Quarks

..
2010

:
. .
1

. 17, 9:

. 18,
(2.10):
. 55, :
. 85,
(.7) (.8)
. 199, 10

7
8
9
10

. , 6
. , 25
,
. XIV,

11

. V, 5-9

2
3
4

2 3

2/3

c2

/ c2

Fm

Fm

4108

4108
Point
presentation

. Power

15

. 19, 3

16

. 20, 9

17

. 25, 8

18

. 56, 2&4
., 13 5

(.10) (.9)

. 15, 2

19
20

56

Q / T

14

13

(3)

15, 6

. 4, R. P.
Feynman
. 16,

12

(2.6)

G = 2,4006 1043

(2.8)

(2.8)

(5.10) (5.9)

(I)

1.
: ;
;

;
2.
, , ;
;
;
;
;
;
29,53 ,
27,32 ;
, , ,
3.
4.
5.
6.
x
. : .. 1 + x  1 + + ...
2
7. / Internet
8.
9. ,
10. :

( )
25

(
)

,

.

( )

( ).

(II)

________________________________________ i
_________________________________________________ ii
. : _____________________ iii
. : ___________________________________ iv
. : ___________________________ v
. IV: _______ vi
. V: _____________________________ vii
. VI: 1 2 ____________________________________ viii
. VII: ____________________________________ ix
. VIII: 25 ___________________________________ xi
. : ____________________________________ xiii
H: __________________ 1
1:
1: ______________________________ 4
1.1 _______________________ 5
1.2 _________________________ 8
1.3 _________________________ 11
2: ___________ 13
2.1 (Heisenberg)___________________________ 15
2.2 Pauli________________________________ 17
2.3 (Schrdinger)__________________ 21
3:
_____________________________________________ 25
3.1 ____________________________________________ 25
2 :
4: .
_____________________________________ 32.
4.1 ;_______________________32
4.2 ________________________________________ 33
(
)
5: ______________________ 46
5.1 ____________________________________ 46
5.2 _________________________________________ 54
6: _____________________ 58
6.1 ____________________________________________ 58

6.2 _____________________________________ 62
6.3 ___________________________________ 70
6.4 ____________________________________ 72
7: _______________________________ 75
7.1 __________________________________________ 75
7.2 _____________________________________ 75
7.3 ____________________________________ 78
1 2 :
____________________ 83
3 : H _______ 87
8: _______________ 89
9: ________________________ 101
10: _____________________________________________ 109
11: _____________________________________________ 123
12: _________________________________________ 137
1 2 . 12______________________________________ 158
. 13 14__________________________________________ 164
13: ___________________________( ) 166
14: _____________________________ ( ) 175
15: , ____________________________ 188
16: (. . , , 2005,
. 703-756)______________________________________________________ 215
4 :
__________________________________________________________ 230
: __________________________________ 254
___________________________________________________ 262

 IV: -

( HM )

()

()

( m)

( + -)

1018

aG = Gm2p / hc =
= 5.91039

a=

e2
1
>
h c 137

2
g w2 2m p
aw =
h c mw2

> 10

1015

g s2
>1
hc
> 15

as =

( McV )

W+

80000

1
1

1
1

QUARK

QUARK

( A)
()

W
Zo

80000
91000

(,


)

HIGGS : (2010) 112GeV d mH d 150GeV spin:0

* .
( ).
.
. .. ( R ) u ( B) u RB
BR . : RB , RG, GR , GB , BR , BG ,( RR GG ) / 2
( RR + GG 2 BB ) / 6

VI

 VII

(IX)

&

MONA

, A
, t
, m
: 2 t = 2 .. [ ] = 1 [t ]
: r dt . [ ] = [ A ] [t ]
: a d / dt ... [ a ] = [ A ] [t ]

:  d / dt . [ ] = 1 [t ]

: M dm dV ... [ M ] = [ m ] [ A ]

: p = mr .... [ p ] = [ m ][ A ] [t ]

: L = r p ... [ L ] = [ m ][ A ]

[t ]
2
2
E = Eo + EK + E .... [ E ] = [ m ][ A ] [t ]
2

, Eo U

Eo + EK = mo2c 4 + c 2 p 2

, EK = 1 2 p 2 m
, E
, W = F d A

, Q
, T : k BT . [ k BT ] = [ E ]

S = k B An (U , N ) = k B PI AnPI . [ S ] = [ E ] [T ] = [ k B ]
I

= ( U N ) S ,V .. [ ] = [ E ]

, F .... [ F ] = [ E ] [ A ] = [ m ][ A ] [t ]

P = F A = E V . [ P ] = [ F ] [ A ] = [ E ] [ A ]
2

M r F ....... [ M ] = [ E ]

[q] = *
3
q = dq dV ................................. [ q ] / [ A ]
I dq dt .. [ I ] = [ q ] [t ]
2
j I A .................... [ j ] = [ q ] [t ][ A ]
Fe q .. [ ] = [ E ] [ A ][ q ]
, v d A .. [ ] = [ E ] / [ q ]
B Fm ( c ) q
, q ..

IX

 VII ()

()

&

A , = dS A

A , K = v d A A

: j A = A A

I = mi i2 ( , )
i

C =

dQ
dT

P
B , s , B = V
, [ B] = [ P]
V
pe , [ pe ] = [ q ][ A ]

, R = V / I , [V ] = [ ]

, e : R = eA / A , e = 1/ e , [ e ] = [ R ][ A ]
, Ce = q / V
, Le = B / I , B B
, e
,
, , [ ] = [ ] / [ A ]

, , [ ] = [ P ][t ]
, n = e
, a = pe / , [ a ] = [ A ]

, e = 1 + 4

 VII: 25

()

1. L , ( L =

I =

ri pi = I )
i

mi i2

= dV M

2. , P , ( P =

mi = moi / 1 i2 / c 2
3. ,

pi ,

pi = mi ,

E , E = Eo + EK + E ,

Eo + EK = moi2 c 4 + c 2 pi2 = mi c 2
i

: dU

= Q W + Em

4.
..) parity, time reversal
5. 2

(,

S = k B ln N (U ,V ,...) = k B PI lnPI
I

S = S + S ( Em = 0 ), S =
6.

W = PdV , Em = dN

7.

PI =

8.

ni =

e EI kBT
E
, Z = e 1
Z
I
1

k BT

Q
, S 0 [2 ]
T

IMPORTANT

, ; IMPORTANT

e( i ) B 1
9. G = U + PV TS H TS , dG SdT + VdP + dEm
10. x = x , y = y
z = ( z t ) , ct = ( ct z / c )
Lorentz
/ k T

= 1/ 1 ( / c )

GmM
ro
r2
= q ( E + B ) , SI

11. Fm =
12. FHM

13. Maxwell

E =

Q E =

B
B
E =
(SI)
t
t
B = 0 B = 0

E
K B = I + E B = j + e
t
t
1
1
1
1
S
, S=
E B , u = E 2 +
B , p = eo E B = 2
14. c =
2
2

c
KE =

XI

 VII: 25 ()

15. U = udV = nh , P =

16.

dp
= F ( )
dt

17.

= h , p = hk , k =

()

pdV = nhk , L = = nh

h 2 2 2

()
2 + 2 + 2 + V ( r ) = ih
2m x
t
y
z
h
19. x px
2
18.

20.

K mo2c 4 + 9,12

h 2c 2
h2
2

4,56
3hc / V 1/ 3
m
c
o
2/3
2
/
3
c
V
moV moc 2 cp

21. Pauli ( )

h2 N
22. EK 2,87 N

m V

2/3

23. :

2V m*
24. ( ) =

2 2 h 2
25.

