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pyo - xut pu+to+o xuqxov - +q tiooolu clvut o+o c(q q
uvu(q+qoq tu pu+q cuto+q+u ou u uv+to+cxc+ut c ct+ulu +ooo o+q
ouvqq ooxtuolu +q uotxq utoilu (o+o ovoio oqiuoq +uv
ctctpq+uv +uv 2xc+txuv) ooo xut o+qv uxpulu ooxtuolu +q
c+uuotxq utoilu:

0 Aptqoq (q+ooc cvu ovo o+cpco xut uxlvq+o oqclo ytu vu c+u+oloct
oioxiqpq +q yq c+ot xut cyu opu vu cil(u c(loou cyiu pyu+u uv
uvuxuiu x+t, cito+o co+u, ou vu clvut cuto xut uxiovq+o
18
.

o cpyo uu+o uvuiuvct vu ct+cicoct o oc+cpo Z)*O"/0$2. B
cuto+q+u ytu +qv up(q +ou oxc+ocvou uoxctcvou uvuoc+ut +q o+tyq

16
Bescaites R., !"#$#,2R, Bupp+qu o+ov !"#$#" 4, 1, +p. 0. Bcvoiloq, o. 2u9. Itu +qv
cvvotu +q xuoitxq qoq o+ov Bescaites, i. Raouin B., a<AY8W>W kC>_8?W<;>WM e^>=X8 =8
lD<AYXD<A>h:8 :C>_8?W8;;8m =^n?>WABA8 o V8W@<?A8W, Paiis, Piesses nieisitaiies ue Fiance, 2uu9,
o. 2S1 x.c(.
17
+cxp+ ., Z)*O"/0*P J,KP )12 JKQ)12 [(G*/*[P"2, +p. Eu. uv+upxq, o. 7u.
18
SJMJ., o. 7u-71.
8
+q uxpulu o(uvoq +q utoilu, xut xulo+u+ut +ooo to toupq ooo
cptooo+cpo uu(vc+ut q cv+uoq +q +cicu+ulu:

Aii upct xoto uo+qptuoq uu+cuvu, uv+oovuo xut
uovqpo, ou c (cyci c uvoupylu otupxu. Av ou c (cyci, clvut
uvuloio o+t upu xut u c (cyci ooo cict, uo ocv u c xvct o+c
vu qv clut +lo+u ooo u oxc+out o+t clut x+t. o+c, c+ uo
ucpcupxc (ytou +uv v+uv, pcct cv +cict vu xu+uiq(u o+t q
uouvoq p'Q ,P0"(b ,'Q -JLKO% (q9B W:Db 89B 8`>WAB) uiqcct uvuyxulu
oo+c +qv pocpu q +q ouiiuvu o+o vcu ou. |j Axptoioyuv+u
iotov, clut ovu oxc+ocvo pyu (?8W @B9>A<CW), +ou+co+tv vcu,
ciioyq uq, vou q oyo Elut ou uiqtvo pyu, xut uiqtv uupx+o.
Aii +t cloou pyu o clu, oxc+ocvo
19
.

0u upu+qpqoouc o+t uouot(ct uo +qv xup+cotuvq uooct(q +q
up(q +ou oxc+ocvou pyu+o ootuoqo+c uvuop o+o ouu (q
up(q +ou oolou ocv u uooctcl up ovo o+ov cx+o xut +cicu+ulo
Z)*O"/0$). B yvuotoioytxq uvc(up+qolu +ou oxc+ocvou pyu+o cpvct
o+o u +qv ov+oioytxq +ou uvc(up+qolu oc ocoq c +q ouu+txq uoo+uoq:
+o rB9>AB, oxc+ocvo pyu, uq q vcu otuxplvc+ut JK"'0")(+L uo +o
cx+u+o pyu, +o ouu. B otxptoq uu+q clvut ccituoq o+qv xup+cotuvq
tiooolu xut ploxc+ut o+q oq +ou xup+cotuvo ouoo (oqiuoq +ou
iqpou otuuptoo uvcou o+q oxcq xut o+qv cx+uoq).
2+q ouvcctu +uv Z)*O"/0Q# o Bescaites u uoocl(ct, uxoiouuv+u
+qv uvuyxulu octp ou uuyopcct o xuvovu +q yvuotoioytxq +(q, pu+u
+qv up(q +ou 0co (Z)*O"/0*P, v), xut cct+u +qv up(q +uv uitxuv
puy+uv (Z)*O"/0*P, v). B uooct(q +q up(q +ou 0co ct+pcct o+ov
Bescaites vu poocpct, uocyov+u +o +cvuou +ou xuxoouiou
oulovu, tu opto+txq - uv xut c(u+cptxq - cyyqoq ytu +o ovoio +q
cvopu+txo-upuyuytxq yvuoq u, uo clvut uovu+ov o 0co, oqiuoq cvu

19
SJMJ., oo. 71-72 7S. Itu +t otu+uuoct +q pu+q cuto+q+u o+ov Bescaites: Eo sum,
eo existo (p'Q ,P0"(b ,'Q -JLKO%), Eo coito, eio sum (p'Q /+H[)*0"(b LK" -JLKO%), i.
Naiion .-., s:8WA>BCW @<?AXW>8CC8W ccM ]:? ;^89B 8A W:? V>8:, Paiis, Piesses nieisitaiies ue Fiance,
1996, o. 7-S1.
9
to+u +cicto ov
2u
, vu u c(uu+ oc o,+t ouiiuvouc c ouqvctu xut
cuxplvctu q ouvyouc c +qv uut+ocvq poooq uo +t oucl xut
cuxptvcl tocc u
21
. cio, q uooct(q +q up(q +uv uitxuv puy+uv, c
+qv oolu oioxiqpuvov+ut ot Z)*O"/0*P, xuto+ ouvu+q +q c+uoq uo +qv
pu+q tiooolu ou puyu+cc+ut xu+ xpto ioyo +qv uq xut +ov 0co,
o+q tiooolu +q oq. c +qv uvyvuoq +ou cx+ou Z)*O"/0*5 cluo+c oc
coq vu yvupl(ouc o+t q uotxq cto+qq cct uoococtycvu uv+txclcvo (+o
ovoio +uv uitxuv puy+uv). cvct +upu vu uvuxuiuov ot voot ou
otcouv +o uv+txclcvo uu+o, ytu +o oolo - u +o +ovloouc - +o ovo ou
opoc vu cutuoouc, ooo upucvouc o+o cupq+txo colo +uv
Z)*O"/0Q#, clvut o+t upct.

V> 2 WXEP @AF LF WYEF@LR GZILF

A yvupl(c+c iotov, xu+ pu+o ioyo, o+t c +ov opo oq ocv cvvou
otoiou cou xotu 0co+q+u, q xotou iiou cloou uv+uo+txq ovuq, uii
xvu pqoq uu+q +q ic(q ytu vu oqiuou +qv lotu +qv iq cupuv+u +q c
oic +t toto+q+c ou +q ucouou, xut uo +ov opo o+t o 0co ouvcl(ct vu +q
otu+qpcl c +ov loto +poo ou +q oqtopyqoc
22
. o ov+oo uu+o uplo, o+o
oolo cxp(c+ut pq+ q xup+cotuvq tooouvulu oq xut iq, pocpc+ut
uo +o cooo xciuto +ou cpyou F !$/0*2 3 tK"'0"),P" J,KP )*- [%)$2 6e8
aBC=8 B: u?<>AX =8 ;< ;:D>j?8E (16SS). Itu vu uv+tiqoc +t cupq+txc
ouvcctc +q poqyocvq tooouvulu, xut +q otiq pq(q ou ouvcyc+ut q
+cicu+ulu ucvo c +q 2oiuo+txq uotxq xut uc+cpou c +qv
Avuycvvqotuxq uv+liqq ytu +q oq, u pcct vu uuptqoouc xut vu
c(c+oouc ouvo+tx +t toto+q+c +q iq, +t oolc clc cxcoct
ic+ocpu o Bescaites o+o ucou poqyocvo xciuto +ou lotou cpyou:
1
ov
, q iq xu+uiuvct v+u cvuv upo uvioyo c +o cyco +q

2u
i. +cxp+ ., Z)*O"/0*P J,KP )12 JKQ)12 [(G*/*[P"2, v, +p. Eu. uv+upxq, o. 148-149.
21
Avuyvupl(u cv pu+ot o+t clvut uovu+ov |o 0coj vu c (cyci o+c, oto+t oc xc
(cyciuou q u+q ploxc+ut xotu u+cictu xut, upo+t +o vu opcl xuvcl vu (cyci
ulvc+ut cvoct(q ovuq q o(votu, +o vu cict vu (cyci up+upcl uvuloiu uocvctu q
xuxlu, pyu ou ocv upo(ct o+ov 0co, +cxp+ ., Z)*O"/0*P J,KP )12 JKQ)12 [(G*/*[P"2,
v, +p. Eu. uv+upxq, o. 129.
22
Bescaites, v:_?8W \Y>;BWB\Y>h:8Wb uBD8 c wxyxz{xy|}~, textes talis, pisents et annots pai
F. lui, Paiis, uainiei, 1988, o. S49-SSu.
1u
2
ov
, opcl vu otutpccl oc oiu +u cpq xut c oiou +ou +poou ou opcl
xuvcl vu uv+uo+cl S
ov
, xc cpo +q clvut txuvo vu oc+cl oic +t xtvqoct
ou opoc vu otuvoqoc
2S
. Elvut cv+ciu +uto, oqctuvct o Bescaites,
vu ctctpcl xuvcl vu uoouoct o+qv iq x+t cptooo+cpo uo +qv ooo+q+
+q q +qv c(u+cptxq +q cx+uoq, oqiuoq +qv toto+q+ +q vu xu+uiuvct
upo
24
. B toto+q+u uu+q clvut *-/(Q412, oto+t u ct+pcct vu oqu+loouc
(u uqoc cou oou couc qoq ct ytu +qv xup+cotuvq cooo) tu
xu+c(oqv uiq, ouq xut cuxptvq tocu +q iq, oqiuoq +q lotu +q oq, q
oolu u uo+cicoct o+q ouvcctu, ouvu c +ov ouyypucu +q
tK"'0"),P"2, +qv uouiq uc+qplu tu c(oioxiqpou vcu uotxq cto+qq
cv+ciu uuiiuycvq uo +ov xlvouvo +q ivq:

uv+tiuvout +qv cx+uoq |+q iqj q +qv toto+q+ +q vu xu+uiuvct
upo ot u oucqxo, uii u +qv uiqtvq opq +q xut +qv ouolu +q
2S
.

B oq iotov o+ov Bescaites ocv clvut up H+)"/1. Ectoq, pq o+qv
uuo+qpq cupoyq +ou coooioytxo xuvovu +q cuxplvctu, couv uutpccl
uo uu+qv oic cxclvc ot oiuolxtic xut ouyxcucvc cou+cptxc ouvct
xut oto+q+c ou ucotoc o+q oq q Avuycvvqoq, q xup+cotuvq oq cct oiu
+u upux+qpto+tx tu xuup ',%0,)K(+32 cx+uoq. Eticov, cctoq
cupcl+ut txuvq vu oc+cl +qv xlvqoq, ot ou txuvq vu +q oqtoupyqoct q vu
+q otu+qpqoct c ootovoqo+c +poo q lotu, q xup+cotuvq oq otuxplvc+ut
iqpu uo +qv upto+o+citxq oq, q oolu, xuu clvut o+ucp
poouvu+oitocvq o+qv cl+cu(q +uv cou+cptxuv oxouv ou upux+qpl(ouv
+u otopu uotx ov+u, clvut q upq q q ycvcotoupyo ut+lu oiuv +uv
uotxuv, oxotuv xtvqocuv xut c+uoiuv ou ouulvouv o+o cou+cptxo
+q
26
.

2S
SJMJ., o. S4S-S46.
24
SJMJ., o. S48.
2S
SJMJ. 0 Bescaites pqotootcl cou +o upto+o+citxoooiuo+txo ic(tioyto (oucqxo,
opq, ouolu), ytu vu cxpoct tu tocu pt(tx uv+lc+q po +t ccituoct upuooc
+q 2oiuo+txq uotxq.
26
i. Apto+o+ciq, t,KP [5/,%2M * 4,5),K* (GP* )%# -/(+Q#, ctouyuyq - c+puoq -
ooituoo . Kiu, Aqvu, Boit, 1999, o. 71: B oq iotov clvut upq xut ut+lu +q
xlvqoq xut +q o+oq oc cxclvu +u ov+u oou cvupct xu+ +poo coo xut ouvo c
+qv lotu +qv ouolu +ou. Itu +qv cvvotu +q uotxq xlvqoq o+ov Apto+o+ciq, i. inuei B.
., F( "J"KOH2 )12 4-)(+32 ,J(/)3012M [(G*/*[(+3b .K1/+,-)(+3 +"( .,/0(+3 .,QK1/1 )12
11
Au+q q o+u+txq, ycuc+ptxq cupqoq +q oq u cx+uoq c+ct
ucou, ou ylvc+ut cxoiu uv+tiq+o, +o cpu+qu +q pocicuoq +q
xlvqoq. Ao ou qy(ct q +cicu+ulu, uv q oq uouvu+cl vu c(qyqoct +ooo +qv
uptxq cvtoq ooo xut +q otu+qpqoq +q xlvqoq o+o cou+cptxo +q 2+o
uotxo uu+o cpu+qu o Bescaites olvct tu c+uuotxq uv+qoq: q xlvqoq -
uxptco+cpu: tu optocvq ooo+q+u xlvqoq - ctoyc+ut xut otu+qpcl+ut upl
uu(ootuoct o+q oq uo +ov 0co. 2+o ppo S6 +ou oc+cpou cpou +uv
KOQ# )12 (G*/*[P"2 6i?>C@>\>< \Y>;BWB\Y><8E (1644), cpyo ou uo+cicl
ouo+qu+txq cxcoq, c +q opq otoux+txo cyctptolou, +ou ouvoiou +q
tiooolu +ou, o Bescaites cutuvct, pyu+t, o+t

o 0co clvut q pu+couou ut+lu xlvqoq xut +qv uu+q v+u ooo+q+u
xlvqoq otu+qpcl o+o ouv
27
.

Kuu uooloct +q uotxq xlvqoq o+q opoq cvo c(u+cptxo,
ucpu+txo ut+lou, o+qv oolu uvyc+ut oc +cicu+ulu uviuoq xc ctcpou
xlvqoq ou upu+qpcl+ut o+ov xooo, o Bescaites uoxiclct xc c(qyqoq +q
xlvqoq +uv ou+uv c oq tu optocvq cou+cptxq ovuq, opq q
cvopqoq (>D\8A:W). Av +u cvtx cpq +q iq uox+ov xtvqoct ou
poqyoucvu ocv cluv
28
, uu+o ouulvct ot c(ut+lu +q oq +ou, uii
cctoq q xlvqoq c+uoloc+ut c otuootxc xpooct uo ouu oc ouu,
yito+puv+u xu+ xotov +poo o+o c(u+cptxo +ou, upl vu ctocpc+ut o+ov
upqvu q +qv ouolu +ou, ou clvut xut upucvct q cx+uoq, oqiuoq o
ycuc+ptxo, +ptooto+u+o upo ou xu+uiuvouv xut +lo+c iio.
ov+u uoouqvloct +t uotxc cvvotc +q uotxq +ou, +qv iq xut
+qv xlvqoq, o Bescaites opcl vu otu+uuoct +ou +pct ccituoct voou
+q oq:

p-K%J"+32 ,J(/)10*#(+32 J"KL4*/12b y JMM x 0M., c+puoq B. upxoicu, Aqvu,
Buvcto+qtuxc Exoooct E..B., 1997, o. 8S-84.
27
+cxp+ ., F( KOH2 )12 [(G*/*[P"2 , ctouyuyq, c+puoq, ooituoo
. Ipqyopooiou, Aqvu, Exxpcc, 2u12, o. 2u4. 0 Bescaites c(qycl o+q ouvcctu: upu, ooov
uop +q ycvtxq ut+lu |+q xlvqoqj, clvut oiovcpo ytu cvu o+t ocv clvut iiq up ovo o
0co, o oolo cv upq c +qv uv+oouvulu +ou oqtopyqoc +qv iq u(l c +qv xlvqoq xut
+qv qpclu xut +upu, ovo c +qv xuvovtxq ouvopoq +ou, otu+qpcl +qv uu+q ooo+q+u xlvqoq
xut qpclu o+o ouv ou +qv ccoc c(upq, $JMJ., o. 2u4-2uS.
28
SJMJ., o. 2u4.
12

|.j 0 pu+o voo +q oq: xc pyu, ooo c(up++ut uo +o loto, ccvct
v+u o+qv lotu xu+o+uoq xt c+ot o,+t u( xtvcl+ut, ouvcl(ct v+u vu
xtvcl+ut
29
.

|.j 0 oc+cpo voo +q oq: xc xlvqoq clvut uo ovq +q cuypuq
xut cocvu xc ouu xtvocvo oc cvuv xxio +clvct v+u vu
uouxpvc+ut uo +o xcv+po +ou xxiou o+ov oolo cyypc+ut
Su
.

|.j 0 +pl+o voo: uv cvu ouu pooxpooct oc cvu iio toupo+cpo uo +o
loto, ocv vct xuoiou +qv xlvqoq +ou, uii uv pooxpooct oc cvu uocvco+cpo
vct +ooq ooo+q+u xlvqoq ooq c+ut(ct o+o iio ouu
S1
.

2+ou upuvu voou, ot oolot uv+to+otov o+t ocu+cpcouoc xut
ctcpou ut+lc
S2
+uv upu+qpocvuv xtvqocuv oc uv+totuo+oiq c +qv
xuoitxq (:C>_8?W<;8D), pu+couou (\?>D<?><D) xut ycvtxq ut+lu (@<:W<
98C8?<;>W) oiuv +uv xtvqocuv o+ov xooo
SS
ou clvut o 0co, poo+lcv+ut
o+q ouvcctu ot voot +q xpooq +uv ou+uv (KOH2 )12 [(G*/*[P"2, , 46-
S2). Bpoxct+ut ytu c+ ov+oou uoioyto+txo xuvovc, c +ou oolou
poootopl(ouc ooq xlvqoq cvo ouu+o c+uiic+ut uo +qv
pooxpouoq +ou c iiu ouu+u
S4
.
0u upu+qpqoouc, uxoiouuv+u o+o oqclo uu+o +qv cpqvclu +ou
. oyi, o+t ot voot |j xut |j ouvto+ov uo xotvo +qv pu+q otu+uoq
+q vco+cpq upq +q uopvctu: Bo+c u +o+c +o titopovo povoto +q
xuxitxq xlvqoq ocv clc +ooo uouoto+tx, xut +ooo (cxupu,
uopptcl
SS
. 2+pcocvo +uu+opovu cvuv+lov +ou Apto+o+ciq xut cvuv+lov

29
SJMJ., , S7, o. 2u6.
Su
SJMJ., , S9, o. 2u9.
S1
SJMJ., , 4u, o. 212.
S2
SJMJ., , S7, o. 2u7.
SS
SJMJ., , S6, o. 2u4.
S4
SJMJ., , 4S, o. 218. Itu tu uvuiu+txq upouoluoq, uo to+optxq xut ouo+qu+txq oxot,
+uv xup+cotuvuv uotxuv vouv xut +uv xuvovuv +q xpooq, i. Buzon F. ue, aiiauu v.,
V8W@<?A8W 8A ;8W li?>C@>\><m ccM rB?\W 8A DB:_8D8CA, Paiis, Piesses nieisitaiies ue Fiance, 1994,
oo. 1uu-1u7 112-11S.
SS
oyi ., A:=8W 9<;>;X8CC8W, Paiis, Beimann, 2uu1 (1
q
cxo. 1966), o. S28. 2+q ooituocvq
cxoooq +uv KOQ# )12 [(G*/*[P"2, o F. lui upu+qpcl: 0 Bescaites otuupl(ct +qv
ooo+q+u +q xlvqoq uo +q otcuvoq +q, pyu ou +ov ooqycl vu otu+uuoct uptx oo
1S
+ou ouypovou +ou Iuitiulou, o oolo uvuyvupt(c xut otu+qpooc +o pu+clo
+q xuxitxq xlvqoq, o Bescaites uoo+qpl(ct, +qpuv+u o+q uotxq +ou ou
xut o+q c+uuotxq +ou +ov coooioytxo xuvovu ouvu c +ov oolo
pcct oc xc octp puy+uv vu pooc(ouc +t clvut uio o+ov cyto+o
uo
S6
, o+t q cuypuq xlvqoq, u xu+c(oqv uiq, clvut q o+otctuoq
uotxq xlvqoq. Ao uu+qv c(up+uv+ut xut oc uu+qv uvyov+ut, cou tu
xu+iiqiq otuotxuolu uviuoq, oic ot iic xtvqoct,
oucptiuuvocvq +q xuxitxq:

Icyovo clvut o+t, uo oic +t xtvqoct, ovo q cuypuq clvut cv+ciu uiq
xut q oq +q cptiuvc+ut oc lu o+tyq |j Evu, ytu vu ouiict xuvcl +qv
xuxitxq xlvqoq, q ootuoqo+c iiq, pcct vu cupqoct oo +ouito+ov
o+tyc +q, q iiov oo cpq +q, xut +q c+u( +ou ocoq
S7
.

B otu+uoq +ou pu+ou voou ct+pcct c(iiou o+ov Bescaites vu
poootoploct +o uxptc cupq+txo cptcocvo c +o oolo q cvvotu +q
ovuq opcl vu ctoucl o+q uotxq +ou: q ovuq xc ouu+o vu
cvcpycl q vu uv+to+cxc+ut ocv clvut up q +oq otu+qpqoq +q xtvq+txq
xu+o+uoq +ou ouu+o
S8
. Kuu q +oq uu+q ocv pocpc+ut o+c opcl vu
pocict uo +o loto +o ouu u xuoptocvq ycuc+ptxq cx+uoq, uii
c(up++ut uoxicto+tx uo +qv xtvq+txq +ou xu+o+uoq oc tu ocoocvq
povtxq o+tyq, opcl vu +poootcl+ut uvioyu c +t +poootqoct ou
ulo+u+ut, u uo+cicou +q opoq c(u+cptxuv ut+luv xut ovo, q xtvq+txq
xu+o+uoq +ou ouu+o.

voou cxcl ou q vco+cpq uotxq ocv icct up ovo cvuv, Bescaites, v:_?8W
\Y>;BWB\Y>h:8Wb uBD8 ccc wxy|{xy~, u. F. lui, Paiis, uainiei, 1989, o. 188, uoo.
S6
Bescaites R., !"#$#,2R, !"#$#"2 6, +p. 0. Bcvoiloq, o. 6S.
S7
Bescaites R., e8 aBC=8 B: u?<>AX =8 ;< ;:D>j?8, cap. v, >C Bescaites, v:_?8W \Y>;BWB\Y>h:8Wb
uBD8 c, u. F. lui, o. SS9.
S8
2c +t ouvlo+u+ut q ovuq xc ouu+o vu cvcpycl q vu uv+to+cxc+ut. E' uu+o cutu
u pcct vu pooc(ouc oc +t ouvlo+u+ut q ovuq xc ouu+o vu cvcpycl cvuv+lov iiou q
vu uv+to+cxc+ut o+qv cvcpyctu +ou iiou: ctotx oc +o+o ovo, o+t xc pyu +clvct, ooo
c(up++ut uo +o loto, vu ccvct o+qv lotu xu+o+uoq (>C 8B=8D WA<A:) o+qv oolu clvut, ou
cct otu+uucl o+ov pu+o voo, +cxp+ ., F( KOH2 )12 [(G*/*[P"2, , 4S, +p.
. Ipqyopooiou, o. 216-217. B poq ooo c(up++ut uo +o loto (h:<CA:D >C W8 8WA) ocv
oqiuvct cou tu ut+tuoq cvcpyctu +ou ouu+o ou qy(ct uo +qv cvcpyo ouolu q +o
@BC<A:W +ou, ou o+ov 2tvo(u (.(+3, , 6-7), uii ovo +qv uouolu c(u+cptxo
xuoptoo txuvo vu c+uict +qv xu+o+uoq +ou ouu+o oc ocoq c +u ouu+u ou +o
cptiiouv.
14
0u oqctuoouc, +cio, o+t q xup+cotuvq upq +q uopvctu, ou uu+q
cxp(c+ut o+ou oo pu+ou voou +q oq, ocv ccituvc+ut o+qv
cctptxq upu+qpqoq (co+u xt uv ctcutuvc+ut cx +uv uo+cpuv uo
uu+qv
S9
), uii uvyct +q cuto+q+ +q oc cvu u+cpo, c+uuotxo ccito:
+ov 0co uxptco+cpu: tu optocvq toto+q+ +ou, +qv oolu ouiiuvct c
+qv uut+ocvq ouqvctu xut cuxplvctu o uvputvo vou. 0 Bescaites
upu+qpcl pyu+t, o+t KOH2 )12 [(G*/*[P"2, o+t o pu+o voo c(up++ut
uo +o uvuiiolu+o +ou 0co
4u
, cvu ut+lu +ou oc+cpou voou clvut q lotu
ou xut ytu +ov poqyocvo, ouyxcxptcvu oclic+ut o+qv uc+iq+q xut
uiq ict+oupylu ot +q oolu o 0co otu+qpcl +qv xlvqoq o+qv iq
41
. Au+q q
c+uuotxq cciluoq, q cupq+txq oquolu +q oolu cct cuvctiqcvu
+ovtocl uo oquv+txo cic+q+c ou o . oyi xut o B. uaiei
42
, ocv
o+cpcl uo +qv xup+cotuvq uotxq +qv pu+o+ulu +q oclvct ou o+t, o+ov
Bescaites, q xu+uvoqoq +q oq xut +uv vouv +q c(up++ut u cvuv uo
uo +q oiiqq +uv toto+q+uv +ou oqtoupyo +q
4S
. Aclvct cloq o+t, ytu
+ov Bescaites, uotxq xut c+uuotxq, uotxq tiooolu xut pu+q
tiooolu ouvto+ov cvu cvtulo, uotouo+o xut tcpupqcvo ovoio
44
, o+o
oolo tu optocvq +(q uiqctuv (ot c+uuotxc) ict+oupyov u cyyqoq
ytu +t utuvtc uotxc uiqctc, upl uo+ooo vu xu+upyov +qv
cto+qoioytxq uu+o+cictu +uv +cicu+uluv u "KOQ# +q uotxq cto+qq:
B c+uuotxq ccituvct cxclvo ou clvut qoq upq o+q uotxq
4S
.



