowcd by a good mcal, a warm bcd, and
ultimatcly by thc cal itscll. n Saturday nights thc townspcoplc gathcr at
Miss Amclias storc to buy thcir liquor. Tcrc has ncvcr bclorc bccn any
lccling ol joy in |this| transaction, but on this occasion Miss Amclia brcaks
hcr own rulc and allows pcoplc to opcn and drink thcir liquor sociably,
right on hcr prcmiscs. Shc cvcn gocs so lar as to hospitably opcn and ocr
somc lrcc crackcrs.
17
Tis was thc bcginning ol thc cal, thc narrator tclls
us, !t was as simplc as that (2122).
A cal cxcccds a storc by what may only bc a modicum ol dcsirc (Miss
Amclias initial mouthlul ol liquor, hcr lrcc crackcrs, hcr simplc gcsturc), but
thc dicrcncc is also cnormous. Tc ncarutopian cal that brings cvcryonc
into thc circuit ol cxchangc is loundcd upon somcthing that cxcccds joylcss
transaction. Vhilc thc contractual rclations ol a storc rcgulatc compctition,
a cal produccs intimatc rclations ol cxchangc in thc lorm ol a community.
8ut il a gilt can turn a storc into a cal, it can also bc thc bcginning ol troublc.
Miss Amclia can ght o thc lratcrnal violcncc ol thc marriagc contract, but
shc cannot succcsslully do battlc with hcr own dcsirc.
Tnv Aiivcovv ov Gvxbvv
!n McCullcrss novclla, cvcryonc occupics thc position ol thc lovcr and thc
bclovcd in turn, and thus, with a mclancholic incvitability, Cousin Lymon
lalls lor Marvin Macy: ( h, Marvin Macy, groancd thc hunchback, and
thc sound ol his namc was cnough to upsct thc rhythm ol his sobs so that hc
hiccuppcd. Hc has bccn to Atlanta. |. . .| Hc has bccn to thc pcnitcntiary.
|53|), Lymon smilcs at Marvin Macy with an cntrcaty that was ncar to
dcspcration (49), and Miss Amclia, bctraycd by hcr bclovcd, could bc said
to rclosc hcr lack (shc rcloscs thc lost lovc objcct that Lymon appcarcd to
rccovcr).
18
Tis bctrayal culminatcs in a bloody ght bctwccn Marvin Macy
and Miss Amclia that mcmorably gurcs what Carolc Patcman calls thc
truc origin ol political right, that which has bccn ovcrlookcd by contract
thcorists lrom thc scvcntccnth ccntury to thc prcscnt.
19
!n McCullcrss
rcndcring, howcvcr, this primal political sccnc bccomcs a battlc that Miss
Amclia should havc won:
For a whilc thc ghtcrs grapplcd musclc to musclc, thcir hip
boncs braccd against cach othcr. 8ackward and lorward, lrom
Contract and Gilt in Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal 139
sidc to sidc, thcy swaycd in this way. |. . .| At last shc had him
down, and straddlcd, hcr strong big hands wcrc on his throat
|. . .| Yct at thc instant Miss Amclia graspcd thc throat ol Marvin
Macy thc hunchback sprang lorward and sailcd through thc air
as though hc had grown hawk wings. Hc landcd on thc broad
strong back ol Miss Amclia and clutchcd at hcr ncck with his
clawcd littlc ngcrs. Tc rcst is conlusion. Miss Amclia was
bcatcn bclorc thc crowd could comc to thcir scnscs. 8ccausc
ol thc hunchback thc ght was won by Marvin Macy, and at
thc cnd Miss Amclia lay sprawlcd on thc oor, hcr arms ung
outward and motionlcss |. . .|. (6768)
Such an cnding lor thc novclla would sccm to havc it both ways. Miss
Amclia is dclcatcd (this is thc story ol scxual dicrcncc as scxual hicrarchy),
yct it is an unjust dclcat: il it had bccn a lair ght, shc would havc cmcrgcd
victorious. 8ut il Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal is sad about thc gcndcr
hicrarchy that thc ght imposcs, it is also, surcly, sad about thc lovc objcct,
Cousin Lymon, that Miss Amclia simultancously loscs. Miss Amclia, in
othcr words, is not only thc victim ol a politicolcgal injusticc, shc is also
hauntcd by a loss that lcavcs hcr longing lor complctcncss. !l thc ght
approximatcs a contractual agrccmcnt (it is mcant to bc lair, thc tcrms
havc bccn agrccd to in advancc), it is thrown by a giltby thc incalculablc
intcrvcntion ol thc charactcr who prccipitatcs Miss Amclias rclationship
to thc gilt and to dcsirc. Lymons cxccssivc intcrvcntion, it is worth noting,
is thc only wholly lantastic cvcnt in thc story: |V|hat took placc, wc
arc told has bccn a mystcry cvcr sincc (68). As contract has no placc
lor dcsirousncss, ! would asscrt, so Miss Amclia, thc ultimatc contractual
subjcct, cannot survivc hcr dcsirc. Miss Amclias loss at thc hands ol Marvin
Macy and Cousin Lymon not only rchcarscs thc gcndcrcd discrcpancics ol
nlightcnmcnt contract idcology, it also cxposcs thc structurc ol a political
violcncc that displaccs thc sclldisrupting lorcc ol dcsirc onto womcn, or
lcmininity.
20
Marriagc, as ! havc suggcstcd, is onc ol thc privilcgcd sitcs
lor thc opcration ol this displaccmcnt in thc lratcrnal contractual ordcr
(it is whcrc, to rccall thc townslolks words, somconc likc Amclia can bc
turncd into a calculablc woman). Vith its rcworkcd primal sccnc Carson
McCullcrss tcxt could bc said to at oncc citc, rcsist, and unsucccsslully
mourn thc (un)dccidability ol thc law ol scxual dicrcncc and its psychical
and political lcgacy.
Howcvcr, as thc novclla insists, hcrc in this vcry town thcrc was
oncc a cal (4), a cal that, with its lounding rclation to thc gilt and its
achicvcmcnt ol community, is surcly Miss Amclias (and thc novcllas)
doomcd altcrnativc to marriagc. As such, thc cal can also bc rcad to gurc
Naomi Morgcnstcrn 140
all attcmpts to lound an cconomy ol dcsirc outsidc ol thc lratcrnal allcgory
ol gcndcr. 8ut il convcntional marriagc protccts thc malc subjcct lrom thc
sclldisruptions ol dcsirc (by dcploying thc womans paradoxical rclationship
to contract: shc is thc lantastic gurc who can autonomously contract
hcrscll out ol politicolcgal cxistcncc), Miss Amclias cal, lacking such casy
displaccmcnts, cxposcs itscll to all ol dcsircs risks and vulncrabilitics. Tc
cal, born ol Cousin Lymon and Miss Amclias lcss than pcrlcct union,
is at oncc thc novcllas inscription ol a lcminist (and quccr) altcrnativc to
marriagc undcr patriarchal or lratcrnal hcgcmony and its dcpiction ol thc
cost ol rclusing to givc up on giving up.
Tosc who spcak out in support ol what has bccn lcgislativcly rclcrrcd
to as thc clcnsc ol Marriagc lrcqucntly suggcst that traditional marriagc
is an csscntial lcaturc ol civilizcd social organization (somcthing that
cvcry civilizcd socicty in vc thousand ycars ol rccordcd history has
rccognizcd as onc Scnator put it |Scnatc cbatc 231|).
21
Tosc samc
dclcndcrs ol marriagc clcarly rclish thcir invocation ol thc catastrophic
social collapsc that would rcsult lrom any attcmpt to challcngc traditional
marriagc (samcscx marriagc, says onc, is a rcvolution |. . .| that sccks to
brcak down thc most basic building block ol our socicty).
22
Tc 8allad ol
thc Sad Cal bcgins and cnds with thc dcpiction ol a socicty that sccms to
havc brokcn down (Nothing movcsthcrc arc no childrcns voiccs |. . .|.
Tc pcach trccs sccm to grow morc crookcd cvcry summcr |. . .| |70|), and
wc might bc tcmptcd to rcad this collapsc as thc novcllas (conscrvativc)
judgmcnt on any attcmpt to ocr an altcrnativc to thc logic ol thc marriagc
contract. !nstcad, ! would suggcst that this dcsolation inscribcs thc vcry
lorcc ol lratcrnal political powcr, on thc onc hand, and thc sclldisruptivc
lorcc ol that which thrcatcns contract idcologys idcal subjcct on thc othcr.
!ndccd, thc insistcncc ol thc apocalyptic motil in conscrvativc dclcnscol
marriagc rhctoric (woc bctidc thc socicty that lails to honor that hcritagc
|Scnatc cbatc 23536|) tcstics, in its own quccr way, to thc uncanny
appcal ol a catastrophic scllundoing.
Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal givcs us, nally, a rcmarkablc thcorization
ol thc rclationship bctwccn contract and gilt, cxchangc and dcsirc. Tc
novclla trics to maintain an invcstmcnt in a charactcr who is both lcmalc and
ccntral to an cconomy ol cxchangc until it cannot, somchow, sustain this
doublcncss any lurthcr. Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal insists that Amclia is
dclcatcd both lrom outsidc (shc is punishcd as thc transgrcssivc woman who
will not submit to thc sorry bargain that is matrimony) and lrom within (shc
is dclcatcd by thc irrcduciblc loss ol hcr own dcsirc). 8ut to rid oncscll ol
this loss is, prcciscly, to conjurc up thc discmbodicd, prcpsychical, contract
making individual ol patriarchal lantasy. !n 1972 thc Suprcmc Court
dcclarcd (in Eisenstadt v. Baird):
Contract and Gilt in Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal 141
Tc marital couplc is not an indcpcndcnt cntity with a mind
and hcart ol its own, but an association ol two individuals, cach
with a scparatc cmotional and intcllcctual makcup. !l thc right ol
privacy mcans anything, it is thc right ol thc individual, marricd
or singlc, to bc lrcc lrom unwantcd govcrnmcntal intrusion |. . .|.
(qtd. in Vittc 210)
ur only choicc, it would sccm, is bctwccn onc autonomous subjcct ol thc
social contract and two autonomous subjccts ol thc samc social contract.
!l wc nccd somcthing othcr than a choicc bctwccn a naturalizcd account
ol scxual dicrcncc and gcndcr ncutrality, thcn, wc also nccd ncw ways
ol counting. Vhilc straight marriagc notoriously rcsults in problcms with
calculation (docs onc plus onc cqual onc or two:), quccr marriagc, in Tc
8allad ol thc Sad Cal, qucstions thc idca that any onc is (cvcr) a wholc
numbcr.
No:vs
1. Tc singcr |ol a ballad| docs not lorgct his or hcr position as thc rcprcscntativc ol
thc public voicc. 8ias thcrc is in ballads, ol coursc, but it is thc bias ol a party, community,
or nation, not an individuals subjcctivc point ol vicw (Prcmingcr ct al. 116).
2. Tis particular vcrsion ol a lamiliar phrasc is takcn lrom Nick Carraways ironic
dcscription ol Tom 8uchanans dclcnsc ol marriagc at thc cnd ol Fitzgcralds Te Great
Gatsby (124).
3. !n his 1915 study ol cxchangc among Trobriand !slandcrs, anthropologist
8ronislaw Malinowski attcmptcd to catcgorizc gilts according to thcir dcgrcc ol purity
and concludcd that thc onc purc gilt was thc gilt that thc husband givcs to thc wilc!
Taking issuc with Malinowskis undcrstanding ol thc gilt, Marccl Mauss, in his classic
anthropological study ol thc gilt (1925), bcgins by suggcsting that gilts, as wc tcnd to
think ol thcm, arc impossiblc, and procccds to arguc lor thc ways in which gilts rcprcscnt
a primitivc lorm ol contract and an cthical bcyond towards which wc in thc capitalist
Vcst should aspirc. !n Given Time, on thc othcr hand, Jacqucs crrida is intrigucd by thc
impossibilitythc spacc that is not a spaccol Mausss rcjcctcd gilt. Scc also Hydc, who
acknowlcdgcs that thcrc arc both good and bad lorms ol thc gilt, but who chooscs only
to contcmplatc thc dcsirablc prcscnts, or goods, as il thcy could casily bc sortcd out into
rcspcctivc catcgorics.
4. !l lcminist philosophcr Claudia Card rcminds us ol thc intimatc and ongoing
rclationship bctwccn marriagc and physical violcncc (Lcgal marriagc thus cnlists statc
support lor conditions conducivc to murdcr and mayhcm |8|), cborah 8crgocn argucs
that marriagc must bc rcclaimcd lrom rightwing lundamcntalist thinkcrs: Marriagc
lics on thc cusp ol thc cthical and thc political, shc writcs. Marriagc is a promiscan
impossiblc promisc insolar as it promiscs to sustain what cannot bc sustaincd, thc crotic
cthical cvcntwhosc ccct is to rccognizc and acknowlcdgc our sustaincd dcsirc lor thc
othcr |. . .|. As crotic, thc body takcs up thc risk ol violation lor thc sakc ol thc gilt (27).
5. Scc Kcrbcr 41. Vomcn havc bccn citizcns ol thc Unitcd Statcs as long as thc
rcpublic has cxistcd, writcs Kcrbcr.
Naomi Morgcnstcrn 142
Passports wcrc issucd to thcm. Tcy could bc naturalizcd, thcy could claim
thc protcction ol thc courts. Tcy wcrc subjcct to thc laws and wcrc obligcd
to pay taxcs. 8ut lrom thc bcginning Amcrican womcns rclationship to thc
statc has bccn dicrcnt in substantial and important rcspccts lrom that ol mcn
|. . .|. Tc assumption that marricd womcn owc thcir primary civic obligation
to thcir husbands pcrsistcd long altcr thc Rcvolution. !t continucd to dcnc
rclationships among mcn, womcn, and thc statc. !t lurks bchind what many
pcoplc takc to bc thc common scnsc ol thc mattcr in our own timc. (xxxxi,
xxiii)
Kcrbcrs work is vcry usclul lor undcrstanding what ! am rclcrring to as thc altcrlilc ol
covcrturc.
6. Patcman writcs: Patriarchy ccascd to bc patcrnal long ago. Modcrn civil socicty
is not structurcd by kinship and thc powcr ol lathcrs, in thc modcrn world, womcn arc
subordinatcd to mcn as men, or to mcn as a lratcrnity. Tc original contract takcs placc
altcr thc political dclcat ol thc lathcr and crcatcs modcrn fraternal patriarchy (3). Scc also
MacCanncll on what shc calls thc rcgimc ol thc brothcr.
7. Vhilc in July ol 1980 only cight statcs had passcd laws criminalizing rapc in
marriagc, by 1989 lortytwo statcs had passcd such laws. Still, Russcll commcnts, it is
casicr to makc rapc in marriagc illcgal than it is to cxorcisc pcrvasivc misogyny. Now
that many ol thc laws arc in placc, shc argucs, thcrc is signicantly lcss intcrcst in wilc
rapc. Russcll rccounts a lacco with a divorcc lawycr who noisily opposcd thc idca ol rapc
in marriagc. Tc spcctcr ol thc womcns libcration movcmcnt, hc warncd, is now in your
bcdroom (x). l particular notc hcrc is how opponcnts ol thc idca that thcrc can bc rapc
in marriagc bccomc panickcd about contracts. Surcly, thcy arguc, not cvcry scx act must bc
ncgotiatcd.
8. Vc might considcr, in this rcgard, thc analogy bctwccn thc soldicr/husband/citizcn
who must patriotically givc his lilc to thc statc in timcs ol war and thc bridc givcn to thc
statc ol marriagc. Tc conccpt ol a rcnunciation ol rights that simultancously conrms thc
individuals participation in a contractual ordcr also calls to mind thc status ol a prisoncr.
Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal is lramcd, somcwhat cnigmatically, by a chain gang working
and singingon thc cdgc ol town: Just twclvc mortal mcn, scvcn ol thcm black and vc
ol thcm whitc boys lrom this county. Just twclvc mortal mcn who arc togcthcr (72). Miss
Amclia, it should bc rccallcd, has a black scrvant, a man without thc rights and privilcgcs
that would disrupt hcr rclationship to thc contractual ordcr (31, 34), and Marvin Macy,
wc arc bricy inlormcd, is also thc owncr ol a Klansmans robc (33). Vhilc racc is litcrally
marginalizcd in Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal, racc and idcntity lormation arc ccntral and
cxplicit conccrns in McCullcrss Te Member of the Wedding (scc avis).