N 4/3
2
moc
V 1/ 3

EK 2,32ch

cp

VVK

( 2 )3

3/ 2

1/ 2 , e K = h 2k 2 / 2m*

h 2 / mV 2 / 3 : E k BT h

k BT , h .

XII

(XIII)

IX:
, , , , , ,

m T P c

f
A = A 0f , , , , , Z... ,
me T0 P0 0 0

A 0
A 0 = = me

, , A 0 .
=
[ = ] = [] [ ]/ []
Bohr: B = 0,529 = 0,529 1010 m
me : m e = 9,1 1031 Kg
m = m u , A B , A B  A
m u  1823m e
e, = , me :

:
:
:
:

40 = 2
=2
(
) = 0,529
m ee 2
m ee 2

e4me
e4me
=2
(
) = 27,2eV
=
2 2
m e 2
=2
4
=
( 0)
m
0 = 3e = 6,15 103 g / cm3

= me 2
=
= 2,42 1017 s
0
=

=
0 = 0 =
= 4,13 1016 rad / s
2
= m e
t0 =

0
=2
=
= 27, 2 11600 = 316000
k B k Bme 2

c
=
0 = =
=
t 0 me 137

T0 =

P0 =

0
=2
=
= 294 Mbar = 290 Matm
3 me5

1bar = 105 N / m 2 (Pascal)

XIII

 IX: ()

R0 =

(XIV)

=
= 4108
e2

0 =

=
 21,7 cm
e2

1eV = 1,6 1019 J

, ..

( )

r = f B ,
: I =

I
r

vs
vs

0,6 d f d 5

e2 e2

=
, 0,2 d d 0,9
r f B
f
Z

Z

: d  r1 + r2 = ( f 1 + f 2 ) B He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe

e2
: E B  m
d
me
e2
, 0,8 d d 1,8
: = =  0
, 0 =
m
B
=2
=2
= 2 me 2B e 2 me
1
 2=

r =
2
2
I d
B ( f 1 + f 2 )2
me d
e2
=2
0
=
= 27, 2 eV
me 2B

V
, f s rs / aB rs = f s aB
N
m
A
= 2,675 3B gr / cm3 , A B  A [
: M =
4 3
fs
rs
3
fs ]
rs : ( 4 / 3) rs3 =

XIV

 IX: ()
:  s

(XV)

=2
27.2 eV
625 Kcal
= s 2
 s 2
, s  1
2
me rs
fs
fs mol

=2
177
 5 Mbar
5
me rs
fs
: s  s B , 0,1 d s d 1
50
s  5 Mbar
fs

B  cs

=
: 0  s
m e rs
=D  ( )

=2
me 2Bfs2

me 41 5/ 6 Km
( )

m fs A B s

me
= = 0 k D ,
m

kD =

4,57
108 cm 1
fs

: D  0,12 1016 5/ 6 / fs2 A B rad / s

=D  816 5/ 6 / fs2 A B meV

Debye: D =D / k B  9500 5/ 6 / fs2 A B 0K
s 0,5

100 fs5

( )

: c 

2 = gkf ( kd ) +
f ( kd ) 1 ,

k 3

kd  1

f ( kd ) kd , kd  1
f ( kd ) = tanh kd
w = 0.074 J / m 2 , 

1 2 ( Ann Ann )
2 r2

()
F = c1S2 , S,
(b)
F = c2A ( F = 6R ), A ,

[] ? [s ][ t ] = s

2
,

=( )

=
m e 2 f 2

me
m

XV

 IX: ()

(XVI)

, ,

1.
N

1
 2

N 

3/ 2

3/ 2

3/ 2

N  0,5 1051
N  1055

, H , , R ,
:

RH  1011 m 2
R t 10H R  106 m

2. Minimum
3/ 4

3/ 2

N
Z m
56
,min  2,5 u
 2,5 10 
5
A m e G
3. Maximum
3/ 2

,max  s  1059 80N
G
4.
3/ 2

1
57
,Ch  0,77
 1,73 10 1, 45 N Chanrasekhar
G
5.
3/ 2

1
0,75
< ,n d 2,5M
G
Np
Nn
Ne
= 80%
 10%
 10%
N
N
N

6. N  1, 2 1057 M  1,98911030 Kg

XVI

 IX: ()

(XVII)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. /
7. /
8.
9.
10. (.. )
11.
12.

XVII

 .
I
(
) .
,
.
(10-10m) (105m) 15
,
.*

(
Gibbs).
(
), U,
( ), U,

. (
Heisenberg Pauli) U (
U=0)
U U.
:
U

(1)

U , U ,
U,

(2)

H U
U Ue , , .., ,

,
,
, .

87

 , . .. ( =0)
:
U

= 0 Pa = P
V T =0

(3)

U a
Pa =
,
V T =0

U e
P =

V T =0

(4)

( 1 dU=TdS-PdV).

88

8.1

()
. 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, .4.4, 4.5,

( ) -
.
:

(8.1)

).
, .. vl v ,
(
) .
( ) ,
, .. (parity). , -
,

.

, .
t

, E h / t
Heisenberg.
89


, : ()
, ,
(
).
()
.
.

.
(i)
q

g
q

To q
(q=u,d,c,s,t,b) q.
,
q (q = u, d , c, s, t , b )

q . ,
, 8.1
q- q (q=u,d,c,s,t,b)
.
, 8.1.
q-

q (q=u,d,c,s,t,b).
q(q=u,d,c,s,t,b)
R, G, B.

q (q = u, d , c, s, t , b )

: R, G, B . -

, :
90

RG , R B, G R, G B, B R, BG ,

1
1
( R R GG ),
( R R + GG 2 B B)
2
6

(8.2)

. 8.1 . .., q
, R ,
, , R B (
B R )
. , ,
,
,
.
.
, - ,

.
g

g
. 8.2
g

g
.8.3

,
(8.1), (charge conjugation),
, ,
quark, , charm,
bottomness, topness.

91

(ii)

. 8.4
() ( ,
, , W )
()
( ).

,
/
.
,
,

(iii)

l
Zo
l

l : ve, e, v, ,v,
. 8.4
q

Zo

q
q: u, d, c, s, t, b
. 8.5

,
92

 (
).
vl

vl

W+

l
l :e, ,

l :e, ,

. 8.6

l ( l =e, , ) , W-
W+
vl . To .
.

W+
vl

vl

. 8.7
vl ( l :e, , ) W W+
l ( l =e, , ). .
.
d

d
+

W
u

W-

. 8.8
. 8.8 ( )
u d W+
W-.

93

 (u,d)
(c,s) (t,b).

u
-

W+

W
d

d
. 8.9

. 8.9 d
u, s c, b
t.

. 8.8 8.9 . .., . 8.8
u, c t, , . . 8.9
d s, b u t

c.

. 8.10.
. 8.5 8.10,

(
).

- -

.

94

d
W+

W+

t
s1 ~ 0,2

s1 s 2 ~ 0,06

c
W-

W-

b
s 2 ~ 0,5

s1 ~ 0,2

. 8.10 W+

W-

s1 0,2 ( ), s 2 0,5 ( )
s1 s 2 0,06 ( ).

( ) ( ) ( )
( ).

. 8.11

Zo

W
. 8.11

95

8.2

.
( )
.

.
- ( )
(
). (

, ( )).


/ .
-

(RGB, )
(
). , ..
,
.

-

(
).

( . 8.2 8.3)

, .
.

96

 .

( )
().


.
. 8.1

8.2

.
, n,
t1 / 2 (8.3)
n ~ no e t /

(8.2)

t
t 1/2
= 1/ 2
ln2 0,693

(8.3)

(gg) ~1550 95MeV
spin 0 2270 100 MeV spin 2.