S9
Kt uu+o pyu+t cutuvc+ut uo +qv cctplu, +cxp+ ., F( KOH2 )12 [(G*/*[P"2, ,
S9, +p. . Ipqyopooiou, o. 211.
4u
SJMJ., , S7, o. 2u7.
41
SJMJ., , S9, o. 21u.
42
o uc+iq+o +ou 0co, +o yvupl(ouc oi xui, ocv opcl - ytu +ov Bescaites - up
vu clvut +o c+uuotxo ccito +uv vouv +q otu+qpqoq, oyi ., A:=8W 9<;>;X8CC8W, o. S26.
i. cloq uaiei B., V8W@<?A8W^ a8A<\YgW>@<; iYgW>@W, cap. 9: uou anu te uiounus of te
aws of Notion: mmutaility, Foice, anu Finite auses, icao anu onuon, Te nieisity of
icao Piess, 1992, o. 26S-SuS.
4S
Av xut ocv tooouvucl c +qv iqpq xu+uvoqoq +ou lotou +ou 0co, q ovuq +ou oolou
ucpulvct, ouvu c +ov Bescaites, +u optu +q uvputvq yvuo+txq txuvo+q+u, q
oiiqq uu+q clvut ciioyq xut ouvcu uvc(p+q+q uo +q pqoxcu+txq lo+q.
44
Bpi. +cxp+ ., F( KOH2 )12 [(G*/*[P"2, Eto+oiq +ou 2uyypucu o+ov c+upuo+q +ou
tilou (Av+l Bpoioyou), +p. . Ipqyopooiou, o. 81: +ot, oiq q tiooolu clvut ouv cvu
ocvopo, +ou oolou ot pl(c clvut q c+uuotxq, xopo q uotxq, xut +u xiuot ou uvuoov+ut
uo uu+o +ov xopo clvut oic ot iic cto+qc.
4S
Buzon F. ue, aiiauu v., V8W@<?A8W 8A ;8W li?>C@>\><m cc, o. SS.
1S

[[> , "#3"+/+*#,* %,\ ]^7_5

2+o oc+cpo too +ou 17
ou
utuvu xut o+t upc +ou 18
ou
utuvu, o
Bescaites xut o xup+cotuvtoo, o oolo o+o c+u( clc uploct vu otooxc+ut
o+u Eupuux Buvcto+qtu, xut totul+cpu o+qv 0iiuvolu
46
, u ylvct o o+oo
tu otiq clcoq ou u c(uoioouv, uo otuopc+txc tioootxc
uc+qplc, o on ocke (16S2-17u4) xut o uottfiieu Wilelm einiz (1646-
1716).
2+qv upq +ou oquv+txo+cpou cpyou +ou c +l+io *+P0(* '(" )1#
"#.KQJ(#1 #$1/1 6nC qWW<g @BC@8?C>C9 :D<C kC=8?WA<C=>C9E (1689), o+oo
+ou oolou clvut q otcpcvqoq +q pocicuoq, +q cuto+q+u xut +q
cx+uoq +q uvputvq yvuoq
47
, o ocke ctctpqu+oioycl cvuv+lov +q
up(q cu+uv upuv (cCC<A8 i?>C@>\;8W), cupq+txuv xut pux+txuv,
o+ov vou, uv+liqq ou uooloc+ut o+ov Bescaites. B cupq+txq uu+q
poupuoxcuq clvut uupul+q+q o+ov ocke ytu vu otu+uuoct o+q ouvcctu +q
uotxq tioootxq xut cto+qoioytxq coq +ou ytu +qv uoxicto+tx
,0J,(K(+3 xu+uyuyq +q yvuoq u:

A uocoouc iotov, o+t o+qv upq +o vcu clvut uu+o ou ovo(ouc
taula iasa, xcvo uo upux+qpto+tx, upl xut tocu, ootu xt uv clvut. Bu
occ+ut tocc c oto coo xu+ux+ uu+q +q uuuo+q ooo+q+u, ou q
uv+uolu +ou uvpuou, v+u opuo+qptu xut ucptopto+q, +ou upouot(ct c
tu otxtilu ocoov ctpq Ao o uv+icl oiu uu+ +u uitx, ou clvut o
io+o oiuv +uv ouiioytouv +ou xut oiuv +uv yvuocuv +ou 2' uu+o uuv+u
c tu ic(q: A' +qv cctplu (?BD q`\8?>8C@8). Au+q clvut q oq oiuv +uv
yvuocuv u xt u' uu+qv uv+iov uu+c +qv pu+q +ou xu+uyuyq
48
.

46
i. van Bune W. (eu.), uY8 q<?;g qC;>9YA8CD8CA >C AY8 V:A@Y 78\:;>@ xy{x}, eiuen, Biill,
2uuS.
47
ocke ., nC qWW<g @BC@8?C>C9 :D<C kC=8?WA<C=>C9, euiteu wit a foiwaiu y P. B. Niuuitc,
xfoiu, laienuon Piess, 197S, o. 4S. Bupucouc o+q ouvcctu, +poootuv+u xut
ouiqpuvov+ +qv oou uut+cl+ut, o+q ovuotxq otucotq ciiqvtxq c+puoq +ou
*+(0P*-: ocke ., *+P0(* '(" )1# "#.KQJ(#1 #$1/1, ctcictu K. c+ptvo, c+puoq
Ip. tovq, Aqvu, Avuyvuo+loq, .. 2qctuvouc +qv uvyxq tu vcu, oioxiqpucvq,
xpt+txq cxoooq +ou *+(0P*- o+u ciiqvtx, q oolu u ouiqpuvc cvu oquv+txo xcvo o+qv
ciiqvoyiuooq titoypulu.
48
SJMJ., , 1, 2, o. 1u4 |+p. tovq, o. 42-4Sj.
16

0 ocke c(qycl o+q ouvcctu +ou *+(0P*- (, 1, S-4) o+t ot tocc u
pocpov+ut cl+c uo +qv uloqoq (poxct+ut ytu +t tocc +uv utoq+uv
oto+q+uv +uv puy+uv: xl+ptvo, icuxo, cpo, upo, uiuxo, oxiqpo
xi.), cl+c uo +q otuvoq+txq upu+qpqoq (poxct+ut ytu +t tocc +uv
otuopuv ict+oupytuv +ou vou: uv+liqq, oxcq, utoilu, lo+q,
ouiioytoo, yvuoq, oiqoq xi.). Aloqoq xut otuvoq+txq upu+qpqoq
uv+to+otov o+qv c(u+cptxq xut cou+cptxq cctplu, xut otucpouv u po
+u uv+txclcv +ou: uv+txclcvo +q pu+q clvut +u c(u+cptx, uitx
pyu+u, cvu +q oc+cpq ot vcuu+txc ict+oupylc oc ocoq c +u
pyu+u uu+. ooo ot tocc +q uloqoq ooo xut ot tocc +q otuvoq+txq
upu+qpqoq clvut, ouvu c +ov ocke, "JGH2 (*+P0(*, , 2, 2). Au+o
oqulvct o+t o vou ocv opcl o+c vu +t oqtoupyqoct o loto, o+c ou xut
vu +t xu+uo+pcct u( xut cv+uuov o+o cou+cptxo +ou. Bpcct iotov vu
oucpvouc o+t, u po +t uic tocc +ou, o vou clvut

cv+ciu uq+txo |j Au+c +t uic tocc, o+uv poocpov+ut o+o vcu, q
voqoq ocv opcl vu +t upvqcl, o+c vu +t +poootqoct, o+uv couv
cv+uucl, o+c vu +t ouoxo+loct xut vu oqtoupyqoct vcc, cptooo+cpo uo
ooo cvu xupc+q opcl vu upvqcl, vu c+uiict q vu c(uiclct +t ctxovc
q tocc (cD<98W B? c=8<W) ou oqu+l(ov+ut o+qv ctvct +ou uo +u
uv+txclcvu ou o+cxouv cpo +ou
49
.

Au+q q pu+oycvq uq+txo+q+u +ou cctptxo vou cptopl(c+ut
uo+ooo uo +q ovuq +ou vu cuvuiuvct, vu ouyxplvct xut vu cvuvct +t
uic tocc +ou, oqu+l(ov+u c+ot vcc /5#.,),2 tocc (*+P0(*, , 2, 2). B
oc+cpq uu+q xu+qyoplu tocuv ou ocv opov vu up(ouv ptv xut
uvc(p+q+u uo +t uic tocc, c(uv+icl +q oqtoupytxo+q+u +ou vou, q oolu
pouoc+ct, ytu vu uox+qoct +qv pu+q iq +q, +ov uvuupuo+u+txo
upux+qpu +q voqoq xut tu optocvq cpqvclu +uv pu+uptxuv, uiuv
tocuv u ctxovuv +uv puy+uv (c(u+cptxuv uv+txctcvuv q cou+cptxuv
ict+oupytuv).

49
SJMJ., , 1, 2S, o. 118 |+p. tovq, o. S1j.
17
Ao +t upuvu poxclcvc o ocke ouvyct o+o *+P0(* oo xplotu
oucpou+u, +u oolu u u ct+pcouv vu otu+uuoouc o+q ouvcctu tu
optocvq uo+lqoq +ou cctptoo +ou xut +q coq ou xu+uiuvct o
+cicu+ulo o+o colo +q co+cpq tiooolu. o pu+o oucpuou
oc+l(c+ut c +o poiqu +q yvuoq +uv uoo+ocuv, +o oc+cpo c +o
cpu+qu ytu +q oq +q yvuoq cv ycvct. Au+ poxct+ut vu c(c+oouc
ouvo+tx o+q ouvcctu.
2+o xciuto 2S +ou oc+cpou tilou +ou *+(0P*-, o ocke po+clvct tu
ycvc+txq c(qyqoq +q tocu +q uoo+uoq:

Ao o vou coot(c+ut c cvuv cyio upto uiuv tocuv, ou pocpov+ut
uo +t utoqoct uvioyu c +t otopc cv+uuoct ou ocov+ut uo +u
c(u+cptx uv+txclcvu, q uo +q otuvoq+txq upu+qpqoq vu o+t otxc +ou
ict+oupylc, otuto+uvct o+cpu uo uu+o, o+t cvu optocvo upto uo uu+c
+t uic tocc vc o+ucp u(l (9B @BCWA<CA;g AB98AY8?), xut cctoq
cupov+ut ouv vu uvqxouv oc cvu ovo pyu, oqulvov+ut c cvu ovo ovou,
o+uv clvut c+ot cvucvc oc cvu ovo uoxclcvo, cctoq q yiuoou
pooupo(c+ut o+t xotvc cvvotc xut q xptu uoo+oiq +q clvut vu cxpoct
ypqyopu uu+o ou couc o+o vcu. Ao uu+o pocpc+ut +o o+t, uv xut clvut
uiqtv cvu potou uo oiic tocc ouvococcvc, o+q ouvcctu
ooqyouo+c uo upooc(lu vu +t cupoc xut vu tic ytu uu+c ouv vu qv
q+uv puyu+tx up lu ovo uiq tocu ytu+l ou qoq clu, cctoq ocv
opoc vu uv+uo+oc, u uu+c ot uic tocc opov vu ulo+uv+ut uo
ovc +ou, ouvqlouc vu uoc+ouc xoto pyu ou +t uouo+(ct
(]:WA?<A:D), o+o oolo upouv xut uo +o oolo pox+ouv, xut +o oolo
uoxuioc cocvu uoo+uoq (]:WA<C@8)
Su
.

0 oqu+too +q cvvotu +q uoo+uoq o+ov vou oclic+ut iotov ot
o+qv uv+liqq xut xu+uvoqoq +q uv+txctcvtxq ouyxpo+qoq +ou xooou, q
o+qv cctptxq oiiqq +uv cl cpou uotxuv uoo+ocuv, uii xuplu oc
cvuv cyycvq cptoptoo +q uv+uolu u, oqiuoq o+qv uouvulu u vu
uv+uo+oc cvuv xooo o+ov oolo ot utoq+c oto+q+c u uqpuv
uvc(p+q+u uo cvu ootooqo+c uitxo uoupo (xut, uv+lo+otu, ot

Su
SJMJ., , 2S, 1, o. 29S |+p. tovq, o. 11Sj.
18
otuvoq+txc ict+oupylc uvc(p+q+u uo cvu voq+txo uoupo). 0
oqu+too +q upuvu cvvotu pouoc+ct c(iiou +q ouvopoq oo
otuxpt+uv upuyov+uv: 1
ov
, +qv up(q cvo ovou+o x+u uo +o oolo
cvootcl+ut cvu optocvo upto uiuv tocuv (oqiuoq +qv up(q +q
yiuoou) 2
ov
, tu utvocvtxq xuvovtxo+q+u, oqiuoq +q ouvq cvtoq
tu oou utoq+uv oto+q+uv xut +uv uv+lo+otuv uiuv tocuv o+ov vou
S1
,
ou uooloouc o+q ouvcctu oc tu uoc+txq xotvq ut+lu, ytu +q oq xut +qv
ov+oioytxq oo+uoq +q oolu ocv couc o+c opoc vu oqu+loouc
xut uu+o+ciq tocu. Bpcct cocvu vu oucpvouc o+t q yvuoq +q
uoo+uoq xucuu+qv clvut uovu+q. opoc ovo vu uocoouc +qv
up(q +q u +o uoo+puu q +o uoo+qptyu cl+c +uv utoq+uv
oto+q+uv (ouu+txq uoo+uoq) cl+c +uv otuvoq+txuv ict+oupytuv
(vcuu+txq uoo+uoq):

o+c ooto ciqoct vu c(c+oct +qv cvvotu +q xuupq uoo+uoq cv ycvct
ou otuc+ct, u pct o+t ocv cct xulu uoi+u iiq tocu ytu uu+qv, up
ovo tu uocoq (]:\\BW>A>BC) cvo yvuo+ou uoo+qplyu+o +c+otuv
oto+q+uv, ou clvut txuvc vu upyouv uic tocc cou u
S2
.

0 uoc+txo upux+qpu +q cvvotu +q uoo+uoq, ytu +qv up(q q
+qv uvuup(lu +q oolu ocv opoc vu pooxoloouc xulu uuo+qpq
uooct(q (*+P0(*, , 2S, S), ouvto+ +o cto+qoioytxo opto +ou cctptoo
+ou ocke xut +uu+opovu xu+uoctxvct +ov c+uu+txo upux+qpu +ou
*+(0P*-. 2cxtvuv+u uo +q otxptoq +ou ocke uvcou oc tocc +q
uloqoq, tocc +q otuvoq+txq upu+qpqoq xut tocc ou ouvc+ouv,
otutpov q uvuupto+ov +t poqyocvc, o u. Beikeley (168S-17SS) u

S1
Itu +o (q+qu uu+o, i. Paimentiei N., cCA?B=:@A>BC o ;^Essai sui l'entenuement umain =8
eB@8, Paiis, Piesses nieisitaiies ue Fiance, 1999, o. 1SS.
S2
ocke ., nC qWW<gR, , 2S, 2, o. 29S |+p. tovq, o. 11Sj. Bpi. o+o loto, , 2S, S, o. 297-298
|+p. tovq, o. 114-11Sj: B |ouu+txq uoo+uoqj uo+lc+ut ouv uoo+qptyu +uv uiuv
tocuv ou u cpov+ut uo c(u, upl vu (cpouc +t clvut uu+o +o uoo+qptyu q |vcuu+txq
uoo+uoqj cupcl+ut ouv uoo+qptyu +uv cvcpyctuv ou ploxouc cou u c +qv
cou+cptxq cctplu, xut ou u clvut +ciclu yvuo+q , 2S, 6, o. 298 |+p. tovq, o. 11Sj:
+ot, ootu xt uv clvut q uo+txq xut uqpqcvq oq +q uoo+uoq cv ycvct, oic ot tocc
ou couc ytu +u totul+cpu xut (cupto+ cloq uoo+ocuv, ocv clvut iio up otopot
ouvouuool uiuv tocuv (rBD>C<A>BCW B W>D\;8 c=8<W) ou ouvupouv oc tu cvo+q+u
yvuo+q ytu c c +c+otou ouvouuoo uiuv tocuv xut ot c +lo+c iio,
uvuupto+oc totul+cpu cloq ouotuv.
19
upvqcl pq+, o+qv tK"'0"),P" JL#% /)(2 "KOH2 )12 "#.KQJ(#12 '#Q/12 6n
u?8<A>W8 rBC@8?C>C9 AY8 i?>C@>\;8W B :D<C CB;8=98E (171u), +qv up(q +uv
ouu+txuv uoo+ocuv:

0u u xvouv +qv upu+qpqoq u uu+o +ouito+ov clvut uiqtvo, o+t
oqiuoq otuypouc oic +t ouu+txc ouolc. B uv+qoq ou clvut q c(q:
cv +q ic(q *-/P" (Sustance) +qv pouc c +qv xotvq oquolu, ouv lu
ovcoq utoq+uv oto+q+uv, ou clvut q cx+uoq, q o+cpco+q+u, +o po xut
+u upootu, +o+c ocv opov vu u xu+qyopqoouv ytu x+t +c+oto. Ev ou
+qv pouc c +q tioootxq oquolu, ouv uo-o+qptyu +uv oucqxo+uv q
+uv oto+q+uv c(u uo +ov vou, +o+c ocv opu up vu uvuyvuplou u
pyu+t +qv uvutpoc cv cutu opcl vu iccl u uvutpcl xuvcl x+t +o
oolo o+c ocv uqp(c o+c xuv cou o+q uv+uolu
SS
.

2+o oc+cpo too +ou 18
ou
utuvu o . ant (1724-18u4), uuv+uv+u o+o
cpu+qu ou clc uqoct c+cupo +o *+P0(* +ou ocke, u uoo+qpl(ct o+qv
!K()(+3 )*- +"."K*5 G$'*- 6?>A> =8? ?8>C8C 8?C:CAE (1781) o+t q up(q +uv
puy+uv xucuu+ ouvto+ ul+qu +ou ioyou, xut o+t q voqoq, cou +uv
xu+qyoptuv +q xut +uv a piioii opuv +q co+clu (upo xut povo),
opcl vu yvuploct c cuto+q+u ovo utvocvu.
A cpouc +upu o+qv c(c+uoq +ou poiqu+o +q yvuoq cv ycvct o+ov
ocke. Ao pu+u upu+qpqoct o+t +o coo uv+txclcvo +ou vou ocv clvut
iio uo +t tocc +ou, xut o+t, xu+ ouvcctu, q yvuoq u opcl vu oc+l(c+ut
ovo c uu+c, o ocke otu+uuvct, o+o xu+uit +ou +c+up+ou tilou +ou
*+(0P*-, +ov uxoiouo optoo +q yvuoq:

ou ulvc+ut iotov, o+t q yvuoq ocv clvut iio uo +qv uv+liqq +q
ovocoq xut ouuvlu, q +q uouuvlu xut uotulu uuqoq (AY8
\8?@8\A>BC B AY8 @BCC8`>BC <C= <9?88D8CAb B? =>W<9?88D8CA <C= ?8\:9C<C@g)
c+u( +uv tocuv u. 2c uu+o xut ovo ouvlo+u+ut q yvuoq. Uou upct q
uv+liqq uu+q, upct yvuoq, xut oou ocv upct, cxcl, uv xut opoc vu
uv+u(ouo+c, vu xvouc ctxuolc q vu to+couc, ocv u oouc o+c o+q

SS
Beikeley u., tK"'0"),P" JL#% /)(2 "KOH2 )12 "#.KQJ(#12 '#Q/12, S7, c+puoq A. .
2cvoovq, 0coouiovlxq, Kuvo+uv+tvloq, .., o. 96.
2u
yvuoq. Ato+t, o+uv yvupl(ouc o+t +o icuxo ocv clvut upo, +t iio xvouc uo
+o vu uv+tiuuvouo+c o+t ot oo uu+c tocc ocv ouuvov U+uv xu+couc
+qv to+q cuto+q+u +q uooct(q, o+t ot +pct yuvlc cvo +ptyuvou clvut
loc c oo opc, +t cptooo+cpo xvouc uo +o vu uv+tiuuvouo+c o+t q
too+q+u c oo opc yuvlc ouuvcl uvuyxulu c +t +pct yuvlc +ou
+ptyuvou, xut o+t clvut uotuupto+q uo uu+c
S4


B pu+o+ulu +q uv+liqq +ou ocke cyxct+ut o+o ycyovo o+t opl(ct +q
yvuoq ot u ocoq uvcou o+t tocc xut o+u pyu+u, uii u ocoq
uvcou o+t lotc +t tocc. Bup +o ycyovo o+t o poqyocvo optoo
opcl vu cupqcl, ou upu+qpcl o N. Paimentiei, cito+o xut
poouptvo
SS
, ocv u pcct vu u otuyct q pu+uptxq cupq+txq +ou
o+ocuoq, ou ocv clvut iiq uo +qv ucvtoq o+t q ocoq +ou vou c +u
pyu+u ocv clvut o+c coq, uii pouoc+ct +q cooiqoq cvo +pl+ou
opou, +uv (4,Q#:

Elvut uvcpo, o+t o vou ocv yvupl(ct +u pyu+u cou, uii ovo c +qv
upcuoq +uv tocuv ou cct ytu +u pyu+u
S6
.