9. McCullcrs has bccn quotcd as saying, ! was born a man (scc Carr). Vhilc no appcal
to thc biographical is ncccssary to cstablish McCullcrss invcstmcnt in thc transgrcssion
ol gcndcrcd norms, thcrc arc scvcral lascinating (bccausc distortcd) autobiographical
traccs in hcr works. !n 1943 shc ccrtainly kncw a thing or two about marriagc and its
disappointmcnts. Shc had bccn marricd to and had divorccd Rccvcs McCullcrs (8allad
was complctcd months altcr thc divorcc). Rccvcs had bctraycd Carson in numcrous ways,
but thc onc unlorgivablc act, as lar as shc was conccrncd, was thc cmptying ol hcr bank
account (McCullcrs, Illuminations 3031). Rccvcs, thcn, is a kind ol antiMarvin Macy
gurc. As opposcd to giving all, hc takcs all. And, in accordancc with thc logic ol thc gilt in
this story, thc two arc psychically cquivalcnt. Vhilc rcccnt work on McCullcrs has choscn
to cmphasizc hcr lovc lor womcn, and particularly lor Anncmaric ClaracSchwartzcnbach,
Contract and Gilt in Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal 143
onc should not lorgct hcr quccr rclationship to Rccvcs McCullcrs, whom shc rcmarricd
in 1945. McCullcrs ccrtainly had wcddings on hcr mind: shc wrotc Tc 8allad ol thc Sad
Cal whilc taking timc o lrom hcr major projcct, Te Member of the Wedding.
10. For othcr lcminist rcadings ol Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal, scc 8roughton,
Carlton, Portada, Sosnoski, Vcstling. McCullcrss work has most oltcn bccn charactcrizcd
as lcmalc gothic (scc Kahanc, Mocrs). For discontcnt with this classication scc vans
and McCullcrs hcrscll in Tc Russian Rcalists. Charlcs Hannon argucs that missing thc
novcllas original publication datc (1943 not 1951 as many critics havc assumcd) rcsults
in crasing thc crucial wartimc contcxt. His work justics or lls out gothic rcadings by
suggcsting that Amclias rcsistancc to thc normalization ol labor, gcndcr, and scxuality altcr
hcr husbands rcturn makcs hcr a lrcakish, grotcsquc charactcr, a lrightcning prophccy lor
rcadcrs unwilling to coopcratc with thc rcturn to a masculinist cconomy altcr thc war (97).
For all his cmphasis on historical and cultural spccicity, Hannon is nally intcrcstcd in thc
ways in which Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal (in thc pcrson ol Miss Amclia) resists its own
historical momcnt.
11. Miss Amclia can bc associatcd with a scrics ol hcroincs who arc cithcr canny or
woclully ignorant about gcndcr and cxchangc (thc trac in womcn, idcnticd by Lvi
Strauss as thc vcry csscncc ol culturc). Janc yrc knows to bc wary ol Rochcstcrs prcmarital
gilts (which arc not gilts at all), gilts that will ultimatcly scrvc to placc hcr all thc morc
sccurcly in his powcr. !n McCullcrss gothic talc, Amclia is both Janc yrc and 8crtha
Mason: shc is hcr own madwoman in thc attic. Shc knows to bc suspicious ol thc gilt, but
shc is also thc onc who sucrs thc cost ol rclusing to givc in. Scc also Lily 8arts ultimatc
rclusal to cntcr into a plain busincss arrangcmcnt, such as onc man would makc with
anothcr (Vharton, Te House of Mirth, 233). Tc knowlcdgc ol thc impossibility ol making
such an agrccmcnt is thc lruit ol hcr tragic cducation. For anothcr southcrn gothic portrait
ol thc rclusal ol dcbt and mclancholic lcmininity, scc Faulkncrs A Rosc lor mily.
12. Tc ovb rccords thc carlicst scnsc ol gilt, in ld nglish, as bcing uscd to mcan
paymcnt lor a wilc and, in thc plural, with thc scnsc wcdding, which, thc ovb continucs,
corrcsponds to thc utch word lor poison.
13. nc way to rcad Miss Amclias rclusal is to rcad hcr as an apparitional lcsbian in
Tcrry Castlcs scnsc ol thc tcrm. 8ut onc should not lall into thc trap ol ocring lcsbian
as thc only answcr. For positing an idcntity or an idcntity catcgory as il it wcrc distinctivc,
singular, and scllcxplanatory would bc to miss prcciscly what this tcxt has to say about
subjcctivity and its ghosts. For rcccnt work on McCullcrs and lcsbianism scc Kcnschalt. For
a rcccnt cssay on McCullcrss invcstmcnt in thc quccr scc Adams.
14. For a compclling attcmpt to dcscribc thc csscncc ol thc gilt scc Hydcs discussion
ol thc litcraturc on kidncy donation. Hydc argucs that thc donors arc donors bccausc
thcy do not calculatc: Tc choicc is instantancous, thcrc is no timc dclay, no pcriod ol
dclibcration. Morcovcr, thc donors thcmsclvcs do not rcgard thcir choicc as a dccision
at all! (65). Notc thc magic or impossibility hcrc: making a choicc without making a
dccision. !l thcrc wcrc a momcnt ol dccision, ol calculation (which ol coursc thcrc must
bc), thcrc would bc no gilt.
15. vcrything in thc sphcrc ol this rst attachmcnt to thc mothcr, writcs Frcud,
sccmcd to mc so dicult to grasp in analysisso grcy with agc and shadowy and almost
impossiblc to rcvivily (Fcmalc Scxuality 226). Tc missing mothcr is thc lost objcct
who casts a shadow ovcr McCullcrss ction. Frankics mothcr in Te Member of the
Wedding dics whcn shc is born and is only a photograph in hcr lathcrs drawcr. Micks
mothcr in Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter is almost abscnt. Shcrman Pcw drcams that his
mothcr, a woman hc knows nothing about, is thc glorious diva, Marian Andcrson (Clock
Naomi Morgcnstcrn 144
without Hands). Tc mothcr in A omcstic ilcmma is dangcrous and abscnt in hcr
vcry prcscncc. And thcn thcrc is thc riddlc ol matcrnity poscd by Madamc Zilcnsky and
thc King ol Finland: Madamc Zilcnskys thrcc sons havc thrcc dicrcnt lathcrs, yct thcy
all look alikc and look nothing likc hcr. Vhat is this cnigma il not onc ol lost origin: !n
Tc Hauntcd 8oy, thc protagonist must rclivc thc thrcat ol losing his suicidal mothcr
in ordcr to rcnd hcr, a proccss that also marks his passagc out ol childhood. !l mothcrs
arc missing in hcr ction, Carson McCullcrss mothcr was, until hcr own dcath, quitc
prcscnt in hcr daughtcrs lilc. Sincc lor much ol hcr adult lilc McCullcrs was ill and
disablcd, hcr mothcr continucd to carc lor hcr daughtcr in a particularly matcrnal way.
!t is as il McCullcrs lclt thc most psychoscxually signicant ol bonds out ol hcr ction.
r, likc a good drcamcr/ction writcr, only rcprcscntcd thosc bonds in a distortcd or
ncgatcd lorm.
16. !n this Lymon rccalls A Portrait of a Ladys Gilbcrt smond. !l !sabcl chooscs
nobody, Miss Amclia chooscs all.
17. Tc conncction bctwccn thc gilt and nourishmcnt is not an incidcntal onc. Tc lovc
rclationship in which gilts arc givcn uncannily rcpcats an carlicr bond in which dcsirc and
hungcr wcrc cvcn morc dicult to tcll apart. Scc also Frcuds Ncgation on thc lunction ol
judgmcnt and cating vcrsus spitting out. Vhcn Marvin Macy visits thc cal, Miss Amclia
trics to poison him and cnds up almost poisoning hcrscll (57). Latcr, bclorc lcaving town,
Macy and Lymon x |. . .| a dish ol Miss Amclias lavoritc lood |. . .| scasoncd |. . .| with
cnough poison to kill o thc country (69).
18. Vhcn Cousin Lymon and Marvin Macy rst cncountcr onc anothcr, thcy cxchangc
a pcculiar starc |. . .| likc thc look ol two criminals who rccognizc cach othcr (47). Cousin
Lymon and Marvin Macy, that is to say, rccall Miss Amclias crosscd cycscycs which
arc turncd inward so sharply that thcy sccm to bc cxchanging with cach othcr onc long and
sccrct gazc ol gricl (34). Takcn togcthcr, ! would suggcst, thcsc two scts ol cycs gurc thc
novcllas attcmpt to dcconstruct thc opposition bctwccn intcr and intrasubjcctivity. Miss
Amclias cycs, morcovcr, call to mind thosc ol 8crcnicc Sadic 8rown, thc AlricanAmcrican
housckccpcr and surrogatc mothcr in Te Member of the Wedding. Shc has a dark and sad
right cyc and a bright bluc glass lclt cyc: !t starcd out xcd and wild lrom hcr quict,
colorcd lacc, and why shc had wantcd a bluc cyc nobody human would cvcr know (259).
19. Paulson rcads this sccnc ol malc violcncc and dclcat ol thc mothcr as ganging up
(187).
20. Tc allcgory ol gcndcr |dicrcncc|, as Michacl Varncr has writtcn, protccts
against a rccognition ol thc rolc ol thc imaginary in thc lormation ol thc crotic. |. . .| !t
providcs rcassurancc that imaginary intcrsubjcctivity has bccn transccndcd. Morcovcr,
this allcgory produccs a particular rolc lor thc quccr subjcct: |T| o thc cxtcnt that our
culturc rclics on thc allcgorization ol gcndcr to disguisc lrom itscll its own cgo crotics, it
will rccognizc thosc cgo crotics only in thc pcrson ol thc homoscxual, apparcntly bcrclt
ol thc mastcr tropc ol dicrcncc (202). McCullcrss ction, ! would arguc, thcorizcs cgo
crotics, or thc cxtcnt to which dcsirc docs not dcpart lrom various projccts ol sclldicring
(idcntication, narcissism, mclancholia). Hctcroscxuality, or lratcrnal patriarchy, in this
rcading, is thc ction uscd to compcnsatc lor thc lact that wc ncvcr lcavc homc.
21. Tc clcnsc ol Marriagc Act was passcd by ovcrwhclming margins in both thc
Housc and thc Scnatc and was signcd into law by Prcsidcnt Clinton in Scptcmbcr 1996 in
thc middlc ol thc night (!).
22. Albcrt Mohlcr, Prcsidcnt ol thc Southcrn 8aptist Tcological Scminary spcaking
on CNNs Larry King Live, March 2000. (Should Samc Scx Couplcs Havc thc Right to
Marry: www.cnn.com/TRANSCR!PTS/0003/09/lkl.oo.html~).
Contract and Gilt in Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal 145
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York: G. K. Hall, 1996.
avis, Tadious. rasing thc Vc ol Mc and Rcwriting thc Racial Script: Carson
McCullcrss Two Member[s] of the Wedding. Clark and Fricdman 20620.
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Chicago P, 1992.
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48998.
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1955. 22543. 24 vols. 195374.
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Twentieth Century. Ncw Havcn: Yalc UP, 1989.
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Chapcl Hill: U ol North Carolina P, 1985.
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Ncw York UP, 1996. 97119.
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Naomi Morgcnstcrn 146
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Marriage and the Family. Chicago: U ol Chicago P, 1904. 2 \ols.
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1979.
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Interpretation. d. Shirlcy Nclson Garncr ct al. !thaca: Corncll UP, 1985. 33451.
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a Lcsbian. Clark and Fricdman 22033.
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Citizenship. Ncw York: Hill, 1988.
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149
From Tomboys, Belles, and Other Ladies: Te Female Body-Subject in Selected Works by Katherine
Anne Porter and Carson McCullers, pp. 13857. 2005 by llcn MatlokZicmann.
LLN MAT L K Z ! MANN
Ambiguitythe Ideal Way of Having the World
cspitc thc blcak cnding ol Te Member of the Wedding, McCullcrs
ocrs hcrc a vision that bricy allows a harmonious way ol bcing. !n thc
dcpiction ol an adolcsccnt girl suspcndcd bctwccn childhood and adulthood,
shc rcvcals both thc tcnsions and possibilitics ol instability, ol bccoming.
Te Ballad of the Sad Caf portrays a woman who, in many ways, rcscmblcs
Mick and Frankic. Miss Amclia is, as Vcstling dcscribcs hcr, a grownup
tomboy (Carson McCullcrss Amazon Nightmarc 109) who, dcspitc hcr
agcshc is thirty ycars oldapparcntly has not yct lcarncd to acccpt hcr rolc
as a woman. McCullcrss choicc ol a grown-up tomboy (cmphasis minc)
as thc main protagonist suggcsts thc importancc ol thc statc ol suspcnsion,
instability, as it providcs amplc ground lor thc proccss ol bccoming. 8ut
shc morc than strcsscs thc potcntials ol an unxcd statc, sincc in patriarchal
socicty such a statc can bc tolcratcd only lor adolcsccnts, thc drastic cxtcnsion
ol Miss Amclias adolcsccncc is thus a critiquc ol socictys inability or rclusal
to makc possiblc bcinginthcworld.
!n Te Ballad of the Sad Caf, McCullcrs crcatcs a woman who is strong,
lcarlcss, and indcpcndcnt. A dark, tall woman with boncs and musclcs likc
a man (8SC 8), shc is, in lact, stronger than any man in town, bchaving
in a dccidcdly masculinc manncr and posscssing cvcn magical powcrs whcn
concocting potions to hcal hcr paticnts. Such a woman must appcar likc a gurc
llcn MatlokZicmann 150
lrom a lairy talc, sincc shc actually insists on, and sustains hcr indcpcndcncc
in a socicty charactcrizcd by rigid norms, rcgarding racc, class, and gcndcr.
!ndccd, . . . in this ballad McCullcrs ridiculcs thc myth ol thc Southcrn lady,
in challcnging gcndcr boundarics and norms ol hctcroscxuality by crcating
thc giant Amazon Miss Amclia who is not rcstrictcd by rcal norms to thc
cxtcnt ol Mick and Frankic.
49
!l onc disrcgards thc lact that Te Member of the
Wedding was writtcn scvcral ycars altcr thc publication ol Te Ballad of the Sad
Caf, onc could actually arguc that McCullcrs combincs and amplics Micks
and Frankics tomboy qualitics in Miss Amclia to cxposc in an intriguing
and morc radical manncr gcndcr constraints in patriarchal socicty and to
cxplorc ways ol bcinginthcworld. Clcarly, thc narrativc lorm ol a ballad
ocrs McCullcrs thc possibility both to crcatc this cxtraordinary woman with
supcrnatural powcrs, using thc ballads charactcristics to cnhancc an unrcal
magical atmosphcrc, and to sharpcn hcr critiquc. !n lact, McCullcrs cmploys
thc samc mcans that Kathcrinc Annc Portcr applicd to Tc Princcss. Portcr,
too, rcalizcd thc potcntials ol thc lairy talc and was thus ablc to cxplorc morc
radically a womans possibilitics to dcvclop an indcpcndcnt scll. Vhilc in thc
morc convcntional narrativc Palc Horsc, Palc Ridcr, Miranda is constraincd
by a morc rcal situation and ghts dcspcratcly and in vain lor control, in thc
lairy talc Tc Princcss, which pcrmits magic, charms, and spclls, Portcr is
lrcc to invcstigatc uncxpcctcd, unlamiliar, and thoughtprovoking mcans ol
rcsistancc against patriarchal socicty.