( q qg ).

/
.
B D. H. Perkins: ,
, , 1998.

97

. 8.1:

/me

(f)

(e)

(s)

/p

uud

1836,15

0,8

>1032y

/n

udd

1838,68

0,8

889

pe v e

++

uuu

2411

5,5x10-24

p+

uds

2183

2,63x10-10

p-, n

uds

2334

6x10-20

uus

2318

0,8 x10-10

p, n+

dds

2343

-1

1,48 x10-10

n-

uss

2573

2,9 x10-10

dss

2586

-1

1,64 x10-10

sss

3273

-1

0,82 x10-10

-, -

udc

4471

2,1x10-13

pK-+

:
. 8.1
.

98

. 8.2

1
2

(uu d d )

(s)

/me

(ie)

264

0,84x10-16

ud

273

2,603x10-8

du

273

-1

2,603x10-8

Ko

ds

L 5,17 10 8

sd

s 0,892 10 10

+ -

970

K+

us

1,237 x10-8

K-

su

-1

1,237 x10-8

7,5x10-15

4,15x10-13

6070

J/

cc

Do

cu

Do

uc

D+

cd

D-

dc

-1

B+

ub

+1

B-

bu

-1

Bdo

db

Bd

bd

Bso

sb

bs

Bs

3650

10315

1,07 x10-12

1,62x10-12

0
1,56x10-12

99

e + e , + , ( ) o
K + o ..

:
. 8.2.
.

:
; :
( ) (
3n) ;

.
15 ,
,
. RGB
( )
,
. 6.6.
(. 6.6).
.
(d0,5f)
.

, . 6.6
,
-.
: . 3.

. ,
(
) .

--

100

9.1
.
-= .
,
Zm p c 2 + Nm n c 2 (
) ( Heisenberg
Pauli) . (+), ,
: =(+).
E = m p c 2 + Zmnc 2 B .

V , Vo,
o , , .
(9.1)

V=AVo

(
). Vo,
, Vo=(4/3) ro3 , ro
0,8f .
R V: V=(4/3)R3.
V Vo (9.1)
R=1/3roA1/3

(9.1)

1/3ro 1,2f =3,375.

, ,
.

1f=1fm=10-15m
101

 : (Coulomb) UC,
( , (-1)/2,
e2/r, Coulomb).

E C =

1 Z e 2 1 Z ( Z 1)e 2
5
=
, r = R

2 i , j =1 rij 2
6
r

(9.2)

U, .
U , -,
.

, ,
. s
,

1
1
As K + AB K .
2
2

As + AB = A ( A B = A As )
:

1
1
U = ( s ) K s K
2
2

(9.3)

8 5.
1,5f 2,5f
2,1 f , . 4.6, 11,3eV.
s
,
4R2. (9.1) R2 2/3. s
2/3. .
,
:
U = 4 A + 1,5 A 2/3 = 45,2 A + 17 A 2 / 3 MeV

(9.3)

5/6
.

,
.

102

 (
). (6.2) :
U K = 2,87 Z

h2 Z 2 / 3
h2 N 2 / 3
( ) + 2,87 N
( )
mp V
mn V

(9.4)

V ,
V = V 1,6 AVo = (4 / 3)(aro3 A 1,6ro3 A) = (4 / 3)ro3 A(a 1,6).

V (9.4) :

UK =

1,1
h2 Z 5/3 + N 5/3
(a 1,6) 2 / 3 mr02
A2 / 3

(9.4)

m p mn = m . H (Z5/3+N5/3)/A2/3
:
1
5 (N Z )2
Z 5/3 + N 5/3

+
A
[
]
9
A
22 / 3
A2 / 3

(9.4)

, ==/2.
h , m, ro, =3,375, 11,3MeV
(9,2), (9,3), (9.4), (9.4),
( MeV)

B=45,2A-17A2/3
0,71

Z ( Z 1)
A1 / 3

( )
( Coulomb)

-30,6 A
17

(N Z )2
A

( Heisenberg-Pauli)
(9.5)

1,6 ,
.
1,35.

103



( . 9.1).
.

=
=0

34
eV
3/ 4

34
,
(9.6)
A3 / 4

:
(N Z )2
Z ( Z 1)
=14,7-172/3-0,71

17
+ MeV
(9.5)
A
A1 / 3
=

. 9.1 =14. =6 =8
==7
5eV N=Z. ,
2
,

(9.5)
. ,
. :

B = 15,75 A 17,8 A 2 / 3 0,71

Z ( Z 1)
( ) 2

23
,
69
+ MeV

1 / 3

: 15,5 16,8 0,72 23 = 34 / A3/ 4 .

104

(9.5)

 (9.5)
(9.5) ( (-)2/).

9.2

mpc2+Nmnc2-B

. :

() , , =-.
,
( (4.18))
( (4.19) (4.20))
.
()
:
1+2+...

(9.6)

() , ,
(9.1) (9.1). ,
(9.3), . 78 / d 2,6 32.5 / a 0,87 MeV d 2f
, a 3,38
=3,375.
Z ,
Z ( =-
) ,
:
Z 1,0136 + 0,0075 / A1 / 3
=
A
2 + 0,015 A 2 / 3

Z
1,01

A 2 + 0,015 A2 / 3

(9.7)

4 1=4, 1=1=2
. .
( ) 1, 2 .

105

 (9.7) / 0,5,
.
=.
( ) (Coulomb) (
0,015 2/3 (9.7)
.

==/2 Coulomb =, =0.
.
Coulomb
Z ( Z 1) / A1/ 3 A5 / 3 ,
A . EC / EK = 0,71A5/ 3 / 94,76( A 2)
0,0378 He-4 0,29 U-238. EC EK

EC ( Z = A / 2) EC ( Z = 1) EK ( Z = 1) EK ( Z = A / 2) .
. 9.2 (9.7)
( =0).

9.2 /, (9.7) ( )
(
(9.7) Leighton . 548
106

 9.3 ( (9.5)
=- (9.7)
, -/,

. 9.3 / .
(9.5), (9.7) ( ) .
- ( He4)
/, ( He4, -B/A=-4.3 MeV (
), =34/47/4=3MeV /=-7,3 MeV, ,
/ -7,074 MeV

/ /. ,
, / /
, U/ (

mc 2 - (B/A))

.
.

107

9.3

. ..
(1)

. 9.3
; ,

;
(:

.

Coulomb . ;)

(2)

238;
(: .

; Coulomb;)
(3)

100. ;
(: )

(4)

; (, ,
)
(:

, (5)
)

(5)

235;
238; , 235
238 ; ( 238
1,5 MeV)
(:

).

. , . 79-84.
108

 10

10.1

,
!
,
.
.
,
( ).
;

Coulomb. ,
( )

.
()
.
.

10.2
, ,
( )
.
, h 2 / 2mr 2 , m

r -

109

 Coulomb, =-e2/r (
G-CGS, SI E=-e2/4r).
E =

h2
e2

2mr 2 r

(10.1)

, exp( r / a ) ,
1/ r = 1/ a,

p 2 / 2m = h 2 / 2ma 2 .

r :
E
2h 2
e2
=
+
=0
r
2mr 3 r 2
r r:
h2
r = aB
me 2

(10.2)

, r = a B (10.1)
E o =

e2
h2
=

2a B
2ma B2

(10.3)

, .
.

.
(10.2)
.

a B , Bohr,

0,529=0,529x10-10m. Angstrom.
92
:
ra = f1 a B ,

1 f1 5

(10.2)

SI a B =

4 o h 2
me 2

110

 (10.3)
. ,

h2
,
2ma B2

13,6eV,
.
. ,,
:
I = f2

h2
,
2ma B2

0,3 f 2 2

(10.3)

f 2

.
(. 10.1)
(
). (

,
(
).
+1 , ...

