Fields of Vision

-
ll
R l mS
Denis Delaney Ciaran Ward Carl a Rho Fiorina
A Introduction to Literary Appreciation
B From theOrigins to theMiddleAges
C TheRenaissance
D ThePuritan, Restoration and Augustan Ages
E TheRomantic Age
ure |
the English language I
Denis Delaney Ci aran Ward Carl a Rho Fiorina
MO D U L E S
A IntroductionI
B From theOrigins
C TheRenaissance
D ThePuritan, Restoration and Augustan Ages
E TheRomantic Age
Literature
in the English language
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INTRODUCTION
TO LITERARY
APPRECIATION
'May God keep us
From single vision'
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.Sa 2 Introduction to Literary Appreciation
Introduction
What is literature?
Since the dawn of civilisation many men and women have felt a vital
need to communi cate thei r thoughts and feel i ngs beyond thei r
i mmedi ate ci rcl e of fami l y, fri ends and acquai ntances to a wider
world. Thanks to the i nventi on of writing and pri nti ng they have
been able to hand down to successive generations a priceless treasury
of manuscripts and books.
Literature is generally taken to mean those pieces of writing whi ch,
despite the passing of the years and even of the centuries, still inspire
admiration, reflection and emoti on in readers. Poems, plays, novels
and short stories in a given language that have stood the test of time
collectively make up a national literature.
Thi s does not mean, however, that onl y older works can be called
literature. Today, millions of books are produced every year but onl y
some of them fi nd thei r way i nto l i terary magazi nes or onto the
literary pages of newspapers. In these cases it is the critics and not
time that decide what is and what is not to be regarded as literature.
Whether thei r choi ces are appropri ate or not will be a matter for
future generations to decide.
It is i mpossi bl e to formul ate a total l y comprehensi ve and al l -
encompassi ng defi ni ti on of l i terature because l i terature is never
static. Writers, genres and styles of writing have fallen in and out of
favour throughout hi story and even today arguments rage about
whether more popul ar forms of fi cti on such as detecti ve stori es
shoul d be consi dered l i terature. These di sputes can be l eft to the
cri ti cs because, for the reader, l i terature is si mpl y beauti ful ,
meaningful writing.
Why read literature?
The most obvious answer to this question is because it is enjoyabl e.
Everybody loves a good story, and many great works of literature tell
memorable stories. These stories provide an escape from our daily lives
by transporting us to different times and places. We can travel back to
the depression era in the United States with J ohn Steinbeck, or we can
journey through the African jungle with J oseph Conrad, or we can be
projected into the future by science fiction writers like H.G. Wells.
Escapism is only one reason for reading literature. Literature can also be
viewed as a source of knowledge and information.Î f we read one of
Chaucer's tal es, a poem by Wi l fred Owen and a novel by Chi nua
Achebe, we learn about a range of subjects from life in England in the
Middle Ages, to conditions at the battle front in the first World War I,
to the unresolved tensions in colonial Nigeria. Almost every poem, play
or novel we read gives us more information about the world we live in.
Introduction
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Perhaps the most important reason for reading literature is because it
breaks down our personal barriers. Literature invites us to share in a
range of human eXpertences that we otherwise would be denied. It
al l ows us to l eave behi nd our age, sex, fami l y background and
economi c condi ti on so that we can see the worl d from the
perspective of peopl e who are compl etel y different from us. Great
writers make us understand how other people thi nk and feel.
Li terature stirs up our emoti ons. I t amuses, fri ghtens, i ntri gues,
shocks, consol es, frustrates and chal l enges us. I t hel ps us to
understand ourselves and others. Literature widens our field of vision.
Why analyse literature?
Literary analysis, in its broadest sense, is any attempt to understand a
literary text. Every ti me we close a book and thi nk about what we
have read we are doing some form of literary analysis. An analytical
approach to l i terature i nvol ves careful observati on and drawi ng
concl usi ons. I jji J i Qt^si i T^l yLa-QUP
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f tearing a poem or story
asunder and l abel l i ng the parts; it entai l s di scoveri ng patterns of
meaning and becomi ng aware of the writer's intentions. . -
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Literary analysis is a way of learning more about how literary texts are
structured. The more we l earn about the art of wri ti ng, the more
recepti ve and responsi ve we become as readers. The anal yti cal
approach al so provi des the vocabul ary we need to defi ne and
communi cate our responses to l i terary texts. We must know the
definitions of terms such as setting, character, plot and point of view
in order to express and exchange opinions.
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SELECTED POEMS 1
A tTWO PLAYS OF
WILLiAM BUTLER
YEATS
EDITED AMD INTRODUCTION
M. L. ROSENTHA1.
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of Practical Cats
One modern poet, when asked the questi on 'What is poetry?', repl i ed that
poetry, unlike prose, is a form of writing in which few lines run to the edge of the
page! The American poet Robert Frost contended that 'poetry is the kind of thing
poets wri te'. Whi l e these repl i es, at fi rst, may not seem seri ous, they
i nadvertentl y reveal two i mportant aspects of poetry: the fi rst quotati on
indicates the arrangement of the words on the page as an important element of
poetry, while the second emphasises that there is a special 'poetic' way of using
language. A working definition may, therefore, be that poetry emerges form the
interplay between the meaning of words and their arrangement on paper; or - as
the English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge put it - 'poetry is the
best words in their best order'.
Although poems come in all shapes and sizes, they share certain
characteri sti cs. I magery, metaphors and symbol s make poetry
dense with meani ng. Sound features, such as rhyme, rhythm and
repetition, give the language a special musical quality. The standard
rules of grammar and syntax are often ignored, so that the language
may be used in a striking or original way.
Poetry, l i ke all l i terature, is a wri ter's attempt to
communi cate to others hi s emoti onal and i ntel l ectual
response to his own experi ences and to the world that
surrounds hi m. The poet puts words together to make
the reader feel what he has felt and experi ence what he
has experienced.
SYLVIA
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Wolfwatching
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Figures of speech
A figure of speech is any use of language whi ch deviates from the obvious or
common usage in order to achieve a special meaning or effect. We use figures of
speech in everyday conversati on when we say, for exampl e, 'money tal ks'
(personification) or 'I've got butterflies in my stomach' (metaphor) or 'he's like a
bull in a china shop' (simile).
The densi ty and ori gi nal i ty of a writer's use of figures of speech is part of his
characteristic style.
There are many different figures of speech. The most widely used are:
A simileis a figure of speech in which a comparison between two distinctly different
things is indicated by the word 'like' or 'as'. A simile is made up of three elements:
the tenor: the subject under discussion;
the vehicle: what the subject is compared to;
the ground: what the poet believes the tenor and the vehicle have in common.
We can therefore analyse the simile 'life is like a rollercoaster' as follows:
tenor . ground vehicle
life it has its ups and downs rollercoaster
A metaphor is an i mpl i ed compari son whi ch creates a total i denti fi cati on
between the two things being compared. Words such as 'like' or 'as' are not used.
Like a simile, a metaphor is made up of three elements:
the tenor: the subject under discussion;
the vehicle: what the subject is compared to;
the ground: what the poet believes the tenor and the vehicle have in common.
We can analyse the metaphor 'he's a live wire' as follows:
tenor ground vehicle
he is full of energy/ is very lively live wire
is potentially dangerous
In metonymy (Greek for 'a change of name') the term for one thing-is applied to
another with which it has become closely associated. 'The crown', for example,
can be used to refer to a king.
In synecdoche (Greek for 'taking together') a part of something is used to signify
the whol e or vice versa, al though the latter form is qui te rare. An exampl e of
synecdoche from everyday speech can be found in the proverb 'Many hands make
light work', where the expression 'many hands' means 'the labour of many people'.
An example of the whole representing a part can be found in expressions such as
'I 'm reading Dickens', where an attribute of a literary work (i.e. it was written by
Charles Dickens) is substituted for the work itself.
Personification is a form of comparison in which human characteristics, such as
emotions, personality, behaviour and so on, are attributed to an animal, object or
idea: 'The proud lion surveyed his kingdom'.
The primary functi on of personification is to make abstract ideas clearer to the
reader by comparing them to everyday human experience. Humanising cold and
compl ex abstractions can bring them to life, render them more interesting and
make them easier to understand.
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QUESTIONS TO ASK WHEN ANALYSING FIGURES OF SPEECH
Are comparisons drawn through metaphors or similes? What information, attitudes or associations are
revealed through these associations?
Are there any examples of synecdoche or metonymy? What is the writer's purpose in using these figures
of speech? How do they affect the style and tone of the poem?
Are ani mal s, objects or ideas personi fi ed in the poem? How does personi fi cati on contri bute to our
understanding of the poem?
CASE STUDY 1
American poet and novelist Sylvia Plath (1932-1963) dedicated much of her work to exploring various states of mind.
While much of her work is dark and disturbing, some of her poems reveal a moreplayfid and witty nature.
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GLOSSARY
1. riddle: puzzle
2. ponderous: heavy,
large
3. strolling: walking
4. tendrils: thin leafless
branches that plants
wrap around things
5. timbers: pieces of
wood
6. yeasty: yeast is the
substancethat makes
bread expand
7. new-minted: newly
made
q Metaphors
by Sylvia Plath
I 'm a riddle
1
in ni ne syllables,
An elephant, a ponderous
2
house,
A melon strolling
3
on two tendrils
4
.
O red fruit, ivory, fine timbers
5
!
This loaf's big with its yeasty
6
rising.
Money new-mi nted' in this fat purse.
I 'm a means, a stage
8
, a cow in calf
9
.
I've eaten a bag of green apples,
Boarded the train there's no getting off
10
.
8. stage: phase of
development
9. calf: young cow 10. there's no getting off: you
cannot descend from
COMPREHENSI ON
Which of the following is the solution to the riddle posed in the opening line of the poem?
A | wo | man | who | fa | ces | a | cri | sis
A | wo | man | ex | pect | ing | a | ba | by
A | wo | man | who | thinks | she's | ov | er | weight
Justify your answer by referring to the text.
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ANALYSIS - FIGURES OF SPEECH
1 Which metaphor do you find most effective and why?
2 Through which metaphors does the poet convey
the following ideas about her condition?
Physical discomfort and disproportion
The sense that her destiny has been decided and
there is no turning back
A loss of personal identity
The sense of carrying something precious
The idea of nausea and indigestion which is
associated with her condition
Her communion with the animal kingdom
The sense of growing and expanding.
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What is Poetry? 7 CB
CASE STUDY 2
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American poet Emily Dickinson (1830-1886) lived most of her life in total isolation. Only seven of her nearly 2,000
poems werepublished during her lifetime. Her contemporaries found her work bewildering, but today she is considered
a major writer of unsurpassed originality.
q Apparently with no Surprise
by Emily Dickinson
Apparently with no surprise
To any happy Flower,
The Frost
1
beheads it
2
at its play -
In accidental power
The blonde assassin passes on
The Sun proceeds unmoved
To measure off
3
another Day
For an approving God.
GLOSSARY
1. Frost: frozen drops of
water
2. beheads it: cuts its
head off
3. To measure off: to
bring to a close
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COMPREHENSI ON
1 What does the frost do to the flower?
2 How does the sun respond to this act?
3 How would you define God as He is portrayed in
the poem?
Loving Cruel Indifferent
Sadistic Detached Paternal
Other:
Ute
ANALYSIS - FIGURES OF SPEECH
1 Make a list of the elements that are personified in
the poem.
2 Personification adds drama to the poem. Which
words do you find particularly dramatic?
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The association of very different elements that we find in metaphors is also used to sell products in advertising.
Consider this advertisement for a banking service:
You've got a completely individual set of fingerprints.
How about a financial plan to match?
We could analyse this advertisement in the same way as we analyse literary metaphors:
financial plan individual fingerprints
personalised
unique
Find other advertisements which associate either visually or verbally diverse elements, for example:
children's snacks - being a good mother
beauty products - being sexy and desirable
car - being adventurous and manly
In class, discuss the implied message in the advertisements and decide whether or not you find them effective.
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Imagery
Images are words or phrases that appeal to our senses. Consider these lines taken
from Wilfred Owen's poem Dulce et Decorum Est.
Bent double, like old beggars under sacks,
Knock-kneed, coughing like hags we cursed though sludge.
The poet is describing his experience as a soldier during
the First World War. Through his choi ce of words he
creates: %
visual images: bent double, old beggars under sacks,
knock-kneed;
aural images: coughing like hags, cursed;
a tactile image: sludge.
If we replace the imagistic words that Owen uses with
more generic terms:
Physically exhausted, the soldiers marched across the
wet terrain cursing their fate.
the impact on our senses is lost.
A writer may use an image to help us:
re-live a sense experience that we have already had. We may be able to conjure
up the sound of old women coughi ng or the sensati on of walking through
mud from past experience;
have a new sense experi ence. This is achieved when our sense memori es are
cal l ed forth i n a pattern that does not correspond to any of our actual
experiences. Exploited in this way, images allow us to see, hear, feel, smell and
taste experiences that are new to us.
