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The Impact of Technology on Literacy Instruction
Tabitha Cartwright
University of Tennessee, Knoxville










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Abstract
Interest in how technology impacts the classroom learning environment is growing in recent
years, as many schools work towards integrating a variety of devices into classroom
instruction. In seeking to discover how the use of technology could benefit my own students, I
considered the perspectives of other researchers in the field and how to apply their findings to
my classroom instruction. Although the research reviewed in this study presents a variety of
strategies for use in the classroom, much of the information presented focuses on the challenges
that educators may experience in implementation. The purpose of this particular study is to
examine how technology can aid in building literacy skills and may serve as a useful guide to
other researchers in its discussion of student learning outcomes.
Keywords: Technology, Literacy, Reading












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The Impact of Technology on Literacy Instruction
During the first few weeks of my English I class, I quickly realized that very few
students were actively participating in class discussion and only one student was regularly
completing any of the assignments. My initial conclusion was that they lacked motivation, and
I contemplated ways to enhance their willingness to contribute to the class. I created numerous
activities and homework assignments with the goal of allowing more creativity and choice in
their work, but overall the students showed little change in their engagement level with the
class.
A few days after the peak of my frustration with the lack of motivation exhibited by the
class, I started our Monday morning lesson with a discussion on setting and mood in literature.
The idea behind the discussion was to scaffold the students up to examining the setting in the
novel through a progression of images and text. Many of my students were unable to examine
an image of a setting and describe it, which led me to the conclusion that perhaps my students
were not lacking in motivation, but were not prepared to analyze the text in this manner. It is
possible that a connection can be made between this theory and their lack of participation in the
class.
As I considered how to move forward with my class with this theory, I contemplated
ways to help my students build their literacy skills, while at the same time motivating them to
complete assignments and participate in classroom activities and discussion. My students are
fortunate enough to have access to iPads for their classes, which I believe can be a very useful
tool in their education, especially for reading. After observing them engaging in assignments
with their iPads, both for my class and in other content areas, I made the observation that they
had a higher interest level when the iPads were involved in instruction versus the times that
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more traditional materials were used. This observation is what inspired me to examine the use
of technology in the classroom and its possible impact on learning.
Literature Review
Advances in technology have changed many aspects of peoples lives, including how
we learn and communicate, and as our students grow up in this modern age, it is necessary for
educators to consider adopting similar forms of technology in the classroom. Although many
teachers may reject the inclusion of technology in their instruction, they cannot ignore the fact
that their students daily lives revolve around technology and its many uses. Rather than draw a
distinction between innovation and learning, teachers have the opportunity to develop a method
of instruction that unites them, creating a classroom environment that motivates and engages
students, while simultaneously connecting them to the world outside the classroom.

Criteria for Inclusion
When I began my research for this project, I searched for literature that was relevant to
using iPads in the classroom, but found a lack of articles that focused specifically on this mode
of technology. Much of the literature pertained to the use of digital texts or how online reading
websites can be a method of building literacy skills. I chose to focus my synthesis of the
literature on how technology as a whole can impact student learning, but the focus of data
collection primarily centers on the iPad. As this is the device my students would primarily use
in the classroom during the course of my research, I hoped that my efforts in researching how
the iPad can impact literacy instruction will serve to fill in the gaps in the existing literature.
In order to address the question How might the use of technology in the classroom
impact literacy instruction?, I developed a list of relevant research by conducting a keyword
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search in ERIC for the terms reading comprehension and technology or iPad. I limited the
results to peer reviewed reports of research published since 2010, the year of the debut of the
iPad. This search returned 62 results. I read the abstracts for the sources from both searches and
found 15 that were relevant to my content area and context.
The themes that emerged when reviewing the research for this study included the
following: (1) selection of a framework for implementing technology, (2) how technology can
be used to change the learning experience, (3) various types of technology and their uses in the
classroom, and (4) how literacy skills can be enhanced by technology.