111

 .
.)
: (

), Bohr
;
: He.

a .

112

113

10.1

10.3

, , ,
. ,

. .., Boltzman,
k B T ,

, , (3.14),

(3.15), .

( )
.

,

.
Schrodinger,
(7.4), , , ,
, r,
.
(
) .
V(r) (7.4)
(
(r,,)) V(r).
V(r) V(r)( r )= ih / t
Schrodinger
2 2 2
+
+
=0
x 2 y 2 z 2

(10.4)

Laplace.
(10.4)

114

 Schrodinger (7.4) V(r)

r = r . (10.4)
,
Schrodinger. (10.4)
=. ( ).
Schrodinger
, , .
s
. ( s .
5.2.)
(10.4)
x,y,z. : x=c1x, y=c2y, z=c3z
:

x / r = c1

x
= c1 sin cos
r

(10.5)

y / r = c2

y
= c 2 sin sin
r

(10.5)

z / r = c3

z
= c3 cos
r

(10.5)

Schrodinger
(10.5), (10.5) (10.5).
px, py pz ( . 5.2
pz). (10.5)
h 2 l(l + 1) l = 1 . , ,
l = 1 .
x, y,z.
.

115

(10.4),

xy = c1 xy

 yz = c 2 yz, zx = c3 zx, x

y2

= c 4 ( x 2 y 2 ) y 2 z 2 = c5 ( y 2 z 2 )

d xy xy / r 2 = c1 xy / r 2 = c1 sin2cossin

(10.6)

d yz yz / r 2 = c2 yz / r 2 = c2 sincossin

(10.6)

d zx zx / r 2 = c3 zx / r 2 = c3 sincoscos

(10.6)

d x 2 y 2 x 2 y 2 / r 2 = c4 sin2 (cos2-sin2)

(10.6)

d y2 z2

(10.6)

y2 z2

/ r 2 = c5 (sin2 sin2- cos2)

h 2l(l + 1) l = 2
d, (10.6).
l = 2 .


(10.4).
Schrodinger,
h 2l(l + 1) l = 3 .
f

.
2l + 1 2l + 1 l
(10.4).
h 2l(l + 1) .

, : l
( l =0,1,2,3,...), m
l , 2l + 1
2l + 1

l , nr

l l ( )

116

 r. nr 0,1,2,3,... nr
n n r + l + 1 . O n
l l + 1 , l + 2 , l + 3 ,...

( n, l, m )
. ,

( )

. , Pauli
.

n, l, m

n
Bohr:

n ,l , m =

h2 1
13,6
= 2 eV
2
2
2maB n
n

(10.7)

( )
n
l

n,l ,m > n,l,m l > l

(10.8)

n
l . np , ( p l = 1 )
ns ( s l = 0) ( n + 1, s ),
nd ( d l = 2) np

n + 1, s nf nd

n + 2, s n + 1, d .
n + 2, s

n + 1, d , nf 2

,
. d
s
, s

117

 . f
( . 10.1 . 120)
. , ..,
(z=58 z=71)
. . 10.2 (. 36)
n, l, m .

. .., (Si Z=14) 2

1s, 2 2s,6
2p, 2 3s 2
3p. : 1s22s22p63s23p2.
,
, . 10.1.
. 10.2
(
, ,
n + 1, s nd ,
n + 2, s n + 1, d nf ).

: . 10.2
( )
. ..,
, 1s, .
( 2s 2p)
, .
n=4
3d ( 10 ).
18
18 , .
6s, 6p, 5d

n + 2, s

n + 1, d

nf

n + 1, d n + 2, s (=21-28, =39-46,
n + 1, d , nf
=57 =72-78) n + 2, s ,

(=58-71) (=90-103)

118

 4f 32
32 .

=92.

np n + 1, s ,
p ( ).
s (
d f )
( ).

(
) (
) .
n .
( s p)

.
, ,
8 ( 2 ,
18 32 )
,
(
).

>92 >92
,
. 9

119

. 10.1 6s, 5d, 4f

5d 6s 4f
5d. 6py
6s

120

 10.2 .
()
.

121

 20 (C)

1s
95%.
( 0.95x20=19 e )
1s, .. ,
4s
20-18=2e
.

122

 11

vibration (0,8 1,6) me / ma Eo , Eo = h 2 / me aB 2 = 27,2eV

rotation = (0,5 1)(me / ma ) Eo = h2 / mr d 2

11.1
,

Coulomb. ,
(
d) d = .
. 11.1
. d (d >> a B )

(d)=-/d6, d >> a B

(11.1)

c1e 4 ra4 / I , c1 (

2 c1=3,25) r .
ce 4 r12 r22 / I r , Ir= I1 I2/(I1+ I2).

123

. 11.1 E E o (d ) E o () d

A / d 6 , d >> a B
Van der Waals (6/d7) d o .
, do
( 2, do=0,74A (do)=-4,74eV).
d do ,
.

do

do

.

d=do . ,
, d,
do ).
(d=do)
h / 2 (
1
) , E m , : E m = E (d o ) h .
2
(
;)

H Van der Waals

. p 1
p 2 d.

p1 = p 2 = 0

p12 ~ e 2 r12

p22 ~ e 2 r22 d6

. E =

ce4 r12 r22

Id 6

d do
,
d p d h / 2 . , d,
do . 11.1

124

 do, E m ,
:
E m = f 3

h2
,0,1 f 3 0,6
2ma B2

(11.2)

d o = f 4 aB , 1 f 4 6

(11.3)

. ..
He2 , m

. ,
k B T m ,

11.2 (Linear Combination of

Atomic Orbitals. LCAO)

(
)

d. , d,
a B

(11.1). d
, :
1 2
. ,


.
( )

.
.

125


. ,
( ) (, ..
2 )

.
: 1 2
1 2 1 2, (12),
, ,
, , :

= c11 + c 2 2

(11.4)

c12 /(c12 + c 22 )
1 c 22 /(c12 + c 22 ) 2.
( )
( ).

:

c12 1 + c 22 2 + 2c1c 2V2

c12 + c 22

(11.5)

2c1c 2V2 V2
( )
1 2 . (11.5),

c22 / c12 x 2 . ( )

c12 x = c2 / c1 ,
c1 c2

. :

(2c1 1 + 2c 2V2 )(c12 + c 22 ) (c12 1 + c 22 2 + 2c1c 2V2 )2c1

=
=0
c1
(c12 + c 22 )
=

1
[2c1 1 + 2c 2V2 2c1 ] = 0
c + c 22
2
1

126

 , x
. ( V3
1 2, V3 ( 1 2 ) / 2 0)
V2 x 2 2V3 x V2 = 0

(11.6)

x c 2 / c1 . (11.6) : :
1 ap
1+ ap
c2
V2 1 + a p
c 22
c12
x=
=
=
2
=

c1
V2 1 a 2p
2
2
c1 + c 22
c12 + c 22

(11.7)

ap

V3

(11.8)

V32 + V22

.
a p 1 100% , a p 0 100%
. , , (11.7)

1 + 2
2

V32 + V22

(11.9)

2 (
1 2). (11.7)

( ).
(11.5) :
1 ap
1+ ap
c 2 V2 1 a p
c 22
c12
=
, 2
=

=
2
2
c1 V2 1 a 2p c1 + c 22
c12 + c 22

(11.10)

= 0 ( 1 )c1 + c 2V2 = 0
c1

(11.6)

= 0 ( 2 )c 2 + c1V2 = 0
c 2

(11.6)
2

(11.6) (11.6) (1-)(2-)- V2 =0

(11.9)
(11.11). (11.6)
(11.6) c2/c1, (11.7) (11.10)

127

1 + 2
2

+ V32 + V22

(11.11)

,
.
2 V32 + V22 , 100% 2 V2 .

