Contents

Articles
Petroleum 1
Petroleum industry 27
List of oil fields 34
List of oilfield service companies 39
World oil market chronology from 2003 42
Oil field 50
Oil well 51
Oil refinery 59
Schlumberger 68
Hydrocarbon exploration 72
Extraction of petroleum 76
References
Article Sources and Contributors 80
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 83
Article Licenses
License 85
Petroleum
1
Petroleum
"Crude Oil" redirects here. For the 2008 film, see Crude Oil (film). For the petroleum spirit referred to in some
locales as "petrol", see Gasoline. For other uses, see Petroleum (disambiguation).
Proven world oil reserves, 2009
Pumpjack pumping an oil well near Lubbock, Texas
An oil refinery in Mina-Al-Ahmadi, Kuwait
Petroleum (L. petroleum, from early
15c. "petroleum, rock oil" (mid-14c. in
Anglo-French), from Medieval Latin
petroleum, from Latin petra rock(see
petrous) + Latin: oleum oil (see oil
(n.)).
[1][2]
) is a naturally occurring,
yellow-to-black liquid found in
geologic formations beneath the
Earth's surface, which is commonly
refined into various types of fuels. It
consists of hydrocarbons of various
molecular weights and other liquid
organic compounds.
[3]
The name
petroleum covers both naturally
occurring unprocessed crude oil and
petroleum products that are made up of
refined crude oil. A fossil fuel,
petroleum is formed when large
quantities of dead organisms, usually
zooplankton and algae, are buried
underneath sedimentary rock and
subjected to intense heat and pressure.
Petroleum is recovered mostly through
oil drilling (natural petroleum springs
are rare). This comes after the studies
of structural geology (at the reservoir
scale), sedimentary basin analysis,
reservoir characterization (mainly in
terms of the porosity and permeability
of geologic reservoir structures). It is
refined and separated, most easily by
distillation, into a large number of
consumer products, from gasoline
(petrol) and kerosene to asphalt and
chemical reagents used to make
plastics and pharmaceuticals.
Petroleum is used in manufacturing a
wide variety of materials, and it is
estimated that the world consumes
about 90 million barrels each day.
Petroleum
2
Natural petroleum spring in Kora, Slovakia
The use of fossil fuels, such as petroleum, has a
negative impact on Earth's biosphere, releasing
pollutants and greenhouse gases into the air and
damaging ecosystems through events such as oil
spills. Concern over the depletion of the earth's
finite reserves of oil, and the effect this would have
on a society dependent on it, is a concept known as
peak oilWikipedia:Citation needed.
Etymology
The word petroleum comes from Greek:
(petra) for rocks and Greek: (elaion) for
oil. The term was found (in the spelling
"petraoleum") in 10th-century Old English
sources.
[4]
It was used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium, published in 1546 by the German mineralogist Georg
Bauer, also known as Georgius Agricola.
[5]
In the 19th century, the term petroleum was frequently used to refer to
mineral oils produced by distillation from mined organic solids such as cannel coal (and later oil shale), and refined
oils produced from them; in the United Kingdom, storage (and later transport) of these oils were regulated by a series
of Petroleum Acts, from the Petroleum Act 1862 onwards.
History
Main article: History of petroleum
Early history
Oil derrick in Okemah, Oklahoma, 1922.
Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times,
and is now important across society, including in economy, politics
and technology. The rise in importance was due to the invention of the
internal combustion engine, the rise in commercial aviation, and the
importance of petroleum to industrial organic chemistry, particularly
the synthesis of plastics, fertilizers, solvents, adhesives and pesticides.
More than 4000 years ago, according to Herodotus and Diodorus
Siculus, asphalt was used in the construction of the walls and towers of
Babylon; there were oil pits near Ardericca (near Babylon), and a pitch
spring on Zacynthus. Great quantities of it were found on the banks of
the river Issus, one of the tributaries of the Euphrates. Ancient Persian
tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the
upper levels of their society. By 347 AD, oil was produced from
bamboo-drilled wells in China.
[6]
Early British explorers to Myanmar
documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in
Yenangyaung, that in 1795 had hundreds of hand-dug wells under
production.
[7]
The mythological origins of the oil fields at
Yenangyaung, and its hereditary monopoly control by 24 families,
indicate very ancient origins.
Petroleum
3
Modern history
In 1847, the process to distill kerosene from petroleum was invented by James Young. He noticed a natural
petroleum seepage in the Riddings colliery at Alfreton, Derbyshire from which he distilled a light thin oil suitable for
use as lamp oil, at the same time obtaining a thicker oil suitable for lubricating machinery. In 1848 Young set up a
small business refining the crude oil.
Young eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which
when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. Young found that by slow distillation he could
obtain a number of useful liquids from it, one of which he named "paraffine oil" because at low temperatures it
congealed into a substance resembling paraffin wax.
The production of these oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October
1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E.W.
Binney & Co. at Bathgate in West Lothian and E. Meldrum & Co. at Glasgow; their works at Bathgate were
completed in 1851 and became the first truly commercial oil-works in the world with the first modern oil refinery,
using oil extracted from locally-mined torbanite, shale, and bituminous coal to manufacture naphtha and lubricating
oils; paraffin for fuel use and solid paraffin were not sold until 1856.
Shale bings near Broxburn, 3 of a total of 19 in
West Lothian
Another early refinery was built by Ignacy ukasiewicz, providing a
cheaper alternative to whale oil. The demand for petroleum as a fuel
for lighting in North America and around the world quickly grew.
[8]
Edwin Drake's 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is popularly
considered the first modern well. Drake's well is probably singled out
because it was drilled, not dug; because it used a steam engine; because
there was a company associated with it; and because it touched off a
major boom.
[9]
However, there was considerable activity before Drake
in various parts of the world in the mid-19th century. A group directed
by Major Alexeyev of the Bakinskii Corps of Mining Engineers
hand-drilled a well in the Baku region in 1848.
[10]
There were
engine-drilled wells in West Virginia in the same year as Drake's
well.
[11]
An early commercial well was hand dug in Poland in 1853, and another in nearby Romania in 1857. At
around the same time the world's first, small, oil refinery was opened at Jaso in Poland, with a larger one opened at
Ploieti in Romania shortly after. Romania is the first country in the world to have had its annual crude oil output
officially recorded in international statistics: 275 tonnes for 1857.
[12][13]
The first commercial oil well in Canada became operational in 1858 at Oil Springs, Ontario (then Canada West).
[14]
Businessman James Miller Williams dug several wells between 1855 and 1858 before discovering a rich reserve of
oil four metres below ground.
[15]
Williams extracted 1.5 million litres of crude oil by 1860, refining much of it into
kerosene lamp oil. William's well became commercially viable a year before Drake's Pennsylvania operation and
could be argued to be the first commercial oil well in North America. The discovery at Oil Springs touched off an oil
boom which brought hundreds of speculators and workers to the area. Advances in drilling continued into 1862
when local driller Shaw reached a depth of 62 metres using the spring-pole drilling method.
[16]
On January 16, 1862,
after an explosion of natural gas Canada's first oil gusher came into production, shooting into the air at a recorded
rate of 3,000 barrels per day.
[17]
By the end of the 19th century the Russian Empire, particularly the Branobel
company in Azerbaijan, had taken the lead in production.
[18]
Access to oil was and still is a major factor in several military conflicts of the twentieth century, including World
War II, during which oil facilities were a major strategic asset and were extensively bombed.
[19]
The German
invasion of the Soviet Union included the goal to capture the Baku oilfields, as it would provide much needed
oil-supplies for the German military which was suffering from blockades.
[20]
Oil exploration in North America
during the early 20th century later led to the US becoming the leading producer by mid-century. As petroleum
Petroleum
4
production in the US peaked during the 1960s, however, the United States was surpassed by Saudi Arabia and the
Soviet Union.
Today, about 90 percent of vehicular fuel needs are met by oil. Petroleum also makes up 40 percent of total energy
consumption in the United States, but is responsible for only 1 percent of electricity generation. Petroleum's worth as
a portable, dense energy source powering the vast majority of vehicles and as the base of many industrial chemicals
makes it one of the world's most important commodities. Viability of the oil commodity is controlled by several key
parameters, number of vehicles in the world competing for fuel, quantity of oil exported to the world market (Export
Land Model), Net Energy Gain (economically useful energy provided minus energy consumed), political stability of
oil exporting nations and ability to defend oil supply lines.
The top three oil producing countries are Russia, Saudi Arabia and the United States. About 80 percent of the world's
readily accessible reserves are located in the Middle East, with 62.5 percent coming from the Arab 5: Saudi Arabia,
UAE, Iraq, Qatar and Kuwait. A large portion of the world's total oil exists as unconventional sources, such as
bitumen in Canada and oil shale in Venezuela. While significant volumes of oil are extracted from oil sands,
particularly in Canada, logistical and technical hurdles remain, as oil extraction requires large amounts of heat and
water, making its net energy content quite low relative to conventional crude oil. Thus, Canada's oil sands are not
expected to provide more than a few million barrels per day in the foreseeable future.
Composition
In its strictest sense, petroleum includes only crude oil, but in common usage it includes all liquid, gaseous, and solid
hydrocarbons. Under surface pressure and temperature conditions, lighter hydrocarbons methane, ethane, propane
and butane occur as gases, while pentane and heavier ones are in the form of liquids or solids. However, in an
underground oil reservoir the proportions of gas, liquid, and solid depend on subsurface conditions and on the phase
diagram of the petroleum mixture.
[21]
An oil well produces predominantly crude oil, with some natural gas dissolved in it. Because the pressure is lower at
the surface than underground, some of the gas will come out of solution and be recovered (or burned) as associated
gas or solution gas. A gas well produces predominantly natural gas. However, because the underground temperature
and pressure are higher than at the surface, the gas may contain heavier hydrocarbons such as pentane, hexane, and
heptane in the gaseous state. At surface conditions these will condense out of the gas to form natural gas condensate,
often shortened to condensate. Condensate resembles petrol in appearance and is similar in composition to some
volatile light crude oils.
The proportion of light hydrocarbons in the petroleum mixture varies greatly among different oil fields, ranging from
as much as 97 percent by weight in the lighter oils to as little as 50 percent in the heavier oils and bitumens.
The hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly alkanes, cycloalkanes and various aromatic hydrocarbons while the other
organic compounds contain nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur, and trace amounts of metals such as iron, nickel, copper and
vanadium. The exact molecular composition varies widely from formation to formation but the proportion of
chemical elements vary over fairly narrow limits as follows:
[22]
Petroleum
5
Most of the world's oils are non-conventional.
Composition by weight
Element Percent range
Carbon 83 to 85%
Hydrogen 10 to 14%
Nitrogen 0.1 to 2%
Oxygen 0.05 to 1.5%
Sulfur 0.05 to 6.0%
Metals < 0.1%
Four different types of hydrocarbon molecules appear in crude oil. The relative percentage of each varies from oil to
oil, determining the properties of each oil.
Composition by weight
Hydrocarbon Average Range
Alkanes (paraffins) 30% 15 to 60%
Naphthenes 49% 30 to 60%
Aromatics 15% 3 to 30%
Asphaltics 6% remainder
Crude oil varies greatly in appearance depending on its composition. It is usually black or dark brown (although it
may be yellowish, reddish, or even greenish). In the reservoir it is usually found in association with natural gas,
which being lighter forms a gas cap over the petroleum, and saline water which, being heavier than most forms of
crude oil, generally sinks beneath it. Crude oil may also be found in semi-solid form mixed with sand and water, as
in the Athabasca oil sands in Canada, where it is usually referred to as crude bitumen. In Canada, bitumen is
considered a sticky, black, tar-like form of crude oil which is so thick and heavy that it must be heated or diluted
before it will flow. Venezuela also has large amounts of oil in the Orinoco oil sands, although the hydrocarbons
Petroleum
6
trapped in them are more fluid than in Canada and are usually called extra heavy oil. These oil sands resources are
called unconventional oil to distinguish them from oil which can be extracted using traditional oil well methods.
Between them, Canada and Venezuela contain an estimated 3.6 trillion barrels (57010
9
m
3
) of bitumen and
extra-heavy oil, about twice the volume of the world's reserves of conventional oil.
Petroleum is used mostly, by volume, for producing fuel oil and petrol, both important "primary energy" sources.
[23]
84 percent by volume of the hydrocarbons present in petroleum is converted into energy-rich fuels (petroleum-based
fuels), including petrol, diesel, jet, heating, and other fuel oils, and liquefied petroleum gas. The lighter grades of
crude oil produce the best yields of these products, but as the world's reserves of light and medium oil are depleted,
oil refineries are increasingly having to process heavy oil and bitumen, and use more complex and expensive
methods to produce the products required. Because heavier crude oils have too much carbon and not enough
hydrogen, these processes generally involve removing carbon from or adding hydrogen to the molecules, and using
fluid catalytic cracking to convert the longer, more complex molecules in the oil to the shorter, simpler ones in the
fuels.
Due to its high energy density, easy transportability and relative abundance, oil has become the world's most
important source of energy since the mid-1950s. Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products,
including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics; the 16 percent not used for energy
production is converted into these other materials. Petroleum is found in porous rock formations in the upper strata
of some areas of the Earth's crust. There is also petroleum in oil sands (tar sands). Known oil reserves are typically
estimated at around 190km
3
(1.2 trillion (short scale) barrels) without oil sands, or 595km
3
(3.74 trillion barrels)
with oil sands. Consumption is currently around 84 million barrels (13.410
6
m
3
) per day, or 4.9km
3
per year.
Which in turn yields a remaining oil supply of only about 120 years, if current demand remain static.
Chemistry
Octane, a hydrocarbon found in petroleum. Lines
represent single bonds; black spheres represent
carbon; white spheres represent hydrogen.
Petroleum is a mixture of a very large number of different
hydrocarbons; the most commonly found molecules are alkanes
(paraffins), cycloalkanes (naphthenes), aromatic hydrocarbons, or more
complicated chemicals like asphaltenes. Each petroleum variety has a
unique mix of molecules, which define its physical and chemical
properties, like color and viscosity.
The alkanes, also known as paraffins, are saturated hydrocarbons with
straight or branched chains which contain only carbon and hydrogen
and have the general formula C
n
H
2n+2
. They generally have from 5 to 40 carbon atoms per molecule, although trace
amounts of shorter or longer molecules may be present in the mixture.
The alkanes from pentane (C
5
H
12
) to octane (C
8
H
18
) are refined into petrol, the ones from nonane (C
9
H
20
) to
hexadecane (C
16
H
34
) into diesel fuel, kerosene and jet fuel. Alkanes with more than 16 carbon atoms can be refined
into fuel oil and lubricating oil. At the heavier end of the range, paraffin wax is an alkane with approximately 25
carbon atoms, while asphalt has 35 and up, although these are usually cracked by modern refineries into more
valuable products. The shortest molecules, those with four or fewer carbon atoms, are in a gaseous state at room
temperature. They are the petroleum gases. Depending on demand and the cost of recovery, these gases are either
flared off, sold as liquified petroleum gas under pressure, or used to power the refinery's own burners. During the
winter, butane (C
4
H
10
), is blended into the petrol pool at high rates, because its high vapor pressure assists with cold
starts. Liquified under pressure slightly above atmospheric, it is best known for powering cigarette lighters, but it is
also a main fuel source for many developing countries. Propane can be liquified under modest pressure, and is
consumed for just about every application relying on petroleum for energy, from cooking to heating to
transportation.
Petroleum
7
The cycloalkanes, also known as naphthenes, are saturated hydrocarbons which have one or more carbon rings to
which hydrogen atoms are attached according to the formula C
n
H
2n
. Cycloalkanes have similar properties to alkanes
but have higher boiling points.
The aromatic hydrocarbons are unsaturated hydrocarbons which have one or more planar six-carbon rings called
benzene rings, to which hydrogen atoms are attached with the formula C
n
H
n
. They tend to burn with a sooty flame,
and many have a sweet aroma. Some are carcinogenic.
These different molecules are separated by fractional distillation at an oil refinery to produce petrol, jet fuel,
kerosene, and other hydrocarbons. For example, 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (isooctane), widely used in petrol, has a
chemical formula of C
8
H
18
and it reacts with oxygen exothermically:
2C
8H
18
(l)
+ 25O
2
(g)
16CO
2
(g)
+ 18H
2O
(g)
(H = 5.51 MJ/mol of octane)
The number of various molecules in an oil sample can be determined in laboratory. The molecules are typically
extracted in a solvent, then separated in a gas chromatograph, and finally determined with a suitable detector, such as
a flame ionization detector or a mass spectrometer.
[24]
Due to the large number of co-eluted hydrocarbons within oil,
many cannot be resolved by traditional gas chromatography and typically appear as a hump in the chromatogram.
This unresolved complex mixture (UCM) of hydrocarbons is particularly apparent when analysing weathered oils
and extracts from tissues of organisms exposed to oil.
Incomplete combustion of petroleum or petrol results in production of toxic byproducts. Too little oxygen results in
carbon monoxide. Due to the high temperatures and high pressures involved, exhaust gases from petrol combustion
in car engines usually include nitrogen oxides which are responsible for creation of photochemical smog.
Empirical equations for thermal properties
Heat of combustion
At a constant volume the heat of combustion of a petroleum product can be approximated as follows:
.
where is measured in cal/gram and d is the specific gravity at 60F (16C).
Thermal conductivity
The thermal conductivity of petroleum based liquids can be modeled as follows:
[25]
where K is measured in BTU F
1
hr
1
ft
1
, t is measured in F and API is degrees API gravity.
Petroleum
8
Specific heat
The specific heat of a petroleum oils can be modeled as follows:
[26]
,
where c is measured in BTU/lbm-F, t is the temperature in Fahrenheit and d is the specific gravity at 60F (16C).
In units of kcal/(kgC), the formula is:
,
where the temperature t is in Celsius and d is the specific gravity at 15C.
Latent heat of vaporization
The latent heat of vaporization can be modeled under atmospheric conditions as follows:
,
where L is measured in BTU/lbm, t is measured in F and d is the specific gravity at 60F (16C).
In units of kcal/kg, the formula is:
,
where the temperature t is in Celsius and d is the specific gravity at 15C.
[27]
Formation
Structure of a vanadium porphyrin compound (left) extracted from petroleum by Alfred
E. Treibs, father of organic geochemistry. Treibs noted the close structural similarity of
this molecule and chlorophyll a (right).
Petroleum is a fossil fuel derived from
ancient fossilized organic materials,
such as zooplankton and algae. Vast
quantities of these remains settled to
sea or lake bottoms, mixing with
sediments and being buried under
anoxic conditions. As further layers
settled to the sea or lake bed, intense
heat and pressure build up in the lower
regions. This process caused the
organic matter to change, first into a
waxy material known as kerogen,
which is found in various oil shales
around the world, and then with more
heat into liquid and gaseous
hydrocarbons via a process known as catagenesis. Formation of petroleum occurs from hydrocarbon pyrolysis in a
variety of mainly endothermic reactions at high temperature and/or pressure.
There were certain warm nutrient-rich environments such as the Gulf of Mexico and the ancient Tethys Sea where
the large amounts of organic material falling to the ocean floor exceeded the rate at which it could decompose. This
resulted in large masses of organic material being buried under subsequent deposits such as shale formed from mud.
This massive organic deposit later became heated and transformed under pressure into oil.
Geologists often refer to the temperature range in which oil forms as an "oil window"below the minimum
temperature oil remains trapped in the form of kerogen, and above the maximum temperature the oil is converted to
Petroleum
9
natural gas through the process of thermal cracking. Sometimes, oil formed at extreme depths may migrate and
become trapped at a much shallower level. The Athabasca Oil Sands are one example of this.
An alternative mechanism was proposed by Russian scientists in the mid-1850s, the Abiogenic petroleum origin, but
this is contradicted by the geological and geochemical evidence.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Reservoirs
Crude oil reservoirs
Hydrocarbon trap.
Three conditions must be present for oil reservoirs to form: a source rock rich in
hydrocarbon material buried deep enough for subterranean heat to cook it into
oil, a porous and permeable reservoir rock for it to accumulate in, and a cap
rock (seal) or other mechanism that prevents it from escaping to the surface.
Within these reservoirs, fluids will typically organize themselves like a
three-layer cake with a layer of water below the oil layer and a layer of gas
above it, although the different layers vary in size between reservoirs. Because
most hydrocarbons are less dense than rock or water, they often migrate upward
through adjacent rock layers until either reaching the surface or becoming trapped within porous rocks (known as
reservoirs) by impermeable rocks above. However, the process is influenced by underground water flows, causing
oil to migrate hundreds of kilometres horizontally or even short distances downward before becoming trapped in a
reservoir. When hydrocarbons are concentrated in a trap, an oil field forms, from which the liquid can be extracted
by drilling and pumping.
The reactions that produce oil and natural gas are often modeled as first order breakdown reactions, where
hydrocarbons are broken down to oil and natural gas by a set of parallel reactions, and oil eventually breaks down to
natural gas by another set of reactions. The latter set is regularly used in petrochemical plants and oil refineries.
Wells are drilled into oil reservoirs to extract the crude oil. "Natural lift" production methods that rely on the natural
reservoir pressure to force the oil to the surface are usually sufficient for a while after reservoirs are first tapped. In
some reservoirs, such as in the Middle East, the natural pressure is sufficient over a long time. The natural pressure
in most reservoirs, however, eventually dissipates. Then the oil must be extracted using "artificial lift" means. Over
time, these "primary" methods become less effective and "secondary" production methods may be used. A common
secondary method is "waterflood" or injection of water into the reservoir to increase pressure and force the oil to the
drilled shaft or "wellbore." Eventually "tertiary" or "enhanced" oil recovery methods may be used to increase the
oil's flow characteristics by injecting steam, carbon dioxide and other gases or chemicals into the reservoir. In the
United States, primary production methods account for less than 40 percent of the oil produced on a daily basis,
secondary methods account for about half, and tertiary recovery the remaining 10 percent. Extracting oil (or
"bitumen") from oil/tar sand and oil shale deposits requires mining the sand or shale and heating it in a vessel or
retort, or using "in-situ" methods of injecting heated liquids into the deposit and then pumping out the oil-saturated
liquid.
Unconventional oil reservoirs
See also: Unconventional oil, Oil sands and Oil shale reserves
Oil-eating bacteria biodegrade oil that has escaped to the surface. Oil sands are reservoirs of partially biodegraded oil
still in the process of escaping and being biodegraded, but they contain so much migrating oil that, although most of
it has escaped, vast amounts are still presentmore than can be found in conventional oil reservoirs. The lighter
fractions of the crude oil are destroyed first, resulting in reservoirs containing an extremely heavy form of crude oil,
called crude bitumen in Canada, or extra-heavy crude oil in Venezuela. These two countries have the world's largest
Petroleum
10
deposits of oil sands.
On the other hand, oil shales are source rocks that have not been exposed to heat or pressure long enough to convert
their trapped hydrocarbons into crude oil. Technically speaking, oil shales are not always shales and do not contain
oil, but are fined-grain sedimentary rocks containing an insoluble organic solid called kerogen. The kerogen in the
rock can be converted into crude oil using heat and pressure to simulate natural processes. The method has been
known for centuries and was patented in 1694 under British Crown Patent No. 330 covering, "A way to extract and
make great quantities of pitch, tar, and oil out of a sort of stone." Although oil shales are found in many countries,
the United States has the world's largest deposits.
Classification
Some marker crudes with their sulfur content (horizontal) and API gravity (vertical) and
relative production quantity.
See also: Benchmark (crude oil)
The petroleum industry generally
classifies crude oil by the geographic
location it is produced in (e.g. West
Texas Intermediate, Brent, or Oman),
its API gravity (an oil industry
measure of density), and its sulfur
content. Crude oil may be considered
light if it has low density or heavy if it
has high density; and it may be
referred to as sweet if it contains
relatively little sulfur or sour if it
contains substantial amounts of sulfur.
The geographic location is important
because it affects transportation costs
to the refinery. Light crude oil is more
desirable than heavy oil since it
produces a higher yield of petrol, while
sweet oil commands a higher price
than sour oil because it has fewer
environmental problems and requires
less refining to meet sulfur standards
imposed on fuels in consuming
countries. Each crude oil has unique molecular characteristics which are understood by the use of crude oil assay
analysis in petroleum laboratories.
Barrels from an area in which the crude oil's molecular characteristics have been determined and the oil has been
classified are used as pricing references throughout the world. Some of the common reference crudes are:
West Texas Intermediate (WTI), a very high-quality, sweet, light oil delivered at Cushing, Oklahoma for North
American oil
Brent Blend, comprising 15 oils from fields in the Brent and Ninian systems in the East Shetland Basin of the
North Sea. The oil is landed at Sullom Voe terminal in Shetland. Oil production from Europe, Africa and Middle
Eastern oil flowing West tends to be priced off this oil, which forms a benchmark
Dubai-Oman, used as benchmark for Middle East sour crude oil flowing to the Asia-Pacific region
Tapis (from Malaysia, used as a reference for light Far East oil)
Minas (from Indonesia, used as a reference for heavy Far East oil)
Petroleum
11
The OPEC Reference Basket, a weighted average of oil blends from various OPEC (The Organization of the
Petroleum Exporting Countries) countries
Midway Sunset Heavy, by which heavy oil in California is priced
There are declining amounts of these benchmark oils being produced each year, so other oils are more commonly
what is actually delivered. While the reference price may be for West Texas Intermediate delivered at Cushing, the
actual oil being traded may be a discounted Canadian heavy oil delivered at Hardisty, Alberta, and for a Brent Blend
delivered at Shetland, it may be a Russian Export Blend delivered at the port of Primorsk.