50
vcrything about Amclia sccms out ol proportion. Although thcrc
arc many similaritics bctwccn hcr and Mick and Frankic, Miss Amclias
lcaturcs, hcr (bodily) powcr, hcr gcncrous lovc, hcr strugglc, and hcr dclcat,
arc immcnscly cxaggcratcd. Likc Mick and Frankic, this manly giantcss, as
Millichap dcscribcs Miss Amclia (329), cannot bc miniaturizcd. 8ut whcrcas
thc ordinary tomboys arc mcrcly on thc vcrgc ol outgrowing gcndcr
boundarics, posing a potential thrcat to imagcs ol thc dclicatc, pctitc lady,
Miss Amclia actually is a thrcat. McCullcrs crcatcs a giant woman whosc
unnatural hcight causcs a vcry strong uncasc in thc inhabitants. Vhilc
Micks and Frankics suspcnsion ol boundarics is transitional, McCullcrs
hcrc insists on a pcrmancnt suspcnsion and makcs visiblc how such an
insistcncc challcngcs patriarchal socicty. Although Miss Amclia should havc
conlormcd to thc prcscribcd boundarics long ago, dclcatcd by socicty and
incapablc ol sustaining this pcriod ol transition, shc rcluscs to do so. Tis
tcnsion is lurthcr incrcascd with Miss Amclias namc that is not ambiguous
as Micks and Frankics but clcarly indicatcs hcr lcmalcncss and hcr lailurc
ol, or rathcr rcsistancc to, marriagc.
51
McCullcrs thus cmphasizcs thc
discrcpancy bctwccn a namc which cvokcs cxpcctations ol a propcr woman
and Amclias masculinc body. As thc mcaning ol hcr namc also suggcsts,
Amclia is laborious (nlinc tymology ictionary), indicating that hcr
Ambiguitythc !dcal Vay ol Having thc Vorld 151
insistcncc on a suspcnsion ol gcndcr boundarics is troublcsomc to patriarchal
socicty and, as wc will scc, that hcr lcmalcncss is laborious to hcr.
52
8ut cvcn
thc sustaining ol this suspcnsion rcquircs an immcnsc cort on thc part ol
Miss Amclia.
!n thc main part ol thc novcl, shc is thc only woman
53
who can sustain
this suspcnsion lor many ycars and who is ablc to rcsist gcndcr constraints.
McCullcrs sccms to suggcst that il only thc pcriod ol instability, adolcsccncc,
can bc prolongcd, thc rcsult can producc a pcrpctual suspcnsion ol gcndcr
boundarics that makcs possiblc bcinginthcworld. !ndccd, dcspitc thc
harsh violation ol hcr boundarics, Miss Amclia is cxcccdingly succcsslul,
bcing not only thc richcst woman in town, but also a skillcd carpcntcr, a hard
working cntrcprcncur, produccr ol whiskcy which posscsscs magical qualitics,
and scllcr ol chittcrlings and sausagcs. 8ut although shc has cmbodicd this
powcrlul tomboy lor many ycars, shc is not punishcd lor hcr masculinc
appcarancc and bchavior. n thc contrary, shc is lcarcd and rcspcctcd in
town and thcrc arc mcn who would actually havc courtcd hcr had shc takcn
any intcrcst in thcm (8SC 9).
54
Shc sccms at casc with both hcr cnvironmcnt
and hcr scll, posscssing apparcntly a habitual body that allows hcr to havc thc
world (McrlcauPonty 162), and assumcs subjcctivity through thc powcr shc
has ovcr othcrs. Hcr powcr is so grcat that thc inhabitants trust hcr judgmcnt
ol thc wcathcr and lollow hcr dccision to slaughtcr a hog altcr thc rst cold
spcll (8SC 55). !n contrast to Mick and Frankic who havc to strugglc with
rcal cxpcctations, codcs, gcndcr norms, and cannot achicvc autonomy to
thc cxtcnt Miss Amclia is ablc to, shc is in control ol hcr scll, othcrs, and, to
somc cxtcnt, cvcn naturc.
Although thcrc arc strong indications that Miss Amclia has achicvcd
a harmonious way ol bcing by cxtcnding hcr tomboyishncss, thc dcpiction
ol hcr lacc suggcsts that shc is not part ol bcinginthcworld. Tat hcr
lacc posscsscs a tcnsc, haggard quality (8SC 8), almost to thc point ol
bccoming pathological, rcvcals thc strcnuous naturc ol sustaining thc
transitional pcriod ol suspcnsion, it is laborious. Tc lact that shc is slightly
crosscycd also visualizcs thc prcssurc undcr which shc is placcd.
55
Furthcr,
thc intcraction with hcr cnvironmcnt is not rcciprocal in a 8cauvoirian scnsc.
Shc lccls at casc, harmonious, only with mattcr and human bcings shc can
manipulatc and control, by trcating cvcryonc as an othcr, shc objcctics and
dcnics thcm subjcctivity. !n contrast to Mick and Frankic, whosc dcsirc to
participatc in bccoming is charactcrizcd by a rcciprocal intcraction with
othcrs, having thousands ol thousands and thousands ol lricnds (MV
139), Miss Amclia is not at all intcrcstcd in such an intcraction as it docs not
scrvc hcr busincss intcrcsts. Shc avoids contact cvcn with rclativcs. Vhcn
shc happcns to mcct hcr cousin, both show thcir contcmpt by spitting on thc
sidc ol thc road (8SC 12).
llcn MatlokZicmann 152
McCullcrs cxaggcratcs Miss Amclias busincss intcrcsts and hcr dcsirc
lor control to makc visiblc thc mcchanisms in patriarchal socicty that scck
to dcstroy thc othcr. Tc many instanccs ol hcr lrcqucnt involvcmcnt in
long and bittcr litigation ovcr just a tric (8SC 9) arc aimcd at incrcasing
hcr powcr ovcr othcrs, sincc shc is part ol a male world, shc docs not valuc,
as 8cauvoir would havc it, thc lrccdom ol othcrs (Ethics 49, 60). !t is
thus not vcry surprising that shc is a solitary pcrson (8SC 9), who not
only rcjccts thc lovc ol mcn but all thosc who arc not controllablc, not
willynilly or vcry sick. McCullcrs clcarly ovcrcmphasizcs Miss Amclias
imitation ol man, has hcr posscss physical and cconomic powcrs no othcr
man has, and actually cxaggcratcs normal malc bchavior by having hcr
pcrlorm an ovcrly zcalous busincssman. Vhilc onc could considcr and thus
ridiculc Miss Amclias involvcmcnt in trics and hcr pcrlormancc ol man
as bcing inadcquatc, McCullcrs actually cxprcsscs hcr critiquc ol typically
malc (capitalist) practiccs.
56
McCullcrs has, thcn, Miss Amclia impcrsonatc
and mock man likc a drag king. Vhcrcas in Te Member of the Wedding,
McCullcrss locus lics on thc construction ol woman, in this novcl Miss
Amclias parody
57
also cxposcs thc construction ol man.
58
McCullcrs also rcvcals thc undcrlying lcar that undcrmincs Miss
Amclias scnsc ol scll, hcr ability to control. Shc is a highly cstccmcd hcalcr,
taking grcat pains to nd thc right curc lor various symptoms, thcrcby
assuming control ol thc mallunctioning body, ol naturc. No trcatmcnt is too
dangcrous or cxtraordinary to makc hcr hcsitatc, ncithcr is thcrc a discasc so
tcrriblc but what shc would undcrtakc to curc it (8SC 23). Shc is, howcvcr,
powcrlcss whcn it comcs to dcaling with a lcmalc complaint:
!l a paticnt camc with a lcmalc complaint shc could do nothing.
!ndccd at thc mcrc mcntion ol thc words hcr lacc would slowly
darkcn with shamc, and shc would stand thcrc craning hcr
ncck against thc collar ol hcr shirt, or rubbing hcr swamp boots
togcthcr, lor all thc world likc a grcat, shamcd dumbtongucd
child. (8SC 23)
Although it is truc that Miss Amclia is part ol a prcdominantly malc
culturc, raiscd as a mothcrlcss child by hcr lathcr, onc cannot assumc, as
docs Carlton (61), that hcr lack ol knowlcdgc ol anything othcr than malc
culturc contributcs to hcr conlusion and cmbarrassmcnt whcn conlrontcd
with lcmalc complaints. Rathcr, thcsc lcclings rcvcal hcr cort to rcjcct,
cxpcl, that which thrcatcns hcr scll: lcmalcncss. Shc distinctly scnscs how
lcmalcncss invadcslikc thc shamc that slowly darkcns hcr lacchcr
scll. Yct, although shc sccks to asscrt that shc is part ol thc malc world by
touching thc tcxturc ol hcr masculinc apparcl, craning hcr ncck against hcr
Ambiguitythc !dcal Vay ol Having thc Vorld 153
shirt or rubbing hcr rough swamp boots togcthcr, as il to convincc hcrscll
that lcmalcncss docs not cxist, shc lails. Losing hcr voicc, hcr subjcctivity,
shc bccomcs, in lact, a shamcd dumbtongucd child.
Tc samc discasc can bc disccrncd in thc sccnc whcn Miss Amclia
wcars hcr mothcrs wcddingdrcss. Tat Miss Amclia looks ridiculous in
gowns, this onc cspccially, sincc it is at lcast twclvc inchcs too short lor
hcr (8SC 37), contributcs to thc lailurc ol hcr pcrlormancc ol thc propcr
woman. Vhilc McCullcrss usc ol Miss Amclia as a drag king carlicr madc
visiblc thc construction ol man, Miss Amclias lailcd attcmpt at pcrlorming
a bridc, hcr mimicry, now illustratcs thc construction ol thc othcr gcndcr.
59

As Miss Amclia dons this bridal gown, shc rcvcals with hcr body thc
articiality ol lcmininity and is uttcrly alicnatcd by it. Shc kccps making an
odd gcsturc, and as shc trics to rcach lor thc pockct ol hcr ovcralls, and
|is| unablc to nd it hcr lacc |bccomcs| impaticnt, borcd, and cxaspcratcd
(8SC 3738). A situation clcarly ncvcr cncountcrcd bclorc, thc wcdding
ccrcmony thus conicts with hcr habitual |masculinc| body. At thc samc
timc, howcvcr, Miss Amclia cxprcsscs morc than discasc with donncd
lcmininity. Shc rcjccts hcr own pcrlormancc ol gcndcr, sincc, likc lcmalc
complaints, it thrcatcns to invadc hcr scll. Almost as il trying to cscapc thc
constraints ol lcmininity, shc hurrics out ol thc church, not taking thc arm
ol hcr husband, but walking at lcast two paccs ahcad ol him (8SC 38). n
thcir way homc shc talks about work and trcats hcr husband likc a customcr,
a bchavior that suggcsts hcr dcsirc to undo thc wcdding ccrcmony, rclusing
to lct this incidcncc bccomc an cxpcricncc that might cvcntually constitutc a
scdimcnt ol hcr past.
60
Not only do lcmalc complaints bccomc thc abjcct, McCullcrs has Miss
Amclia conncct cmbarrassing and shamclul lcmalc cyclcs with thc cyclcs
ol naturc.
61
Miss Amclia thus conccivcs ol thc naturc shc cannot control
as cqually lrightcning as thc lcmalc complaints which must bc rcjcctcd,
rcpcllcd, at all costs in ordcr to sustain hcr subjcctivity.
62
As it, lor instancc,
snows lor thc rst timc in many ycars, this unusual natural cvcnt prompts
thc inhabitants to rcact in various ways. Miss Amclias rcaction is most
intcrcsting. Unablc to lorm an immcdiatc opinion ol this ncw cvcnt (8SC
69), shc simply ignorcs it by drawing thc shuttcrs and locking all windows in
hcr housc. Although thc narrator claims that shc is not alraid ol snow, that
it is mcrcly somcthing shc docs not know, hcr shutting out naturc suggcsts
morc than a momcntary lack ol knowlcdgc. !ndccd, thc narrator continucs,
il Miss Amclia admitted this snowlall shc would havc to comc to a dccision
(cmphasis minc). Tis dccision would lorcc hcr to acccpt an inability to
sustain hcr subjcctivity through control only, as shc would havc to admit
that shc cannot dcny part ol hcr natural scll, hcr body. 8y shutting out
naturc, shc rcluscs to acccpt that shc, a bodysubjcct, is both transccndcnt
llcn MatlokZicmann 154
and immancnt. Clcarly, hcr body is a way ol having thc world, and it thus
cnablcs hcr as a bodysubjcct to projcct hcrscll to othcrs, to transccnd. At thc
samc timc, howcvcr, thc body scts limits as wcll, is immancnt. 8y shutting
out naturc until cvcry |snow| akc ha|s| mcltcd (8SC 72), Miss Amclia
dcnics thc immancnt aspcct ol hcr body and sccks, likc Mick, to transccnd
through purc will in a Cartcsian manncr.
63
!n anothcr passagc McCullcrs discloscs not only Miss Amclias lcar
and rcjcction ol lcmalcncss and naturc but also hcr lascination with it. !n
a glassdoorcd cabinct, thc most important piccc ol lurniturc in hcr housc,
shc kccps hcr trcasurcs, two ol which arc cspccially signicant. nc is a largc
acorn shc lound whcn hcr lathcr dicd, a symbol, according to Paulson, ol
hcr lathcrs procrcativc powcrs, and thc othcr is a littlc vclvct box holding
two small grcyish stoncs (8SC 44). !n particular, thc grcy stoncs draw hcr
attcntion, whcn shc has nothing to do, Miss Amclia |takcs| out this vclvct
box and stand|s| by thc window with thc stoncs in thc palm ol hcr hand,
looking down at thcm, with a mixturc ol lascination, dubious rcspcct, and
lcar (8SC 44). xprcssing simultancously lcar olhorrorand lascination
with thc kidncy stoncs rcmovcd undcr surgcry, shc is clcarly drawn to a
powcr that wcakcns and cndangcrs hcr subjcctivity. Shc is, as Kristcva would
put it, undcr thc sway ol a powcr as sccuring as it is stiing (13). Tcsc
stoncs, causing unbcarablc pain, rcndcr hcr powcrlcss and subjcct hcr to hcr
sick body, to immancnt naturc. As hcr body makcs it impossiblc to sustain
hcr subjcctivity, rcducing hcr willynilly to a wcak paticnt and conning
hcr to a hospital, shc cxpcricnccs this incidcnt lrom thc rst minutc to thc
last as tcrrilying (8SC 44). Rcmovcd lrom hcr body, thcsc stoncs comc to
rcprcscnt cxcrcmcnt, cxpcllcd as thc abjcct in an cort to sccurc hcr scnsc
ol scll. Tc lact that Miss Amclia kccps thcm as trcasurcs and vicws thcm
with lascination, dubious rcspcct, and lcar, rcvcals that shc will not bc ablc
to lrcc hcr scll lrom dangcrous (lcmalc) naturc, thc abjcct will continuously
bcsicgc hcr and thrcatcn to invadc hcr scll.
!ntcrcstingly, Miss Amclias sick body bccomcs pathological in a
doublc scnsc. 8oth McrlcauPonty and 8cauvoir point out that, in casc ol
sickncss, a bodysubjccts way ol having thc world is, somctimcs scvcrcly,
disturbcd. Physical movcmcnts can bc dicult, or, as Miss Amclia cxpcricnccs
it, pain can causc such tcrror that it prcvcnts hcr lrom intcracting propcrly.
To hcr, howcvcr, thc ccct ol kidncy stoncs is not just a normal proccss
ol a discasc that cannot bc cntircly controllcd. Rathcr than bcing part ol
thc basic proccss ol living (Hcinamaa, Toward a Phenomenology of Sexual
Dierence 110) to Miss Amclia, likc any natural phcnomcnon thrcatcning
hcr autonomy, discasc connotcs dangcrous, shamclul lcmalcncss. Sucring,
thcn, lrom kidncy stoncs is no longcr an ordinary discasc but onc which, in
ccct, thrcatcns hcr scnsc ol scll and lorccs hcr to admit hcr loss ol powcr,
Ambiguitythc !dcal Vay ol Having thc Vorld 155
control. For a bricl pcriod shc must cxpcricncc hcr scll as wcak, a charactcristic
ascribcd to rcal womcn. Tc lact that hcr pathology carrics a doublcncss
can bc clcarly disccrncd in hcr rclusal to lct this tcrriblc cxpcricncc bccomc
scdimcnt ol hcr habitual body and in hcr insistcncc on kccping thc kidncy
stoncs as a trcasurc, as lascinating and lcarsomc cxcrcmcnt. !t is this othcr
pathology that rcvcals gcndcr tcchnologics.
