Human Relationships Option 14/08/2013 9:02:00 PM

To what extent to biological, cognitive & sociocultural factors

influence human relationships?
BIO
Evolution
Hormones & Neurotransmission
Marazitti et al (1999) role of serotonin. Low in OCD, new love
(6 months).
Wedekind (1995) MHC gene in mate selection. Shirt sniffing.
Capgras Syndrome
COG
Markey et al (2007) describe ideal partner & self
Chen & Anderson (1999) transference describe liked and unliked
significant other. Meet new person w/ rigged description transfer
SOCIO
Festinger (1950) proximity MIT college students survey
Zajonc (1971) familiarity shown photos & rate

Distinguish between altruism & prosocial behaviour
Altruism: behaviour that benefits others or has positive social
consequences
Empathy altruism see empathy aroused help (feel good)
Neg-state relief see feel neg. affect help to relieve
Empathic joy see desire to act/pos effect on victim help
Genetic determinism see unconscious desire to help similar genes
help to maximize chances of survival

Prosocial: benefits another person, sometimes at a cost (unclear)

Contrast 2 theories explaining altruism in humans
KIN
Simmons et al (1977) kidney donors (parents and siblings), and
recipient to rate relationship with donors/non-donors.
Madsen et al (2007) UK & South Africa sitting against wall (40p 20
seconds, or food). Africa didnt distinguish between cousins &
biologically close.
Empathy-Altruism
Batson et al (1981) Elaine number recall & shocks. Description
high/low empathy. Given easy/hard escape. High emp help. Low
emp easy escape.
Toi & Batson (1982) Carol recording, broke legs. High/low empathy
(feelings or information focus). Easy/hard escape (Carol stuck at
home or back next week). Given opportunity to help high emp
more likely.

Explain cross-cultural differences in prosocial behaviour
Whiting & Whiting (1975) 6 countries (US, Japan, India, Kenya,
Philippines, Mexico), 3-11yrs children observed helping behaviour.
Kenya, Philippines & Mexico most, USA least. Factor chores.
Miller et al (1990) role of cultural norms and moral values in
perceived social responsibility. 400 interviews USA, Hindus
parent/child, friend/friend, person/stranger. Life threatening,
moderate, minor. Hindus moral duty for all. US social
responsibility as personal choice.
Levine et al (2001) 36 US cities, 23 world cities. Helpfulness.
Dropped pen, magazine w/ broken leg, blind person crossing, remailing
letter.
o US - small/med SE cities most helpful. Large NE cities least.
o Global blind person Rio de Janeiro, San Jose, Lilongwe,
Madrid & Prague every time. Kuala Lumpur & Bangkok . NYC
1/3
o Highest 2 Rio & San Jose
o Against simpatico hypothesis fast Copenhagen & Vienna =
kind. Kuala Lumpur = not kind.

Factors influencing bystanderism
Latane & Darley (1970) Theory of Unresponsive Bystander
Diffusion of responsibility
Pluralistic Ignorance
Evaluation Apprehension
Latane & Darley (1968) Cognitive Decision Model (if one is unmet, no
help)
Notice situation
Interpret it as an emergency
Accept some responsibility for helping even if others present
Consider how to help
Decide how to help
Diffusion
Latane & Darley (1968) 59 females, 13 males. Discussed problems
new college students could have via microphone in single booths.
Confederate staged seizure. IV number told bystanders. DV time.
Alone 85% reported, 4 bystanders, 31% reported. Excuses didnt
know what to do, what was happening, fake.
Pluralistic Ignorance
Latane & Darley (1969) sat in waiting room before experiment.
Experimenter fell and cried from next room. Some confederates didnt
react. Reacted quicker when alone, not next to confederate. Felt
anxious at scream, but others calm, so didnt react.
Cognitive Arousal Cost Reward Model
Pilliavin et al (1960) Subway Samaritan IVs (type drunk/sober,
race black/white, helping models yes/no, size witness group). DVs
(frequency & speed of help, race & sex of helper, comments). NYC
Subway 11am-3pm. Victims (3 white, 1 black). Collapsed. Model
instruction after 70s. 93% helped spontaneously, 60% more than 1
helper.

