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t
m
a
2
1
0
2
= =
t
m
t
a
K
=
Y
K
a
IC
1
150 1
30
2
=
cm
m
27 . 1
10 27 . 1
2
=
=
cm a 27 . 1
max
=
Edge Crack: a
max
= 1.27cm
Internal Crack a
max
= 2.54cm
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 14
MPa 300 =
Fracture Toughness: Example #2
What is the minimum value of K
IC
needed to ensure that a plate with a
yield strength of 300 MPa and external flaws as large as 0.5 mm will
plastically deform before fast fracture can occur when subjected to a
tensile load? (Y=1.1)
? = a
a Y K
IC
=
m mm a
4
10 5 5 . 0
= =
? =
4
10 5 300 1 . 1
>
IC
K
m MPa K
IC
13 >
8
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 15
The Impact Test
The Impact test measures a materials ability to absorb kinetic
energy.
This quality is often referred to as the Toughness of the material.
( )
f
h h g E =
0
Charpy
Izod
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 16
The Impact Test
Impact Test Data: Energy absorbed and/or % shear fracture
9
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 17
The Ductile-to-Brittle Transition
Temperature has a significant influence on the toughness of
BCC metals. (Steel is the most important example)
At low temperatures, they are brittle while at higher temperatures
they are more ductile.
One approach to designing
structures is to define a
Transition Temperature,
below which the material
should be considered brittle
This is the Ductile-to-Brittle
Transition Temperature
(DBTT)
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 18
The Ductile-to-Brittle Transition
There are three accepted methods of determining the DBTT
E
n
e
r
g
y
Temperature
T E T for minimum energy
T
B
T
D
DBTT
E
B
E
D
E
avg
DBTT
E
min
10
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 19
The Fatigue Test
When a component is subjected to a cyclic stress, it may fail by
a process known as fatigue.
From a designers point of view, fatigue can be a particularly
dangerous form of failure because:
it occurs over time
it occurs at stress levels that are not only lower than the UTS, they
can even be lower than the yield strength.
The cyclic stress causes small cracks to form and grow until
they are large enough to cause fast fracture.
a Y K
IC
=
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 20
The Fatigue Test
Fatigue tests are conducted
by subjecting a series of
samples to an alternating
stress.
To approximate the in-service
conditions, one can control
the:
maximum stress
minimum stress
frequency
11
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 21
The Fatigue Test
Calculated test variables are:
The stress range
min max
=
r
The stress amplitude
2
min max
=
a
The fatigue ratio
max
min
= R
2
min max
+
=
m
The mean stress
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 22
The Fatigue Test
A single fatigue test subjects a specimen to a specified stress
profile and measures the number of cycles to failure.
The results of a series of tests are plotted as Stress Amplitude
vs. log(cycles to failure) on an S-N curve.
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
N
100
0
300
200
S
400
12
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 23
Reading Logarithmic Scales
Locate the following numbers on the scale
5
90
15
35
2.5
1 10 100
Where is zero?
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 24
SN Curves
Fatigue failure is a statistical event.
S-N curves are really showing the probability of failure
13
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 25
The Fatigue Test
Many ferrous (iron-based) materials
exhibit a Fatigue Limit (Endurance
Limit)
below this stress amplitude, they will
not fail by fatigue
Most non-ferrous materials do not have
a fatigue limit.
Their fatigue strength is usually
expressed as the maximum stress for
no failure after some specific number of
cycles.
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 26
Fatigue Failures
Fatigue failures often leave tell-tale features called beach marks
on the fracture surface.
14
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 27
Factors in Fatigue Life
Fatigue failure is controlled by how difficult it is to start and
propagate a crack.
Anything that makes this process easier will reduce a
components fatigue life.
Good Things
Smooth surfaces
Hard surfaces
Residual compressive
stresses (a compressive
stress helps to keep a crack
closed)
Bad Things
Rough surfaces (deep
scratches, dents)
Stress concentrations
Corrosive environments
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 28
Fatigue Failure.
De Havilland Comet: G-ALYP/6003
January 10
th
1954
1290 flights
Total flying time: 3681 hours
Crashed from 25,000ft
Further crashes occurred
15
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 29
Fatigue Failure.
De Havilland Comet
The Investigation
Cyclic pressure testing of a grounded aircraft
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 30
Fatigue Failure.
De Havilland Comet
The Cause of Failure
Fatigue crack propagation from rivet holes
Hatch
Corner of Hatch Fatigue Cracks
Rivet Hole
16
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 31
Fatigue Failure.
Improvements following Comet disasters
improved design
improved inspection
improved materials
Fatigue cracking of fuselages is still relatively common
BUT
Catastrophic failure of fuselages is not common
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 32
Fatigue Failure.
Aloha Airlines Flight 243
April 28
th
1988
The Problem
of Old Aircraft
90,000 flights
19 years old
..at 24,000ft, both pilots heard a load clap or whooshing sound, followed by
a wind noise behind themThe captain observed thatthere was blue sky
where the first class ceiling had been..
All required
safety checks
had been done
17
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 33
Creep of Materials
Creep is the time dependent deformation of a material
subjected to a constant stress. (usually less than the yield stress)
It is generally only significant when the temperature is greater
than 0.4T
m
(T
m
=melting temperature on an absolute scale)
A creep test measures strain as a function of time at a
constant stress and temperature.
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 34
The Creep Test
The data from a creep test is plotted as strain vs. time
Secondary creep is characterized by a constant creep rate.
t
s
=
&
18
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 35
Stress and Temperature Effects
Remember that, at any temperature, dislocations will move if a
large enough stress is applied.
During the recovery phase of the annealing process:
Dislocations were able to rearrange themselves due to the
increased thermal energy.
Similarly,
increasing the deformation temperature allows
dislocations to move under a lower applied stress.
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 36
The Creep Test
Increasing the stress or the temperature has the same general
effect on the creep behaviour:
initial strain increases
steady-state creep rate increases
rupture life is decreased
19
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 37
The Creep Test
Empirical relationships are commonly used to describe the
steady-state creep rate:
For a specific temperature:
K
1
and n are material constants
n
K =
1
&
n c
RT
Q
K
= exp
2
&
For any temperature:
K
2
and Q
c
are constants
Q
c
is called the activation energy for creep
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 38
The Creep Test
The results from a series of creep tests can be plotted on a
stress-rupture curve.
Find the time to rupture at 538C if
the stress is 80 MPa.
What is the maximum service
temperature of a component that
must last 10,000hrs at 50 MPa?
hrs 4000
10 4
3
C T
C T C
o
o o
590
538 649
> >
20
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 39
Mechanisms for Creep Deformation in Metals
Thermal Activation of Dislocations
Increasing the temperature can provide the additional energy
required to move pinned dislocations
Diffusion of Atoms
Atoms physically move in response to the applied stress
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 40
Improving Creep Resistance
21
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 41
Summary
How do materials fail?
Plastically deform:
accumulate damage,
reduce in area,
fracture
Fracture due to existing defects
Cyclic loading
Propagate cracks by fatigue processes,
fracture
Deform by creep at elevated temperatures,
accumulate damage,
reduce in area,
fracture
ES 021 Chap 8 - Failure 42
Summary
In Chapters 7 and 8, we have covered the types of tests used to
determine the material properties used by engineers to design
load bearing components.
These are the issues that you will have to consider in your
designs.
Static Loads Tensile (compressive) properties
Dynamic Loads Impact, Fatigue
Detectable or known flaws Fracture Mechanics
Temperature Effects Tensile properties, Impact, Creep
Environmental Aspects corrosion, abrasion, chemical reactions