Petroleum industry
New York Mercantile Exchange prices for West
Texas Intermediate since 2000
Main article: Petroleum industry
The petroleum industry is involved in the global processes of
exploration, extraction, refining, transporting (often with oil tankers
and pipelines), and marketing petroleum products. The largest volume
products of the industry are fuel oil and petrol. Petroleum is also the
raw material for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals,
solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics. The industry is usually
divided into three major components: upstream, midstream and
downstream. Midstream operations are usually included in the
downstream category.
Petroleum is vital to many industries, and is of importance to the
maintenance of industrialized civilization itself, and thus is a critical concern to many nations. Oil accounts for a
large percentage of the world's energy consumption, ranging from a low of 32 percent for Europe and Asia, up to a
high of 53 percent for the Middle East, South and Central America (44%), Africa (41%), and North America (40%).
The world at large consumes 30 billion barrels (4.8km) of oil per year, and the top oil consumers largely consist of
developed nations. In fact, 24 percent of the oil consumed in 2004 went to the United States alone, though by 2007
this had dropped to 21 percent of world oil consumed.
In the US, in the states of Arizona, California, Hawaii, Nevada, Oregon and Washington, the Western States
Petroleum Association (WSPA) represents companies responsible for producing, distributing, refining, transporting
and marketing petroleum. This non-profit trade association was founded in 1907, and is the oldest petroleum trade
association in the United States.
Shipping
In the 1950s, shipping costs made up 33 percent of the price of oil transported from the Persian Gulf to USA, but due
to the development of supertankers in the 1970s, the cost of shipping dropped to only 5 percent of the price of
Persian oil in USA. Due to the increase of the value of the crude oil during the last 30 years, the share of the shipping
cost on the final cost of the delivered commodity was less than 3% in 2010. For example, in 2010 the shipping cost
from the Persian Gulf to the USA was in the range of 20 $/t and the cost of the delivered crude oil around 800
$/t.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Petroleum
12
Price
Main article: Price of petroleum
After the collapse of the OPEC-administered pricing system in 1985, and a short lived experiment with netback
pricing, oil-exporting countries adopted a market-linked pricing mechanism.
[28]
First adopted by PEMEX in 1986,
market-linked pricing was widely accepted, and by 1988 became and still is the main method for pricing crude oil in
international trade. The current reference, or pricing markers, are Brent, WTI, and Dubai/Oman.
Uses
Further information: Petroleum products
The chemical structure of petroleum is heterogeneous, composed of hydrocarbon chains of different lengths.
Because of this, petroleum may be taken to oil refineries and the hydrocarbon chemicals separated by distillation and
treated by other chemical processes, to be used for a variety of purposes. See Petroleum products.
Fuels
A poster used to promote carpooling as a way to ration
gasoline during World War II.
The most common distillation fractions of petroleum are fuels.
Fuels include (by increasing boiling temperature range):
[29]
Common fractions of petroleum as fuels
Fraction
Boiling range
o
C
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) 40
Butane 12 to 1
Petrol 1 to 110
Jet fuel 150 to 205
Kerosene 205 to 260
Fuel oil 205 to 290
Diesel fuel 260 to 315
Petroleum
13
Other derivatives
Certain types of resultant hydrocarbons may be mixed with other non-hydrocarbons, to create other end products:
Alkenes (olefins) which can be manufactured into plastics or other compounds
Lubricants (produces light machine oils, motor oils, and greases, adding viscosity stabilizers as required).
Wax, used in the packaging of frozen foods, among others.
Sulfur or Sulfuric acid. These are useful industrial materials. Sulfuric acid is usually prepared as the acid
precursor oleum, a byproduct of sulfur removal from fuels.
Bulk tar
Asphalt
Petroleum coke, used in speciality carbon products or as solid fuel.
Paraffin wax
Aromatic petrochemicals to be used as precursors in other chemical production.
Agriculture
Since the 1940s, agricultural productivity has increased dramatically, due largely to the increased use of
energy-intensive mechanization, fertilizers and pesticides.
Petroleum by country
Consumption statistics
Global fossil carbon
emissions, an indicator of
consumption, for 18002007.
Total is black, Oil is in blue.
Rate of world energy usage per day,
from 1970 to 2010. 1000TWh=1PWh.
UNIQ-ref-0-36dca686e5682c06-QINU
daily oil consumption from
1980 to 2006
oil consumption by percentage
of total per region from 1980
to 2006: red=USA,
blue=Europe,
yellow=Asia+Oceania
Oil consumption 1980 to 2007 by
region.
Petroleum
14
Consumption
According to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA) estimate for 2011, the world consumes 87.421
million barrels of oil each day.
Oil consumption per capita (darker colors represent more consumption, gray represents no data).
This table orders the amount of petroleum consumed in 2011 in thousand barrels (1000 bbl) per day and in thousand
cubic metres (1000 m
3
) per day:
[30][31][32]
Consuming Nation 2011 (1000
bbl/
day)
(1000
m
3
/
day)
population
in millions
bbl/year
per capita
m
3
/year
per capita
national
production/
consumption
United States
1 18,835.5 2,994.6 314 21.8 3.47 0.51
China 9,790.0 1,556.5 1345 2.7 0.43 0.41
Japan
2 4,464.1 709.7 127 12.8 2.04 0.03
India
2 3,292.2 523.4 1198 1 0.16 0.26
Russia
1 3,145.1 500.0 140 8.1 1.29 3.35
Saudi Arabia (OPEC) 2,817.5 447.9 27 40 6.4 3.64
Brazil 2,594.2 412.4 193 4.9 0.78 0.99
Germany
2 2,400.1 381.6 82 10.7 1.70 0.06
Canada 2,259.1 359.2 33 24.6 3.91 1.54
South Korea
2 2,230.2 354.6 48 16.8 2.67 0.02
Mexico
1 2,132.7 339.1 109 7.1 1.13 1.39
France
2 1,791.5 284.8 62 10.5 1.67 0.03
Iran (OPEC) 1,694.4 269.4 74 8.3 1.32 2.54
United Kingdom
1 1,607.9 255.6 61 9.5 1.51 0.93
Italy
2 1,453.6 231.1 60 8.9 1.41 0.10
Petroleum
15
Source: US Energy Information Administration
[33]
Population Data:
1
peak production of oil already passed in this state
2
This country is not a major oil producer
Production
For oil reserves by country, see List of countries by proven oil reserves.
Oil producing countries
Graph of Top Oil Producing Countries 19602006, including Soviet
Union
In petroleum industry parlance, production refers to the
quantity of crude extracted from reserves, not the literal
creation of the product.
Petroleum
16
# Producing Nation
10
3
bbl/d (2006) 10
3
bbl/d (2007) 10
3
bbl/d (2008) 10
3
bbl/d (2009)
Present Share
1 Saudi Arabia (OPEC) 10,665 10,234 10,782 9,760 11.8%
2
Russia
1 9,677 9,876 9,789 9,934 12.0%
3
United States
1 8,331 8,481 8,514 9,141 11.1%
4 Iran (OPEC) 4,148 4,043 4,174 4,177 5.1%
5 China 3,846 3,901 3,973 3,996 4.8%
6
Canada
2 3,288 3,358 3,350 3,294 4.0%
7
Mexico
1 3,707 3,501 3,185 3,001 3.6%
8 United Arab Emirates
(OPEC)
2,945 2,948 3,046 2,795 3.4%
9 Kuwait (OPEC) 2,675 2,613 2,742 2,496 3.0%
10
Venezuela (OPEC)
1 2,803 2,667 2,643 2,471 3.0%
11
Norway
1 2,786 2,565 2,466 2,350 2.8%
12 Brazil 2,166 2,279 2,401 2,577 3.1%
13
Iraq (OPEC)
3 2,008 2,094 2,385 2,400 2.9%
14 Algeria (OPEC) 2,122 2,173 2,179 2,126 2.6%
15 Nigeria (OPEC) 2,443 2,352 2,169 2,211 2.7%
16 Angola (OPEC) 1,435 1,769 2,014 1,948 2.4%
17 Libya (OPEC) 1,809 1,845 1,875 1,789 2.2%
18 United Kingdom 1,689 1,690 1,584 1,422 1.7%
19 Kazakhstan 1,388 1,445 1,429 1,540 1.9%
20 Qatar (OPEC) 1,141 1,136 1,207 1,213 1.5%
21 Indonesia 1,102 1,044 1,051 1,023 1.2%
22 India 854 881 884 877 1.1%
23 Azerbaijan 648 850 875 1,012 1.2%
24 Argentina 802 791 792 794 1.0%
25 Oman 743 714 761 816 1.0%
26 Malaysia 729 703 727 693 0.8%
27 Egypt 667 664 631 678 0.8%
28 Colombia 544 543 601 686 0.8%
29 Australia 552 595 586 588 0.7%
30 Ecuador (OPEC) 536 512 505 485 0.6%
31 Sudan 380 466 480 486 0.6%
32 Syria 449 446 426 400 0.5%
33 Equatorial Guinea 386 400 359 346 0.4%
34 Thailand 334 349 361 339 0.4%
35 Vietnam 362 352 314 346 0.4%
Petroleum
17
36 Yemen 377 361 300 287 0.3%
37 Denmark 344 314 289 262 0.3%
38 Gabon 237 244 248 242 0.3%
39 South Africa 204 199 195 192 0.2%
40 Turkmenistan No data 180 189 198 0.2%
41 Trinidad and Tobago 181 179 176 174 0.1%
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration
[34]
1
Peak production of conventional oil already passed in this state
2
Although Canada's conventional oil production is declining, its total oil production is increasing as oil sands production grows. When oil sands
are included, Canada has the world's second largest oil reserves after Saudi Arabia.
3
Trinidad and Tobago has the worlds third largest pitch lake situated La Brea south Trinidad
4
Though still a member, Iraq has not been included in production figures since 1998
In 2013, the United States will produce an average of 11.4 million barrels a day, which would make it the second largest producer of
hydrocarbons, and is expected to overtake Saudi Arabia before 2020.
Export
See also: Fossil fuel exporters and Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
Oil exports by country.
In order of net exports in 2011, 2009 and 2006 in
thousand bbl/d and thousand m/d:
# Exporting Nation
10
3
bbl/d (2011) 10
3
m
3
/d (2011) 10
3
bbl/d (2009) 10
3
m
3
/d (2009) 10
3
bbl/d (2006) 10
3
m
3
/d (2006)
1 Saudi Arabia (OPEC) 8,336 1,325 7,322 1,164 8,651 1,376
2
Russia
1 7,083 1,126 7,194 1,144 6,565 1,044
3 Iran (OPEC) 2,540 403 2,486 395 2,519 401
4 United Arab Emirates
(OPEC)
2,524 401 2,303 366 2,515 400
5 Kuwait (OPEC) 2,343 373 2,124 338 2,150 342
6 Nigeria (OPEC) 2,257 359 1,939 308 2,146 341
7 Iraq (OPEC) 1,915 304 1,764 280 1,438 229
8 Angola (OPEC) 1,760 280 1,878 299 1,363 217
9
Norway
1 1,752 279 2,132 339 2,542 404
10
Venezuela (OPEC)
1 1,715 273 1,748 278 2,203 350
Petroleum
18
11
Algeria (OPEC)
1 1,568 249 1,767 281 1,847 297
12 Qatar (OPEC) 1,468 233 1,066 169
13
Canada
2 1,405 223 1,168 187 1,071 170
14 Kazakhstan 1,396 222 1,299 207 1,114 177
15
Azerbaijan
1 836 133 912 145 532 85
16
Trinidad and Tobago
1 177 112 167 160 155 199
Source: US Energy Information Administration
[35]
1
peak production already passed in this state
2
Canadian statistics are complicated by the fact it is both an importer and exporter of crude oil, and refines large amounts of oil for the U.S.
market. It is the leading source of U.S. imports of oil and products, averaging 2,500,000bbl/d (400,000m
3
/d) in August 2007. [36].
Total world production/consumption (as of 2005) is approximately 84 million barrels per day (13,400,000m
3
/d).
Import
Oil imports by country.
In order of net imports in 2011, 2009
and 2006 in thousand bbl/d and
thousand m/d:
# Importing Nation
10
3
bbl/day
(2011)
10
3
m
3
/day
(2011)
10
3
bbl/day
(2009)
10
3
m
3
/day
(2009)
10
3
bbl/day
(2006)
10
3
m
3
/day
(2006)
1
United States
1 8,728 1,388 9,631 1,531 12,220 1,943
2
China
2 5,487 872 4,328 688 3,438 547
3 Japan 4,329 688 4,235 673 5,097 810
4 India 2,349 373 2,233 355 1,687 268
5 Germany 2,235 355 2,323 369 2,483 395
6 South Korea 2,170 345 2,139 340 2,150 342
7 France 1,697 270 1,749 278 1,893 301
8 Spain 1,346 214 1,439 229 1,555 247
9 Italy 1,292 205 1,381 220 1,558 248
10 Singapore 1,172 186 916 146 787 125
11 Republic of China
(Taiwan)
1,009 160 944 150 942 150
12 Netherlands 948 151 973 155 936 149
Petroleum
19
13 Turkey 650 103 650 103 576 92
14 Belgium 634 101 597 95 546 87
15 Thailand 592 94 538 86 606 96
Source: US Energy Information Administration
[37]
1
peak production of oil expected in 2020
[38]
2
Major oil producer whose production is still increasingWikipedia:Citation needed
Import to the USA by country 2010
oil imports to US 2010
Non-producing consumers
Countries whose oil production is 10%
or less of their consumption.
# Consuming Nation (bbl/day) (m/day)
1 Japan 5,578,000 886,831
2 Germany 2,677,000 425,609
3 South Korea 2,061,000 327,673
4 France 2,060,000 327,514
5 Italy 1,874,000 297,942
6 Spain 1,537,000 244,363
7 Netherlands 946,700 150,513
8 Turkey 575,011 91,663
Source: CIA World Factbook
[39]
Wikipedia:Verifiability
Petroleum
20
Environmental effects
Diesel fuel spill on a road
Main article: Environmental issues with petroleum
Because petroleum is a naturally occurring substance, its presence in
the environment need not be the result of human causes such as
accidents and routine activities (seismic exploration, drilling,
extraction, refining and combustion). Phenomena such as seeps
[40]
and
tar pits are examples of areas that petroleum affects without man's
involvement. Regardless of source, petroleum's effects when released
into the environment are similar.
Ocean acidification
Seawater Acidification
Ocean acidification is the increase in the acidity of the Earth's oceans
caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO
2) from the atmosphere. This increase in acidity inhibits life such as
scallops.
[41]
Global warming
When burned, petroleum releases carbon dioxide; a greenhouse gas.
Along with the burning of coal, petroleum combustion is the largest
contributor to the increase in atmospheric CO
2
. Atmospheric CO
2
has
risen steadily since the industrial revolution to current levels of over 390ppmv, from the 180 300ppmv of the
prior 800 thousand years, driving global warming.
[42][43]
The unbridled use of petroleum could potentially cause a
runaway greenhouse effect on Earth.Wikipedia:Citation needed Use of oil as an energy source has caused Earth's
temperature to increase by nearly one degree Celsius. This raise in temperature has reduced the Arctic ice cap to
1,100,000sqmi (2,800,000km
2
), smaller than ever recorded.
[44]
Because of this melt, more oil reserves have been
revealed. It is estimated by the International Energy Agency that about 13 percent of the world's undiscovered oil
resides in the Arctic.
[45]
Extraction
Oil extraction is simply the removal of oil from the reservoir (oil pool). Oil is often recovered as a water-in-oil
emulsion, and specialty chemicals called demulsifiers are used to separate the oil from water. Oil extraction is costly
and sometimes environmentally damaging, although Dr. John Hunt of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
pointed out in a 1981 paper that over 70 percent of the reserves in the world are associated with visible
macroseepages, and many oil fields are found due to natural seeps. Offshore exploration and extraction of oil
disturbs the surrounding marine environment.
[46]
Petroleum
21
Oil spills
Further information: Oil spill and List of oil spills
Kelp after an oil spill
Oil Sick from the Montara oil spill in the Timor
Sea, September, 2009
Volunteers cleaning up the aftermath of the
Prestige oil spill
Crude oil and refined fuel spills from tanker ship accidents have
damaged natural ecosystems in Alaska, the Gulf of Mexico, the
Galapagos Islands, France and many other places.
The quantity of oil spilled during accidents has ranged from a few
hundred tons to several hundred thousand tons (e.g., Deepwater
Horizon Oil Spill, Atlantic Empress, Amoco Cadiz). Smaller spills
have already proven to have a great impact on ecosystems, such as the
Exxon Valdez oil spill
Oil spills at sea are generally much more damaging than those on land,
since they can spread for hundreds of nautical miles in a thin oil slick
which can cover beaches with a thin coating of oil. This can kill sea
birds, mammals, shellfish and other organisms it coats. Oil spills on
land are more readily containable if a makeshift earth dam can be
rapidly bulldozed around the spill site before most of the oil escapes,
and land animals can avoid the oil more easily.
Control of oil spills is difficult, requires ad hoc methods, and often a
large amount of manpower. The dropping of bombs and incendiary
devices from aircraft on SSTorrey Canyon wreck produced poor
results;
[47]
modern techniques would include pumping the oil from the
wreck, like in the Prestige oil spill or the Erika oil spill.
Though crude oil is predominantly composed of various hydrocarbons,
certain nitrogen heterocylic compounds, such as pyridine, picoline, and
quinoline are reported as contaminants associated with crude oil, as
well as facilities processing oil shale or coal, and have also been found
at legacy wood treatment sites. These compounds have a very high
water solubility, and thus tend to dissolve and move with water.
Certain naturally occurring bacteria, such as Micrococcus,
Arthrobacter, and Rhodococcus have been shown to degrade these
contaminants.
Tarballs
A tarball is a blob of crude oil (not to be confused with tar, which is
typically derived from pine trees rather than petroleum) which has been weathered after floating in the ocean.
Tarballs are an aquatic pollutant in most environments, although they can occur naturally, for example, in the Santa
Barbara Channel of California.
[48]
Their concentration and features have been used to assess the extent of oil spills.
Their composition can be used to identify their sources of origin,
[49]
and tarballs themselves may be dispersed over
long distances by deep sea currents. They are slowly decomposed by bacteria, including Chromobacterium
violaceum, Cladosporium resinae, Bacillus submarinus, Micrococcus varians, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida
marina and Saccharomyces estuari.
Petroleum
22
Whales
James S. Robbins has argued that the advent of petroleum-refined kerosene saved some species of great whales from
extinction by providing an inexpensive substitute for whale oil, thus eliminating the economic imperative for
open-boat whaling.
[50]
Alternatives to petroleum
Further information: Renewable energy
In the United States in 2007 about 70 percent of petroleum was used for transportation (e.g. petrol, diesel, jet fuel),
24 percent by industry (e.g. production of plastics), 5 percent for residential and commercial uses, and 2 percent for
electricity production.
[51]
Outside of the US, a higher proportion of petroleum tends to be used for electricity.
[52]
Alternatives to petroleum-based vehicle fuels
Brazilian fuel station with four alternative fuels for
sale: diesel (B3), gasohol (E25), neat ethanol (E100),
and compressed natural gas (CNG).
Main articles: Alternative fuel vehicle, Hydrogen economy and
Green vehicle
Alternative fuel vehicles refers to both:
Vehicles that use alternative fuels used in standard or modified
internal combustion engines such as natural gas vehicles, neat
ethanol vehicles, flexible-fuel vehicles, biodiesel-powered
vehicles, and hydrogen vehicles.
Vehicles with advanced propulsion systems that reduce or
substitute petroleum use such as battery electric vehicles,
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, and
hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.
Alternatives to using oil in industry
Biological feedstocks do exist for industrial uses such as Bioplastic production.
[53]
Alternatives to burning petroleum for electricity
Main articles: Alternative energy, Nuclear power and Renewable energy
In oil producing countries with little refinery capacity, oil is sometimes burned to produce electricity. Renewable
energy technologies such as solar power, wind power, micro hydro, biomass and biofuels are used, but the primary
alternatives remain large-scale hydroelectricity, nuclear and coal-fired generation.
Petroleum
23
Future of petroleum production
US oil production and imports, 1910-2012.
Consumption in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries has been
abundantly pushed by automobile growth; the 19852003 oil glut
even fueled the sales of low economy vehicles in OECD countries.
The 2008 economic crisis seems to have had some impact on the
sales of such vehicles; still, the 2008 oil consumption shows a
small increase. The BRIC countries might also kick in, as China
briefly was the first automobile market in December 2009. The
immediate outlook still hints upwards. In the long term,
uncertainties linger; the OPEC believes that the OECD countries
will push low consumption policies at some point in the future;
when that happens, it will definitely curb oil sales, and both OPEC
and EIA kept lowering their 2020 consumption estimates during the past 5 years. Oil products are more and more in
competition with alternative sources, mainly coal and natural gas, both cheaper sources. Production will also face an
increasingly complex situation; while OPEC countries still have large reserves at low production prices, newly found
reservoirs often lead to higher prices; offshore giants such as Tupi, Guara and Tiber demand high investments and
ever-increasing technological abilities. Subsalt reservoirs such as Tupi were unknown in the twentieth century,
mainly because the industry was unable to probe them. Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) techniques (example:
DaQing, China ) will continue to play a major role in increasing the world's recoverable oil.
Peak oil
Main article: Peak oil
Global Peak Oil forecast
Peak oil is the projection that future petroleum production (whether for
individual oil wells, entire oil fields, whole countries, or worldwide
production) will eventually peak and then decline at a similar rate to
the rate of increase before the peak as these reserves are exhausted.
The peak of oil discoveries was in 1965, and oil production per year
has surpassed oil discoveries every year since 1980.
Hubbert applied his theory to accurately predict the peak of U.S.
conventional oil production at a date between 1966 and 1970. This
prediction was based on data available at the time of his publication in
1956. In the same paper, Hubbert predicts world peak oil in "half a
century" after his publication, which would be 2006.
It is difficult to predict the oil peak in any given region, due to the lack of knowledge and/or transparency in
accounting of global oil reserves. Based on available production data, proponents have previously predicted the peak
for the world to be in years 1989, 1995, or 19952000. Some of these predictions date from before the recession of
the early 1980s, and the consequent reduction in global consumption, the effect of which was to delay the date of any
peak by several years. Just as the 1971 U.S. peak in oil production was only clearly recognized after the fact, a peak
in world production will be difficult to discern until production clearly drops off.
[54]
The peak is also a moving target
as it is now measured as "liquids", which includes synthetic fuels, instead of just conventional oil.
[55]
The International Energy Agency (IEA) said in 2010 that production of conventional crude oil had peaked in 2006 at
70 MBBL/d, then flattened at 68 or 69 thereafter.
[56][57]
Since virtually all economic sectors rely heavily on
petroleum, peak oil, if it were to occur, could lead to a "partial or complete failure of markets".
[58]
Petroleum
24
Unconventional Production
The calculus for peak oil has changed with the introduction of unconventional production methods. In particular, the
combination of horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing has resulted in a significant increase in production from
previously uneconomic plays. Certain rock strata contain hydrocarbons but have low permeability and are not thick
from a vertical perspective. Conventional vertical wells would be unable to economically retrieve these
hydrocarbons. Horizontal drilling, extending horizontally through the strata, permits the well to access a much
greater volume of the strata. Hydraulic fracturing creates greater permeability and increases hydrocarbon flow to the
wellbore.
Notes
[1] "Petroleum". Concise Oxford English Dictionary
[2] The Latin word petra is a loanword from Greek .
[3] EIA Energy Kids - Oil (petroleum) (http:/ / www.eia.gov/ KIDS/ energy. cfm?page=oil_home-basics-k. cfm). Eia.gov. Retrieved on
2013-11-26.
[4] [4] Oxford English Dictionary online edition, entry "petroleum"
[5] [5] Bauer (1546)
[6] George E. Totten ASTM Timeline (http:/ / www.astm. org/ COMMIT/ D02/ to1899_index. html)
[7] [7] Longmuir, Marilyn V. "Oil in Burma: The Extraction of "Earth Oil" to 1914". Bangkok: White Lotus (2001) ISBN 974-7534-60-6 pp.329
[8] [8] Maugeri (2006), p. 3
[9] Vassiliou, M. S. (2009). Historical Dictionary of the Petroleum Industry. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press (Rowman & Littlefield), 700pp
[10] [10] Matveichuk, Alexander A. Intersection of Oil Parallels: Historical Essays. Moscow: Russian Oil and Gas Institute, 2004.
[11] McKain, David L., and Bernard L. Allen. Where It All Began: The Story of the People and Places Where the Oil Industry BeganWest
Virginia and South- eastern Ohio. Parkersburg, W.Va.: David L. McKain, 1994.