We use the term imagery to refer to combi nati ons or clusters of images that are
used to create a domi nant impression. Death, corruption and disease imagery, for
exampl e, creates a powerful network in Shakespeare's tragedy Hamlet. Writers
often develop meani ngful patterns in thei r imagery, and a writer's choi ce and
arrangement of images is often an i mportant clue to the overall meani ng of his
work.
Few battles in human
history have caused such
devastation as the Battle
of the Somme during the
First World War.
QUESTIONS TO ASK WHEN ANALYSING A WRITERS USE OF IMAGERY
What does the writer want the reader to see, hear, taste, feel and smell?
What revealing details bring the place, the people or the situation to life? Does the writer use details that
people would usually overlook?
Whi ch are the most striking and revealing images? Whi ch images tend to linger on in our minds? Are
they important to the overall meaning of the work?
Does the work appeal to one sense in particular or to all the senses?
What emoti ons or attitudes do the images arouse in the reader?
CASE STUDY 3
British-born poet and novelist Vernon Scanned (1922-) was a soldier, a boxer and a teacher before he became a writer.
His work often takes its starting point from everyday domestic incidents.
Q Nettles
by Vernon Scannell
My son aged three fell in the nettle
1
bed.
'Bed' seemed a curious name for those green spears
2
,
That regiment of spite
3
behi nd the shed
4
:
It was no place for rest. With sobs and tears
The boy came seeking comfort and I saw 5
Whi te blisters
5
beaded
6
on his tender skin.
We soothed
7
him till his pain was not so raw
8
.
At last he offered us a watery grin
9
,
And then I took my hook
10
and honed the blade
11
And went outside and slashed
12
in fury with it 10
Till not a nettle in the fierce parade
Stood upright anymore. Next task: I lit
A funeral pyre to burn the fallen dead
But in two weeks the busy sun and rain
Had called up tall recruits
13
behi nd the shed; is
My son would often feel sharp wounds
14
again.
GLOSSARY 2. spears: sharp pointed pole 3. spite: malicious
1. nettle: stinginggrass used as aweapon intent
4. shed: small building
for storing garden
tools
5. blisters: watery
swellings under the
skin containing
watery fluid
6. beaded: formed
bubbles
7. soothed: comforted
8. raw: acute
9. grin: smile
10. hook: tool used to
cut grass
11. honed the blade:
sharpened the cutting
instrument
12. slashed: cut with
furious strokes
13. recruits: new soldiers
14. sharp wounds:
painful injuries

COMPREHENSI ON
1 What happened to the poet's son while playing
outdoors?
2 We refer to a patch of nettles as a 'bed of nettles'.
Why does the poet question the use of the word
'bed'?
3 What did the poet do when he had finished
comforting the boy?
4 What happened after two weeks?
5 What reflection did the poet make about his son's
future?
ANALYSIS - IMAGERY
1 Pick out the military imagery in the poem. What
association is established through the use of these
words?
2 'White blisters beaded on his tender skin'. Which
senses does this image appeal to?
3 What is conveyed by the image 'watery grin'?
Music videos are a powerful example of the impact of combining sound and visual images. Choose a music video
that you particularly like. Identify the ideas and emotions that are conveyed by the lyrics and music of the song.
Explain how the visual images of the music video reinforce or expand the impact of the song.
Cultural or shared
symbols
Literary or personal
symbols
Symbols
Guidelines for
identifying and under-
standing symbols
A symbol is an example of what is called the transference of meaning. Writers take
a concrete item - an object, a colour, a person, a place - and attribute a deeper
meani ng to it. A symbol may be a detail, an object, a character or an incident. It
exists first as something literal and concrete in the work, but it also has the capacity
to evoke in the mind of the reader a range of invisible and abstract associations.
By defi ni ti on symbol s are open-ended. A given symbol will evoke di fferent
responses in different readers. There is, however, an acceptable range of possible
readings and any interpretation of a symbol must be confirmed by the rest of the
work.
The i denti fi cati on and understandi ng of symbol s demands awareness and
intelligence of the reader. It involves the reader directly in the creative process,
asking hi m to add his own intellectual and emoti onal responses. Through this
collaboration the work is enriched and enlarged.
Many symbolic associations are widely recognised and accepted: the dawn with
hope, the serpent wi th evi l , the col our whi te wi th i nnocence, l i ght wi th
knowl edge, dark wi th i gnorance. Writers often make use of these cul tural or
shared symbols. Readers must not, however, automati cal l y apply conventi onal
meani ngs to these symbol s. Someti mes wri ters will enl arge or narrow the
meani ng of a cultural symbol. The reader must first carefully exami ne how the
symbol is used in the text before assigning meaning.
Authors also use their own original symbols. Personal or literary symbols do not
have pre-established associations: the meaning that is attached to them emerges
from the context of the work in whi ch they occur. A parti cul ar l andscape or
certai n atmospheri c condi ti ons may become associ ated wi th a character's
emoti onal state. A col our or an object may take on a secondary meani ng. A
recurring gesture or a character may be given symbolic meaning.
When does an object, character or acti on cease to be just part of the story and
begi n to devel op symbol i c associ ati ons? There is no si mpl e answer to thi s
questi on. Ul ti matel y, the reader must devel op hi s own awareness through
receptive and responsive reading. There are, however, some broad guidelines he
can follow.
The principal techniques that writers use for creating symbols are:
repetition: the reader should take note of multiple references to a particular
object or the recurrence of the same gesture;
emphasis: does the author seem to pay particular attenti on to some element,
describe it in detail or use poetic or connotative language when referring to it?
associations automatically made with shared symbols: the reader should try
to understand if the author wishes him to make conventional associations with
the symbol or if he has added his own personal significance.
Whi l e there is a risk that a reader may not i denti fy symbols, there is also the
danger that he may see symbolic importance where the writer did not i ntend it.
'Symbol hunting', i.e. attributing symbolic status to objects, characters or actions
when there is little evidence in the text that they should be viewed as a symbol,
should be avoided.
What is Poetry? 11
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QUESTIONS TO ASK WHEN ANALYSING SYMBOLS
Does the writer refer repeatedly to any objects or gestures in his work?
Does he make any concrete items in the story emerge and assume importance?
Does he use poetic or connotative language when describing particular objects or gestures?
Does he use any shared or cultural symbols? Does he attribute the conventional meaning to these symbols?
How does the use of symbols help the writer to convey the meaning of his work?
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CASE STUDY 4
Peter Meinke was born in Brooklyn, New York, in 1932. He has published eleven books of poetry, and his poems and
short stories have appeared in many journals and periodicals.
q Advice to my Son
by Peter Meinke
The trick
1
is, to live your days
as if each one may be your last
(for they go fast, and young men lose their lives
in strange and unimaginable ways)
but at the same time, plan long range
2
(for they go slow: if you survive
the shattered windshield
3
and the bursting shell
4
you will arrive
at our approximation here below
of heaven or hell).
To be specific, between the peony
5
and the rose
plant squash and spinach, turnips
6
and tomatoes;
beauty is nectar
and nectar, in a desert, saves -
but the stomach craves
7
stronger sustenance
than the honi ed vine
8
.
Therefore, marry a pretty girl
after seeing her mother;
speak truth to one man,
work with another;
and always serve bread with your wine.
But, son,
always serve wine.
10
IS
GLOSSARY
1. trick: skillful way of doing
something
2. long range: in the long term
3. shattered windshield: front
window of the car broken into
many pieces
Sir
i
The Persistence of Memory
(1931) by Salvador Dali. 'Live your
days as if each one may be your
last... but at the same time, plan
long range.'
20
4. bursting shell: exploding bomb
5. peony: flower
6. squash ... turnips: types of
vegetables
7. craves: has astrong desire for
8. honied vine: sweet wine
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COMPREHENSI ON
1 What advice does the poet give his son in the
opening lines of the poem?
2 The poet makes references to ways in which young
men lose their lives in line 7. What are they?
3 What does the poet suggest that his son should
plant among his flowers?
4 What should his son do before marrying a pretty
girl?
5 Should his son speak truth to and work with the
same man?
6 What should his son always serve with his wine?
ANALYSIS - SYMBOLS
1 Throughout the poem the poet is telling his son to
have both prudence and joy in his life.
Which approach to life is symbolised by:
- the peony and the rose?
- squash and spinach, turnips and tomatoes?
- nectar?
- bread?
-wi ne?
Based on these associations, what is the final piece of
advice he gives his son?
2 Are bread and wine personal or shared symbols?
Does the poet use them in the conventional way?
Symbols do not exist only in literature. We are surrounded by symbols in our everyday life. What associations do
you make with the following symbols?
9
Sound features
Thi nk of a sound that makes you relax, like the gentle lapping of water against 1
rocks. Now thi nk of a sound that you cannot stand, perhaps the screeching of
chal k against a bl ackboard. Different sounds have different effects on us. The
sounds of language also create different responses in us and writers, especially<
poets, use this in their work. By choosi ng words for their sound as well as their
meani ng, wri ters create a musi cal i ty in thei r work that can evoke strong
emotional responses and reinforce the meaning they wish to convey.
The most common sound features are rhyme, al l i terati on, assonance and
onomatopoeia.
The term rhyme refers to the effect that is created when a poet repeats the same
sound at the end of two or more lines. Rhyme has several important functions:
it adds a musical quality to the poem;
it marks the end of each line;
it makes the poem easier to remember;
it affects the pace and tone of the poem.
There are several different types of rhyme:
si ngl e-syl l abl e or mascul i ne rhyme: the begi nni ng of the syllable varies while
the rest stays the same, for example day/say light/night;
doubl e-syl l abl e or f emi ni ne rhyme matches two syl l abl e words or parts of
words: ocean/motion, pretending/bending-,
tri pl e-syl l abl e rhyme matches three-syllable words: beautiful/dutiful, comparison/
garrison;
true or perfect rhyme: the rhymed sounds correspond exactly, for exampl e:
boat/float, double/ trouble;
i mperf ect rhyme (hal f rhyme or sl ant rhyme): the sound of two words is
similar, but it is not as close as is required in true or perfect rhyme. Generally the
words contain identical vowels or identical consonants but not both, for example
loads/lids/lads, road/moan/boat;
end rhymes fall at the end of the lines;
i nternal rhymes occur within the same line:
Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered weak and weary
(The Raven, Edgar Allan Poe)
CASE STUDY 5
American poet Ogden Nash (1902-1971) is renowned for his humorous verse and epigrams. Find examples of end
rhymes and internal rhyme in this short poem. How does rhyme contribute to the theme of the poem that hunting
degrades man?
The hunter crouches
1
in his blind
2
'Neath
3
camouflage of every kind,
q The Hunter
by Ogden Nash
GLOSSARY -
1. crouches: kneels
down
2. blind: hiding place
3. 'Neath: under
And conjures up
4
a quacking
5
noise
To lend allure to his decoys
6
,
This grown-up man, with pluck
7
and luck 5
Is hoping to outwit
8
a duck.
4. conjures up: creates 6. lend ... decoys: makehis 7. pluck: courageand 8. outwit: surpass in
5. quacking: imitating hunting technique more determination intelligence
duck sounds effective

Alliteration Alliteration is the repetition of the same initial consonant sound in a sequence
of nearby words. I n Angl o-Saxon ti mes, before the i ntroducti on of rhyme,
alliteration gave the language of poetry its musical quality and made the poems,
whi ch were often reci ted, easier to remember. Al l i terati on is still popul ar in
modern poetry and can al so be found in songs, headl i nes and everyday
expressions such as 'black and blue', 'safe and sound' and 'right as rain'.
Assonance Assonance is the repetition of similar or identical vowel sounds in a sequence of
nearby words contai ni ng different consonants. It creates 'vowel rhyme' as in
break/play, hope/spoke.
Like al l i terati on, assonance adds a musical quality to the language and it also
establishes rhythm:
open, broad sounds 'o', 'u', 'a' (flow, burn, heart, flame) tend to slow the rhythm down;
slender 'i' and 'e' (hill, met) sounds create a quicker pace.
CASE STUDY 6
Find examples of alliteration and assonance in this poem by English novelist and poet Thomas Hardy (1840-1928).
q Last Week in October
by Thomas Hardy
The trees are undressing, and fling
1
in many places
On the gray roads, the roof, the window-sill
2
-
Their radiant robes and ribbons and yellow laces
3
;
A leaf each second so is flung at will
4
,
Here, there, another and another, still and still
5
. 5
A spider's web has caught one while downcoming
6
,
That stays there dangling
7
when the rest pass on:
Like a suspended
8
criminal hangs he, mummi ng
9
,
In golden garb
10
, while one yet green, high yon
11
,
Trembles as fearing such a fate for himself anon
12
.