Framework for Implementation
When considering the integration of technology, many educators argue against it for a
number of reasons. Its usefulness in the classroom is often questioned, as those lacking
experience frequently do not understand how to effectively introduce it into their curriculum.
Many may feel that the challenges outweigh the benefits or that it will add additional time to
their curriculum planning (Banister, 2010; McClanahan, Williams, Kennedy, & Tate, 2012).
Others are intimidated by the amount of professional development required to familiarize
themselves with these tools or fear that its presence will become an unnecessary distraction to
their students (Chen, Teng, & Lee, 2011; Crichton, Pegler, & White, 2012; Keane, Lang, &
Pilgrim, 2012; Larson, 2013). In the literature that I reviewed for this study, it was apparent that
these issues are widespread throughout the field of education.
Many of the articles reviewed suggested that a framework must be established for how
the technology will be introduced and used in the classroom in order to best utilize these tools
and all of their benefits (Hutchinson, Beschorner, & Schmidt-Crawford, 2012; Keane et. al.,
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2012; King-Sears, Swanson, & Mainzer, 2011). Not only must teachers determine what type of
technology properly suits the needs of the classroom, but must also be trained on
implementation. It is necessary to also align this use with the curriculum and use it in a way
that is meaningful for students and not simply a stand-alone tool. As the practice of enhancing
instruction with technology is new territory for many school systems, there is typically not a
predetermined method for introduction (Crichton et.al., 2012). As with any implement for
instruction, it is essential to research and consider the experiences of others when deciding
what works best for each individual educator, as well as for a specific group of students
(Banister, 2010).
One framework for determining how to introduce technology into the classroom is
TPACK, or Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge, a method for determining the role
of technology in the classroom (Hutchinson et. al., 2012). Using the TPACK framework, a
teacher first decides what the learning objectives are for an individual lesson, then focuses on
what instructional methods are best suited for helping students achieve those objectives. After
designing the content and pedagogy portions of the lesson, the teacher then determines which
technology tool will accomplish those goals most effectively. This framework design ensures
that educators are using the technology resources as a support for learning, not a distraction to
it. TPACK is a means by which teachers can meet traditional print-based literacy goals while
also providing students with opportunities to learn the new literacies of 21
st
century
technologies (p.16).
Another method for the introduction of technology into the classroom is the TECH
framework (King-Sears et. al., 2011), which many educators use to decide what types of
technology can be used to promote learning and what the impact will be for their students.
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Much like the TPACK model, with TECH, teachers first decide what their students learning
needs and goals are before they determine how they will use technology. They then examine
their options for the various types of technology that are available to them and decide which
will best serve the needs of the learners. After making this decision, teachers create
opportunities to integrate it into their instructional activities they have planned for each lesson,
while also monitoring the impact that technology has on student learning (King-Sears et. al.,
2011).
The challenge of introducing technology into the classroom can be intimidating to many
educators, and without the proper framework designed to assist this transition, the process can
be more frustrating than necessary. A great deal of the responsibility falls onto the teachers to
discover ways to use these tools in the manner best suited to their students and their learning
styles, but often, they are not trained on how to do so (Keane et. al., 2012). Teachers much plan
their lessons around technology, receive training on its use, access the content necessary for
their students, and find any additional resources to support the implementation (Keane et. al.,
2012). Crichton et. al. (2012) sought to uncover what was required to bring technology into the
classroom in urban schools, and through a mixed method approach determined that both a
framework and professional development are necessary. Although many teachers and students
were enthusiastic about the introduction, there was a great deal of unease associated with this
transition, which is common among educators in similar situations. Issues arose with
management of the devices (iPod Touch), downloading content, integration of devices into the
curriculum, and defining restrictions for how students used the devices (Crichton et. al., 2012).
Without considering how to use technology in the most effective and meaningful way possible,
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schools risk missing out on the benefits that technology can bring to both their teachers and
their students.