[12] The History Of Romanian Oil Industry (http:/ / www. rri. ro/ arh-art. shtml?lang=1& sec=9& art=3596)
[13] PBS: World Events (http:/ / www. pbs.org/ eakins/ we_1844. htm)
[14] http:/ / www.lclmg.org/ lclmg/ Museums/ OilMuseumofCanada/ BlackGold2/ OilHeritage/ OilSprings/ tabid/ 208/ Default. aspx Oil
Museum of Canada, Black Gold: Canada's Oil Heritage, Oil Springs: Boom & Bust
[15] [15] Turnbull Elford, Jean. Canada West's Last Frontier. Lambton County Historical Society, 1982, p. 110
[16] [16] May, Gary. Hard Oiler! The Story of Early Canadians' Quest for Oil at Home and Abroad. Dundurn Press, 1998, p 43
[17] [17] Ford, R. W. A History of the Chemical Industry in Lambton County, 1988, p 5
[18] [18] Akiner(2004), p. 5
[19] Hanson Baldwin, 1959, "Oil Strategy in World War II" (http:/ / www. oil150. com/ essays/ 2007/ 08/ oil-strategy-in-world-war-ii), American
Petroleum Institute Quarterly Centennial Issue, pages 1011. American Petroleum Institute.
[20] Baku: City that Oil Built (http:/ / azer.com/ aiweb/ categories/ magazine/ ai102_folder/ 102_articles/ 102_overview_alakbarov. html)
[21] Hyne (2001), pp. 14.
[22] Speight (1999), p. 215216.
[23] IEA Key World Energy Statistics (http:/ / www. iea.org/ bookshop/ add. aspx?id=144)
[24] Use of ozone depleting substances in laboratories (http:/ / www. norden. org/ pub/ ebook/ 2003-516. pdf). TemaNord 2003:516.
[25] http:/ / www.osti. gov/ scitech/ servlets/ purl/ 446318
[26] [26] Speight (2007), p. 25.
[27] [27] United States Bureau of Standards, "Thermal Properties of Petroleum Products". Miscellaneous Publication No. 97, November 9, 1929.
[28] [28] Mabro (2006), p. 351.
[29] [29] Speight (1999), p. 543.
[30] U.S. Energy Information Administration. Excel file (http:/ / www. eia. doe. gov/ emeu/ international/
RecentPetroleumConsumptionBarrelsperDay.xls) from this (http:/ / tonto. eia. doe. gov/ dnav/ pet/ pet_pri_wco_k_w. htm) web page. Table
Posted: March 1, 2010
[31] [31] From DSW-Datareport 2008 ("Deutsche Stiftung Weltbevlkerung")
[32] [32] One cubic metre of oil is equivalent to 6.28981077 barrels of oil
[33] http:/ / www.eia.gov/ cfapps/ ipdbproject/ IEDIndex3. cfm?tid=5& pid=5& aid=2
[34] http:/ / tonto. eia. doe. gov/ country/ index. cfm
[35] http:/ / www.eia.gov/ countries/ index. cfm?topL=exp
[36] http:/ / tonto. eia. doe. gov/ dnav/ pet/ pet_move_impcus_a2_nus_ep00_im0_mbblpd_m. htm
[37] http:/ / www.eia.gov/ countries/ index. cfm?topL=imp
[38] " AEO2014 EARLY RELEASE OVERVIEW (http:/ / www. eia. gov/ forecasts/ aeo/ er/ early_production. cfm)" Early report (http:/ / www.
eia. gov/ forecasts/ aeo/ er/ pdf/ 0383er(2014). pdf) US Energy Information Administration, December 2013. Accessed: December 2013.
Quote: "Domestic production of crude oil .. increases sharply .. is expected to level off and then slowly decline after 2020"
Petroleum
25
[39] https:/ / www.cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ rankorder/ 2175rank. html
[40] http:/ / seeps. wr. usgs. gov/ Natural Oil and Gas Seeps in California
[41] "Acidic ocean deadly for Vancouver Island scallop industry" 2014 CBC news (http:/ / www. cbc. ca/ news/ canada/ british-columbia/
acidic-ocean-deadly-for-vancouver-island-scallop-industry-1. 2551662)
[42] Historical trends in carbon dioxide concentrations and temperature, on a geological and recent time scale (http:/ / maps. grida. no/ go/
graphic/ historical-trends-in-carbon-dioxide-concentrations-and-temperature-on-a-geological-and-recent-time-scale). (June 2007). In
UNEP/GRID-Arendal Maps and Graphics Library. Retrieved 19:14, February 19, 2011.
[43] Deep ice tells long climate story (http:/ / news.bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ sci/ tech/ 5314592. stm). Retrieved 19:14, February 19, 2011.
[44] [44] McKibbin, Bill. Eaarth: Making a Life on a Tough New Planet. New York: Times, 2010 ISBN 978-0312541194
[45] "Arctic Sea Ice Reaches New Low, Shattering Record Set Just 3 Weeks Ago." NBCNews.com, 19 Sept. 2012. Web. 1 Oct. 2012.
<http://worldnews.nbcnews.com>.
[46] Waste discharges during the offshore oil and gas activity (http:/ / www. offshore-environment. com/ discharges. html) by Stanislave Patin,
tr. Elena Cascio
[47] [47] Torrey Canyon bombing by the Navy and RAF
[48] Frances D. Hostettler, Robert J. Rosenbauer, Thomas D. Lorenson, Jennifer Dougherty, Geochemical characterization of tarballs on beaches
along the California coast. Part I-- Shallow seepage impacting the Santa Barbara Channel Islands, Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa and San Miguel,
Organic Geochemistry, Volume 35, Issue 6, June 2004, Pages 725746, ISSN 0146-6380, .
[49] Zhendi Wang, Merv Fingas, Michael Landriault, Lise Sigouin, Bill Castle, David Hostetter, Dachung Zhang, Brad Spencer, "Identification
and Linkage of Tarballs from the Coasts of Vancouver Island and Northern California Using GC/MS and Isotopic Techniques Journal of High
Resolution Chromatography, Volume 21 Issue 7, Pages 383395,
[50] How Capitalism Saved the Whales (http:/ / newscotland1398. ca/ 99/ gesner-whales. html) by James S. Robbins, The Freeman, August,
1992.
[51] "U.S. Primary Energy Consumption by Source and Sector, 2007" (http:/ / www. eia. doe. gov/ emeu/ aer/ pecss_diagram. html). Energy
Information Administration
[52] needtitle (http:/ / www.rrcap. unep. org/ md/ malereport/ 2006/ Proceeding/ II_RCS3/ Att5_Initiatives/ RSC3_2-5_Power Sector . ppt) UN
Energy Program
[53] Bioprocessing (http:/ / seattletimes.nwsource. com/ html/ businesstechnology/ 2003646852_bioprocessing02. html) Seattle Times (2003)
[54] Peak Oil Info and Strategies (http:/ / www.oildecline.com/ ) "The only uncertainty about peak oil is the time scale, which is difficult to
predict accurately."
[55] "Peak Oil": The Eventual End of the Oil Age (http:/ / www. peakoil. net/ files/ Peak_Oil_the_eventual_end. pdf) pg. 12
[56] " Is 'Peak Oil' Behind Us? (http:/ / green. blogs.nytimes. com/ 2010/ 11/ 14/ is-peak-oil-behind-us/ ?partner=rss& emc=rss)". The New York
Times. November 14, 2010
[57] " Has the World Already Passed "Peak Oil"? (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ energy/ 2010/ 11/
101109-peak-oil-iea-world-energy-outlook/ )". National Geographic News. November 9, 2010
[58] " Military Study Warns of a Potentially Drastic Oil Crisis (http:/ / www. spiegel. de/ international/ germany/ 0,1518,715138,00. html)".
Spiegel Online. September 1, 2010.
References
Akiner, Shirin; Aldis, Anne, ed. (2004). The Caspian: Politics, Energy and Security. New York: Routledge.
ISBN978-0-7007-0501-6.
Bauer Georg, Bandy Mark Chance (tr.), Bandy Jean A.(tr.) (1546). "De Natura Fossilium". vi (in Latin).
translated 1955
Hyne, Norman J. (2001). Nontechnical Guide to Petroleum Geology, Exploration, Drilling, and Production.
PennWell Corporation. ISBN0-87814-823-X.
Mabro, Robert; Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (2006). Oil in the 21st century: issues, challenges
and opportunities. Oxford Press. ISBN9780199207381.
Maugeri, Leonardo (2005). The Age of Oil: What They Don't Want You to Know About the World's Most
Controversial Resource (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=mzHt5hYeXlIC). Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot. p.15.
ISBN978-1-59921-118-3.
Speight, James G. (1999). The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum. Marcel Dekker. ISBN0-8247-0217-4.
Speight, James G; Ancheyta, Jorge, ed. (2007). Hydroprocessing of Heavy Oils and Residua. CRC Press.
ISBN0-8493-7419-7.
Vassiliou, Marius (2009). Historical Dictionary of the Petroleum Industry. Scarecrow Press (Rowman &
Littlefield). ISBN0-8108-5993-9.
Petroleum
26
Further reading
Khavari, Farid A. (1990). Oil and Islam: the Ticking Bomb. First ed. Malibu, Calif.: Roundtable Publications. viii,
277 p., ill. with maps and charts. ISBN 0-915677-55-5
External links
Petroleum (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Science/ Earth_Sciences/ Geology/ Petroleum) at DMOZ
Petroleum Online e-Learning resource from IHRDC (http:/ / www. petroleumonline. com/ )
Largest Oil producers in the World (http:/ / www. whichcountry. co/
top-10-largest-oil-producing-countries-in-the-world/ )
In-depth: Brent and WTI crude oil. What makes price difference (http:/ / www. forexinfo. info/
In-depth-Brent-and-WTI-crude-oil)
U.S. Energy Information Administration (http:/ / www. eia. doe. gov/ oil_gas/ petroleum/ info_glance/ petroleum.
html)
U.S. Department of Energy EIA World supply and consumption (http:/ / www. eia. doe. gov/ emeu/
international/ contents. html)
Who are the major players supplying the world oil market? (http:/ / tonto. eia. doe. gov/ energy_in_brief/
world_oil_market. cfm)
American Petroleum Institute (http:/ / www. api. org/ ) the trade association of the US oil industry.
Oil survey [[OECD (http:/ / www. iea. org/ Textbase/ stats/ surveys/ oilsurv. pdf)] International Energy Agency
]
Oil and Gas Industry Learning Center information on oil and gas processes (http:/ / www. petrostrategies.org/
Learning_Center/ learning_center. htm)
U.S. National Library of Medicine: Hazardous Substances Databank Crude Oil (http:/ / toxnet. nlm. nih. gov/
cgi-bin/ sis/ search/ r?dbs+ hsdb:@term+ @na+ @rel+ Crude+ oil)
BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2012 (http:/ / www. bp. com/ sectionbodycopy. do?categoryId=7500&
contentId=7068481:)
Crude (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ science/ crude/ ): 2007 Australian Broadcasting Corporation documentary [3 x
30 minutes] about the formation of oil, and humanity's use of it
Petroleum industry
27
Petroleum industry
The distribution of oil and gas reserves among the world's 50 largest oil companies. The
reserves of the privately owned companies are grouped together. The oil produced by the
"supermajor" companies accounts for less than 15% of the total world supply. Over 80%
of the world's reserves of oil and natural gas are controlled by national oil companies. Of
the world's 20 largest companies, 15 are state-owned companies.
World oil reserves, 2009.
World crude oil production from wells (excludes
surface-mined oil, such as from Canadian heavy
oil sands), 1930-2012
The petroleum industry includes the
global processes of exploration,
extraction, refining, transporting (often
by oil tankers and pipelines), and
marketing petroleum products. The
largest volume products of the industry
are fuel oil and gasoline (petrol).
Petroleum (oil) is also the raw material
for many chemical products, including
pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers,
pesticides, and plastics. The industry is
usually divided into three major
components: upstream, midstream and
downstream. Midstream operations are
usually included in the downstream
category.
Petroleum is vital to many industries,
and is of importance to the
maintenance of industrial civilization
in its current configuration, and thus is
a critical concern for many nations. Oil
accounts for a large percentage of the
worlds energy consumption, ranging
from a low of 32% for Europe and
Asia, to a high of 53% for the Middle
East.
Other geographic regions
consumption patterns are as follows:
South and Central America (44%),
Africa (41%), and North America
(40%). The world consumes 30 billion
barrels (4.8km) of oil per year, with
developed nations being the largest
consumers. The United States
consumed 25% of the oil produced in
2007.
[1]
The production, distribution,
refining, and retailing of petroleum
taken as a whole represents the world's
largest industry in terms of dollar
value.
Petroleum industry
28
Graph of Top Oil Producing Countries 1960-2006
Governments such as the United States government provide a heavy
public subsidy to petroleum companies, with major tax breaks at
virtually every stage of oil exploration and extraction, including the
costs of oil field leases and drilling equipment.
[2]
History
Natural history
Petroleum is a naturally occurring liquid found in rock formations. It
consists of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular
weights, plus other organic compounds. It is generally accepted that oil
is formed mostly from the carbon rich remains of ancient plankton
after exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years. Over time, the decayed
residue was covered by layers of mud and silt, sinking further down into the Earths crust and preserved there
between hot and pressured layers, gradually transforming into oil reservoirs.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Early history
Petroleum in an unrefined state has been utilized by humans for over 5000 years. Oil in general has been used since
early human history to keep fires ablaze, and in warfare.
Its importance to the world economy evolved slowly, with whale oil used for lighting in the 19th century and wood
and coal used for heating and cooking well into the 20th century. The Industrial Revolution generated an increasing
need for energy which was met mainly by coal, and with other sources including whale oil. However, when it was
discovered that kerosene could be extracted from crude oil and used as a lighting and heating fuel, petroleum was in
great demand, and by the early twentieth century had become the most valuable commodity traded on world
markets.
[3]
Modern history
See also: Baku oil boom and The Petroleum Trail International Tourist Trail
Galician oil wells
Imperial Russia produced 3,500 tons of oil in 1825 and
doubled its output by mid-century.
[4]
After oil drilling
began in what is now Azerbaijan in 1848, two large
pipelines were built in the Russian Empire: the 833km
long pipeline to transport oil from the Caspian to the
Black Sea port of Batumi (Baku-Batumi pipeline),
completed in 1906, and the 162km long pipeline to
carry oil from Chechnya to the Caspian.
At the turn of the 20th century, Imperial Russia's output
of oil, almost entirely from the Apsheron Peninsula,
accounted for half of the world's production and
dominated international markets.
[5]
Nearly 200 small
refineries operated in the suburbs of Baku by 1884.
[6]
As a side effect of these early developments, the Apsheron Peninsula emerged as the world's "oldest legacy of oil
pollution and environmental negligence."
[7]
In 1878, Ludvig Nobel and his Branobel company "revolutionized oil
transport" by commissioning the first oil tanker and launching it on the Caspian Sea.
Petroleum industry
29
The first modern oil refineries were built by Ignacy ukasiewicz near Jaso (then in the dependent Kingdom of
Galicia and Lodomeria in Central European Galicia), Poland in 185456. These were initially small as demand for
refined fuel was limited. The refined products were used in artificial asphalt, machine oil and lubricants, in addition
to ukasiewicz's kerosene lamp. As kerosene lamps gained popularity, the refining industry grew in the area.
The first commercial oil well in Canada became operational in 1858 at Oil Springs, Ontario (then Canada West).
Businessman James Miller Williams dug several wells between 1855 and 1858 before discovering a rich reserve of
oil four metres below ground.
[8][9]
Williams extracted 1.5 million litres of crude oil by 1860, refining much of it into
kerosene lamp oil. Some historians challenge Canadas claim to North Americas first oil field, arguing that
Pennsylvanias famous Drake Well was the continents first. But there is evidence to support Williams, not least of
which is that the Drake well did not come into production until August 28, 1859. The controversial point might be
that Williams found oil above bedrock while Edwin Drakes well located oil within a bedrock reservoir. The
discovery at Oil Springs touched off an oil boom which brought hundreds of speculators and workers to the area.
Canada's first gusher (flowing well) erupted on January 16, 1862, when local oil man John Shaw struck oil at 158
feet (48 m). For a week the oil gushed unchecked at levels reported as high as 3,000 barrels per day.
The first modern oil drilling in the United States began in West Virginia and Pennsylvania in the 1850s. Edwin
Drake's 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is typically considered the first true modern oil well, and touched
off a major boom.
[10][11]
In the first quarter of the 20th century, the United States overtook Russia as the world's
largest oil producer. By the 1920s, oil fields had been established in many countries including Canada, Poland,
Sweden, Ukraine, the United States, Peru and Venezuela.
The first successful oil tanker, the Zoroaster, was built in 1878 in Sweden, designed by Ludvig Nobel. It operated
from Baku to Astrakhan.
[12]
A number of new tanker designs were developed in the 1880s.
In the early 1930s the Texas Company developed the first mobile steel barges for drilling in the brackish coastal
areas of the Gulf of Mexico. In 1937 Pure Oil Company (now part of Chevron Corporation) and its partner Superior
Oil Company (now part of ExxonMobil Corporation) used a fixed platform to develop a field in 14 feet (4.3m) of
water, one mile (1.6km) offshore of Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana. In early 1947 Superior Oil erected a
drilling/production oil platform in 20ft (6.1m) of water some 18 milesWikipedia:Vagueness off Vermilion Parish,
Louisiana. It was Kerr-McGee Oil Industries (now Anadarko Petroleum Corporation), as operator for partners
Phillips Petroleum (ConocoPhillips) and Stanolind Oil & Gas (BP), that completed its historic Ship Shoal Block 32
well in October 1947, months before Superior actually drilled a discovery from their Vermilion platform farther
offshore. In any case, that made Kerr-McGee's well the first oil discovery drilled out of sight of land.
[13][14]
After World War II ended, the countries of the Middle East took the lead in oil production from the United States.
Important developments since World War II include deep-water drilling, the introduction of the Drillship, and the
growth of a global shipping network for petroleum relying upon oil tankers and pipelines. In the 1960s and 1970s,
multi-governmental organizations of oilproducing nations OPEC and OAPEC played a major role in setting
petroleum prices and policy. Oil spills and their cleanup have become an issue of increasing political, environmental,
and economic importance.
Petroleum industry
30
Industry structure
NIS refinery in Panevo, Serbia
The American Petroleum Institute divides the petroleum industry into
five sectors:
[15]
upstream (exploration, development and production of crude oil or
natural gas)
downstream (oil tankers, refiners, retailers and consumers)
pipeline
marine
service and supply
Upstream
Oil companies used to be classified by sales as "supermajors" (BP, Chevron, ExxonMobil, ConocoPhillips, Shell,
Eni and Total S.A.), "majors", and "independents" or "jobbers". In recent years however, National Oil Companies
(NOC, as opposed to IOC, International Oil Companies) have come to control the rights over the largest oil reserves;
by this measure the top ten companies all are NOC. The following table shows the ten largest national oil companies
ranked by reserves
[16][17]
and by production.
[18]
Top 10 largest world oil companies by reserves and production
Rank Company
(Reserves)
Worldwide Liquids
Reserves (10
9
bbl)
Worldwide Natural
Gas Reserves (10
12
ft
3
)
Total Reserves in Oil
Equivalent Barrels (10
9
bbl)
Company
(Production)
Output
(Millions
bbl/day)
[1]
1
Saudi
Aramco
260 254 303
Saudi Aramco
12.5
2 NIOC 138 948 300 NIOC 6.4
3 Qatar
Petroleum
15 905 170 ExxonMobil 5.3
4
INOC
116 120 134
PetroChina
4.4
5
PDVSA
99 171 129 BP 4.1
6 ADNOC 92 199 126
Royal Dutch
Shell
3.9
7 Pemex 102 56 111 Pemex 3.6
8 NNPC 36 184 68 Chevron 3.5
9 NOC 41 50 50 Kuwait Petroleum
Corporation
3.2
10
Sonatrach
12 159 39 ADNOC 2.9
^1 : Total energy output, including natural gas (converted to bbl of oil) for companies producing both.
Most upstream work in the oil field or on an oil well is contracted out to drilling contractors and oil field service
companies.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Aside from the NOCs which dominate the Upstream sector, there are many international companies that have a
market share. For example:
[19]
BG Group
BHP Billiton
ConocoPhillips
Petroleum industry
31
Chevron
Eni
ExxonMobil
Hess Ltd
Marathon Oil
Total
Tullow Oil
Midstream
Midstream operations are sometimes classified within the downstream sector, but these operations compose a
separate and discrete sector of the petroleum industry. Midstream operations and processes include the following:
Gathering: The gathering process employs narrow, low-pressure pipelines to connect oil- and gas-producing
wells to larger, long-haul pipelines or processing facilities.
[20]
Processing/refining: Processing and refining operations turn crude oil and gas into marketable products. In the
case of crude oil, these products include heating oil, gasoline for use in vehicles, jet fuel, and diesel oil.
[21]
Oil
refining processes include distillation, vacuum distillation, catalytic reforming, catalytic cracking, alkylation,
isomerization and hydrotreating. Natural gas processing includes compression; glycol dehydration; amine
treating; separating the product into pipeline-quality natural gas and a stream of mixed natural gas liquids; and
fractionation, which separates the stream of mixed natural gas liquids into its components. The fractionation
process yields ethane, propane, butane, isobutane, and natural gasoline.
Transportation: Oil and gas are transported to processing facilities, and from there to end users, by pipeline,
tanker/barge, truck, and rail. Pipelines are the most economical transportation method and are most suited to
movement across longer distances, for example, across continents.
[22]
Tankers and barges are also employed for
long-distance, often international transport. Rail and truck can also be used for longer distances but are most
cost-effective for shorter routes.
Storage: Midstream service providers provide storage facilities at terminals throughout the oil and gas
distribution systems. These facilities are most often located near refining and processing facilities and are
connected to pipeline systems to facilitate shipment when product demand must be met. While petroleum
products are held in storage tanks, natural gas tends to be stored in underground facilities, such as salt dome
caverns and depleted reservoirs.
Technological applications: Midstream service providers apply technological solutions to improve efficiency
during midstream processes. Technology can be used during compression of fuels to ease flow through pipelines;
to better detect leaks in pipelines; and to automate communications for better pipeline and equipment monitoring.
While some upstream companies carry out certain midstream operations, the midstream sector is dominated by a
number of companies that specialize in these services. Midstream companies include:
Aux Sable
Bridger Group
DCP Midstream
Enbridge Energy Partners
Enterprise Products Partners
Genesis Energy
Gibson Energy
Inergy Midstream
Kinder Morgan Energy Partners
Oneok Partners
Plains All American
Petroleum industry
32
Sunoco Logistics
Targa Midstream Services
TransCanada
Williams Companies
Environmental impact and future shortages
Some petroleum industry operations have been responsible for water pollution through by-products of refining and
oil spills. The industry is the largest industrial source of emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), a group of
chemicals that contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone (smog).
[23]
The combustion of fossil fuels produces greenhouse gases and other air pollutants as by-products. Pollutants include
nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, volatile organic compounds and heavy metals.
As petroleum is a non-renewable natural resource the industry is faced with an inevitable eventual depletion of the
world's oil supply. The BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2007 listed the reserve/production ratio for proven
resources worldwide. The study placed the ratio of proven reserves to production in the Middle East at 79.5 years,
Latin America at 41.2 years and North America at 12 years. A simplistic interpretation of the ratio has led to many
false predictions of immanent "running out of oil" since the early years of the oil industry in the 1800s. This has been
especially true in the United States, where the ratio of proved reserves-to-production has been between 8 years and
17 years since 1920. Many have mistakenly interpreted the result as the number of years before the oil supply is
exhausted. Such analyses do not take into account future reserve growth.
The Hubbert peak theory, which introduced the concept of peak oil, questions the sustainability of oil production. It
suggests that after a peak in oil production rates, a period of oil depletion will ensue. Since virtually all economic
sectors rely heavily on petroleum, peak oil could lead to a partial or complete failure of markets.
[24]
According to research by IBIS World, biofuels (primarily ethanol, but also biodiesel) will continue to supplement
petroleum. However output levels are low, and these fuels will not displace local oil production. More than 90% of
the ethanol used in the US is blended with gasoline to produce a 10% ethanol mix, lifting the oxygen content of the
fuel.
[25]
Petroleum industry in popular culture
The Petroleum industry is a favorite subject in contemporary fiction. Films with oil-industry themes include There
Will Be Blood (2007) set around Southern California's oil boom of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and
Syriana (2005) set in present-day Middle-East.
References
[1] "The World Factbook". Country Comparison - Oil Consumption. Found at https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/
the-world-factbook/ rankorder/ 2174rank.html
[2] New York Times, 2010 July 3, "As Oil Industry Fights a Tax, It Reaps Subsidies," http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2010/ 07/ 04/ business/
04bptax. html?_r=1
[3] [3] Halliday, Fred. The Middle East in International Relations: Power and Ideology. Cambridge University Pres: USA, 270
[4] N.Y. Krylov, A.A. Bokserman, E.R.Stavrovsky. The Oil Industry of the Former Soviet Union. CRC Press, 1998. Page 187.
[5] Shirin Akiner, Anne Aldis. The Caspian: Politics, Energy and Security. Routledge, 2004. Page 5.