GLOSSARY
6.
fling: throw
window-sill: flat
pieceat thebaseof a
window
robes ... laces:
clothes and
ornamental
accessories
at will: following the
wind's desire
still and still: more
and more
downcoming: falling
10
7. dangling: hanging and
swinging about
8. suspended: thereis aplay on
two meanings of theword:
a. hanging
b. with a suspended
sentence
mumming: acting playfully
10. garb: clothes
11. yon: over there
12. anon: very soon
ijjpH
The use of the sound of words to suggest the sound they denote is cal l ed
onomatopoeia. We hear this sound-echoing effect in the 'sl ammi ng' of a door,
the 'buzzing' of bees, the 'ticking' of a clock. In his poem 'OnaMaTaPia', the poet
Spike Mi l l i gan suggests that it more difficult to spell onomatopoei a correctl y
than to understand and identify it!
OnaMaTaPia
Onamatapia!
Thud - Wallop - Crash!
Onamatapia
Snip - Snap - Gnash!
Onamatapia
Whack - Thud - Bash!
Onamatapia
Bong - Ting - Splash.
Onomatopoeia
CASE STUDY 7
Find one striking example of onomatopoeia in this poem by the contemporary Irish poet Seamus Heaney, born in
Northern Ireland in 1939. Many of his poems have the rural setting of his youth and describe Insxhildhood
experiences. In this poem he describes how a simple chore like folding sheets brought him closer to his mother.
q The Cool that Came off Sheets
by Seamus Heaney [ [ / f / i A ^- ''
/ ' f e l n V ; t ' / ^
The cool
1
that came off sheets
2
just off the line
Made me think the damp
3
must still be in them
But when I took my corners of the linen
And pulled against her
4
, first straight down the hem
5
And then diagonally, then flapped and shook
6
5
The fabric like a sail in a cross-wind,
They made a dried-out undulating thwack
7
.
So we'd stretch and fold
8
and end up hand to hand
For a split
9
second as if nothi ng had happened
For nothi ng had that had not always happened 10
Beforehand
10
, day by day, just touch and go,
Coming close again by holding back
11
- ^/ c
In moves
12
where I was x and she was o
Inscribed in sheets she'd sewn
13
from ripped
14
-out flour sacks.
GLOSSARY
1. cool: freshness
2. sheets: pieces of cloth used
in bed to liebetween
3. damp: humidity
4. pulled against her: helped
his mother to fold sheets
5. hem: lower edgeof the
sheets
6. flapped and shook:
waved up and down,
backwards and forwards
7. thwack: sharp sound
8. fold: turn one part so that it
covers another part
9. split: fraction (of asecond)
10. Beforehand: before
11. by holding back:
staying distant
12. moves: turns in a game
13. sewn: joined together
by sewing
14. ripped: cut

Rhythm
The beating of the heart, breathing, walking, runni ng - rhythm is at the core of
human existence. Rhythm is also an important part of the language of literature.
Writers build on the natural rhythms of language, putting words with the same
stress pattern side by side and creating an underlying beat or rhythm in their work.
CASE STUDY 8
Scottish writer Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-1894) was born in Edinburgh ami is perhaps best remembered for his
novels Treasure I sland and The Strange Case of Dr J ekyll and Mr Hyde. However, he was also an accomplished
poet. Listen to the recording of his poem From a Railway Carriage and say what the rhythm of the poem suggests.
GLOSSARY
1. hedges: bushes in
rows forminga
boundary
ditches: horizontal
holes dugin the
ground, often along
roads
meadows: fields
sights: views
driving: strong
ever again:
repeatedly
in thewink of an
eye: in an instant
whistleby: flash by
clambers and
scrambles: moves
frantically usingfeet
and hands
10. brambles: blackberries
11. tramp: homeless
person
2.
9.
q From a Railway Carriage
by Robert Louis Stevenson
f ^ f * t W >W f / ^
Faster than fairies, faster than witches,
f I f ' V. jfl J f , - ^_ _ I * ry
Bridges and houses, hedges and ditches ;
And charging along like troops in a battle,
All through the meadows
3
the horses and cattle;
All of the sights
4
of the hill and the plain
Fly as thick as driving
5
rain;
And ever again
6
, in the wink of an eye
7
,
Painted stations whistle by
8
.
Here is a child who clambers and scrambles
9
,
All by himself and gathering brambles
10
;
Here is a tramp
11
who stands and gazes
12
;
And there is the green for stringing the daisies
13
!
Here is a cart
14
run away in the road
Lumping al ong
15
with man and load
16
;
And here is a mill
17
, and there is a river:
Each a glimpse
18
and gone for ever!
(tOW
i-yÔi
4,
hr Q
[
am-
>jm
o\
10
15
12. gazes: looks fixedly
13. green for stringing
the daisies: thegrass
whereyou can find daisies
to make chains
14.cart: small hand-pushed
vehiclewith wheels
15.Lumping along: moving
inelegantly
16. load: what is beingcarried
17. mill: building wheregrain
is ground to produce
flour
18. glimpse: very quick
incomplete look
METRICAL TERMS
AND SCANSION
y\ .
The regular and rhythmi c arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables found
in poetry is called metre. The basic unit of metre is the foot, which consists of one
stressed syllable and one or more unstressed syllables. The most common feet are:
iamb (adj.: iambic) - one unstressed syllable followed by one stressed syllable:
(a | way);
trochee (adj.: trochai c) - one stressed syllable fol l owed by one unstressed
syllable: (fa | ther); >.
anapest (adj.: anapestic) - two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed
syllable: (in | the | light);
dactyl (adj.: dactyl i c) - one stressed syl l abl e fol l owed by two unstressed
syllables: (o | ver | the);
f
monosyllable (adj.: monosyllabic) - one stressed syllable: sky;
spondee (adj.: spondaic) - two.stressed syllables: (rain | bow).
Analysing metre is cal l ed scansion. When we scan a poem we first count the
number of syllables and identify the position of the stresses or accents. We then
divide the line i nto feet and determine the metrical length of the line:
monometer - one foot ^ f pentameter - five feet
dimeter - two feet ' u'U hexameter - six feet
heptameter - seven feet
octameter - eight feet
'SSL**-
trimeter - three feet
tetrameter - four feet
ftu'lzr / UXU
When we have identified the kind of feet and the line length, we combi ne the
two to gi ve the metre a name, for exampl e i ambi c pentameter, trochai c
hexameter, anapestic heptameter. I ambi c pentameter is the metrical form that
most closely resembles natural speech and it is the most widely used metre in
English poetry. The following are exampl es of the scansion of a line of i ambi c
pentameter and a line of anapesti c tetrameter. The feet are marked by vertical
lines, the unstressed syllables by
w
and the stressed syllables by ':
Scansion
The cur | few tolls | tire knell | of part | ing day |
(Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, Thomas Gray)
| The Assyr | ian came down | like the wolf | oh the fold |,
(TheDestruction of Sennacherib, Lord Byron)
Metre is not a straitjackfet and in most poems there are devi ati ons from the
pri nci pal pattern. When scanni ng a poem it is i mportant to i denti fy the
prevailing metre, but also to notice variations.
The analysis of metre is meaningful only if it contributes to our understanding of
a poem. The rhythm may establ i sh an atmosphere or create a tone, and
deviations from the predominant metrical pattern may highlight key elements.
CASE STUDY 9
Scan My Heart Leaps Up by William Wordsworth (1770-1850), who is considered to be one of the finest nature
poets in the history of English literature. Identify the prevailing metre. What effect does the shortened line 6 have?
Which word is highlighted by the addition of an added foot in the final line?
q My Heart Leaps Up
by William Wordsworth
My heart leaps
1
up when I behol d
2
A rainbow in the sky:
So was it when my life began;
So is it now I am a man;
So be it when I shall grow old;
Or let me die!
The Child is father of the Man;
And I could wish my days to be
Bound
3
each to each by natural piety
GLOSSARY
1. leaps: jumps
2. behold: look at
3. Bound: connected
End-stopped line
Enjambement
or run-on line
Other rhythmic devices
When a pause occurs naturally at the end of a line we refer to it as an end-stopped
line:
The trees are in their autumn beauty,
The woodland paths are dry,
(The Wild Swans at Coole, W.B. Yeats)
Enj ambement or run-on line are the terms we use when the sense of the
sentence extends into the next line:
The room was suddenly rich and the great bay-window was
Spawning snow and pink roses against it
(Snow, Louis MacNeice)
If a strong break occurs in the middle of a line it is referred to as caesura:
A thing of beauty is a joy forever
Its loveliness increases; it will never
Pass into nothingness
(Endymion, John Keats)
Enjambement and caesura give their own particular rhythm to poetry.
CASE STUDY 10
Find examples of end-stopped lines, enjambement and caesura in this extract from William Wordsworth's
(1770-1850) long autobiographical poem The Prelude.
Q Skati ng
by William Wordsworth
>Jt**> l
GLOSSARY
1. frosty season: cold
season
2. blazed: shone with a
bright light
3. twili;
4.
5.
And in the frosty season
1
, when the sun
Was set, and visible for i
The cottae
heedei'
pay att
6. summc
7. indeed:
8. rapture:
9. tolled: raj
10. wheeled a
moved alo,
skates

a mile
through twilight
3
gloom
4
,
happy time
me
nd loud
heeled about
10
,
d horse
shod with steel
12
,
ce in games (...)
rotected by metal
along: continued
making asharp sibilant
sound while skating
14. polished: shining
NC SOUND FEATURES
What is thi >ut?
Are there ai
Does the po
Are there an
How would > xiiythm of the poem? Is there a predominant metrical structure?
Does the rhytnm of the poem reinforce the meaning?
Are there any run-on lines or caesura in the poem? How do they affect the rhythm of the poem?
K
What is Poetry? 19 fl
Standard poetic forms
Ballads are short stories in verse, often accompanied by music, that belong to an jjgHgj
oral tradition of poetry. Ballads share the following features:
they rarely tell a story from begi nni ng to end. They take us immediately i nto
the story and often open when the narrative has turned towards its catastrophe
or resolution. We know little of the events leading up to the climax;
description is brief and conventi onal and very little information is given about
the characters;
the narrative is impersonal - the narrator tells the story without expressing his
personal attitudes or feelings. There is no moral comment on the characters'
behaviour, and the motives behi nd their actions are largely unexplained;
in many ballads, words, expressions and phrases and entire verses are repeated. A
line or group of lines which is repeated throughout the ballad is called a refrain; , t
many ballads contai n stock descriptive phrases such as 'mi l k-whi te steed',
,vL
'blood-red wine', 'gallant knight' or 'snow white'. While other forms of poetry
are characteri sed by i ndi vi dual i sti c or original figures of speech, the bal l ad
empl oys a l i mi ted stock of i mages and descri pti ve adjecti ves whi ch the
performer could easily memorise;
ballads are composed in simple two or four line stanzas. The stanza usually
consi sts of al ternate four and three stress l i nes rhymi ng on the second and
fourth line:
Tire wind so cold blew south and north
And blew into tile floor;
Quoth our goodman to our goodwife
'Go out and bar tiie door'
(Get up and bar thedoor)
CASE STUDY 11
Listen to this famous ballad which exists in numerous versions.
q Barbara Allen
In Scarlet town where I was born,
There was a fair maid
1
dwellin'
2
Made every youth cry Well-a-day
3
,
Her name was Barb'ra Allen.
All in the merry month of May, 5
When green buds
4
they were swellin'
5
Young Willie Grove on his death-bed lay,
For love of Barb'ra Allen.
He sent his servant to her door
To the town where she was dwellin' 10
'Haste ye
6
come, to my master's call,
If your name be Barb'ra Allen.'
GLOSSARY -
1. maid: young woman
2. dwellin': living
3. Well-a-day: Alas
4. buds: undeveloped
leaves or flowers
5. swellin': getting
bigger
6. Hasteye: hurry you
m
E ) 20 Introduction to Literary Appreciation
La Belle Dame Sans Merci
by Frank Dicksee.
7. nigh: near
8. unto: towards
9. knelling: ringing
10. briar: thorny stem
11.spire: cone shaped
structure on a church
12.(en)twined: twisted
around each other

So slowly, slowly got she up,
And slowly she drew nigh
7
him,
And all she said when there she came:
'Young man, I think you're dying!'
He turned his face unto
8
the wall
And death was drawing nigh him.
Good bye, Good bye to dear friends all,
Be kind to Barb'ra Allen.
When he was dead and laid in grave,
She heard the death bell knelling
9
.
And every note, did seem to say
Oh, cruel Barb'ra Allen.
'Oh mother, mother, make my bed
Make it soft and narrow.
Sweet William died, for love of me,
And I shall die of sorrow.'
15
20
25
They buried her in the old churchyard
Sweet William's grave was nigh hers
And from his grave grew a red, red rose
From hers a cruel briar
10
.
They grew and grew up the old church spire
11
Until they could grow no higher
And then they twined
12
in a true love knot
The red, red rose and the briar.
30
35
I
COMPREHENSI ON
w
1 What effect did Barbara Allen have on the young
men of Scarlet town?
2 Why was Willie Grove dying?
3 How did Barbara Allen react when she was called
to the young man's bedside?
4 What was Willie's last wish?
5 When did Barbara Allen realise she had been cruel?
6 Where was Barbara Allen buried?
7 What grew from Willie Grove's grave? What grew
from Barbara Allen's grave? Where did they become
entwined?