Miss Amclias scnsc ol scll rcjccts thc convcntional patriarchal conccpt
ol a wcak woman, sincc shc lccls that hcr compliancc with it would cntail thc
loss ol hcr autonomy. A normal hctcroscxual rclationship, translorming
hcr into a calculablc woman (8SC 38), is thus out ol thc qucstion.
McCullcrs makcs this vcry clcar by pairing Miss Amclia o with Marvin
Macy, who, almost as tall as shc, not only posscsscs an cvil charactcr (8SC
35) but has rapcd and shamcd scvcral gcntlc young girls. Although his
lovc lor hcr radically altcrs his cvil pcrsonality, it docs not changc thc lact
that hctcroscxuality in patriarchal socicty strips womcn ol thcir autonomy.
Conscqucntly, sincc McCullcrs insists on bccoming through thc suspcnsion
ol gcndcr boundarics, and sincc any normal man likc Marvin Macy would
contributc to a stabilization ol gcndcr, Miss Amclias marriagc to him cannot
last lor morc than tcn days, it cnds with thc humiliation ol his masculinc
pridc (his scxual advanccs arc rmly and violcntly rcjcctcd). !n lact, Miss
Amclias violcnt rcjcction ol hcr husband can bc comparcd to thc bchavior
ol Portcrs princcss who, not pcrmitting bodily touch, protcctcd hcr scll with
thc impcnctrablc masks and shilts that cvcntually killcd hcr. Yct, whilc thc
princcsss violcncc is ultimatcly aimcd at hcrscll, Miss Amclia succcsslully
uscs brutc physical lorcc against hcr (potcntial) opprcssor Marvin Macy.
McCullcrs is thus ablc to voicc hcr critiquc without victimizing womcn.
!n patriarchal socicty, McCullcrs suggcsts, a longlasting intimatc
(scxual) rclationship bctwccn a woman and a man, in which both partncrs
can sustain thcir autonomy, is only possiblc il mans powcr is diminishcd.
To achicvc bcinginthcworld, McCullcrs thus physically and mcntally
miniaturizcs Miss Amclias sccond partncr, Cousin Lymon. Tis miniaturc
ol a man combincs thc qualitics ol 8ubbcr in Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter and
ol John Hcnry in Te Member of the Wedding. Hc is wcak, mischicvous, and
apparcntly casily manipulatcd. Tc dcpiction ol him illuminatcs his childlikc
powcrlcssncss. As hc approachcs Miss Amclias prcmiscs in thc dark, his
gurc docs not cvcn sccm human, morc likc a call (8SC 10). Coming
closcr, hc looks morc likc a child, somcbodys youngun (8SC 11) than
an adult. As McCullcrs dwarls him to mcrcly lour lcct with a childlikc lacc
that is both solt and sassy, shc constructs, on thc onc hand, a man whosc
lcmininc appcarancc
64
mccts thc rcquircmcnts ol a ladypctitc and naivc
likc a childand who, sickly at night (8SC 32) with a tcrribly twistcd
body, sucrs thc conscqucnccs ol conlorming to gcndcr constraints. n thc
llcn MatlokZicmann 156
othcr hand, this dwarl puts Miss Amclia at casc sincc hc cannot possibly
posc a thrcat to hcr scnsc ol scll.
8ut not only his physiquc is unmanly. His hands trcmblc and hc
starts crying, a bchavior that is rcgardcd as a rcgular Morris Fincstcin
(8SC 13), a scvcrc rcproach ol unmanlincss. Vhcncvcr a man bchavcs in
a prissy manncr or crics, hc is harshly rcprimandcd with this cpithct which
rclcrs to a Jcw who oncc livcd thcrc and always cricd whcn somconc callcd
him a Christkillcr (8SC 14). 8y having mcn bclittlc and ridiculc Cousin
Lymons (and Morris Fincstcins) lcmininc bchavior, McCullcrs discloscs
and criticizcs rigid norms ol masculinity.
65
8ut Cousin Lymons dcviation
lrom propcr masculinity docs not only qucstion cxisting conccpts ol gcndcr.
8y having Miss Amclia actually ocr him to drink lrom hcr whiskcy bottlc
and invitc him into hcr housc to cat suppcr, acccpting him, McCullcrs also
cmphasizcs thc importancc ol thc blurring ol gcndcr boundarics that such a
dcviation providcs.
Cousin Lymon oltcn appcars likc a mcrc child, ncatly licking his
tcars lrom around his mouth and doing as hc is told (8SC 14). !nstcad
ol taking rcgular propcr snu likc thc othcr mcn in town, hc prclcrs a
mixturc ol sugar and cocoa (8SC 25). Yct, dcspitc his childish manncrs and
thc diculty ol dctcrmining his agc,
66
thcrc arc tcnsions that lcavc him, too,
suspcndcd bctwccn thc boundarics ol childhood and malc adulthood. Vhcn
hc, lor instancc, rcappcars lor thc sccond timc, his manncr ncithcr rcscmblcs
that ol an adult nor is it distinctly childish. Standing in thc ccntcr ol thc
group ol mcn who cntcrcd Miss Amclias storc, hc cxamincs cach mans
lowcr rcgion with shrcwd dclibcration (8SC 24). nc could cxplain this
odd bchavior by his hcight, that it rcquircs too much cort lor a small pcrson
to look up, but hc deliberately vicws thcm in this manncr. Tc imprcssion hc
gcts altcr vicwing thcir lowcr rcgions also indicatcs that McCullcrs uscs
his ambiguous bchavior to mock ordinary, hctcroscxual mcn. Taking in thcir
vicw lrom thc waist to thc solc ol thc shoc, hc thcn closcs his cycs lor a
momcnt and |shakcs| his hcad, as though in his opinion what hc had sccn
did not amount to much. !n lact, thc uppcr parts ol thcir bodics and thcir
laccs do not in any way altcr or inucncc his carlicr judgmcnt. . . . nly
to conrm himscll, hc tilt|s| back his hcad and |takcs| in thc halo ol laccs
around him with onc long, circling starc (8SC 2425).
Tc lact that Cousin Lymon is ncithcr child nor ordinary man is
lurthcr illustratcd by his bchavior towards othcrs. Hc is a pcrson who, oncc
scttlcd, immcdiatcly casts himscll into thc world by cstablishing rclations with
Miss Amclias customcrs. His intcrcst in othcr pcoplc crcatcs an atmosphcrc
ol illicit gladncss and an air ol lrccdom (8SC 27), hardly an achicvcmcnt
madc possiblc by a child. Not lamiliar with lcllowship (8SC 29), howcvcr,
cvcryonc prcscnt is tcnsc and scnscs thc oddity ol thc situation (8SC
Ambiguitythc !dcal Vay ol Having thc Vorld 157
27). 8y this cstablishing ol immcdiatc contact that scts him apart lrom
othcr and morc ordinary pcoplc, McCullcrs suggcsts on thc onc hand that
ordinary pcoplc do not intcract and arc not part ol bcinginthcworld.
nly small childrcn, not constraincd by patriarchal norms, posscss such an
instinct. 8ut thcy arc not ablc to rccct on thcir past, prcscnt, and luturc
and thus arc notyctbodysubjccts in a 8cauvoirian scnsc. n thc othcr
hand, McCullcrs undcrlincs thc importancc and potcntial ol a suspcnsion
ol gcndcr boundarics, bccausc thc tcnsion and thc oddity ol thc situation
promiscs bccoming.
!n this rclationship no onc is rcduccd to an othcr. Sincc both Miss
Amclia and Cousin Lymon not only challcngc cxisting conccpts ol gcndcr
but also opcn up thc possibility ol achicving bcinginthcworld, thcir
rclationship is markcd by a lack ol strugglc in which cach partncr sccks to
sustain his or hcr autonomy, dicring cntircly lrom Miss Amclias short
marriagc. From thc rst night thc giantcss and thc dwarl arc togcthcr,
McCullcrs clcarly cmphasizcs thcir harmonious intcraction. At thc samc
timc, howcvcr, thcir union is rcndcrcd grotcsquc, distortcd, in a manncr that
brings to mind Portcrs trcatmcnt ol lcmininity in Tc Princcss. As wc
rcmcmbcr, thc princcsss cxccssivc usc ol lcmininc clothing and ornamcnts
constitutcs a scvcrc dcviation lrom thc norms in hcr kingdom. Portcr thus
achicvcs an ccct that lcts lcmininity appcar in a dicrcntunlamiliar
light, that which is actually vcry lamiliar to us, normal, sccms suddcnly
alicn. Fcmininity bccomcs grotcsquc. Similarly, McCullcrs alicnatcs us
lrom thc normalcy ol hctcroscxuality by indicating thc possibility ol scx
bctwccn a giant and a dwarl.
67
Tat thc strangc rclationship bctwccn Miss
Amclia and Cousin Lymon also includcs thc possibility ol a scxual union is
suggcstcd by thcir going upstairs to Miss Amclias privatc rooms. !ndccd, as
shc walks up slowly, thc hunchback hovcr|s| so closc bchind hcr that thc
grcat swinging light ma|kcs| on thc staircasc wall one great, twisted shadow
ol thc two ol thcm (8SC 17, cmphasis minc). 8ut, although thcy bccomc
onc, thc distortion ol thcir shadow rcccts thc inhabitants disapproval ol thc
othcrwisc considcrcd holy hctcroscxual activitics in town. Not surprisingly,
Mrs MacPhail, a wartynoscd old busybody, soon claims that Miss Amclia
and Cousin Lymon arc living in sin (8SC 32).
68
Miss Amclias and Cousin Lymons union is thus initially rcgardcd
with bcwildcrmcnt, conlusion, and disapproval, indicating thc inability ol
patriarchal socicty to conccivc ol thc potcntials ol thc blurring ol gcndcr
boundarics. !n lact, thc town clcarly cxprcsscs not only disapproval but also
hostility towards Miss Amclia and accuscs hcr ol having murdcrcd Cousin
Lymon, whcn hc has not bccn sccn lor scvcral days. Tcy arc unablc to
imaginc a rclationship in a 8cauvoirian scnsc, sincc no onc has cxpcricnccd
rcciprocal rclations in which cach individual is at oncc subjcct and objcct.
llcn MatlokZicmann 158
Fcllowship, thc satislactions ol thc bclly, and a ccrtain gaicty and gracc
ol bchavior arc qualitics that arc dcnicd pcoplc ol this town (8SC 29).
Tat Miss Amclia would not disposc ol somconc not usclul to hcr is thus
unthinkablc. Such a socicty makcs subjcctivity impossiblc, turning almost
thc cntirc town into a passivc mass, lacking agcncy. Twicc pcoplc sccm to
bc drivcn to action by somc unknown lorcc. Tc rst timc a group ol mcn,
ccrtain that somcthing tcrriblc has happcncd to Cousin Lymon, gathcrs in
lront ol Miss Amclias storc waiting. Vhat thcy arc waiting lor thcy do
not know. |T|hcy will act in unison, not lrom thought or lrom thc will ol
any onc man, but as though thcir instincts had mcrgcd togcthcr so that thc
dccision bclongs to no singlc onc ol thcm, but to thc group as a wholc . . .
And whcthcr thc joint action will rcsult in ransacking, violcncc, and crimc,
dcpcnds on dcstiny (8SC 21). Although, at rst sight, it might appcar that
thcsc mcn rcprcscnt an idcal lorm ol uid idcntitics sincc thcir instincts
havc mcrgcd, thcy actually ccasc to bc individuals and appcar likc puppcts
movcd by dcstiny. As 8cauvoir would arguc, thcy livc in bad laith, as thcy
arc dcnicd thc possibility ol projccting thcmsclvcs towards thc world.
69
8ut McCullcrs clucidatcs not only how a suspcnsion ol boundarics
thrcatcns and cxposcs rigid patriarchal socicty. 8y dcpicting a vcry dicrcnt
Miss Amclia and thc ccct ol hcr changc on thc cntirc town, McCullcrs
actually cxplorcs an idcal bcinginthcworld. Hostility and thc ignorancc ol
lcllowship miraculously ccasc, as Miss Amclia uncxpcctcdly inquircs whcthcr
thc many customcrs in hcr storc want waiting on (8SC 27). arlicr, thcy lclt
that thcir livcs wcrc not worth much (8SC 66) and wcrc uscd to bcing trcatcd
disrcspcctlully, not only whcn buying whiskcy. Ncvcr bclorc did thcy cxpcricncc
plcasurc, dignity, or pridc. Yct, Miss Amclias brcach ol hcr own rulc and hcr
suddcn hospitality contributc to a radical changc ol thcir attitudc. Now all lccl
an atmosphcrc ol community that docs not givc risc to any rambunctiousncss,
indcccnt gigglcs, or misbchavior whatsocvcr (8SC 29) but instcad cncouragcs
a sharing among lricnds and a ccrtain gaicty. 8ut it is not simply Miss Amclias
altcrcd bchavior towards hcr customcrs that cnablcs a rcciprocal rclationship
but hcr pcrsonal changc. Although outwardly shc appcars as bclorc Cousin
Lymons arrival (8SC 29), thcrc arc lcaturcs that indicatc a soltcning ol hcr
othcrwisc tcnsc and haggard lacc (8SC 8), which now cxprcsscs a ccrtain
joy (8SC 30). Shc swallows oltcn, hcr hands swcat, hcr skin is palcr, and hcr
lips arc not so rmly sct as usual (8SC 30). Not thrcatcncd by an ordinary
hctcroscxual man likc Marvin Macy, thc strcnuouslaboriouscort ol
sustaining hcr grownup tomboyishncss, cntailing a dcnial ol lcclings such
as unccrtainty, joy, and soltncss, is no longcr ncccssary. For thc rst timc in
hcr lilc, hcr body is not a tool lor sccuring hcr indcpcndcncc, is not simply, as
8cauvoir would put it, brutc lact (Ethics 41), hcr scll and body bccomc onc,
a bodysubjcct.
Ambiguitythc !dcal Vay ol Having thc Vorld 159
!ndccd, McCullcrss bcinginthcworld has no boundarics and
allows cach individual to dcvclop continuously. Many changcs takc placc
in thc lollowing six ycars. Not only do Miss Amclias lacial lcaturcs soltcn
but also hcr manncrs, as shc is no longcr quick to chcat hcr lcllow man
and to cxact crucl paymcnts (8SC 31). Hcr abilitics to curc improvc as
hcr whiskcy bccomcs cvcn ncr than bclorc (8SC 31).
70
Trough hcr
lovc, Miss Amclia has turncd thc miscrablc, lcarlul dwarl into a sociablc
bcing, who, although hc oltcn initiatcs ghts among othcrs and is inclincd
to nosc around cvcrywhcrc, to know cvcrybodys busincss, and to
trcspass cvcry waking hour (8SC 49), makcs thc ncwlycstablishcd cal
so popular. As soon as hc cntcrs thc room, thcrc is always a quick lccling
ol tension (cmphasis minc), lcaving cvcryonc in thc cal in suspcnsc. As
Miss Amclias intcraction with him allows him to growbccomcshc,
in lact, has rcalizcd what 8cauvoir nds ncccssary lor thc assuming ol
subjcctivity. Such a rcalization cntails thc rccognition ol subjcctivity as a
transccndcncc towards othcrs which docs not cntrap but instcad allows
thc othcr hcr or his lrccdom.
71
Tc positivc ccct ol Miss Amclias changc
is also clcarly disccrnablc in how hcr customcrs show considcration and
rcspcct toward cach othcr. Hcr cal is thus thc only placc in thc arca that
makcs warmth and dignity possiblc.
72
Miss Amclias and Cousin Lymons harmonious union and thc
qucstion ol a possiblc scxual rclationship havc puzzlcd many critics. Somc
havc discusscd Miss Amclias tomboyishncss as a rcjcction ol lcmininity in
gcncral and criticizcd, in particular, hcr lailurc to acccpt hctcroscxuality.
73

As Miss Amclia is obviously not intcrcstcd in this lorm ol scxuality, onc
could draw thc conclusion that shc is not intcrcstcd in any lorm ol scxuality.