[6] United States Congress, Joint Economic Committee. The Former Soviet Union in Transition. M.E. Sharpe, 1993. Page 463.
[7] Quoted from: Tatyana Saiko. Environmental Crises. Pearson Education, 2000. Page 223.
[8] [8] Turnbull Elford, Jean. Canada West's Last Frontier. Lambton County Historical Society, 1982, p. 110
[9] Sarnia Observer and Lambton Advertiser, " Important Discovery in the Township of Enniskillen (http:/ / www. lclmg. org/ lclmg/ Museums/
OilMuseumofCanada/ ImportantDiscoveryintheTownshipofEnniskillen/ tabid/ 356/ Default. aspx)," 5 August 1858, p 2.
[10] John Steele Gordon (http:/ / www. americanheritage.com/ articles/ magazine/ ah/ 2007/ 1/ 2007_1_23. shtml) "10 Moments That Made
American Business," American Heritage, February/March 2007.
[11] [11] Vassiliou, Marius (2009). Historical Dictionary of the Petroleum Industry. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press (Rowman and Littlefield), 700 pp.
Petroleum industry
33
[12] [12] Tolf, Robert W. (1976). "4: The World's First Oil Tankers". The Russian Rockefellers: The Saga of the Nobel Family and the Russian Oil
Industry. Hoover Press. ISBN 0-8179-6581-5. p. 55.
[13] Ref accessed 02-12-89 by technical aspects and coast mapping. Kerr-McGee
[14] Project Redsand (http:/ / www. project-redsand.com/ )
[15] American Petroleum Institute. "Industry Sectors." http:/ / www. api. org/ aboutoilgas/ sectors/ Retrieved 12 May 2008
[16] Ranked in order of 2007 worldwide oil equivalent reserves as reported in "OGJ 200/100", Oil & Gas Journal, September 15, 2008. http:/ /
www.petrostrategies.org/ Links/ Worlds_Largest_Oil_and_Gas_Companies_Sites. htm
[17] [17] Ranking by oil reserves and production, 2006 values
[18] "The World's 25 Biggest Oil Companies" (http:/ / www. forbes. com/ pictures/ mef45glfe/ not-just-the-usual-suspects-2/ ) (2012). Forbes
[19] International Association of oil and Gas Producers http:/ / www. ogp. org. uk/ about-ogp/ membership/ upstream-companies/
[20] "The Transportation of Natural Gas," (http:/ / www.naturalgas. org/ naturalgas/ transport. asp) NaturalGas.org, Retrieved December 14,
2012.
[21] "Refining and Product Specifications Module Overview," (http:/ / www. petroleumonline. com/ content/ overview. asp?mod=8) Petroleum
Online, Retrieved December 14, 2012.
[22] Trench, Cheryl J., "How Pipelines Make the Oil Market Work Their Networks, Operation and Regulation," (http:/ / www. pipeline101.
com/ reports/ Notes. pdf) Allegro Energy Group, December 2001.
[23] http:/ / www.epa. gov/ airquality/ oilandgas/ basic. html
[24] " German Military Braces for Scarcity After Peak Oil(http:/ / green. blogs. nytimes. com/ 2010/ 09/ 09/ study-warns-of-perilous-oil-crisis/
?scp=1& sq=peak oil& st=cse)". The New York Times. September 9, 2010.
[25] IBISWorld. "US Oil Drilling Industry Market Research Report." http:/ / www. ibisworld. com/ industry/ retail. aspx?indid=103& chid=10
Retrieved 14 May 2008
Further reading
Ordons Oil & Gas Information & News (http:/ / www. ordons. com)
Robert Sobel The Money Manias: The Eras of Great Speculation in America, 17701970 (1973) reprinted (2000).
Daniel Yergin, The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power, (Simon and Schuster 1991; paperback,
1993), ISBN 0-671-79932-0.
Matthew R. Simmons, Twilight in the Desert The Coming Saudi Oil Shock and the World Economy, John Wiley
& Sons, 2005, ISBN 0-471-73876-X.
Matthew Yeomans, Oil: Anatomy of an Industry (New Press, 2004), ISBN 1-56584-885-3.
Smith, GO (1920): Where the World Gets Its Oil: National Geographic, February 1920, pp 181202
Marius Vassiliou, Historical Dictionary of the Petroleum Industry. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press (Rowman &
Littlefield), 700pp. ISBN 0-8108-5993-9.
Ronald W. Ferrier; J. H. Bamberg (1982). The History of the British Petroleum Company: Volume 1, The
Developing Years, 1901-1932 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=aNBQnow_wbYC& pg=SL1-PA13).
Cambridge UP. pp.A13.
External links
Energy news and industry magazines (http:/ / www. energyglobal. com)
OPEC - Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (http:/ / www. opec. org/ opec_web/ en/ )
AAPG - American Association of Petroleum Geologists (http:/ / www. aapg. org/ )
List of oil fields
34
List of oil fields
USGS map of countries where oil is located.
An oil refinery in Mina-Al-Ahmadi, Kuwait
This list of oil fields includes some major oil fields of the past and
present.
The list is incomplete; there are more than 65,000 oil and gas fields of
all sizes in the world.
[1]
However, 94% of known oil is concentrated in
fewer than 1500 giant and major fields.
[2]
Most of the world's largest
oilfields are located in the Middle East, but there are also supergiant
(>10 billion bbls) oilfields in India, Brazil, Mexico, Venezuela,
Kazakhstan, and Russia.
Amounts listed below, in billions of barrels, are the estimated ultimate
recoverable petroleum resources (proved reserves plus cumulative
production), given historical production and current extraction
technology. Oil shale reserves (perhaps 3 trillion barrels
(4.810
11
m
3
)) and Coal reserves, both of which can be converted to
liquid petroleum, are not included in this chart. Other non-conventional
liquid fuel sources are similarly excluded in this list.
Oil fields greater than 1 billion barrels (160million cubic metres)
Field Location Discovered Started
Production
Peaked Recoverable Oil, Past
and Future (Billion
Barrels)
Production
(Million
Barrels/day)
Rate of Decline
Ghawar Field Saudi Arabia 1948 1951 2005,
disputed
75-83
5
[3]
8% per
yearWikipedia:Citation
needed
Burgan Field Kuwait 1937 1948 2005 66-72
1.7
[4]
14% per
yearWikipedia:Citation
needed
Ferdows/Mound/Zagheh
Field
Iran 2003 7-9 (38 Gb resource)
Sugar Loaf field Brazil 2007 ~ 25-40 Not yet developed
Cantarell Field Mexico 1976 1981 2004 35, 18 billion
recoverable
.340
peaked in 2004 at 2.14
million barrels per day
(340,000m
3
/d)
Bolivar Coastal Field Venezuela 1917 1922 30-32 2.6-3
Azadegan field Iran 2004 26 (9 recoverable)
Lula Field Brazil, Santos
Basin
2007 5-8
Safaniya-Khafji Field Saudi
Arabia/Neutral
Zone
1951 30
List of oil fields
35
Esfandiar Field Iran 30
Rumaila Field Iraq 1953 17 1.3
Tengiz Field Kazakhstan 1979 1993 2010 26-40 .53
Expanding from 285k to
1.3 m bpd [5]
Ahwaz Field Iran 1958
1970s
[6]
10.1 .700
Expected to surpass
original peak due to
new gas injection.[7]
Kirkuk Field Iraq 1927 1934 8.5 0.480
Shaybah Field Saudi Arabia 15
Agha Jari Field Iran 1937 8.7 .200
Majnoon Field Iraq 1975 11-20 0.5
Samotlor Field Russia, West
Siberia
1965 1969
1980
[8]
14-16 0.844 (depletion: 73%)
Romashkino Field Russia
Volga-Ural
1948 1949 in
decline
16-17 .301 (2006) depletion: 85%
Prudhoe Bay United States,
Alaska
1967-68 1977 1988 25 (~13 recoverable) 0.66 11% per
yearWikipedia:Citation
needed
Sarir Field Libya 1961 1961 12 (6.5 billion
recoverable)
Priobskoye field Russia, West
Siberia
1982 2000 13 0.680 (2008)
14% depleted,
Production rapidly
expanding.
[9]
Lyantorskoye field Russia, West
Siberia
1966 1979 13 0.168 (2004) depletion: 81%
Abqaiq Field Saudi Arabia 12 0.43
Chicontepec Field Mexico 1926 6.5 (19 certified)
Berri Field Saudi Arabia 12
Zakum Field Abu Dhabi,
UAE
1965 1967 12
West Qurna Field Iraq 1973 15-21 0.18-0.25
(pot.)*civil
war
Manifa Field Saudi Arabia 11
Fyodorovskoye Field Russia, West
Siberia
1971 1974 11 1.9 (197x)
East Baghdad Field Iraq 1976 8 0-0.05
(pot.)*civil
war
Faroozan-Marjan Field Saudi
Arabia/Iran
10
Marlim Field Brazil,
Campos Basin
in
decline
10-14 8% per year
Awali Bahrain 1
Aghajari Field Iran 14
List of oil fields
36
Azadegan Field Iran 1999 5.2
Gachsaran Field Iran 1927 15
Marun Field Iran 16
Mesopotamian Foredeep
Basin
Kuwait 66-72
Minagish Kuwait 2
Raudhatain Kuwait 11
Sabriya Kuwait 3.8-4
Yibal Oman 1
Mukhaizna Oil Field Oman 1
Dukhan Field Qatar 2.2
Halfaya Field Iraq 4.1
Az Zubayr Field Iraq 6
Nahr Umr Field Iraq 6
Abu-Sa'fah field Saudi Arabia 6.1
Hassi Messaoud Algeria 9
Kizomba Complex Angola 2
Dalia (oil field) Angola 1
Belayim Angola >1
Zafiro Angola 1
Zelten oil field Libya 2.5
Agbami Field Nigeria 0.8-1.2
Bonga Field Nigeria 1.4
Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli Azerbaijan 1985 1997 5.4
Karachaganak Field Kazakhstan 1972 2.5
Kashagan Field Kazakhstan 2000
30
[10]
Kurmangazy Field Kazakhstan 6-7
Darkhan Field Kazakhstan 9.5
Zhanazhol Field Kazakhstan 3
Uzen Field Kazakhstan 7
Kalamkas Field Kazakhstan 3.2
Zhetybay Field Kazakhstan 2.1
Nursultan Field Kazakhstan 4.5
Ekofisk oil field Norway 1969 3.3
Troll Vest Norway 1.4
Statfjord Norway 1974 3.4
Gullfaks Norway 1978 2.1
Oseberg Norway 1979 1988 2.2 3.78
Snorre Norway 1.5
List of oil fields
37
Mamontovskoye Field Russia 8
Russkoye Field Russia 2.5
Kamennoe Field Russia 1.9
Vankor Field Russia 1983 2009 3.8
Vatyeganskoye Field Russia 1.4
Tevlinsko-Russkinskoye
Field
Russia 1.3
Sutorminskoye Field Russia 1.3
Urengoy group Russia 1
Ust-Balykskoe Field Russia >1
Tuymazinskoe Field Russia 3
Arlanskoye Field Russia >2
South-Hilchuy Field Russia 3.1
North-Dolginskoye
Field
Russia 2.2
Nizhne-Chutinskoe
Field
Russia 1.7
South-Dolginskoye
Field
Russia 1.6
Prirazlomnoye Field Russia 1.4
West-Matveevskoye
Field
Russia 1.1
Sakhalin Islands Russia 14
Odoptu Russia 1
Arukutun-Dagi Russia 1
Piltun-Astokhskoye
Field
Russia 1
Ayash Field
East-Odoptu Field
Russia 4.5
Verhne-Chonskoye
Field
Russia 1.3
Talakan Field Russia 1.3
North-Caucasus Basin Russia 1.7
Clair oilfield United
Kingdom
1977 5 (1.75 recoverable)
Forties oilfield United
Kingdom
1970 5
Jupiter field Brazil 7
Cupiagua/Cusiana Colombia 1
Boscn Field,
Venezuela
Venezuela 1.6
Pembina Canada 1953 1953
Swan Hills Canada
List of oil fields
38
Rainbow Lake Canada
Hibernia Canada 1979 1997 3
Terra Nova Field Canada 1984 2002 1.0
Kelly-Snyder /
SACROC
United States,
Texas
1.5
Bakken Oil Field United States,
North Dakota
1951 1 billion recovered as
of May 2014, using
current technology an
estimated 7.4 billion
could be recovered,
nearly double the
estimate from just 10
years ago)
.862
Yates Oil Field United States,
Texas
1926 1926 1929
3.0 (2.0 billion
recovered; 1.0 reserve
remaining)
[11][12]
Kuparuk oil field United States,
Alaska
1969 6
Alpine United States,
Alaska
0.4-1
East Texas Oil Field United States,
Texas
1930 6
Spraberry Trend United States,
Texas
1943
10
[13]
Wilmington Oil Field United States,
California
1932 3
South Belridge Oil Field United States,
California
1911
2
[14]
Coalinga Oil Field United States,
California
1887 1
Elk Hills United States,
California
1911 1.5
Kern River United States,
California
1899 2.5
Midway-Sunset Field United States,
California
1894 3.4
Thunder Horse Oil Field United States,
Gulf of
Mexico
>1
Kingfish Australia 1.2
Halibut Australia 1
Daqing Field China 1959 1960 16 depletion: 90%
Jidong Field China 2.2
Tahe Field China 8
Nanpu Oil Field China 7.35
List of oil fields
39
External links
Interactive Map over the Norwegian Continental Shelf
[15]
, live information, facts, pictures and videos.
US Oil Fields
[16]
, List of Oil & Gas Fields in the USA.
References
[1] [1] Li Guoyu (2011), World Atlas of Oil and Gas Basins (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell), p. 20.
[2] [2] Ivanhoe, L. F, and G G. Leckie, -"Global oil, gas fields, sizes tallied, analyzed," Oil and Gas Journal. Feb. 15, 1993, pp. 87-91
[3] [3] Ghawar Field
[4] [4] Burgan Field
[5] http:/ / www. menas.co. uk/ lc.aspx?country=80& tab=industry
[6] Blackwell Energy Research Oil and Energy Trends (http:/ / www. oilandenergytrends. com/ ger/ ger_reports_iran. asp)
[7] http:/ / www. thefreelibrary.com/ Iran+ -+ Onshore+ Oil+ & + Gas+ Fields+ Found+ After+ 1954-a054294175
[8] Alexander's Gas & Oil Connections - TNK to revive Samotlor oil field (http:/ / www. gasandoil. com/ goc/ company/ cnr12732. htm)
[9] Alexander's Gas & Oil Connections - Yukos to double output from Priobskoye field (http:/ / www. gasandoil. com/ goc/ company/ cnr22434.
htm)
[10] http:/ / www.kmg.kz/ index. cfm?tid=24
[11] University of Texas Oil Connections (http:/ / www. utwatch. org/ utimco/ oilfields. html)
[12] NASA picture from space; barrel 2 billion from the field was filled in 1995 (http:/ / earthobservatory. nasa. gov/ IOTD/ view. php?id=6776)
[13] Top 100 Oil and Gas Fields (U.S. Department of Energy) (http:/ / www. eia.doe. gov/ pub/ oil_gas/ natural_gas/ data_publications/
crude_oil_natural_gas_reserves/ current/ pdf/ appb.pdf)
[14] California Department of Conservation, Oil and Gas Statistics (ftp:/ / ftp. consrv. ca. gov/ pub/ oil/ annual_reports/ 2004/ 0102stats. pdf)
[15] http:/ / www.aftenbladet.no/ energi/ energymap
[16] http:/ / www.oilshalegas. com
List of oilfield service companies
This is a list of oilfield service companies companies which provide services to the petroleum exploration and
production industry but do not typically produce petroleum themselves. In the list, notable subsidiary companies and
divisions are listed as sub-lists of their current parent companies.
ABB Group Oil, Gas and Petrochemical Business Unit
Abbot Group
Aibel
Acteon
Aker Solutions
AMEC
Baker Hughes
Baker Hughes INTEQ
Calfrac Well Services
Cameron
Canary, LLC
CGGVeritas
CH2M HILL
Challenger LTD
China Oilfield Services
Clariant Oil Services
Core Laboratories, Inc.
Corex
Cyntech
Denca Services Limited
List of oilfield service companies
40
Dresser Industries
Ensco plc
ESG Solutions
Expro International Group
Fairfield Industries
FMC Technologies
Flowserve
Fluor Corporation
Foster Wheeler
Fugro
Gaia Earth Sciences
GE Oil & Gas
GE VetcoGray
Wellstream
Geokinetics
Geophysical Service
Gyrodata
Grup Servicii Petroliere
Helix Energy Solutions Group
Halliburton
WellDynamics
Hughes Tool Company
Hunting plc
Ingrain, Inc.
Institute of Oil Transportation
ION Geophysical
J&L Supply Co.
Jacobs Engineering Group
Key Energy Services
Kodiak Coil Tubing
Larsen & Toubro
McDermott International
MODEC
Moody International Group
Nabors Industries
Nalco Champion
National Oilwell Varco
NEOS GeoSolutions
Oceaneering International Inc.
Petrofac
Petroleum Geo-Services
PJP4
Precision Drilling
Qserv
Saipem
Sanjel Corporation
Schlumberger
List of oilfield service companies
41
Geoservices
Smith International
WesternGeco
Geco-Prakla
Geophysical Service
Rand Group
Scomi
Score Group plc
Seaboard International
Siemens Oil & Gas Division
ShawCor
Stewart & Stevenson
Swire
Technip
Tecnicas Reunidas
Tesco Corporation
Tracerco
Transocean
Trican Well Service
Trinidad Drilling
Weatherford International
International Logging
Wasco Energy
Weir Group
Welltec
Wood Group
WorleyParsons
Zenith Oilfield Technology
World oil market chronology from 2003
42
World oil market chronology from 2003
This article is a chronology of events affecting the oil market. For a discussion of the energy crisis of the same
period, see 2000s energy crisis and Effects of 2000s energy crisis. For current fuel prices see Gasoline usage
and pricing.
Medium term crude oil prices since May 1987.
New York Mercantile Exchange prices for West Texas Intermediate since 2000, monthly
overlaid on daily prices to show the variation
From the mid-1980s to September
2003, the inflation adjusted price of a
barrel of crude oil on NYMEX was
generally under $25/barrel. Then,
during 2004, the price rose above $40,
and then $50. A series of events led the
price to exceed $60 by August 11,
2005, and then briefly exceed $75 in
the middle of 2006. Prices then
dropped back to $60/barrel by the early
part of 2007 before rising steeply again
to $92/barrel by October 2007, and
$99.29/barrel for December futures in
New York on November 21, 2007.
Throughout the first half of 2008, oil
regularly reached record high prices.
On February 29, 2008, oil prices
peaked at $103.05 per barrel, and
reached $110.20 on March 12, 2008,
the sixth record in seven trading days.
Prices on June 27, 2008, touched
$141.71/barrel, for August delivery in
the New York Mercantile Exchange
(after the recent $140.56/barrel), amid
Libya's threat to cut output, and
OPEC's president predicted prices may
reach $170 by the Northern summer.
The most recent price per barrel
maximum of $147.02 was reached on
July 11, 2008. After falling below $100 in the late summer of 2008, prices rose again in late September. On
September 22, oil rose over $25 to $130 before settling again to $120.92, marking a record one-day gain of $16.37.
Electronic crude oil trading was temporarily halted by NYMEX when the daily price rise limit of $10 was reached,
but the limit was reset
World oil market chronology from 2003
43
Oil prices for Brent in US$ (blue) and Euro (red)
seconds later and trading resumed.
[1]
By October 16, prices had fallen again
to below $70, and on November 6 oil
closed below $60.
As the price of producing petroleum
did not rise significantly, the price
increases have coincided with a period
of record profits for the oil
industry.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Between 2004 and 2007, the profits of
the six supermajors - ExxonMobil,
Total, Shell, BP, Chevron, and
ConocoPhillips - totaled $494.8
billion.
[2]
2003
United States crude oil prices averaged $30 a barrel in 2003 due to political instability within various oil producing
nations. It rose 19% from the average in 2002.
[3]
The 2003 invasion of Iraq marked a significant event for oil
markets because Iraq contains a large amount of global oil reserves.
[4]
The conflict coincided with an increase in
global demand for petroleum, but it also reduced Iraq's current oil production and has been blamed for increasing oil
prices. However, oil company CEO Matthew Simmons emphasizes the peaking and decline of oil-exporting in
Mexico, Indonesia and the United Kingdom is the reason for the price gouging. According to Simmons, isolated
events, such as the Iraq war, affect short-term prices but do not determine a long-term trend. Simmons cites the use
of enhanced oil recovery techniques in large fields such as Mexico's Cantarell, which maintained production for a
few years until it eventually declined. Pumping oil out of Iraq may reduce petroleum prices in the short term, but will
be unable to perpetually lower the price. From Simmons' point of view, the invasion of Iraq is associated with the
start of long-term increase in oil prices, but it may mitigate the decline in oil production by retaining a partial amount
of Iraq's oil reserves. As a direct consequence, the oil production capacity was diminished to 2 million barrels
(320,000m
3
) per day.
2004 to 2008: rising costs of oil
July 2006, San Francisco, California
After retreating for several months in late 2004 and early 2005, crude
oil prices rose to new highs in March 2005. The price on NYMEX has
been above the $50 per barrel since March 5, 2005. In June 2005,
crude oil prices broke the psychological barrier of $60 per barrel. After
the destruction of Hurricane Katrina in the United States, gasoline
prices reached a record high during the first week of September 2005.
The average retail price was, on average, $3.04 per U.S. gallon. The
average retail price of a liter of petrol in the United Kingdom was
86.4p on October 19, 2006, or $6.13 per gallon. Oil production in Iraq
continued to decline as result of the nation's ongoing conflict causing a
decrease in production to 1 million barrels per day (160,000m
3
/d).
In mid-2006, crude oil was traded for over USD 79 per barrel (bbl), setting an all-time record. The run-up is
attributed to a 1.9 increase in gasoline consumption, geopolitical tensions resulting from North Korea's missile
World oil market chronology from 2003
44
launch. The ongoing Iraq war, as well as Israel and Lebanon going to war are also causative factors. The higher price
of oil substantially cut growth of world oil demand in 2006, including a reduction in oil demand of the OECD.
[5]
After news of North Korea's successful nuclear test on October 9, 2006, oil prices rose past $60 a barrel, but fell
back the next day.
On October 19, 2007, U.S. light crude rose to $90.02 per barrel due to a combination of ongoing tensions in eastern
Turkey and the reducing strength of the U.S. dollar.
[6]
Prices fell briefly on the expectation of increased U.S. crude
oil stocks, however they quickly rose to a peak of $92.22 on October 26, 2007.
[7]
On January 2, 2008, U.S. light crude surpassed $100 per barrel before falling to $99.69 due to tensions on New
Years Day in Nigeria, and on suspicion that U.S. crude stocks will have dropped for the seventh consecutive week. A
BBC report from the following day stated a single trader bid up the price; Stephen Schork, a former floor trader on
the New York Mercantile Exchange and the editor of an oil market newsletter, said one floor trader bought 1,000
barrels (160m
3
), the smallest amount permitted, and immediately sold it for $99.40 at a $600 loss.
[8]
Oil fell back
later in the week to $97.91 at the close of trading on Friday, January 4, in part due to a weak jobs report that showed
unemployment had risen.
On March 5, 2008, OPEC accused the United States of economic "mismanagement" that was pushing oil prices to
record highs, rebuffing calls to boost output and laying blame at the George W. Bush administration. Oil prices
surged above $110 to a new inflation-adjusted record on March 12, 2008 before settling at $109.92. On April 18,
2008 the price of oil broke $117 per barrel after a Nigerian militant group claimed an attack on an oil pipeline.
[9]
Oil
prices rose to a new high of $119.90 a barrel on April 22, 2008, before dipping and then rising $3 on April 25, 2008
to $119.10 on the New York Mercantile Exchange after a news report that a ship contracted by the U.S. Military
Sealift Command fired at an Iranian boat.
[10]
On June 6, prices rose $11 in 24 hours, the largest gain in history due to the possibility of an Israeli attack on Iran.
[11]
The combination of two major oil suppliers reducing supply generated fears of a repeat of the 1973 oil crisis. The
mid-July decision of Saudi Arabia to increase oil output caused little significant influence on prices. According to
the oil minister of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Gholam-Hossein Nozari, the world markets were saturated
[12]
and a
Saudi promise of increased production would not lower prices.
[13]
Several Asian refineries were refusing Saudi
petroleum in late June because they were over priced grade.
[14]
On July 3, "the Brent North Sea crude contract for August delivery rose to $US145.01 a barrel" in Asian trade.
[15]
London Brent crude reached a record of $145.75 a barrel, and Brent crude for August delivery peaked to a record
$145.11 a barrel on London's ICE Futures Europe exchange, and to $144.44 a barrel on the NYMExchange.
[16][17]
By midday in Europe, crude rose to $145.85 a barrel on the NYME while Brent crude futures rose to a trading record
of $146.69 a barrel on the ICE Futures exchange.
[18][19]
World oil market chronology from 2003
45
2008: oil prices peak and then decline
March 2009, Dunellen, New Jersey
On July 15, 2008, a bubble-bursting sell-off began after remarks by
President Bush the previous day that the ban on oil drilling would be
lifted. This precipitated an $8 drop, the biggest since the first US-Iraq
war. By the end of the week, crude oil fell 11% to $128, also affected
by easing of tensions between the US and Iran.