2 V32 + V22
.
2 ( 1 + 2 ) = 2 V32 + V22 .
( )

Coulomb .
, V2 d o3 / d 3 , d
do.

( )
V3 V2. V3 ( 1 2 ) / 2
1, 2

V2, (

) s

p,

Harrison:
h2
, d do
V2 =
md 2

(11.12)

,
do .

(11.5) .

, . . 157

.12.8 156

128

= 12 (1 + 2 ),

V3 = 12 (1 2 ),

V2 = h 2 / me d 2

11.3

,
. .


N

=
i =1

ia

ia

(11.13)

i ( a n, l, m ) . i
(i=1,...,N ).
(
cia) cia.
cia (
(11.6), (11.6))
129

 (11.12).

.
(
)
.

. 11.2 p x1 p y1 , 1 p x 2 p y 2 ,
2 ( p z1 p z 2
).

(11.13) (11.4) ,
.
( )

.
.
.

V2 .

130

 V2

.

. .., 2 2 p x 2 p y 2 p z
( p x1 p x 2 , p y1 p y 2 , p z1
p z 2 ) . 11.2. V2
p x1 p x 2
V2

p y1 p y 2 p z1 p z 2 .

, (11.12) 2,22 p x1 ,
p x 2 -0,63 p y1 , p y 2 p z1 , p z 2 .

2.
,
.
2s 2px
sp 1 . 11.3.

, , cia / ciao i

131

. 11.3 . 2 sp (1) , 1 =

1
2

( s + px ), 2 =

1
2

( s px ),

2s 2px
p y pz ( ).
sp (1) h = ( s + p ) / 2 .
.

sp (1)
C2H2 ( . 11.4)

(
C2H2 )
,
( 11.2 ).
, , C2H2
. sp (1)
, CO2.

132

. 11.4 C2H2
sp1 .
: 11 , 22 , p y1 , p y 2
p z1 , p z 2 ( ) . V2
( = 3,19 ) V2
. : s1 , 12
12 1 sp +(12) ,s sp +(1)
2 1s .

sp (1) ,
sp ( 2) sp ( 3) .
s p (.. px, py) sp 2 .
sp 2 , . 11.4,
120:

133

. 11.4 sp(2)
s p ( px py), 1 =
2 =

1
3

( +
s

2 px ,

1
3
1
1
3
px +
py , 3 =
px
p y . , h,
s
s
2
2
3
2
3
2

sp ( 2 ) h = (2 p + s ) /3.
sp(2) ,

120. ..
px - px py - py 180.

sp(2) , .. , C2H4
. 11.5.

. 11.5 Ta 12 C2H4
( sp(2) )

134


.
pz .
sp(3) s
p ( px, py pz).
sp(3)
(
), . 11.6.

. 11.6 sp(3)
.
109,47. h, sp3
h,=(s+3p)/4.
O sp(3)
C4 C2H6
SiH4 ( n=2,
n=3).
:
.
135

 sp(1) 2h=2 (p+s)/2= p+s,

s 2s.
sp(2) ( 3h=3(2p+s)/3-2 s- p= p- s)
sp(3) 4 h = 4(3 p + s ) / 4 2 s 2 p = p s ) .
V1 . :

V1 =
V1 =
V1 =

p s
2

p s
3

p s
4

sp(1)

(11.13)

sp(2)

(11.13)

sp(3)

(11.13)

( V2 ).
, ( V1 )
( V2 ) ,
. V1 / V2

V1 / V22 + V33

m
am

V1

(11.14)

V22 + V32

.
(11.12) V2 do .

: (,
), , p-s,
- do, V2 .
H ,

,
, .

136

 12

: JELLIUM
(
) (
1 gr/cm3 o 20 gr /cm3 ,
1mu 238 mu) .
,
, P
V/V V/V:

B = V (P / V ) . ,
, Bs. (
BS = C P BT / C v ).

.
, , .

/1/3 (
/ 1,33).
. 7
Coulomb (
e) (
Planck h , (m).

e, h, m

Bohr, B ( aB = h 2 / me2 ) ,
Hartree, Eo = h 2 / maB2 , o / aB3 = h 2 / maB5 ,

h / maB , ...

mu 1/12 12.

SI e2 e2/4

B h 2 / me2

e,h, m . e2

B
137

, ,
.
:

138

12.1

e,h, m .
B (
, (11.3)).
B (
). , rs ,

, V/N, . rs

4 3 V
rs =
3
N

(12.1)

V
. ,
rs = f ( Z )aB ,

1,5 f 5

(12.2)

, M, rs

M =

M Nma
ma
m
A
=
=
= 0,24 3a 2,7 B3 gr / cm3
V
V
(V / N )
rs
f

(12.3)

()
( ).
, E = E / N ,
,
aB rs = faB .
h2
h 2 1 27, 2
=
= 2 eV
m rs2 maB2 f 2
f

(12.4)

h2
h 2 0, 6 175
B 0, 6
=
5 106 bar
5
5
5
m rs maB f
f

(12.5)

E =

O , 0,6, ,

.
139


(m/m)1/2
7.
1,6
m h
1,6 m h
82
c~ = 1,6
=
=
Km / s
ma mrs
f ma maB f AB

(12.6)

. 12.1 (12.4) (12.6)

( f)
.
. 12.1 (12.4) (12.6)
.
Al

Fe

Cu

Si

. . .

f5

2,67

2,99

2,67

3,18

7,86

7,92

2,79

2,73

8,96

9,01

2,33

2,36

4,28

3,82

3,39

3,04

3,49

3,82

4,63

2,69

1,68

1,29

0,722

0,73

1,37

1,29

0,998

0,54

c~

4,63

4,11

5,68

5,28

3,93

3,85

6,48

4,87

c (20 C) = 343 m/s 380 m/s 12.6

, . 12.1.

, n .
Ohm, R=V/I [ R] = [V ] /[ I ] = ([ E ] /[Q]) /([Q] /[t ]) = [ E ][t ] /[Q]2 = h / e 2 .
R = n l / S , [ n ] = [ R][ L] = haB / e 2 = h 3 / e 4 m .
haB / e 2

21,74 cm . aB rs = faB

n 100 cm .

~
4 o h 2 / me 2 ( SI), c

c~ = (1,6 / f )(e 2 / 4eo h) m / ma (7.4) f o = 1,6 / f .

140

 n
=300 . 12.2

. 12.2 =300

Li

Na

Cs

n ( cm ) 9,55 4,93 7,47 21

Cu

Ag

Au

Al

Mg

Pb

Zn

1,73 1,63 2,27 2,73 4,51 21,3 6,1

Kelvin, , ..,
10-6 cm
.
( 1025

cm ).
,
.

,
.

12.2

(
e, h, m aB rs = faB
( ) .
f
.
f ( rs = faB )

10 =10cm! n 100 cm
9

8 A , ,
Angstrom.

141

.
.

( ) e .

, , . , f
,
( ,
1 / rs2 ~ 1 / f 2 Coulomb
- , -
-. 1/rs~1/f
Coulomb. ( )
:
U
a h 2
=( 2 ) 2
N
f
f maB

(12.7)

U/N f
f , f = 2a / . .., Al , a =13,6 =9,03, f
3,01 2,99. Si (
) a =24,5, =17,95
f=2,73 3,18. (12.7)
.

a 1,35/3+2rc, 0,564/3+0,92(, ..
, , , , 1997, .45-47).
, rc ,

=0,4+0,5 ( o / 1 ) 1 ,
1=1
1=6 . rc r !