8oth Fowlcr and GlccsonVhitc, too, considcr Miss Amclia, and, to
somc cxtcnt, Cousin Lymon, scxually disintcrcstcd (GlccsonVhitc, 101).
Vhatling, on thc othcr hand, drawing on thcorics ol pcrlormativity, argucs
that thc masculinc Miss Amclia and thc lcminizcd Cousin Lymon arc not
only a parody ol hctcroscxuality but a parody ol a parody, cngaging in a
lcsbian butchlcmmc rolc play in which Miss Amclia impcrsonatcs a butch
and Cousin Lymon a lcmmc (246). Vhatling nds that Miss Amclia woos
Cousin Lymon, and is positioncd in thc rolc ol thc courtly lovcr, obcdicnt,
idcalising, courtcous and ultimatcly abjcct (245).
74
Cousin Lymon, on thc
othcr hand, pcrlorms a Southcrn bcllc as hc, lor instancc, dcsccnds thc staircasc
with thc proudncss ol onc who owns cvcry plank ol thc oor bcncath his
lcct (8SC 24). Considcring thc lact that in Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter and
Te Member of the Wedding, McCullcrs cxplorcs possiblc scxual rclationships
bctwccn tomboys and lcminizcd youngcr boys, Vhatlings suggcstion ol
a butchlcmmc rolc play ol a grownup tomboy and a miniaturizcd man
sccms plausiblc, as it also includcs thc possibility ol scxuality. Tc cxclusion
llcn MatlokZicmann 160
ol scxuality would cntail a dcnial ol thc body which makcs impossiblc an
idcal bcinginthcworld.
Yct, dcspitc thc lact that a butchlcmmc rolc play ccrtainly mocks thc
norm ol hctcroscxuality, ! would rathcr avoid constricting dcnitions ol
Miss Amclias and Cousin Lymons scxual prclcrcnccs, bc thcy hctcroscxual,
lcsbian, or homoscxual,
75
and kccp this issuc unrcsolvcd, suspcndcd. Tc
lailurc to codily Miss Amclias scxual (or any) bchavior is potcntially morc
disturbing and challcnging than cvcn considcring hcr a butch. McCullcrs
conluscs and tcascs thc rcadcr by not making clcar whcthcr or not thcy livc
in sin (8SC 32). Mrs MacPhail and hcr cronics do not doubt that this
unnatural giant woman and thc wcakly dwarl cngagc in unholy scx.
n thc othcr hand, all scnsiblc pcoplc |agrcc| in thcir opinion about this
conjccturcthcir answcr |is| a plain, at no (8SC 3233). Yct, good
pcoplc, who arc unablc to cxcludc a possiblc scxual rclationship, rcgard this
qucstion as a mattcr conccrning only Miss Amclia, Cousin Lymon, and God.
Not only arc Miss Amclias scxual prclcrcnccs suspcndcd, but also hcr and
Cousin Lymons lamily conncction rcmains unclcar. !l thcy wcrc rclatcd,
thcy wcrc only a cross bctwccn rst and sccond cousins, and cvcn that could
in no way bc provcd (8SC 32, cmphasis minc). McCullcrs abstains lrom
providing any clucs that would cnablc an uncquivocal rcading ol hcr tcxt.
76

Rathcr, shc uscs this unccrtainty, suspcnsion, to opcn up possibilitics ol
bccoming.
!t is signicant that in this talc McCullcrs is ablc to sustain such a
suspcnsion, bcinginthcworld, lor six ycars, it is an astonishingly long
timcspan oltcn ovcrlookcd.
77
!n thc morc rcal world ol Te Member
of the Wedding, Frankic cannot kccp alivc a mcrc vision lor longcr than a
day. 8ut cvcn in a narrativc containing clcmcnts ol a propcr ballad that
makc bccoming possiblc through thc cnhanccmcnt ol a magical, unrcal
atmosphcrc, it sccms that thc blurring and suspcnsion ol boundarics must
comc to an cnd. Vith thc rcturn ol Marvin Macy, thc hcman (Gilbcrt
and Gubar, Fighting lor Lilc 149), lrom prison, McCullcrs illustratcs thc
dcstructivcncss ol thc rcstoration ol thc carlicr and ordinary patriarchal
situation, onc which ultimatcly dclcats Miss Amclia.
As soon as thc ncws ol Marvin Macys rclcasc is hcard, a dicrcnt kind
ol tcnsion cmcrgcs. Vhilc thc tcnsion crcatcd by Cousin Lymon causcd a
scnsc ol community, an outburst ol talking and a drawing ol corks (8SC
49), this piccc ol ncws brings back Miss Amclias straincd corts to rcmain
autonomous. Hcr lacc darkcns and hardcns, bccomcs tcnsc, and dcspitc thc
warmth ol thc cvcning shc starts shivcring (8SC 52). Vhcn Marvin actually
arrivcs in town, trcspassing on Miss Amclias prcmiscs, thus rcvoking hcr
ordcr lrom ycars ago not to sct loot on hcr propcrty and rcclaiming his
rights as a husband, hcr spccial and bittcr hatc crupts and clcarly announccs
Ambiguitythc !dcal Vay ol Having thc Vorld 161
thc cnd ol bcinginthcworld (8SC 59). His rcturn, howcvcr, docs morc
than dcstroy Miss Amclias harmonious way ol bcing. !t also rcndcrs hcr
hclplcss. As Miss Amclia mcrcly watchcs Marvin Macy sctting his split
hool on hcr prcmiscs (8SC 53) but docs not turn him away, shc sccms
powcrlcss. Fcaring to losc Cousin Lymon, who, attractcd to Marvin Macy,
lollows him whcrcvcr hc gocs, shc is unablc to drivc Marvin Macy away.
Sincc Cousin Lymon cnablcd hcr to bc part ol bcinginthcworld, shc
cannot simply givc him up, or, as thc narrator proposcs, makc thc issuc clcar
oncc and lor all, and tcll thc hunchback that il hc had dcalings with Marvin
Macy shc would turn him o hcr prcmiscs (8SC 64). Although shc hatcs
Marvin Macy bittcrly, shc cannot cntircly lall back on hcr carlicr manncrs
and trcat Cousin Lymon as shc would a mattcr ol busincss.
8ut dcspitc thc vcry dicult situation in which Miss Amclia nds
hcrscll, McCullcrs has hcr not only tcasc and mock hcr lormcr husband
but actually cmbody thc suspcnsion ol gcndcr in a most provoking manncr.
Alrcady during thc six ycars living with Cousin Lymon, shc has bchavcd
provokingly. Vhilc shc usually wcars hcr boots and ovcralls, on Sundays
shc puts on a dark rcd drcss that |hangs| on hcr in a most pcculiar lashion
(8SC 31), mocking propcr hctcroscxuality sanctioncd by thc Church with
a drcss whosc color connotcs dangcr, lcmalc blood, and scxual lcwdncss.
78

McCullcrs lurthcr cmphasizcs Miss Amclias outragcous bchavior in ordcr
to mock hcr husbands masculinc pridc. Vhcn Marvin Macy bcgins to visit
hcr cal rcgularly, shc puts asidc hcr ovcralls and |wcars| always thc rcd
drcss (8SC 64, cmphasis minc). Shc also adds to thc intcndcd aggravation
by dccorating hcr cal in rcd. Shc has rcd curtains lor thc windows and buys
papcr roscs that look rcal. As il to undcrlinc thc rcd intcrior ol thc cal,
hcr grcat iron stovc, roaring with rc, turns rcd too (8SC 65). Tc wcaring
ol a rcd drcss and dccorating ol thc cal in rcd arc thus not Miss Amclias
dcspcratc attcmpt to attract Cousin Lymon with lcmininc wcakncss, as
Paulson argucs (194). Rathcr, it constitutcs a dclibcratc usc ol lcmininity to
aggravatc hcr husband.
79
As Vcstling and GlccsonVhitc havc pointcd out,
Miss Amclias bchavior, indccd, thc ballad as a wholc, discloscs McCullcrss
complctc rcjcction ol hctcroscxual union (Vcstling, Sacred Groves 125,
GlccsonVhitc 76). No mattcr how lcmininc and scxually appcaling hcr
drcss is, shc will ncvcr bc within rcach lor him. Almost as il to irritatc him
lurthcr, shc givcs him lrcc drinks and |smilcs| at him in a wild crookcd
way (8SC 64). Miss Amclia, thcn, docs not, likc young Mick and Frankic,
unconsciously lall back to thc powcr that thrcatcns hcr scll, lcmininity.
As McCullcrs has Miss Amclia pcrlorm woman again, this pcrlormancc
is not somcthing that alicnatcs hcr lrom hcr scll and incrcascs hcr discasc as
hcr appcarancc ol a bridc did. Again, thc articiality ol thc construction ol
woman bccomcs as visiblc as during thc wcdding ccrcmony, as shc clcnchcs
llcn MatlokZicmann 162
hcr sts and wcars hcr pcculiar rcd drcss hanging awkwardly around hcr
bony knccs (8SC 68). !n this sccnc, howcvcr, shc docs not makc any odd
gcsturcs, nor docs shc cxprcss impaticncc or lury. Shc appcars to bc at casc
with hcr ambiguous bchavior, cmbodying a masculinc woman trying to
pcrlorm both a propcr woman, thus cxposing norms ol patriarchy through
mimicry, and a propcr man through a drag king act which mocks thc
construction ol man. !n lact, it is not cvcn clcar whcthcr shc is a biological
woman or man. !n anothcr passagc, McCullcrs indicatcs this unccrtainty
particularly wcll. Hovcring ovcr thc stovc, Miss Amclia docs not warm hcr
backsidc modcstly. . . . Now as shc |stands| warming hcrscll, hcr rcd drcss
was pullcd up quitc high in thc back so that a piccc ol hcr strong, hairy
thigh could bc sccn by anyonc who carcd to look at it (8SC 71). Hcr hairy
thigh may indicatc that Miss Amclia is actually a man pcrlorming woman.
8ut McCullcrs docs not conrm such a suggcstion and lcavcs this mattcr
unrcsolvcd.
80
Miss Amclia is uscd as a hybrid not only, as GlccsonVhitc argucs, to
crcatc unsustainablc dis-ease (117, my cmphasis), but also to cmphasizc that
bccoming rclics on a going bcyond cxisting gcndcr norms. Miss Amclias
ease ol cmbodying both woman and man and hcr rclationship with a similarly
ambiguous man/child/lady gurc, hcr actual lack ol showing a pathology,
suggcsts this vcry strongly. To McCullcrs, ambiguity providcs thc idcal way
ol having thc world. !n ordcr to hcightcn lurthcr thc potcntial ol ambiguity
and its importancc shc uscs its contrast, ccrtainty and clcar boundarics, to
illustratc thc dcvastating ccct on bcinginthcworld not mcrcly lor Miss
Amclia but lor cvcrybody. Marvin Macys rcturn lunctions as such a contrast.
His rclation to Cousin Lymon (and to othcrs) rccalls Micks nightmarc in
which shc had swum through a crowd ol pcoplc who scvcrcly injurcd hcr. !n
this drcam, rclations bctwccn human bcings prccludcd individual lrccdom
but sought thcir dcstruction. Similarly, Marvin Macy trcats Cousin Lymon
as il to dcstroy him, calling him a runt (8SC 60), 8rokcback (8SC 61),
and cung him so hard that hc lalls. Most dcvastating, howcvcr, is Miss
Amclias bittcr ght with Marvin Macy which shc, dcspitc hcr rclusal to
bccomc a victim ol patriarchy, must losc, sincc Cousin Lymon aligns himscll
with thc hcman.
Tc gcndcr battlc bctwccn Miss Amclia and Marvin Macy undoubtcdly
constitutcs thc climax ol thc ballad. Again, McCullcrs crcatcs almost
unbcarablc tcnsion as both Miss Amclia and thc loomxcr (8SC 41)
prcparc thcmsclvcs lor thc ght.
81
Sincc thc battlc will scttlc thc qucstion
ol thc sustainability ol bccoming oncc and lor all, shc no longcr wcars thc
rcd drcss to irritatc hcr husband but changcs into hcr old ovcralls. For a long
timc during thc ght both opponcnts sccm cqually strong, and thcn Miss
Amclias victory sccms in sight, but shc is ultimatcly dclcatcd by Cousin
Ambiguitythc !dcal Vay ol Having thc Vorld 163
Lymons alliancc with hcr cncmy. Sccing Marvin Macy lying hclplcssly on
thc ground, hc sails through thc air as though hc had grown hawk wings.
Hc land|s| on thc broad back ol Miss Amclia and clutchcs at hcr ncck with
his clawcd littlc ngcrs (8SC 80).
82
Yct, according to Gilbcrt and Gubar,
McCullcrs dcpicts not only a strugglc, in which Miss Amclia actually carrics
out and rcccivcs blows bcttcr than any man, but a ght that can bc likcncd
to hctcroscxual intcrcoursc. !ndccd, as Miss Amclia and Marvin Macy arc
lockcd togcthcr, grapplcd musclc to musclc, thcir hipboncs braccd against
cach othcr, thcy sway backward and lorward, lrom sidc to sidc (8SC 80),
as il cngaging in a scxual act. Gilbcrts and Gubars rcading sccms plausiblc
whcn onc takcs into account thc thrcat that hctcroscxual intcrcoursc and its
cccts posc to Micks and Frankics scnsc ol scll. Tis is spccically obvious in
Micks casc. Hcr scxual cncountcr with Harry has such a dcstructivc impact
on hcr crcativity, hcr ycarning to bc part ol bccoming, that shc givcs up all
hcr hopcs and plans and acccpts initiation into propcr womanhood. Miss
Amclias dclcat, thcn, rcscmblcs thc latc ol Mick and Frankic and lorccs,
nally, an acccptancc ol thc boundarics ol gcndcr.
Hcr physical changc altcr thc ght sccms to corroboratc that
hctcroscxuality lorccs womcn to acccpt womanhood. Altcr thc ght shc
lics sprawlcd on thc oor, hcr arms ung outward and motionlcss (8SC
80). Hcr voicc changcs and bccomcs as powcrlcss as hcr hand that opcns
lccbly and |lics| palm upward and still (8SC 81). Yct, not only gcsturcs
cxprcss hcr powcrlcssncss. Shc lcts hcr hair grow raggcd which, as it turns
grcy, cmphasizcs hcr wcakncss (8SC 82). vcn hcr body shrinks, bccomcs
miniaturizcd as hcr lacc lcngthcns, and thc grcat musclcs ol hcr body
|shrink| until shc |is| thin as old maids whcn thcy go crazy (8SC 823).
Hcr hcaling powcrs arc diminishcd and thc rccommcndcd curcs arc now
so larlctchcd and agonizing that no onc in his right mind would considcr
thcm lor a momcnt (8SC 82).
83
Hcr dclcat, howcvcr, appcars much morc dcvastating than cithcr
Micks or Frankics. Vhilc thc youngcr tomboys, translormcd into propcr
girls, participatc in normal lilc, cithcr working at Voolworths or growing
down into a child bchavior, Miss Amclia is uttcrly isolatcd. !n thc bcginning
ol thc ballad shc is dcscribcd as a woman whosc lacc is scxlcss and whitc,
looking down on thc town lrom onc ol thc windows ol thc lormcrly so
popular cal now boardcd up complctcly and lcaning so lar right that it
sccms bound to collapsc (8SC 7). 8ut thc astonishing lact is that it was
not thc inhabitants
84
who lorccd hcr into this isolation, thcy would actually
havc likcd to hclp although thcy did not know how. Scvcral houscwivcs
indicatc, too, thcir willingncss to includc Miss Amclia in thcir community
as thcy nosc around with brooms and |ocr| to clcar up thc wrcck (8SC
82). Miss Amclia, howcvcr, rcjccts thcir hclp. Having oncc cxpcricnccd
llcn MatlokZicmann 164
bcinginthcworld through ambiguity but now bcing dcnicd it, Miss
Amclia cannot lacc thc ordinarincss ol patriarchal socicty with its rigid
gcndcr norms, and thcrclorc rcluscs to bccomc part ol such a socicty.