ANALYSI S-THE BALLAD
1 Does the ballad tell the story from the start, or are
some of the events leading up to the starting point
left untold?
2 Are there any descriptive details of setting or
physical descriptions of the characters?
3 Does the speaker comment on the story, or is the
storytelling impersonal?
4 Underline phrases and words that are repeated in
the poem.
5 Identify the rhyming scheme in the poem. Note
that in some cases two words may rhyme with one
(for example, nigh him - dying). Is the rhyming
pattern regular throughout the poem?
6 Work out the metre of the first stanza.
The term sonnet comes from the Italian word 'sonetto', which means 'little song
or sound'. In a sonnet a poet expresses his thoughts and feelings in fourteen
lines. The sonnet originated in Italy, where it was popularised by the fourteenth-
century poet Petrarch. I n the I talian or Petrarchan sonnet the first eight lines -
the octave - introduce the subject while the last six lines - the sestet - provides a
comment and express the personal feelings of the poet. The rhyming scheme is
usually ABBA-ABBA-CDC-CDC. The first poet to introduce the I talian sonnet to
Engl and was Sir Thomas Wyatt. Wyatt's sonnets are l argel y transl ati ons or
imitations of those of Petrarch. However, he changed the rhyming scheme of the
sestet to CDDC-EE, thus creating a quatrain (four lines) and a couplet (two lines).
The Earl of Surrey developed the sestet even further, separating the couplet from
the quatrai n and using it to comment on the previous twelve l i nes. The final
pattern for the English sonnet compri sed of three quatrai ns (four lines) and a
couplet (two lines) with the following rhymi ng scheme: ABAB-CDCD-EFEF-GG.
This is the sonnet form that Shakespeare inherited, and indeed this form is often
referred to as the Shakespearean sonnet.
The sonnet
Meanwhile, Elsewhere p. C62
CASE STUDY 12
q Shall I Compare Thee (Sonnet
by William Shakespeare
18)
Shall I compare thee
1
to a summer's day?
Thou art
2
more lovely and more temperate:
Rough
3
winds do shake the darling buds
4
of May,
And summer's lease hath all too short a date
5
:
Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines
And often is his gold compl exi on dimmed
6
,
And every fair from fair some time declines
7
,
By chance
8
, or nature's changing course, untri mmed
9
But thy
10
eternal summer shall not fade
11
,
Nor lose possession of that fair thou owest
12
,
Nor shall death brag
13
thou wander'st
14
in his shade,
When in eternal lines to time thou growest
15
So long as men can breathe or eyes can see,
So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.
10
GLOSSARY
1. thee: you
2. Thou art: you are
3. Rough: violent
4. buds: unopened flowers
5. lease ... date: does not
last long
6. dimmed: made less
bright
7. every fair ... declines:
beautiful things become
less beautiful
8. By chance: accidentally
9. untrimmed: unstopped
10. thy: your
11. fade: become less strong
12. owest: possess
13. brag: boast, say
14. wander'st: walk around
directionless
15.When ... growest:
becauseyou have been
made eternal by the
lines of the poem

compr ehensi on:
1 Why is the poet's addressee superior to a summer's
day, according to lines 1-4?
2 What is 'the eye of heaven'? When is its 'gold
complexion dimmed'?
3 What destroys beauty in line 8?
4 Why will the poet's addressee not fade?
ANALYSIS - THE SONNET
1 Work out the rhyming scheme of the sonnet. 2 Outline the central idea of each of the quatrains. In
what sense does the final couplet sum up the
preceding twelve lines?
-
W
Layout
*

mm
'
Layout refers to the visual form a poem takes on a page. It is important because it
helps the reader's understandi ng by i ndi cati ng, for exampl e, where he should
pause or where a new l i ne of thought begi ns. Certai n conventi ons have been
established in the lay-out of poems. The lines:
do not cover the full page as they do in prose;
are usually grouped together into units called verses;
are occasionally grouped i nto units that repeat the same number of lines, the
same metre and the same rhyming scheme. These units are called stanzas.
I n what is referred to as concrete poetry, the visual form of the poem is almost as
i mportant in conveyi ng meani ng as the verbal communi cati on. Here is an
example:
CASE STUDY 13
Q 40-Love
by Roger McGough
Read this poem by the contemporary poet Roger McGough.
mm
middle aged
couple playing
ten nis
when the
game ends
and they
go
home
the net
will still
be be
tween them.

'.
ANALYSIS - LAYOUT
1 The poem describes a middle-aged couple, who no
longer love each other. As you read the poem how do
your eyes move? How does this relate to the fact that
the couple are playing tennis?
2 The title of the poem may be read as a tennis
score. The dash may also be read as minus, in which
case, what does the title mean?
3 The most impressive visual feature of the poem is
the large empty space between the two columns.
What, in your opinion, does it represent?
The word 'drama' refers to any work that is intended for performance by actors
on a stage. It is a type of writing or genre that is very different from poetry or
fiction because the written text, what we call the play, is onl y one component of
the work. Other elements are needed to bring a dramatic text to life:
the actors, the people who interpret the parts of the play;
the director, the person who decides how the play should be performed;
the audience, the people who watch the play.
When reading a play, we should always try to imagine how it could be presented on
stage. It always helps to see as many live or filmed versions of the play as possible.
A play takes place on a stage. On the stage, a set representing the place where the
action takes place is built. The set usually includes props, stage furniture, objects,
coloured backcloths, etc. The set will immediately give us information about the
play, for exampl e, whi ch hi stori cal peri od it is set i n. I t wi l l al so create
expectations about what we are about to see. There are, of course, a great variety
of set desi gns from compl ex mul ti -storey sets to si mpl e bare stages. A set is
described as naturalistic, when it represents real life, or symbolic, when it tries to
convey ideas or meaning.
Lighting plays an important role in conveying the meaning of a play. Its primary
functi on is to illuminate the actors and the stage but it can also focus attention
on a particular area of the stage while the rest is in darkness or semi-darkness.
Li ghti ng is used to show the ti me of day when the acti on takes place. It also
creates atmosphere. Filters are used to produce coloured light which may create
warm, cold or eerie atmospheres. Today it is possible to incorporate spectacular
l i ghti ng effects i nto a performance by using strobe l i ghti ng, ul travi ol et light,
underfloor lighting and other special techniques.
Like l i ghti ng, sound effects may al so pl ay an i mportant part in theatri cal
productions. Sounds that come from the stage or sounds made offstage can make
the producti on more real i sti c and credi bl e. Musi c is often used to create
atmosphere or to underline particularly significant moments in the play.
Introduction to Literary Appreciation
Dialogue
Dialogue has two major functions in drama:
it contributes to the telling of the story;
it reveals characters.
A playwright has two or three hours of stage time to tell his story, which must
emerge from the actions and conversations of the characters on stage. Dialogue is
the conventi onal techni que playwrights use to give the audi ence i nformati on
about the setting, the time, the characters and the action in a play. Dialogue is,
therefore, an essential storytelling device in drama.
Dialogue is also i mportant in creating character. In order to make a character
convincing, a playwright must find the character's 'voice' - i.e. his unique style
of speech. The audience should be able to draw conclusions about a character's
personal i ty and background (soci al , economi c and cul tural ) by l i steni ng
attentively to how he speaks and what he says.
GLOSSARY
CASE STUDY 14
Written and directed by Bill Forsyth, Gregory's Girl first appeared in 1981 as a film. The quality of the dialogue and
the excellent characterisation encouraged directors to adapt the screenplay for the stage. In this extract Gregory, who
has fallen in love for the first time, talks about his feelings to his classmate Steve during a cookery lesson at school.
q Gregory's Girl
by Bill Forsyth
Scene 6. The Cookery Class
[CAROL, LIZ, SUSAN, ANN and others set up the Home Economics room. They are
making pastry
1
.]
CAROL: Did you hear about the trial?
Liz: Trial?
CAROL: Football trial
2
. Dorothy joined it. 5
Liz: And about time too
3
.
SUSAN: Why is it boys are such a physical disaster?
CAROL: Apparently Phil wouldn't let her play.
SUSAN: Too much to lose I expect.
CAROL: Well, she stuck it out
4
and showed him up something rotten
5
.
ANN: Oh God, not pastry. I hate pastry and it hates me. Give me a goulash
6
any day. It doesn't fight back.
CAROL: She scored three times with him in goal.
SUSAN: Poor Phil.
Liz: Have you seen his moustache?
CAROL: Anyway he's got to pick her now
7
.
Liz: Men's hair fascinates me. It's so temporary.
ANN: Equal parts of Trex
8
and lard. I sn't that it?
[The boys are coming in for a lesson. It is a mixed lesson. STEVE is in first. He is
a professional. Already he has his bench
9
organised.]
STEVE: Anyone seen Gregory? He's meant to be working with me ... oh dear
Lizzie, not the hands. Lay off the hands till the last possible minute.
1. pastry: mixture of
flour, fat and water
2. Football trial: test to
join the team
3. about time too: she
could have done it
earlier
4. she stuck it out: she
persisted
5. showed ... rotten:
completely
embarassed him
6. goulash: Hungarian
dish of meat cooked
in asaucewith hot
spices
7. he's got to pick her
now: he has to
choose her
Trex: typeof cooking
fat
9. bench: wooden work
station
8
10
15
20
ft r f.
What is Drama? 25 C B
[GREGORY is late and makes his way through the girls. He is trying to be both
charming and surreptitious
10
.]
GREGORY: Sorry I 'm late. 25
STEVE: Where've you been?
GREGORY: Football.
STEVE: Playing?
GREGORY: No ... watching. From afar
11
.
STEVE: Hands! 30
[GREGORY shows him his hands. It is a routine inspection.]
GREGORY: That's just paint there.
STEVE: I've got the biscuit mix started, you get on with the sponge and put
the oven on, four hundred and fifty degrees.
GREGORY: Yes, boss. 35
[SUSAN approaches STEVE. She is wearing a worried look and agrotty apron.]
SUSAN: Steve, can you help me out with this pastry mi x thing?
GREGORY: Hello, Susan.
[GREGORY is ignored]
STEVE: Pastry? What pastry? There's more than one kind you know. Is it 40
rough puff, short crust... flaky ... suet
12
...? [SUSAN'S face is a blank
13
] J ust
tell me, what are you making?
SUSAN: A meat pie. Margaret's doing the Strudel Soup, and I 'm doing the
pie. It's the eggs for the pastry that I 'm not sure of ...
STEVE: Strudel Soup, eh? I'd like to try some of that. It's NOODLE
14
soup, and 45
what eggs? You don't put eggs in a pastry. It's 8 ounces flour, 4 ounces
margarine ...
GREGORY: ... a pinch of sal t...
STEVE: ... some salt, mix it up, i nto the oven, fifteen mi nutes... and that's it
okay? No eggs, no strudels, nothi ng. 50
SUSAN: IS that all? That's simple, really easy.
[Shewanders of f
s
. ]
STEVE: TO thi nk there are five guys in fifth year crying themselves to sleep
over that
16
.
GREGORY: Six, if you count the music teacher. , 55
STEVE: Watch your mixing, it goes stiff if you overdo it
17
, thirty seconds is
enough. Give me the sugar.
GREGORY: It's time you were in love. Take your mind off all this for a while ...
STEVE: Plenty of time for love. I 'm going to be a sex mani ac first. Start this
summer. Get rid of my apron and let my hair down, put love potions in 60
my biscuits. Anyway I want to be rich first, so that I can love something
really ... expensive.
GREGORY: You're daft
18
. You should try it. Love's great.
STEVE: Who told you?
GREGORY: I 'm in love. [He means it. He is abstractedly stirring the sponge mix 65
with his finger.] I can't eat, I 'm awake half the night, when I think about
it I feel dizzy
19
. I 'm restless... it's wonderful.
STEVE: That sounds more like indigestion.
GREGORY: I 'm serious.
STEVE: Or maybe you're pregnant, science is making such progress... [STEVE 70
extracts GREGORY'S finger from the mixing bowl and starts to wipe it clean.]
Come on, who is it? Is it a mature woman? Did you do anything dirty?
Did you wash your hands?
A still from the
original film of
Gregory's Girl: the
cookery class.
10. surreptitious: done
secretly, without
anyone seeing or
knowing
11. afar: a distance
12.rough puff ... short
crust... flaky ... suet:
types of pastry
13. blank: expressionless
14. NOODLE: thin
spaghetti-like kind of
pasta
15. wanders off: leaves
without going in a
clear direction
16. over that: because of
her
17. stiff if you overdo it:
hard if you mix it too
long
18. daft: stupid
19.dizzy: light-headed
I W
if;
i f K
Introduction to Literary Appreciation
20. crude: vulgar
21.clue: something that
helps in the solution
of a mystery
22. juggles: balances it in
the air
23. flourish: dramatic
gesture

GREGORY: Don't be crude
20
.
STEVE: Come on! Who is it?