Changing the Learning Experience
Literacy is the foundation for learning in every content area, and without proficiency in
this area, students may struggle in various disciplines over the course of their education.
Reading comprehension is the skill that many students experience difficulty with, primarily due
to unrecognized background knowledge and the strategies necessary to find meaning in a text
(Chen et. al., 2011). In order to strengthen comprehension and other literacy skills, instruction
can be enhanced by the introduction of technology into the classroom. An examination of the
ways technology can be used to increase the effectiveness of classroom instruction can be
focused around the benefits of technology-enhanced instruction and the changes in the
classroom learning environment that result from it.
Although many educators may challenge the concept that technology can enhance
instruction, a great deal of the research supported the number of benefits that technology can
bring to both teachers and students. Hutchinson et. al. (2012) proposed that technology can be
used to enhance classroom learning objectives and provide better tools to meet learning goals
than traditional classroom supplies. By including technology in instruction, teachers were able
to more easily meet the needs of their students and accomplish their instructional objectives for
the class, while students experiences were also greater due to having the tools to express their
mastery of these objectives (Hutchinson et. al., 2012).
Technology has the ability to aid with the learning process, as students have the
opportunity to encounter more authentic experiences (Keane et. al., 2012; Thoermer &
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Williams, 2012). Students gain more autonomy with their education as they direct their own
learning, while the teacher serves as a facilitator in the classroom. The curriculum becomes
increasingly project-based, as students are not only consumers of information, but also creators.
Using various means of technology, students can develop presentations, videos, images, audio,
and other forms of media to convey their own ideas about a topic, rather than simply absorbing
the ideas of the teacher (Keane et. al., 2012). Roles in the classroom begin to shift in this type
of scenario, in line with constructivist theories of education, and students learn by building their
own body of knowledge with the teacher as their guide (Crichton et. al., 2012).
Technology in the classroom also aids with student engagement and motivation levels,
as students may be more likely to participate using these tools. Devices like the iPad transform
educational tasks into hands-on activities, giving students the opportunity to learn through
doing, which creates a positive change in student attitudes towards learning (Keane et. al.,
2012). Through this greater level of interaction, such as with digital texts, students are able to
engage more readily with the content, increasing their willingness to take part in classroom
activities.
Through technology tools, such as iPads or computers, the learning space can be
redefined as it promotes the construction of a community of learners in the classroom and
beyond (Berson, Berson, & Manfra, 2012). Learning can transform from an exchange of
information between a teacher and students to a more student-centered experience. Technology
can connect its users to a wealth of information that exists outside of the school through the
internet, allowing students access to as much information as they desire. Students are not
limited to the information in their textbook or even in the classroom, but have access to a global
body of knowledge (Hutchinson et. al., 2012).
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Many digital texts are linked to additional resources that are relevant to the content,
allowing users to access more information on a topic than the confines of a print text would
provide (Behjat et. al., 2012; Larson, 2013). Accessing these online resources also provides
readers with the opportunity to view a variety of authentic texts, such as wikis created by other
students on the same subject or related news articles (Behjat et. al., 2012). Combining both the
primary and supplemental texts serves to enhance the depth of knowledge that readers gain,
more so than just reading a single source.
The potential for collaboration can also be built out of this global access, as it allows
users to create and share material across the boundaries of the traditional classroom setting
(Murray & Olcese, 2011). Students are then able to learn the skills of collaboration and can
construct their own bodies of knowledge through communication with others (Hutchinson et.
al., 2012; Murray et. al., 2011). These are all examples of what students can do in the
classroom that would otherwise not be capable without the presence of technology.

Uses for Technology in the Classroom
In this section, I describe the available technologies relevant to my own context,
including the use of Digital Texts and the iPad and iTouch.