[20]
By August 13,
prices had fallen to $113 a barrel. By the middle of September, oil
price fell below $100 for the first time in over six months,
[21]
falling
below $92 in the aftermath of the Lehman Brothers bankruptcy.
[22]
A stronger US dollar and a likely decline in European demand were
suggested to be among the causes of the decline. By October 24, the
price of crude dropped to $64.15, and closed at $60.77 on November 6.
2009
In January 2009, oil prices rose temporarily because of tensions in the
Gaza Strip. From mid January to February 13, oil fell to near $35 a
barrel.
2010
On May 21, 2010, the price of oil had dropped in two weeks from $88 to $70 mainly due to concerns over how
European countries would reduce budget deficits; if the European economy slowed down, this would mean less
demand for crude oil. Also, if the European economic crisis caused the American economy to have problems,
demand for oil would be reduced further. Other factors included the strong dollar and high inventories. According to
the U.S. Energy Information Administration, gas prices nationwide averaged $2.91 on May 10, dropping to $2.79
two weeks later. The Deepwater Horizon oil spill was not a factor in gas prices since the well had not produced.
Prices rose back to $90/barrel in December 2010. The US average for a gallon of 87 octane regular unleaded
averaged $3.00/gallon on December 23, sparking fear of a second recession if prices reached $100/barrel and
$4.00/gallon gasoline, as forecasted for spring 2011.Wikipedia:Citation needed The price increases in December
were based on global demand and the Arctic blasts affecting North America and Europe.
2011
Political turmoil in Egypt, Libya, Yemen, and Bahrain drove oil prices to $95/barrel in late February 2011. A few
days prior, oil prices on the NYMEX closed at $86. Oil prices topped at $103 on February 24 where oil production is
curtailed to the political upheaval in Libya.
Oil supplies remained high, and Saudi Arabia assured an increase in production to counteract shutdowns. Still, the
Mideast and North African crisis led to a rise in oil prices to the highest level in two years, with gasoline prices
following. Though most Libyan oil went to Europe, all oil prices reacted. The average price of gasoline in the United
States increased 6 cents to $3.17. On March 1, 2011, a significant drop in Libyan production and fears of more
instability in other countries pushed the price of oil over $100 a barrel in New York trading, while the average price
of gas reached $3.37. Despite Saudi promises, the sour type oil the country exported could not replace the more
desirable sweet Libyan oil. On March 7, 2011, the average price of gas having reached $3.57, individuals were
making changes in their driving.
The weakened U.S. Dollar resulted in a spike to $112/barrel with the national average of $3.74/gallon - with
expectations of damaging the U.S. economy suggestive of a long-term recession. As of April 26, the national average
World oil market chronology from 2003
46
was $3.87 - with a fear of $4/gallon as the nationwide average prior to the summer driving season.
The national average rose on May 5, 2011 for the 44th straight day, reaching $3.98. However, that same day, West
Texas Intermediate crude fell below $100 a barrel, the lowest since March 16. This came after crude oil for June
delivery reached $114.83 on May 2, the highest since September 2008, before closing at $97.18 on May 6, a day
after dropping 9 percent, the most dramatic single-day drop in over two years. Gas prices fell slightly on May 6, and
experts predicted $3.50 a gallon by summer.
In mid-June, West Texas Intermediate crude for July delivery fell nearly $2 to $93.01, the lowest price since
February. The dollar was up and the euro and other currencies down, and the European economic crisis made
investors concerned. London Brent crude fell 81 cents to $113.21. On June 15 the Energy Information Association
said oil consumption was down 3.5 percent from a year earlier, but wholesale gasoline demand was up for the first
time in several weeks. The price of gas on June 17 was $3.67.5 a gallon, 25.1 cents lower than a month earlier but
96.8 cents above a year earlier. On June 24, the price of gas was $3.62.8 and expected to go much lower due to the
opening of the Strategic Petroleum Reserve. U.S. oil prices fell below $90 before rising again, and Brent crude fell
two percent. However, on June 29, West Texas intermediate crude had risen to $94.96, almost $5 above the lowest
point reached after the previous week's action. One reason was the falling dollar, as Greece appeared less likely to
default on its debt; concern over the Greek debt crisis had caused falling oil prices. After another week, oil for
August delivery had risen from $90.61 to $98.67 and gas prices were up five cents. Increased worldwide demand
was one reason. Brent Crude remained high at $118.38 partly due to supply problems in Europe, including lower
North Sea production and the continuing war in Libya.
On August 4, the price of oil dropped 6 percent to its lowest level in 6 months. On August 5, the price had dropped
$8.82 in a week to $86.88 per barrel on the New York Mercantile Exchange. The same pessimistic economic news
that caused stock prices to fall also decreased expected energy demand, and experts predicted a gas price drop of 35
cents per gallon from the average of $3.70. On August 8, oil fell over 6 percent, in its largest drop since May, to $81,
its lowest price of the year. On September 24, oil reached $79.85, down 9 percent for the week, due to concerns
about another recession and the overall world economy. The average price of gas was $3.51, with predictions of
$3.25 by November, but it was below $3 in some markets.
During October, the price of oil rose 22 percent, the fastest pace since February, as worries over the U.S. economy
decreased, leading to predictions of $4 by early 2012. As of November 8, the price reached $96.80. Gas prices were
not following the increase, due to lower demand resulting from the economy, the normal decrease in travel, lower oil
prices in other countries, and production of winter blends which cost less. The average rose slightly to $3.41 but
predictions of $3.25 were made.
2012
Brent versus WTI
Shortages of oil could have resulted if Iran closed the Strait of Hormuz,
through which one-fifth of exported oil travels, as a result of sanctions
due to the country's nuclear policies. The price of oil stayed near $100
throughout January because of concerns over supplies, and the
European debt situation. The average price of gas was $3.38 on
January 20, up 17 cents from a month earlier. Another factor was
planned closing of refineries in the U.S. and Europe due to lower
demand. By early February, the national average was $3.48, though oil
prices were at $98, the lowest in six weeks, and U.S. demand was the
lowest since September 2001. On February 20, benchmark March
crude oil reached $105.21, the highest in nine months. This came one day after Iran's oil ministry announced an end
World oil market chronology from 2003
47
to sales to British and French companies; though this would have little actual impact on supplies, fears resulted in
higher prices. Also, approval of the bailout plan for Greece was expected, and China's action to raise the money
supply was likely to stimulate the economy. Brent crude was up 11 percent for the year to $119.58 on February 17,
with cold weather in Europe and higher Third World demand, and West Texas Intermediate crude was up 19 percent
to $103.24. The average price of gas was $3.53. On February 29, the average was $3.73. The average peaked at
$3.94 early in April, and on April 24, it was $3.85 compared to $3.86 a year earlier; it had been two years since gas
prices were lower than the previous year. Crude oil prices were down; West Texas Intermediate was $103.55 a
barrel, down from over $107 late in March, and Brent Crude $118.16 after peaking above $128 in March. On May 7,
benchmark U.S. crude reached $95.34, the lowest price of the year, after voters in France and Greece ousted
government officials who would cut spending to solve the debt crisis. Benchmark oil in New York actually rose for
two days straight early in June, to $84.29. With U.S. oil supplies the highest since 1990, gas reached $3.57 on June
5. After falling again to its lowest price since October 2011, Benchmark crude rose 5.8 percent to $82.18 on June 29,
with Brent crude up 4.5 percent to $95.51. European bailout efforts included lending money to banks, decreasing
likelihood of failures. Also, European countries decided not to buy Iranian oil. The price of gas was $3.35, the lowest
since January 6. On July 17, Benchmark Crude reached $89.22 and Brent crude $104 after good economic news in
the United States. Gas rose to $3.40.
On August 7, a California refinery fire contributed to a jump in oil futures. Other refinery problems, a pipeline leak,
fears about Iran, the crisis in Syria, North Sea problems, and Tropical Storm Ernesto all contributed to a 20 percent
jump in oil prices in six weeks. The price of gas reached $3.63 but was not expected to go much higher. Good
economic news in the United States contributed to oil reaching its highest price since May on August 17, with
Benchmark Crude reaching $96.01, while Brent crude fell slightly to $113.71.
Early in September, a mix of bad economic news from the United States and good economic news from Europe
caused the price of oil to fall slightly. On September 4, Benchmark Crude reached $95.41, with Brent crude at
$114.84. The price of gas went down slightly to $3.82 but was still the highest ever for Labor Day weekend.
Hurricane Isaac contributed to a temporary spike in gas prices, but on September 12 gas once again rose, to $3.86, as
refineries cut production prior to the switch from summer blend gasoline to winter blend. Benchmark Crude also
reached its highest level since early May and continued to rise above $99 after Federal Reserve announcements of
actions to improve the economy and the 2012 diplomatic missions attacks. Brent crude rose slightly to nearly $116.
Early in October, the average gas price was $3.78 and falling, though still a record for the month. Late in the month,
the average reached $3.62 after a 13-cent drop in a week, the most since November 2008. Brent crude was down $8
in the previous month. By the start of November, the average was $3.54, partly due to lower demand after Hurricane
Sandy. Crude oil futures fell after Barack Obama was re-elected November 6. After Thanksgiving, lower U.S. oil
inventories, good economic news in the United States and good news relating to the Greek bailout helped push Brent
crude up to $111.04, and benchmark oil for January delivery to $87.92; benchmark oil reached $86.24 on November
28, and gas was $3.41.
On December 13, Brent crude was down to $109.20, while benchmark oil fell slightly due to U.S. fiscal cliff
concerns and rose due to Federal Reserve efforts to help the U.S. economy, ending the day at $86.77. In
mid-December, gas prices reached $3.25, the lowest for 2012. Oil was trading for between $84 and $90.
World oil market chronology from 2003
48
2013
On January 17, with good economic news in the United States, Benchmark oil reached its highest level since
September, going over $95. Brent crude rose above $110. Gas was at $3.29.
Refinery shutdowns led to a dramatic rise in gas prices. Late in February, gas was at $3.78, up 14 cents from a week
earlier. On February 25, with European stock markets doing well, Benchmark crude for April rose above $94 after a
significant drop the previous week due to news the Federal Reserve might end its stimulus efforts, making the dollar
stronger. Brent crude was over $115. Two days later gas reached its highest point, $3.79 a gallon. By mid-April, with
low demand expected due to negative economic news, gas was down to $3.56 as Brent crude fell to $103.04, its
lowest price since July. With economic problems worldwide leading to low demand, gas prices fell 3 percent in
April, the most in a month in ten years, to the lowest level for that month since 2010.
Before Memorial Day, when gas was $3.63, gas supplies fell even though oil supplies were the highest in 35 years.
U.S. economic news was also negative. On May 30, Benchmark crude for July rose slightly to $93.61 after falling
the previous day, and Brent crude fell slightly to $102.19. On June 5 the price of oil rose again with supplies lower.
Benchmark crude rose above $94. The price of gas was $3.62. On June 12, the International Energy Agency said
demand for oil would still rise in 2013, but not as much as previously believed due to the economy. Also, May
OPEC production was the highest in seven months. Benchmark crude fell slightly to $95.31, and Brent crude rose to
$103.27. On June 20, with the Federal Reserve stating that its stimulus program could end if the U.S. economy
continued to improve, as well as economic problems in China, Benchmark crude fell below $97. Brent crude fell to
$104.24.
On July 10, oil prices were the highest in more than a year as a result of lower supplies and trouble in Egypt. In the
past week, Brent crude had climbed 7 percent to $108.51. Because too much oil was being produced for the
infrastructure to handle it, West Texas Intermediate was lower than Brent crude for several years; it has returned to
being consistent with Brent. On July 5 it reached $103.22. On July 19 with good economic news in the United
States, Benchmark crude reached $108.05, while gas was $3.67, the highest on a Friday since March 22. Brent crude
was at $108.07. Gas was $3.63 on August 1, though good economic news in the U.S., China and Europe meant oil
was going up again after a decline the previous week. Benchmark crude reached $107.89, while Brent crude was
$109.54. On August 16 Benchmark oil was $107.46 after six days of increases as Egypt's problems continued. The
concern was access to the Suez Canal, which appears unlikely to be a problem but still concerns companies. Brent
crude was $110.48 on August 19. On August 28 West Texas intermediate reached $110.10, the highest since May
2011, and Brent crude reached $116.61, its highest point since February 19, due to concern about U.S. involvement
in Syria. Meanwhile, inventories in the United States had their biggest increase in four months. Benchmark crude
rose to $107.56 on September 11 due to lower supplies after dropping due to hopes for a peaceful Syria solution;
Brent crude rose to $111.50.
Gas was $3.59 at the start of the month, but at the end of September, the price of gas was $3.39, the lowest for the
time of year since 2010. The New York Mercantile Exchange price on September 27 was $102.87. Refineries had no
hurricanes or other problems. Benchmark crude fell to $103.31 on October 3 after the U.S. government shutdown,
and Brent crude was $109. On October 21, Benchmark crude was $99.22, the first time below $100 since July.
Higher supplies and fewer threats from the Middle East were the reasons. Brent crude was $109.64 and gas reached
$3.35. On November 13, Brent crude reached $107.12 and was $13.24 higher than West Texas Intermediate, the
largest difference since April, due to trouble in Libya and sanctions against Iran. On November 25, Benchmark crude
decreased to $93.92 while Brent crude reached $110.41 after the agreement regarding Iran's nuclear program. On
December 16, Benchmark crude rose to $97.44 and Brent crude reached $110.53 with good economic news from
Europe and more Libya trouble. Gas was $3.23, three cents higher than a month earlier. On December 27, due to a
better economy in the United States leading to higher demand, oil closed about $100 for the first time since October.
Gas was $3.27, two cents below a year earlier.
World oil market chronology from 2003
49
2014
On January 2, Benchmark crude fell by the most in one day since November 2012 to close at $95.44. Brent crude
was $107.78. Gas was $3.33. With the Iran agreement and increased production from Libya and the North Sea,
Benchmark oil was around $92 on January 13 and Brent crude was $105.98. After good economic news from Japan,
Benchmark crude fell slightly from its highest close of 2014, $98.23 on January 30. Brent crude fell to $107.25. The
difference between the two fell below $10 for the first time since November, partly due to cold weather in the United
States which resulted in high heating oil demand. Early in February gas was $3.27. Cold weather led to the price of
oil staying above $100 for most of February, but lower prices were expected. With United States fourth quarter
economic growth expected to be lower than an early estimate, Benchmark crude fell slightly on February 27 to
$102.40, with Brent crude reaching $108.61. On March 24, due to the dispute over Crimea, problems in Libya, and
the Houston Ship Channel collision, Benchmark crude rose above $100 and Brent crude rose to $107.41. Economic
problems in China kept prices from going even higher. Later in the week, good economic news from the United
States, lower oil supplies in Oklahoma and a force majeure by Shell Nigeria pushed prices slightly higher, to $102.12
for Benchmark crude and $108.29 for Brent. On April 7, Benchmark crude fell below $101 and Brent crude fell to
$105.64 with news that Libya might open more terminals in May, but more Ukraine problems pushed the prices back
up on April 8. Gas was $3.59, matching the level in 2013.
Continued Ukraine problems pushed oil higher on April 24, with Benchmark crude at $101.94 and Brent crude at
$110.33, though an April 23 report said U.S. oil supplies were higher than expected. The price of gas was $3.68.5,
the highest since March 2013. On April 30, Benchmark crude dropped below $100 for the first time in three weeks
as oil supplies continued to rise and the unusually cold winter resulted in negative U.S. economic news. Gas was up
14 cents for the month, the most in three years. More Ukraine trouble pushed Benchmark crude above $100 and
Brent crude over $108 on May 12, and further problems in Libya helped push Benchmark crude over $102 and Brent
crude over $110 by May 15, though negative economic news in the U.S. and an unexpected increase in oil stockpiles
pushed Benchmark crude back down temporarily. Continued concerns over Ukraine and Libya pushed oil back
above $104. The price of gas was $3.65.
Trouble in Iraq resulted in higher prices for oil and gas in June. At the end of the month Benchmark crude was just
above $105 while Brent crude fell below $113. The price of gas was $3.66.
References
[1] Oil spikes $25 a barrel on anxiety over US bailout (http:/ / news. yahoo. com/ s/ ap/ 20080922/ ap_on_bi_ge/ oil_prices)
[2] Global 500 (http:/ / money.cnn.com/ magazines/ fortune/ global500/ 2008/ ), Fortune website, accessed August 2008.
[3] Oil prices in 2003 averaged highest in 20 years (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ money/ industries/ energy/ 2003-12-31-oil-prices-2003_x. htm),
USA Today
[4] Iraq: Oil and Economy (http:/ / usgovinfo. about.com/ library/ weekly/ aairaqioil. htm)
[5] Oil demand falls in developed world for first time in 20 years (http:/ / www. finfacts. com/ irelandbusinessnews/ publish/ article_10008746.
shtml)
[6] Oil prices touch above $90 level (http:/ / newsvote. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ business/ 7052071. stm), BBC News
[7] Supply fears push oil above $92 (http:/ / newsvote. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ business/ 7063250. stm)
[8] Single trader behind oil record - http:/ / news.bbc.co.uk/ 1/ hi/ business/ 7169543. stm
[9] BBC News: Oil prices continue upward march (http:/ / newsvote. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ business/ 7355121. stm)
[10] Oil jumps over $3 after report on U.S. shot toward Iran boat (http:/ / www. marketwatch. com/ news/ story/ crude-surges-after-report-us/
story. aspx?guid={56D55DC5-7A17-4C73-8CD6-8652531F3C63}& siteid=bnb)
[11] Oil Prices Take a Nerve-Rattling Jump Past $138, New York Times, June 7, 2008 (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 06/ 07/ business/
07oil.html?em& ex=1212897600& en=3877f96aee464d82& ei=5087 )
[12] Iran: World oil market saturated (http:/ / www.presstv. ir/ Detail. aspx?id=59780& sectionid=351020103)
[13] Oil output increase will not affect price (http:/ / www. presstv. ir/ Detail. aspx?id=60841& sectionid=3510213)
[14] Asia says no to extra Saudi crude (http:/ / www.presstv. ir/ Detail. aspx?id=60318& sectionid=3510213)
[15] Oil prices hit new peak above US$145 (http:/ / www. channelnewsasia. com/ stories/ afp_world_business/ view/ 357932/ 1/ . html)
[16] bloomberg.com, Crude Oil Rises to Record Above $144 After U.S. Stockpile Drop (http:/ / www. bloomberg. com/ apps/
news?pid=20601087& sid=aPW1IHcLY51A& refer=home)
World oil market chronology from 2003
50
[17] uk.reuters.com, Oil hits new peak (http:/ / uk.reuters. com/ article/ businessNews/ idUKMOL27139920080703)
[18] ap.google.com, Oil prices near $146 (http:/ / ap. google. com/ article/ ALeqM5i5TtajgUpSm7KY5jf-lCJGHBB-tAD91MAM4O3)
[19] washingtontimes.com, Oil prices near $146 (http:/ / www. washingtontimes. com/ news/ 2008/ jul/ 03/ oil-prices-near-146/ )
[20] The Age, Oil sags to 6-week low as war worries ebb (http:/ / business. theage. com. au/ business/
oil-sags-to-6week-low-as-war-worries-ebb-20080719-3hop. html)
[21] http:/ / www.marketwatch.com/ news/ story/ oil-futures-tumble-5-trade/ story.
aspx?guid={4EADE8D4-45B2-4C67-829F-5A6C71B52F17}
[22] Crude Oil Drops Below $92 as Lehman Adds to Demand Concern (http:/ / www. bloomberg. com/ apps/ news?pid=20601087&
sid=aIkZ319MpM0g& refer=home,)
External links
U.S. DOE EIA energy chronology and analysis (http:/ / www. eia. doe. gov/ emeu/ cabs/ MEC_Past/ index. html)
Oil Price History and Analysis (http:/ / www. wtrg. com/ prices. htm)
Oil field
An oil field with dozens of wells. This is the Summerland Oil Field, near Santa
Barbara, California, before 1906
Oil Field Mittelplate in the North Sea
An "oil field" or "oilfield" is a region
with an abundance of oil wells extracting
petroleum (crude oil) from below
ground. Because the oil reservoirs
typically extend over a large area,
possibly several hundred kilometres
across, full exploitation entails multiple
wells scattered across the area. In
addition, there may be exploratory wells
probing the edges, pipelines to transport
the oil elsewhere, and support facilities.
Because an oil field may be remote from
civilization, establishing a field is often
an extremely complicated exercise in
logistics. This goes beyond requirements
for drilling, to include associated
infrastructure. For instance, workers
require housing to allow them to work
onsite for months or years. In turn,
housing and equipment require
electricity and water. In cold regions,
pipelines may need to be heated. Also,
excess natural gas may be burned off if
there is no way to make use of itwhich
requires a furnace, chimney and pipes to
carry it from the well to the furnace.
Thus, the typical oil field resembles a
small, self-contained town in the midst of a landscape dotted with drilling rigs and/or the pump jacks, which are
known as "nodding donkeys" because of their bobbing arm. Several companies, such as Bechtel, Esso, Schlumberger
Limited, Baker Hughes and Halliburton, have organizations that specialize in the large-scale construction of the
Oil field
51
infrastructure and providing specialized services required to operate a field profitably.
More than 40,000 oil fields are scattered around the globe, on land and offshore. The largest are the Ghawar Field in
Saudi Arabia and the Burgan Field in Kuwait, with more than 60 billion barrels (9.510
9
m
3
) estimated in each.
Most oil fields are much smaller. According to the US Department of Energy (Energy Information Administration),
as of 2003 the US alone had over 30,000 oil fields.
In the modern age, the location of oil fields with proven oil reserves is a key underlying factor in many geopolitical
conflicts.
The term "oilfield" is also used as a shorthand to refer to the entire petroleum industry. However, it is more accurate
to divide the oil industry into three sectors: upstream (crude production from wells and separation of water from oil),
midstream (pipeline and tanker transport of crude) and downstream (refining and marketing of refined products).
References
External links
Oilfield news and industry magazine (http:/ / www. energyglobal. com/ news/ drilling-and-production. aspx)
Oil well
The pumpjack, such as this one located south of Midland, Texas, is a common
sight in West Texas
An oil well is a boring into the Earth that is
designed to bring petroleum oil
hydrocarbons to the surface. Usually some
natural gas is produced along with the oil. A
well that is designed to produce mainly or
only gas may be termed a gas well.
Oil well
52
History
Bottom Part of an Oil Well in Brazoria County,
Texas (Harry Walker Photograph, circa 1940)
The earliest known oil wells were drilled in China in 347 CE. These
wells had depths of up to about 240 metres (790ft) and were drilled
using bits attached to bamboo poles.
[1]
The oil was burned to evaporate
brine and produce salt. By the 10th century, extensive bamboo
pipelines connected oil wells with salt springs. The ancient records of
China and Japan are said to contain many allusions to the use of natural
gas for lighting and heating. Petroleum was known as burning water in
Japan in the 7th century.
According to Kasem Ajram, petroleum was distilled by the Persian
alchemist Muhammad ibn Zakarya Rzi (Rhazes) in the 9th century,
producing chemicals such as kerosene in the alembic
(al-ambiq),Wikipedia:Verifiability and which was mainly used for
kerosene lamps.
[2]
Arab and Persian chemists also distilled crude oil in
order to produce flammable products for military purposes. Through
Islamic Spain, distillation became available in Western Europe by the
12th century.
Some sources claim that from the 9th century, oil fields were exploited in the area around modern Baku, Azerbaijan,
to produce naphtha for the petroleum industry. These fields were described by Marco Polo in the 13th century, who
described the output of those oil wells as hundreds of shiploads. When Marco Polo in 1264 visited the Azerbaijani
city of Baku, on the shores of the Caspian Sea, he saw oil being collected from seeps. He wrote that "on the confines
toward Geirgine there is a fountain from which oil springs in great abundance, in as much as a hundred shiploads
might be taken from it at one time."Wikipedia:Citation needed
1904 oil well fire at Bibi-Eibat
In the North America, the first commercial oil well entered operation
in Oil Springs, Ontario in 1858, while the first offshore oil well was
drilled in 1896 at the Summerland Oil Field on the California Coast.
The earliest oil wells in modern times were drilled percussively, by
repeatedly raising and dropping a cable tool into the earth. In the 20th
Century cable tools were largely replaced with rotary drilling, which
could drill boreholes to much greater depths and in less time. The
record-depth Kola Borehole used non-rotary mud motor drilling to
achieve a depth of over 12,000 metres (39,000ft).
Until the 1970s, most oil wells were vertical, although lithological and
mechanical imperfections cause most wells to deviate at least slightly
from true vertical. However, modern directional drilling technologies
allow for strongly deviated wells which can, given sufficient depth and
with the proper tools, actually become horizontal. This is of great value
as the reservoir rocks which contain hydrocarbons are usually
horizontal, or sub-horizontal; a horizontal wellbore placed in a
production zone has more surface area in the production zone than a
vertical well, resulting in a higher production rate. The use of deviated
and horizontal drilling has also made it possible to reach reservoirs several kilometers or miles away from the
drilling location (extended reach drilling), allowing for the production of hydrocarbons located below locations that
are either difficult to place a drilling rig on, environmentally sensitive, or populated.