Acv poxct+ut cou ytu c++uoq +ou cctptoo +ou ocke oc cvuv
uciq tocuitoo q o+qv uuioxpu+lu +ou Beikeley. 0 ocke ocv uyvocl, o+o
*+P0(*, +o poiqu +q JK"'0")(+$)1)"2 +q yvuoq: Ev q yvuoq ou
couc ytu +t tocc u, +cpu+l(c+ut o' uu+c +t tocc upl vu cx+clvc+ut to

S4
ocke ., nC qWW<gR, v, 1, 2, o. S24 |+p. tovq, o. 192j. 0u poocoouc o+t o ocke otuxplvct
oo cloq yvuoq, +qv coq q co+txq (>CA:>A>_8 CB;8=98), xut +qv ccoq q uooctx+txq
(=8DBCWA?<A>_8 CB;8=98), q oolu pouoc+ct +ov ouiioytoo (78<WBC>C9): 0ptocvc
opc o vou uv+tiuvc+ut +q ouuvlu q +qv uouuvlu c+u( oo tocuv cou, upl
+qv upcuoq ootuooqo+c iiq tocu. Au+o, vol(u o+t opoc vu +o ovooouc
,J*J)(+3 '#Q/1. Itu+l o' uu+qv +qv cpl+uoq, o vou ocv ocl vu uoocl(ct q vu cpcuvqoct,
uii uv+tiuvc+ut +qv uiqctu, ou +o +t icct +o u, ovo uo +o ycyovo o+t
o+pcc+ut po uu+o, $JMJ., v, 2, 1, o. SSu-SS1 |+p. tovq, o. 196j U+uv o vou
uv+tiuvc+ut +q ouuvlu q +qv uouuvlu c+u( +uv tocuv, ot ou cou, +o+c couc
+ov cocvo uo +q yvuoq, |+qv oolu ovo(u "J*4,(+)(+3j 2' uu+qv +qv cpl+uoq,
o+qv oolu o vou ocv opcl vu ouvococt +t tocc +ou, uo+c vu uv+tiqcl +q ouuvlu q +qv
uouuvlu +ou c +qv coq oyxptoq +ou q c +qv cupoyq +q tu vu o+qv iiq, clvut
uopcucvo vu uvuxuict +q ouuvlu q +qv uouuvlu ou uvu(q+ c +q oqctu lu q
cptooo+cpuv iiuv tocuv xut uu+o uxptu ovo(ouc ouiioytoo, $JMJ., v, 2, 2, o. SS1-
SS2 |+p. tovq, o. 197j.
SS
Paimentiei N., cCA?B=:@A>BCR, o. 221.
S6
ocke ., nC qWW<gR, v, 4, S, o. S6S |+p. tovq, o. 214j.
21
poo+, uoicov+u oc x+t to uxptvo, ot to ooupc oxcct u ocv u
couv cyui+cpq pqoto+q+u uo +t ovctpooiqoct cvo otu+upuycvou
cyxciou |j Eocvu q yvuoq u clvut puyu+txq, ovo o+ov uo ou
upct ouuvlu uvcou o+t tocc u xut o+qv puyu+txo+q+u +uv
uv+txctcvuv
S7
. Acv pcct vu u otuyct c(iiou o+t q lotu q up(q +uv
uiuv tocuv, oc ouvouuoo c +qv uq+txo+q+u +ou vou, oqiuoq +qv
uouvulu +ou vu +t oqu+loct o loto, ouvto+ ytu +ov ocke cupxq uooct(q
+q uvc(p+q+q up(q +ou c(u+cptxo xooou:

Ao, ou ocl(uc, o vou ocv opcl c xuvcvuv +poo vu oqtoupyqoct ovo
+ou |+t uic toccj, pcct xu+' uvyxq vu upyov+ut uo pyu+u ou
opouv uotx vu o+ov vou |j Ao uu+o ouvyc+ut o+t ot uic tocc ocv clvut
iou+u +q uv+uolu u, uii +u uotx xut xuvovtx oqtoupyqu+u
puy+uv c(u uo c, ou cvcpyov puyu+tx vu u
S8
.

Acv poxct+ut ou o+c ytu cvuv uciq cctptoo. 0t uic tocc, ot
oolc c +o uvuupuo+u+txo +ou cptcocvo ycupuvouv - uii ocv
xu+upyov - +qv uoo+uoq ou upl(ct +ov vou uo +u uupx+ c(u+cptx
pyu+u, ocv clvut tocc +uv ouotuv q +uv uoo+ocuv, uii ovo tocc
+uv uv+tiq+uv oto+q+uv +uv puy+uv. uo+ooo, xuu ouuvov,
ou uoypul(ct o ocke, c +qv up(q +uv puy+uv, ot tocc uu+c
upxov ytu vu +u uo+(ouv o+t otxlic uvyxc xut pqoct u, xut ytu vu
otuouiloouv +qv puyu+txo+q+u +q yvuoq u
S9
. 0 cctptoo +ou ocke
clvut cvu xpt+txo cctptoo, xut +uu+opovu cvu puyu+to+txo
cctptoo, o oolo o+pcc+ut po +u pyu+u u uv+txclcvu tu
puyu+txq - uv xut o+c c(uv+iq+txq - yvuoq, xut upiiqiu u
uv+txclcvu pqoq.





S7
SJMJ., v, 4, 2-S, o. S6S |+p. tovq, o. 214j.
S8
SJMJ., v, 4, 4, o. S6S-S64 |+p. tovq, o. 214-21Sj.
S9
SJMJ., o. S64 |+p. tovq, o. 21Sj.
22

[[[> `\3,!"*2a 0$+ "3$')'2 *%,( ("\%)($

o 1687 o oux c+uv (1642-1727) oqootcct o+o ovolvo +t
N".10")(+H2 "KOH2 )12 [-/(+32 [(G*/*[P"2 6iY>;BWB\Y><8 C<A:?<;>W \?>C@>\><
D<AY8D<A>@<E. 2+q otpxctu +q (uq +ou c+uvu +o cpyo u yvuploct oo
uxoq cxoooct, +o 171S xut +o 1726
6u
. 0t N".10")(+H2 "KOH2 (cxtvov c tu
octp optouv, o+ou oolou ctoyc+ut, c+ +qv ooo+q+u iq (h:<CA>A<W
D<A8?><8) xut +qv ooo+q+u xlvqoq (h:<CA>A<W DBA:W), q ccituoq cvvotu
+q ovuq. Axoioucl q otu+uoq +ptuv u(tu+uv, q vouv +q xlvqoq:
upq +q uopvctu, uvuioylu +uv c+uoiuv +q xlvqoq xut +q ooo+q+u
xut otcuvoq +q uoxocvq ovuq, too+q+u opoq xut uv+lopuoq. o
cpyo otutpcl+ut o+q ouvcctu oc +plu tilu: +u oo pu+u ouvc+ouv +q
vcu+uvctu cto+qq +q xlvqoq, cvu o+o +pl+o tilo, c +l+io o oo+qu
+ou xooou |V8 D:C=> WgWA8D<A8]gWA8D B AY8 B?;=j, o c+uv, uot(ocvo
o+o ovoio +uv uqu+txuv uo+cico+uv +uv oo iiuv tiluv, uvyct
+o ovoio +uv oupvtuv utvocvuv (xlvqoq +uv iuvq+uv, +uv oopuopuv
+ou xut +uv xoq+uv) xut +uv yqtvuv |utvocvuvj (uitppoxc xtvqoct,
oqu +q Iq) oc cvu c(qyq+txo iuloto +ou oolou upqvu clvut o xuoitxo
voo +q up+q+u
61
.
Avcou o+q ov+oq ctouyuyq +ou +pl+ou tilou +uv N".10")(+Q#
"KOQ#, xut o+qv c(c+uoq +q xlvqoq +uv oopuopuv +ou Alu (Bpu+o
utvocvo), upciiov+ut +coocpt coooioytxol xuvovc (789:;<8
\Y>;BWB\Y<C=>7:;8W B 78<WBC>C9 >C iY>;BWB\Yg), o+ou oolou ouuxvuvc+ut
q vcu+uvctu cto+qoioylu
62
. Bptv ou c(c+oouc +ou upuvu xuvovc,
xut ctotxo+cpu +ov !"#$#" 4 o+ov oolo ctoyc+ut q cvvotu +q cuyuyq, clvut
pqoto vu ctoqvouc +qv up(q cvo c+ou xuvovu ou

6u
B pu+q uyyitxq c+puoq +ou cpyou uo +ov nuiew Notte, u oqootcucl o+o ovolvo
+o 1729, c +l+io uY8 a<AY8D<A>@<; i?>C@>\;8W B <A:?<; iY>;BWB\Yg. 0 oi+ulpo u poioyloct
+qv pu+q yuiitxq c+puoq +uv i?>C@>\>< uo +qv u. E. ue Bieteuil, Naiuise uu telet:
i?>C@>\8W D<AYXD<A>h:8W =8 ;< \Y>;BWB\Y>8 C<A:?8;;8 (17S6).
61
Blay N., e8W li?>C@>\><m =8 8ABC, Paiis, Piesses nieisitaiies ue Fiance, 199S, o. 66.
62
i. Newton ., uY8 PiincipiaM a<AY8D<A>@<; i?>C@>\;8W B <A:?<; iY>;BWB\Yg, New Tianslation
y . Beinaiu oen anu . Witman, pieceueu y a uuiue to Newton's i?>C@>\>< y . Beinaiu
oen, Beikeley - os neles - onuon, nieisity of alifoinia Piess, 1999, o. 794-796. 0t
xuvovc uu+ol u uo+cicoouv +q oq cvo ouvoitxo tioootxo, cto+qoioytxo xut
cto+qovtxo poypu+o ytu +ov 18
o
utuvu.
2S
cptiuvc+ut o+u ctpoypuu +ou c+uvu. 0 xuvovu uu+o ocv
cuvl(c+ut oc xulu uo +t +pct otuootxc cxoooct +uv N".10")(+Q#
"KOQ#, c(ut+lu upl utoilu +ou xuup tioootxo xut +ou cv+ovu
oictxo +ou upux+qpu clvut ou c(utpc+tx oquv+txo, oto+t oclvct o+t
+o tioootxo uoupo +ou vcu+uvctou cto+qovtxo cyctpqu+o pcct
vu uvu(q+qcl o+ov cctptoo +ou ocke, xut ctotxo+cpu o+q cuplu +uv tocuv
xut o+qv pu+o+uq otxptoq uvcou o+t (cctptxc) tocc +q uloqoq xut
+t (cctptxc) tocc +q otuvoq+txq upu+qpqoq, ou otu+uuvc+ut, ou
clouc, o+o *+P0(* '(" )1# "#.KQJ(#1 #$1/1. q otxptoq uu+q utoc+cl iqpu
o c+uv, o+pcov+ +qv, ou c(iiou xut o ocke, cvuv+lov +ou Bescaites:

0+toqo+c ocv pocpc+ut uo +u lotu +u pyu+u cl+c uo +t c(u+cptxc
utoqoct, cl+c uo +o uloqu +uv cou+cptxuv oxccuv, pcct vu cupqcl
uocoq. +ot, utovout o+t oxc+out, pyu ou ocv u opooc vu
oucl uv ocv utouvoouv ouypovu o+t upu. Acv utovout ou o+t
xotu tocu clvut cu+q (>CC<A<). Kut ocv cupu utvocvu ovov cxclvu ou
ylvov+ut yvuo+ oc c cou +uv cv+c c(u+cptxuv utoqocuv, uii cloq
cxclvu ou co+couc o+o vcu u, xuu oxc+ouo+c ..: upu,
to+cu, xu+uvou, uut, oxc+out, ciu, ocv ciu, otu, ulpout,
uocpu, xi. Kut cxclvu ou ocv opov vu uooctov uo +u utvocvu,
o+c ouvyov+ut uo uu+ c cuyuytxo ouiioytoo (\8? <?9:D8CA:D
cC=:@A>BC>W), +u cupu uococt
6S
.

2c uv+lcoq iotov c +qv xup+cotuvq cuto+q+u, q pu+oycvq opq
+q oolu (q9B W:Db 89B 8`>WAB) cuvt(o+uv, o+ou Z)*O"/0*52 J,KP )12
JKQ)12 [(G*/*[P"2, u +o uo+cicou +q uoouoq +ou vou uo +qv
ctxp+ctu +q cctplu xut +q o+poq +ou po +ov loto +ov cuu+o +ou
(D8CW Y:D<C< >C W8 @BC_8?W<)
64
, q vcu+uvctu cuto+q+u ocv opcl vu
uox+qcl up ovo ,J"'%'(+L, c uc+qplu oqiuoq +u (c(u+cptx q
cou+cptx) cctptx utvocvu. Kc iiou cloou po+uoq ou cuvl(c+ut
xu+upqo+tx u cuto+q+u u pcct o+o c(q vu uoppl+c+ut u

6S
oyi ., A:=8W C8ABC>8CC8W, aeitissement u'Yon Belaal, Paiis, uallimaiu, 1968, o. S24.
64
o uvputvo vcu, o+pcocvo po +ov cuu+o +ou, +cxp+ ., Z)*O"/0*P J,KP )12
JKQ)12 [(G*/*[P"2, Bpoioyo po +ov Avuyvuo+q, +p. Eu. uv+upxq, o. 44.
24
uocoq, oqiuoq u uvc(ooo, uvuooctx+o xut c(ucto+qovtxo
touptoo
6S
. Au+o uxptu o otuuptoo uvcou o+qv cuyuytxq
cuto+q+u xut o+t ooyu+txc uococt ploxc+ut o+q oq +q vcu,
J,(K"0")(+32 [(G*/*[P"2 ou uvu+ooct o c+uv. Kut up +o ycyovo o+t ot
cuyuytxc ycvtxcoct, c(ut+lu +q c(p+qoq +ou uo +qv upu+qpqoq +uv
utvocvuv, ocv otuc+ouv o+c opov o+c vu uox+qoouv +ov uoiu+o
upux+qpu tu a piioii uocoq, otuc+ouv cv+o+ot +u yvuplou+u +q
uiqctu, xut ito+u +q ovuotxq uiqctu ou opoc vu u(tuoouc
o+qv cto+qq +q oq, ytu ooo oto+qu +ouito+ov ocv cptopl(ov+ut q
ocv otopuvov+ut uo iiu utvocvu:

2+qv ctpuu+txq tiooolu, ot po+oct ou ouvyov+ut uo +u utvocvu
cou +q cuyuyq (\8? >C=:@A>BC8D) u pcct vu cupov+ut u uxptu
uiqcl q iqotco+u+c o+qv uiqctu (\?B _8?>W <:A <@@:?<A8 <:A h:<D \?B`>D8
Y<8?> =88CA) up +t uv+lc+c uococt, cpt o+ou iiu utvocvu +t
xu+uo+qoouv uxptco+cpc q ocl(ouv o+t ctocov+ut c(utpcoct (i?>C@>\><, ,
Kuvovu 4)
66
.

2+o Icvtxo ooito ou poo+cqxc uptx o+q oc+cpq cxoooq +uv
N".10")(+Q# "KOQ#, xut o+q ouvcctu, c optocvc +poootqoct xut
ouiqpuoct, o+qv +pl+q cxoooq +ou cpyou, o c+uv uoypul(ct cx vcou
+qv uvyxq tu pt(txq uv+totuo+oiq +q ctpuu+txq tiooolu ou
ccituvc+ut o+qv cuyuyq, xut +uv uococuv xc cloou, c+uuotxuv q
uotxuv, +t oolc q cpcuvu +q oq oclict vu cyxu+uiclct opto+tx:

Ato+t o+toqo+c ocv ouvyc+ut uo +u utvocvu pcct vu xuicl+ut uocoq
xut ot uococt, cl+c clvut c+uuotxc cl+c uotxc, cl+c uol(ov+ut oc
uoxpuc oto+q+c cl+c clvut quvtxc, ocv couv coq o+qv ctpuu+txq
tiooolu (>C \Y>;BWB\Y>< 8`\8?>D8CA<;> ;B@:D CBC Y<8CA). 2+qv ctpuu+txq
uu+q tiooolu, ot po+oct ouvyov+ut uo +u utvocvu xut ycvtxcov+ut
cou +q cuyuyq (\8? >C=:@A>BC8D)
67
.


6S
oyi ., A:=8W C8ABC>8CC8W, o. S19.
66
Newton ., uY8 PiincipiaM a<AY8D<A>@<; i?>C@>\;8W B <A:?<; iY>;BWB\Yg, o. 796.
67
SJMJ., o. 94S.
2S
2+o loto Icvtxo ooito, o c+uv, c uopq +o cpu+qu ytu +o ul+to
+q up+q+u, c(qycl +u optu +q vcu ctpuu+txq cto+qq +q oq.
E(qycl oqiuoq +t opoc xut +t ocv opoc vu yvuploouc c +qv uuo+qpq
cupoyq +q cuyuytxq cooou. B +cicu+ulu ct+pcct vu
otu+uuoouc c +q cyto+q ouvu+q uxplctu +ou ycvtxo voou ou
otcouv +u uotx utvocvu o+o ovoio +ou ocv u ct+pcct ou vu
yvuploouc +o ul+to xut +ov ioyo +uv vouv xut +uv utvocvuv:

E(qyqou u cou +u oupvtu xut +u uiootu utvocvu c +q ovuq +q
up+q+u, uii ocv xuoptou uxoq +o ul+to (@<:W<D) +q up+q+u. |j Acv
opcou cpt +upu vu ouvuyyu uo +u utvocvu +ov ioyo (?<A>BC8D) uu+uv
+uv toto+q+uv +q up+q+u, xut ocv iu uococt (Yg\BAY8W8W CBC >C9B).
|j Kut clvut upxc+o o+t q up+q+u upct puyu+tx, xut opu ouvu c
+ou voou ou cxcouc, xut upxcl ytu vu c(qyqoct oic +t xtvqoct +uv
oupvtuv ou+uv xut +q iuoo u
68
.

Ilvc+ut c+ot uvcpq q cupq+txq ict+oupylu +q cplqq poq +ou
c+uvu: Acv iu uococt. B poq uu+q uoxiclct xc ouvu+o+q+u
cciluoq +q uotxq oc tu c+uuotxq ou uvu(q+ xut uvuxui+ct +o
ul+to q +ov ioyo (@<:W< W>_8 ?<A>B)
69
+uv uotxuv vouv cl+c o+o
uvuiiolu+o +ou 0co (Bescaites)
7u
, cl+c o+qv cou+cptxq uvuyxuto+q+u +q
lu xut ovuotxq uoo+uoq0co ou +uu+l(c+ut c +q oq (2tvo(u)
71
,
cl+c o+ov uopuv+u ioyo (?<>WBC W:>W<CA8) +uv cluv ctioyuv (einiz)
72
.

68
SJMJ.
69
Itu +q oquolu +q otu+uoq uu+q xut +qv cyypuq +q o+qv to+oplu +q ut+to+q+u, i.
aiiauu v., r<:W< W>_8 ?<A>BM e< ?<>WBC =8 ;< @<:W8b =8 ]:<?8 o e8>C>, Paiis, Piesses
nieisitaiies ue Fiance, 2uu2.
7u
i. upuvu, o. 14.
71
Uiu +u pyu+u poqiuv uvuyxulu uo +q ocoocvq oq +ou 0co xut xuoplo+qxuv vu
upouv xut vu p++ouv c ouyxcxptcvo +poo uo +qv uvuyxuto+q+u +q oq +ou,
2tvo(u, .(+3, , Bpo+uoq SS, Aooct(q, +p. Eu. uv+upxq, Aqvu, Exxpcc, 2uu9, o. 12S.
72
Ectoq o+t tocc +ou 0co upct uctplu ouvu+uv xoouv, cvu cvu xut ovo opcl vu
ulo+u+ut, pcct vu upct uopuv ioyo ytu +qv ctioyq +ou 0co, ioyo ou +ou
xuopl(ct +qv ctioyq uu+o iiov up +ou iiou. Kut o ioyo (?<>WBC) uu+o ocv opcl
vu ploxc+ut up ovo o+o JK*/3+*#, q o+ou uo +q +cicto+q+u ou ot xooot uu+ol
cptcouv, ytu+l xc ouvu+o xooo otxutuu+tx cct +qv u(luoq vu up(ct o+o c+po +q
+cicto+q+u ou cptxiclct. Au+q clvut q ut+lu (@<:W8) +q up(q +ou ci+to+ou xooou,
tvt+ Ix. ., N*#"4*G*'P", SS-SS, c+puoq 2+. u(uploq, ctouyuyq - ctcictu
A. Avuoit+vo, olyiuooq cxo., Aqvu, Exxpcc, 2uu6, o. 6S. Bpi. einiz u. W., qWW<>W =8
uYXB=>@X8, 8, Paiis, uF-Flammaiion, 1969, o. 1u8: Ypct tu uctplu ouvu+uv xoouv, uo
26
B pq(q c +ov qctpu+txo opoioytoo clvut c(iiou cuvq o+o oc+cpo
cyio cpyo +ou c+uvu, +qv FJ)(+3 6\A>@WE (17u4), oou +o ul+qu +q
uopptq +uv uococuv o+q uotxq tiooolu ouvoocc+ut uo +q pq+q
ctoquvoq +q cto+qoioytxq po+cputo+q+u +q uvuiu+txq cooou:

Uu o+u uqu+tx, c+ot xut o+q uotxq tiooolu, q cpcuvu +uv
ooxoiuv puy+uv c +q cooo +q uviuoq u pcct v+u vu
poqycl+ut +q cooou +q ovcoq. B uviuoq uu+q ouvlo+u+ut o+qv
puyu+oolqoq ctpu+uv xut upu+qpqocuv, xut o+qv c(uyuyq ycvtxuv
oucpuo+uv uo +u poqyocvu c +qv cuyuyq, xut o+qv uoooq ovo
cxclvuv +uv uv+tppqocuv cvuv+lov +uv oucpuo+uv, ou ouvyov+ut uo
ctpu+u q iic cutc uiqctc. Ato+t ot uococt ocv pcct vu
iuvov+ut uoq o+qv ctpuu+txq tiooolu (FJ)(+3, Epu+qu |Queiyj
Su)
7S
.

o vcu+uvcto cyclpqu xu+ lu cvvotu pocx+clvct xut oioxiqpuvct o+q
uotxq cto+qq cxclvo ou clc qoq ct+cicoct +o *+P0(* +ou ocke o+o colo
+q cuplu +q yvuoq. 0t N".10")(+H2 "KOH2 )12 [-/(+32 [(G*/*[P"2 xut +o
*+P0(* '(" )1# "#.KQJ(#1 #$1/1 clvut o+qv puyu+txo+q+u cpyu
ouiqpuu+tx xut pcct vu otuuo+ov u(l: c+ouv ytu pu+q op oc
+c+otu cx+uoq xut c +c+otu ouo+qu+txo+q+u, +t oct tu cctptxq
cto+qq +q oq (i?>C@>\><) xut +ou uvputvou vou (*+P0(*), uc+qplu
+q oolu ocv clvut icov +o rB9>AB xut ot toto+q+c q q oiqoq +ou
ucpu+txo ut+lou +ou uotxo xooou, uii ot pu+uptxc, uic tocc +q
cctplu, xut +u utvocvu.