Digital Texts. Digital texts, such as e-books and online storybooks, were a major focus
of the articles that I reviewed for this project. The benefits of this technology are vast, and their
availability makes them a convenient tool for teachers to introduce to their students. Many of
the authors conveyed the idea that digital texts have a number of features that allow for
personalized learning, increased engagement with the text, and the strengthening of reading
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comprehension skills (Behjat et. al., 2012; Berson et. al., 2012; Chen et. al., 2011; Crichton et.
al., 2012; Harris, 2011; Hutchinson et. al., 2012; King-Sears et. al., 2011; Larson, 2013;
McClanahan et. al., 2012 ). Text can be adjusted to suit the readers preferences by changing
the font size, and they can also provide many other useful tools for readers (Larson, 2013).
With digital texts, the reader can interact with a book more readily by tracking elements of the
story or characters through note-taking and highlighting, using a digital dictionary to research
unfamiliar words, tagging pages, and locating specific portions of the text through search
features (Larson, 2013; Thoermer & Williams, 2012). Digital texts also allow for a more
personalized method of reading that can be adjusted to meet the individual needs of the reader
(Larson, 2013).
The experience of reading can also change through the use of digital texts. In their
overview of online storybooks, Thoermer and colleagues (2012) showed the potential to
connect children with digital texts through narration that allowed students to focus on the
meaning of the text, not the process of decoding. These storybooks are streaming videos that
can be accessed through a variety of websites and typically have popular actors reading books
aloud while the pages of the books are displayed for the viewer to read along (Thoermer et. al.,
2012). This reading tool supports the idea that digital texts can provide meaning through a
variety of modes, allowing readers to experience a text through both written and spoken
language, images, video, and sound (Harris, 2011). The process of comprehension is reinforced
by the experience of reading through these various modes, appealing to many different learning
styles.
The construction of literacy skills often occurs through the motivation and engagement
of the student, and digital texts have the ability to appeal to both. Digital texts provide greater
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levels of interaction with the text, allowing users to personalize their experience in a way that is
meaningful for them (Hutchinson et. al., 2012). When teachers are able to appropriately
integrate digital texts into their curriculum, they may find that students are increasingly
motivated to read (Larson, 2013). Digital texts can also provide students with self-regulation in
their reading, as they read texts independently and maintain a great deal of autonomy in their
pace, selection, and transforming the text to suit their personal needs (Thoermer et. al., 2012).

iPad and iPod Touch. Many classrooms are introducing either the Apple iPad and the
iPod Touch into the classroom in order to allow students access to the internet, applications,
and digital texts using one device. Both display audio, images, and videos, provide internet
access, digital and audio books, and a variety of applications for different content areas
(Banister, 2010). The research included information about these devices as educational tools,
and many sources focused on how third-party applications could be used in the classroom.
Hutchinson et. al. (2012) demonstrated the use of the iPad in a fourth-grade classroom
for teaching literacy skills. Students used the iPad during reading activities, and as the teacher
integrated various applications for reading comprehension strategies, researchers examined
how this device could be used to benefit students learning in this area. The iPad was used for
recording audio and video for projects, annotating, creating multimodal notes, collaboration
and group work, bringing new approaches to literacy goals (Hutchinson et. al., 2012). The
applications on the iPad and iPod Touch are one of the most useful functions of these devices,
as they allow the user to access content for many different uses. Some applications focus on
vocabulary, giving students the ability to learn words in a new format, many using games or
quizzing methods (Banister, 2010).
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Literacy Skills and Technology
The development of literacy skills is one of the most important components of
education; without the ability to read and interpret language, students may struggle in a number
of content areas. Literacy instruction functions to build reading behaviors in students by
teaching them a number of strategies to use when creating meaning from a text (Hutchinson et.
al., 2012). Technology allows a teacher the ability to enhance literacy instruction through the
use of various formats, and the strengthening of literacy skills through technology can be
accomplished in many different ways. Much of the research conducted for this study focused
on how specific literacy skills can be developed through the use of technology, especially
fluency and comprehension.
Fluency. Fluency is the ability to read a text accurately, with automaticity, and with
prosody, connecting the decoding of the words to the comprehension. When reading aloud,
students can display their fluency through the ease of their decoding of the written text and with
the intonation of their voice to demonstrate various aspects of the text (Thoermer et. al., 2012).
Students can build fluency by repeated readings of a text, practice with reading aloud or by
focusing on specific aspects of the text as they read, such as adding pauses for dramatic effect
or indicating questions in the text by changing the pitch of their voice (Lacina & Mathews,
2012).
Students can also build fluency by listening to others read aloud, exposing students to
models by which to learn reading skills (Thoermer et. al., 2012). Technology can be useful in
strengthening this literacy skill by providing students access to audio books or videos of
readings through the internet. Students can also use the iPad or iPod Touch to record
themselves reading aloud (using the built-in Voice Memos application or a similar third party
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software) and then listen to the playback to determine fluency issues (Hutchinson et. al., 2012;
McClanahan et. al, 2012).
Comprehension. Another major literacy skill discussed in the literature read for this
study is comprehension, or how readers navigate and make sense of [a] text using numerous
strategies (Lacina et. al., 2012, p. 156). In order to construct meaning from a text, readers must
use a variety of skills including: decoding, problem solving, visualization, and strategies for
vocabulary (Lacina et. al., 2012). Margolin, Driscoll, Toland, and Kegler (2013) found that the
comprehension skills needed when reading digital texts were similar to those used for
traditional, print-based texts. Focusing on a situational model of learning, the authors believed
that readers must use personal connections and prior knowledge to create meaning from a text,
and although the format is different, it was possible to create a comparable model for
comprehension with a digital text (Margolin et. al., 2013). Reader factors such as personal
experiences, cultural connections, and prior knowledge can greatly increase success in reading,
especially when working with the more complex format of a digital text (Lacina et. al., 2012).