\
GREGORY: You'll just laugh and tell people.
STEVE: Give us a clue
21
.
GREGORY: [reluctantly] It's somebody in the football team.
STEVE: [silent for a moment] Hey, that's real l y somethi ng. Have you
menti oned this to anyone else? Listen, it's probably just a phase ... is it
Andy, no, no ... is it Pete?
GREGORY: Come on! I mean Dorothy, she came i nto the team last week.
She's in 4A ... she's a wonderful player, she's a girl. She goes around with
Carol and Susan, she's got long lovely hair, she always looks really clean
and fresh and she smells mmm ... lovely. Even if you just pass her in the
corridor she smells, mmm ... gorgeous ... She's got teeth, lovely teeth,
lovely white, white teeth.
STEVE: Oh, that Dorothy, the hair ... the smel l ... the teeth ... that Dorothy.
GREGORY: That's her, that's Dorothy.
STEVE: The one that took your place in the team.
GREGORY: SO what. She's a good footbal l er. She mi ght be a bit l i ght but
she's got skill, she's some gi rl ...
STEVE: Can she cook? Can she do this?
[STEVE throws the rolled-out pastry into the air and juggles
22
it with a pizza-
maker's flourish
23
.]
GREGORY: [being very serious] When you're in love, thi ngs like that just
don't matter.
STEVE: Gi mme the margarine.
GREGORY: DO you think she'll love me back?
STEVE: NO chance ... watch the mix! I told you, nice and slowly ... take it
easy...
[STEVE takes GREGORY'S hands in his and guides him through the movements of a
nice and easy stir.]
GREGORY: What d'you mean no chance?
STEVE: NO chance.
80
85
90
95
100
105
COMPREHENSI ON
1 Where does the scene take place? What are the
students doing?
2 Who has been picked to play on the football team?
3 Why does Steve inspect Gregory's hands?
4 Who has Gregory fallen in love with?
5 Does Steve think that Gregory has any chance of
having his love returned?
ANALYSIS - DIALOGUE
1 Identify the lines in the dialogue which provide
information about past events that is essential for the
understanding of the story.
2 Gregory and Steve emerge as two very different
characters in this scene. Find evidence in the dialogue
that suggests that:
a. Steve is well-organised, bossy, arrogant, sarcastic,
humorous, self-confident.
b. Gregory is shy, romantic, humorous, submissive,
immature, insecure.
What is Drama?
29
' dm
Soliloquy
Sol i l oquy is a theatri cal conventi on i n whi ch a character speaks al oud to
hi msel f. The character may not necessari l y be al one on the stage; other
characters may be present, but if they are, it is assumed they do not hear the
words of the soliloquy. The playwright uses soliloquy to convey directly to the
audi ence the character's moti ves, i ntenti ons and hi s i nnermost feelings and
thoughts, or simply to fill in parts of the story.
A monol ogue is similar to a soliloquy. It serves the same purposes. However, it is
usually shorter and takes place in the presence of other characters on stage who
hear what is being said.
A related stage device is the aside, in which a character expresses his thoughts in
a few words or a short passage that the other characters on the stage cannot hear.
Soliloquy
Monologue
Aside
CASE STUDY 15
This soliloquy is taken from Romeo and J uliet by William Shakespeare (1564-1616). Romeo has just met and fallen in
love with Juliet. He is now in thegarden of Juliet's home. Juliet is on the balcony but she is unaware of Romeo's presence.
Romeo and J uliet
But soft! What light through yonder
1
window breaks?
It is the east, and J uliet is the sun.
Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon,
Who is already sick and pale with grief
That thou her maid
2
art
3
far more fair than she.
Be not her maid, since she is envious,
Her vestal livery is but sick and green
4
,
And none but fools do wear it
5
, cast it off
6
.
It is my lady, O it is my love!
O that she knew she were
7
!
GLOSSARY
1. yonder: that
2. her maid: the servants of
Diana, the virgin goddess of
the moon, wereunmarried 5
maidens. Juliet is Diana's
maid in the sensethat sheis
unmarried
3. thou ... art: you are
4. Her vestal livery ... green: 6.
the dress (livery) worn by 7.
Diana's servants (vestals) is
sickly green in colour like
Q
(a) moonlight and (b)
girls suffering fromlack
of blood. Envious people
were said to be'green with
envy'
And none ... wear it: Jesters
usually wore green. Romeo
means that anyone who
decides never to marry isa
fool
cast it off: throw it away
that she knew she were: I
wish she knew sheis my
love
Ian McKellen
as Romeo in
the 7976 Royal
Shakespeare
Company
production
of Romeo and
Juliet. 'It is
my lady, O it is
my love!'
1
H
unss
m
M
J "
I 'gspp
i l i ^M
H
'FwSbs
:Wm
mm
8. unconcealed
disappointment:
open frustration
9. grievance: reason for
complaint
10. jotted down: took
notes on
11.Lisson Grove lingo:
language/slang used
by people living in
the Lisson Grove area
12. saucy: impertinent,
disrespectful
HIGGINS: [Brusquely, recognising her with unconcealed disappointment
8
, and at 10
once babylike, making an intolerable grievance
9
of it] Why, thi s is the girl 1
jotted down
10
last ni ght. She's no use: Ive got all the records I want of
the Lisson Grove lingo
11
; and I 'm not going to waste another cylinder
on it. [To thegirl] Be off with you: I dont want you.
LIZA: Dont you be so saucy
12
. You aint heard what I come for yet. [To MRS 15
PEARCE, who is waiting at the door for further instuctions] Did you tell hi m I
come in a taxi?
MRS PEARCE: Nonsense, girl! what do you thi nk a gentl eman l i ke Mr
Higgins cares what you came in?
LIZA: Oh, we are proud! He aint above giving lessons, not him: I heard him 20
say so. Well, I ai nt come here to ask for any compl i ment; and if my
money's not good enough I can go elsewhere. (...)
HI GGI NS: [Stupent] Well!!! [Recovering his breath with a gasp] What do you
expect me to say to you?
LIZA: Well, if you was a gentleman, you might ask me to sit down, I think. 25
Dont I tell you I 'm bringing you business?
HIGGINS: Pickering: shall we ask this baggage to sit down, or shall we throw
her out of the window?
A scene from the film
My Fair Lady (1964).
What is Drama? 31
LIZA: [Running away in terror to thepiano, where she turns at bay
13
] Ah-ah-oh-
ow-ow-ow-oo! [Wounded
14
and whimpering
1S
] I wont be called a baggage
when Ive offered to pay like any lady.
[Motionless, the two men stare at her from the other side of the room, amazed
16
.]
PICKERING: [Gently] But what is you want?
LIZA: I want to be a lady in a flower shop stead of sellin at the corner of
Tottenham Court Road. But they wont take me unless I can talk more
genteel. He said he could teach me. Well, here I am ready to pay hi m -
not asking any favor - and he treats me zif I was dirt
17
.
MRS PEARCE: HOW can you be such a foolish i gnorant girl as to thi nk you
could afford to pay Mr Higgins?
LIZA: Why shouldnt I ? I know what lessons cost as well as you do; and I 'm
ready to pay.
HIGGINS: HOW much?
LIZA: [Coming back to him, triumphant] Now youre talking! I thought youd
come off i t
18
when you saw a chance of getting back a bit of what you
chucked at me
19
last night. [Confidentially] Youd had a drop in
20
, hadnt
you?
HIGGINS: [Peremptorily] Sit down.
LIZA: Oh, if youre going to make a compl i ment of it -
HIGGINS: [Thundering
21
at her] Sit down.
MRS PEARCE: [Severely] Sit down, girl. Do as youre told.
LIZA: Ah-ah-ah-ow-ow-oo! [Shestands, half rebellious, half-bewildered
22
.]
PICKERING: [Very courteous] Wont you sit down? [Heplaces the stray chair near
the hearthrug
23
between himself and HI GGI NS.]
LI ZA: [Coyly] Dont mi nd if I do. [She sits down. PI CKERI NG returns to the
hearthrug.]
HIGGINS: Whats your name?
LIZA: Liza Doolittle.
30
35
40
45
50
55
13. at bay: away
14. Wounded: offended
15. whimpering: crying
16. amazed: very
surprised
17. zif I was dirt: as if
I were worthless
18. come off it: stop
pretending
19. chucked at me:
threw at me in a
careless way
20. had a drop in: had
been drinking alcohol
21. thundering: shouting
22. bewildered: shocked
23. stray chair near the
hearthrug: spare
chair near the rug in
front of the fireplace
*
COMPREHENSI ON |
1 How is the flower girl dressed? Why has she chosen
these clothes for the occasion?
2 Why does Higgins say the girl is 'no use'? (Line 12)
3 Why does the flower girl want Higgins to know
that she came in a taxi?
4 What does Higgins threaten to do to the girl?
5 Why does the girl want to learn to speak 'more
genteel'?
6 Why does the girl think that Higgins had been
drunk the previous night? (Line 45)
ANALYSI S-TONE
The speaker's attitude towards what he is saying or who he is speaking to will determine the tone he adopts.
Work in groups of four. Read the stage directions and dialogue closely and identify the attitude of:
- Higgins/ Pickering/ Mrs Pearce towards Liza
- Liza towards Higgins/ Pickering/ Mrs Pearce
Prepare a group reading of the scene. Decide who will read each part. Use tone to convey the attitudes you have
identified for each character.
Irony
: s
I rony can be defined as saying something while you really mean something else.
It is very common i n everyday speech (for exampl e, when we say 'that was a
clever thing to do' meaning 'that was very foolish'), and it is also widely used in
literature. The word 'i rony' comes from the Greek word 'ei ron', whi ch means
'dissembler'. In fact the ironic speaker dissembles, i.e. hides his real intention.
The three types of irony that occur most frequently in drama are:
verbal i rony, in whi ch there is a contrast between what a character literally
says and what he means;
si tuati onal i rony, which occurs when an event or situation turns out to be the
reverse of what is expected or appropriate;
dramati c i rony, whi ch occurs when the audience knows somethi ng that one
or more of the characters on stage do not know. Dramatic irony is often used to
add humour or suspense to a scene.
CASE STUDY 17
This scene is taken from the play The I mportance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde (1854-1900). Jack Worthing
leads a double life. In the countryside, where he is known as lack, he is the respectable guardian of a young girl, Cecily.
In order to escape to the pleasures of the city when he pleases, Jack tells the young girl that he has a brother, Ernest,
who leads a wicked life in London and needs to be kept under constant surveillance. Under the name of Ernest, Jack
enjoys life in London and falls in love with a young woman named Gwendolen Fairfax. Gwendolen has always
dreamed of marrying a man named Ernest because the name conjures up a person who is serious and sincere, i.e.
'earnest'. In the following scene Jack is in a flat in London with Gwendolen and her mother, Lady Bracknell.
Q The I mportance of Being Earnest
by Oscar Wilde
J ACK: Charming day it has been, Miss Fairfax.
GWEN DOL EN : Pray don't tal k to me about the weather, Mr Worthi ng.
Whenever peopl e tal k to me about the weather, I always feel qui te
certain that they mean something else. And that makes me so nervous.
J ACK: I do mean something else. 5
GWENDOLEN: I thought so. In fact, I am never wrong. ,
J ACK: And I would like to be allowed to take advantage of Lady Bracknell's
temporary absence ...
GWENDOLEN: I would certainly advise you to do so. Mamma has a way of
comi ng back suddenly i nto a room that I have often had to speak to her 10
about.
J A CK: [Nervously] Miss Fairfax, ever si nce I met you I have admi red you
more than any gi rl ... I have ever met since ... I met you.
GWENDOLEN: Yes, I am quite well aware of the fact. And I often wish that in
publ i c, at any rate
1
, you had been more demonstrati ve. For me you i s
have always had an irresistible fascination. Even before I met you I was
far from indifferent to you. [J ACK looks at her in amazement.] We live, as I
hope you know, Mr Worthing, in an age of ideals. The fact is constantly
GLOSSARY
1. at any rate: at least
What is Drama?
3 3
' dm
menti oned in the more expensi ve monthl y magazines, and has now
reached the provincial pulpits
2
,1 am told; and my ideal has always been
to love some one of the name of Ernest. There is somethi ng in that
name that inspires absol ute confi dence. The moment Al gernon first
menti oned to me that he had a fri end cal l ed Ernest, I knew I was
destined to love you.
JACK: YOU really love me, Gwendolen?
GWENDOLEN: Passionately!
JACK: Darling! You don't know how happy you've made me.
GWENDOLEN: My own Ernest!
J ACK: But you don't really mean to say that you coul dn't love me if my
name wasn't Ernest?
GWENDOLEN: But your name is Ernest.
JACK: Yes, I know it is. But supposing it was something else? Do you mean
to say you couldn't love me then?
GWENDOLEN: [Glibly
3
] Ah! That is clearly a metaphysical speculation, and
like most metaphysi cal specul ati ons has very little reference at all to
actual facts of real life, as we know them.
JACK: Personally, darling, to speak quite candidly, I don't much care about
the name of Ernest... I don't think the name suits me at all.