+ou oolou pcct o 0co vu cct ctic(ct +ov xui+cpo, uo cvcpycl v+u ouvu c +ov
uvu+u+o ioyo (W:>_<CA ;< W:\?D8 ?<>WBC).
7S
Newton ., iY>;BWB\Y>@<; ?>A>C9W, euiteu y . aniak, amiiue, , amiiue nieisity
Piess, 2uu4, o. 1S9. B "#LG-/1 uxoioucl uvootxq opclu, uo +t xtvqoct o+t ouvct ou
+t upyouv xut ycvtx, uo +u uo+cicou+u o+t ut+lc +ou, xut uo +t ctcpou ut+lc
o+t to ycvtxc, cpt o ouiioytoo vu xu+uiq(ct o+o to ycvtxo, $JMJ. B /5#.,/1, uv+lc+u,
cc+ut +q uviuoq xut uxoioucl xuootxq opclu: (cxtvuv+u uo +u ycvtx ul+tu ou
uvuxuiqxuv c +qv uviuoq xut coputuqxuv u upc, c(qycl +u utvocvu ou
pocpov+ut uo uu+c, xut uooctxvct +t c(qyqoct, $JMJ.
27

[b> 1\*+0; 0$+ #"%$1\*+0; *%,( ]5[cd[e

2+qv oioxiqpucvq +ou opq, +o tioootxo oo+qu +ou einiz
upouot(c+ut uptx o+q N,)"[-/(+3 tK"'0"),P" 6V>W@B:?W =8 DXA<\YgW>h:8E
(1686), o+q ouvcctu o+o H* /5/)10" )12 [5/12 +"( )12 ,J(+*(#%#P"2 )%#
*-/(Q# 6]gWAjD8 CB:_8<: =8 ;< C<A:?8 8A =8 ;< @BDD:C>@<A>BC =8W W:WA<C@8WE
(169S) xut, +cio, o+t KOH2 )12 [5/12 +"( )12 OLK12 6i?>C@>\8W =8 ;< C<A:?8 8A
=8 ;< 9?f@8E xut o+q N*#"4*G*'P" 6aBC<=B;B9>8E, xclcvu ou yp+qxuv +o
1714 uii u cxooov oi upyo+cpu, +o 174u xut +o 184u uv+lo+otu
74
.
einiz cxp(ct pq+ +qv uv+lcoq +ou o+ov cctptoo +ou ocke o+o cpyo
+ou H" 4*+P0(" '(" )1# "#.KQJ(#1 #$1/1 6B:_8<:` 8WW<>W W:? ;^8CA8C=8D8CA
Y:D<>CE (17u4), cvu qoq uo +o 1671 cpc+ut oc pq(q c +qv xup+cotuvq
uv+liqq +q cx+uoq uoo+qpl(ov+u, o+q uotxq puyu+clu +ou c +l+io
,%KP" )12 "[1K10H#12 +P#1/12 6uY8B?>< DBA:W <WA?<@A>E, o+t +u ouvcq cycq
ocv clvut uiu ucptopto+u otutpc+, uii otutpccvu oc tu JK"'0")(+3
uctplu cpuv
7S
.
2+q cuplu +q yvuoq, o einiz ctctpcl vu xu+uocl(ct xuplu +qv
uvcpxctu +q xup+cotuvq cooou. 0 xuvovu +q cvopu+txq cuxplvctu (o
pu+o uo +ou +coocpt xuvovc +ou T$'*- J,KP )12 0,.$4*-), ocv uo+cicl
o+c opcl vu uo+cicoct uouic xpt+qpto ytu +q otxptoq uvcou o+qv
uiqctu xut o+qv ivq, oto+t clvut uo +q oq +ou uoxctcvtxo xut
uoioytxo, xut ot - ou uut+cl+ut - ioytxo. B uouvulu +q
xup+cotuvq cooou cyxct+ut, ytu +ov einiz, o+o ycyovo o+t c+ct o+qv
uc+qplu +q cvu xpt+qpto, +qv cvpyctu +uv tocuv, ou, xuu ocv clvut
)-J(+$, uovocc+ut uo +qv uvc(ict+q uouvulu +ou uvputvou vou xut,
cocvu, ocv opcl vu uvuyvuptocl u uxiovq+o xut xuoitxo. B xpt+txq
uu+q ocv ouvto+ upuupqoq o+ov oxc+txtoo q cto+poq o+qv upq +q

74
ov +l+io N*#"4*G*'P" pooccoc o+o xclcvo +ou einiz o olei, cxoo+q +q pu+q
ycpuvtxq c+puoq +ou pu+o+uou yuiitxo xctcvou (172u). ov cocvo povo +o
cpyo u oqootcucl oc iu+tvtxq c+puoq +ou Bansc, o+o cptootxo n@A< q?:=>AB?:D.
7S
i. B. uaiei, Notion anu Netapysics in te Youn einiz, >C Bookei N. (eu.), e8>C>M
r?>A>@<; <C= cCA8?\?8A>_8 qWW<gW, Nancestei, Nancestei nieisity Piess, 1982, o. 168. o
1671 o einiz oqootcct cloq +q H" [-/(+3 -J$.,/1b 3 ,%KP" )12 /-'+,+K(0H#12 +P#1/12
6g\BAY8W>W \YgW>@< CB_<b W>_8 uY8B?>< DBA:W @BC@?8A>E.
28
uucv+lu uooxocl, uv+lc+u, o+qv uv+txu+o+uoq +ou uoxctcvtxo q
uoioytxo xpt+qplou +q cuto+q+u ou uooloct o einiz o+ov Bescaites,
c cvu o+cpco ioytxo xpt+qpto. Itu vu +o c+ct uu+o, o einiz cuvcpc+ut
o+ov upto+o+citxo opuitoo +ou o+cpou 2oiuo+txtoo, +cictootuv+u
+ov
76
. +ot, o+qv cpl+uoq +uv uiqctuv +ou ioyou, q cuto+q+u ocv qy(ct
uo +qv (uoxctcvtxq xut cocvu uloiq) cvpyctu c +qv oolu o vou
ouiiuvct +o uv+txclcvo +ou, uii c(up++ut ovo uo +q ovocoq +uv
tocuv u o+o iuloto tu +utxq ouiioyto+txq otuotxuolu ou uoxct+ut
c(oioxiqpou oc tu ioytxq upq: +qv upq +q uv+luoq, c +qv oolu
xplvouc ,-4H2 o,+t ccptcct uv+luoq xut "G1.H2 o,+t clvut uv+lc+o q
uv+tu+txo po +o cuoc
77
.
q otulo+uoq +q uvcpxctu +q xup+cotuvq cooou uxoioucl q
otulo+uoq +q uvcpxctu +q xup+cotuvq quvoxpu+lu. 0 einiz
upucvct upl utoilu xup+cotuvo o+o c+po ou uoocc+ut u +qv
cvoolqoq +ou uotxo xooou cou +q uvuyuyq +ou o+ou ccituoct
voou +q xlvqoq, xut +qv xpooq u ovuotxo xut uoxicto+txo +poo
c+oooq +q xlvqoq (pyu ou u +ov ooqyqoct vu uoo+qpl(ct, cpt +o
+cio, +ou |xup+cotuvoj o+poliou cvuv+lov +q opoq uo uoo+uoq +ou
c+uvu
78
). Atuopootcl+ut ou uo +ov Bescaites oc oo +ouito+ov
xplotu oqclu: 1
ov
, upvcl+ut +qv +u+toq +q ouu+txq ouolu c +qv cx+uoq
2
ov
, cupcl ciitq +qv c(qyqoq +q xlvqoq u uiq c+uoiq coq, upl
uvuop o+qv cvvotu +q 45#"012.
2+q N,)"[-/(+3 tK"'0"),P", 12, o einiz uoo+qpl(ct pyu+t o+t

oiq q oq +ou ouu+o ocv ouvlo+u+ut ovo o+qv cx+uoq, oqiuoq o+o
cyco, +o oqu xut +qv xlvqoq, uii pcct uvuyxuo+tx vu uvuyvuploouc
o' uu+o x+t uxoq, ou vu cct ocoq c +t uc (fD8W), ou +o ovo(ouc
ouvqu ouotuoq opq (B?D8 W:WA<CA>8;;8)
79
.

76
i. ytu +o (q+qu uu+o, +o xiuotxo cpyo +ou Y. Belaal, e8>C> @?>A>h:8 =8 V8W@<?A8W, Paiis,
uallimaiu, 196u, o. 1S6-1S9. i. cloq Belaal Y., e8>C> =8 ;^f98 @;<WW>h:8 <:` e:D>j?8WM
e8@A:?8W ;8>C>>8CC8W, pisentes pai N. Ficant, Paiis, Beaucesne, 199S, o. 62-6S.
77
tvt+ Ix. ., N*#"4*G*'P", S1, +p. 2+. u(uploq, o. S1.
78
Belaal Y., e8>C> =8 ;^f98 @;<WW>h:8 <:` e:D>j?8W, o. 64.
79
einiz u. W., N,)"[-/(+3 tK"'0"),P"V>W@B:?W =8 DXA<\YgW>h:8, ctouyuyq - c+puoq -
ooitu B. Kuxq, 0coouiovlxq, vtu, .., o. S9. 2+q ouvcctu +q upuypou 12 +q
tK"'0"),P"2 otcuxptvl(c+ut o+t ot ouu+txc uc otuxplvov+ut uo +t voq+txc uc, ot
29

B uvuyvuptoq +q ouotuoou opq clvut uupul+q+q, oto+t uo
uu+qv c(up++ut q +uu+o+q+u xut q otpxctu +ou ouu+o:

Kt uv ocv uqpc iiq upq +uu+o+q+u o+u ouu+u uo uu+qv ou oit
uvucpuc, o+c ocv u ulo+u+o cvu ouu upuvu uo lu o+tyq
8u
.

2+ov Bescaites, uv+lc+u, q +uu+o+q+u +ou ouu+o c(up++ut, u +o
ucvuloouc, ot uo tu vcuu+txq upq (uq q ouotuoq opq),
uii uo +qv xlvqoq xut ovo: u /Q0" q 0HK*2 )12 5G12 cvvou o+toqo+c
c+uxtvcl+ut ouypovu, uxoq xt uv clvut ovc+o uo oii cpq ou couv
otuopc+txc xtvqoct c+u( +ou
81
.
2+qv ouvcctu +q N,)"[-/(+32 tK"'0"),P"2, 18, o einiz c(c+(ct +qv
xup+cotuvq uv+liqq +q +otxq xlvqoq. Ivupl(ouc o+t o+t KOH2 )12
[(G*/*[P"2, , 2S, o Bescaites clc oploct +qv xlvqoq u c+uop cvo cpou
+q iq, q cvo ouu+o, uo +q yct+vluoq c +u ouu+u c +u oolu cct
coq cuq xut ou upu+qpov+ut cv qpclu, o+qv cyy+q+u c iiu
ouu+u
82
. 0 optoo uu+o pcct, ouvu c +ov einiz, vu uopptcl u
ctuvctuxo xut ciitq, oto+t, xuu cptopl(c+ut o+q cupqoq +uv
c+uuiiocvuv cocuv cvo ouu+o oc ocoq c +u ouu+u ou +o
cptiiouv, uouvu+cl vu ouiict +o puyu+txo q ouotuoc o+otclo +q
xlvqoq, oqiuoq +q ovuq q coq ut+lu +uv otuootxuv uiiuyuv coq:

Itu+l q xlvqoq, uv ocv cupqoouc o' uu+qv up ovo o,+t cptcct uxptu xut
+utx, oqiuoq lu c+uoiq coq, ocv clvut x+t +ciclu puyu+txo. Kt o+uv
oii ouu+u uii(ouv coq c+u( +ou, ocv clvut yt' uu+ ouvu+o vu
xuoploouc ovo c +q cupqoq uu+uv +uv c+uoiuv, oc oto u' oiu pcct
vu uooocl q xlvqoq q q o+oq |j Aii q ovuq q coq ut+lu (B?@8 B: @<:W8

oolc couv clyvuoq +ou cuu+o +ou xut +uv p(cuv +ou: Uu ot uc xut ot
ouotuoct opc +uv iiuv ou+uv clvut oi otuopc+txc uo +t voq+txc uc (fD8W
>CA8;;>98CA8W), ou ovc uvuyvupl(ouv +t p(ct +ou, xut |j otu+qpov v+u +o uoupo
+q yvuoq uu+o +ou pyu+o ou clvut, $JMJ., o. 61. 2q.: c+up(u +ov opo foime
sustantielle u ouotuoq opq, xut ot u opq - ouolu, +poootuv+u o+o oqclo uu+o
+q c+puoq +ou B. Kuxq.
8u
SJMJ.
81
+cxp+ ., F( KOH2 )12 [(G*/*[P"2, , 2S, +p. . Ipqyopooiou (+poootqcvq), o. 19S.
82
SJMJ.
Su
\?B@Y<>C8) uu+uv +uv c+uoiuv clvut x+t to puyu+txo (\;:W ?X8;), xut clvut
upxc+ oto vu +qv uoouoouc o' cvu ouu iiov up oc cvu iio ovo
u' uu+qv opoc cloq vu yvupl(ouc oc oto uvqxct cptooo+cpo q xlvqoq.
Uu uu+q q ovuq clvut x+t otuopc+txo uo +o cyco, +o oqu xut +qv
xlvqoq, xt uo uu+o opoc vu xplvouc o+t q cvvotu +uv ou+uv ocv
ouvlo+u+ut uoxicto+tx o+qv cx+uoq xut +t c+uoic +q, ou +o
uv+(ov+ut ot oypovol u. +ot cluo+c uxoq uopcucvot vu
uoxu+uo+qoouc optocvu ov+u q opc ou uu+ol couv uoxqp(ct
8S
.

o uplo uu+o clvut oquv+txo oto+t oclvct o+t q cupqoq +q
puyu+txo+q+u +q xlvqoq, oqiuoq +ou 4-#"0(+*5 o+otclou +q, ooqycl
+ov einiz o+qv uoxu+o+uoq cxclvuv uxptu +uv uiuv opuv ou
ucxictuv clovu uo +q oq (xut uo +qv cto+qq +q oq) o Bescaites
xut ot xup+cotuvol
84
. qv uvyxq uu+q +q uoxu+o+uoq o+q uotxq
cto+qq uoypul(ct q ovoq +q upuypou 18 +q N,)"[-/(+32
tK"'0"),P"2:

Bpcct vu uvu+pc(ouc oc c+uuotxc cupqoct (cupto+c uo +qv cx+uoq
ytu vu c(qyqoouc +u utvocvu +uv ou+uv
8S
.

0u upu+qpqoouc cloq o+t q cupqoq +ou q ycuc+ptxo o+otclou
+q xlvqoq, oqiuoq +q pu+uptxq xtvq+qptu ovuq ou poo+lc+ut
xut opu o+qv cx+uoq upl uo+ooo vu uvyc+ut o' uu+qv, ct+pcct o+ov
einiz vu oqu+loct +qv cvvotu +q N*#L4"2, q oolu ploxc+ut o+q oq +q
o+cpq, oioxiqpucvq cxooq +ou tioootxo +ou ouo+qu+o. B

8S
einiz u. W., N,)"[-/(+3 tK"'0"),P", 18, +p. B. Kuxq, o. 8S.
84
Itu +o (q+qu uu+o, i. Ficant N., ]@>8C@8 8A DXA<\YgW>h:8 =<CW V8W@<?A8W 8A e8>C>, cap. v:
Ncanisme et mtapysiue: le italissement ues foimes sustantielles (1679), Paiis, Piesses
nieisitaiies ue Fiance, 1998, o. 16S-2u4. 0 N. Ficant +ovl(ct o+t, o+ov einiz, ocv upct
xlvqoq upl +o vcu vu otuopuu+l(ct xotov poio o' uu+qv, $JMJ., o. 179. Bpi. Belaal Y.,
A:=8W ;8>C>>8CC8WM V8 e8>C> o 898;, Paiis, uallimaiu, 1976, o. 64: |Itu +ov einizj o
Bescaites couic uoppl+ov+u +q opoq ou ccptcct q tocu +q xlvqoq. B opoq uu+q
upucct o+qv cvcpyctu cvo vcu+o.
8S
einiz u. W., N,)"[-/(+3 tK"'0"),P", 18, +p. B. Kuxq, o. 8S. i. Kuioq .,
einiz: o+otclu c+uuotxq, o+o Kuioq . (ct.), !,P0,#" ,Q),K12 +"( Z5'OK*#12
(G*/*[P"2, B+pu, EAB, 2uu8, o. 9u: opcl vu ouvupouv ot voot xlvqoq +q
quvto+txq uotxq (ou o einiz c+uiict o+qv cto+qq +q Auvutxq uqvov+u +qv
Ktvqu+txq) o+o clcoo +uv utvocvuv uii q ouolu +uv puy+uv uoxui+c+ut
uo +q (puotovuito+txq) tioootxq oxcq xut ouvcu clvut cpuv +uv uotxuv
utvocvuv.
S1
c(p+qoq +q cvvotu +q ovou uo +qv cvvotu +q ovuq - xut ouvcu q
c(p+qoq +q c+uuotxq +ou einiz uo +q ouvutxq +ou - clvut totul+cpu
cuvq oc cvu ov+oo xclcvo +ou 1698, c +l+io t,KP )12 [5/12 +".,"-)3#b
3 t,KP )12 ,/%),K(+32 45#"012 +"( )%# ,#,K',(Q# )%# 410(*-K'10L)%# 6V8 >\W<
C<A:?< W>_8 =8 _> >CW>A< <@A>BC>:Wh:8 @?8<A:?<?:DE:

2+q ouu+txq ouolu, pcct vu upct tu JKQ)1 ,#),GHO,(" (enteleciam
piimam), tu optocvq pu+uptxq txuvo+q+u (pu+ov ocx+txov) opoq,
oqiuoq tu pu+uptxq xtvq+qptu ovuq (_>D W@>;>@8A DBA?>@8D \?>D>A>_<D) ou
poo+lc+ut (W:\8?<==>A<) o+qv cx+uoq (q o' uu+o ou clvut xuup ycuc+ptxo)
xut o+q (u (q o' uu+o ou clvut xuup uitxo) xut ou opu v+u, uii
+poootcl+ut otxtio+pou c +q oyxpouoq +uv ou+uv Au+q q ouotuoq
upq o+u ctu ov+u ovo(c+ut -O3 (anima), xut o+u uoiotu ov+u, *-/(Q412
0*K[3 (foima sustantialis) xut uu+q +qv upq, o+o c+po ou ouvto+ c +qv
iq lu ouolu puyu+tx ovuotxq, q lu cvo+q+u uo ovq +q, +qv ovo(u
ovou
86
.

Ilvc+ut c+ot uv+tiq+o o+t +u ouu+u ocliouv o+t ouotuoct opc q
uc, oqiuoq oc cvu xu+c(oqv q cx+u+o, q uitxo, c+uuotxo o+otclo ou
clvut cv+o+ot otupxu upov xut cvcpyo o+qv cx+uoq xut o+qv iq, +qv
ov+oioytxq +ou ouvoq, xut ito+u +qv lotu +ou +qv up(q:

Ku+upyqo+c uu+c +t puyu+txc xut uiqtvc cvo+q+c: +u ouu+u ocv u
clvut up oupol c(u+cptxuv c+u( +ou cpuv (8CA>< \8? <99?89<A>BC8D), q
iiov, uu+q clvut q ouvcctu tu +c+otu xu+pyqoq, ocv u clvut tu uiqtv
ov+u
87
.

B c(qyqoq +q oq cou +q uvuyuyq +q oc c+uuotxc upc, +qv
oolu ctctpcl o einiz, ocv xu+upycl cv+ciu +qv c(qyq+txq to +q
xup+cotuvq quvoxpu+lu oclvct ou o+t q ycuc+ptxq cupqoq +q oq

86
einiz u. W., \:W@:;8W \Y>;BWB\Y>h:8W @YB>W>W, texte latin tali et tiauuit pai P. Scieckei,
Paiis, viin, 2uu1, o. 218-219. Itu +qv cvvotu +q ovou o+ov einiz, i. +qv Etouyuyq
+ou I. uxou o+o einiz u. W., e< aBC<=B;B9>8 N*#"4*G*'P", olyiuooq cxoooq, c+puoq
2+. u(uploq, 0coouiovlxq, Ycpluv, 1997, o. 16 x.c(. i. cloq Kuioq ., einiz: o+otclu
c+uuotxq, o+o Kuioq . (ct.), !,P0,#" ,Q),K12 +"( Z5'OK*#12 (G*/*[P"2, o. 9u-97.
87
einiz u. W., \:W@:;8W \Y>;BWB\Y>h:8W @YB>W>W, o. 218-219.
S2
oclict vu cuvc(c+uocl pt(tx xut +uu+opovu vu ouiqpucl c tu
u+cpq, ouvutxq cupqoq ou, cuvctoyov+u +o vcu (c +q opq +q
cou+cptxq ovuq, +q pu+uptxq xtvq+qptu ovuq, +q uq q
+q ouotuoou upq) o+qv cx+uoq, uouxpvct +ov xlvouvo tu
uito+txq cpqvclu +q +cicu+ulu, xuto+uv+u +qv ouu+q c +o
pto+tuvtxo ooyu:

Kut oiovo+t oiu +u cl cpou utvocvu +q oq u opoouv vu
c(qyqov uqu+tx q quvtx uo uu+o ou +u xu+uiuulvouv, upoiu
uu+ ulvc+ut oio xut cptooo+cpo o+t ot ycvtxc upc +q ouu+txq oq xut
+q lotu +q quvtxq clvut cptooo+cpo c+uuotxc up ycuc+ptxc, xt u
ut+lc +uv utvocvuv uvqxouv cptooo+cpo oc optocvc uotulpc+c opc q
oct up o+q ouu+txq (u q cx+uoq. 2xcq ou clvut txuvq vu outoct
+q quvtxq tiooolu +uv ouypovuv c +qv cploxcq optocvuv uvpuuv
c cuulu xut xuiq otcoq ou oov+ut, c xoto olxuto, o+t
uouxpuvouo+c oi uo +u uiu ov+u oc po +q cuocctu
88
.

B uoxu+o+uoq +uv ouotuouv opuv, oqiuoq cvo optocvou
upto+o+citoo pooupoocvou o+t uut+qoct +q pto+tuvtxq cuocctu,
+ov oolo o einiz o+pcct cvuv+lov +q ucpoitx uito+txq, xu+ +qv
xploq +ou, xup+cotuvq cto+qq, ouvoocc+ut o+q N,)"[-/(+3 tK"'0"),P"
uo +qv uoxu+o+uoq +uv ),G(+Q# "()P%# o+qv cto+qq +q oq. B
uoxu+o+uoq uu+q, c +qv oolu oioxiqpuvc+ut q uvu+poq +q xup+cotuvq,
quvto+txq uv+liqq +q oq, uvuyyciic+ut o+qv upypuo 19 +q
tK"'0"),P"2: Xpqoto+q+u +uv +citxuv ut+luv o+q uotxq
89
, xut q otiq
oxoto+q+ +q, cto+qovtxq xut qtxq, c(qycl+ut o+qv upypuo 2S:

0cupqou xuio vu ctclvu ilyo o' uu+c +t upu+qpqoct ytu +u +citx ul+tu,
+t uouu+c oct xut lu voq+txq ut+lu +uv ou+uv, ytu vu xvu yvuo+q +q
pqoq +ou uxoq xut o+q uotxq, c oxoo uo +q tu vu xuuplou +q
quvtxq tiooolu uo +qv uocctu ou +q xu+uioyl(c+ut, xt uo +qv iiq vu

88
einiz u. W., N,)"[-/(+3 tK"'0"),P", 18, +p. B. Kuxq, o. 8S-87.
89
FJMJ., 19, +p. B. Kuxq, o. 87.
SS
uvuuou +o vcu +uv tiooouv u uo +t uoxicto+tx uito+txc
cupqoct oc oxcct to cuycvtxc
9u
.