Biological, psychological and social origins of attraction
BIO
Neurobiology Fisher et al (2003) blood flow in brains (fMRI) of 20
men and women madly in love. Questionnaire rate love and
statement. Look at photos of loved one distraction neutral. Brain
reward system activated when looking at loved one.
Genes Wedekind (1995) 49 men, 44 women. Body odour plays a
role in attraction MHC genes related to immune system protect
against pathogens. Women prefer men with unlike MHC genes.
Pregnant mice prefer similar.
PSYCHOLOGICAL
Newcomb (1961) field study, student dorm to see if friendship
formation was influenced by attitudes/values. 17 male students.
Questionnaires similar attitudes became friends.
Markey et al (2007) 103 female, 66 male undergrads (m. age = 19).
Questionnaire rating their personality. Described personality ideal
romantic partner. Filler questions. All wanted similar partner. Follow
up study high love/harmony more typical when different in ways.
SOCIAL
Festinger et al (1950) MIT students proximity 3 close friends survey.
Closer room = more likely to be close or best friends. 65% same
building, 41% next door, 22% 2 doors, 10% same hall.
Zajonc (1971) Familiarity shown pictures of strangers and rated.
Shown more often higher rating.

Discuss the role of communication in maintaining relationships.
Attributions
Fletcher et al (1987) to see if patterns in attribution related to
relationship satisfaction factors (happiness, love, commitment). USA
undergrads. Questionnaires. 2 months later, those still in relationship
questionnaire & free-response description of relationship. High
satisfaction higher dispositional attribution (positive), neg.
behaviour (situational).
Bradbury and Fincham (1990) meta-analysis happy spouses =
focus on positive behaviour as part of their character (dispositional),
negative (situational). Unhappy spouses = opposite.
Communication
Levenson & Gottman (1983) 30 couples observed having a low
conflict discussion and high conflict discussion. Marital dissatisfaction
high levels expressed negative emotion and return of. Physiological
measure taken. Same for unhappy couples (stress response)
Gottman & Krokoff (1989) compared 2 longitudinal observations of
couples in low/high conflict at home/lab. Only negative sign if it
couldnt be resolved. Anger/disagreement not associated with
dissatisfaction over time. If solved more satisfied. Avoiding conflict
less satisfied.

Role of culture in formation & maintenance of relationships
FORMATION
Goodwin (1995) passionate love is a Western phenomenon.
Marriage culmination of loving relationship. Opposite for arranged.
Gupta & Singh (1992) Indian marriages for love decreased love in
5 years. Arranged increased.
Dion & Dion (1993) traditional societies marriage is an alliance
between 2 families. USA companionship between 2 people in love,
not for children or economic/social support.
Buss (1994) 2 questionnaires, 10,000 people, 37 cultures.
36/37 women ranked financial prospects higher than men
All men want younger, women want older
23/37 males rate chastity more important
Love rank USA (1), Iran (3), Nigeria (4), China (6)
education, health, ambition, chastity, domestic skills high
MAINTENANCE
Matsumoto (2004) Americans marry who they love, not love who
they marry.