GWENDOLEN: It suits you perfectly. It is a divine name. It has a music of its
own. It produces vibrations.
JACK: Well, really, Gwendolen, I must say that there are lots of other much
nicer names. I think J ack, for instance, a charming name.
GWENDOLEN: J ack? ... No, there is very little music in the name J ack, if any
at all, indeed. It does not thrill
4
. It produces absolutely no vi brati ons...
I have known several Jacks, and they all, without exception, were more
than usually plain
5
. Besides, J ack is a notorious domesticity
6
for J ohn!
And I pity any woman who is married to a man called J ohn. She would
probably never be allowed to know the entrancing
7
pleasure of a single
moment's solitude. The only really safe name is Ernest.
J ACK: Gwendol en, I must get chri stened
8
at once - I mean we must get
married at once. There is no time to be lost.
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
mm
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
8.
provincial pulpits:
unsophisticated
country towns
Glibly: lightly,
thoughtlessly
thrill: produce
excitement
plain: ordinary
notorious
domesticity: well-
known nickname
entrancing:
delightful
christened: baptised
COMPREHENSI ON
1 Why does Gwendolen ask jack not to talk about
the weather?
2 Is Gwendolen surprised by Jack's declaration of love?
3 What has always been Gwendolen's ideal?
4 Jack asks Gwendolen if she could love him even if
his name were not Ernest. How does Gwendolen
dismiss the question?
5 What does Gwendolen think of the name Jack?
ANALYSIS - I RONY
This scene is an example of dramatic irony. What does the audience know that Gwendolen does not know? How
does this contribute to the humour of the extract? Gwendolen probably considers Ernest's declaration that he
must get christened soon as a slip of the tongue. Does the audience interpret it in the same way?
Setting as a way
of revealing character
Setting as a means
of reinforcing theme
The manner in which a character perceives
the setting may tell the reader more about
the character and his or her state of mi nd
than about the setti ng i tsel f. When, for
example, an urban landscape is described by
a character as 'desolate' and 'ominous', the
writer may be telling us more about how the
character is feeling rather than accurately
describing the setting. The writer is using
the outer world setting to give us an insight
into the character's inner world.
The setting may also reinforce and clarify the theme of a novel or short story. The
physical setting in which the action takes place may symbolically represent the
central ideas of the work. A solitary house in bleak, hosti l e surroundings may
reinforce the theme of man's struggle against nature. Many modern novels take
pl ace i n what are termed 'al i en setti ngs', where even the fami l i ar seems
unfami l i ar. The characters are often exi l es, touri sts or expatri ates, and the
inhospitable setting reinforces the theme of loss of roots and loss of home which
is common to much modern fiction.
Setting in time
Social setting
The historical period, time of year and time of day are all important features of the
setting. The fact, for example, that most of a story's acti on takes place at ni ght
may create an atmosphere of mystery, violence or conspiracy. Authors often use
the traditional associations with the seasons and the cycle of the day to create
appropriate time settings for their work, for example spring-morning-youth.
Whi l e the setting refers to the ti me and place in whi ch the acti on occurs, the
term soci al setti ng is used to indicate the social envi ronment in whi ch a story
takes place. The social setting of a novel or story may be explicitly indicated by
the author or it may be conveyed through the use of soci al or class markers, i.e.
the way the characters talk, where and how they live, the clothes they wear, how
they eat, and so on. Like the physical and temporal setting, the social setting may
be relatively unimportant or it may play a determining role in a novel or story. In
many novels characters are presented as products of their social class, and many
authors have expl ored the themes of conformi ty to or rebel l i on agai nst the
values and mores of specific social settings.
QUESTIONS TO ASK WHEN ANALYSING SETTING
What is the setting of the work in time and space?
Is the setting briefly sketched or is it described in detail?
Are the descriptions of setting based on visual images?
Is the language used in the descriptions connotative or poetic?
Through whose eyes is the setting seen? Does the setting reveal the characters' state of mind?
Does the setting:
a. contribute towards creating mood and atmosphere?
b. influence the characters' behaviour?
c. reinforce the main themes of the work?
At what time of day / year does most of the action take place? Is this relevant?
What is Fiction? 37 QH
CASE STUDY 19
Saki, thepen-name of Hector Hugh Munro, was born in Burma in 1870. He is widely acclaimed for his short stories,
many of which featured children as the protagonists. Read the story paying particular attention to the description of
the lumber room where some of the action takes place.
The Lumber Room
1
by Saki
The chi l dren were to be dri ven, as a speci al treat
2
, to the sands at
J agborough. Nicholas was not to be of the party; he was in disgrace. Only
that morning he had refused to eat his wholesome bread-and-milk on the
seemingly frivolous ground that there was a frog in it. Older and wiser and
better people had told hi m that there could not possibly be a frog in his 5
bread-and-mi l k and that he was not to talk nonsense; he conti nued,
nevertheless, to talk what seemed the veriest
3
nonsense, and described
with much detail the colouration and markings of the alleged
4
frog. The
dramatic part of the incident was that there really was a frog in Nicholas's
basin of bread-and-milk; he had put it there himself, so he felt entitled
5
to 10
know somethi ng about it. Thg^sin
6
of taking a frog from the garden and
putting it i nto a bowl of whol esomei jread-and-mi l k was enlarged on at
great length
7
, but the fact thaTsTooa out clearest in the whole affair, as it
presented itself to the mi nd of Ni chol as, was that the older, wiser, and
better people had been proved to be profoundly in error in matters about 15
which they had expressed the utmost assurance
8
.
'You said there couldn't possibly be a frog in my bread-and-milk; there was
a frog in my bread-and-milk,' he repeated, with the insistence of a skilled
tactician who does not intend to shift
9
from favourable ground.
So his boy-cousi n and gi rl -cousi n and his qui te uni nteresti ng younger 20
brother were to be takeruto J agborough sands that afternoon and he was
to stay home.(His cousins' aiint, who insisted, by an unwarranted, stretch
of
10
i magi nati ori rnrstyl i ng
11
herself his aunt also, had hastily
12
invented
the J agborough expedi ti on in order to impress on Nicholas the delights
that he had justly forfeited
13
by his disgracefirf conduct St'me breakfast- 25
table. It was her habit, whenever one of the ctiitdreh fell from grace, to
improvise somethi ng of a festival nature from whi ch the offender would
be rigorously debarred; if all the chi l dren si nned col l ecti vel y they were
informed of a circus in a neighbouring town, a circus of unrivalled
14
merit
and uncounted el ephants, to whi ch, but for thei r depravity, they would 30
have been taken that very day.
A few decent tears were l ooked for on the part of Ni chol as
15
when the
moment for the departure of the expedition arrived. As a matter of fact,
however, all the crying was done by his girl-cousin, who scraped her knee
rather painfully against the step of the carriage as she was scrambling i n
16
. 35
How she did howl
17
!' said Ni chol as cheerful l y, as the party drove off
without any of the elation of high spirits
18
that should have characterised it.
She'll soon get over that,' said the soi-disant
19
aunt. 'I t will be a glorious
afternoon for racing about over those beautiful sands. How they will enjoy
themselves!' 40
GLOSSARY
1. lumber room: storage
room
treat: exciting event
veriest: absolute
alleged: supposedly
real
entitled: having a
right
sin: deplorable action
enlarged on at great
length: talked about
for along time
people ... assurance:
they had been
mistaken about
questions which they
were absolutely
certain of
shift: move
10. by an unwarranted
stretch of: extending
the limits of
11.styling: designating
12. hastily: quickly
13. forfeited: lost
14. unrivalled:
unequalled
15. A few decent tears ...
Nicholas: hewas
expected to cry abit
16. scrambling in: trying
to get in quickly
17. howl: cry
18. elation of high
spirits: excitement
19.soi -di sant: self-
nominated
7.
8.
9.
20. grim chuckle:
sinister laugh
21. gooseberry: typeof
fruit that grows on a
bush
22. loftily: in asuperior
tone
23. Nicholas ...
reasoning: Nicholas
did not accept that
the reasoning was
perfect
24. slip in: get in unseen
25. artichokes: typeof
vegetable
26. raspberry: seenote 21
27. canes: sticks
supporting the plants
28. shrubberies: groups
of plants
29. whence: from where
30. sorties: visits to
31. wriggling his way:
twisting his way
32. with obvious stealth
of purpose: furtively
33.in ... sentry-duty:
acting as aguard
34. thoroughly: totally
35. slipped back: went
back unnoticed
36. suchlike: similar
37.trusting... to:
placing his
confidence in
38. stiffly: with difficult}
39. stale delight: old and
no longer fresh source
of fun
40. sealed from youthful
eyes: barred from the
view of the children
41. It came up to his
expectations: It was
as exciting as he had
expected.
42. dimly lit: with very
little light
43. aunt-by-assertion:
so-called aunt
44. spoil: get ruined
45.damp: humidity
46. by way of: in order
to
50
'Bobby won't enjoy hi msel f much, and he won't race much ei ther,' said
Nicholas with a grim chuckle
20
. 'His boots are hurting him. They're too tight.'
'Why di dn't he tel l me they were hurti ng?' asked the aunt wi th some
asperity.
'He told you twice, but you weren't listening. You often don't listen when 45
we tell you important things.'
'You are not to go i nto the gooseberry
21
garden,' said the aunt, changi ng
the subject.
'Why not?' demanded Nicholas.
'Because you are in disgrace,' said the aunt loftily
22
.
Nicholas did not admit the flawlessness of the reasoning
23
; he felt perfectly
capabl e of bei ng in disgrace and in the gooseberry garden at the same
moment. His face took on an expression of considerable obstinacy. It was
clear to his aunt that he was determined to get into the gooseberry garden.
'Only,' as she remarked to herself, 'because 1 have told him he is not to.' 55
Now the gooseberry garden had two doors by which it mi ght be entered,
and once a smal l person like Ni chol as coul d slip i n
24
there he coul d
effectually disappear from view amid the masking growth of artichokes
25
,
raspberry
26
canes
27
, and fruit bushes. The aunt had many other things to
do that afternoon, but she spent an hour or two in tri vi al gardeni ng 60
operations among flower beds and shrubberies
28
, whence
29
she could keep
a watchful eye on the two doors that led to the forbidden paradise. She was
a woman of few ideas, with immense powers of concentration.
Nicholas made one or two sorti es
30
i nto the front garden, wriggling his
way
31
with obvious stealth of purpose
32
towards one or other of the doors, 65
but never able for a moment to evade the aunt's watchful eye. As a matter
of fact, he had no i ntenti on of trying to get i nto the gooseberry garden,
but it was extremely conveni ent for him that his aunt should believe that
he had; it was a belief that would keep her in self-imposed sentry-duty
33
for the greater part of the afternoon. Having thoroughly
34
confirmed and 70
forti fi ed her suspi ci ons, Ni chol as sl i pped back
35
i nto the house and
rapidly put i nto executi on a plan of action that had long germinated in
his brain. By standing on a chair in the library, one could reach a shelf on
which reposed a fat, important-looking key. The key was as important as it
looked; it was the i nstrument whi ch kept the mysteries of the lumber- 75
room secure from unauthori sed intrusion, whi ch opened a way onl y for
aunts and suchl i ke
36
pri vi l eged persons. Ni chol as had not had much
experience of the art of fitting keys i nto keyholes and turning locks, but
for some days past he had practised with the key of the schoolroom door;
he did not believe in trusting too much to
37
luck and acci dent. The key 80
turned stiffly
38
in the lock, but it turned. The door opened, and Nicholas
was in an unknown land, compared with whi ch the gooseberry garden
was a stale delight
39
, a mere material pleasure.
Often and often Nicholas had pictured to himself what the lumber-room
might be like, that region that was so carefully sealed from youthful eyes
40
85
and concerning which no questions were ever answered. It came up to his
expectati ons
41
. I n the first pl ace it was large and di ml y l i t
42
, one hi gh
wi ndow openi ng on to the forbi dden garden bei ng its onl y source of
i l l umi nati on. I n the second pl ace it was a storehouse of uni magi ned
treasures. The aunt-by-assertion
43
was one of those people who think that 90
thi ngs spoil
44
by use and consi gn them to dust and damp
45
by way of
46
preservi ng them. Such parts of the house as Ni chol as knew best were
rather bare and cheerless
47
, but there were wonderful things for the eye to
feast on
48
. First and foremost
49
there was a piece of framed tapestry
50
that
was evi dentl y meant to be a fi rescreen. To Ni chol as it was a l i vi ng,
breathing story; he sat down on a roll of I ndian hangings
51
, glowing
52
in
wonderful colours beneath a layer
53
of dust, and took in all details of the
tapestry picture. A man, dressed in the hunti ng costume of some remote
period, had just transfixed a stag
54
with an arrow; it could not have been a
difficult shot because the stag was only one or two paces
55
away from him;
in the thickly-growing vegetation that the picture suggested, it would not
have been difficult to creep
56
up to a feeding stag, and the spotted dogs
that were spri ngi ng
57
forward to joi n in the chase had evi dentl y been
trained to keep to heel
58
till the arrow was discharged. That part of the
pi cture was si mpl e, if i nteresti ng, but did the huntsman see, what
Nicholas saw, that four gal l opi ng wolves were comi ng in hi s di recti on
through the wood? There mi ght be more than four of them hi dden
behind the trees, and in any case would the man and his dogs be able to
cope wi th
59
the four wolves if they made an attack? The man had onl y
two arrows left in his qui ver
60
, and he mi ght miss with one or both of
them; all one knew about his skill in shooting was that he could hit a large
stag at a ridiculously short range
61
.