0 voo +q otu+qpqoq +q ovuq uo+cicl, o+ov einiz, +o
upux+qpto+txo+cpo lou upoctyu pqoq +uv +citxuv ut+luv o+qv
c(qyqoq +uv uotxuv utvocvuv, xuu uo+ooct +q ycvtxq otxovolu +ou
ouv+o xut +qv lotu +q oo+uoq +uv uotxuv vouv o+qv uouoq +q
clu oolu vu otu+qpqoct v+u +qv lotu ovuq ouvoitx
91
. o
cto+qoioytxo pu+clo +q quvto+txq c(qyqoq +q oq cou +q
uvu(q+qoq +uv otq+txuv ut+luv xut ovo utoq+cl+ut c+ot opuo+tx,
uo, oliu o+u otq+tx ul+tu, +u +citx ul+tu cupov+ut txuv vu
poocpouv tu c(loou txuvootq+txq, uv ot txuvootq+txo+cpq oc optocvc
cpt+uoct, c(qyqoq +q oq: ploxu uxoq, o+t oii uo+cicou+u +q
oq opov vu uooctov c oo +poou, oqiuoq c +q cupqoq +ou
otq+txo ut+lou, xt uxoq (cupto+ c +q cupqoq +ou +citxo ut+lou,
pqotootuv+u .. +qv uouoq +ou 0co vu upyct v+u +u
uo+cicou+ +ou c +ou to cxoiou xut to xuoptocvou +poou, ou
coct(u uiio, o+uv c(qyoou +ou xuvovc +q xu+o+ptxq xut +q
oto+ptxq
92
. B outiluoq uu+uv +uv oo otuxpt+uv xut uv+lc+uv +pouv
cupqoq +q oq pouoc+ct +qv ctouyuyq tu vcu c+uuotxq upq:
+q +cictu "K0*#P"2 uvcou o+o oo+qu +uv otq+txuv ut+luv xut +o
oo+qu +uv +citxuv ut+luv
9S
. 0u pcct uo+ooo vu oqctuoouc o+t, uo +q
oxot +q c+uuotxq +ou einiz ou ctoyct, ou clouc, o+q ycuc+ptxq
cx+uoq cvu iqo vcuu+txuv ocuv, opuv q uuv, c+uiiov+u

9u
FJMJ., 2S, +p. B. Kuxq, o. 97.
91
FJMJ., 21, +p. B. Kuxq, o. 91. B oolu +ou 0co, uoo+qpl(ct o einiz o+qv lotu
upypuo +q N,)"[-/(+32 tK"'0"),P"2, clvut cuotxpt+q o+o cpo xut o+o oio: +ooo o+t
ic+ocpctc +q quvtxq xu+uoxcuq optocvuv cl cpou ou+uv ooo xut o+ou
voou +q xlvqoq ycvtx, $JMJ.
92
FJMJ., o. 91-9S. 0 einiz uvucpc+ut cou, upl vu +qv xu+ovo(ct, o+q cic+q +ou c +l+io
0*#"4(+3 "KO3 )12 *J)(+32b )12 +")*J)K(+32 +"( )12 4(*J)K(+32 6kC>@:D \A>@<8b r<AB\A?>@<8 8A
V>B\A?>@<8 i?>C@>\>:DE, q oolu clc oqootcucl +coocpu povtu vupl+cpu (1682), o+o
cptootxo n@A< q?:=>AB?:D.
9S
einiz u. W., i?>C@>\8W =8 ;< C<A:?8 8A =8 ;< 9?f@8, |Sj, pisentation et notes ue . Fimont,
Paiis, uF-Flammaiion, 1996, o. 22S. Bpi. tvt+ Ix. ., N*#"4*G*'P", 79, +p.
2+. u(uploq, o. 81: Kut +u oo uolictu, +o uolicto +uv otq+txuv ut+luv xut +o uolicto +uv
+citxuv ut+luv, ploxov+ut oc upovlu c+u( +ou o+o loto, 87, o. 8S: Kuoplouc tu
+cictu Apovlu (<?DBC>8 \<?<>A8) uvcou oc oo uotx uolictu, +o uolicto +uv
otq+txuv ut+luv xut +o uolicto +uv +citxuv ut+luv.
S4
c+ot pt(tx +ov upux+qpu +q, q poqyocvq outiluoq uoulvct oc po
+uv otq+txuv ut+luv xut oc ocio +uv +citxuv ut+luv, oqiuoq oc ocio
tu +cicoioytxq uv+liqq +q oq o+o ovoio +q. up+upcl ytu uu+o +o
uxoiouo upux+qpto+txo uplo +uv KOQ# )12 [5/12 +"( )12 OLK12:

Ao ovq +q cupqoq +uv J*(1)(+Q# "()P%# q +q iq, ocv opoc vu
c(qyqoouc +ou voou +q xlvqoq ou uvuxuiqxuv o+qv coq u,
optocvou uo +ou oolou uvuxiuu cyu o loto. Ato+t otulo+uou o+t
pcct vu uvu+pc(ct xuvcl o+u ),G(+L "P)(", xut o+t ot voot uu+ol ocv
c(up+uv+ut otoiou uo +qv "KO3 )12 "#"'+"($)1)"2, ou ot ycuc+ptxc,
uptq+txc q ioytxc uiqctc, uii uo +qv "KO3 )12 +")"GG1G$)1)"2, oqiuoq
uo +qv ctioyq +q |cluj oolu
94
.

B +cicoioylu iotov, xut ot q quvto+txq uvuyxuto+q+u, uo+cicl, ytu
+ov einiz, +o xictol ytu +qv xu+uvoqoq +uv uotxuv vouv xut +o ccito ytu
+qv otxoooqoq tu cuoco cto+qq +q oq. B puyu+txq ut+lu +q
uto+cvq opq +ou ouv+o xut +uv vouv ou +o otcouv pcct vu
uvu(q+qcl ot o+q ycuc+plu, q oolu xu+uoxcu(ct +u uv+txclcv +q xut
ouyxpo+cl +t uoocl(ct +q upl uvuop o+qv cvvotu +ou oxoo, uii o+q
c+uuotxq, q oolu cic+ +ou ioyou +uv cluv ctioyuv: Av ot quvtxol
xuvovc c(up+uv+uv ovov uo +q Icuc+plu upl +q c+uuotxq, +u
utvocvu u q+uv +ciclu otuopc+tx
9S
. 0 einiz poocyyl(ct +q oq
pu+u u c+uuotxo xut u to+o, xut o+q ouvcctu u uotxo
96
. B
Auvutxq
97
+ou, +q oolu q xuopto+txq ouoiq o+q otuopuoq xut c(cit(q
+q c+uxup+cotuvq cto+qq clvut uvutoq+q+q, ocv opcl vu ylvct
iqpu xu+uvoq+q uv cupqcl uoxocvq uo +qv uoo+oiq ou +q

94
einiz u. W., i?>C@>\8W =8 ;< C<A:?8 8A =8 ;< 9?f@8, |11j, o. 2Su. i. cloq o+o loto, o. 229-
2Su: B ucp+u+q oolu +ou 0co +ov ooqyqoc vu ctic(ct xuplu +ou xu+uiiqio+cpou
#$0*-2 )12 +P#1/12, xut +ou to ouvou c +ou c+uuotxo q uqpqcvou ioyou.
9S
einiz u. W., N,)"[-/(+3 tK"'0"),P", 21, +p. B. Kuxq, o. 91.
96
lu uo +t xui+cpc pqoct +q uiqtvq tiooolu xut totul+cpu +q uotxq clvut vu
uvu+(ct +qv cuocctu, xut vu u uvuuoct o+ov 0co, einiz u. W., Rponse aux iflexions
ui se tiouent uans le 2S. B:?C<; =8W ]<_<CAW ue cette anne toucant les consuences ue
uelues enuioits ue la pilosopie ue Bescaites, 1697, o+o einiz u. W., ]gWAjD8 CB:_8<: =8
;< C<A:?8 8A =8 ;< @BDD:C>@<A>BC =8W W:WA<C@8Wb 8A <:A?8W A8`A8W xy{x}|, pisentation et notes
ue . Fimont, Paiis, uF-Flammaiion, 1994, o. 117.
97
0 opo uu+o cuvl(c+ut ytu pu+q op o+ov +l+io +q puyu+clu +ou 169u: VgC<D>@<
=8 \BA8CA>< 8A ;89>:W C<A:?<8 @B?\B?8<8. i. Ficant N., ]@>8C@8 8A DXA<\YgW>h:8 =<CW V8W@<?A8W 8A
e8>C>, o. 2u6.
SS
uvuc+ct o loto o einiz: +q ycpuoq +ou ou+o uvcou o+q uotxq xut
o+q pqoxclu, ou utvo+uv vu cct oqtoupyqoct, c +qv uvuyuyq +q
ouu+txq oq o+qv cx+uoq, q xup+cotuvq quvtxq +ou 17
ou
utuvu.


b> , ;<=5 0$+ %, %"-,* %2* 0-$*+02* !")/2%+02* 1+-,*,1+$*

o 17S9, oc qitxlu oit clxoot ox+u c+uv, o Baiu Bume (1711-1776)
oqootcct o+o ovolvo +ou oo pu+ou +oou +q tK"'0"),P"2 '(" )1#
"#.KQJ(#1 [5/1d J$J,(K" ,(/"'%'32 )12 J,(K"0")(+32 0,.$4*- /-GG*'(/0*5
/)" 1.(+L .H0")" 6n u?8<A>W8 B :D<C <A:?8d 8>C9 <C nAA8D\A AB >CA?B=:@8 AY8
8`\8?>D8CA<; a8AYB= B 78<WBC>C9 >CAB aB?<; ]:8@AWE. Av+txclcvo +ou pu+ou
+oou (q tilou) +q tK"'0"),P"2 clvut q voqoq ( AY8 kC=8?WA<C=>C9), cvu
+ou oc+cpou +u q ( AY8 i<WW>BCW). Axoioucl, +o 174u, q oqoolcuoq +ou
+pl+ou xut +cicu+ulou +oou, c uv+txclcvo +qv qtxq ( aB?<;W). qv lotu
povt oqootcc+ut uvuvuu, uv xut poxct+ut upl utoilu ytu cpyo +ou
lotou +ou Bume, q cxiuxcu+txq Z5#*1 )*- (GP*- J*- 410*/(,5)1+,
JK$/[")"b 0, )P)G* Bpuyu+clu ytu +qv uvputvq oq +)GMb /)1# *J*P"
"J*/"[1#PU,)"( +"( ,I1',P)"( )* +5K(* ,J(O,PK10" )*- (GP*- 6nC nWA?<@A B <
BB ;<A8;g i:;>WY8=b qCA>A;8=b Tieatise of Buman Natuieb @M Y8?8>C AY8 rY>8
n?9:D8CA B AY<A BB >W <?AY8? c;;:WA?<A8= <C= q`\;<>C8=E
98
. o 1741 xut +o
1742 oqootcov+ut ot oo pu+ot +oot +uv .(+Q# +"( t*G()(+Q# *+(0P%#
6qWW<gW aB?<; <C= iB;>A>@<;E. B ct+ulu +uv +cicu+uluv, oc ouvouuoo c +qv
cxoo+txq uo+ulu +q tK"'0"),P"2 ou uo+cicoc ucou uv+txclcvo
ooopq xpt+txq, u ooqyqoct ypqyopu +ov Bume o+qv utoc+qoq +q
ooxttuxq opq ytu +qv cxcoq +q pu+o+uq, uii uxpooxcio xut
ouovoq+q ctctpqu+oioylu +q tK"'0"),P"2. Ao+cicou uu+q +q
uvucupqcvq o+pu+qytxq ytu +q otoooq xut +qv uoooq +uv tioootxuv
cocuv +q tK"'0"),P"2 '(" )1# "#.KQJ(#1 [5/1, clvut q oqoolcuoq tu
octp uu+o+ciuv cpcuvuv ou uv+to+otov o+q ycvtxq poiqu+txq +uv
+ptuv tiluv +q tK"'0"),P"2: K,-#" '(" )1# "#.KQJ(#1 #$1/1 6nC qCh:>?g

98
Itu +qv u+po+q+u +q Z5#*12, i. Xtou +., !,P0,#" "-)*(*'K"[(+Lb '#%/(*G*'(+Lb 1.(+L,
c+puoq . Boupvpq - X. q+oooiou, ctouyuyq - ctcictu . Boupvpq, Aqvu,
Exxpcc, 2uu6, o. 1u.
S6
@BC@8?C>C9 :D<C kC=8?WA<C=>C9E (1748)
99
, K,-#" '(" )(2 "KOH2 )12 1.(+32 6nC
qCh:>?g @BC@8?C>C9 AY8 i?>C@>\;8W B aB?<;WE (17S1), (")K(3 '(" )" JL.1 6n
V>WW8?A<A>BC BC AY8 i<WW>BCWE (17S7).
0u c(c+oouc o+q ouvcctu +o cptcocvo xut +t xptc cupq+txc
ouvcctc +ou Bpu+ou tilou +q tK"'0"),P"2 '(" )1# "#.KQJ(#1 [5/1. Ao
pu+u uoypuloct, o+qv Etouyuyq +q tK"'0"),P"2, +ov uuo+qp cctptxo
upux+qpu +q vcu cto+qq +ou uvpuou o+qv oolu ccituvov+ut oic
uvc(utpc+u ot cto+qc
1uu
, o Bume ctoqulvct, o+o xu+uit +ou Bpu+ou
tilou +q tK"'0"),P"2, o+t +o cptcocvo +ou uvputvou vou ouvlo+u+ut
c(oioxiqpou oc uv+tiqct (\8?@8\A>BCW), ot oolc otuxplvov+ut oc cv+uuoct
(>D\?8WW>BCW) xut tocc (>=8<W). B otuop +ou cyxct+ut o+o ycyovo o+t ot
cv+uuoct ctocpov+ut c +q cyui+cpq ovuq xut lu, cvu ot tocc ocv
clvut up +u uuop clouiu +uv cv+uuocuv o+q oxcq xut o+ov
ouiioytoo
1u1
. Bup +q ouv+olu +ou, uu+o o optoo +uv tocuv ccptcct
+qv uv+qoq +ooo o+o cpu+qu +q pocicuoq +ou ooo xut o+o cpu+qu +q
oq xut +q ict+oupylu +ou: oic ot tocc pocpov+ut uo +t cv+uuoct,
+t oolc uvuupto+ov c ctucvq cv+uoq (uv ot uv+tiqct-tocc q+uv
c(loou (uqpc xut cv+ovc c +t uv+tiqct-cv+uuoct, q otxptoq +uv
pu+uv uo +t oc+cpc u q+uv uovu+q). 0 loto uu+o optoo ct+pcct
c(iiou o+ov Bume ucvo vu uopplct, c+ +ov ocke uv xut c +poo
otuopc+txo uo cxclvov, +qv up(q cu+uv tocuv o+ov vou
1u2
, xut uc+cpou
vu otu+uuoct +q uotxq cupq+txq upuooq q +o ycvtxo u(luu (98C8?<;

99
0 +l+io uu+o clvut o+qv puyu+txo+q+u c+uycvco+cpo (17S6). o cpyo, yvuo+o cloq
u tKQ)1 K,-#" 6>?WA qCh:>?gE, oqootcqxc ytu pu+q op c +l+io (G*/*[(+L *+P0("
'(" )1# "#.KQJ(#1 #$1/1 6iY>;BWB\Y>@<; qWW<gW @BC@8?C>C9 :D<C kC=8?WA<C=>C9E. i. Bume B.,
nC qCh:>?g @BC@8?C>C9 :D<C kC=8?WA<C=>C9, euiteu y T. . Beaucamp, xfoiu, New Yoik,
xfoiu nieisity Piess, 1999, o. 9, uoo. 8.
1uu
Kut ou q cto+qq +ou uvpuou clvut +o ovo o+cpco ccito oiuv +uv iiuv
cto+quv, c+ot xut +o ovuotxo o+cpco ccito +q lotu ocv opcl up vu clvut q cctplu
(8`\8?>8C@8) xut q upu+qpqoq (BW8?_<A>BC), Xtou +., tK"'0"),P" '(" )1# #.KQJ(#1 5/1d
J$J,(K" p(/"'%'32 )12 t,(K"0")(+32 N,.$4*- Z-GG*'(/0*5 /)" .(+L H0")"M (GP* d (" )1
$1/1, ctouyuyq - c+puoq . Boupvpq, Aqvu, Bu+xq, 2uuS, o. 76.
1u1
SJMJ., , 1, 1, o. 8S. Bpi. Xtou +., Z5#*1 )*- (GP*- J*- 410*/(,5)1+, JK$/[")" 0, )P)G*
Bpuyu+clu ytu +qv uvputvq oq, o+o Xtou +., !,P0,#", +p. . Boupvpq -
X. q+oooiou, o. 64: 0t ,#)-JQ/,(2, cocvu, clvut ot (uv+uvc xut cv+ovc uv+tiqct ot
(4H,2 clvut |uv+tiqctj to uuopc xut uovuc. B otxptoq uu+q clvut +ooo cvupyq ooo xut
q otxptoq uvcou o+qv uloqoq (88;>C9) xut o+q oxcq (AY>C>C9).
1u2
Xtou +., tK"'0"),P", , 1, 1, +p. . Boupvpq, o. 9u. Bpi. Xtou +., Z5#*1, o+o Xtou
+., !,P0,#", +p. . Boupvpq - X. q+oooiou, o. 64-6S.
S7
D<`>D)
1uS
+q tK"'0"),P"2, oqiuoq +qv c(p+qoq +uv tocuv uo +t
uv+lo+otc cv+uuoct:

SG,2 *( "JGH2 (4H,2 0"2b $)"# ,0["#PU*#)"( '(" JKQ)1 [*KLb JK*HKO*#)"( "J$
"JGH2 ,#)-JQ/,(2b /)(2 *J*P,2 "#)(/)*(O*5# +"( )(2 *J*P,2 "#"J"K(/)*5# 0,
"+KP,("M |j Au+q, iotov, clvut q pu+q upq (>?WA \?>C@>\;8) ou ccituvu
o+qv cto+qq +q uvputvq oq, xut ocv u cpcc vu +qv cptpovqoouc
c(ut+lu +q utvocvtxq +q uio+q+u
1u4
.

B upu+qpqoq o+t ot tocc opov cloq vu uvuupto+ov iic tocc
ocv upxcl ytu vu xiovloct +qv poqyocvq upq, uo ot tocc upyouv
clouiu +ou cuu+o +ou u vcc tocc, uii, xuu ot pu+c tocc uo+lc+ut
o+t pocpov+ut uo cv+uuoct, c(uxoioucl vu toct o+t oic ot uic tocc
uoppcouv, cl+c cou cl+c ccou, uo +t uv+lo+otc cv+uuoct +ou
1uS
.
Kc voq+txo cptcocvo oclict, ptv vu clvut tocu (oqiuoq uv+txclcvo
+q oxcq), vu clvut, uv ot cou +ouito+ov ccou, cv+uoq (vu cct
oqiuoq up(ct u uv+txclcvo +ou utovcout)
1u6
. 2c +o+o uxptu cyxct+ut
o pt(txo cctptoo +ou Bume. o cou+o xpt+qpto otuoqoq +uv tocuv ocv
pcct vu uvu(q+qcl o+o cou+cptxo +ou, ou ouvcutvc o+qv cpl+uoq
+uv xup+cotuvuv uiuv ocuv ou clvut oic u' cuu+uv yvuo+c (\8? W8
CBA<W) xut o+c ocv ccptcouv x+t +o cuoc
1u7
, o+c o+o ovoio +uv tocuv
uo +t oolc c(up+uv+ut o+qv uiuolou +q ioytxq upuyuyq, uii o+qv
cv+uoq uo +qv oolu pocpov+ut, oqiuoq oc x+t oiuootoiou c(u+cptxo
u po +q oxcq: Kc op ou tu tocu clvut uloqq, v+o+c o
ouyypucu |+q tK"'0"),P"2 '(" )1# "#.KQJ(#1 [5/1j xu+ucyct o+qv

1uS
Xtou +., tK"'0"),P", , 1, 1, +p. . Boupvpq, o. 89.
1u4
SJMJ., oo. 87 9u. Bpi. Xtou +., Z5#*1, o+o Xtou +., !,P0,#", +p. . Boupvpq -
X. q+oooiou, o. 64: Uic ot tocc u, q ot uovuc uv+tiqct, pocpov+ut uo +t
cv+uuoct q +t cv+ovc uv+tiqct u. Bpi. cloq Bume B., nC qCh:>?g @BC@8?C>C9 :D<C
kC=8?WA<C=>C9, 7, 1, o. 1SS: Uic ot tocc u ocv clvut up uv+lypuu (@B\>8W) +uv
cv+uuocuv u.
1uS
Xtou +., tK"'0"),P", , 1, 1, +p. . Boupvpq, o. 9u.
1u6
ocv opoc o+c vu oxc+ouo+c (AY>C) xoto pyu +o oolo vu qv couc oct
ccl ot lotot q vu qv cct ylvct utoq+o (8;A) o+ov otxo u vou, Xtou +., Z5#*1, o+o Xtou
+., !,P0,#", +p. . Boupvpq - X. q+oooiou, o. 64. Bpi. Bume B., nC qCh:>?g
@BC@8?C>C9 :D<C kC=8?WA<C=>C9, 7, 1, o. 1SS: u clvut uovu+o vu /+,[)*50, (tink)
o+toqo+c, ou ocv +o couc poqyoucvu "(/."#.,P (felt), cl+c c +t c(u+cptxc cl+c c +t
cou+cptxc utoqoct u.
1u7
Bescaites R., !"#$#,2R, !"#$#"2 12, 16, +p. 0. Bcvoiloq, o. 12S.
S8
cv+uoq q oolu pcct vu +qv xuto+ ouq xut uxptq (@;8<? <C=
\?8@>W8)
1u8
. Bpcct cocvu vu oc+oc o+t, o+ov Bume, q cv+uoq clvut
uu+o cpu uo +o oolo ocv opoc icov vu otooupqoouc, oqiuoq, +o
xuupo ycyovo, q uxoq, pyu ou clvut +o loto, q +")"'%'3
1u9
.
2uyxpo+cl+ut c+ot tu vcu tioootxq cooo, ccituou otuopc+txq
uo +qv xup+cotuvq q oolu, xuu uot(o+uv uoxicto+tx o+t voq+txc
p(ct +q cvopuoq (>CA:>A:W) xut +q upuyuyq (=8=:@A>B), ucppt+c
cu c(upq +qv uuyuyq +q oxcq o+qv uloqoq (q +q tocu o+qv
cv+uoq)
11u
. 2uvu c +q cooo ou ctoqycl+ut o Bume, +u lvq +q
oolu cv+ol(ov+ut cxoiu cpt +ov oytxo 0c+txtoo +ou 2u
o
utuvu,
pu+to+o xuqxov +ou tioooou clvut, ytu xc tocu q tioootxo opo q
xu+uvoqoq +uv ooluv upouot(ct uoctc q ouoxoilc, vu c+ct +o
uxoiouo cpu+qu:

J$ J*(" ,#)5J%/1 JK*HKO,)"( 1 -J*)(.H0,#1 (4H" 2+qv cpl+uoq ou ocv
opcl vu upucl xulu cv+uoq, +o+c |o ouyypucu +q tK"'0"),P"2j
oucpulvct o+t o opo o+cpcl+ut xc voqu+o (AY8 A8?D >W <;AB98AY8?
>CW>9C>>@<CA). |j xut u q+uv cuq cpyo, uv uu+q q uuo+qpq cooo clc
cup+cpq cupoyq oc oic +t tioootxc ou(q+qoct
111
.