McCullcrss cxplorations ol thc possibilitics ol bccoming arc,
indccd, quitc blcak. 8ut dcspitc Miss Amclias scllimposcd isolation
and thc loss ol all hcr powcrs, McCullcrs has not abandoncd thc idca ol a
suspcnsion ol gcndcr boundarics. Vhilc GlccsonVhitc nds a rcmnant
ol powcr in thc imagc ol Miss Amclia looking down on thc town (77),
85

! undcrstand Miss Amclias rcjcction ol thc houscwivcs as an insistcncc on
thc blurring ol gcndcr boundarics: that shc, dcspitc thc tcrriblc outcomc
ol thc ght, rcluscs to bccomc an ordinary woman. Although shc now
takcs on such a womans proportions, shrinks in sizc, and loscs hcr voicc
and powcr, shc is noncthclcss suspcndcd bctwccn propcr lcmininity and
masculinity. A rcmnant ol hcr disturbing powcr is thus not hcr supcrior
position but rathcr thc continuous suspcnsion which McCullcrs indicatcs
by dcpicting Miss Amclias lacc as sexless and whitc (8SC 7, cmphasis
minc), shc is ncithcr woman nor man. Again, thc lailurc to codily hcr
produccs a strong lccling ol uncasc. Tc narrator, too, is acctcd by this:
somctimcs in thc latc altcrnoon whcn thc hcat is at its worst a hand will
slowly opcn thc shuttcr and a lacc will look down on thc town. !t is a lacc
likc thc terrible dim faces known in dreamsscxlcss and whitc (cmphasis
minc). Tc dimncss ol hcr lacc contributcs to an uncasy unccrtainty,
almost rcndcring hcr a gurc lrom a nightmarc that rccalls cithcr thc lailcd
opportunity ol sustaining bcinginthcworld or thc thrcat shc oncc
poscd to rigid patriarchal socicty. Appcaring at a timc whcn thc hcat is
unbcarablc only undcrscorcs hcr disturbing powcr.
Admittcdly, this disturbing powcr is now quitc limitcd. Although
McCullcrs is ablc to sustain an unscttling instability throughout thc ballad,
onc should not bclittlc thc cxtrcmc violcncc with which Miss Amclia is
conlrontcd. As Paulson points out (187), womcn in this town arc cithcr
abscnt or silcnccd. Tc ght thus constitutcs thc most tcrrilying mcans ol
silcncing womcn. !ts cxtrcmc brutality makcs visiblc thc cxtcnt to which
womcn, who dcmand a voicc, a subjcctivity, arc subjcctcd to mcns violcncc.
Tc lact that McCullcrs lramcs hcr ballad with thc dcpiction ol a chain
gang cmphasizcs only too clcarly this violcnt aspcct. !mmcdiatcly altcr thc
dcscription ol Miss Amclias lacc, in thc bcginning ol thc tcxt, thc narrator
givcs thc advicc that sincc thcrc is absolutcly nothing to do, to go down to
thc Forks Falls Road and listcn to thc chain gang (8SC 8), thus connccting
hcr lingcring lacc and thc dcsolation ol thc town with thc chaingang.
Gilbcrt and Gubar arguc that McCullcrs uscs thc chaingang to
cmphasizc Miss Amclias uttcr isolation. Vhilc shc is loncly, a prisoncr ol
scx (153), thc prisoncrs ol thc chaingang arc at lcast togcthcr in thcir miscry
Ambiguitythc !dcal Vay ol Having thc Vorld 165
and arc sustaincd by thcir own community.
86
As McCullcrs providcs a morc
dctailcd dcscription ol thc chaingang at thc cnd ol thc ballad, onc cannot
asscrt that prisoncrs ol a chaingang arc bcttcr o than Miss Amclia.
87
Tc
prisoncrs appcar to bc idcntitylcss mcn, chaincd togcthcr at thcir anklcs,
88

wcaring all thc samc prison suits. vcn thcir guard is dchumanizcd, his
cycs rcduccd to rcd slits (8SC 84). As thc prisoncrs and thc guard havc
lost thcir individuality, thcy arc also dcnicd subjcctivity. Tc lact that thcy
sing togcthcr, crcatc bcautilul music, both sombrc and joylul, docs not
diminish thc cruclty ol thcir punishmcnt. Although McCullcrs has onc voicc
altcr anothcr join in thc singing, shc also undcrlincs thc lonclincss that cach
prisoncr must sucr. Tc music sinks down until at last thcrc rcmains onc
loncly voicc, thcn a grcat hoarsc brcath, thc sun, thc sound ol thc picks in thc
silcncc (8SC 85).
!n lact, thc dcpiction ol thc chaingang rctclls in a condcnscd lorm
Miss Amclias story. Likc thc music that causcs thc hcart to broadcn and thc
listcncr to grow cold with ccstacy and lright, Miss Amclias insistcncc on
suspcnsion and unccrtainty broadcncd not only hcr scll, but Cousin Lymon,
and thc cntirc town lor six ycars. Howcvcr, bccoming also challcngcd,
cxposcd, and ridiculcd patriarchal socicty in lrightcning ways which could
not bc tolcratcd. Miss Amclia is thus punishcd and lclt with a voicc as hoarsc
as a prisoncrs, and is nally silcnccd.
No:vs
49. As Joscph R. Millichap points out, Te Ballad of the Sad Caf contains many
charactcristics ol a propcr ballad, such as thc conccntration on a ccrtaincrucialsituation
(thc strangc lovc trianglc ol Miss Amclia, Cousin Lymon, and Marvin Macy) and
thc unlolding ol thc action by itscll. Furthcr, McCullcrss ballad posscsscs a magical
atmosphcrc (333).
50. !n Reections in a Golden Eye (R), a novcl which McCullcrs hcrscll considcrcd
a lairy talc, shc dcpicts two womcn whosc possibility to assumc subjcctivity is dcnicd
in a similarly cxaggcratcd manncr as Miss Amclia. Captain Pcndcrtons wilc Lconora
cmbodicsnot quitcthc pcrlcct Southcrn lady. Shc is rcgardcd as a good hostcss, an
cxccllcnt sportswoman, and cvcn as a grcat lady (R 21). Yct, McCullcrs ridiculcs thc
myth ol thc lady by cxaggcrating Lconoras lack ol intclligcncc and hcr intcrcst in lood
and scx. Major Langdons wilc Alison could rcprcscnt anothcr Miss Amclia as shc, too,
has a companion who in appcarancc is similar to Cousin Lymon. His gurc is rathcr small
and lcmininc. 8ut, in contrast to Miss Amclia, Alison can only protcst against patriarchal
socicty by mutilating hcrscll (shc cuts o hcr nipplcs with gardcn shcars), shc is too wcak
to ocr rcsistancc in thc manncr Miss Amclia docs. Towards thc cnd ol this novcl, shc is
actually rcmovcd lrom this socicty and dics.
51. Miss Amclia docs marry oncc but ncvcr changcs hcr namc. Furthcrmorc, hcr
marriagc lasts only tcn days.
52. Amclia is also a mcdical tcrm lor a spccic kind ol birth dclcct, namcly thc
complctc abscncc ol an inlants limb (National Library ol Mcdicinc). Howcvcr, although
llcn MatlokZicmann 166
this tcrm appcars in thc rcviscd cdition ol Te American Illustrated Medical Dictionary lrom
1929, ! do not know whcthcr McCullcrs was lamiliar with this tcrm and namcd hcr hcroinc
Amclia to cmphasizc hcr lack ol normalcy.
53. !n lact, in this ballad womcn arc rarcly mcntioncd. Scc Suzannc Morrow Paulson
187.
54. l coursc, it is somcwhat casicr lor Miss Amclia than lor any othcr woman in town
to cntcrtain habits ol lilc that arc too pcculiar cvcr to rcason about (8SC 20), bccausc shc
inhcritcd hcr lathcrs wcalth and position.
55. Signicantly, towards thc cnd ol thc ballad and altcr hcr ght with Marvin Macy, a
dctcrioration ol hcr csotropia can bc disccrncd. |S|lowly day by day thcy |arc| morc crosscd,
and it |is| as though thcy |scck| cach othcr out to cxchangc a littlc glancc ol gricl and loncly
rccognition (8SC 83). As Miss Amclia bccomcs a rcclusc, boardcd up in thc uppcr lcvcl ol
hcr cal, hcr cycs arc turncd inward so sharply that thcy sccm to bc cxchanging with cach
othcr onc long and sccrct gazc ol gricl (8SC 78).
56. Similarly, Charlcs Hannon connccts Te Ballad of the Sad Caf with thc historical
contcxt whcn thc novcl was writtcn (it was rst publishcd in 1943) and nds that Miss
Amclia rcprcscnts onc ol thc many womcn who wcrc lorccd to takc ovcr thcir mcns or
lathcrs busincsscs and bccamc incrcasingly indcpcndcnt whilc husbands, lathcrs lought in
Vorld Var !!. Marvin Macys rcturn, thcn, rcscmblcs thc soldicrs rcturn who could not
acccpt thc changcd position ol womcn in socicty.
57. Judith Halbcrstam, answcring thc qucstion ol what a rag King is, writcs that a
rag King assumcs masculinity as an act. S/hc undcrstands hcrscll to bc cngagcd in somc
kind ol parody ol mcn (36). For a morc dctailcd discussion, scc Judith Jack Halbcrstams
and cl LaGracc \olcanos Te Drag King Book.
58. !n anothcr passagc McCullcrs has Miss Amclia cx hcr supplc musclcs altcr suppcr,
showing o hcr masculinity (8SC 17). !n Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter, McCullcrs also
ovcrcmphasizcs masculinity by dcpicting 8lounts raw strcngth (Scc also GlccsonVhitc
82). Shc docs, howcvcr, not makc usc ol a drag king to mock thc construction ol man.
Portcr, too, discloscs thc construction ol man in an intriguing manncr. Gabricls cort
to masqucradc as a shcphcrd, a propcr man, at thc Mardi Gras ball lails miscrably. Scc
chaptcr two, scction 2.3.
59. Tc lact that McCullcrs chooscs a wcdding lor Miss Amclias cnlorccd pcrlormancc
is signicant. As GlccsonVhitc points out, thc wcdding rcprcscnts (as all wcddings in lact
do) thc domcstication and hctcroscxualization ol social rclations (92).
60. lntcrcstingly, thc pcoplc ol thc town acccpt hcr strangc bchavior as dcccnt cnough.
Yct, hcr rclusal to consummatc hcr marriagc is considcrcd unholy (8SC 38), indicating
thc cxtcnt to which such a rclusal thrcatcns thc norm ol holy hctcroscxuality.
61. Suzannc Morrow Paulson also argucs that Miss Amclias rclusal to hcal lcmalc
ailmcnts is hcr dcnial ol hcr own gcndcr, hcr own vulncrability to natural cyclcs (198).
62. McCullcrs thus lollows a long tradition ol connccting naturc with lcmalcncss.
8cauvoir also discusscs womans allcgcd closcncss to naturc. Shc argucs that woman is thc
wishcdlor intcrmcdiary bctwccn naturc, thc strangcr to man, and thc lcllow bcing who is
too closcly idcntical (Te Second Sex 172).
63. 8cauvoir writcs that although mcn and womcn arc bodysubjccts, charactcrizcd by
thc ambiguity ol transccndcncc and immancncc, in patriarchal socicty womcn arc rcduccd
to immancncc bccausc ol thcir supposcd closcncss to naturc. Miss Amclias rcjcction ol
lcmininity mirrors prcciscly thc issuc addrcsscd by 8cauvoir.
64. GlccsonVhitc (6366) and Vhatling (245) draw attcntion to thc lcmininc
appcarancc ol Cousin Lymon.
Ambiguitythc !dcal Vay ol Having thc Vorld 167
65. !n Rcjcction ol thc Fcmininc in Carson McCullcrs Te Ballad of the Sad Caf,
Panthca Rcid 8roughton considcrs thc rclcrcncc to Morris Fincstcin important sincc it
rcvcals thc towns conccpt ol scxual rolcs (38).
66. Many critics scc a child in Lymon and thus considcr Miss Amclias rclationship
with him a mothcrchild rclationship. orccn Fowlcr rcgards Lymons latcr alliancc with
Marvin as an attcmpt at gaining indcpcndcncc lrom an ovcrpowcring mothcr, Miss Amclia.
GlccsonVhitc argucs that Miss Amclias rclationship with Cousin Lymon is ascxual,
rcscmbling that ol mothcr and child (73).
67. Vhatling argucs that thc pairing ol thc masculinc Miss Amclia and thc lcminizcd
Cousin Lymon is a dclormation ol thc hctcroscxual norm into a grotcsquc parody ol itscll
(246).
68. Sincc Miss Amclia and Cousin Lymon might bc rclatcd, McCullcrs also challcngcs
thc taboo ol inccst.
69. Tc sccond timc, altcr thc cnd ol Miss Amclias harmonious way ol bcing, thcy
gathcr to witncss thc ght bctwccn Miss Amclia and Marvin Macy. vcn thrcc young boys
lrom Socicty City who could always bc sccn at cockghts and camp mcctings arc drawn to
Miss Amclias prcmiscs (8SC 77). Tat thc ght will takc placc on that day at scvcn oclock
is known to cvcryonc, not by announccmcnt or words, but undcrstood in thc unqucstioning
way that rain is undcrstood, or an cvil odour lrom thc swamp.
70. Clcarly, Miss Amclias whiskcy posscsscs magical qualitics. !t brings out in cvcry
man an awarcncss and an undcrstanding ol things that havc gonc unnoticcd, thoughts that
havc bccn harbourcd lar back in thc dark mind (8SC 15). Miss Amclias whiskcy warms
a mans soul and makcs him scc thc mcssagc hiddcn thcrc. !n . . . two |othcr| novcls
McCullcrs cmphasizcs thc morc dcstructivc cccts ol alcohol. !n Te Heart Is a Lonely
Hunter, Mick drinks bccr which crcatcs a grcatcr distancc to hcr insidc room and in Te
Member of the Wedding, a drunk soldicr almost rapcs Frankic.
71. 8cauvoir writcs that only thc lrccdom ol othcrs kccps cach onc ol us lrom
hardcning in thc absurdity ol lacticity (Ethics 71).
72. Kcnncth . Chamlcc, cxamining thc cals in Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter, Te
Member of the Wedding, and Te Ballad of the Sad Caf, draws attcntion to thc uniquc positivc
quality ol Miss Amclias cal. Vhcrcas 8is rcstaurant is a rathcr drcary placc and Tc
8luc Moon Cal a hotcl lor soldicrs and prostitutcs, Miss Amclias cal allows thc pcoplc
to bccomc human bcings.
73. Scc Jamcs and GlccsonVhitc.
74. Miss Amclia also spoils him to a point bcyond rcason and cvcn carrics him on hcr
back whcn wading through a bog (8SC 31).
75. Vhatling lurthcr discusscs thc possibilitics ol a homoscxual rclationship bctwccn
Cousin Lymon and Marvin Macy (246). Shc also argucs that Miss Amclias and Cousin
Lymons rclationship could bc both lcsbian and homoscxual, sincc just as Amclia is a
woman pcrlorming masculinity to Lymons malc lcmmc, so Lymon is a man pcrlorming
lcmininity to Amclias butch (246).
76. McCullcrss rclusal to rcsolvc this unccrtainty has contributcd to a varicty ol
divcrging rcadings ol hcr tcxts. Scc vans, Fowlcr, Tactzsch, Kcnschalt, GlccsonVhitc, and
Vhatling.
77. For instancc, in Tcmcs ol ros and Agapc in thc Major Fiction ol Carson
McCullcrs, onna 8aucrly claims that Miss Amclia is only momcntarily capablc ol
sharing hcr lovc with thc wholc town (74).
78. Again, it is not clcar whcthcr Amclia is mcrcly a masculinc woman, trying to
pcrlorm propcr lcmininity, or whcthcr shc is a butch, or cvcn ascxual.
llcn MatlokZicmann 168
79. Vcstling and GlccsonVhitc also considcr Miss Amclias bchavior an act mcant to
inluriatc hcr husband.
80. GlccsonVhitc considcrs Miss Amclia a hybrid which so points to thc lailurc or
impossibility ol any stablc idcntity (117).