B = +V 2U / V 2 ( =OK) V ~ f 3

V 1/ 3 ~ f . ,
a . B = (1/ 6 )( a / f 5 )( h 2 / me aB5 ) = 15, 6a / f 5 Mbar

142

. 12.1 ra .
(12.7)

. 12.2 .
.

: LCAO
12.3 (LCAO)

LCAO.
( , .. =108)
143


( ) . 1
. .
d d (
). (11.13) ,
,
.
(
) , n , n.
:
N

= cn n

(12.8)

n =1

(11.5).
E=

(12.9)

n =1

n =1

= cn2 o + (cn*cn +1 + cn cn* +1 + cn*cn 1 + cn cn* 1 )V2

N

= cn

(12.9)

(12.9)

n =1

(12.9) n
V2 n-1
, n+1 ( +1 . 1).
V2

.
cn (n=1,,N) / cn .
, 126,
cn

cn cn cn.

144

( o )cn + V2cn +1 + V2cn 1 = 0 n=1,N

( 99 )

(12.10)

, , , V2
(12.10), ( BlochFloquet) (12.10)

cn = e in , n=1,,N

= o + V2 (ei + e i ) = o + 2V2 cos

(12.11)
(B 99)

(12.11)

.
(12.11) (12.11) (12.10).

cN +1 c1 exp(iN ) = 1

2
l
N

(12.11)

l , .., (/2)+1 /2.

(12.10),
( ).
(12.11), ,
, .
k k = / d nd = xn

cn( k ) = eikxn

(12.11.)

.
,
*.

l 2

* (
).
.
( )
.

145

 d.
, (12.11);
:
,

. ,

.

,
.

F. Bloch (
)
:
...
,


.
(1928)
...
, , , F=m-
(
n=N+1 n=1 n=0 n=N).

, , u2, u

146


.
; :
,
, ,
.
,
, .
,
. .
.
,
. 12.1.

44

3
3
2
2
1
1

. 12.1 , ,
. .
.

. u2 (
, 3k BT ).
a B rs = fa B
.

147

 (12.11), = =
, o 2V2 o + 2V2 .
4V2
2 .
,
. , ,

( ),
.

, ,
.

.
, s px (
)
. (, )

. ( ) .
. 12.2
( ) d
V2 ( V2ss
s, V2pp px, V2 sp x = V2 p x s
s px. 12.4
).

=,

148

. 12.2 (
s px) .
d .

d, V2
s ( 4 V2 ss ) p (
4 V2 pp ). d

. .
( p + s ) / 2 V2 h , V2h
V2 sp+(1) sp(1)
. , d, ,
V2 h V1 = ( p s ) / 2 ,

sp+(1) sp(1) .
d 2V1:
V2h V1 :

149

 V2 h << V1 2V1
4 V2 . V1 << V2 h
2 V2 h
2V1.
( )
, g. g
,
, , , .

( s) px) 2

. 12.2
. ( , g
3eV) ( g>3eV).
:

. (
)
g ( ,
Eg >>kBT,
).

n ~ T q exp( Eg / 2k BT ) q 5 / 2 .
To , ,

.
. 12.3 .. Si
sp 3 .

(
.

150

.12.3 4 sp 3 (0)
(0,0,0) (1) (/4)(1,1,1) (2) (/2)(0,1,1).
.

. 12.4 . 12.2
.

sp3

V1 ( p s ) / 4 . V2 h

3,22h 2 / md 2 .

Van der Waals.

151

. 12.4 ( )
, V1/ V2 h
a ( V1 ). a1 V1 / V2 h = x1 a2

x2 .

Fermi, F, .
Fermi
.)

, x1 < V1 / V2 h < x2 ,
.
s ( ) p (
3 px, py, pz).
[x1, x2]
sp 3
. 4V1
2 .
F
. F
. F
. , . 12.3

.
(
Be Zn) V1 > x2 V2 h .
( C)
V1 < x1 V2 h .
( ).

.

(
) ( V1 < x1 V2 h ):
E g 6,5

h2
( p s )
md 2

(12.12)
152

. 12.5 (
)
. 4 .

h = (3 p + s ) / 4

sp ( 3) . h V2 h

sp ( 3)

). , g,

E g 6,5

h2
( p s ) .
md 2

153

. 12.6 () (b) (GaAs).

(1) s , p (As) (Ga), (2)
, (3) (4) (
) (5, 6, 7)

154

 . 12.7

a p = V3 / V32h + V32 ,

am = V1 / V22h + V32 .

. 12.7 p, am
( ) .

155

. 12.8
V2 = h / me d , d
2

( s, p ) p .

156

157

212

13.9
(,
IV-IV, -V, II-VI)
fcc
d(0)
4),
1 = (1 1 1)(
. . 13.1
d(0)
1

.
(13.1) (13.2).

  a=

sp

3


:

1
(0)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(0)
s + px + py + pz
1 =
2

1 (0)
(0)
(0)
(0)
 + (0)
px ; py ; pz
2 =
2 s

(13 3)

(13 3)

(0)
(0)
(0)
3 4 2 (0)
px , (0)
py (0)
pz .

 


(1 1 1)(a=4) :
h

1 (1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
 ; (1)
px ; py ; pz
1 =
2 s

1 (1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
 ; (1)
px + py + pz
2 =
2 s

(1)
pz .

(13 4)

(13 4)

(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
3 , 4 px , py

h=

h , :

s+3 p
4

(13 5)

3
; 1 ,

sp

V1 = p ;4 s > 0

(13 7)

213

13.9

,
Harrison, :

sp

~
V2h = ;3 22 md
2
2

(13 8)

,

p
: = 3 4.

a=

()
a ,

h+

V22h + V32h

(13 13)

()

h ; V22h + V32h

(13 12)

h = ( hA + hB ) 2.
A
B j ' 4j A + B j
,
' 4j aa +
aa
bb
bb
( (13.21-.24)). , g ,

Eg ' 2 V22h + V32h ; 12 j pA + pB ; sA ; sB j

q

V h + V h ; (V1A + V1B )

=2

2
2

2
3

(13 33)

V3h = ( hA ; hB )=2.

k
:

1 @ En (k)
min  ~2 (@ki )2 
1

i = 1 2 3

(13 35)

( ) (
)

214

e
sh = ; se
kh = ; ke
eh = jej

( ):

:
(13:49)
(13:50)
(13:51)
(13:52)
(13 48)

vh (kh ) = ve (ke )
Eh (kh ) = ; Ee (ke )

!LO
!
Eg =~, -

, (1),

   a3cd

(1) = 1 + 2 13 A B

d

d=aB

(13 58)

!
Eg =~
!

( ) = (1)

2
!2 ; !LO
2
!2 ; !TO

(13 65)

2
!LO
2
!TO

(13 66)

LST:
(0) = (1)

!
q n =

LO = TO (0) = (1). 2
2
2
LO
= TO
+ (4 A
A (1) r ).

 13

.
. ( , , )
( , , .).
:

,
. . 13.1 , ,
, P, r (
).

. 13.1 r , ,
P g(r)

aGM 2 / R ,
3
, (r ) . (r ) == /( 4R / 3) , =0,6.


.
.
(
)
.
: ,
;
; ;

166

13.1 :

, ,
, .
, h, R,
.
,
;

.

, .
; :

. ,
,
. 13.2.

.
; ,
;

167

. 13.2

, ,

. 13.3 ( ) (
),
.