B cupoyq +q vcu uu+q cctptxq cooou o+t tocc +q "()($)1)"2,
+q -J$/)"/12 xut +q *-/P"2, ouvto+ +ov cupq+txo upqvu +ou Bpu+ou
tilou +q tK"'0"),P"2 '(" )1# "#.KQJ(#1 [5/1. 0u ooc o+q ouvcctu o+t q
cooo uu+q ooqycl +ov Bume o+qv utoq+qoq ot ovo +ou xup+cotuvo
opoioytoo, uii xut +ou vcu+uvctou cuyuytoo. 0oqycl oqiuoq +ov

1u8
Xtou +., Z5#*1, o+o Xtou +., !,P0,#", +p. . Boupvpq - X. q+oooiou, o. 66.
1u9
Naleie N., e< \Y>;BWB\Y>8 8D\>?>WA8 =8 V<_>= :D8, 4
e
u. coiiie, Paiis, viin, 2uu1, o. 114.
11u
i. upuvu, o. 4. Ectoq ouiiuvct c ucoo+q+u xut cuto+q+u +qv ouolu +ou
pyu+o ou c(c+(ct poocx+tx o vou, q xup+cotuvq cvopuoq otuxplvc+ut uo +qv
co+txq yvuoq o+ov ocke, q oolu cptopl(c+ut o+qv coq uv+liqq tu ,I%),K(+32
ocoq ouuvlu q uouuvlu c+u( oo tocuv (i. upuvu, o. 2u, uoo. S4). Eticov,
cctoq qy(ct ovov uo +o u +ou ioyou (< WB;< ?<A>BC>W ;:@8 C<W@>A:?) oc uv+totuo+oiq c
+o ucpuotxo u (;:` W:\8?C<A:?<;>W), q xup+cotuvq cvopuoq ocv pcct vu ouycc+ut c
+qv cvopuoq +q coutuvtxq coioylu, q oolu ucpulvct +t uotxc txuvo+q+c +ou
ioyou xut xulo+u+ut ouvu+q ovo c +qv upcuoq +q 0clu Xpq. cio, cctoq clvut
xuup voq+txq p(q (<@A>B >CA8;;8@A:W), q xup+cotuvq cvopuoq ocv pcct vu ouycc+ut c
+qv cvopuoq +uv tioootuv +q (uq, q oolu otuxplvc+ut uo +q voqoq xut +t ict+oupylc
+q.
111
Xtou +., Z5#*1, o+o Xtou +., !,P0,#", +p. . Boupvpq - X. q+oooiou, o. 66.
S9
cctptoo o+ov oxc+txtoo, uo +ov oolo q otuuyq, ooo upucvouv
toupc ot cupq+txc poxclcvc +q tK"'0"),P"2, xulo+u+ut c(utpc+tx
ooxoiq, uv ot cv+ciu uovu+q.
A c(c+oouc uptx +qv tocu +q ut+to+q+u (q uvuyxulu ovocoq
c+u( ut+lu xut uo+cicou+o). B tocu uu+q, ouotuoq ytu +q ouyxpo+qoq
+q co+cpq tiooolu xut Eto+qq, clc qoq otu+uucl, c +q opq
u(tuu+o, o+qv upq +ou Bpu+ou cpou +q .(+32 +ou 2tvo(u: Aocv+o
cvo xuoptocvou ut+lou cc+ut uvuyxulu cvu uo+cicou (q` =<A< @<:W<
=8A8?D>C<A< C8@8WW<?>B W8h:>A:? 88@A:W)
112
. Acvuv+t oc uu+o +ou +ou +qv
u(tuu+txq upuooq, q tioootxq o+pu+qytxq +ou Bume clvut u(tooqclu+u
otuuyq. Bto ouyxcxptcvu, o Bume cupo(ct o+o ctcpou poiqu +q
ut+to+q+u +o ycvtxo u(luu +q tK"'0"),P"2: Ectoq ocv couc xulu tocu
ou vu qv upyc+ut uo tu cv+uoq, pcct vu poc tu cv+uoq ou
vu poxuicl uu+q +qv tocu +q uvuyxuto+q+u |q ut+tuoou ovocoqj
11S
. B
poocx+txq upu+qpqoq uo+ooo +uv uv+txctcvuv o+u oolu uooloouc
ouvqu ococt ut+to+q+u u coot(ct ucvo c +qv cv+uoq (xut
cocvu +qv tocu) +q yct+vluoq +ou o+ov povo q o+ov upo, xut uc+cpou
c +qv cv+uoq (xut cocvu +qv tocu) +q povtxq po+cputo+q+u cxclvou
ou uoxuioc ut+lu u po cxclvo ou ocouo+c u uo+cicou. 2c xulu
cpl+uoq ocv opu vu u to cpu, o+c vu uvuxuiu tu +pl+q ocoq
c+u( uu+uv +uv uv+txctcvuv
114
. c iiu ioytu, q uv+liqq +q
upopovtxq ouvctu xut +q povtxq otuooq ocv upxcl ytu vu c(qyqoct
+ov oqu+too o+ov vou +q tocu +q ut+to+q+u, uv c +ov opo uu+ov
cvvooc +qv "#"'+"P" ovocoq c+u( +uv upu+qpocvuv uv+txctcvuv q
utvocvuv:

0u opoouc, iotov, vu upxco+oc o+q ouvctu (@BCA>9:>Ag) xut o+q
otuooq (W:@@8WW>BC), cupuv+u o+t uu+c ot oo ococt upcouv tu
oioxiqpucvq tocu +q ut+to+q+u (@<:W<A>BC) c xuvcvuv +poo! vu

112
2tvo(u, .(+3, , A(luu S, +p. Eu. uv+upxq, o. 81. B Bpo+uoq S6, c +qv oolu
oioxiqpuvc+ut +o Bpu+o cpo +q .(+32, ycvtxcct +qv upq +q ut+to+q+u o+o ovoio +uv
uotxuv puy+uv, ccpuocvuv xut ctpuv: Acv upct +lo+u uo +q oq +ou
oolou vu qv cc+ut xoto uo+cicou (>Y>; 8`>WA>Ab 8` @::W C<A:?< <;>h:>W 88@A:W CBC
W8h:<A:?), $JMJ., o. 1S1.
11S
Xtou +., tK"'0"),P", , S, 14, +p. . Boupvpq, o. Su4.
114
SJMJ., o. SuS.
4u
uv+txclcvo opcl vu clvut ouvuc (@BCA>9:B:W) xut vu poqycl+ut cvo iiou
(\?>B? AB <CBAY8?) upl vu cupcl+ut ut+lu +ou. Ypct tu AAIKAA 2YAE2B
(qrq]]n7 rqc) ou pcct vu iqcl u' otv, xut q ocoq uu+q clvut
oi cyui+cpq oououto+q+u uo ootuoqo+c uo +t oo
pouvucpcloc
11S
.

B otcpcvqoq +q tocu +q ut+to+q+u, uo +q tioootxq oxot +ou
Bume, ulvc+ut iotov vu xu+uiqyct oc uotc(ooo, cooov ot(ct uovu+o o
cv+otoo +q cv+uoq q +uv cv+uuocuv uo +t oolc q tocu uu+q
pocpc+ut xut +t oolc uvuupto+ o+ov vou. 0u opooc lou xuvcl vu
cupqoct o+t q tocu +q ut+to+q+u ocv uoxct+ut o+o ccituoc u(luu +q
tK"'0"),P"2, xut cocvu ocv oclict vu c(up++ut uo tu poqyocvq
uv+lo+otq cv+uoq. tu +c+otu c(ulpcoq ou, cx+o +ou o+t u q+uv
oiuootoiou uvc(qyq+q xut uuulpc+q, u cuvccpc uvuocux+u o+o xcv+po
+q tK"'0"),P"2 +qv poiqu+txq +uv cu+uv tocuv, xut cticov, ou
upuocc+ut o Bume, u ouvto+ooc toupo oclyu ciictq ooupo+q+u xut
uouvcctu, xuu q uv+lc+q upq cct coputucl +ooo uxiovq+u, uo+c vu qv
ctocc+ut xulu utoq+qoq +ouito+ov cpt vu otcpcuvqoouc
cvocicu +qv upoou ouoxoilu
116
.
o poiqu +q ouoc+toq +q tocu +q ut+to+q+u c tu optocvq
cv+uoq ou +qv upyct xut cocvu c(qycl +qv upouolu +q o+ov vou,
ctic+ut o+o xciuto 14 +ou +pl+ou cpou +ou Bpu+ou tilou +q
tK"'0"),P"2, c +ov uxoiouo +poo:

upu u pcct vu yuploouc lou ytu vu c(c+oouc +o cpu+qu ou u
ycvvqqxc o+qv upq xut +o oolo uqouc xu+ cpo o+qv opclu, oqiuoq
J*(" ,P#"( 1 (4H" J*- HO*-0, '(" )1# "#"'+"($)1)" $)"# GH0, $)( 45* "#)(+,P0,#"
,P#"( +")^ "#L'+1# /-#4,4,0H#" 0,)"I5 )*-2. |j Itu uu+ov +ov oxoo pcct vu
otcpcuvqou oc otu uv+txclcvu ouvqu uooloc+ut uvuyxuto+q+u.
Avuxui+ov+u, iotov, o+t uvuyxuto+q+u uooloc+ut v+u oc ut+lc xut
uo+cicou+u, o+pcu +qv poooq ou oc oo uv+txclcvu ou uo+lc+ut o+t
ouvocov+ut c uu+o +ou cloou +q ocoq xut +u c(c+(u oc oic +t ouvu+c

11S
SJMJ., , S, 2, o. 194.
116
SJMJ., o. 19S.
41
xu+uo+oct ou opcl vu poxouv. Acou uv+tiuvout o+t clvut
/-#"[3 (contiuous) o+ov povo xut o+ov upo xut o+t +o uv+txclcvo ou
uoxuioc "()P" JK*1',P)"( (pieceues) uu+o ou uoxuioc "J*)HG,/0". 2c
xulu cpl+uoq ocv opu vu u to cpu Eocvu, otcupvu +o colo
ou ytu vu c(c+ou otopc cpt+uoct o+t oolc ploxu ootu uv+txclcvu
vu otcov+ut v+u uo ootc ococt ouvctu xut otuooq. c +qv pu+q
u+t uu+o ocv ulvc+ut vu c(uqpc+cl totul+cpu +ov oxoo ou. 0 o+ouoo
vu o+t otopc cpt+uoct ooqycl uiu o+qv cuviqq +uv lotuv
uv+txctcvuv, pu ocv clvut ouvu+ov vu poxuicoct o+c tu vcu tocu. Uu, cv
poupqou +qv cpcuvu oc o, u uvuxuiu o+t q cuviqq ocv clvut
uoiu+u lotu oc xc ctcpou cpl+uoq, uii upyct tu vcu cv+uoq
(\?B=:@8W < C8 >D\?8WW>BC), o+qv oolu o+qpl(c+ut q tocu +qv oolu c(c+(u
cou. ct+u uo oiic cuvuiqct ouvctoq+ootu o+t c +qv cvtoq cvo
uo +u uv+txclcvu o vou +".*KPU,)"( uo +qv c(q (AY8 D>C= >W ueteimineu g
@:WABD) vu c(c+oct uu+o ou ouvqu +o ouvoocct, xut ito+u vu +o c(c+oct
iouocvo oc to ouvu+o u, c(ut+lu +q ocoq +ou c +o pu+o uv+txclcvo.
Au+q, iotov, q cv+uoq (>D\?8WW>BC), q o +".*K(/0$2 (ueteimination) +ou vou,
ou upcct +qv tocu +q uvuyxuto+q+u
117
.

icouc iotov o+t ytu vu c(qyqoct +qv tocu +q ut+to+q+u upl vu
uvuyxuo+cl vu cyxu+uiclct, o+qv cpl+uoq +q, +q ccituoq yvuotoioytxq
upq +q tK"'0"),P"2, o Bume +qv uvyct oc tu cou+cptxq cv+uoq q
cv+uoq uvuo+ouoo (>D\?8WW>BC B ?8;8`>BC)
118
. B cv+uoq uu+q ocv
qy(ct uo +u lotu +u pyu+u o+c pooc+ct o+toqo+c oc uu+, uii
cxp(ct uiu +ov +poo c +ov oolo cyypc+ut o+ov vou q cuviqq +q
yct+vluoq xut +q otuooq +ou, o+o c+po ou ylvc+ut uv+tiq+q. 2c
uv+totuo+oiq c +qv c(u+cptxq q xu+' uloqotv cv+uoq (>D\?8WW>BC
@BC_8g8= g B:? W8CW8W), q cv+uoq uvuo+ouoo oqiuvct cvuv xuoptoo ot
+uv puy+uv uii +ou vou. Au+o oqulvct o+t q tocu +q ut+to+q+u
o+cpcl+ut voqu+o o+uv uooloc+ut o+u lotu +u pyu+u, uo uouot(ct
cv+ciu q c(u+cptxq cv+uoq +q uvuyxulu ovocoq ou u opooc vu
+qv poxuicl: B uvuyxuto+q+u clvut x+t ou upct o+ov vou, ot o+u
uv+txclcvu, xut ocv clvut o+c ouvu+ov vu oqu+loouc +qv uputxpq tocu

117
SJMJ., , S, 14, o. Su4-SuS.
118
SJMJ., o. S18.
42
ytu uu+qv cv +q cupqoouc oto+q+u +uv ou+uv
119
. Xupl utoilu
otuou(c+ut c +ov +poo uu+ov tu optocvq tocu +q uvuyxuto+q+u, uii q
tocu uu+q ocv cx+clvc+ut cpu uo +q oxcq xut +ou ouvctptxo quvtoo
ou +q ouyxpo+ov, ocv opcl oqiuoq vu cupqcl o+t uvuupto+ tu
xuoitxq toto+q+u +uv uotxuv uv+txctcvuv:

El+c ocv couc xulu tocu +q uvuyxuto+q+u cl+c uu+q ocv clvut up o
xuoptoo +q oxcq (=8A8?D>C<A>BC B AY8 AYB:9YA) vu cpvct uo ut+lc oc
uo+cicou+u xut uo uo+cicou+u oc ut+lc ouvu c +qv cctplu +q
o(cu(q +ou (<@@B?=>C9 AB AY8>? 8`\8?>8C@^= :C>BC)
12u
.

Av ou q ovuq ou ouvocct ut+lc xut uo+cicou+u ocv pcct vu
uvu(q+qcl o+t lotc +t ut+lc (o+c o+q opoq cvo ucpu+txo ov+o), uii
o+qv xu' c(tv c+uoq (@:WABD<?g A?<CW>A>BC) +ou vou uo +t cv o+u oc
121
,
uv oqiuoq q uvuyxuto+q+u ylvc+ut v+u cou+cptx utoq+q o+qv uq
c(ut+lu +q cuvuiuuvocvq upu+qpqoq oo q cptooo+cpuv yct+ovtxuv
xut otuootxuv uv+txctcvuv q cvcpyctuv, uii o+c c(u+cptx uv+tiq+q o+u
ouu+u, +o+c ot uotxol voot, +ooo o+qv a piioii, xup+cotuvq +ou cxooq ooo
xut o+qv cuyuytxq, vcu+uvctu cxooq +ou, uvyov+ut o+ou voou +ou
ouvctpo +uv tocuv o+q uv+uolu
122
. Ilvc+ut c+ot xu+uvoq+o +o utvtyu+txo

119
SJMJ. i. cloq o+o loto, o. S22: Boiic opc cu upu+qpqoct o+t +u uv+txclcvu
opov vu couv c+u( +ou ococt otuooq xut ouvctu |j Ev ou poupqoouc
to cpu xut uoouoouc ovuq q uvuyxulu ovocoq o+u uv+txclcvu, u pcct vu
upuoc+oc o+t poxct+ut ytu x+t ou ocv opoc o+c vu upu+qpqoouc oc uu+, uii
pcct vu c(uyyouc +qv cv ioyu tocu uo o,+t utouvouo+c cou+cptx o+uv +u
uvuo+ou(ouo+c.
12u
SJMJ., o. S18.
121
B uo+cicou+txo+q+u q q cvcpyctu +uv ut+tuv ocv oclic+ut o+c o+t ut+lc uu+c
xuuu+c o+c o+q co+q+u o+c o+ov ouvouuoo uu+uv +uv oo upuv, uii cv+ol(c+ut
c(oioxiqpou o+qv uq (8;BC9W 8CA>?8;g AB AY8 WB:;) ou c(c+(ct +qv cvuoq oo q
cptooo+cpuv uv+txctcvuv oc oic +t upciooc cpt+uoct. 2c uu+qv pcct vu
uooocl, iotov, q puyu+txq ovuq +uv ut+tuv (AY8 ?8<; \B8? B @<:W8W), ou xut q
ovocoq xut q uvuyxuto+q+ +ou, $JMJ.
122
U+uv o+pcu +qv poooq ou o+qv clopuoq uu+q +q o+ucpq o(cu(q |ootuv
uv+txctcvuvj, uv+tiuvout o+t tu +c+otu ocoq ocv opcl o+c vu uo+cicoct uv+txclcvo
ouiioytoo xut vu ccvcpyqoct vu o+ov vou up ovo cou +q c(q (g D8<CW B @:WABD)
q oolu c(uvuyx(ct +q uv+uolu (>D<9>C<A>BC) vu xvct tu c+uoq uo +qv tocu cvo
uv+txctcvou o+qv tocu uu+o ou ouvqu +o uxoioucl, uo +qv cv+uoq +ou cvo o+qv to
(uqpq tocu +ou iiou, $JMJ., o. S24. i. cloq Xtou +., Z5#*1, o+o Xtou +., !,P0,#",
+p. . Boupvpq - X. q+oooiou, o. 8S: Ev x+t opcl vu uovclct o+ov ouyypucu
|+q tK"'0"),P"2 '(" )1# "#.KQJ(#1 [5/1j cvu +ooo cvoo(o ovou ooo uu+o +ou ,J(#*1)3 clvut
q pqoq +qv oolu xvct +q upq +ou ouvctpo +uv tocuv (\?>C@>\;8 B AY8 <WWB@><A>BC B
4S
otqu +qv uvyxq +ou oolou uoypt(c, ou clouc, o Bume o+qv
Etouyuyq +q tK"'0"),P"2: q uuyuyq oiuv +uv cto+quv,
oucptiuuvocvq +q cto+qq +q oq, o+qv cto+qq +q "#.KQJ(#12
oq. B coq +ou Bume opcl vu ouvotocl u c(q: ot uo+tccvc
xuvovtxo+q+c ou upu+qpov+ut o+q oq ocv ouvto+ov toto+q+c +q
+cicu+ulu o+c cxp(ouv +qv cou+cptxq ooq xut ict+oupylu +q, uii
c(up+uv+ut uoxicto+tx uo +t ycvtxc upc +q ovocoq +uv tocuv o+q
uv+uolu: ooto+q+u, ouvctu o+ov povo q o+ov upo, ocoq ut+lu xut
uo+cicou+o
12S
. B oq cxiuvc+ut u cvu ovoio o+ucpuv xut
uvuyxuluv ococuv c+u( uv+txctcvuv q utvocvuv /)* 0H)K* ou
uyc+ut o+t upc +ou ouvctpo. B uotxq uvuyxuto+q+u ocv clvut up q
ouvctptxq uvuyxuto+q+u. B +cicu+ulu ocv uct vu clvut q lotu uotxq:
pyu+t, ou upu+qpcl o Pilippe Saltel, cvu uo +u xptu upux+qpto+tx
+q tiooolu +ou Bume clvut q uvuyuyq +uv ict+oupytuv +ou vcu+o oc
uotxc otuotxuolc o+t oolc uoxct+ut uvuocux+u o xucvu. |j oct
iotov ytu +t ict+oupylc +q voqoq o,+t toct ytu +t iic uvputvc
pux+txc: opov vu uvuov oc uotxo quvtoo
124
. B uviuoq
uu+uv +uv quvtouv ou, uv xut u ct+pcct vu xu+uvoqoouc u cvuv
uo +q oq xut +q ict+oupylu +ou vou, ocv u ct+pcct vu c(uyyouc +o
uputxpo oucpuou ytu +q oq o+o ovoio +q.
B uvuxiuq o+t q ut+to+q+u ocv clvut cyycvq toto+q+u +q oq uii
ovo lu uo +t upc +ou ouvctpo, c(ut+lu +uv ooluv o vou ooqycl+ut
uo +q tu tocu o+qv iiq
12S
, c(qycl xut +uu+opovu olvct uopq ytu
optocvc uo +t to poxiq+txc otu+uuoct +q tK"'0"),P"2:

>=8<W), q oolu otcct oioxiqpq +q tiooolu +ou. B uv+uolu u uoxcl cyiq c(ouolu vu
o+t tocc u. 0 Nicel Naleie oucpulvct: B uv+uolu xuptupcl iotov oioxiqpu+tx
o+q oxcq, e< \Y>;BWB\Y>8 8D\>?>WA8 =8 V<_>= :D8, o. 174.
12S
Xtou +., tK"'0"),P", , 1, 4, +p. . Boupvpq, o. 97. Bpi. o+o loto, , S, 6, o. 218: ot
ovc ',#(+H2 upc oct +uv ooluv ouvocov+ut ot tocc clvut q ooto+q+u (?8W8D;<C@8), q
ouvctu (@BCA>9:>Ag) xut q ut+to+q+u (@<:W<A>BC). i. cloq Xtou +., Z5#*1, o+o Xtou +.,
!,P0,#", +p. . Boupvpq - X. q+oooiou, o. 86: 0t upc uu+c +ou ouvctpo
uvyov+ut oc +pct, oqiuoq +qv *0*($)1)": tu ctxovu uotx u xvct vu oxc+oc +ov
vpuo +ov oolo uctxovl(ct +q /-#L[,(": o+uv uvucpcl o Ayto Atovoto, u cpc+ut
uotx q tocu +ou Buptoto +qv "()($)1)": o+uv oxc+oc +ov uto, +clvouc vu c+ucpouc
+qv poooq u o+ov u+cpu.
124
Bume B., e^8CA8C=8D8CAM u?<>AX =8 ;< C<A:?8 Y:D<>C8M e>_?8 c 8A n\\8C=>@8, tiauuction inuite
pai P. Baianei et P. Saltel, pisentation, notes, inuex, ilioiapie et cionoloie pai
P. Saltel, Paiis, uF-Flammaiion, 199S, o. 12-1S.
12S
Xtou +., tK"'0"),P", , 1, 4, +p. . Boupvpq, o. 96-97.
44

2uvu c +q cuplu ou uvu+(uc to vu, ocv upouv uv+txclcvu +u
oolu vu opoc vu xuoploouc u ut+lc xotuv iiuv c tu uiq
ctoxoqoq (D8?8 W:?_8g), upl vu xu+uyouc o+qv upcioou cctplu
u. 0+c upouv uv+txclcvu +u oolu opoc vu xuoploouc c +ov loto
+poo o+t ocv clvut ut+lc xotuv iiuv. 0+toqo+c opcl vu upyct
o+toqo+c (nCg AY>C9 D<g \?B=:@8 <Cg AY>C9). Aqtoupylu, cxqocvtoq, xlvqoq,
ioyo, oiqoq, oiu uu+ lou pox+ouv +o cvu uo +o iio q uo
ootooqo+c uv+txclcvo opoc vu uv+uo+oc. Kut uu+o ocv ulvc+ut
xuoiou cplcpyo o+uv ouyxplvouc oo upc ou c(qyqouc to ptv, o+t 1
/)".,K3 /5U,-I1 )%# "#)(+,(0H#%# +".*KPU,( )1 /OH/1 "()($)1)"2 0,)"I5 )*-2 xut
o+t, cv ciouc vu xuptoicx+oc, 4,# -JLKO*-# "#)(+,P0,#" J*- #" ,P#"(
"#)P.,)" 0,)"I5 )*-2 +"( "0*("P" "J*+G,($0,#"b J"KL 0$#* 1 5J"KI1 +"( 1
"#-J"KIP". U+uv +u uv+txclcvu ocv clvut cvv+tu, ocv upct +lo+u ou vu +u
cool(ct vu upouot(ouv uu+q +q o+ucpq o(cu(q uo +qv oolu c(up++ut
oioxiqpu+tx q ocoq ut+lu xut uo+cicou+o
126
.

c iiu ioytu, ooo cptopt(ouo+c o+qv upu+qpqoq +q oq upl +q
cooiqoq +uv upuv +ou ouvctpo, ocv upct +poo vu uoyouc +o
oucpuou o+t oiu +u uv+txclcvu, o+o c+po ou clvut q cupov+ut
uupx+, clvut ouvu+ov vu ylvouv ut+lc q uo+cicou+u +o cvu +ou iiou
127
.
2+o oqclo uu+o, o cctptoo +ou Bume upuupcl +q coq +ou o+ov
oxc+txtoo. T xui+cpu: o oxc+txtoo cuvl(c+ut u q uvuocux+q
ouvcctu +ou cctptoo. U+uv, o+qv upq +q tK"'0"),P"2, o Bume opt(c +t
tocc u uuop clouiu +uv cv+uuocuv o+q oxcq, cpo+uv oc pq(q c oiq +q
vco+cpq opoioytxq upoooq ouvu c +qv oolu ot tocc +uv puy+uv,
ot oolc pcct vu otuxplvov+ut uo +u cloui +ou o+q uv+uolu, clvut
uo+cicou+u cl+c tu coq voq+txq oiiqq cl+c tu ccoq ioytxq
upuyuyq. pc+ut +upu oc pq(q c tu ouotuoq upuooq +ou vco+cpou
cctptoo, ouvu c +qv oolu q cctplu ouvto+ +qv puyu+txq
uc+qplu tu optocvq yvuoq, uv ot uooctx+tx cutq, +ouito+ov

126
SJMJ., , S, 1S, o. S28.
127
SJMJ.
4S
cuyuytx uxpto
128
xut ctpuu+tx cuiqcotq. 2+ov Bume q cctplu
otu+qpcl +ov pu+uptxo +q poio, ocv upyct ou yvuoq uii ovo
ouvqctu q c(q, oqiuoq tu optocvq +oq o+ov vou vu ouvocct +u uv+txclcvu
c oq +qv ooto+q+ +ou, +q upopovtxq +ou ouvctu xut, xuplu, +q
ocoq ut+lu xut uo+cicou+o:

B oq xut +u uo+cicou+u +q cctplu couv qoq c(c+uo+cl xut uvuiucl
cupxu: Au+q ocv opcl o+c vu u poocpct ut yvuoq +q cou+cptxq
ooq q +q upq ict+oupylu +uv uv+txctcvuv, uiu oqtoupycl o+ov vou +qv
c(q vu cpvct uo +o cvu o+o iio (BC;g <@@:WABDW AY8 D>C= AB \<WW ?BD BC8 AB
<CBAY8?)
129
.