Why relationships change or end
EQUITY & SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORIES
Kelley & Thibaut (1959) Social Exchange Theory maintained
through cost-benefit analysis.
Hatfield (1979) 2000 couples. Deprived, under benefited
extramarital sex quicker and more than fairly treated.
Clark & Mills (1979) romantic relationships based on sharing &
belonging, not equity principles. Individuals interpreted partners
tendency to reciprocate as not wanting romantic relationship.
ATTACHMENT STYLES
Tidwell, Reis & Shaver (1996) less intimacy and enjoyment in
interacting with current/potential romantic partners.
Lopez et al (1997) seeks closeness, but experiences anxiety/shame
because feel unworthy
Simpson (1996) tested role of attachment style by how a sensitive
topic was discussed. Questionnaire to identify. Discussion. Insecurely
attached (preoccupied) anxious and negative strategies negative
feelings, harmed relationship. Secure most constructive resolution.
STUDIES
Flora & Segrin (2003) investigate how shared interests and spending
time together was a predictor of relationship quality. Married vs.
dating. Interview on emotional. Break up most important predictor
was common interests and activities. Staying together quantity of
negative feelings. Women frequency own negative feelings (break-
up)
Duck (1992) meta-analysis to predict end of relationship divorced
parents, teen marriages, different backgrounds, lower socio-economic,
many previous sexual partners.



Evaluate sociocultural explanations of the origins of violence
Social Learning Theory (SLT)
Bandura (1961) Bobo doll watch aggression imitated aggression
Totten (2003) Canadian study on girlfriend abuse. Use violence to
construct masculinity after observing in family as justified and
necessary. 30 boys, all used physical and sexual violence against
girlfriends if they didnt behave, to control & maintain honour.
Subcultures of Violence Theory
Wolfgang & Ferracuti (1967) Theory violent values violent
behaviour because subcultural values act as form of social control. To
defend, maintain honour/status.
Berburg & Thorlindson (2005) Iceland survey, 49 public schools,
adolescents. How often engaged in violent acts. Large impact of
conduct norms on aggressive behaviour many conformed to group
norms. Pressure to respond to personal attacks w/ aggression = social
control.
Deindividuation Theory
Zimbardo (1969) female undergrads to shock another student. Half
wore coats & hoods, no name tag. Other half normal clothes, name
tags, introduced, could see each other. Told something about
participant (e.g. honest, critical). Hooded 2x shocks, didnt vary on
description. Normal related shock to description. Obscured identity
decreased consciousness/accountability

Discuss relative effectiveness of 2 strategies for reducing violence
Group Treatment (Duluth)
Robertson (1999) 3 problems treating violent men culture/society
accept violent behaviour, worked in the past/positively reinforced,
unwilling to submit to therapist
Shephard (1992) recidivism rates 5yrs post Duluth intervention
40% convicted of assault or police attention.
Dutton et al (1997) recidivism higher than stats because abuse is
covert. Certain personality traits & substance abuse good indicators.
Primary Prevention in Schools
Olweus Bullying Prevention Program
Olweus (1993) Norway 2500 kids, yrs 5-8. Observations &
questionnaires to students/teachers. Teachers trained,
supervised lunch & play etc. 50% reduction in bullying incidents.
Improved satisfaction, order, discipline etc. Replication lower.
Metropolitan Area Child Study (MACS) for Preention of Aggressive
Behaviour and Violence in Children
MACS Research Group (2002) - 2200 elementary students, USA.
Intervention 8 years. Mainly ethnic minority groups, poor. 4
conditions control, full, only classroom, classroom and social
skills training for high risk children. No effect on aggression
overall, impact on subgroups. Full, low risk school less
aggression compared to control. Most effective in full.
Ferguson et al (2007) meta-analysis school absed programs.
Ineffective overall in reducing bullying/violence. Due to rewards?

Discuss effects of short-term & long-term exposure to violence
SHORT
Shalev (1995) 12 survivors, PTSD, Israeli bus attack. Interviewed
after, and 10 months after. First intrusive, fear, no avoidance
coping. Second decreased intrusive, large avoidance coping PTSD
Schuster et al (2001) reaction to 9/11. Telephone interviews, 560
adults. Indirect exposure stress. 90% small, 68% moderate, 44%
very. NYC worst. 44% anticipated attacks next 5 years. Correlated
with TV viewing.
LONG
Wang et al (2010) depression fro cyber bulling greater than FTF
Carney and Hazler (2007) cortisol levels in saliva tested morning &
before recess. Anticipation bullying high levels cortisol and anxiety.
Long term exposure low cortisol.
Mynard et al (2000) Victim scale questionnaire given to British
pupils (331). 40% experienced bullying (physical, verbal, exclusion,
property damage). Social exclusion more likely PTSD.