New Literacies
The rise of technology in the modern age requires that students learn new skills that are
frequently not part of traditional literacy instruction. These New Literacies (Berson et. al.,
2012; Crichton et. al., 2012; Harris, 2011; Hutchinson et. al., 2012; Lacina et. al., 2012;
McClanahan et. al., 2012; Murray et. al., 2011) are being integrated into schools that already
have a strong use of technological resources, and as more school systems enter into this
number, it is necessary that teachers adapt their lessons to include these skills (Hutchinson
et.al., 2012). New Literacy skills are often difficult to define, due to the momentum behind
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change and innovation (McClanahan et. al., 2012, p. 20), but include any skills necessary to
consume modern media, such as videos, images, audio, and text. Consumers of modern media
interpret, analyze, and critique these formats, as well as construct their own multimodal
representations. Students must be able to make decisions about the types of information they
access, making judgments on the validity of sources, the appropriateness of content for
academic purposes, and have the skills to be able to also create their own sources of
information for others (Murray et. al., 2011).
In a classroom developing New Literacy skills, teachers take on the role of the
facilitator, which requires the knowledge, skills, and dispositions of this technology, which
are then interwoven in complex ways with content, context, and pedagogy (Larson, 2013, p.
289). As with many other methods of implementing technology into the classroom, New
Literacy instruction requires a shift in the instructional roles, as students become the experts,
constructing their knowledge independently or collaboratively (Larson, 2013). Although
students may have the ability to use technology in the classroom, it is essential that they are
also instructed on New Literacy skills to prepare them for the future of technology (Keane et.
al., 2012).

Conclusion
Technology in education is a heavily debated topic, with the primary function of
research serving to examine the aspects of the classroom or the learning experience that are
dramatically enhanced by technology. Although much of the research reviewed for this study
supports the integration of technology in the classroom, there are additional caveats to its
introduction, as suggested by many of the authors of previous research studies. My study did
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not focus on the challenges of implementation or methods to increase the effectiveness of its
use, but rather provides an examination of how technology can be used to support the
strengthening of literacy skills. This fills a gap in the present research on technology enhanced
instruction in its centralization on a specific use of technology, as well as the focus on iPads as
this means of technology.

Methods
The purpose of this study was to better understand how the integration of technology in
the classroom might impact learning and how it might aid in building literacy skills. Rather
than design concrete goals for student growth during this study, I looked at qualitative
measures of skills in the classroom. After determining what specific skills were required for
reading and deriving meaning from texts, I decided what type of technology could be used to
enhance the development of these skills. As my students were part of a 1:1 learning
environment and all had access to iPads for school purposes, I researched the applications
available for the students and determined which would be useful in building their reading
comprehension skills. I implemented the use of these apps in both daily instruction and
homework assignments, ensuring that they had the opportunity to work with the technology
with teacher assistance and independently.
Once a guideline was established for how the technology would be integrated into the
class curriculum, I began to introduce the students to the applications that we would use for the
remainder of the school year. After the students had the opportunity to get acclimated to the
application and its functions, the class would then use that application in an activity designed to
build a connection between the technologys capabilities and the reading skill that we were
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working on during that lesson. After the completion of the activity, I then asked students to
complete a brief survey regarding their experience with the technology used in the lesson. This
survey included questions related to student attitudes toward the lessons and required them to
reflect on how the use of technology did or did not improve their understanding of the content.

Participants
The participant group for this study consisted of ten freshman students, six male and
four female, all of the students in my English I College Preparatory class. These students were
identified as those probable to struggle in both English I and Algebra I based on the three
previous years of standardized test scores. The students in this class also attend the same
Algebra I class, and all three teachers, one for Algebra and two for English, collaborated on a
curriculum that attempted to integrate concepts for both disciplines. The ten students had
similar issues with reading comprehension, though their performance levels varied at times
depending on the type of activity taking place in class. For this reason, I chose to use the entire
class as the participants in this study.