.13.3. ,

1
B = Vg SHg , , S, .
3
, c , 100 ,
168

, , 12, /3.
c B / 300 , 0,6h 2 / mri5 (
12.5). ,
:

Hg
3

0,6 h 2
300 mri5

(13.1)

. , ,
. 12, = ma /( 4rs3 / 3) , rs = faB

, g, GM / R 2 = G (4 / 3) R 3 / R 2 = 4GR / 3 .
(13.1) (

f 3 / 1 )
RH

e2
e2
0,075
= 0,025 f
0,075
=
2
2
2
aB
Gma
AB2 G
Gma

(13.2)

a
e 2 / hc
=
= 1, 2538 1036
aG Gmu2 / hc
RH Bohr

. , ,
55 ( ) , ma = AB ma ,
RH:
RH 0,87 10+11 m2

(13.3)

13,6 .

13.2

169


: , Q,
(
) , ,
. ,
(.3), L 4R 2T4 StefanBoltzmann .
Q. , ,
4Ra2Ta4 , R
( 5800). , qo,

l qo = La / 4l 2 ,
l >R L. (
, qo = 1360W / m 2 ). l
qo R2
. , Q, Q = (1 A)R2 qo ,
( 0,3).
, Q = (1 A)R2 (4Ra2Ta4 ) / 4l 2 L = 4R2T4

T = (1 A)1 / 4

Ra
Ta
2l

(13.4)

R
l
.
,
,
Ra

= tan
l
2 2

(13.5)

R = R + h
. h/R<0,01 RR.

170

 -, 32 (
) R/ l =(16/60)(/180) 0,00465.
0,3 5800,

256

(13.6)

254 .
, 2
( )
. ,
(
10km) 225 ( 3
km ) c=265 ,
g=290 .


.
. 13.4
.

: Tg = ,
3 km

Tc =

Tp =

10 km.
.
qo (1 A) R2 = Q = 4 R2 [ 12 Tp4 + 14 Tc4 + 14 Tg4 ] = 4 R2Teff4

(13.7)

:
Teff = 254 K ( 256 ),

()
( 10 km)
( ).
;

171

Tp Tg 65K,

Tc Tg 25K, ( . 13.4.

. . , . 36-38).
Tp , Tc (13.7) Tg 290 K .
z

T ( z ) T (0)

1 M g
z = T (0) 9,77 z (km), z 12 km
R

1.4, M = 28,96gr, R = 8,315J/mol K

172

(13.8)

T(K)
290

270

250

230

210

190
0

10

20

z(km)

. 13.4 z .

13.3 ;
;

.
(

173

) -
.

, ,
:

= a 1 / 16 q 7 / 16 c p1 / 4 R 1 / 2 1 / 2

(13.9)

( , 0,6),
Stefan-Boltzmann, q=qo(1-A/4, cp=Cp/M
, R
=/4R2, .
(13.9)
,

1
M a 2
2

, , .

: = R / c~ , c~

.
, , (13.9)

1
M a 2 = (2a 2 )Q
2

(13.10)

22 .
(13.9) (13.10);

1. ALEXEY BYALKO, , Quantum, 1995, . 4-9.

174

 14

:
1029
1032 kgr.

( ).

.

.
. ,
, .
, ,
, .
, ,
.
, ,
1,4 ,
, ,
, .
.
,
106 gr/cm3 (,
).
1,4 MH 2,5 ,

,
(e-+pn+ve).
2,5 ()
.
(
) R 15km 1014
175

gr/cm! (, ).

.
2,5
,
.

14.1
R ( V = 4rR 3 / 3 )

=vmu , v .
(
)
UB =

3 GM 2
5 R

(14.1)

U = 2,87 5e / 3

h2
meV 2 / 3

(14.2)

e .
U = U + U B , U / R = 0
Ne 5 / 3
h2
1
R = 3,68( )
5/3
Nv
Gme mu M 1 / 3

,

3,68 4,51:
Ne 5 / 3
h2
1
R = 4,51( )
5/3
Nv
Gme mu M 1 / 3

(14.3)

.
, (2.9) (2. 9 ).
(3/2) NkBT U (14.2),
.

176

V=

4 3
h6
1
N
R = 384,9( e )5 3 3 s
3
N v G me mu M

(14.3)

- , V~M (
,

) V~1/M,

(
R).
(
)
UB =

6 GM 2
7 R

U =

3 GM 2
3 GM 2
, U =
7 R
7 R

(14.4)

R (14.3).
U = U U B = 2U , 10.2.

U/v 4/3 .
.
,
=cp. , (2.9) e
Ne 1/ 3
chN e4 / 3
U = ach( ) N e ~
V
R

(14.6)

2,32 .

1/R: U=A/R, UB=-/R. >

. ,

>,

. =,

5,99 ,

EF = 0,3

G 2 me mu4 N v 4 4 / 3
( ) Ne
h2
Ne

(14.5)

177

 . = (, =GM2)

(

3 1/ 3
) achN e4 / 3 = GM o2
4

(14.7)

N vo =

3
Mo
a
N
ch 3 / 2
= ( )1 / 2 ( )3 / 2 ( e ) 2 (
)
4
mu

N v Gmu2

(14.7)

/
2,32/0,6=3,867,
/=3,427. e/Nv=1/2

N vo =

Mo
ch 3 / 2
= 0,775(
) , O Chandrasekhar
mu
Gmu2

ch / Gmu2

(14.7)

1,718x1038:
ch
= 1,718 1038
2
Gmu

(14.8)

3/2
(14.7) M o 2,9 1030 kgr.

=1,99x1030 kgr /=1,45.

14.2

R, .



R . 10.2,
R
( ) .

178


. .

.
( )
( , ).
.14.1 . R

( R2T4~1/R2

3
(3 / 2) Nk BT = ( )GM 2 / R ).
5
.
.

. 14.1.
. , ( U = -U)
(

U =

3
Nk BT )
2

; .

.

179

 U ( U =

3
Nk BT , =Ne+(Nv/A),
2

Nv/A= ), ( )
1
3
3
U = N e ( EF ) 2 + ( vk BT ) 2 , v = 1 +
5
2
Z

(14.9)

1
U = U = U B
2

2 G 2M 4 9 2 1/ 2
3
vk BT = [
EF ]
2
4 N e2 R2 25

(14.10)

(
=0,6). R R
2,2 h 2 N e5 / 3
R=
GN v2 mu2 me

(14.11)

(14.3). . 14.1 14.1.

O N / N e 1,35 2
.

. 14.1.
,
R=R
. , R=R,
( ) 1/R2,

180

R = 2 R

2
EF ( 2 R) / k B R (14.11):
5v
Tmax =

0,06 G 2 me mu4 N v 4 4 / 3
( ) Ne
v
h 2kB Ne

(14.12)

(14.12) (14.3)
2/5v R = 2 R R=R (
0,5, EF ~ 1 / R2 ).
, , ,
.
,

, ign,

k BTign = n

e 4 mu
h2

(14.13)

0,1.

.
maxing

(14.14)

(.. 2), .
14.1. (14.14) (14.12) (14.13)
Nv (

nv 3 / 4 N e 2
e2
e2
) ( ) (
)3 / 2 0,6(
)3 / 2
3
3
N v G me mu
0,06
G me mu

(14.15)

e, mu, Planck, h ,
.
,

e 4 mu / h 2 .

(3/2)kBTign

e 4 mu / h 2 .

kBTign= ne 4 mu / h 2 .

181

 =2, n=0,1 v=2e

v1.

3/2 .
e 2 / G me mu3 0,5354x1038
0,25x1057
0,4x1030 kg, .

. 14.1 , ign
.
.
: , .. ,
, ( ),
,
.