Abnormal Option 14/08/2013 9:02:00 PM

Discuss validity & reliability of diagnosis
RELIABILITY
Inter-Rater
Low Nicholls et al (2000) DSM (.36), ICD (.63), GOS (.87)
child eating disorders
Low Cooper et al (1972) NYC 2x likely to diagnose
schizophrenia. London 2x mania/depression. Same video.
High Pedersen et al (2001) Danish GPs use ICD-10. 0.71
reliability depression.
Test-Retest
Lipton & Simon (1985) NYC hospital rediagnosed. Original 89
schizo 16 re-eval. 15 mood 50
Mary Seeman (2007) schizophrenia diagnosis open to change
due to symptoms being misdiagnosed problem of test-retest
VALIDITY
Rosenhan (1973) 1- 8 healthy people getting into psych hospital
Rosenhan (1973) 2 told staff pseudo-patients would come. 41 real

Discuss cultural and ethical concerns in diagnosis
Ethical
Correct Diagnosis Rosenhan
Stigmatization
Read (2007) people fear dangerousness and unpredictability of
diagnosed. Reluctant to enter romantic relationship.
Sato et al (2006) Japan renamed schizo. 40% never informed.
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Doherty (1975) reject label, improve quicker
Discrimination
Langer and Abelson (1974) job experience video. Told
applicant v patient.
Racial Bias
Jenkins-Hall & Sacco (1991) European American therapists vs
African American depressed/not depressed and European
American depressed/not depressed.
Confirmation Bias
Rosenhan (1973) trouble getting out.
Cultural
Ballanger et al (2001) variations culturally dont reflect
social/medical reality factors of diagnosis, lack of appropriate
instruments.
Culture bound syndromes
Zhang et al (1998) 16 of 20,000 reported mood disorder.
Tseng and Hsu (1970) Chinese concerned with body
manifest neurasthenic symptoms similar to physical depression
Kleinmen (1982) Similar to depression in DSM-III. 87%
classifiable as depressed. Mood only given 9% cases. Somatic.
Cultural Bias
Beck (1982) minority group shows same symptoms as white
same disorder, may not be true.

Describe symptoms and prevalence (depression & bulimia)
Depression
Poongothai et al (2009) Chennai South India, 15.9 prevalence.
Patient Health Questionnaire. Depressed mood (30.8%), fatigue
(30%), suicidal thoughts (12%)
Weisman et al (1996) 19% Beirut, 1.5% Taiwan
Levav (1997) increase in Jewish males
Bulimia
Drewnowski et al (1988) telephone survey, USA studets. 1%
women, 0.2% men. 2.2% undergrad women on campus.
Keel & Klump (2003) meta analysis. Increase 1970-1993

Analyse etiologies of depression & bulimia
Depression
Hammen (1997) 4 biological reasons families, meds start/stop,
physical symptoms.
Hagen et al (2004) evolutionary perspective to signal need and
elicit help
Genetics
Sullivan et al (2000) meta-analysis. 21,000 twins. MZ 2x
likely if co-twin had disorder. Genetic influence 31-42%
Neurobiological
Rampello et al (2000) imbalance of noradrenaline, serotonin,
dopamine, acetylcholine
Lacasse & Leo (2005) no finite evidence neurotransmitter role
Cognitive
Ellis (1962) cognitive style theory (psychological disturbances
from irrational thinking false conclusions)
Beck (1976) negative triad Cognitive Distortion Theory
Boury et al (2001) correlation negative automatic thought &
depression severity.
Sociocultural
Brown & Harris (1978) Life Events & Difficulties Scale. 82%
depressed recently experience sever life event. Vulnerability
model.
Bulimia
Genetics
Kendler et al (1991) twins - increase incidence in families.
2163 twins. 23% concordance MZ, 9% DZ
Cognitive
Perceptual Distortions - Fallon and Rozin (1985) shown
images, indicate own shape, ideal figure, most attractive
opposite sex.
Cognitive Disinhibition Polivy and Herman (1985) dieters/non
dieters taste test. Milkshake. Icecream. Dieters ate more.
Sociocultural
Jaeger et al (2002) 1750 med/nursing students. 10
silhouettes, BMI, dieting. Sig dissatisfaction northern
Mediterranean, European. Non western = lowest. Role of media