81. !ts outcomc is lorcshadowcd by a hawk with a bloody brcast ying ovcr town and
circling twicc around Miss Amclias propcrty (8SC 75). Tc bloody brcast, likc thc dark
rcd lcathcrs that dccoratcd thc wcdding drcss ol Portcrs Amy, indicatcs lcmalc blood and
suggcsts that Miss Amclia will bccomc a propcr woman.
82. Scc also Paulsons discussion ol homosocial bonds and lovc trianglcs in McCullcrss
tcxt (196).
83. Although Miss Amclia is clcarly dcnicd subjcctivity, hcr physical and mcntal dclcat
illustratcs that body and scll cannot bc scparatcd.
84. Marvin Macy and Cousin Lymon lclt town altcr having dcmolishcd thc cal.
85. Tc lact that Miss Amclia is conncd to thc uppcr lcvcl ol hcr housc docs not
ncccssarily cntail a supcrior, morc powcrlul, position. Rathcr, as hcr cycs arc turncd
inward so sharply that thcy sccm cxchanging with cach othcr onc long and sccrct gazc ol
gricl (8SC 78), shc comcs closc to bcing what Gilbcrt and Gubar call in thcir analysis
ol Charlottc 8ronts Jane Eyre thc madwoman in thc attic (33671). Scc also thcir
discussion ol Miss Amclia in Fighting lor Lilc, whcrc thcy claim that Miss Amclia has
bccn mctamorphoscd lrom a woman warrior to a hclplcss madwoman (153).
86. Paulson rcgards thc chaingang as homosocial togcthcrncss (200) whilc Kcnschalt
sccs it as a notc ol optimism, sincc any two pcoplc can makc music togcthcr, no mattcr
how unlikcly othcr pcoplc nd thc match (231).
87. Scc also Margarct Vhitts discussion ol thc brutality ol chaingangs.
88. nc could also arguc that thc chaingang symbolizcs Miss Amclias, Cousin
Lymons, and Marvin Macys rclationship with cach othcr, that thcy arc chaincd togcthcr.
Many critics havc locuscd on this lovchatc rclationship, using McCullcrss dcnition
ol lovc in Te Ballad of the Sad Caf to cxplain thc lailurc ol achicving a rcciprocal lovc
rclationship. Scc also Millichap who advocatcs a movc away lrom this thcmc.
8i niiocv~vnv
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Symposium. ds. Lodwick Hartlcy and Gcorgc Corc. Athcns: U ol Gcorgia P,
1969.
Vcst, Ray 8. Katherine Anne Porter. Pamphlcts on Amcrican Vritcrs, Numbcr 28.
Minncapolis: U ol Minncsota P, 1963.
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8cvcrly Lyon Clark and Mclvin J. Fricdman. Ncw York: G. K. Hall & Co., 1996.
155165.
Vhatling, Clarc. Rcading Miss Amclia: Critical Stratcgics in thc Construction ol Scx,
Gcndcr, Scxuality, thc Gothic and thc Grotcsquc. Modernist Sexualities. ds. Hugh
Stcvcns and Carolinc Howlctt. Manchcstcr: Manchcstcr UP, 2000.
Ambiguitythc !dcal Vay ol Having thc Vorld 175
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McCullcrss Ballad of the Sad Caf. Studies in Short Fiction 33 (Vintcr 1996): 119
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177
Chronology
1917 Lula Carson Smith born on Fcbruary 19 in Columbus,
Gcorgia, thc rst child ol Lamar Smith and Margucritc
Vatcrs Smith.
1919 8rothcr Lamar Smith Jr. born on May 13.
1922 Sistcr Margarita Gachct Smith born August 2.
1930 rops thc usc ol Lula in hcr namc.
1932 As a scnior in high school, sucrs lrom rhcumatic lcvcr,
which is thought to havc contributcd to hcr crippling
strokcs latcr in lilc.
1933 Graduatcs lrom Columbus High School. Vritcs plays and
rst short story, Suckcr.
1934 Travcls to Ncw York City, whcrc shc cnrolls in crcativc
writing courscs at Columbia Univcrsity.
1935 Mccts Rccvcs McCullcrs through mutual lricnd. Studics
writing at Ncw York Univcrsity.
1936 First publishcd story, Vundcrkind, appcars in Story
magazinc. Scriously ill, livcs at homc through thc wintcr,
starts work on Tc Mutc, which bccomcs Te Heart Is a
Lonely Hunter.
1937 n Scptcmbcr 20 marrics Rccvcs McCullcrs. Movcs into
Rccvcss apartmcnt in Charlottc, North Carolina, and
continucs work on hcr novcl.
Chronology 178
1940 Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter is publishcd. Reections in
a Golden Eye is publishcd in two parts in ctobcr and
Novcmbcr in Harpers Bazaar. Carson ill lor most ol
wintcr.
1941 Reections in a Golden Eye publishcd in book lorm.
!n Fcbruary, strickcn with rst ccrcbral strokc. !nitiatcs
divorcc procccdings against Rccvcs. First publishcd pocm,
Tc Twistcd Trinity, appcars in Decision. Sucrs sccond
major illncss ol thc ycar with plcurisy, strcp throat, and
doublc pncumonia.
1942 Noticd ol award ol Guggcnhcim Fcllowship. A Trcc, a
Rock, a Cloud publishcd in Harpers and sclcctcd lor thc
annual O. Henry Memorial Prize Stories anthology.
1943 Te Ballad of the Sad Caf publishcd in Harpers Bazaar.
Awardcd 81,000 lrom thc Amcrican Acadcmy ol Arts and
Lcttcrs and thc National !nstitutc ol Arts and Lcttcrs.
1944 Sucrs a scvcrc ncrvous attack. Fathcr dics in August ol a
hcart attack. Movcs with mothcr and sistcr, Rita, to Nyack,
Ncw York.
1945 n March 19, rcmarrics Rccvcs in Ncw City, Ncw York.
1946 Rccvcs grantcd physical disability dischargc lrom thc army.
Te Member of the Wedding publishcd. Awardcd sccond
Guggcnhcim Fcllowship. \isits Tcnncsscc Villiams on
Nantuckct !sland and bcgins rcwriting Te Member of the
Wedding as a play. !n autumn, lcavcs lor uropc with hcr
husband, thcy plan to livc in Paris.
1947 Sucrs two scrious strokcs and is paralyzcd on lclt sidc. !n
cccmbcr, own homc bccausc ol paralysis, hcr husband,
who sucrs lrom dclirium trcmcns, accompanics hcr.
1948 !n March, attcmpts suicidc and is hospitalizcd in
Manhattan.
1950 Te Member of the Wedding opcns on 8roadway. !t wins thc
Ncw York rama Critics Circlc Award lor bcst play ol thc
scason as wcll as othcr awards.
1951 Sclls scrccn rights to Te Member of the Wedding. Collcctcd
works arc publishcd as Te Ballad of the Sad Caf and Other
Works.
1952 Te Ballad of the Sad Caf and Collected Short Stories
publishcd. !nductcd into thc National !nstitutc ol Arts and
Lcttcrs. Vith Rccvcs, buys homc outsidc Paris.
Chronology
179
1953 Carson and Rccvcs cxpcricncc scvcrc marital problcms.
Rccvcs trics to convincc hcr to commit a doublc suicidc. !n
Novcmbcr, Rccvcs kills himscll in a Paris hotcl.
1955 Travcls with Tcnncsscc Villiams to Kcy Vcst in April to
work on dramatizing thrcc manuscripts. n Junc 10, mothcr
dics uncxpcctcdly and Carson is uttcrly dcvastatcd.
1957 Te Square Root of Wonderful opcns on 8roadway but closcs
altcr only lortyvc pcrlormanccs.
1958 Carson sucrs acutc dcprcssion ovcr plays prcmaturc
closing.
195962 Undcrgocs scvcral opcrations on arm, hand, and/or wrist,
as wcll as surgcry lor brcast canccr. !n 1961 Clock Without
Hands publishcd. 8y 1962, spcnds most ol hcr timc in a
whcclchair.
1963 Suckcr, rst short story writtcn in 1933, publishcd.
dward Albccs adaptation ol Te Ballad of the Sad Caf
opcns on 8roadway.
1964 !n thc spring, brcaks right hip and shattcrs lclt clbow.
Collcction ol childrcns vcrscs, Sweet as a Pickle, Clean as a
Pig, is publishcd.
1966 Vorks on autobiography.
1967 n August 15, sucrs nal strokc and is comatosc lor
lortyscvcn days. ics on Scptcmbcr 29.
1968 Film vcrsion ol Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter rclcascd.
1971 Margarita G. Smith, Carsons sistcr, cdits Te Mortgaged
Heart, a collcction ol Carsons short storics, pocms, and
cssays.
1999 Unnishcd autobiography, Illumination and Night Glare,
cditcd by Carlos L. cws, publishcd.
Contributors
HARL 8LM is Stcrling Prolcssor ol thc Humanitics at Yalc
Univcrsity. Hc is thc author ol 30 books, including Shelleys Mythmaking,
Te Visionary Company, Blakes Apocalypse, Yeats, A Map of Misreading,
Kabbalah and Criticism, Agon: Toward a Teory of Revisionism, Te American
Religion, Te Western Canon, and Omens of Millennium: Te Gnosis of Angels,
Dreams, and Resurrection. Te Anxiety of Inuence scts lorth Prolcssor 8looms
provocativc thcory ol thc litcrary rclationships bctwccn thc grcat writcrs and
thcir prcdcccssors. His most rcccnt books includc Shakespeare: Te Invention
of the Human, a 1998 National 8ook Award nalist, How to Read and
Why, Genius: A Mosaic of One Hundred Exemplary Creative Minds, Hamlet:
Poem Unlimited, Where Shall Wisdom Be Found?, and Jesus and Yahweh: Te
Names Divine. !n 1999, Prolcssor 8loom rcccivcd thc prcstigious Amcrican
Acadcmy ol Arts and Lcttcrs Gold Mcdal lor Criticism. Hc has also rcccivcd
thc !ntcrnational Prizc ol Catalonia, thc Allonso Rcycs Prizc ol Mcxico, and
thc Hans Christian Andcrscn 8iccntcnnial Prizc ol cnmark.
TNY J. STAFFR is a prolcssor ol nglish at thc Univcrsity ol Tcxas
at l Paso. Hc has publishcd many cssays and also is a playwright who has
had his work produccd in numcrous thcatcrs across thc country.
RACHL AAMS is an associatc prolcssor ol nglish and comparativc
litcraturc at Columbia Univcrsity. Shc is thc author ol Sideshow U.S.A.:
Freaks and the American Cultural Imagination and cocditor ol Te Masculinity
Studies Reader.
180
Contributors 181
CYNTH!A VU is an assistant prolcssor ol nglish at Agncs Scott
Collcgc.

SARAH GLSNVH!T is an indcpcndcnt scholar living in Sydncy,
Australia. Shc attcndcd thc Univcrsity ol Ncw South Valcs and is thc author
ol Strange Bodies: Gender and Identity in the Novels of Carson McCullers.
RN FVLR is a prolcssor at thc Univcrsity ol Kansas. Shc is thc
author ol Faulkner: Te Return of the Repressed and cocditor ol numcrous
collcctions ol cssays on Faulkncr.
8TTY . McK!NN! is an assistant prolcssor in thc languagc and
litcraturc division at Gull Coast Community Collcgc.
CARLS L. VS tcachcs at John Cabot Univcrsity in Romc, !taly. Hc is
thc cditor ol Complete Novels, an cdition ol McCullcrss work, and hc is thc
lounding prcsidcnt ol thc Carson McCullcrs Socicty.
JFF A8RNATHY is prolcssor, vicc prcsidcnt, and dcan ol thc collcgc at
Augustana Collcgc in Rhodc !sland. Hc is thc author ol To Hell and Back:
Race and Betrayal in the Southern Novel.
JNN!FR MURRAY is an associatc prolcssor in North Amcrican litcraturc
at thc Univcrsity ol FranchcComt in 8csanon, Francc. Shc has writtcn on
Tcnncsscc Villiams, Flanncry Connor, and Margarct Atwood.
NAM! MRGNSTRN is an associatc prolcssor in thc nglish
dcpartmcnt at thc Univcrsity ol Toronto. Shc has publishcd cssays on a
rangc ol twcnticthccntury writcrs and thcorists.
LLN MATLKZ!MANN is a studcnt counsclor and tcachcr at
Uppsala Univcrsity in Uppsala, Swcdcn. Hcr rcscarch intcrcsts includc
Southcrn litcraturc, popular ction, lcminist thcory and philosophy, and
scicncc and thc history ol scicncc.
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Acknowledgments
Tony J. Staord, Gray ycs !s Glass: !magc and Tcmc in Te Member of the
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can rama !nstitutc. Rcprintcd by pcrmission.
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right, 1999, ukc Univcrsity Prcss. All rights rcscrvcd. Uscd by pcrmission
ol thc publishcr.
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icrcncc in thc Short Fiction ol Carson McCullcrs. From Te Southern
Literary Journal 34, no. 1 (Fall 2001): pp. 4455. 2001 by thc dcpartmcnt
ol nglish ol thc Univcrsity ol North Carolina at Chapcl Hill. Rcprintcd by
pcrmission.
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and thc Casc ol Carson McCullcrs. From Te Southern Literary Journal 33,
no. 2 (Spring 2001): pp. 10823. 2001 by thc dcpartmcnt ol nglish ol thc
Univcrsity ol North Carolina at Chapcl Hill. Rcprintcd by pcrmission.
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Caf. From Critique 43, no. 3 (Spring 2002): pp. 26070. Rcprintcd with
pcrmission ol thc Hclcn wight Rcid ducational Foundation. Publishcd
Acknowlcdgmcnts 186
by Hcldrcl Communications, 1319 ightccnth St., NV, Vashington, C
200361802. Copyright 2002.
8ctty . McKinnic and Carlos L. cws, Southern Women Playwrights. Copy
right 2002 by Univcrsity ol Alabama Prcss. Rcproduccd with pcrmission ol
Univcrsity ol Alabama Prcss in thc lormat othcr book via Copyright Clcar
ancc Ccntcr.
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Racial Unccrtainty. From To Hell and Back: Race and Betrayal in the Southern
Novel, pp. 84106. 2003 by thc Univcrsity ol Gcorgia Prcss. Rcprintcd by
pcrmission.
Jcnnilcr Murray, Approaching Community in Carson McCullcrss Te Heart
Is a Lonely Hunter. From Te Southern Quarterly, vol. 42, no. 4 (Summcr
2004): pp. 107114. 2004 by thc Univcrsity ol Southcrn Mississippi. Rc
produccd by pcrmission.
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8allad ol thc Sad Cal in dierences, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 103125. Copyright,
2005, 8rown Univcrsity and dierences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies.
All rights rcscrvcd. Uscd by pcrmission ol thc publishcr.
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vcry cort has bccn madc to contact thc owncrs ol copyrightcd matcrial
and sccurc copyright pcrmission. Articlcs appcaring in this volumc gcncrally
appcar much as thcy did in thcir original publication with lcw or no cditorial
changcs. !n somc cascs, lorcign languagc tcxt has bccn rcmovcd lrom thc
original cssay. Tosc intcrcstcd in locating thc original sourcc will nd thc
inlormation citcd abovc.