14.3

.
:
+=

(14.16)

182


:
(
) (
). (.5) (.6)
P , U
P =

U
3V

(14.17)

PKV = Nk BT U K =
PK =

3
Nk BT
2

2 UK
3 V

(14.17)

U B / V . U B ~ 1 / R ~ 1 / V 1 / 3

PB =

1 U
3 V

(14.17)

(14.16) (14.14-)

U + 2U K = U B

(14.18)

U
2UK ( U~4, UK ).
(U>>2UK), (14.18) U U B ,
(
). ( )

.
U = U K .
:

( ) 2/3
1/3.

183

k BT
ch

a3

R3
4 3
V =
a NV
NV
3

U =

4 3 3 3
a x N v k BT
45

UK =

3
1
N
N v k BT , = e +
2
Nv A

UB =

Gmu2 5 / 3
Nv
a

U = U K
ax = (

135
)1 / 3
8 3

(14.19)

(14.18) U = U K
ak BT =

2 Gmu2 N v2 / 3
3 (2 + )

(14.20)

(14.19) (14.20) v
v:
NV = (

hc 3 / 2 15hc 3 / 2
3 (2 + ) 3 / 2 135 1 / 2 hc
) (
) (
) 60(
) (
)
3
2
2
8
Gmu
Gmu2
Gmu2

(14.20)

=5, ==1.
15hc
( hc ).

3/2 .

3/2 .

184

GM
R
m
Tc > pc
kB
Pc > 2

6 1014

107 o

R ~ M a, a t 1

2
TE ~ M , t 1
2
2 4
2a+4
L ~ R TE ~ M
2a + 4 > 3 1

t ~

6,96 108 m
5800
3,827 1026 J

2 1
M
~M 2
L

, Eo ,
. L
,

E (t ) = Eo Lt

t =

Eo
M
~ 3,5 ~ M 2,5
L M

= M /(4 / 3) R3
m m > 1,8

186


80% , 10% , 10%

Nn + N p = Nv
0.9 Ntot = N v
0,8
Nn =
Nv
0,9
0,1
Np =
N
0,9
0,1
Ne =
Nv
0,9

4/3
0,8 4 / 3
0,1
UK =
+ 2 0,9 V 1/ 3

0,9
= 2,23 chN v4 / 3 / V 1/ 3 = 1,75hcN v4 / 3 / R, = 1,265

2,32 chN v4 / 3

1/ 3

3V
R=

GN v2mu2
U B = a
R

GN v2 mu2
6
, a > . U K = U B
U B = 1,612 a
1/ 3
7
V
4/3
2
2, 23 chN vcr
= 1,612 a Gmu2 N vcr
2, 23 ch
2/3
N vcr
=
1,612 a G mu2
3/ 2

3/ 2

3/ 2
2,23 1

N vcr =
> 3,06 N v

a
1,612a aG
( / a ) > 1, 47 [ , .

(14,7)
/ > 1,03

N vcr > 5,45 N v

N vcr > 3,2 N v

187

 + 3p = 0

(15.44)

Y ns + DE 3 DE = 0

Y ns = 2 DE

(15.44')

c1
74 c1
=

=
2
2
DE
26 R3
R3

R
= 0,56
R

(15.44")

&& = 0
t = 7 R

(15.45)

:
() t = 380000 R (t ) = R /1090 ,
R (t ) / R > 1/1310
() ,

Y ns =DE ,

Y ns =DE

c1
74 c1
,
=
=
DE
26 R3
R3

t = 9,4

Scientific American ( )
Febr. 2007, p.28 t = 9,25

208

 ( t > 13,7 )

t = 379000

(eV )

( )

109

0,86 1080

4,6% 0,1%

12%

`1

1089

< 1%

10%

1011 ?

5 1078 ?

23,3% 1,3%

63%

6,4 104

1,4 1089

0,005%

15%

72,1% 1,5%

100%

0%

?
(
?)

(10

32

122

?)

(10

46 = 4,35 1026
m

209

?)

 t = 13,7

= 1,02 0,01
c

(15.46)

c = 3H 2 / 8 G = 1,034 1026 Kg / m3
= 6,18 m3

(15.47)

H Hubble

H > 0, 24 1017 s 1 = 0,742 0,036

100 Km
s Mpc

(15.48)

B = 4,17 1028 Kg / m3 = 0,28 / m3

(15.49)

R = 4,35 10 m

(15.50)

TKAM = 2,725 o K
t = 13,73 0,12

(15.51)

N / N B > 1,64 10

(15.53)

V = 3,45 1080 m3
R / RDecoupling = 1089

(15.54)
(15.55)

t Decoupling = 379000

(15.56)

t start > 108 My

(15.57)

26

210

(15.52)

Best Cosmological Parameters:

Table 3 from Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations:
Preliminary Maps and Basic Results,
C. L. Bennet et al. (2003), accepted by the Astrophysical Journal;available at
http://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/
Description

Sympol

Value

+uncertainty

-uncertainty

Total density

1.02

0.02

0.02

<-0.78

95%CL

Dark energy density

tot
w

0.73

0.04

0.04

Baryon density

b h

0.0224

0.0009

0.0009

Baryon density

0.044

0.004

0.004

Baryon density ( cm )

nb

2.5x10-7

0.1x10-7

0.1x10-7

Matter density

mh

0.135

0.008

0.009

Matter density

0.27

0.04

0.04

Light neutrino density

v h

<0.0076

95% CL

CMB temperature ( K ) a

Tcbm

2.725

0.002

0.002

410.4

0.9

0.9

Equation of state of quintessence

CMB Photon density (cm

)b

Baryon-to-photon ratio

Baryon-to-photon ratio

b m

0.17

0.01

0.01

Fluctuation amplitude in 8h Mpc spheres

0.84

0.04

0.04

Low z clusters abundance scaling

g m

0.44

0.04

0.05

0.833

0.086

0.083

ns

0.93

0.03

0.03

dns / d ln k

-0.031

0.016

0.018

Tensor-to-scalar ratio (at k0 = 0.05 Mpc )

<0.90

95% CL

Redshift of decoupling

z dec

1089

Thickness of decoupling (FWHM)

195

0.71

0.04

0.03

Age of universe (Gyr)

z dec
h
t0

13.7

0.2

0.2

Age at decoupling (kyr)

t dec

379

Age at reionization (Myr, 95% CL)

tr

180

220

80

Decoupling time interval (kyr)

t dec

118

Redshift of matter-energy equality

zeq

3233

194

210

6.1x10
1

0.5

Power spectrum normalization (at k0 = 0.05 Mpc ) c

1

Scalar spectral index (at k0 = 0.05 Mpc ) c

1

Running index slope (at k0 = 0.05 Mpc ) c

1

Hubble constant

-10

0.3x10

-10

0.2x10-10

Reionization optical depth

0.17

0.04

0.04

Redshift of reionization (95% CL)

zr

20

10

Sound horizon at decoupling ( )

0.598

0.002

0.002

Angular size distance to decoupling (Gpc)

dA

14.0

0.2

0.3

lA

301

rs

147

Acoustic scale

d
d

Sound horizon at decoupling (Mpc)

a

from COBE (Mather, J.C. et al, 1999, ApJ, 512, 511)

211- A

derived from COBE (Mather, J. C. et al., 1999, ApJ, 512, 511) = =

leff 700

l A A

1 =

l A A

Robs = to c = 1.37 10 3.65 10 2.4 10 3.6 10 3 10 = 1.296 10 m

10

Vobs =

4
3

Robs = 9.12 10 m
3

78

N b = nbVobs = 0.25 9.12 10 = 2.28 10

h is the Hubble constant in units of 100 Km / s Mps
78

78

211- B

26

a (t o )
a (t )