Oil well
53
Life of a well
A schematic of a typical oil well being produced
by a pumpjack, which is used to produce the
remaining recoverable oil after natural pressure is
no longer sufficient to raise oil to the surface
See also: Oil well control
The creation and life of a well can be divided up into five segments:
Planning
Drilling
Completion
Production
Abandonment
Drilling
See also: Boring (earth)
The well is created by drilling a hole 12 cm to 1 meter (5in to 40in) in
diameter into the earth with a drilling rig that rotates a drill string with
a bit attached. After the hole is drilled, sections of steel pipe (casing),
slightly smaller in diameter than the borehole, are placed in the hole.
Cement may be placed between the outside of the casing and the
borehole. The casing provides structural integrity to the newly drilled
wellbore, in addition to isolating potentially dangerous high pressure
zones from each other and from the surface.
With these zones safely isolated and the formation protected by the casing, the well can be drilled deeper (into
potentially more-unstable and violent formations) with a smaller bit, and also cased with a smaller size casing.
Modern wells often have two to five sets of subsequently smaller hole sizes drilled inside one another, each
cemented with casing.
To drill the well
Oil Rig Casing
The drill bit, aided by the weight of thick walled pipes called "drill
collars" above it, cuts into the rock. There are different types of drill
bit; some cause the rock to disintegrate by compressive failure,
while others shear slices off the rock as the bit turns.
Drilling fluid, a.k.a. "mud", is pumped down the inside of the drill
pipe and exits at the drill bit. The principal components of drilling
fluid are usually water and clay, but it also typically contains a
complex mixture of fluids, solids and chemicals that must be
carefully tailored to provide the correct physical and chemical
characteristics required to safely drill the well. Particular functions
of the drilling mud include cooling the bit, lifting rock cuttings to
the surface, preventing destabilisation of the rock in the wellbore walls and overcoming the pressure of fluids
inside the rock so that these fluids do not enter the wellbore. Some oil wells are drilled with air or foam as the
drilling fluid.
Oil well
54
Mud log in process, a common way to study the
lithology when drilling oil wells
The generated rock "cuttings" are swept up by the drilling fluid as it
circulates back to surface outside the drill pipe. The fluid then goes
through "shakers" which strain the cuttings from the good fluid
which is returned to the pit. Watching for abnormalities in the
returning cuttings and monitoring pit volume or rate of returning
fluid are imperative to catch "kicks" early. A "kick" is when the
formation pressure at the depth of the bit is more than the
hydrostatic head of the mud above, which if not controlled
temporarily by closing the blowout preventers and ultimately by
increasing the density of the drilling fluid would allow formation
fluids and mud to come up through the annulus uncontrollably.
The pipe or drill string to which the bit is attached is gradually lengthened as the well gets deeper by screwing in
additional 9m (30 ft) sections or "joints" of pipe under the kelly or topdrive at the surface. This process is called
making a connection, or "tripping". Joints can be combined for more efficient tripping when pulling out of the
whole by creating stands of multiple joints. A conventional triple, for example, would pull pipe out of the hole
three joints at a time and stack them in the derrick. Many modern rigs, called "super singles," trip pipe one at a
time, laying it out on racks as they go.
This process is all facilitated by a drilling rig which contains all necessary equipment to circulate the drilling fluid,
hoist and turn the pipe, control downhole, remove cuttings from the drilling fluid, and generate on-site power for
these operations.
Completion
Main article: Completion (oil and gas wells)
Modern driller Argentina
After drilling and casing the well, it must be 'completed'. Completion is
the process in which the well is enabled to produce oil or gas.
In a cased-hole completion, small holes called perforations are made in
the portion of the casing which passed through the production zone, to
provide a path for the oil to flow from the surrounding rock into the
production tubing. In open hole completion, often 'sand screens' or a
'gravel pack' is installed in the last drilled, uncased reservoir section.
These maintain structural integrity of the wellbore in the absence of
casing, while still allowing flow from the reservoir into the wellbore.
Screens also control the migration of formation sands into production
tubulars and surface equipment, which can cause washouts and other
problems, particularly from unconsolidated sand formations of offshore fields.
After a flow path is made, acids and fracturing fluids may be pumped into the well to fracture, clean, or otherwise
prepare and stimulate the reservoir rock to optimally produce hydrocarbons into the wellbore. Finally, the area above
the reservoir section of the well is packed off inside the casing, and connected to the surface via a smaller diameter
pipe called tubing. This arrangement provides a redundant barrier to leaks of hydrocarbons as well as allowing
damaged sections to be replaced. Also, the smaller cross-sectional area of the tubing produces reservoir fluids at an
increased velocity in order to minimize liquid fallback that would create additional back pressure, and shields the
casing from corrosive well fluids.
In many wells, the natural pressure of the subsurface reservoir is high enough for the oil or gas to flow to the surface.
However, this is not always the case, especially in depleted fields where the pressures have been lowered by other
producing wells, or in low permeability oil reservoirs. Installing a smaller diameter tubing may be enough to help the
Oil well
55
production, but artificial lift methods may also be needed. Common solutions include downhole pumps, gas lift, or
surface pump jacks. Many new systems in the last ten years have been introduced for well completion. Multiple
packer systems with frac ports or port collars in an all in one system have cut completion costs and improved
production, especially in the case of horizontal wells. These new systems allow casings to run into the lateral zone
with proper packer/frac port placement for optimal hydrocarbon recovery.
Production
The production stage is the most important stage of a well's life, when the oil and gas are produced. By this time, the
oil rigs and workover rigs used to drill and complete the well have moved off the wellbore, and the top is usually
outfitted with a collection of valves called a Christmas tree or production tree. These valves regulate pressures,
control flows, and allow access to the wellbore in case further completion work is needed. From the outlet valve of
the production tree, the flow can be connected to a distribution network of pipelines and tanks to supply the product
to refineries, natural gas compressor stations, or oil export terminals.
As long as the pressure in the reservoir remains high enough, the production tree is all that is required to produce the
well. If the pressure depletes and it is considered economically viable, an artificial lift method mentioned in the
completions section can be employed.
Workovers are often necessary in older wells, which may need smaller diameter tubing, scale or paraffin removal,
acid matrix jobs, or completing new zones of interest in a shallower reservoir. Such remedial work can be performed
using workover rigs also known as pulling units, completion rigs or "service rigs" to pull and replace tubing, or
by the use of well intervention techniques utilizing coiled tubing. Depending on the type of lift system and wellhead
a rod rig or flushby can be used to change a pump without pulling the tubing.
Enhanced recovery methods such as water flooding, steam flooding, or CO
2
flooding may be used to increase
reservoir pressure and provide a "sweep" effect to push hydrocarbons out of the reservoir. Such methods require the
use of injection wells (often chosen from old production wells in a carefully determined pattern), and are used when
facing problems with reservoir pressure depletion, high oil viscosity, or can even be employed early in a field's life.
In certain cases depending on the reservoir's geomechanics reservoir engineers may determine that ultimate
recoverable oil may be increased by applying a waterflooding strategy early in the field's development rather than
later. Such enhanced recovery techniques are often called "tertiary recovery".
Abandonment
A well is said to reach an "economic limit" when its most efficient production rate does not cover the operating
expenses, including taxes.
[3]
The economic limit for oil and gas wells can be expressed using these formulae:
Oil fields:

Gas fields:

Where:
is an oil well's economic limit in oil barrels per month (bbls/month).
is a gas well's economic limit in thousand standard cubic feet per month (MSCF/month).
are the current prices of oil and gas in dollars per barrels and dollars per MSCF respectively.
is the lease operating expenses in dollars per well per month.
working interest, as a fraction.
[4]

net revenue interest, as a fraction.
Oil well
56
gas/oil ratio as bbls/MSCF.
condensate yield as barrel/million standard cubic feet.
production and severance taxes, as a fraction.
When the economic limit is raised, the life of the well is shortened and proven oil reserves are lost. Conversely,
when the economic limit is lowered, the life of the well is lengthened.
When the economic limit is reached, the well becomes a liability and is abandoned. In this process, tubing is
removed from the well and sections of well bore are filled with concrete to isolate the flow path between gas and
water zones from each other, as well as the surface. Completely filling the well bore with concrete is costly and
unnecessary. The surface around the wellhead is then excavated, and the wellhead and casing are cut off, a cap is
welded in place and then buried.
At the economic limit there often is still a significant amount of unrecoverable oil left in the reservoir. It might be
tempting to defer physical abandonment for an extended period of time, hoping that the oil price will go up or that
new supplemental recovery techniques will be perfected. In these cases, temporary plugs will be placed downhole
and locks attached to the wellhead to prevent tampering. There are thousands of "abandoned" wells throughout North
America, waiting to see what the market will do before "permanent" abandonment. Often, lease provisions and
governmental regulations usually require quick abandonment; liability and tax concerns also may favor
abandonment.
In theory an abandoned well can be reentered and restored to production (or converted to injection service for
supplemental recovery or for downhole hydrocarbons storage), but reentry often proves to be difficult mechanically
and not cost effective.
Types of wells
A natural gas well in the southeast Lost Hills
Field, California, US.
Fossil-fuel wells come in many varieties. By produced fluid, there can
be wells that produce oil, wells that produce oil and natural gas, or
wells that only produce natural gas. Natural gas is almost always a
byproduct of producing oil, since the small, light gas carbon chains
come out of solution as they undergo pressure reduction from the
reservoir to the surface, similar to uncapping a bottle of soda pop
where the carbon dioxide effervesces. Unwanted natural gas can be a
disposal problem at the well site. If there is not a market for natural gas
near the wellhead it is virtually valueless since it must be piped to the
end user. Until recently, such unwanted gas was burned off at the
wellsite, but due to environmental concerns this practice is becoming
less common.Wikipedia:Citation needed Often, unwanted (or 'stranded' gas without a market) gas is pumped back
into the reservoir with an 'injection' well for disposal or repressurizing the producing formation. Another solution is
to export the natural gas as a liquid. Gas to liquid, (GTL) is a developing technology that converts stranded natural
gas into synthetic gasoline, diesel or jet fuel through the Fischer-Tropsch process developed in World War II
Germany. Such fuels can be transported through conventional pipelines and tankers to users. Proponents claim GTL
fuels burn cleaner than comparable petroleum fuels. Most major international oil companies are in advanced
development stages of GTL production, e.g. the 140,000bbl/d (22,000m
3
/d) Pearl GTL plant in Qatar, scheduled to
come online in 2011. In locations such as the United States with a high natural gas demand, pipelines are constructed
to take the gas from the wellsite to the end consumer.
Oil well
57
Raising the derrick
Another obvious way to classify oil wells is by land or offshore wells.
There is very little difference in the well itself. An offshore well targets
a reservoir that happens to be underneath an ocean. Due to logistics,
drilling an offshore well is far more costly than an onshore well. By far
the most common type is the onshore well. These wells dot the
Southern and Central Great Plains, Southwestern United States, and are
the most common wells in the Middle East.
Another way to classify oil wells is by their purpose in contributing to
the development of a resource. They can be characterized as:
wildcat wells are those drilled outside of and not in the vicinity of
known oil or gas fields.
exploration wells are drilled purely for exploratory (information gathering) purposes in a new area.
appraisal wells are used to assess characteristics (such as flow rate) of a proven hydrocarbon accumulation.
production wells are drilled primarily for producing oil or gas, once the producing structure and characteristics are
determined.
Abandoned well are wells permanently plugged in the drilling phase for technical reasons.
Oil extraction in Boryslav in 1909
At a producing well site, active wells may be further categorised as:
oil producers producing predominantly liquid hydrocarbons, but
mostly with some associated gas.
gas producers producing almost entirely gaseous hydrocarbons.
water injectors injecting water into the formation to maintain
reservoir pressure, or simply to dispose of water produced with the
hydrocarbons because even after treatment, it would be too oily and
too saline to be considered clean for dumping overboard offshore,
let alone into a fresh water resource in the case of onshore wells.
Water injection into the producing zone frequently has an element
of reservoir management; however, often produced water disposal is into shallower zones safely beneath any
fresh water zones.
aquifer producers intentionally producing water for re-injection to manage pressure. If possible this water will
come from the reservoir itself. Using aquifer produced water rather than water from other sources is to preclude
chemical incompatibility that might lead to reservoir-plugging precipitates. These wells will generally be needed
only if produced water from the oil or gas producers is insufficient for reservoir management purposes.
gas injectors injecting gas into the reservoir often as a means of disposal or sequestering for later production, but
also to maintain reservoir pressure.
Lahee classification [5]
New Field Wildcat (NFW) far from other producing fields and on a structure that has not previously produced.
New Pool Wildcat (NPW) new pools on already producing structure.
Deeper Pool Test (DPT) on already producing structure and pool, but on a deeper pay zone.
Shallower Pool Test (SPT) on already producing structure and pool, but on a shallower pay zone.
Outpost (OUT) usually two or more locations from nearest productive area.
Development Well (DEV) can be on the extension of a pay zone, or between existing wells (Infill).
Oil well
58
Cost
The cost of a well depends mainly on the daily rate of the drilling rig, the extra services required to drill the well, the
duration of the well program (including downtime and weather time), and the remoteness of the location (logistic
supply costs).
The daily rates of offshore drilling rigs vary by their capability, and the market availability. Rig rates reported by
industry web service
[6]
show that the deepwater water floating drilling rigs are over twice that of the shallow water
fleet, and rates for jackup fleet can vary by factor of 3 depending upon capability.
With deepwater drilling rig rates in 2010 of around $420,000/day, and similar additional spread costs, a deep water
well of duration of 100 days can cost around US$100 million.
With high performance jackup rig rates in 2010 of around $150,000, and similar service costs, a high pressure, high
temperature well of duration 100 days can cost about US$30 million.
Onshore wells can be considerably cheaper, particularly if the field is at a shallow depth, where costs range from less
than $1 million to $15 million for deep and difficult wells. Wikipedia:Citation needed
The total cost of an oil well mentioned does not include the costs associated with the risk of explosion and leakage of
oil. Those costs include the cost of protecting against such disasters, the cost of the cleanup effort, and the
hard-to-calculate cost of damage to the company's image.
Reefs
Offshore platforms (the structure supporting the wells) often provide habitat for marine life. After the wells have
been abandoned, sometimes the platforms can be toppled in place or moved elsewhere to be dropped to the ocean
floor to produce artificial reefs.Wikipedia:Citation needed
References
[1] ASTM timeline of oil (http:/ / www.astm. org/ COMMIT/ D02/ to1899_index. html)
[2] Zayn Bilkadi (University of California, Berkeley), "The Oil Weapons", Saudi Aramco World, JanuaryFebruary 1995, pp. 207
[3] Mohammed A. Mian, Petroleum Engineering Handbook for the Practicing Engineer (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=sDYtmIcJ1ycC&
pg=PT445& lpg=PT445& dq="oil+ well"+ "economic+ limit"& source=bl& ots=GLsc8_w24h& sig=foDF6GvmPeL42r6QEWsNrUT5uQA&
hl=en& ei=QEKySsDAKaqltgf5kcCmDg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=10#v=onepage& q="oil well" "economic limit"&
f=false), Tulsa, Okla.: PennWell, 1992, p.447.
[4] Oilfield Glossary - "working interest" (http:/ / www. glossary. oilfield. slb. com/ Display. cfm?Term=working interest)
[5] http:/ / www. pttc. org/ tech_sum/ ts_v91_10.htm
[6] Rigzone - Rig day rates : http:/ / www.rigzone.com/ data/ dayrates/
External links
Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary (http:/ / www. glossary. oilfield. slb. com/ )
The History of the Oil Industry (http:/ / www. sjgs. com/ history. html)
"Black Gold" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=deIDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA401& dq=popular+ mechanics+
1930+ aircraft& hl=en& ei=KaMmTZ-LCentnQeE6ZzjAQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=5&
ved=0CDYQ6AEwBA#v=onepage& q=popular mechanics 1930 aircraft& f=true) Popular Mechanics, January
1930 - large photo article on oil drilling in the 1920s and 1930s
"World's Deepest Well" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=eCYDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA21& dq=Popular+
Science+ 1932+ plane& hl=en& ei=G-VPTarQJ8P58AbZ7_yCDw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result&
resnum=2& ved=0CC4Q6AEwATgo#v=onepage& q=Popular Science 1932 plane& f=true) Popular Science,
August 1938, article on the late 1930s technology of drilling oil wells
'Ancient Chinese Drilling' (http:/ / www. cseg. ca/ publications/ recorder/ 2004/ 06jun/
06jun-ancient-chinese-drilling. pdf) article from June 2004 CSEG Recorder
Oil refinery
59
Oil refinery
Anacortes Refinery (Tesoro), on the north end of March Point southeast of
Anacortes, Washington
An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an
industrial process plant where crude oil is
processed and refined into more useful
products such as petroleum naphtha,
gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base, heating
oil, kerosene and liquefied petroleum gas.
Oil refineries are typically large, sprawling
industrial complexes with extensive piping
running throughout, carrying streams of
fluids between large chemical processing
units. In many ways, oil refineries use much
of the technology of, and can be thought of,
as types of chemical plants. The crude oil
feedstock has typically been processed by an
oil production plant. There is usually an oil
depot (tank farm) at or near an oil refinery
for the storage of incoming crude oil
feedstock as well as bulk liquid products.
An oil refinery is considered an essential part of the downstream side of the petroleum industry.
Operation
Crude oil is separated into fractions by fractional distillation.
The fractions at the top of the fractionating column have
lower boiling points than the fractions at the bottom. The
heavy bottom fractions are often cracked into lighter, more
useful products. All of the fractions are processed further in
other refining units.
Raw or unprocessed crude oil is not generally useful in
industrial applications, although "light, sweet" (low
viscosity, low sulfur) crude oil has been used directly as a
burner fuel to produce steam for the propulsion of seagoing
vessels. The lighter elements, however, form explosive
vapors in the fuel tanks and are therefore hazardous,
especially in warships. Instead, the hundreds of different
hydrocarbon molecules in crude oil are separated in a
refinery into components which can be used as fuels,
lubricants, and as feedstocks in petrochemical processes that
manufacture such products as plastics, detergents, solvents,
elastomers and fibers such as nylon and polyesters.
Petroleum fossil fuels are burned in internal combustion
engines to provide power for ships, automobiles, aircraft
engines, lawn mowers, chainsaws, and other machines.
Different boiling points allow the hydrocarbons to be
separated by distillation. Since the lighter liquid products are
in great demand for use in internal combustion engines, a
modern refinery will convert heavy hydrocarbons and lighter
gaseous elements into these higher value products.
Oil refinery
60
The oil refinery in Haifa, Israel is capable of
processing about 9 million tons (66 million
barrels) of crude oil a year. Its two cooling towers
are landmarks of the city's skyline.
Oil can be used in a variety of ways because it contains hydrocarbons
of varying molecular masses, forms and lengths such as paraffins,
aromatics, naphthenes (or cycloalkanes), alkenes, dienes, and alkynes.
While the molecules in crude oil include different atoms such as sulfur
and nitrogen, the hydrocarbons are the most common form of
molecules, which are molecules of varying lengths and complexity
made of hydrogen and carbon atoms, and a small number of oxygen
atoms. The differences in the structure of these molecules account for
their varying physical and chemical properties, and it is this variety
that makes crude oil useful in a broad range of several applications.
Once separated and purified of any contaminants and impurities, the
fuel or lubricant can be sold without further processing. Smaller
molecules such as isobutane and propylene or butylenes can be
recombined to meet specific octane requirements by processes such as alkylation, or less commonly, dimerization.
Octane grade of gasoline can also be improved by catalytic reforming, which involves removing hydrogen from
hydrocarbons producing compounds with higher octane ratings such as aromatics. Intermediate products such as
gasoils can even be reprocessed to break a heavy, long-chained oil into a lighter short-chained one, by various forms
of cracking such as fluid catalytic cracking, thermal cracking, and hydrocracking. The final step in gasoline
production is the blending of fuels with different octane ratings, vapor pressures, and other properties to meet
product specifications.
Oil refineries are large scale plants, processing about a hundred thousand to several hundred thousand barrels of
crude oil a day. Because of the high capacity, many of the units operate continuously, as opposed to processing in
batches, at steady state or nearly steady state for months to years. The high capacity also makes process optimization
and advanced process control very desirable.
Major products
Petroleum products are usually grouped into three categories: light distillates (LPG, gasoline, naphtha), middle
distillates (kerosene, diesel), heavy distillates and residuum (heavy fuel oil, lubricating oils, wax, asphalt). This
classification is based on the way crude oil is distilled and separated into fractions (called distillates and residuum) as
in the above drawing.
Liquified petroleum gas (LPG)
Gasoline (also known as petrol)
Naphtha
Kerosene and related jet aircraft fuels
Diesel fuel
Fuel oils
Lubricating oils
Paraffin wax
Asphalt and tar
Petroleum coke
Sulfur
Oil refineries also produce various intermediate products such as hydrogen, light hydrocarbons, reformate and
pyrolysis gasoline. These are not usually transported but instead are blended or processed further on-site. Chemical
plants are thus often adjacent to oil refineries. For example, light hydrocarbons are steam-cracked in an ethylene
plant, and the produced ethylene is polymerized to produce polyethene.
Oil refinery
61
Common process units found in a refinery
Storage tanks and towers at Shell Puget Sound
Refinery (Shell Oil Company), Anacortes,
Washington
Desalter unit washes out salt from the crude oil before it enters the
atmospheric distillation unit.
Atmospheric distillation unit distills crude oil into fractions. See
continuous distillation.
Vacuum distillation unit further distills residual bottoms after
atmospheric distillation.
Naphtha hydrotreater unit uses hydrogen to desulfurize naphtha
from atmospheric distillation. Must hydrotreat the naphtha before
sending to a catalytic reformer unit.
Catalytic reformer unit is used to convert the naphtha-boiling range
molecules into higher octane reformate (reformer product). The
reformate has higher content of aromatics and cyclic hydrocarbons).
An important byproduct of a reformer is hydrogen released during the catalyst reaction. The hydrogen is used
either in the hydrotreaters or the hydrocracker.
Distillate hydrotreater desulfurizes distillates (such as diesel) after atmospheric distillation.
Fluid Catalytic Cracker (FCC) unit upgrades heavier fractions into lighter, more valuable products.
Hydrocracker unit uses hydrogen to upgrade heavier fractions into lighter, more valuable products.
Visbreaking unit upgrades heavy residual oils by thermally cracking them into lighter, more valuable reduced
viscosity products.
Merox unit treats LPG, kerosene or jet fuel by oxidizing mercaptans to organic disulfides.
Alternative processes for removing mercaptans are known, e.g. doctor sweetening process and caustic washing.
Coking units (delayed coking, fluid coker, and flexicoker) process very heavy residual oils into gasoline and
diesel fuel, leaving petroleum coke as a residual product.
Alkylation unit uses Sulfuric or Hydrofluoric acid to produce high-octane components for gasoline blending.
Dimerization unit converts olefins into higher-octane gasoline blending components. For example, butenes can be
dimerized into isooctene which may subsequently be hydrogenated to form isooctane. There are also other uses
for dimerization. Gasoline produced trough dimerization is highly unsaturated and very reactive. It tends
spontaneously to form gums. For this reason the effluent from the dimerization need to be blended into the
finished gasoline pool immediately or hydrogenated.
Isomerization unit converts linear molecules to higher-octane branched molecules for blending into gasoline or
feed to alkylation units.
Steam reforming unit produces hydrogen for the hydrotreaters or hydrocracker.
Liquified gas storage vessels store propane and similar gaseous fuels at pressure sufficient to maintain them in
liquid form. These are usually spherical vessels or "bullets" (i.e., horizontal vessels with rounded ends).
Storage tanks store crude oil and finished products, usually cylindrical, with some sort of vapor emission control
and surrounded by an earthen berm to contain spills.
Amine gas treater, Claus unit, and tail gas treatment convert hydrogen sulfide from hydrodesulfurization into
elemental sulfur.
Utility units such as cooling towers circulate cooling water, boiler plants generates steam, and instrument air
systems include pneumatically operated control valves and an electrical substation.
Wastewater collection and treating systems consist of API separators, dissolved air flotation (DAF) units and
further treatment units such as an activated sludge biotreater to make water suitable for reuse or for disposal.
Solvent refining units use solvent such as cresol or furfural to remove unwanted, mainly aromatics from
lubricating oil stock or diesel stock.
Solvent dewaxing units remove the heavy waxy constituents petrolatum from vacuum distillation products.
Oil refinery
62
Flow diagram of typical refinery
The image below is a schematic flow diagram of a typical oil refinery
[1]
that depicts the various unit processes and
the flow of intermediate product streams that occurs between the inlet crude oil feedstock and the final end products.
The diagram depicts only one of the literally hundreds of different oil refinery configurations. The diagram also does
not include any of the usual refinery facilities providing utilities such as steam, cooling water, and electric power as
well as storage tanks for crude oil feedstock and for intermediate products and end products.