Data Sources
When considering the best method to collect data for this study, I felt it necessary to
pursue options that allowed me to measure both student attitudes and perceptions of the
effectiveness of the use of technology in the instruction of literacy skills. To develop this
understanding, I chose to examine student surveys, observation notes, and a researchers
journal.
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To begin this study, I held a focus group interview (Rubin & Rubin, 1995) with student
participants in regards to their personal attitudes about using technology in the classroom. As
this class primarily uses iPads for the majority of their assignments, I asked students to
comment on how they felt about using this device for classroom activities and whether it
assisted or impeded their learning process. Students were also asked to respond to questions
about possible challenges with using the iPad in the classroom and how they perceive their own
success as a possible result of having access to this device. This information was used to
establish the basis for student perceptions of performance due to having access to technology in
the classroom.
After developing baseline criteria for students attitudes about instructional technology,
I then asked students to complete a survey about their learning behaviors, focusing primarily on
predispositions of reading and other literacy tasks. The purpose of the survey was to determine
student motivational levels and how these may affect later data results. By developing an
understanding of the interplay between the motivation and ability of this specific group of
students, I felt that I had a better possibility of gaining a more accurate depiction of the effect
of technology on improving literacy. The survey is provided in Appendix X.
Once the collection of data related to student attitudes and learning behaviors was
completed, I then began to introduce the aforementioned activities into instruction, allowing
students the opportunity to use the technology in a lesson specifically designed around the
capabilities of the iPad and its applications. During each activity, students were taught a
specific literacy skill, such as visualization, then required to use the iPad to complete a related
task. As each activity occurred, I took observational field notes of what happened in the
classroom while students worked. During these observations, I circulated around the classroom,
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asking students a variety of questions in order to evaluate their progress and monitored their
interactions with the device. Noting all instances of difficulty, such as technical issues or
struggles with using the device in the way intended by the activity, I recorded observations of
how each student interacted with the iPad and whether it seemed to be a hindrance or an
effective tool.
Following each activity, students were asked to informally respond to their progress
during class, specifically about how they perceived their success and what challenges they
faced in using the iPad to practice the skill taught during that lesson. Using the Socrative
application on the iPad, students were provided with 2-3 questions that asked them to rate the
activity in terms of the ease of use, their personal comfort level, and the effectiveness of the
technology towards learning a specific skill. These results were used to construct a qualitative
analysis of student perceptions of technology in the classroom.
The final method of data collection involved a researcher journal in which I recorded
unusual or outstanding occurrences during instruction that tied to the goal of this study. Entries
consisted of documentations of lesson effectiveness, technical issues that arose during
instruction, student attitudes during activities, and any relevant quantitative data collected by
the end of the class period. These journal entries were used to inform future instructional
planning around technology and implications for future those considering a similar method of
technology enhanced instruction.

Data Analysis
The data collected during this study was used to formulate a qualitative analysis of the
information that I gained through a variety of methods. Through the surveys taken both before
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the introduction of technology and after each class period, I was able to determine student
dispositions toward the use of technology in the classroom. Using the field notes from
observations of instructional time, I sought an understanding of how students perceived their
own progress with the literacy skills that were taught. By observing their participation in both
whole class and group discussions and their interactions with the devices, I was able to uncover
their attitudes about the use of the technology and its role in their perceived success. Researcher
journal entries provided a more fluid approach to data collection in that they allowed me to
examine the effects of technology on a daily basis, without adhering to a rigid structure of
gathering data for this study.