Nicholas sat for many golden mi nutes revolving the possibilities of the
scene; he was inclined to think that there were more than four wolves and
that the man and his dogs were in a tight corner
62
.
But there were other objects of delight and interest claiming
63
his instant
attenti on: there were quai nt^
4
twi sted
65
candl esti cks i n the shape of
snakes, and a teapot fashioned like a chi na duck, out of whose open beak
the tea was supposed to come. How dull
66
and shapeless the nursery pot
seemed in comparison! And there was a carved sandal-wood box
67
packed
tight with aromatic cotton-wool , and between the layers of cotton-wool
werelittle brass figures, hump-necked
68
bulls and peacocks
69
and goblins
70
delightful to see and to handle. Less promising in appearance was a large
95
100
105
110
115
120
john Singer Sargent,
j Carnation, Lily, Lily,
Hose (1885). The
| delights of the
garden were nothing
when compared to
the delights of the
lumber room.
47. bare and cheerless:
empty and sad
48. to feast on: to enjoy
49. foremost: most
important
50. framed tapestry:
piece of cloth on
which coloured
threads form pictures,
bordered with wood
as a support
5,1. hangings: painted or
embroidered cloths
52. glowing: shining
53. layer: covering
54. stag: male deer
55. paces: steps
56. creep: move slowly
close to the ground
57.springing: jumping
58. keep to heel: remain
close behind
59. cope with: bea
match for
60. quiver: arrow-case
61. range: distance
62. tight corner: difficult
situation
63. claiming: calling for
64. quaint: nice in an
intriguing way
65. twisted: having a
spiral form
66. dull: uninteresting
67. carved sandal-wood
box: decorated
wooden box
68. hump-necked:
having a rounded
protuberance on their
necks
69. peacocks: large birds
with abeautiful tail
70. goblins: gnomes
E) 38 Introduction to Literary Appreciation
71. peeped into: looked
furtively and quickly
72. behold: exclamation
of surprise
73. magpie or wood
pigeon: common
birds
74.herons ... pheasants:
birds hesees in the
book
75.shrill: high sounding
76. without: outside
77.leapt: lumped
78. sheltering: protective
79. screamed: shouted
desperately
80. Presently: after a
time
81. shriek: scream
82. sauntered: walked
slowly
83. slipped: lost my
balanceand fallen
84.tank: large container
85. slippery: difficult to
hold
86. Fetch: Get
87. yield: givein,
surrender
88. gleefully: joyfull
89. were not... over
indulged in: should
not beenjoyed for
too long
90. kitchenmaid: female
kitchen servant
91. parsley: kind of
cooking herb
92. rescued: set free
square book wi th pl ai n bl ack covers; Ni chol as peeped i nto
71
it, and,
behol d
72
, it was full of coloured pictures of birds. And such birds! In the
garden, and in the lanes when he went for a walk, Nicholas came across a
few birds, of which the largest were an occasional magpie or wood-pigeon
73
;
here were herons and bustards, ki tes, toucans, ti ger-bi tterns, brush
turkeys, ibises, golden pheasants
74
, a whole portrait gallery of undreamed-
of creatures. And as he was admiring the colouring of the mandarin duck
and assigning a life-history to it, the voice of his aunt in shrill
75
vociferation
of his name came from the gooseberry garden wi thout
76
. She had grown
suspicious at his long disappearance, and had l eapt
77
to the concl usi on
that he had cl i mbed over the wall behi nd the shel teri ng
78
screen of the
lilac bushes; she was now engaged in an energeti c and rather hopel ess
search for him among the artichokes and raspberry canes.
'Nicholas, Nicholas!' she screamed
79
, 'you are to come out of this at once.
It's no use trying to hide there; I can see you all the time.'
It was probably the first time for twenty years that any one had smiled in
that lumber-room.
Presentl y
80
the angry repeti ti ons of Ni chol as's name gave way to a
shri ek
81
, a cry for somebody to come quickly. Ni chol as shut the book,
restored it carefully to its place in a corner, and shook some dust from a
nei ghbouri ng pile of newspaper over it. Then he crept from the room,
locked the door and replaced the key exactly where he had found it. His
aunt was still calling his name when he sauntered
82
i nto the front garden.
'Who's calling?' he asked.
'Me,' came the answer from the other side of the wall. 'Di dn't you hear
me? I've been looking for you in the gooseberry garden, and I've slipped
83
i nto the rain-water tank
84
. Luckily there's no water in it, but the sides are
slippery
85
and I can't get out. Fetch
86
the little ladder from under the cherry
tree - '
'I was tol d I wasn't to go i nto the gooseberry garden,' said Ni chol as
promptly.
'I told you not to, and now I tell you that you may,' came the voice from
the rain-water tank, rather impatiently.
'Your voice doesn't sound like aunt's,' objected Nicholas. 'You may be the
Evil One tempting me to be disobedient. Aunt often tells me that the Evil
One tempts me and that I always yield
87
. This time I 'm not going to yield.'
'Don't talk nonsense,' said the pri soner in the tank. 'Go and fetch the
ladder.'
'Will there be strawberry jam for tea?' asked Nicholas innocently.
'Certainly there will be,' said the aunt, privately resolving that Nicholas
should have none of it.
'Now I know that you are the Evil One and not my aunt,' shouted
Ni chol as gl eeful l y
88
. 'When we asked my aunt for strawberry jam
yesterday she said there wasn't any. I know there are four jars of it in the
store cupboard, because I looked, and of course you know it's there, but
she doesn't because she said there wasn't any. Oh, Devil you have sold
yourself!'
There was an unusual sense of luxury in bei ng able to talk to an aunt as
though one was talking to the Evil One, but Nicholas knew, with childish
di scernment, that such luxuries were not to be over-i ndul ged i n
89
. He
walked noi si l y away, and it was a ki tchenmai d
90
, in search of parsley
91
,
who eventually rescued
92
the aunt from the rain-water tank.
1 5
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
165
170
175
What is Fiction? 41 Q H
180
Teathat eveni ng was partaken of
93
in a fearsome silence. The ti de
94
had
been at its highest when the children had arrived at J agborough Cove, so
there had been no sands to play on - a ci rcumstance that the aunt had
overl ooked
95
in the haste of organi si ng
96
her puni ti ve expedi ti on. The
tightness of Bobby's boots had had a disastrous effect on his temper"
7
the
whole of the afternoon, and altogether the children could not have been
said to have enjoyed themsel ves. The aunt mai ntai ned the frozen
muteness of one who has suffered undignified and unmerited detenti on
:n a rain-water tank for thirty-five minutes. As for Nicholas, he, too, was
silent, in the absorption of one who has much to thi nk about; it was just
possi bl e, he consi dered, that the huntsman woul d escape wi th hi s
hounds
98
, while the wolves feasted on
99
the stricken stag.
(From Beasts and Superbeasts, 1914)
185
93. partaken of: had
94. tide: periodic rise
(and fall) of the sea
dueto the attraction
of the moon and sun
95. overlooked: not
noticed
96. in the haste of
organising: because
she hurriedly
organised
97. temper: mood
98. hounds: hunting dogs
99. feasted on: ate

COMPREHENSION
1 Why was Nicholas not allowed to go to
Vagborough with the other children?
2 Did Nicholas cry as the other children set off on
their trip?
3 Where did the aunt forbid him to go?
4 Why did Nicholas try to make the aunt believe
that he wanted to go into the gooseberry garden?
iVhere did he really want to go?
5 What scene was depicted on the tapestry Nicholas
"ound in the lumber room?
6 Apart from the tapestry, what other 'objects of
delight' did Nicholas find in the lumber room?
7 What happened to the aunt in the gooseberry
garden?
8 What did the aunt ask Nicholas to do? Why did he
refuse?
9 Why were each of the characters silent during
evening tea?
ANALYSIS-SETTING
1 What facts are given about the lumber room in the
text? (Dimensions, lighting, objects stored)
2 What transforms :he lumber room into 'a
storehouse of unimagined treasures'?
3 Does the lumber room have a symbolic
significance in the story? What does it represent?
4 What does the fact that Nicholas entered the
lumber room against his aunt's wishes mean, in the
context of your interpretation?
5 Nicholas derives pleasure from his experience in
the lumber room long after he has left it. How do you
interpret this in the context of the story?
6 What function does setting serve in this short story?
BDD
Writers often show that setting influences the way their characters think and behave. Do you believe that this also
happens in real life? Are you influenced by where you live and the people that surround you? Does your
personality alter when you change setting? For example, do you feel more relaxed in the countryside or at the
seaside, or do you feel more excited when you visit a large bustling city? Of the people who surround you, i.e.
your social setting, who influences you most - parents, friends, brothers/ sisters, teachers?
Does the weather influence your mood?
Character
What do other people think? What emoti ons do they experience? How are they
similar to or different from us?
Literature allows us to look i nto the lives of an endless col l ecti on of men and
women and find answers to these questions. We can learn about people's hopes
and fears, we can see them struggle through adverse ci rcumstances, we can
rejoice with them in moments of success and sympathise with them in moments
of despair. In real life we have the opportunity of knowing intimately a relatively
small number of people - family members, loved ones, close friends. Literature
allows us to multiply that number by giving us access to the private thoughts and
lives of an endless assortment of fascinating and memorable people.
Defining characters
When we analyse characters in fiction we need to ask some key questions about:
thei r rel ati onshi p to the pl ot: do they play a major part in the events of the
story or do they have a mi nor role?
the degree to whi ch they are devel oped: are they compl ex characters or are
they one-dimensional?
thei r growth i n the course of story: do they remain the same throughout the
story or do significant changes in their personalities take place?
I n order to discuss these issues we need to know the following terms.
The central character of the plot is called the protagoni st. Wi thout this character
there would be no story. The character against whom the protagonist struggles is
called the antagoni st. In many novels, however, the antagonist is not a human
being. It may, for example, be the natural envi ronment in which the protagonist
lives, or society, or illness, or even death.
The terms protagoni st and antagoni st do not have moral connotati ons and
therefore should not be confused with 'hero' and 'villain'. Many protagonists are
a mixture of good and evil elements.
Other characters i n a story may be referred to as maj or or mi nor characters,
depending on the importance of their roles in developing the plot.
Protagonist and
antagonist
Jiif"
43
Round characters, like real people, have complex, multi-dimensional personalities.
They show emoti onal and i ntel l ectual depth and are capabl e of growing and
changing. Major characters in fiction are usually round.
Flat characters embody or represent a single characteristic. They are the miser,
the bully, the jealous lover, the endless optimist. They may also be referred to as
types or as cari catures when distorted for humorous purposes. Flat characters are
usually mi nor characters. However, the term 'flat' should not be confused with
'insignificant' or 'badly drawn'. A flat character may in fact be the protagonist of
the story, in particular when the writer wishes to focus on the characteristic he or
she represents. Some hi ghl y memorabl e characters, particularly in satirical or
humorous novel s, can be defi ned as fl at, for exampl e the mi ser Scrooge in
Charles Dickens's A Christmas Carol.
Dynami c characters change as a result of the experiences they have. The most
obvious examples can be found in initiation novels which tell stories of young
peopl e who grow i nto adul ts, for exampl e Mark Twai n's Huckleberry Finn.
However, dynamic characters can be found in many other types of stories. Major
characters in novels are usually dynamic.
Static characters remain untouched by the events of the story. They do not learn
from thei r experi ences and consequentl y they remai n unchanged. Stati c
characters are usually mi nor characters, but someti mes a writer makes a static
character the protagonist of his story, because he wishes to analyse a particular
type of personality. Static characters also play major roles in stories that show how
forces in life, such as the social environment or the family, sometimes make it hard
for people to grow and change. An example can be found in the short story Eveline
by J ames J oyce: the unhappy central character Eveline feels suffocated by her
family circumstances and lifestyle but cannot find the strength to break free from
her situation and start a new life with her fiance in South America.
How the author conveys character
Another i mportant aspect of character analysis is determi ni ng how the author
presents and establishes a character. There are two basic methods for conveying
character: tel l i ng and showi ng.
Tel l i ng i nvol ves di rect i nterventi on and commentary by the author. He
interrupts the narrative to comment on the character's personality, thoughts or
actions. The guiding hand of the author is clearly evident as he helps us to form
opinions about the character. An example of the telling technique can be found
in this short extract from D.H. Lawrence's novel Sons and Lovers, in whi ch the
author describes the protagonist of his novel:
Arthur Morel was growing up. He was a quick, careless, impulsive boy, a good deal like
his father. He hated study, made a great moan if he had to work, and escaped as soon
as possible to his sport again.