Index
187
Abcrnathy, Jc, 99
Adams, Rachcl, 17
adolcsccncc, lcmalc, 6068
adolcsccnt scllloathing, 29
AlricanAmcrican charactcrs. see black
charactcrs
alicnation, 35, 58, 73, 77, 103104
lrom thc body, 18
cxistcntial, 57
lrom God, 14
allcgory ol gcndcr, 138141, 144n20
ambiguity, 162
Andcrson, Shcrwood, 60
antiScmitism, 49
Antonapoulos (charactcr), 119, 122123,
124
Aristotlc, 49
Arthur (8oo) Radlcy (charactcr),
109115
Arvin, Ncwton, 21
assimilation, 76, 77
Atticus Finch (charactcr), 109114
Audcn, V.H., 20
8aby Vilson (charactcr), 62, 63
8akkhtin, Mikhail, 5860
Te Ballad of the Sad Caf and Other
Stories (McCullcrs)
abscncc ol AlricanAmcrican
charactcrs in, 4546, 47
issucs ol cthnic dicrcncc in, 4555
Tc 8allad ol thc Sad Cal
(McCullcrs), 1, 4748, 54, 68, 7384
buricd dcsirc in, 7377
contract and gilt in, 128144
Miss Amclia vans in, 68, 7482,
128, 132144, 149165
primal sccnc in, 7782
bcinginthcworld, 151, 157, 158
159, 160, 164
bclonging, scnsc ol , 8
8crcnicc (charactcr), 2526, 3032, 36,
100108
8i 8rannon (charactcr), 119, 121,
123124
biscxuality, 24, 94
black charactcrs
abscncc ol, 4546, 47
in Clock Without Hands, 3235
in To Kill a Mockingbird, 108115
in Member of the Wedding, 3031,
36, 100108
black labor, immigrant labor and,
4647
black world, intcrscction bctwccn whitc
world and, 102108, 109111
blackncss, 111
blackwhitc racial discord, 47
8loom, Harold, 15
bodics
adolcsccnt, 64
dcviant, 1819, 22
lcmalc, 49, 60, 62, 153154
Jcwish, 49
prcoccupation with, 60
rclationship bctwccn things and, 19
!ndcx 188
suspcndcd bctwccn youth and
adulthood, 25, 60
bodily cxccsscs, 2324, 59
body alicnation, 18
body subjccts, 153154, 166n63
8roughton, Panthca, 74
8utlcr, Judith, 22
Calpurnia (charactcr), 109110
Capotc, Truman, 57, 62
captivity, 6364
Carlton, Ann, 61
Carr, \irginia Spcnccr, 7, 60, 93, 94
Cartcr, Angcla, 66
castration anxicty, 7778
chain gang, 45, 164165, 168n88
charactcrs. See also specic characters
black, 3036, 4547, 100117
capacity to lovc in, 2
dclormcd, 59, 60
uropcan immigrant, 4554
lcmalc, 2324, 41n21
lrcaks, 1724, 3033, 3538, 5768
in Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter,
117125
Jcwish malc, 4751, 54
quccr, 1822, 2526
tomboys, 6064, 93, 149151
Chodorow, Nancy, 75, 77
civil rights movcmcnt, 108109
ClaracSchwarzcnbach, Annamaric, 21
class lincs, marrying across, 5253
classic lcmininity, 6263
claustrophobia, 35, 63, 64
Clock Without Hands (McCullcrs), 19,
67, 94
gcndcr and scxual dicrcncc in,
2730, 3235
racial dicrcnccs in, 31, 3235
closcting, 22
clothing, 2226, 28, 34, 37
cold war, 18, 2930, 33, 35, 43n33
Collins, Villiam J., 47
community, 124125
conlormity, 2930
consumcr culturc, 1819, 3435
containmcnt, 63
contract
gilt and, 127129, 134138, 140
marriagc, 127132, 140141
scxual, 130
social, 130, 131132, 133, 141
contract thcory, 130131
avis, Tadious M., 30
dcath, 90
dclormcd charactcrs, 59, 60
dcsirc, 122, 139140
dcviant bodics, 1819, 22
cws, Carlos L., 87
iamond, avid, 21
disability, 60
disablcd pcrsons, lcminization ol, 49
divinc gazing, 14
r. Copcland (charactcr), 119120, 121
Tc ynamics ol thc Translcrcncc
(Frcud), 12
dmonds, Richard Hathaway, 46
cmbodimcnt, 60
cntrapmcnt, 6364
ros, 1
crotic hopc, 2
cthnic dicrcncc, rcconccptualizing,
4555
uropcan immigrants, 4554
vans, livcr, 94, 117
cxchangc, 140
cxistcntial anguish, 18, 57, 58
cycs, visual motil ol, 714, 3233
lairy talcs, 150
lalsc conncctions, 12
lantasics, 3537
lashion, 2223
lathcr, 7475, 7779, 80, 83n8, 84n14,
84n15
Faulkncr, Villiam, 2, 57, 59
Fear of Flying ( Jong), 66
lcmalc adolcsccncc, 6068, 149
lcmalc body, 49, 60, 62, 153154
lcmalc charactcrs, 41n21. See also specic
characters
bodily cxccsscs ol, 2324
!ndcx 189
lcmalc scxuality, 36
lcmalcncss, 153155
lcmininity, 161, 164
convcntional, 2326, 36, 6263
as grotcsquc, 157
idcal, 6163, 65
rcjcction ol, 74
lcminization
ol thc disablcd, 49
ol thc Jcw, 49
Ficdlcr, Lcslic, 58
Flaubcrt, Gustavc, 2
ight imagcs, 6668
Tc Flowcring rcam (McCullcrs), 2
lorcignncss, 50
Fowlcr, orccn, 73
Franccs (charactcr), 4951
Frank, Annc, 2
Frankic Addams (charactcr), 714,
2325, 31, 3638, 60, 6265, 9091,
93, 100108, 150
Frcak Paviliion, 24, 2731, 3638
lrcak shows, 2224, 3738, 41n18, 64
lrcaks/lrcakishncss
in McCullcrss ction, 1724, 3033,
3538, 6061, 6466
in southcrn grotcsquc ction, 5768
Frcud, Sigmund, 12, 7374, 7778, 82,
124, 143n15
Garbo, Grcta, 21
gazing motil, 79, 14, 3233
gcndcr allcgory, 138141, 144n20
gcndcr boundarics, 24, 27, 64, 152153,
155, 157158, 164
gcndcr idcntity, 20, 23, 2627, 87, 133
gcndcr rolcs, normativc, 21
gcndcr transgrcssion, 32
gcndcrbascd opprcssion, 18
gilts
contracts and, 127129, 134138,
140
dcgrcc ol purity ol, 141n3
gigantism, 6465, 66
Gilman, Sandcr, 49, 54n1
glass cyc imagc, 1011, 32
GlccsonVhitc, Sarah, 57
God, 14
gothic litcraturc, 57, 68n1
Grcat Migration, 47
Grossbcrg, Michacl, 129
grotcsquc, southcrn, 5768
HallMan HallVoman (charactcr), 24,
27, 29, 64, 66
Hall, Gordon Langlcy, 17, 18, 21
HallSimmons, awn Pcpita, 1718
Te Heart Is a Lonely Hunter
(McCullcrs), 24, 6568, 117125
hcat, 6364
hcrmaphroditism, 24, 27, 29, 64, 91
hctcroscxuality, 21, 90, 157, 160
Hobbcs, Tomas, 131, 134135
Holocaust, 4748
homophobia, 9495
homoscxual subculturcs, 40n11
homoscxuality, 21, 26, 2730, 43n33, 94
Honcy 8rown (charactcr), 31
hopc, crotic, 2
Howard, Gcorgc liot, 129
human condition, 89, 18
human naturc, 117118
hybridity, 36
idcal lcmininity, 6163, 65
idcntity
lormation ol, 7376
gcndcr, 20, 23, 2627, 87, 133
ncgotiation ol, 45
normality, 64
quccr, 87
racial, 103, 106, 111
scxual, 2021, 36
whitc, 4546, 113
!gnaticv, Nocl, 47
imagcry, visual, 714
imaginary phasc, 74, 75, 77
immigrant labor, 4647
intolcrancc, 94
isolation, 89, 14, 18, 82
Jakc 8lount (charactcr), 121, 123
Jcstcr Clanc (charactcr), 21, 2730, 31,
32, 33
!ndcx 190
Jcwish masculinity, 4951
Jcwish mcn, 4751, 54
Jim Crow cra, 46, 103
John Hcnry (charactcr), 3637
John Singcr (charactcr), 88, 119, 122
123, 124
Johnson, Jamcs, 66
Jong, rica, 66
jouissancc, 81
Judgc Fox Clanc (charactcr), 29, 34
Kayscr, Vollgang, 5960
Kcnschalt, Lori, 26
Kcrbcr, Linda, 129
Kinsey Report, 2830
Kristcva, Julia, 58
Lacan, Jacqucs, 7375, 78, 81, 83n2,
83n4, 84n10
Te Last of the Just (Schwarz8art),
4748
Law ol thc Fathcr, 78, 80, 82, 84n14
Lawrcncc, .H., 1
Lcc, Gypsy Rosc, 20
Lcc, Harpcr, 100, 108115
lcsbianism, 26, 133
lics, 53
Lily Mac Jcnkins (charactcr), 25,
8797
litcrary criticism, 2
lonclincss, 2, 8, 58, 73, 74, 117
Te Lonely Hunter (Carr), 7
looking motil, in Member of the Wedding,
714
lovc, 122
capacity lor, 12
lailurc ol, 58
lalling in, 75
tragic, 128
Lymon (charactcr), 75, 7982, 137140,
155161
lynching, 35
Madame Bovary (Flaubcrt), 2
Madamc Zilcnsky and thc King ol
Finland (McCullcrs), 5154
malc homoscxuals, 2728
Malonc (charactcr), 28, 3233
Mandlc, Jay R., 47
marriagc
across class lincs, 5253
in Te Ballad of the Sad Caf, 132
134, 139140
lcminist critiquc ol, 128
physical violcncc and, 130131,
141n4
traditional, 140
marriagc contract, 127132, 140141
Marvin Macy (charactcr), 7782, 128,
132, 135139, 160163
Mary Littlcjohn (charactcr), 107108
masculinc idcntity, 19, 30
masculinity
Jcwish, 4951
normativc, 35
matcrial things, lctishization ol, 34
MatlokZicmann, llcn, 149
McCullcrs, Carson, 57. See also specic
works
acsthctic ol, 1
lcclings ol, toward south, 87, 9394,
9697
inucnccs on, 2
litcrary criticism by, 2
physical ailmcnts ol, 60
scxual prclcrcnccs ol, 2023, 40n16,
9293, 94
thcological vicws ol, 14
McCullcrs, Rccvc, 20, 92, 142n9
McKinnic, 8ctty ., 87
Te Member of the Wedding (McCullcrs),
149
adaptation into play, 92
lantasics in, 3537
lcmalc adolcsccncc in, 6068
Frankic Addams charactcr in, 714,
2325, 31, 3638, 60, 6265,
9091, 93, 100108, 150
lrcaks and lrcakishncss in, 1819,
2225, 3031, 3538, 6466
gcndcr and scxual dicrcncc in,
2327
imagc and thcmc in, 714
Lily Mac charactcr in, 8797
!ndcx 191
quccrs and quccrncss in, 1820,
2527, 36, 38
racial dicrcnccs in, 3032
racial unccrtainty in, 100108
social contcxt ol, 20
thcmcs, 89, 19
thcmcs in, 89, 19
vision motil in, 714
whitc southcrn womanhood in, 62
Mick Kclly (charactcr), 24, 60, 6368,
93, 121122, 150
Millichap, Joscph, 58
miniaturcs, 63, 64
mirror stagc, 7576, 77
misccgcnation, 5253
Miss Amclia vans (charactcr), 68,
7482, 128, 132144, 149165
modcrnity, 57, 58
moral isolation, 8
Morgcnstcrn, Naomi, 127
Morris, Villic, 99
Morris Fincstcin (charactcr), 4748
mothcrchild bond, 7378, 82, 143n15
Mr. 8ildcrbach (charactcr), 5051
Mr. 8rook (charactcr), 5154
Mr. Lalkowitz (charactcr), 5051
Tc Mutc outlinc, 8790, 92, 96
narration, in Te Heart Is a Lonely
Hunter, 118120, 124
naturc, shutting out, 153154
Ncw South, 4546, 62
Night at the Circus (Cartcr), 66
nonnormativc gcndcr idcntitics,
20
nonnormativc scxual idcntitics, 20
normal, tyranny ol thc, 22
normality, 30, 63, 91
normalization, 23
North, immigrant population in,
4647
Connor, Flanncry, 57
Connor, Villiam \an, 58
cdipal crisis, 7778
Ncill, ugcnc, 2
thcr, 61, 74, 79, 84n10
Patcman, Carolc, 130132
patriarchy, 61, 130, 142n6, 155, 158, 162,
164
Paulson, Suzannc Morrow, 74
Pctry, Alicc Hall, 4950
phallic mothcr, 78
phallus, 7879, 81, 83n8, 84n14, 84n15
plays, 89
Portcr, Kathcrinc Annc, 21, 150
Portia (charactcr), 120
postwar Unitcd Statcs, 1819
prcocdipal phasc, 74, 77
Prcslcy, lvis, 100
primal sccncs, 7782, 84n13, 138139
quccr activism, 21
quccr idcntity, 87
quccr thcory, 2022, 38
quccrs/quccrncss, 1822, 2526
Rabelais and His World (8akhtin), 5859
raccbascd opprcssion, 18
racial bigotry, 19, 36
racial dicrcnccs, 1922, 3032
racial discord, 47
racial idcntity, 103, 106, 111
racial opprcssion, scxual opprcssion and,
30
racial transgrcssions, 32
racial unccrtainty, 99117
racial violcncc, 33, 35
racism, 61, 94
rapc, 131
Reections in a Golden Eye (McCullcrs),
1, 93, 165n50
rcprcssion, 7677, 82, 83n3
rcsistancc, 60, 61
Rousscau, JcanJacqucs, 131, 135
Rubin, Louis ., 94, 95, 117
Te Ruined Cottage (Vordsworth), 2
Russo, Mary, 6667
Schwarz8art, Andrc, 4748
Scout (charactcr), 109114
Scgrcst, Mab, 61
scllloathing, 29
scxual contract, 130
!ndcx 192
scxual dicrcncc, 20, 64
in Te Ballad of the Sad Caf, 137138
in Clock Without Hands, 2730
in Member of the Wedding, 2327
scxual idcntity, 21
anxicty ovcr, 36
nonnormativc, 20
scxual indctcrminacy, 24, 27
scxual intolcrancc, 19
scxual opprcssion, racial opprcssion and,
30
scxual prclcrcnccs, unconvcntional,
2223
scxuality
lcmalc, 36
multiplc possibilitics ol, 2526
Shcrman Pcw (charactcr), 3136
sight imagcry, 8, 9, 1013
Simmons, JohnPaul, 17
social contract, 130, 131132, 133, 141
social ordcr, ncw, 19
solitudc, 89
Sosnoski, Karcn, 61
South
ambivalcncc toward, 87, 9394,
9697
immigrant labor in, 4647
intolcrancc in, 9495, 97
narrativcs ol racc in thc, 99117
southcrn bcllc, 6163
southcrn culturc, 20, 22, 30, 45
southcrn grotcsquc, 5768
southcrn labor history, 4647
Southcrn Rcnaissancc, 45, 47
Spicgcl, Alan, 59
Spivak, Gayatri, 2728
Te Square Root of Wonderful
(McCullcrs), 89
Staord, Tony J., 7
subjcctivity, 153154, 158
suicidc, 90
Symons, Julian, 118
Synott, Martha G., 46
thirdpcrson narration, 118
To Kill a Mockingbird (Lcc), 100,
108115
Tom Robinson (charactcr), 109, 112
115, 115n2
tomboys, 6064, 93, 149151
tragic lovc, 128
translormation, 6667
transscxuals, 1718, 21
triangulatcd rclationships, 21,
38n4
Twclvc Mortal Mcn (McCullcrs), 45
unconscious, 7374
unity, 117
Untitlcd Piccc (McCullcrs), 67
violcncc
contract and, 129132
lratcrnal, 130
in marriagc, 130131, 141n3
racial, 33, 35
visibility, 22
vision motil
in Clock Without Hands, 3233
in Member of the Wedding, 714
Varncr, Michacl, 21
Vclty, udora, 57
Vcstling, Louisc, 61
Vhitc, 8arbara, 61
whitc idcntity, 4546, 113
whitc racialization, 45, 51
whitc world, intcrscction bctwccn black
world and, 102108, 109111
whitcncss, 104, 105
contradictions in, 54
standards ol, 45, 51
Vicgman, Robyn, 35
Villiams, Tcnncsscc, 92
Villic (charactcr), 120121
womanhood
idcal ol, 61
whitc southcrn, 6162
womcn, marriagc contract and, 127132
Vordworth, Villiam, 2
Vorld Var !!, 18, 20
Vright, Richard, 118
Vu, Cynthia, 45
Vundcrkind (McCullcrs), 4951, 54