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Harris, A. (2011). How effective are print-based comprehension models for reading and
assessing multimodal texts? Literacy Learning: The Middle Years, 19(3), 19-32.
Hutchison, A., Beschorner, B., & Schmidt-Crawford, D. (2012). Exploring the use of the iPad
for literacy learning. Reading Teacher, 66(1), 15-23.
Keane, T., Lang, C., & Pilgrim, C. (2012). Pedagogy! iPadology! netbookology! learning with
mobile devices. Australian Educational Computing, 27(2), 29-33.
King-Sears, M., Swanson, C., & Mainzer, L. (2011). TECHnology and literacy for adolescents
with disabilities. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 54(8), 569-578.
Lacina, J., & Mathews, S. (2012). Using online storybooks to build comprehension.
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Childhood Education, 88(3), 155-161.
Larson, L. C. (2013). It's time to turn the digital page: Preservice teachers explore E-book
reading. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 56(4), 280-290.
Margolin, S. J., Driscoll, C., Toland, M. J., & Kegler, J. L. (2013). E-readers, computer screens,
or paper: Does reading comprehension change across media platforms? Applied
Cognitive Psychology, 27(4), 512-519.
McClanahan, B., Williams, K., Kennedy, E., & Tate, S. (2012). A breakthrough for josh: How
use of an iPad facilitated reading improvement. TechTrends: Linking Research and
Practice to Improve Learning, 56(3), 20-28.
Murray, O. T., & Olcese, N. R. (2011). Teaching and learning with iPads, ready or not?
TechTrends: Linking Research and Practice to Improve Learning, 55(6), 42-48.
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Teacher, 65(7), 441-445.









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Appendix A
Literacy Survey

Your Name: _________________________________________________


Learning Behaviors
Complete the following questions.

1. What type of grades do you typically make in school?

! Mostly As
! Mostly Bs
! Mostly Cs
! Mostly Ds
! Below Ds


Rate the following on a scale from 1 to 5.

2. At school, I try the best that I can _____________________.



3. I am prepared for my classes __________________________.



4. When reading, I highlight and underline passages ___________________________.






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5. When reading, I try to summarize the main points ___________________________.




Motivation to Read

1. Reading is something that I enjoy doing.
! Never
! Not very often
! Sometimes
! Often

2. When I come to a word I dont know, I can ________________________.
! Almost always figure it out
! Sometimes figure it out
! Almost never figure it out
! Never figure it out

3. When I am reading, I understand _______________________________.
! Almost everything I read
! Some of what I read
! Almost none of what I read
! None of what I read

4. I am ______________________________.
! A poor reader
! An okay reader
! A good reader
! A very good reader

5. Knowing how to read well is ______________________________.
! Not very important
! Sort of important
! Important
! Very important

6. Reading is ________________________________.
! Very easy for me
! Kind of easy for me
! Kind of hard for me
! Very hard for me

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Appendix B


Authors


Technology
Implemented


Pedagogy
Connections

Literacy
Strategies

Benefits of
Technology
Banister, S.
(2010)

- iPod Touch
- Applications
(YouTube,
GoogleMaps,
Blanks)

- Constructivist
theories
- Visual learning
- Note-taking
- Writing practice
- Making
predictions
- Access to
information
Behjat, F.,
Yamini, M.,
& Bagheri,
M. S. (2012)

- Virtual
learning
- Online texts
- Wikis
- Blogs
- Blended
learning
- Personalized
learning
- Multimodal
learning
- Collaborative
learning

- Paraphrasing
- Summarizing
- Language
acquisition
- Access to
information
- Long distance
learning

Berson, I. R.,
Berson, M.
J., & Manfra,
M. M. (2012)
- iPad
- Applications
(Comic Strip,
Evernote,
TalkBoard)

- Collaborative
learning
- Personalized
learning
experiences
- Diverse
learning
experiences
- New Literacies

- Reader factors
- Visualization

- Student
engagement
- Innovation in
learning
- Access to
information
- Personalized
learning

Chen, N.,
Teng, D. C.,
& Lee, C.
(2011)

- Smartphones
- QR codes
- Digital texts
- Internet
materials
- Scaffolded
learning
- Active learners
- Constructivist
theories
- Self-regulated
learning
- Construction of
knowledge

- Making
inferences
- Problem-solving
- Reasoning
- Questioning
- Access to
information
- Student
engagement
- Student motivation
Crichton, S.,
Pegler, K., &
White, D.
(2012)

- iPad
- iPod Touch
- Digital
textbooks
- Podcasts
- Differentiation
- Personalized
learning
experience
- New Literacies
- Digital
citizenship

- Student
engagement
- Student motivation

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Authors


Technology
Implemented

Pedagogical
Connections


Literacy Skills

Benefits of
Technology
Harris, A.
(2011)