[2][3][4]
Schematic flow diagram of a typical oil refinery
There are many process configurations other than that depicted above. For example, the vacuum distillation unit may
also produce fractions that can be refined into endproducts such as: spindle oil used in the textile industry, light
machinery oil, motor oil, and various waxes.
The crude oil distillation unit
The crude oil distillation unit (CDU) is the first processing unit in virtually all petroleum refineries. The CDU distills
the incoming crude oil into various fractions of different boiling ranges, each of which are then processed further in
the other refinery processing units. The CDU is often referred to as the atmospheric distillation unit because it
operates at slightly above atmospheric pressure.
Below is a schematic flow diagram of a typical crude oil distillation unit. The incoming crude oil is preheated by
exchanging heat with some of the hot, distilled fractions and other streams. It is then desalted to remove inorganic
salts (primarily sodium chloride).
Following the desalter, the crude oil is further heated by exchanging heat with some of the hot, distilled fractions and
other streams. It is then heated in a fuel-fired furnace (fired heater) to a temperature of about 398C and routed into
the bottom of the distillation unit.
The cooling and condensing of the distillation tower overhead is provided partially by exchanging heat with the
incoming crude oil and partially by either an air-cooled or water-cooled condenser. Additional heat is removed from
the distillation column by a pumparound system as shown in the diagram below.
As shown in the flow diagram, the overhead distillate fraction from the distillation column is naphtha. The fractions
removed from the side of the distillation column at various points between the column top and bottom are called
sidecuts. Each of the sidecuts (i.e., the kerosene, light gas oil and heavy gas oil) is cooled by exchanging heat with
the incoming crude oil. All of the fractions (i.e., the overhead naphtha, the sidecuts and the bottom residue) are sent
to intermediate storage tanks before being processed further.
Oil refinery
63
Schematic flow diagram of a typical crude oil distillation unit as used in petroleum crude oil refineries.
Specialty end products
These require blending various feedstocks, mixing appropriate additives, providing short term storage, and
preparation for bulk loading to trucks, barges, product ships, and railcars:
Gaseous fuels such as propane, stored and shipped in liquid form under pressure in specialized railcars to
distributors.
Lubricants (produces light machine oils, motor oils, and greases, adding viscosity stabilizers as required), usually
shipped in bulk to an offsite packaging plant.
Wax (paraffin), used in the packaging of frozen foods, among others. May be shipped in bulk to a site to prepare
as packaged blocks.
Sulfur (or sulfuric acid), byproducts of sulfur removal from petroleum which may have up to a couple percent
sulfur as organic sulfur-containing compounds. Sulfur and sulfuric acid are useful industrial materials. Sulfuric
acid is usually prepared and shipped as the acid precursor oleum.
Bulk tar shipping for offsite unit packaging for use in tar-and-gravel roofing.
Asphalt unit. Prepares bulk asphalt for shipment.
Petroleum coke, used in specialty carbon products or as solid fuel.
Petrochemicals or petrochemical feedstocks, which are often sent to petrochemical plants for further processing in
a variety of ways. The petrochemicals may be olefins or their precursors, or various types of aromatic
petrochemicals.
Oil refinery
64
Siting/locating of petroleum refineries
A party searching for a site to construct a refinery or a chemical plant needs to consider the following issues:
The site has to be reasonably far from residential areas.
Infrastructure should be available for supply of raw materials and shipment of products to markets.
Energy to operate the plant should be available.
Facilities should be available for waste disposal.
Refineries which use a large amount of steam and cooling water need to have an abundant source of water. Oil
refineries therefore are often located nearby navigable rivers or on a sea shore, nearby a port. Such location also
gives access to transportation by river or by sea. The advantages of transporting crude oil by pipeline are evident,
and oil companies often transport a large volume of fuel to distribution terminals by pipeline. Pipeline may not be
practical for products with small output, and rail cars, road tankers, and barges are used.
Petrochemical plants and solvent manufacturing (fine fractionating) plants need spaces for further processing of a
large volume of refinery products for further processing, or to mix chemical additives with a product at source rather
than at blending terminals.
Safety and environmental concerns
Fire-extinguishing operations after the Texas City
refinery explosion.
The refining process releases a number of different chemicals into the
atmosphere (see AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors)
and a notable odor normally accompanies the presence of a refinery.
Aside from air pollution impacts there are also wastewater concerns,
risks of industrial accidents such as fire and explosion, and noise health
effects due to industrial noise.
Many governments worldwide have mandated restrictions on
contaminants that refineries release, and most refineries have installed
the equipment needed to comply with the requirements of the pertinent
environmental protection regulatory agencies. In the United States,
there is strong pressure to prevent the development of new refineries, and no major refinery has been built in the
country since Marathon's Garyville, Louisiana facility in 1976. However, many existing refineries have been
expanded during that time. Environmental restrictions and pressure to prevent construction of new refineries may
have also contributed to rising fuel prices in the United States. Additionally, many refineries (more than 100 since
the 1980s) have closed due to obsolescence and/or merger activity within the industry itself.
Environmental and safety concerns mean that oil refineries are sometimes located some distance away from major
urban areas. Nevertheless, there are many instances where refinery operations are close to populated areas and pose
health risks In California's Contra Costa County and Solano County, a shoreline necklace of refineries, built in the
early 20th century before this area was populated, and associated chemical plants are adjacent to urban areas in
Richmond, Martinez, Pacheco, Concord, Pittsburg, Vallejo and Benicia, with occasional accidental events that
require "shelter in place" orders to the adjacent populations.
Oil refinery
65
Corrosion problems and prevention
Petroleum refineries run as efficiently as possible to reduce costs. One major factor that decreases efficiency is
corrosion of the metallic components found throughout refining process. Corrosion causes the failure of equipment
items as well as dictating the maintenance schedule of the refinery, during which part or all of the refinery must be
shut down. The corrosion-related direct costs in the U.S. petroleum industry as of 1996 was estimated as US$3.7
billion per year.
[5][6]
Corrosion occurs in various forms in the refining process, such as pitting corrosion from water droplets,
embrittlement from hydrogen, and stress corrosion cracking from sulfide attack.
[7]
From a materials standpoint,
carbon steel is used for upwards of 80 per cent of refinery components, which is beneficial due to its low cost.
Carbon steel is resistant to the most common forms of corrosion, particularly from hydrocarbon impurities at
temperatures below 205C, but other corrosive chemicals and environments prevent its use everywhere. Common
replacement materials are low alloy steels containing chromium and molybdenum, with stainless steels containing
more chromium dealing with more corrosive environments. More expensive materials commonly used are nickel,
titanium, and copper alloys. These are primarily saved for the most problematic areas where extremely high
temperatures and/or very corrosive chemicals are present.
[8]
Corrosion is fought by a complex system of monitoring, preventative repairs and careful use of materials.
Monitoring methods include both off-line checks taken during maintenance and on-line monitoring. Off-line checks
measure corrosion after it has occurred, telling the engineer when equipment must be replaced based on the historical
information he has collected. This is referred to as preventative management.
On-line systems are a more modern development, and are revolutionizing the way corrosion is approached. There are
several types of on-line corrosion monitoring technologies such as linear polarization resistance, electrochemical
noise and electrical resistance. On-Line monitoring has generally had slow reporting rates in the past (minutes or
hours) and been limited by process conditions and sources of error but newer technologies can report rates up to
twice per minute with much higher accuracy (referred to as real-time monitoring). This allows process engineers to
treat corrosion as another process variable that can be optimized in the system. Immediate responses to process
changes allow the control of corrosion mechanisms, so they can be minimized while also maximizing production
output.
[9]
In an ideal situation having on-line corrosion information that is accurate and real-time will allow
conditions that cause high corrosion rates to be identified and reduced. This is known as predictive management.
Materials methods include selecting the proper material for the application. In areas of minimal corrosion, cheap
materials are preferable, but when bad corrosion can occur, more expensive but longer lasting materials should be
used. Other materials methods come in the form of protective barriers between corrosive substances and the
equipment metals. These can be either a lining of refractory material such as standard Portland cement or other
special acid-resistant cements that are shot onto the inner surface of the vessel. Also available are thin overlays of
more expensive metals that protect cheaper metal against corrosion without requiring lots of material.
[10]
History
The world's first refinery opened at Ploieti, Romania, in 1856-1857, with United States investment. After being
taken over by Nazi Germany, the Ploieti refineries were bombed in Operation Tidal Wave by the Allies during the
Oil Campaign of World War II.
At one point, the refinery in Ras Tanura, Saudi Arabia owned by Saudi Aramco was claimed to be the largest oil
refinery in the world. For most of the 20th century, the largest refinery was the Abadan Refinery in Iran. This
refinery suffered extensive damage during the Iran-Iraq war. The world's largest refinery complex is the Jamnagar
Refinery Complex, consisting of two refineries side by side operated by Reliance Industries Limited in Jamnagar,
India with a combined production capacity of 1,240,000 barrels per day (197,000m
3
/d). PDVSA's Paraguan
Refinery Complex in Paraguan Peninsula, Venezuela with a capacity of 956,000bbl/d (152,000m
3
/d) and SK
Oil refinery
66
Energy's Ulsan in South Korea with 840,000bbl/d (134,000m
3
/d) are the second and third largest,
respectively.Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers#Chronological items
Oil refining in the United States
In the 19th century, refineries in the U.S. processed crude oil primarily to recover the kerosene. There was no market
for the more volatile fraction, including gasoline, which was considered waste and was often dumped directly into
the nearest river. The invention of the automobile shifted the demand to gasoline and diesel, which remain the
primary refined products today. Today, national and state legislation requires refineries to meet stringent air and
water cleanliness standards. In fact, oil companies in the U.S. perceive obtaining a permit to build a modern refinery
to be so difficult and costly that no new refineries have been built (though many have been expanded) in the U.S.
since 1976. More than half the refineries that existed in 1981 are now closed due to low utilization rates and
accelerating mergers.
[11]
As a result of these closures total US refinery capacity fell between 1981 to 1995, though
the operating capacity stayed fairly constant in that time period at around 15,000,000 barrels per day
(2,400,000m
3
/d). Increases in facility size and improvements in efficiencies have offset much of the lost physical
capacity of the industry. In 1982 (the earliest data provided), the United States operated 301 refineries with a
combined capacity of 17.9 million barrels (2,850,000m
3
) of crude oil each calendar day. In 2010, there were 149
operable U.S. refineries with a combined capacity of 17.6 million barrels (2,800,000m
3
) per calendar day.
In 2009 through 2010, as revenue streams in the oil business dried up and profitability of oil refineries fell due to
lower demand for product and high reserves of supply preceding the economic recession, oil companies began to
close or sell refineries.
ExxonMobil oil refinery in Baton Rouge (the second-largest in the United States)
References
[1] Crude Oil Solids Removal (http:/ / www.processgroupintl. com/ cms/ page/ 54/ oil-treatment)
[2] Guide to Refining (http:/ / www. chevron. com/ products/ prodserv/ fuels/ bulletin/ motorgas/ 3_refining-testing/ pg2. asp) from Chevron
Oil's website
[3] Refinery flowchart (http:/ / www.uop. com/ refining/ 1010. html) from Universal Oil Products' website
[4] An example flowchart (http:/ / www.cheresources.com/ refining15. gif) of fractions from crude oil at a refinery
[5] Corrosion Costs and Preventive Strategies in the United States (http:/ / www.nace. org/ uploadedFiles/ Publications/ ccsupp. pdf), a
publication of NACE International.
[6] R.D. Kane, Corrosion in Petroleum Refining and Petrochemical Operations, Corrosion: Environments and Industries, Vol 13C, ASM
Handbook, ASM International, 2006, p 9671014.
[7] E.N. Skinner, J.F. Mason, and J.J. Moran, High Temperature Corrosion in Refinery and Petrochemical Service, Corrosion, Vol 16 (No. 12),
1960, p 593t600t.
[8] E.L. Hildebrand, Materials Selection for Petroleum Refineries and Petrochemical Plants, Mater. Prot. Perform., Vol 11 (No. 7), 1972,
p1922.
[9] R.D. Kane, D.C. Eden, and D.A. Eden, Innovative Solutions Integrate Corrosion Monitoring with Process Control, Mater. Perform., Feb
2005, p 3641.
[10] W.A. McGill and M.J. Weinbaum, Aluminum-Diffused Steel Lasts Longer, Oil Gas J., Vol 70, Oct 9, 1972, p 6669.
[11] White Paper on Refining Capacity (http:/ / www.ftc.gov/ bcp/ workshops/ energymarkets/ background/ hazle. pdf), Federal Trade
Commission, April, 2007.
Oil refinery
67
External links
Interactive map of UK refineries (http:/ / www. energyinst. org. uk/ education/ refineries/ map. htm)
Searchable United States Refinery Map (http:/ / www. energysupplylogistics. com/ refineries)
Complete, detailed refinery description (http:/ / www. osha. gov/ dts/ osta/ otm/ otm_iv/ otm_iv_2. html)
Ecomuseum Bergslagen (http:/ / www. ekomuseum. se/ english/ besoksmal/ oljeon. html) - history of Oljen,
Sweden
Fueling Profits: Report on Industry Consolidation (http:/ / www. consumerfed. org/ pdfs/ oilprofits. pdf)
(publication of the Consumer Federation of America)
Price Spikes, Excess Profits and Excuses (http:/ / www. consumerfed. org/ pdfs/ gasoline1003. pdf) (publication
of the Consumer Federation of America)
Basics of Oil Refining (http:/ / www. petrostrategies. org/ Learning_Center/ refining. htm) Overview of crude oil
refining process
Refining NZ Learning Centre (http:/ / www. refiningnz. com/ visitors--learning. aspx) Oil Refinery Process
Animations,Videos & 360 Degree Views
Schlumberger
68
Schlumberger
For the surname, see Schlumberger (surname).
Schlumberger Limited
Type Public
Traded as
NYSE:SLB
[1]
Industry Oilfield services & equipment
Founded 1926
Founder(s) Conrad and Marcel Schlumberger
Headquarters Houston, Texas, United States
Area served Worldwide
Key people Paal Kibsgaard (CEO)
Revenue US$ 45.27B (FY 2013)
Operating income US$ 7.40 billion (FY 2012)
Net income US$ 6.80 billion (FY 2013)
Total assets US$ 61.54 billion (FY 2012)
Total equity US$ 34.75 billion (FY 2012)
Employees 126,000
Website
www.slb.com
[2]
References:
Schlumberger Limited is the world's largest oilfield services company. Schlumberger employs approximately
126,000 people representing more than 140 nationalities working in more than 85 countries. Its principal offices are
in Paris, Houston, London, and the Hague.
Schlumberger
69
History
The headquarters of Schlumberger in Houston
Schlumberger complex in Sugar Land, Texas
Schlumberger was founded in 1926 by French brothers Conrad and
Marcel Schlumberger as the Socit de prospection lectrique
(French: Electric Prospecting Company). The company recorded the
first-ever electrical resistivity well log in Merkwiller-Pechelbronn,
France in 1927. Today Schlumberger supplies the petroleum industry
with services such as seismic acquisition and processing, formation
evaluation, well testing and directional drilling, well cementing and
stimulation, artificial lift, well completions, flow assurance and
consulting, and software and information management. The company
is also involved in the groundwater extraction
[3]
and carbon capture
and storage industries.
[4]
The brothers had experience conducting geophysical surveys in
countries such as Romania, Canada, Serbia, South Africa, the
Democratic Republic of the Congo and the United States. The new
company sold electrical-measurement mapping services, and recorded
the first-ever electrical resistivity well log in Merkwiller-Pechelbronn,
France in 1927. The company quickly expanded, logging its first well
in the U.S. in 1929, in Kern County, California. In 1935, the
Schlumberger Well Surveying Corporation was founded in
Houston, later evolving into Schlumberger Well Services, and finally
Schlumberger Wireline & Testing. Schlumberger invested heavily in
research, inaugurating the Schlumberger-Doll Research Center in
Ridgefield, Connecticut in 1948, contributing to the development of a
number of new logging tools. In 1956, Schlumberger Limited was
incorporated as a holding company for all Schlumberger businesses,
which by now included American testing and production company
Johnston Testers.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Over the years, Schlumberger continued to expand its operations and acquisitions. In 1960, Dowell Schlumberger
(50% Schlumberger, 50% Dow Chemical), which specialized in pumping services for the oil industry, was formed.
In 1962, Schlumberger Limited became listed on the New York Stock Exchange.
[5]
That same year, Schlumberger
purchased Daystrom, an electronic instruments manufacturer in South Boston, Virginia which was making furniture
by the time the division was sold to Sperry & Hutchinson in 1971. Schlumberger purchased 50% of Forex in 1964
and merged it with 50% of Languedocienne to create the Neptune Drilling Company. The first computerized
reservoir analysis, SARABAND, was introduced in 1970. The remaining 50% of Forex was acquired the following
year; Neptune was renamed Forex Neptune Drilling Company. In 1979, Fairchild Camera and Instrument (including
Fairchild Semiconductor) became a subsidiary of Schlumberger Limited.
Schlumberger established the first international data links with e-mail in 1981. In 1983, Schlumberger opened their
Cambridge Research Center in Cambridge, England and in 2012 it was renamed the Schlumberger Gould
Research Center after the company's former CEO Andrew Gould.
The SEDCO drilling rig company and half of Dowell of North America were acquired in 1984, resulting in the
creation of the Anadrill drilling segment, a combination of Dowell and The Analysts' drilling segments. Forex
Neptune was merged with SEDCO to create the Sedco Forex Drilling Company the following year, when
Schlumberger purchased Merlin and 50% of GECO.Wikipedia:Citation needed
In the 1970s, the company's top executives in North America were relocated to New York City.
[6]
Schlumberger
70
In 1987, Schlumberger completed their purchases of Neptune (North America), Bosco and Cori (Italy), and Allmess
(Germany). That same year, National Semiconductor acquired Fairchild Semiconductor from Schlumberger for $122
million. In 1991, Schlumberger acquired PRAKLA-SEISMOS, and pioneered the use of geosteering to plan the drill
path in horizontal wells.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Schlumberger acquired software company GeoQuest Systems in 1992. With the purchase came the conversion of
SINet to TCP/IP and www capability. In the 1990s Schlumberger bought out the petroleum division, AEG meter,
and ECLIPSE reservoir study team Intera Technologies Corp. A joint venture between Schlumberger and Cable &
Wireless resulted with the creation of Omnes, which then handled all of Schlumberger's internal IT business.
Oilphase and Camco International were also purchased.Wikipedia:Citation needed
In 1999, Schlumberger and Smith International created a joint venture, M-I L.L.C., the world's largest drilling fluids
(or mud) company. The company consists of 60% Smith International, and 40% Schlumberger. Since the joint
venture was prohibited by a 1994 antitrust consent decree barring Smith from selling or combining their fluids
business with certain other companies, including Schlumberger, the U.S. District Court in Washington, D.C. found
Smith International Inc. and Schlumberger Ltd. guilty of criminal contempt and fined each company $750,000 and
placed each company on five years probation. Both companies also agreed to pay a total of $13.1 million,
representing a full disgorgement of all of the joint venture's profits during the time the companies were in contempt.
In 2000, the Geco-Prakla division was merged with Western Geophysical to create the seismic contracting company
WesternGeco, of which Schlumberger held a 70% stake, the remaining 30% belonging to competitor Baker Hughes.
Sedco Forex was spun off, and merged with Transocean Drilling company in 2000.Wikipedia:Citation needed
In 2001, Schlumberger acquired the IT consultancy company Sema plc for $5.2billion. The company was an Athens
2004 Summer Olympics partner, but Schlumberger's venture into IT consultancy did not pay off, and divestiture of
Sema to Atos Origin was completed that year for $1.5billion. The cards division was divested through an IPO to
form Axalto, which later merged with Gemplus to form Gemalto, and the Messaging Solutions unit was spun off and
merged with Taral Networks to form Airwide Solutions. In 2003, the Automated Test Equipment group, part of the
1979 Fairchild Semiconductor acquisition, was spun off to NPTest Holding, which later sold it to
Credence.Wikipedia:Citation needed
In 2004, Schlumberger Business Consulting was launched. Based in Paris, it is the company's management
consultancy arm.
In 2005, Schlumberger purchased Waterloo Hydrogeologic,
[7]
Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources which was
followed by several other groundwater industry related companies, such as Westbay Instruments, and Van Essen
Instruments. Also that year, Schlumberger relocated its U.S. corporate offices from New York to Houston.
In 2006, Schlumberger purchased the remaining 30% of WesternGeco from Baker Hughes for
US$2.4billion.Wikipedia:Citation needed Also that year, the Schlumberger-Doll Research Center was relocated to a
newly built research facility in Cambridge, Massachusetts to replace the Ridgefield, Connecticut research center. The
facility joins the other research centers operated by the company in Cambridge, England; Moscow, Russia;
Stavanger, Norway; and Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
[8]
In 2010, the acquisition of Smith International in an all stock deal valued at $11.3 billion was announced. The sale
price is 45.84-a-share price was 37.5 percent higher than Smith closing price on 18 February 2010. The deal is the
biggest acquisition in Schlumberger history.
[9]
The merger was completed on August 27, 2010. Also announced in
2010 were Schlumberger plans to acquire Geoservices, a French-based company specializing in energy services, in a
deal valued at $1.1 billion, including debt.
[10]
Schlumberger
71
Environmental record
In 2009, Newsweek released their "Green Rankings" a ranking of the 500 largest corporations on track records on a
number of environmental issues. Schlumberger was ranked 118th out of 500 overall, and 3rd out of 31 in their
industry. Newsweek remarked that to mitigate global warming Schlumberger has invested in carbon sequestration
which involves long-term storage of CO2 and that the company's seismic survey ships are 20% to 25% more
fuel-efficient than those of other seismic contractors from using fuels that emit less pollution and towing equipment
that creates less drag on the vessels.
Radioactive sources
In 2006, a radioactive canister imported by Schlumberger was recovered in the Western Australian outback desert.
The canister had been lost in November 2005 by the company's transport partner, when the improperly secured
container fell off the trailer on which it was being transported.
In 2010, the Aberdeen Sheriff court fined Schlumberger Oilfield UK 300,000 for losing a radioactive source on the
rig floor on the Ensco 101 mobile drilling rig in the North Sea for 4 hours.
Spills
In 2009, the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection fined Chesapeake Appalachia LLC and
Schlumberger Technology Corp. more than $15,500 each for a hydrochloric acid spill in February 2009 at
Chesapeake's Chancellor natural gas well site in Asylum Township, Bradford County, Pennsylvania. Officials said
the leak did not contaminate groundwater.
Brownfields
In 2006, as the current owner of a facility in Pickens, South Carolina, Schlumberger agreed to pay $11.8million to
federal and state agencies for a problem caused by the previous owner, Sangamo-Weston, a capacitor manufacturing
plant. The cause of the problem was from polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) released into the environment by
Sangamo-Weston from 1955 to 1987. According to the Justice Department's Environment and Natural Resources
Division, an additional agreement by Schlumberger to purchase and remove dams will directly improve the
Twelvemile Creek, South Carolina ecosystem and provide significant environmental benefits for the affected
communities.
Deepwater Horizon
Schlumberger performed wireline logging on the Deepwater Horizon oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010. A
Schlumberger standby crew had been released by BP and left the rig earlier on the same day of the Deepwater
Horizon explosion.
References
[1] http:/ / www. nyse.com/ quote/ XNYS:SLB
[2] http:/ / www. slb.com/
[3] " Schlumberger Water Services (http:/ / www.slb.com/ services/ additional/ water. aspx)." Schlumberger Web site. Retrieved on January 30,
2011.
[4] " Schlumberger Carbon Services (http:/ / www.slb.com/ services/ additional/ carbon. aspx)." Schlumberger Web site. Retrieved on January
30, 2011.
[5] " Listings Directory Schlumberger Limited (http:/ / www. nyse. com/ listed/ slb. html)." NYSE web site. Retrieved on September 02, 2013.
[6] Clanton, Brett. " ENERGY / Growth in the oil patch translates into good times for oil-field-services firms like Schlumberger - and for
Houston / The best of times means more jobs (http:/ / www. chron. com/ CDA/ archives/ archive. mpl?id=2006_4200210)." Houston
Chronicle. Friday September 29, 2006. Business 1. Retrieved on January 13, 2009.
[7] http:/ / www. flowpath. com/ whi-slb-press-release.htm
Schlumberger
72
[8] " Schlumberger Research (http:/ / www.slb.com/ about/ rd/ research. aspx)." Schlumberger. Retrieved on January 30, 2011.
[9] " Schlumberger to Acquire Smith for About $11 Billion (Update3) (http:/ / www. businessweek. com/ news/ 2010-02-21/
schlumberger-to-buy-smith-for-about-11-3-billion-correct-. html)." BusinessWeek. February 21, 2010. Retrieved on February 23, 2010.
[10] Schlumberger to buy Geoservices for $1.1 billion (http:/ / www. marketwatch. com/ story/
schlumberger-to-buy-geoservices-for-11-billion-2010-03-25?reflink=MW_news_stmp) Retrieved from MarketWatch 25 February 2010
External links
Schlumberger website (http:/ / www. slb. com/ )
Schlumberger (http:/ / www. tshaonline. org/ handbook/ online/ articles/ SS/ dzsxg) from the Handbook of Texas
Online
" Schlumberger, Smith Merger News (http:/ / www. slb. com/ news/ schlumberger_smith_merger. aspx)."