Av q cctplu, oqiuoq q uv+liqq +q o+ucpq o(cu(q oo q
cptooo+cpuv uv+txctcvuv, c(qycl +q uotxq poq +q uv+uolu vu
c+uulvct uo +qv cv+uoq cvo uv+txctcvou o+qv tocu cvo iiou,
uooloov+u oc uu+ tu ocoq ut+to+q+u q uvuyxulu ovocoq ou ocv
ccituvc+ut o+u lotu +u uv+txclcvu o+c ouvyc+ut uo +q cupqoq +ou, q
uotxq uu+q poq c(qycl c +q octp +q +qv J,J*P.1/1 (uii ot +q yvuoq)
1Su

o+t q oq u ouvcloct uotict+u vu ctcutuvct +t pooooxlc u
cuvuiuvov+u xu+ xotov +poo +ov cuu+o +q, cuvl(ov+u oqiuoq
o+o ciiov ooto+q+c xut ococt uvioyc c uu+c ou upu+qpov+ut o+o
upov q couv upu+qpqcl cuvctiqcvu o+o upciov:


128
Xupl utoilu, uv +qv c(c+oouc uo +q oxot +ou uo cuto+q+u q uxplctu
ou +q upux+qpl(ct, q cuyuytxq yvuoq uoiclc+ut +q upuyuytxq yvuoq. Kuu ocv
c(up++ut uo +qv cctplu (co+u xut uv +u upuyuytx oucpou+u ctcutuvov+ut uo
uu+qv), q upuyuyq ocv opcl, ou oqctuvct o Bescaites, vu ct+cicl+ut iuvuocvu uo
cvuv vou ooo ctucvq xut uv clvut q ioytxq txuvo+q+ +ou, !"#$#,2 '(" )*# +"),-.-/0$ )12
'#%/)(+32 45#"012, !"#$#"2 2, 4, +p. 0. Bcvoiloq, o. 4S. Bpi. o+o loto, !"#$#"2 S, S,
o. S1: |B upuyuyqj ocv opcl vu otc(ucl couicvu uo +ov vpuo. uo+ooo, q
c(p+qoq +uv cuyuytxuv ycvtxcocuv uo +qv cctptxq upu+qpqoq c(p+qoq c(ut+lu
+q oolu ot ycvtxcoct uu+c clvut otupxu cx+cctcvc o+ov xlvouvo tu ciiov+txq
iqpou otcuoq q cptxq uvucupqoq , ocv o+cpcl cv+ciu uo +t +cicu+ulc +o
o+otclo +q uxplctu: 2+qv ctpuu+txq tiooolu, ot po+oct ou ouvyov+ut uo +u
utvocvu cou +q cuyuyq (\8? >C=:@A>BC8D) u pcct vu cupov+ut u "+K(Q2 uiqcl
q iqotco+u+c o+qv uiqctu (\?B _8?>W <:A accuiate <:A h:<D \?B`>D8 Y<8?> =88CA), c+uv,
i?>C@>\><, , Kuvovu 4 (q uoyptoq clvut otxq u). i. upuvu, o. 24.
129
Xtou +., tK"'0"),P", , S, 14, +p. . Boupvpq, o. S22-S2S.
1Su
B colqoq (8;>8) ouvlo+u+ut uiu oc cvu totul+cpo uloqu (\8@:;><? 88;>C9) q
ouvuloqu (W8CA>D8CA), Xtou +., Z5#*1, o+o Xtou +., !,P0,#", +p. . Boupvpq -
X. q+oooiou, o. 7S.
46
S)"# GHJ% 0P" /["PK" 0J(G(LK4*- #" +(#,P)"( JK*2 0P" LGG1b * #*-2 0*-
0,)"[HK,)"( L0,/" 4(L )12 HI,%2 (y ait) /)* /5#1.,2 "J*)HG,/0" +"(
JK*GHJ,( (anticipates) )* *J)(+$ 0*- "P/.10" /-GG"0L#*#)"2 )1 4,5),K1
/["PK" /, +P#1/1. Aii uu+o clvut oio Acv xvu +lo+c iio uo +o vu
2YAAu +qv xlvqoq +q oc+cpq oulpu Ut, cutu. Eloq, B2EYu
(qecqq) o+t uu+q u c+uxtvqcl
1S1
.

Kuu ou q upq o+t *( J,K(J)Q/,(2 )%# *J*P%# 4,# HO*-0, +"0P"
,0J,(KP" JKHJ,( #" 0*(LU*-# 0, ,+,P#,2 )%# *J*P%# HO*-0, ,0J,(KP" +"( $)( 1
J*K,P" )12 [5/12 /-#,OPU,( #" ,P#"( JL#)" *0*($0*K[1 (always unifoimly te
same)
1S2
, ocv uuyopcc+ut uo +qv ciioyq xu+uvoqoq +q ouolu +uv
uotxuv uv+txctcvuv q +uv xuoitxuv vouv ou otcouv +t ococt xut +t
c+uoic +ou, uii c(up++ut o+qv puyu+txo+q+u iqpu uo +t upc
+ou ouvctpo ou ouvocouv +t tocc uu+uv +uv uv+txctcvuv xut +t
cvuvouv o+q uv+uolu
1SS
, q poqyocvq colqoq uox+ xu+' uvyxqv
uoc+txo upux+qpu cxp(ct oqiuoq tu uoxctcvtxq pooooxlu ou ovo
+uulu opcl vu cxiqpuvc+ut uo +q oq, uo ocv uv+txu+o+pl(ct o+c
+t toto+q+c +q o+c +qv uv+txctcvtxq +q ooq:

Yoc+ouc (8 W:\\BW8), uii ocv u cluo+c o+c oc coq vu uoocl(ouc ot
+cxqpluv, o+t u pcct vu upct xotu ooto+q+u c+u( +uv uv+txctcvuv
+uv ooluv cluc cctplu xut cxclvuv ou ploxov+ut cpuv +uv opluv +q
upu+qpqoq u
1S4
.

Ilvc+ut c+ot uvcpo o+t q "KO3 )12 *0*(*0*K[P"2 )12 [5/12, xut u(l +q q
cvvotu +ou uotxo voou o+o c+po ou cxp(ct tu xuvovtxo+q+u uotopq
u po +q otxptoq upov+o, upciov+o xut ciiov+o, o+cpcl+ut
ootouoqo+c yvuotoioytxo ccilou uvc(p+q+ou uo +qv uvputvq oq,
oqiuoq +q uv+uolu xut +t ouvctptxc upc ou otcouv +q ovocoq +uv
tocuv o+o cou+cptxo +q. Bpyu+t, q poqyocvq upq ocv ccituvc+ut o+c

1S1
SJMJ., o. 71-72.
1S2
Xtou +., tK"'0"),P", , S, 6, +p. . Boupvpq, o. 21S.
1SS
SJMJ., o. 217.
1S4
SJMJ.
47
o+ov ioyo, c +qv cvvotu tu a piioii oiiqq +q uotxq uvuyxuto+q+u
1SS
,
o+c ou xut o+qv cctplu xut cou q cto+qoioylu +ou Bume
uv+totuo+ciic+ut pt(tx uo +qv cuyuytxq poocyytoq +ou c+uvu , uo
uxou xt uv clu +qv cctplu upxc+uv xu+' cuviqtv uo+cico+uv |cvo
optocvouj cloou, ocv u uqpc xuvcvu ctclpqu +o oolo vu c xuoploct
vu uocou o+t +o uo+cicou u ouopucl c +qv cctplu +ou
upciov+o
1S6
.
B +cicu+ulu uu+q upu+qpqoq clvut ouotuoq, oto+t oclvct o+t o Bume
upvcl+ut pq+ vu uvuyvuploct o+qv upcioou cctplu, ooo cx+c+ucvq xt uv
+q cupqoct xuvcl, +q ouvu+o+q+u vu uo+cicoct +q ouiioyto+txq oq (+o
ctclpqu q +ov ioyo) tu ootuooqo+c cuyuytxq ycvlxcuoq. 2c
+o+o uxptu ouvlo+u+ut +o poiqu +q cuyuyq. 2+o iuloto +q
oxc+txto+txq xpt+txq +ou Bume, q uvoct(q +ou poiqu+o uu+o
ouvoocc+ut uo +qv ctoquvoq o+t q cupq+txq cliuoq +ou clvut uovu+q:
Acv opoc vu ouoouc xuvcvuv ioyo (8 @<C 9>_8 CB ?8<WBC) ytu +qv
ccx+uoq +q cctplu u +ou upciov+o o+o ciiov, uii xuopt(ouo+c
xu' oioxiqpluv uo +qv c(q (@:WABD) |j Eocvu, q colqoq (8;>8) ytu
oiu +u ycyovo+u +q puyu+txo+q+u pocpc+ut uiu uo +qv c(q
1S7
. Elvut
uvcpo u, uo +q oxot tu +c+otu uviuoq, ot uotxol voot pcct vu
cupqov u tu optocvq xuotxoolqoq q ouo+qu+oolqoq +uv
pooooxtuv xut +uv cotqocuv u (xut ot +q upuyuytxq q cuyuytxq
yvuoq u) ytu +q oq xut +t ict+oupylc +q.
B ccituoq upq +q tiooolu +ou Bume ocv clvut iotov o+c o
ioyo (xut q uooctx+txq yvuoq ou ccituvct), o+c q cctplu (xut q
cuyuytxq cuto+q+u ou xuto+ ouvu+q), uii q c(q (xut q colqoq ou
+q ouvoocct):

ovov q E2B (rk]ua) xuopl(ct vu uocoouc o+t +o ciiov
ouopuvc+ut c +o upciov. |j Eocvu, o ooqyo +q (uq ocv clvut o
ioyo uii q c(q. ovov uu+q, oc oic +t cpt+uoct, xuopl(ct +ov vou vu

1SS
Bpi. 2tvo(u, .(+3, , Bpo+uoq 44, Aooct(q, +p. Eu. uv+upxq, o. 2u9: Elvut o+q
oq +ou ioyou vu uv+tiuvc+ut +u pyu+u uiqu, oqiuoq ou clvut o+ov cuu+o +ou
(>C W8), +ou+co+tv ot u cvococvu uii u uvuyxulu (:A C8@8WW<?><W).
1S6
Xtou +., Z5#*1, o+o Xtou +., !,P0,#", +p. . Boupvpq - X. q+oooiou, o. 71.
1S7
SJMJ., o. 74.
48
uococt o+t +o ciiov ouopuvc+ut c +o upciov. Uoo uio xt uv ulvc+ut
uu+o +o qu, o ioyo ocv u opooc vu +o xvct o+ov utuvu +ov uv+u
1S8
.

B c(q, xut ot o ioyo q q cctplu, clvut, ouvu c +ov Bume, +o
ovuotxo ccito +q cto+qq: Uic ot ouvuyuyc (>C8?8C@8W) uo +qv
cctplu clvut uo+cicou+u +q c(q (@:WABD), ot +ou ioyou
1S9
. Ao +qv c(q
xut ovo, oqiuoq uo cvuv uotxo xuoptoo q +oq (\?B\8CW>BC) +q
uv+uolu, c(up++ut cloq q colqoq u ytu +qv uotict+q xut otuxpt+q
up(q +uv c(u+cptxuv ou+uv xut +uv uoo+ocuv (uitxuv q
vcuu+txuv)
14u
. B c(q, +cio, xuto+ ouvu+q tu optocvq poyvuoq +ou

1S8
SJMJ., o. 7u-71. Bpi. Bume B., nC qCh:>?g @BC@8?C>C9 :D<C kC=8?WA<C=>C9, S, 1, 6, o. 122:
B c(q, iotov, clvut o cyio ooqyo +q uvputvq (uq. Au+q q upq xut ovo xuto+ +qv
cctplu u pqotq oc c, xut u xvct vu uvucvouc, o+o ciiov, tu uxoioulu
ycyovo+uv upootuv c cxclvu ou cuvlo+qxuv o+o upciov.
1S9
SJMJ., S, 1, S, o. 121.
14u
0 ioyo ocv opcl o+c xut clvut tuvo vu opcoct o+c, uo ootcooqo+c
pouococt vu u upcct xotu cuto+q+u ytu +q ouvcq xut otuxpt+q up(q cvo
ouu+o. 0 oqu+too uu+q +q oo(u (B\>C>BC) pcct vu oclic+ut uoxicto+tx o+q
uv+uolu, Xtou +., tK"'0"),P", , 4, 2, +p. . Boupvpq, o. SS9. i. cloq o+o loto, o. S8u-
S81: Elvut iuvuocvq q oq o+t xucvu uo +u uv+txclcvu q +t uv+tiqct u clvut
uoi+u loto cct+u uo tu otuxoq, ouvcu q oo(u ytu +qv +uu+o+q+ +ou ocv opcl o+c
vu o+qpl(c+ut o+ov ioyo, uii pox+ct uo +q uv+uolu (<?>W8 ?BD AY8 >D<9>C<A>BC). B
uv+uolu upuopc+ut o+ov oqu+too uu+q +q oo(u uoxicto+tx xut ovo c(ut+lu +q
ooto+q+u ouyxcxptcvuv uv+tiqcuv B +oq uu+q ytu uooooq +uu+o+q+u o+t ootc
uv+tiqct u oqtoupycl +qv iuou+txq colqoq (>@A>BC) ytu +q ouvcq up(q. B tocu
+q -J$/)"/12 c(c+(c+ut ic+ocpu o+q ouvcctu +q tK"'0"),P"2. Uu xut o+qv
cpl+uoq +q tocu +q ut+to+q+u, o Bume (cxtv uo +q otulo+uoq o+t o+c ocv opu
vu upu+qpqou +lo+c iio cpu uo +t uv+tiqct ou, $JMJ., , 4, 6, o. 44u. B cupoyq +q
ycvtxq uu+q upq o+qv cvvotu +q uoo+uoq +ov ooqycl o+o oucpuou o+t q +cicu+ulu
ocv clvut up tu poxu+iqq +q uv+uolu ($JMJ., o. 44S), o+qv oolu uox+ouc
upl ocoov vu +o uv+tiqoc xc op ou ouvcvuvouc, ooqyocvot uo tu
uv+uotuxq upq ovocoq, +t uouvccl xut c+uiq+c uv+tiqct u. Itu vu
otxutoioyqoouc o+ov cuu+o u uu+ov +ov upuioytoo ouv ctvooc (8>9C) tu vcu
uotuvoq+q upq, q oolu ouvocct +u uv+txclcvu xut upux+ct +q otuxoq q +q c+uoiq
+ou. Etvooc oqiuoq +q ouvcq up(q +uv xu+' uloqotv uv+tiqcuv u ytu vu
upuxouc +q otuxoq xut xu+ucyouc o+qv cvvotu +q -O32 (soul), +ou ,"-)*5 (self)
xut +q -J$/)"/12 (sustance) ytu vu ouyxuiouc +q c+uoiq, $JMJ., o. 44S-444. B tocu +q
uoo+uoq clvut o+qv puyu+txo+q+u uotuupto+q uo +qv tocu +q )"-)$)1)"2, q oolu
upucct oc tu uotict+q xut uc+iq+q up(q ytu +qv oolu uo+ooo ocv couc xulu
uv+lo+otq cv+uoq: Acv upct xulu cv+uoq o+ucpq xut uc+iq+q, $JMJ., o. 44u.
+ot iotov, q uooooq +q +uu+o+q+u q q pqoq +q cvvotu +q uoo+uoq ocv ouvto+ ovo
icx+txo oiu: +qv lotu o+tyq ctvooc cl+c x+t uc+iq+o xut q otuxo+ocvo cl+c
x+t uo+qpto xut uvc(qyq+o, q +ouito+ov cxoqiuvouc tu toupq +oq (\?B\8CW>Ag) po
+c+otou cloou iou+u +q uv+uolu (>@A>BCW), $JMJ., o. 444. Bpi. Xtou +., Z5#*1, o+o
Xtou +., !,P0,#", +p. . Boupvpq - X. q+oooiou, o. 8u: Acv couc xulu tocu
ootouoqo+c cloou uoo+uoq, cooov ocv couc xulu tocu up ovo o,+t pocpc+ut uo
xotu cv+uoq, xut ocv couc xulu cv+uoq ootuooqo+c uoo+uoq, uitxq q
vcuu+txq. Acv yvupl(ouc up ovo ctcpou oto+q+c (\<?A>@:;<? h:<;>A>8W) xut
uv+tiqct (\8?@8\A>BCW). Bpcct vu uoypuloouc o+t q poqyocvq uviuoq toct
uotuxpl+u ytu oiu +u cloq +uv uoo+ocuv, ycyovo ou ct+pcct o+ov Bume vu
49
ciiov+o c oq +qv upcioou cctplu u, up +o uotutoq+q+o
ycyovo o+t uouvu+oc vu "J*4,PI*-0,, uuyuytx q cuyuytx, o+t q opclu
+q oq pcct vu ouvcl(ct ootoopu q lotu xut o+t +o ciiov pcct vu
ouopuvc+ut c +o upciov
141
. Ao xuup .,%K1)(+3 oxot, oic ot
ouvuyuyc xut ot cotqoct u ou uol(ov+ut o+qv c(q q ouvqctu
tooouvuov c +ov uo qocv +q yvuoq, cooov ocv uv+to+otcl oc uu+c
xulu c(u+cptxq utoq+qptuxq cv+uoq uii ovo lu cv+uoq
uvuo+ouoo ou poouvu+oil(ct +q uv+uolu po +q lu q +qv iiq
xu+cuvoq (po +q cupqoq uu+o q cxclvou +ou pyu+o) ouvu c
+t ycvtxc upc +ou ouvctpo. B colqoq, +qv oolu o Bume +uu+l(ct c +q
yvuq (B\>C>BC)
142
xut opl(ct u tu (uqpq tocu ou oc+l(c+ut q ouvocc+ut
c tu upoou cv+uoq
14S
, ocv ouvto+ +o oqclo o+o oolo o vou
cyxu+uiclct +qv uloqoq ytu vu ctocict o+qv ctxp+ctu +q yvuoq, uii
upucvct q lotu cpt +ciou cou o+u optu +ou utovcout: q colqoq
(8;>8) ou ouvoocct +qv cctplu c(qycl+ut u vu qv clvut +lo+c iio up
cvu totul+cpo ouvuloqu (\8@:;><? W8CA>D8CA) q (uv+uvq oiiqq upuyocvq
ot +q c(cu (\?B=:@8= g Y<>A)
144
. Av+l vu ctict poiqu+u, ou u
opooc ctoiutu vu uococt o tuo+txo uvuyvuo+q, q cupq+txq
otcpcvqoq +uv upuv +ou oxc+cout c oq +o ycvtxo u(luu +q
tK"'0"),P"2 o+t u pcct vu upct tu optocvq cv+uoq ou vu
poxuicl xc puyu+txq tocu
14S
, oiiuiuot(ct +u uotc(oou: Ao oiu oou

upuiiqiloct, o+q Z5#*1 +q tK"'0"),P"2, +ov vou (vcuu+txq uoo+uoq) c +o pooxtvo
(uitxq uoo+uoq): Uu q tocu u xotou ouu+o, ytu upoctyu, cvo pooxtvou, clvut
uiu tocu tu ctcpou ycoq, puu+o, oqu+o, oo+uoq x+i., c+ot xut q tocu ou
couc ytu +ov vou u clvut uiu tocu ctcpou uv+tiqcuv, upl xulu cvvotu uu+o ou
uoxuioc uoo+uoq, cl+c uiq cl+c ovc+q, $JMJ. B tocu +q uoo+uoq otu+qpcl uo+ooo,
cou uu+o q cxclvou +ou ovou+o ou +q uooloc+ut, cou oqiuoq +q yiuootxq +q
cxop, tu optocvq pqoto+q+u ou oc+l(c+ut cou c +q ouvu+o+q+u +q ovocoq o+q
uv+uolu xut +q cxoiq uvxiqoq o+q vqq, tu oiiuio+q+u utoq+uv oto+q+uv q
uiuv tocuv: B tocu +q uoo+uoq ocv clvut +lo+c iio up tu ouiioyq uiuv tocuv
ou cvuvov+ut ot +q uv+uolu (< @B;;8@A>BC B W>D\;8 >=8<Wb AY<A <?8 :C>A8= g AY8 >D<9>C<A>BC)
xut +ou uooloc+ut cvu totul+cpo ovou (\<?A>@:;<? C<D8), c +o oolo opoc cl+c vu
uvuxuioc ccl ot lotot cl+c vu cyclpouc o+o uuio +uv iiuv uu+q +q ouiioyq, Xtou +.,
tK"'0"),P", , 1, 6, +p. . Boupvpq, o. 1u4.
141
Xtou +., Z5#*1, o+o Xtou +., !,P0,#", +p. . Boupvpq - X. q+oooiou, o. 7u.
142
n opinion, teiefoie, oi elief, Bume B., n u?8<A>W8 B :D<C <A:?8, , S, 7, euiteu, wit
an nalytical nuex, y . . Sely-Bie, 2
nu
euition wit text ieiseu anu aiiant ieauins y
P. B. Niuuitc, xfoiu, New Yoik, xfoiu nieisity Piess, 1978, o. 96.
14S
Xtou +., tK"'0"),P", , S, 7, +p. . Boupvpq, o. 22S.
144
Xtou +., Z5#*1, o+o Xtou +., !,P0,#", +p. . Boupvpq - X. q+oooiou, o. 79.
14S
Xtou +., tK"'0"),P", , 4, 6, +p. . Boupvpq, o. 44u.
Su
couv iccl, o uvuyvuo+q cxoiu u uv+tiqcl o+t q tiooolu ou
cptcc+ut oc uu+o +o tilo |oqi. o+qv tK"'0"),P" '(" )1# "#.KQJ(#1 [5/1j
clvut oi oxc+txto+txq xut +clvct vu u upouot(ct tu cvvotu +uv u+cictuv
xut +uv o+cvuv opluv +q uvputvq voqoq
146
.
B uotutoq+q+q pu+o+ulu +ou oxc+txtoo +ou Bume cyxct+ut o+qv
uoxu+o+uoq +q yvuoq c +qv colqoq, oqiuoq c cvu optocvo
uloqu (88;>C9)
147
, +o oolo otuxplvc+ut pt(tx uo +o xup+cotuvo rB9>AB.
2+o c+po ou ocv ctocc+ut c(utpcoct, q uoxu+o+uoq uu+q cct tu
totul+cpu oquv+txq ouvcctu: xuto+ +q yvuoq, c +u upux+qpto+tx +q
uvuyxuto+q+u xut +q uqu+txq cuto+q+u ou +q ucotoc o Bescaites
xut o 2tvo(u, q uxoq c +u upux+qpto+tx +q xu+ poocyytoq q
cuyuytxq cuto+q+u ou +q ucotoc o ocke xut o c+uv, c( optoo
uovu+q.
Av ou cyxu+uiclouc poouptv +ov xuvovu +q cupq+txq
otcpcvqoq xut c(c+oouc +qv c(q xut +qv colqoq ou poxuicl uo
xuup JK"+)(+3 oxot, q oquolu +q, ou ctoqulvct cuvctiqcvu o
Bume, ylvc+ut ucou uv+tiq+q:

Xupl +qv clopuoq +q c(q, u uyvooouc cv+ciu xc ycyovo +q
puyu+txo+q+u (D<AA8? B <@A), cpu uo o,+t clvut cou upov (>DD8=><A8;g
\?8W8CA) o+q vqq xut o+t utoqoct. Acv u yvupl(uc o+c u vu
pooupooouc +u cou o+ou oxoo, q u vu pqotootqoouc +t uotxc
ouvct u ytu +qv upuyuyq ootouoqo+c uo+cicou+o. Kc p(q u
o+uu+ooc ucou |j B c(q clvut cxclvq q upq q +ooo uvuyxulu ytu +q
otu+qpqoq +ou cloou u, xut ytu +q ptoq +q oucptop u, oc xc
cplo+uoq xut ouv +q uvputvq (uq
148
.