Discuss cultural/gender variations in prevalence
Depression
GENDER Nolen Hoeksema (2001) women 2x likely men, little
support women more depressed only because of sex hormones,
women have less power/status (sociocultural)/ role strain hypothesis
CULTURE Weissman et al (1996) depression v bipolar in 10
countries. Vary 19% Beiruit, 1.5% Taiwan. Onset age 24-34
Bulimia
GENDER
Makino et al (2004) 11 Western countries. More females.
Currin et al (2005) UK. 94/1000 female, 5/1000
CULTURE
Makino et al (2004) Western prevalence 0.3-7.3%. Non-
western to 3.2%
Jaegar et al (2002) nursing students, silhouettes. West/non.

Biomedical, individual, group approaches to treatment
BIO - Neale et al (2011) anti-depressants v placebo. Anti-
depressants 25% relapse, 42% meds then stopped. Depression.
CBT
Depression - Paykel et al (1999) 158 patients, 1 depression
episode. 29% relapse in CBT group effective as well as meds.
Bulimia Wilson (1996) 55% CBT didnt purge after therapy,
and those who did, did so less (86% reduction)
IPT
Depression - Fairburn et al (1993) less effective than CBT post-
treatment. 1-6yrs follow up equally effective.
Group
Bulimia Proulx (2008) 8 week MBCT intervention. Increased
control of emotional/behaviour extremes.
Depression Kuyken et al (2008) MBCT, meds. Med relapse
60%, MBCT 47%. MBCT 75% off meds, all decreased.
Mutlaq & Chaleby (1995) problems in Arab countries.

Use of biomedical, individual, group treatments in depression
Biomedical
Janowsky et al (1972) stem from imbalance in neurotransmitters.
Drug to decrease noradrenaline depression.
Arrol et al (2005) 12 efficacy studies, SSRIs, tricyclics, placebo.
SSRIs and TCAs more effective than placebo.
Elkin et al (1989) 50% recovered in CBT, IPT, drug groups, 29%
placebo. 280 patients, best controlled.
Individual
Luty et al (2007) IPT and CBT 8-19 sessions in 16 weeks. No
difference in 2 forms. CBT more effective for major depression (57%
response, compared to 20% IPT)
Group
Toseland and Siporin (1986) 74 studies individual v group. Group
effective as individual 75%, more 25%.
MBCT Kuyken et al (2008) MBCT, meds. Med relapse 60%, MBCT
47%. MBCT 75% off meds, all decreased.





Eclectic Treatment
Antidepressants and Cognitive Therapy
DeRubeis CT alone just as effective. Respond in first 8 weeks
compared to drugs. No statistical significant better drugs than CT
(27% v 37%)
Klerman et al (1974) relapse highest for patients in placebo alone
(36%), anti depressants alone (12%), IPT alone (16.7%)
Antidepressants & Chinese Herbal
Liu Jing Geng & Zheng Hong Yue (2002) 11 Chinese herbs,
antidepressants. 41 cured from herbs v 36 from antidepressants. All
showed improvement in herbs, 2 didnt in meds.
8/14/2013 9:02:00 PM