Hydrocarbon exploration
Onshore Drilling Rig
Hydrocarbon exploration (or oil and gas
exploration) is the search by petroleum geologists and
geophysicists for hydrocarbon deposits beneath the
Earth's surface, such as oil and natural gas. Oil and gas
exploration are grouped under the science of petroleum
geology.
Exploration methods
Visible surface features such as oil seeps, natural gas
seeps, pockmarks (underwater craters caused by
escaping gas) provide basic evidence of hydrocarbon
generation (be it shallow or deep in the Earth).
However, most exploration depends on highly
sophisticated technology to detect and determine the
extent of these deposits using exploration geophysics.
Areas thought to contain hydrocarbons are initially
subjected to a gravity survey, magnetic survey, passive
seismic or regional seismic reflection surveys to detect
large-scale features of the sub-surface geology.
Features of interest (known as leads) are subjected to
more detailed seismic surveys which work on the
principle of the time it takes for reflected sound waves
to travel through matter (rock) of varying densities and
using the process of depth conversion to create a profile of the substructure. Finally, when a prospect has been
identified and evaluated and passes the oil company's selection criteria, an exploration well is drilled in an attempt to
conclusively determine the presence or absence of oil or gas.
Oil exploration is an expensive, high-risk operation. Offshore and remote area exploration is generally only
undertaken by very large corporations or national governments. Typical shallow shelf oil wells (e.g. North Sea) cost
US$10 30 million, while deep water wells can cost up to US$100 million plus. Hundreds of smaller companies
search for onshore hydrocarbon deposits worldwide, with some wells costing as little as US$100,000.
Hydrocarbon exploration
73
Elements of a petroleum prospect
Mud log in process, a common way to study the
rock types when drilling oil wells.
A prospect is a potential trap which geologists believe may contain
hydrocarbons. A significant amount of geological, structural and
seismic investigation must first be completed to redefine the potential
hydrocarbon drill location from a lead to a prospect. Five geological
factors have to be present for a prospect to work and if any of them fail
neither oil nor gas will be present.
A source rock - When organic-rich rock such as oil shale or coal is
subjected to high pressure and temperature over an extended period
of time, hydrocarbons form.
Reservoir - The hydrocarbons are contained in a reservoir rock. This
is commonly a porous sandstone or limestone. The oil collects in the
pores within the rock although open fractures within non-porous rocks (e.g. fractured granite) may also store
hydrocarbons. The reservoir must also be permeable so that the hydrocarbons will flow to surface during
production.
Migration - The hydrocarbons are expelled from source rock by three density-related mechanisms: the newly
matured hydrocarbons are less dense than their precursors, which causes overpressure; the hydrocarbons are
lighter medium, and so migrate upwards due to buoyancy, and the fluids expand as further burial causes increased
heating. Most hydrocarbons migrate to the surface as oil seeps, but some will get trapped.
Trap - The hydrocarbons are buoyant and have to be trapped within a structural (e.g. Anticline, fault block) or
stratigraphic trap
Seal or cap rock - The hydrocarbon trap has to be covered by an impermeable rock known as a seal or cap-rock in
order to prevent hydrocarbons escaping to the surface
Exploration risk
Hydrocarbon exploration is a high risk investment and risk assessment is paramount for successful exploration
portfolio management. Exploration risk is a difficult concept and is usually defined by assigning confidence to the
presence of five imperative geological factors, as discussed above. This confidence is based on data and/or models
and is usually mapped on Common Risk Segment Maps (CRS Maps). High confidence in the presence of imperative
geological factors is usually coloured green and low confidence coloured red.
[1]
Therefore these maps are also called
Traffic Light Maps, while the full procedure is often referred to as Play Fairway Analysis.
[2]
The aim of such
procedures is to force the geologist to objectively assess all different geological factors. Furthermore it results in
simple maps that can be understood by non-geologists and managers to base exploration decisions on.
Terms used in petroleum evaluation
Bright spot - On a seismic section, coda that have high amplitudes due to a formation containing hydrocarbons.
Chance of success - An estimate of the chance of all the elements (see above) within a prospect working,
described as a probability.
Dry hole - A boring that does not contain commercial hydrocarbons.
Flat spot - Possibly an oil-water, gas-water or gas-oil contact on a seismic section; flat due to gravity.
Hydrocarbon in place - amount of hydrocarbon likely to be contained in the prospect. This is calculated using the
volumetric equation - GRV x N/G x Porosity x Sh / FVF
GRV - Gross rock volume - amount of rock in the trap above the hydrocarbon water contact
N/G - net/gross ratio - proportion of the GRV formed by the reservoir rock ( range is 0 to 1)
Porosity - percentage of the net reservoir rock occupied by pores (typically 5-35%)
Hydrocarbon exploration
74
Sh - hydrocarbon saturation - some of the pore space is filled with water - this must be discounted
FVF - formation volume factor - oil shrinks and gas expands when brought to the surface. The FVF converts
volumes at reservoir conditions (high pressure and high temperature) to storage and sale conditions
Lead - Potential accumulation is currently poorly defined and requires more data acquisition and/or evaluation in
order to be classified as a prospect.
Play - An area in which hydrocarbon accumulations or prospects of a given type occur. For example the shale gas
plays in North America include the Barnett, Eagle Ford, Fayetteville, Haynesville, Marcellus, and Woodford,
among many others.
Prospect - a lead which has been more fully evaluated.
Recoverable hydrocarbons - amount of hydrocarbon likely to be recovered during production. This is typically
10-50% in an oil field and 50-80% in a gas field.
Licensing
Petroleum resources are typically owned by the government of the host country. In the USA most onshore (land) oil
and gas rights (OGM) are owned by private individuals, in which case oil companies must negotiate terms for a lease
of these rights with the individual who owns the OGM. Sometimes this is not the same person who owns the land
surface. In most nations the government issues licences to explore, develop and produce its oil and gas resources,
which are typically administered by the oil ministry. There are several different types of licence. Oil companies often
operate in joint ventures to spread the risk; one of the companies in the partnership is designated the operator who
actually supervises the work.
Tax and Royalty - Companies would pay a royalty on any oil produced, together with a profits tax (which can
have expenditure offset against it). In some cases there are also various bonuses and ground rents (license fees)
payable to the government - for example a signature bonus payable at the start of the licence. Licences are
awarded in competitive bid rounds on the basis of either the size of the work programme (number of wells,
seismic etc.) or size of the signature bonus.
Production Sharing contract (PSA) - A PSA is more complex than a Tax/Royalty system - The companies bid on
the percentage of the production that the host government receives (this may be variable with the oil price), There
is often also participation by the Government owned National Oil Company (NOC). There are also various
bonuses to be paid. Development expenditure is offset against production revenue.
Service contract - This is when an oil company acts as a contractor for the host government, being paid to produce
the hydrocarbons.
Reserves and resources
Resources are hydrocarbons which may or may not be produced in the future. A resource number may be assigned to
an undrilled prospect or an unappraised discovery. Appraisal by drilling additional delineation wells or acquiring
extra seismic data will confirm the size of the field and lead to project sanction. At this point the relevant
government body gives the oil company a production licence which enables the field to be developed. This is also
the point at which oil and gas reserves can be formally booked.
Hydrocarbon exploration
75
Oil and Gas Reserves
Oil and gas reserves are defined as volumes that will be commercially recovered in the future. Reserves are separated
into three categories: proved, probable, and possible. To be included in any reserves category, all commercial aspects
must have been addressed, which includes government consent. Technical issues alone separate proved from
unproved categories. All reserve estimates involve some degree of uncertainty.
Proved reserves are the highest valued category. Proved reserves have a "reasonable certainty" of being
recovered, which means a high degree of confidence that the volumes will be recovered. Some industry specialists
refer to this as P90, i.e., having a 90% certainty of being produced. The SEC provides a more detailed definition:
Proved oil and gas reserves are those quantities of oil and gas, which, by analysis of geoscience and engineering
data, can be estimated with reasonable certainty to be economically produciblefrom a given date forward, from
known reservoirs, and under existing economic conditions, operating methods, and government regulationsprior to
the time at which contracts providing the right to operate expire, unless evidence indicates that renewal is reasonably
certain, regardless of whether deterministic or probabilistic methods are used for the estimation. The project to
extract the hydrocarbons must have commenced or the operator must be reasonably certain that it will commence the
project within a reasonable time.
[3]
Probable reserves are volumes defined as "less likely to be recovered than proved, but more certain to be
recovered than Possible Reserves". Some industry specialists refer to this as P50, i.e., having a 50% certainty of
being produced.
Possible reserves are reserves which analysis of geological and engineering data suggests are less likely to be
recoverable than probable reserves. Some industry specialists refer to this as P10, i.e., having a 10% certainty of
being produced.
The term 1P is frequently used to denote proved reserves; 2P is the sum of proved and probable reserves; and 3P the
sum of proved, probable, and possible reserves. The best estimate of recovery from committed projects is generally
considered to be the 2P sum of proved and probable reserves. Note that these volumes only refer to currently
justified projects or those projects already in development.
[4]
Reserve booking
Oil and gas reserves are the main asset of an oil company. Booking is the process by which they are added to the
balance sheet.
In the United States, booking is done according to a set of rules developed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers
(SPE). The reserves of any company listed on the New York Stock Exchange have to be stated to the U.S. Securities
and Exchange Commission. Reported reserves may be audited by outside geologists, although this is not a legal
requirement.
In Russia, companies report their reserves to the State Commission on Mineral Reserves (GKZ).Wikipedia:Citation
needed
Hydrocarbon exploration
76
References
[1] Exploration Risk on E&P Geology (http:/ / www. epgeology. com/ general-discussion-f28/ assigning-exploration-risks-t157. html)
[2] CRS Mapping and Play Fairway Analysis (http:/ / www. ccop. or. th/ projects/ PPM/ Case_Study_Phillipines_files/ Second workshop/
presentations\P12 PhilPRA Play Analysis presentation 2nd workshop. pdf)
[3] http:/ / www. sec. gov/ rules/ final/ 2008/ 33-8995.pdf
[4] "SPE Petroleum Resources Management System Guide for Non-Technical Users";http:/ / www. spe. org/ industry/ docs/
PRMS_guide_non_tech.pdf
External links
Hydrocarbon Exploration News (http:/ / www. energyglobal. com/ sectors/ exploration. aspx)
Oil & Gas Exploration News (http:/ / www. ogj. com/ category/ Online_SubCategory. cfm?p=7&
Section=OnlineArticles& cat=ExplD)
Interactive Oil Well Map (http:/ / www. mississippioiljournal. com/ map/ ) Mississippi Oil Journal
Overview of oil and gas exploration (http:/ / www. petrostrategies. org/ Learning_Center/ exploration. htm)
Oilfield Glossary (http:/ / www. glossary. oilfield. slb. com/ )
Exploration Geology Forums (http:/ / www. epgeology. com/ )
Seismic Survey in oil and gas exploration (http:/ / www. seismicsurvey. com. au/ )
Extraction of petroleum
Pumpjack on an oil well in Texas
The extraction of petroleum is the process by which
usable petroleum is extracted and removed from the
earth.
Locating the oil field
Geologists use seismic surveys to search for geological
structures that may form oil reservoirs. The "classic"
method includes making an underground explosion
nearby and observing the seismic response that
provides information about the geological structures
under the ground [1]. However, "passive" methods that
extract information from naturally-occurring seismic
waves are also known.
[2]
Other instruments such as gravimeters and magnetometers are also sometimes used in the search for petroleum.
Extracting crude oil normally starts with drilling wells into the underground reservoir. When an oil well has been
tapped, a geologist (known on the rig as the "mudlogger") will note its presence. Such a "mudlogger" is known to be
sitting on the rig. Historically, in the USA, some oil fields existed where the oil rose naturally to the surface, but
most of these fields have long since been used up, except in certain places in Alaska. Often many wells (called
multilateral wells) are drilled into the same reservoir, to ensure that the extraction rate will be economically viable.
Also, some wells (secondary wells) may be used to pump water, steam, acids or various gas mixtures into the
reservoir to raise or maintain the reservoir pressure, and so maintain an economic extraction rate.
Extraction of petroleum
77
Drilling
Main article: Oil well
The oil well is created by drilling a long hole into the earth with an oil rig. A steel pipe (casing) is placed in the hole,
to provide structural integrity to the newly drilled well bore. Holes are then made in the base of the well to enable oil
to pass into the bore.Finally a collection of valves called a "Christmas Tree" is fitted to the top, the valves regulate
pressures and control flow.
Oil extraction and recovery
Primary recovery
During the primary recovery stage, reservoir drive comes from a number of natural mechanisms. These include:
natural water displacing oil downward into the well, expansion of the natural gas at the top of the reservoir,
expansion of gas initially dissolved in the crude oil, and gravity drainage resulting from the movement of oil within
the reservoir from the upper to the lower parts where the wells are located. Recovery factor during the primary
recovery stage is typically 5-15%.
While the underground pressure in the oil reservoir is sufficient to force the oil to the surface, all that is necessary is
to place a complex arrangement of valves (the Christmas tree) on the well head to connect the well to a pipeline
network for storage and processing. Sometimes pumps, such as beam pumps and electrical submersible pumps
(ESPs), are used to bring the oil to the surface; these are known as artificial lift mechanisms.
Secondary recovery
Over the lifetime of the well the pressure will fall, and at some point there will be insufficient underground pressure
to force the oil to the surface. After natural reservoir drive diminishes, secondary recovery methods are applied.
They rely on the supply of external energy into the reservoir in the form of injecting fluids to increase reservoir
pressure, hence replacing or increasing the natural reservoir drive with an artificial drive. Secondary recovery
techniques increase the reservoir's pressure by water injection, natural gas reinjection and gas lift, which injects air,
carbon dioxide or some other gas into the bottom of an active well, reducing the overall density of fluid in the
wellbore. Typical recovery factor from water-flood operations is about 30%, depending on the properties of oil and
the characteristics of the reservoir rock. On average, the recovery factor after primary and secondary oil recovery
operations is between 35 and 45%.
Enhanced recovery
Steam is injected into many oil fields where the
oil is thicker and heavier than normal crude oil
Enhanced, or Tertiary oil recovery methods increase the mobility of the
oil in order to increase extraction.
Thermally enhanced oil recovery methods (TEOR) are tertiary
recovery techniques that heat the oil, thus reducing its viscosity and
making it easier to extract. Steam injection is the most common form
of TEOR, and is often done with a cogeneration plant. In this type of
cogeneration plant, a gas turbine is used to generate electricity and the
waste heat is used to produce steam, which is then injected into the
reservoir. This form of recovery is used extensively to increase oil
extraction in the San Joaquin Valley, which has very heavy oil, yet
accounts for 10% of the United States' oil
extraction.Wikipedia:Citation needed Fire flooding (In-situ burning) is
another form of TEOR, but instead of steam, some of the oil is burned to heat the surrounding oil.
Extraction of petroleum
78
Occasionally, surfactants (detergents) are injected to alter the surface tension between the water and oil in the
reservoir, mobilizing oil which would otherwise remain in the reservoir as residual oil.
[3]
Another method to reduce viscosity is carbon dioxide flooding.
Tertiary recovery allows another 5% to 15% of the reservoir's oil to be recovered. In some California heavy oil
fields, steam injection has doubled or even tripled the oil reserves and ultimate oil recovery.
[4]
For example, see
Midway-Sunset Oil Field, California's largest oilfield.
Tertiary recovery begins when secondary oil recovery isn't enough to continue adequate extraction, but only when
the oil can still be extracted profitably. This depends on the cost of the extraction method and the current price of
crude oil. When prices are high, previously unprofitable wells are brought back into use and when they are low,
extraction is curtailed.
Microbial treatments is another tertiary recovery method. Special blends of the microbes are used to treat and break
down the hydrocarbon chain in oil thus making the oil easy to recover as well as being more economic versus other
conventional methods. In some states, such as Texas, there are tax incentives for using these microbes in what is
called a secondary tertiary recovery. Very few companies supply these, however companies like Bio Tech, Inc. have
proven very successful in waterfloods across Texas.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Recovery rates and factors
The amount of oil that is recoverable is determined by a number of factors including the permeability of the rocks,
the strength of natural drives (the gas present, pressure from adjacent water or gravity), and the viscosity of the oil.
When the reservoir rocks are "tight" such as shale, oil generally cannot flow through but when they are permeable
such as in sandstone, oil flows freely. The flow of oil is often helped by natural pressures surrounding the reservoir
rocks including natural gas that may be dissolved in the oil (see Gas oil ratio), natural gas present above the oil,
water below the oil and the strength of gravity. Oils tend to span a large range of viscosity from liquids as light as
gasoline to heavy as tar. The lightest forms tend to result in higher extraction rates.
Petroleum engineering is the discipline responsible for evaluating which well locations and recovery mechanisms are
appropriate for a reservoir and for estimating recovery rates and oil reserves prior to actual extraction.
Estimated ultimate recovery
Although ultimate recovery of a well cannot be known with certainty until the well ceases production, petroleum
engineers will often estimate an estimated ultimate recovery (EUR) based on decline rate projections years into the
future. Various models, mathematical techniques and approximations are used.
Shale gas EUR is difficult to predict and it is possible to choose recovery methods that tend to underestimate decline
of the well beyond that which is reasonable.
Extraction of petroleum
79
References
[1] http:/ / www. lloydminsterheavyoil. com/ seismic. htm
[2] A technology web site of a passive - seismic based company (http:/ / www. spectraseis. com/ jahia/ Jahia/ spectraseis/ technology)
[3] "New Billions In Oil" (http:/ / books.google.com/ books?id=qvEDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA337& dq=Popular+ Science+ 1933+ plane+
"Popular+ Mechanics"& hl=en& ei=28UKTt_IKIrEsQK0nu2XAQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1&
ved=0CCkQ6AEwADgK#v=onepage& q& f=true) Popular Mechanics, March 1933 -- ie article on invention of water injection and
detergents for oil recovery
[4] Growth History of Oil Reserves in Major California Oil Fields During the Twentieth Century, USGS Bulletin 2172-H, 2005 (http:/ / pubs.
usgs. gov/ bul/ b2172-h/ )
Article Sources and Contributors
80
Article Sources and Contributors
Petroleum Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=617794066 Contributors: (jarbarf), 0pera, 12dstring, 192837465thewall, 209.255.81.xxx, 24fan24, 2hot4burqa, 2over0,
3DBrendzz, 458italia, 84user, A bit iffy, A i s h2000, A. Parrot, A876, AGToth, ATEMBEH, Aaron Schulz, Abacab, Abcjake, Abjs, Accuruss, Achmad Fahri, Adam sk, Adam9389, Adashiel,
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Petroleum industry Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=617455922 Contributors: 1122334455, 1exec1, Achowat, Ageekgal, Ahmad510, Aitias, Akselrod, Alan Liefting,
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List of oil fields Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=616911687 Contributors: *drew, A Karley, Abdulnr, Adaykz, Ahabvader, Ajju1989, Alan Liefting, Alensha, All Hail
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List of oilfield service companies Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=616301703 Contributors: Abirkot, Adinan77, AdrianArcher, Afnordang, Ajhudson1984, Aldrich4k,
AlexVotan, Ali.eblis1, Alpha Quadrant, Bartonsp, Beagel, Bigtwelvefan, Billy806, Birchtree56, Blanchardb, Bmm5882, Bopexperts, Brimner, C.Fred, CarOslo, Catmandee, Caveman1949,
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World oil market chronology from 2003 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=615153023 Contributors: Andrew422, Artrix, Bgwhite, Bigpoophead11, Chris the speller,
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Oil field Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=617455692 Contributors: *drew, Adeelyounas53, Aesopos, Afarina, Anonyguru, Antandrus, Asymbian, Beagel, Bender235,
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Oil well Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=616523015 Contributors: *Kat*, 10metreh, Acroterion, Addshore, Adrian Nygaard, AdultSwim, Afarina, Ala.foum, Alifabeta,
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Article Sources and Contributors
82
Schlumberger Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=617341756 Contributors: A. B., Aditya, Aeroplanepics0112, Alghenius, Alll, Amcl, Americasroof, AniRaptor2001, Anipilot,
ArthurOleary, Avenue X at Cicero, AxG, Axblt58, Bachrach44, Baudoin1, Beagel, Bender235, Bigmimi50, BillySharps, Bluap, Bluemoose, BokicaK, Boothy443, BorisG, Bovineone,
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Jerryseinfeld, Jim1138, Jingshen, Jjcloudruns, Joseph Solis in Australia, Josephmattar, Jpatokal, Julius.kusuma, Jvcdude, Khazar, Khazar2, KingBabi, Kkm010, Kn4tx, Kuru, Kwamikagami,
KylieTastic, LeadSongDog, Lobosolo, LorenzoB, Lotus7Productions, Maennes, Majorly, Malbear, Mark83, Mbubel, Mclubp, Mesoderm, Momotheawesomeswagalicioushors, Mrtrey99,
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Saerdnaer, Shindo9Hikaru, Shortride, Shoubing, Solipsist, Sourcecheck, Strom, Studerby, Sullivan9211, Svgalbertian, Tassedethe, Tentinator, The Real Baby Ace, The wub, TheOldJacobite,
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, ..24, 336 anonymous edits
Hydrocarbon exploration Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=616503503 Contributors: Achiru, Ahmad510, Airondias, Ala.foum, Alexhard, Allen Info, Allen Mesch,
Altafqadir, Anupam, Arthena, Asher196, Austinbirdman, BJ Axel, Barek, Beagel, Beetstra, Berland, Billinghurst, Blaxthos, Bluemoose, Bob W Allen, Brettpaul2000, Btball, Casey56, Cgingold,
Chris the speller, ChrisGualtieri, Daniele Pugliesi, Darkwind, DominikWells, Donner60, Edward, Electromagnetic, EnergyGlobal, Fluent aphasia, Frbloke101, FredR, GDLIND, Gaius Cornelius,
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Gravitas, 98 anonymous edits
Extraction of petroleum Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=616524903 Contributors: 15turnsm, Alansohn, Andy Beer, Arthena, Asdfrulesyeh, Audriusa, Avij, Beagel, Beland,
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
83
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Oil Reserves.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oil_Reserves.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Emilfaro, Jonkerz
File:Oil well.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oil_well.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Flcelloguy at
en.wikipedia
File:Photo lg kuwait.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Photo_lg_kuwait.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Lokantha
File:Koransk ropn prame.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Koransk_ropn_prame.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Branork
File:Gusher Okemah OK 1922.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gusher_Okemah_OK_1922.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was
PlainEarth at en.wikipedia
File:West Lothian shale bing, Scotland.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:West_Lothian_shale_bing,_Scotland.JPG License: Creative Commons
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Contributors: RockyMtnGuy (talk). Original uploader was RockyMtnGuy at en.wikipedia
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Estoymuybueno, Rhadamante, Samulili
File:Treibs&Chlorophyll.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Treibs&Chlorophyll.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Smokefoot
File:Structural Trap (Anticlinal).svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Structural_Trap_(Anticlinal).svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors:
Finavon, Kopiersperre, Oceanh, Ras67, Reykholt, TomCatX
File:Crudes.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crudes.PNG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:BoH
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File:Global Carbon Emissions.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Global_Carbon_Emissions.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0
Contributors: Global_Carbon_Emission_by_Type_to_Y2004.png: Mak Thorpe derivative work: Autopilot (talk)
File:World energy consumption.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:World_energy_consumption.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0
Contributors: Con-struct
File:Oil consumption per day by region from 1980 to 2006.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oil_consumption_per_day_by_region_from_1980_to_2006.svg
License: Public Domain Contributors: 84user
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Contributors: 84user (talk). Original uploader was 84user at en.wikipedia
File:OilConsumptionpercapita.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OilConsumptionpercapita.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: GRock at
English Language Wikipedia
File:Oil producing countries map.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oil_producing_countries_map.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors:
Alno, Elekhh, HCPUNXKID, Jonkerz, Kuohatti, Lokal Profil, Magog the Ogre, MilFlyboy, RosssW, 3 anonymous edits
File:Top Oil Producing Counties.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Top_Oil_Producing_Counties.png License: Public Domain Contributors: US Department of
Energy, Energy Information Administration
File:Oil exports.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oil_exports.PNG License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Jonkerz,
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File:Dieselrainbow.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dieselrainbow.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: John (ex-user Guinnog)
File:Carbonate system of seawater.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Carbonate_system_of_seawater.svg License: Public Domain Contributors:
Karbonatsystem_Meerwasser_de.svg: User:BeAr derivative work: Meiyuchang (talk)
File:Oil-spill.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oil-spill.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: US Gov NOAA
File:Oil Slick in the Timor Sea September-2009.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oil_Slick_in_the_Timor_Sea_September-2009.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: NASA Earth Observatory. Original uploader was Mattisse at en.wikipedia
File:PrestigeVolunteersInGaliciaCoast.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PrestigeVolunteersInGaliciaCoast.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License
Contributors: Ariadacapo, Eutopio, HombreDHojalata, Lmbuga, Stan Shebs, Wikiborg4711, , 7 anonymous edits
File:Piracicaba 10 2008 151 Gast station selling four fuels.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Piracicaba_10_2008_151_Gast_station_selling_four_fuels.jpg License:
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