Acv pcct iotov vu u otucyct +o ycyovo o+t, up +q yvuotoioytxq
+q ctovc(lu, q c(q c(uouil(ct +ov opl(ov+u ou uut+cl q p(q ytu vu
cx+uitcl, oqiuoq tu optocvq uv+liqq +ou ciiov+o. Xupl +qv +cicu+ulu

146
Xtou +., Z5#*1, o+o Xtou +., !,P0,#", +p. . Boupvpq - X. q+oooiou, o. 78-79.
147
i. upuvu, o. 4S, uoo. 1Su.
148
Bume B., nC qCh:>?g @BC@8?C>C9 :D<C kC=8?WA<C=>C9, S, 1, 6, o. 122 S, 2, 21, o. 129.
Aooloouc +qv cxpuoq D<AA8? B <@A u ycyovo +q puyu+txo+q+u, utoc+uv+u +q
c+upuo+txq po+uoq +q . Boupvpq. i. Xtou +., tK"'0"),P", Blvuxu +uv uotxuv
cvvotuv, o. 496.
S1
q cvvotu +ou oxoo, o oolo ouvto+ uotxq pouocoq +q p(q, u q+uv
uovu+o vu oqu+tocl. qv lotu o+tyq ou uoxiclct +q yvuoq c +qv cvvotu
ou poootoplo+qxc upuvu (+o ovqc ocv tooouvucl c +o ioytx
uvuyxulo q +o cuyuytx cuto o+c +o upyct c ootovoqo+c +poo), q
c(q, u cxoiq c+uoq uo +qv cv+uoq cvo upov+o utvocvou q
uv+txctcvou o+qv tocu cvo utvocvou q uv+txctcvou uxoq uov+o,
ucicucpuvct +q ouvu+o+q+u +q p(q xut +q ctluoq ou oc+l(c+ut
cou c uu+qv , ucyxiul(ov+u +ov vou uo +o otupxc upov +uv
cctptxuv ycyovo+uv, oqiuoq +uv uouvcuv xut c+uuiiocvuv
cv+uuocuv u. 0u pcct c(iiou vu upu+qpqoouc o+t ot cotqoct u,
o+o c+po ou c(up+uv+ut uo +t c(ct u, ocv clvut oiuootoiou uuulpc+c,
uo q oq, ou cxoiu otuto+uvct xuqcptv o xucvu, uv+uoxplvc+ut
ouvqu o+t pooooxlc u:

Eou, iotov, upct cvu cloo poxuoptocvq upovlu (< >C= B \?8{
8WA<;>WY8= Y<?DBCg) uvcou o+qv opclu +q oq xut o+q otuooq +uv tocuv
u xut oiovo+t ot ouvct ou xucpvov +qv pu+q clvut cv+ciu
yvuo+c, cv+o+ot ot oxcct xut ot ouiiqct u uxoiouov, ou
otuto+uvouc, +u iiu cpyu +q oq
149
.

0 oxc+txtoo +ou Bume clvut uxpulo xut cocvu uotc(ooo u
po +o cupq+txo +ou oxcio: uoppl+ct pq+ +ooo +q ouvu+o+q+u +ou ioyou
vu ccituoct uuyuytx +q tioootxq xut cto+qovtxq cuto+q+u, ooo xut
+q ouvu+o+q+u +q uloqoq vu uo+cicoct +qv uc+qplu tu ctpuu+txq

149
Bume B., nC qCh:>?g @BC@8?C>C9 :D<C kC=8?WA<C=>C9, S, 2, 21, o. 129. B poxuoptocvq
upovlu o+qv oolu uvucpc+ut cou o Bume ocv pcct vu ouycc+ut c +qv cvvotu +q
poxuoptocvq upovlu (Y<?DBC>8 \?XXA<;>8) ou ctoyct o einiz. 2c uv+lcoq c +q
oc+cpq, q pu+q o+cpcl+ut ootouoqo+c c+uuotxo ccilou q ucpu+txq cyyqoq.
Uu xut q tocu +q uvuyxulu ovocoq, q tocu +q poxuoptocvq upovlu clvut, o+ov
Bume, poov uoxicto+tx xut ovo +q HI12: B c(q (@:WABD) clvut cxclvq q upq, c +qv oolu
ouv+cicl+ut uu+o o upuiiqitoo |uvcou o+qv opclu +q oq xut o+qv uxoioulu +uv
tocuv uj, $JMJ. 2q.: Itu +q c+puoq +uv opuv \?8{8WA<;>WY8= Y<?DBCgY<?DBC>8
\?XXA<;>8, utoc+oc, ytu +qv uouyq ouyocuv, +qv xutcpucvq uooooq o+q oypovq
ciiqvoyiuooq tioootxq ypuu+clu: poxuoptocvq upovlu (i. .. uytovu Auy.,
(G*/*[P" /)*# x}
*
"(Q#", 0coouiovlxq, AB0, 198S, o. 19S einiz u. W., N,)"[-/(+3
tK"'0"),P"V>W@B:?W =8 DXA<\YgW>h:8, Etouyuyq B. Kuxq, o. 21 tvt+ Ix. .,
N*#"4*G*'P", Etouyuyq A. Avuoit+vou, o. 27). i. uo+ooo +qv uxptco+cpq uooooq +ou
I. uxou: pootu+c+uycvq upovlu, einiz u. W., e< aBC<=B;B9>8 N*#"4*G*'P",
Etouyuyq, o. 27.
S2
tiooolu ou uol(ct +u oucpou+ +q c(oioxiqpou o+qv cuyuyq
1Su
.
2qctuvct c+ot +o +uu+opovo +cio +uv oo cyiuv uv+lc+uv pcu+uv +q
xiuotxq cupq+txq tiooolu: +ou opoioytoo xut +ou cctptoo, +uv
ooluv ot uotxc ov+oioytxc xut yvuotoioytxc poxclcvc u
uv+tc+ul(ov+ut o+o c(q c +q cyui+cpq ouvu+q ctiu(q. 0 loto uu+o
oxc+txtoo ou clvut c+ptouq xut xuqouuo+txo u po +qv
pux+txq +ou oto+uoq, q oolu opcl vu uo+cicoct uv+txclcvo uu+o+cio
cupqoq: B colqoq ocv uvucvct xulu votoolqoq pocpocvq uo
+ov ioyo uv+icl +q ovuq +q uo +qv +oq +q (uq
1S1
. cvvotu +q
colqoq ou ctoyct o Bume o+qv tK"'0"),P" clvut cu c(upq
poouvu+oitocvq ot o+q yvuoq (+q cuto+q+u +q oolu uoxiclct), uii
o+qv p(q (+q ouvu+o+q+u +q oolu otuou(ct). Ao +qv oq uu+q, o
oxc+txtoo +ou Bume u pcct vu cupqcl u +o oquv+txo+cpo vcu+cptxo
upoctyu tu xu+c(oqv pux+txq tiooolu.












1Su
Au+q q oxc+txto+txq utoilu oc o,+t uop +ooo +ov ioyo ooo xut +t utoqoct (BAY
>AY ?8W\8@A AB ?8<WBC <C= AY8 W8CW8W) uo+cicl tu uocvctu ou ocv opcl vu cpucu+cl
pt(tx, uii u uo+pot(ct v+u, ooo xut cv ccl poouoc vu uuiiuyoc uo
uu+qv pP#"( "45#")*# #" -J,K"/J(/)*50, ,P), )1 #$1/1 ,P), )(2 "(/.3/,(2 0"2 /)1K(U$0,#*( /,
*J*(*43J*), /5/)10" ('Tis impossile upon any system to uefenu eitei oui unueistanuin oi
senses), xut xc op ou ctctpoc x+t +c+oto ocv c+uulvouc +lo+c iio uo +o vu +t
uqvouc uxoq cptooo+cpo cx+cctcvc. Eooov q oxc+txto+txq utoilu pox+ct c
uotxo +poo uo cvuv u xut cv+ovo uvuo+ouoo vu oc uu+ +u (q+qu+u, ocv opcl
up vu cvtoc+ut ooo cptooo+cpo poupoc o+ou uvuo+ouoo u, cl+c uu+ol
uooxoov o+qv c(ictq +q cl+c o+q otxutoioyqoq +q, Xtou +., tK"'0"),P", , 4, 2, +p.
. Boupvpq, o. S92. B uoyptoq clvut otxq u.
1S1
Naleie N., e< \Y>;BWB\Y>8 8D\>?>WA8 =8 V<_>= :D8, o. 21S.
SS

f+f-+,'/$1+$

+> "--2(,'-)**2

lessio F., /)*KP" )12 ,$),K12 (G*/*[P"2, c+puoq 0. 0utooiou,
cto+qovtxq ctcictu 2. oupvpo, Aqvu, puuio, 2u12.
Beikeley u., tK"'0"),P" JL#% /)(2 "KOH2 )12 "#.KQJ(#12 '#Q/12, c+puoq
A. . 2cvoovq, 0coouiovlxq, Kuvo+uv+tvloq, ..
ottinam ., (G*/*[P" )12 ,J(/)3012b d F( *K.*G*'(/)H2, c+puoq
2. oop+q, Aqvu, Boi+poov, 2uuS.
Bescaites R., !"#$#,2 '(" )1# +".*43'1/1 )*- J#,50")*2789:;<8 <=
=>?8@A>BC8D >C98C>>, iu+tvtxo xclcvo c c+puoq xut ooitu I. Aupotu+q,
ctouyuyq . Auyciq, 0coouiovlxq, Eyvu+lu, 1974.
T$'*2 J,KP )12 0,.$4*- '(" )1# +"G3 +".*43'1/1 )*- G*'(+*5 0"2 +"( )1#
"#"U3)1/1 )12 "G3.,("2 /)(2 ,J(/)30,2, ctouyuyq - c+puoq - oqctuoct
Xp. Xpqo+loq, 2
q
uvucupqcvq cxo., Aqvu, Buu(qoq, 1976.
Z)*O"/0*P J,KP )12 JKQ)12 [(G*/*[P"2, c+puoq - oqctuoct - ooitu
Eu. uv+upxq, Aqvu, Exxpcc, 2uuS.
6789:;<8 <= =>?8@A>BC8D >C98C>>E !"#$#,2 '(" )*# +"),-.-/0$ )12 '#%/)(+32
45#"012, olyiuooq cxo., poioyo, ctouyuyq, c+puoq 0. Bcvoiloq,
Aqvu, Kp+cpo, 2u11.
F( KOH2 )12 [(G*/*[P"2 , ctouyuyq, c+puoq, ooituoo
. Ipqyopooiou, Aqvu, Exxpcc, 2u12.
Foucault N., F( GHI,(2 +"( )" JKL'0")"M N(" "KO"(*G*'P" )%# ,J(/)10Q# )*-
"#.KQJ*-, c+puoq K. Buuytupyq, Aqvu, Ivuoq, 1986.
Kuioq ., einiz: o+otclu c+uuotxq, o+o Kuioq . (ct.), !,P0,#"
,Q),K12 +"( Z5'OK*#12 (G*/*[P"2, B+pu, EAB, 2uu8, o. 79-1u9.
enny . (ct.), /)*KP" )12 -)(+32 (G*/*[P"2, c+puoq A. tooxq, Aqvu,
cciq, 2uuS.
einiz u. W., N,)"[-/(+3 tK"'0"),P"V>W@B:?W =8 DXA<\YgW>h:8, ctouyuyq -
c+puoq - ooitu B. Kuxq, 0coouiovlxq, vtu, ..
S4
e< aBC<=B;B9>8 N*#"4*G*'P", olyiuooq cxoooq, ctouyuyq I. uxo,
c+puoq 2+. u(uploq, 0coouiovlxq, Ycpluv, 1997.
N*#"4*G*'P", c+puoq 2+. u(uploq, ctouyuyq - ctcictu
A. Avuoit+vo, olyiuooq cxoooq, Aqvu, Exxpcc, 2uu6.
ocke ., *+P0(* '(" )1# "#.KQJ(#1 #$1/1, ctcictu K. c+ptvo, c+puoq
Ip. tovq, Aqvu, Avuyvuo+loq, ..
osee ., (G*/*[P" )12 pJ(/)3012M N(" (/)*K(+3 ,(/"'%'3, c+puoq -
ctcictu 0. . Xpqo+loq, 0coouiovlxq, vtu, 1991.
cvtc Z.-., /)*KP" )12 ,%),K(+32 +"( Z5'OK*#12 (G*/*[P"2M -/(*'#%0P,2
+"( HK'", c+puoq K. Buuytupyq, 2
q
cxo., Aqvu, Kuo+uvtu+q, 2uu1.
Bu+qvtu+q ., c+uv xut cu+uvtoo o+qv Eupuq +ou 18
ou
utuvu, o+o
Kuioq . (ct.), !,P0,#" /)*KP"2 +"( (G*/*[P"2 )%# pJ(/)10Q#, B+pu,
EAB, 2uu8, o. S9-S4.
Biyycoq I., ,$),K1 p-K%J"+3 (G*/*[P"M (G*/*[(+$2 G$'*2b +K()(+3 )12
.K1/+,P"2 +"( (4,*G*'P", Aqvu, Kpt+txq, 2uu9.
2tvo(u, .(+3, c+puoq Eu. uv+upxq, ctouyuyq . Ipqyopooiou,
Aqvu, Exxpcc, 2uu9.
Woolouse R. S., (G*/*[P" )12 ,J(/)3012b d F( ,0J,(K(/)H2, c+puoq
2. oop+q, Aqvu, Boi+poov, 2uuS.
Xtou +., tK"'0"),P" '(" )1# #.KQJ(#1 5/1d J$J,(K" p(/"'%'32 )12
t,(K"0")(+32 N,.$4*- Z-GG*'(/0*5 /)" .(+L H0")"M (GP* d (" )1 $1/1,
ctouyuyq - c+puoq . Boupvpq, Aqvu, Bu+xq, 2uuS.
!,P0,#" "-)*(*'K"[(+Lb '#%/(*G*'(+Lb 1.(+L, c+puoq . Boupvpq -
X. q+oooiou, ctouyuyq - ctcictu . Boupvpq, Aqvu, Exxpcc, 2uu6.


++> g"(,'-)**2

iistote, e< \YgW>h:8, intiouuction ue . oulouaiitsis, tiauuction ue . Steens,
Paiis, viin, 1999.
Belaal Y., e8>C> @?>A>h:8 =8 V8W@<?A8W, Paiis, uallimaiu, 196u.
A:=8W ;8>C>>8CC8WM V8 e8>C> o 898;, Paiis, uallimaiu, 1976.
SS
e8>C> =8 ;^f98 @;<WW>h:8 <:` e:D>j?8WM e8@A:?8W ;8>C>>8CC8W, pisentes pai
N. Ficant, Paiis, Beaucesne, 199S.
Beyssaue .-N., e< \Y>;BWB\Y>8 \?8D>j?8 =8 V8W@<?A8WM e8 A8D\W 8A ;< @BYX?8C@8 =8
;< DXA<\YgW>h:8, Paiis, Flammaiion, 1979.
A:=8W W:? V8W@<?A8WM e^Y>WAB>?8 =^:C 8W\?>A, Paiis, Seuil, 2uu1.
Blay N., e8W ?<>WBCW =8 ;^>C>C>M V: DBC=8 @;BW o ;^:C>_8?W D<AYXD<A>h:8, Paiis,
uallimaiu, 199S.
e8W li?>C@>\><m =8 8ABC, Paiis, Piesses nieisitaiies ue Fiance, 199S.
Boueiesse R., ]\>CB< 8A e8>C>M e^>=X8 =^<C>D>WD8 :C>_8?W8;, Paiis, viin, 1992.
Biaami F., cCA?B=:@A>BC <: Tiait ue la natuie umaine =8 V<_>= :D8, Paiis,
Piesses nieisitaiies ue Fiance, 2uuS.
Biiei E., >WAB>?8 =8 ;< \Y>;BWB\Y>8 cc cc
8
{ccc
8
W>j@;8W, uition ieue et mise
joui pai P.-N. Scul et .-. eioy, Paiis, Piesses nieisitaiies ue Fiance,
2uuu.
Buzon F. ue, aiiauu v., V8W@<?A8W 8A ;8W li?>C@>\><m ccM rB?\W 8A DB:_8D8CA, Paiis,
Piesses nieisitaiies ue Fiance, 1994.
aiiauu v., r<:W< W>_8 ?<A>BM e< ?<>WBC =8 ;< @<:W8b =8 ]:<?8 o e8>C>, Paiis,
Piesses nieisitaiies ue Fiance, 2uu2.
lio .-P., Saltel P. (uii.), e8@A:?8W =8 :D8, Paiis, Ellipses, 2uu9.
ouitine .-F., ]:<?8 8A ;8 WgWAjD8 =8 ;< DXA<\YgW>h:8, Paiis, Piesses
nieisitaiies ue Fiance, 199u.
outuiat ., e< ;B9>h:8 =8 e8>C>d =^<\?jW =8W =B@:D8CAW >CX=>AW w=M xx~, Paiis,
Bacette, 2u1S.
Beleuze u., qD\>?>WD8 8A W:8@A>_>AXM qWW<> W:? ;< C<A:?8 Y:D<>C8 W8;BC :D8,
4
e
u., Paiis, Piesses nieisitaiies ue Fiance, 1988.
e8 \;>M e8>C> 8A ;8 <?Bh:8, Paiis, es Euitions ue Ninuit, 1988.
Bescaites, v:_?8W \Y>;BWB\Y>h:8W, textes talis, pisents et annots pai
F. lui, Paiis, uainiei, 1988-1992, S ol. |ol. : 1618-16S7 ol. : 16S8-
1642 ol. : 164S-16Suj.
V>W@B:?W =8 ;< DXAYB=8, texte et commentaiie pai E. uilson, 6
e
u., Paiis, viin,
1987.
S6
a8=>A<A>BC8W =8 \?>D< \Y>;BWB\Y><aX=>A<A>BCW =8 \Y>;BWB\Y>8 \?8D>j?8,
pisentation et tiauuction ue Nicelle Beyssaue, Paiis, iiaiiie uniale
Fianaise, 199u.
7j9;8W \B:? ;< =>?8@A>BC =8 ;^8W\?>A, tiauuction et notes pai . Biunscwi,
piface, uossiei et lossaiie pai . S. n-van-un, Paiis, iiaiiie uniale
Fianaise, 2uu2.
Beillaiis ., V8W@<?A8Wb e8>C>M e8W _X?>AXW XA8?C8;;8W, Paiis, Piesses nieisitaiies
ue Fiance, 1998.
Buouclez ., V8W@<?A8W 8A ;< _B>8 =8 ;^<C<;gW8, Paiis, Piesses nieisitaiies ue
Fiance, 2u1S.
Ficant N., ]@>8C@8 8A DXA<\YgW>h:8 =<CW V8W@<?A8W 8A e8>C>, Paiis, Piesses
nieisitaiies ue Fiance, 1998.
uaiei B., V8W@<?A8W^ a8A<\YgW>@<; iYgW>@W, icao anu onuon, Te nieisity of
icao Piess, 1992.
V8W@<?A8W 8DB=>8=d ?8<=>C9 r<?A8W><C \Y>;BWB\Yg AY?B:9Y r<?A8W><C ]@>8C@8,
amiiue, , amiiue nieisity Piess, 2uu1.
Notion anu Netapysics in te Youn einiz, >C Bookei N. (eu.), e8>C>M
r?>A>@<; <C= cCA8?\?8A>_8 qWW<gW, Nancestei, Nancestei nieisity Piess,
1982, p. 16u-184.
uilson E., cC=8` ]@B;<WA>@B{r<?AXW>8C, 2
e
u., Paiis, viin, 1979.
uueioult N., V8W@<?A8W W8;BC ;^B?=?8 =8W ?<>WBCW, Paiis, uiei, 1968, 2 ol. |ol. :
e^fD8 8A V>8: ol. : e^fD8 8A ;8 @B?\Wj.
e8>C>M VgC<D>h:8 8A DXA<\YgW>h:8, Paiis, uiei Nontaine, 1977.
Bume B., n u?8<A>W8 B :D<C <A:?8, Euiteu, wit an nalytical nuex, y . .
Sely-Bie, 2
nu
euition wit text ieiseu anu aiiant ieauins y P. B.
Niuuitc, xfoiu, New Yoik, xfoiu nieisity Piess, 1978.
e^8CA8C=8D8CAM u?<>AX =8 ;< C<A:?8 Y:D<>C8M e>_?8 c 8A n\\8C=>@8, tiauuction
inuite pai P. Baianei et P. Saltel, pisentation, notes, inuex, ilioiapie
et cionoloie pai P. Saltel, Paiis, uF-Flammaiion, 199S.
nC qCh:>?g @BC@8?C>C9 :D<C kC=8?WA<C=>C9, euiteu y T. . Beaucamp,
xfoiu, New Yoik, xfoiu nieisity Piess, 1999.
amoucnei B., e8W aX=>A<A>BCW DXA<\YgW>h:8W =8 V8W@<?A8W cd cCA?B=:@A>BC
9XCX?<;8b i?8D>j?8 aX=>A<A>BC, Paiis, Piesses nieisitaiies ue Fiance, 2uuS.
S7
olesnik-ntoine B., s:^8WA{@8 h:^A?8 @<?AXW>8C, piface ue Benis amoucnei,
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oyi ., ?BD AY8 r;BW8= B?;= AB AY8 cC>C>A8 kC>_8?W8, Baltimoie, on Bopkins
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A:=8W C8ABC>8CC8W, aeitissement u'Yon Belaal, Paiis, uallimaiu, 1968.
A:=8W 9<;>;X8CC8W, Paiis, Beimann, 2uu1 |1
eie
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apoite ., e8 ?<A>BC<;>WD8 =8 V8W@<?A8W, 4
e
u., Paiis, Piesses nieisitaiies ue
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ecouit B., e< \Y>;BWB\Y>8 =8W W@>8C@8W, 2
e
u., Paiis, Piesses nieisitaiies ue
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(uii.), V>@A>BCC<>?8 =^Y>WAB>?8 8A \Y>;BWB\Y>8 =8W W@>8C@8W, Paiis, Piesses
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einiz u. W., qWW<>W =8 uYXB=>@X8 W:? ;< BCAX =8 V>8:b ;< ;>8?AX =8 ;^YBDD8 8A
;^B?>9>C8 =: D<;, cionoloie et intiouuction pai . Biunscwi, Paiis, uF-
Flammaiion, 1969.
]gWAjD8 CB:_8<: =8 ;< C<A:?8 8A =8 ;< @BDD:C>@<A>BC =8W W:WA<C@8Wb 8A <:A?8W
A8`A8W xy{x}|, pisentation et notes ue . Fimont, Paiis, uF-Flammaiion,
1994.
i?>C@>\8W =8 ;< C<A:?8 8A =8 ;< 9?f@8b aBC<=B;B9>8b 8A <:A?8W A8`A8W wx}|{x}xy~,
pisentation et notes ue . Fimont, Paiis, uF-Flammaiion, 1996.
\:W@:;8W \Y>;BWB\Y>h:8W @YB>W>W, texte latin tali et tiauuit pai P. Scieckei,
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ocke ., nC qWW<g @BC@8?C>C9 :D<C kC=8?WA<C=>C9, euiteu wit a foiwaiu y
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Naleie N., e< \Y>;BWB\Y>8 8D\>?>WA8 =8 V<_>= :D8, 4
e
u. coiiie, Paiis, viin,
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Naiion .-., s:8WA>BCW @<?AXW>8CC8WM aXAYB=8 8A DXA<\YgW>h:8b Paiis, Piesses
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]:? ;^BCAB;B9>8 9?>W8 =8 V8W@<?A8WM ]@>8C@8 @<?AXW>8CC8 8A W<_B>? <?>WABAX;>@>8C
=<CW ;8W Reulae, 4
e
u. ieue et aumente, Paiis, viin, 2uuu.
S8
Newton ., uY8 PiincipiaM a<AY8D<A>@<; i?>C@>\;8W B <A:?<; iY>;BWB\Yg, new
tianslation y . Beinaiu oen anu . Witman, pieceueu y a uuiue to
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iY>;BWB\Y>@<; ?>A>C9W, euiteu y . aniak, amiiue, , amiiue
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Rosmoiuuc ., kC8 Y>WAB>?8 =8 ;< \YgW>h:8 8A =8 ;< @Y>D>8, Paiis, Seuil, 198S.
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van Bune W. (eu.), uY8 q<?;g qC;>9YA8CD8CA >C AY8 V:A@Y 78\:;>@ xy{x},
eiuen, Biill, 2uuS.


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