- Digital texts

- Consideration
of knowledge
demands
- Construction of
knowledge

- New Literacies
- Multimodal
literacies

- Student
engagement
- Provides higher
complexity of texts
- Comprehension
through multimodal
texts


Hutchison,
A.,
Beschorner,
B., &
Schmidt-
Crawford, D.
(2012)
- iPad
- Digital texts
- Applications
(Doodle Buddy,
Popplet,
iBooks, Strip
Designer)

- Collaborative
learning
- New literacies
- Personalized
learning
experience
- Visualization
- Sequencing
- Cause and effect
- Retelling
- Main idea
- Enhances learning
objectives
- Collaboration
- Innovation in
teaching literacy
- Personalizing
learning
Keane, T.,
Lang, C., &
Pilgrim, C.
(2012).
iPad
Netbook
Applications
(Safari, Office,
Pages,
Keynote)
- Authentic
learning
- Project-based
learning
- Collaborative
learning
- Reading for all
content areas
- Access to
supplemental
resources

- Student
engagement
- Makes learning
more student-
directed
- Access to
supplemental
resources

King-Sears,
M., Swanson,
C., &
Mainzer, L.
(2011)
- E-readers
- Digital texts
- Graphic
organizer
applications
- Dictation
software
- Video
creation
software




- Technology
intervention
- New literacies
- Multiple
intelligences
- Making
inferences
- Writing to learn
- Visualization
- Differentiated
instruction
- Multimodal
teaching
- Student
engagement
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Authors

Technology
Implemented

Pedagogical
Connections

Literacy Skills

Benefits of
Technology
Lacina, J., &
Mathews, S.
(2012)
- Online
storybooks
- Motivation
- New literacies
- Multimodal
learning
- Creating
connections to
content

- Annotating
- Vocabulary
- Decoding
- Read-alouds
- Independent
reading
- Reader factors
- Highlighting
- Problem-solving

- Allowed for
reading models
- Increased student
engagement
- Allowed students
to listen and focus
on meaning of text
- Multimodal
learning

Larson, L. C.
(2013)
- Digital texts
- E-books
- Online texts
- New Literacies
- Constructivist
theories
- Personalized
learning
experience
- Reader factors
- Annotating
- Visualization
- Vocabulary
- Text factors
- Personalized
learning
- Collaborative
learning
- Supports CCSS
- Access to
supplemental
materials
- Personalized
learning

Margolin, S.
J., Driscoll,
C., Toland,
M. J., &
Kegler, J. L.
(2013)

- Digital texts
- Kindle e-
reader
- Desktop
computers

- Situational
model for
learning
- Constructivist
theories

- Highlighting
- Annotating
- Reading aloud
- Re-reading

- Provides a more
complex reading
experience than
paper-based reading
McClanahan,
B., Williams,
K., Kennedy,
E., & Tate, S.
(2012)
- iPad
- Digital texts
- Applications
(FlashCards+,
PowerPoint)








- Multiple
learning styles
(tactile, visual,
auditory)
- Computer-aided
instruction
- New literacies
- Differentiated
learning
- Sequencing
- Remembering
details
- Drawing
inferences
- Vocabulary
- Annotating
- Read-alouds
(by recording
themselves
reading)




- Student
engagement
- Increased focus on
content
- Useful for students
with a degree of
abilities
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Authors


Technology
Implemented


Pedagogical
Connections

Literacy Skills

Benefits of
Technology
Murray, O.
T., & Olcese,
N. R. (2011)
- iPad
- Applications
(Star Walk,
Shakespeare in
Bits, Sundry
Notes)
- New literacies
- Social
construction of
knowledge
- Visualization
- Note-taking
- Vocabulary
- Access new content
outside what is
presented in
classroom
- Aggregation of
data
- More cost effective
reference materials

- Connects users to a
global community

Thoermer,
A., &
Williams, L.
(2012).
- Digital texts
- Online
storybooks
- iPads
- Websites
- Constructivist
theories
- Activating prior
knowledge
- Collaborative
learning
- Student self-
regulation

- Fluency
- Read-alouds
- Pre-reading
strategies
- Prior knowledge
- Modeling
reading

- Increased student
motivation
- Increased self-
regulated learning