When an author use te techni que of showi ng, he steps aside and allows the
characters to reveal t icmselves through what they do and say. His voice is silent.
The reader is asked to infer character from the evidence provided in the dialogue
and acti on of the story. When the author chooses the showi ng method, the
revelation of character is generally gradual. The reader must be attenti ve and
receptive, and use his i ntel l i gence and memory to draw concl usi ons about the
character's identity.
Modern authors tend to favour showi ng over tel l i ng, but most writers use a
mixture of both methods.
Round and
flat characters
Dynamic and static
characters
Telling
Showing
W
W

m
Dialogue
Action
Comparison with
other characters
Setting
Names
Appearance
In real life what people say reveals a lot about who they are and what they think.
Si mi l arl y, in fi cti on, what a character says can hel p us to understand basi c
el ements of his personal i ty. The character's atti tude towards others may also
emerge from the dialogue. I mportant i nformati on about his origin, education,
occupation or social class may also be revealed by what he says and how he says it.
However, characters in stories do not always say what they really think. J ust like
people in real life, they can be deceptive and create a false image of themselves.
We can l earn a l ot about a character's emoti ons, atti tudes and val ues by
exami ni ng what he does in the course of the story. We should try to understand
the motives for the character's actions, and discover the underlying forces that
make him behave the way he does.
Is the way a character behaves si mi l ar to or di fferent from the way other
characters act? One of the chi ef functi ons of mi nor characters in fi cti on is to
provide contrast to the main character. What can you learn by compari ng the
protagonist to some of the other less important characters?
The time and place in whi ch the story unfolds may provide useful i nformati on
about the characters. If events take place during a particular historical period (the
Middle Ages, the French Revolution, the Vietnam War) the characters' ideas and
acti ons may be shaped by i mportant external events. The characters' physical
surroundi ng (where they grew up, where they choose to live) may hel p us to
understand their psychological make-up.
References to the social setting may also give us some helpful i nsi ght. Do the
characters share or reject the values associated with their social background?
Occasi onal l y the character's name may provide clues to his personality. Emily
Bronte's choi ce of Heathcl i ff as a name for the hero of her novel Wuthering
Heights conveys the character's wild, rugged, almost primitive nature. (Heath =
wild, uncultivated land; cliff =high rocky land that usually faces the sea)
In real life it is not advisable to judge a person by his appearance, but in fiction
how a character l ooks often provi des i mportant i nformati on about hi s
personal i ty. References to the cl othes a character wears may, for exampl e,
i ndi cate hi s soci al and economi c status. Detai l s of a character's physi cal
appearance may prove useful in determining his age and the general state of his
physical and emoti onal health.
UESTIONS TO ASK WHEN ANALYSING CHARACTER
Is he a major or a minor character? Is he the protagonist/antagonist of the story?
Is he a round or a flat character?
Is he dynamic or static?
Does the author reveal the character through showing or telling, or does he use both techniques?
What does the way the character speaks reveal about his character?
What information does the way the character behaves provide?
Is he similar to or different from other characters in the story? How does he relate to the other characters?
Has the setting shaped the character's personality? Does the setting reflect his mood or emotional state?
Does the character's name have any importance, relevance or associations?
ImSaEt%-.'' i mm-
What is Fiction? 45 1 H
CASE STUDY 20
Katherine Mansfield (1888-1923) was born in New Zealand and educated in Britain. She is widely acclaimed as an
original and experimental writer whose stories often include sharp character sketches.
Miss Brill
by Katherine Mansfield
Although it was so brilliantly fine - the blue sky powdered with gold and
great spots of light like white wine splashed over
1
the J ardins Publiques -
Miss Brill was gl ad that she had deci ded on her fur
2
. The air was
motionless, but when you opened your mouth there was just a faint chill
3
,
like a chill from a glass of iced water before you sip, and now and again a 5
leaf came dri fti ng
4
- from nowhere, from the sky. Miss Brill put up her
hand and touched her fur. Dear little thing! It was nice to feel it again. She
had taken it out of its box that afternoon, shaken out the moth-powder
5
,
given it a good brush, and rubbed the life back i nto the dim little eyes
6
".
"What has been happening to me?" said the sad little eyes. Oh, how sweet 10
it was to see them snap at her
7
again from the red eiderdown
8
! ... But the
nose, whi ch was of some bl ack composi ti on, wasn't at all firm. It must
have had a knock
9
, somehow. Never mi nd - a little dab
10
of black sealing-
wax
11
when the ti me came - when it was absol utel y necessary ... Little
rogue
12
! Yes, she really felt like that about it. Little rogue biting its tail just 15
by her left ear. She coul d have taken it off and laid it on her l ap
13
and
stroked
14
it. She felt a ti ngl i ng
15
i n her hands and arms, but that came
from walking, she supposed. And when she breathed, something light and
sad - no, not sad, exactl y - somethi ng gentl e seemed to move in her
bosom
16
.
There were a number of peopl e out thi s afternoon, far more than last
Sunday. And the band sounded louder and gayer. That was because the
Season had begun. For al though the band played all the year round on
Sundays, out of season it was never the same. It was like someone playing
with only the family to listen; it didn't care how it played if there weren't 25
any strangers present. Wasn't the conductor wearing a new coat, too? She
was sure it was new. He scraped with his foot
17
and flapped
18
his arms like
a rooster
19
about to crow
20
, and the bandsmen sitting in the green rotunda
blew out thei r cheeks and glared
21
at the music. Now there came a little
GLOSSARY
1. splashed over: thrown over randomly
2. fur: animal hair used as clothing
3. faint chill: slight sensation of coldness
4. drifting: floating
5. shaken out the moth-powder:
removed the powder that had
preserved thefur from being damaged
by insects
6. rubbed the life ... littleeyes: polished
the animal's lifeless glass eyes
20
7. snap at her: look at her
8. eiderdown: blanket
9. had aknock: been damaged
10. dab: light touch
11. sealing-wax: sticky substance used to
gluethings together
12. rogue: someonewho behaves badly,
but who you like anyway
13. lap: the legs of asitting person
14. stroked: caressed
15. tingling: light stinging sensation
16.bosom: breast
17. scraped with his foot: rubbed his foot
on the ground
18. flapped: moved up and down
19. rooster: male chicken
20. crow: emit aloud cry
21. glared: looked fixedly
'' '
dm
m
m
m
u
22.claspe: tightly joined
together
23. glanced, sideways:
gaveaquick look to
her side
24. Panama hat: straw
hat
25. pads: soft cushioning
26. bridge: section
connecting the two
lenses of apair of
glasses
27.To and fro:
backwards and
forwards
28. railings: barrier made
of upright metal bars
29. swooping: running
30. bows: type of tie
31. velvet: very soft
fabric
32. lace: afinetypeof
cloth
33. tiny staggerer: very
small child walking
unsteadily
34. hen: afemale chicken
35. scolding: criticising
him severely
36. odd: strange
37. stared: looked fixedly
38. slender: thin
39. down drooping:
hanging down
40. dropped: let fall
41. ermine: typeof white
fur
42. toque: small
woman's hat
43. stiff: rigid
44. shabby: old and
worn out
45. paw: hand
Only two people shared her "special" seat: a fine old man in a velvet coat,
hi s hands cl asped
22
over a huge carved wal ki ng-sti ck, and a bi g ol d
woman, sitting upright, with a roll of knitting on her embroidered apron.
They did not speak. This was disappointing, for Miss Brill always looked 35
forward to the conversati on. She had become real l y qui te expert, she
thought, at l i steni ng as though she di dn't l i sten, at si tti ng in other
people's lives just for a minute while they talked round her.
She glanced, sideways
23
, at the old coupl e. Perhaps they could go soon.
Last Sunday, too, hadn't been as interesting as usual. An Englishman and 40
his wife, he wearing a dreadful Panama hat
24
and she button boots. And
she'd gone on the whole time about how she ought to wear spectacles; she
knew she needed them; but that it was no good getting any; they'd be sure
to break and they'd never keep on. And he'd been so pati ent. He'd
suggested everything - gold rims, the kind that curved round your ears, 45
little pads
25
inside the bri dge
26
. No, nothi ng would please her. "They'l l
always be sliding down my nose!" Miss Brill had wanted to shake her.
The old people sat on the bench . Never mi nd, there was
always the crowd to watch. To arm nu , m aunt of the flower-beds and
the band rotunda, the coupl es and groups paraded, stopped to talk, to 50
greet, to buy a handful of flowers from the old beggar who had his tray
fixed to the railings
28
. Little chi l dren ran among them,jwo>pi ng
29
and
l aughhi g^l i i tl e boys with big whi te silk bows''
0
under thei r chi ns, little
girls; little French dolls, dressed up/ in velvet
31
and lace
32
. And sometimes a
ti ny staggerer
33
'came suddenl y rocki ng-tnto the open from under the 55
trees, stopped, stared, as suddenly sat down "fl op," unti l its small high-
stepping mother, like a young hen
34
, rushed scolding
35
to its rescue. Other
people sat on the benches and green chairs, but they were nearly always
the same, Sunday after Sunday, and - Miss Brill had often noticed - there
was somethi ng funny about nearly all of them. They were odd
36
, silent, 60
nearl y all old, and from the way they stared
37
they l ooked as though
they'd just come from dark little rooms or even - even cupboards!
Behi nd the rotunda the sl ender
38
trees wi th yel l ow l eaves down
drooping
39
, and through them just a line of sea, and beyond the blue sky
with gold-veined clouds. 65
Tum-tum-tum tiddle-um! tiddle-um! turn tiddley-um turn ta! blew the band.
Two young girls in red came by and two young soldiers in blue met them,
and they l aughed and pai red and went off arm-i n-arm. Two peasant
women with funny straw hats passed, gravely, leading beautiful smoke-
coloured donkeys. A cold, pale nun hurried by. A beautiful woman came 70
along and dropped
40
her bunch of violets, a little boy ran after to hand
them to her, and she took them and threw them away as if they'd been
poisoned. De^r me.
L
MjssJ Ml l didn't know whether to admire that or not!
And now an ermine
41
toque
42
and a gentleman ijti grey met just in front of
her. He was tall, stiff
43
, dignified, and she was wearing the ermine toque 75
she'd bought when her hair was yellow. Now everythi ng, her hair, her
face, even her eyes, was the same colour as the shabby
44
ermine, and her
hand, i n its cl eaned gl ove, l i fted to dab her lips, was a ti ny yel l owi sh
paw
45
. Oh, she was so pleased to see hi m - delighted! She rather thought
they were going to meet that afternoon. She described where she'd been - 80
everywhere, here, there, al ong by the sea. The day was so charmi ng -
di dn't he agree? And woul dn't he, perhaps? ... But he shook his head,
lighted a cigarette, slowly breathed a great deep puff i nto her face, and,
even while she was still talking, flicked
46
the match away and walked on.
The ermine toque was alone; she smiled more brightly than ever. But even 85
the band seemed to know what she was feeling and played more softly,
played tenderly, and the drum beat, "The Brute! The Brute!" over and over.
What would she do? What was going to happen now? But as Miss Brill
wondered, the ermine toque turned, raised her hand as though she'd seen
someone else^much nicer, just over There, and pattered away
47
. And the 90
band changed again and played more quickly, more gaily than ever, and
the old couple on Miss Brill's seat got up and marched away, and such a
funny old man with long whiskers
48
hobbled along
49
in time to the music
and was nearly knocked over by four girls walking abreast
50
.
Oh how fasci nati ng it was! How she enjoyed it! How she loved si tti ng 95
here, watchi ng it all! It was like a play. It was exactl y like a play. Who
could believe the sky at the back wasn't painted? But it wasn't till a little
brown dog trotted on sol emn and then slowly trotted off, like a l i ttl e
"theatre" dog, a l i ttl e dog that had been drugged, that Miss Bri l l
discovered what it was that made it so exciting. They were all on the stage. loo
They weren't onl y the audience, not onl y l ooki ng on; they were acting.
Even she had a part and came every Sunday. No doubt somebody would
have noti ced if she hadn't been there; she was part of the performance
after all. How strange she'd never thought of it like that before! And yet it
46. flicked: threw
47. pattered away:
walked away with
quick light steps
48. whiskers: moustache
49. hobbled along:
walked unsteadily
50. abreast: in a line
beside each other
El. Kirchner, Five
Women in the
Street (T913).
'There was
something funny
about all of them.
They were odd,
silent (...) and from
the way they stared
they looked as
though they'd just
come from dark little
rooms or even -
even cupboards!'
51. queer: strange
52. hollowed: looking
likecavities
53. high pinched: small
54. quivered: trembled
55.smoothed: rubbed to
makeits surface more
even
56. scarcely rose or fell:
did not go up and
down very much
57.moving: inspiring
emotion
58. mug: face
59. whiting: typeof fish
60. whisper: low voice
61. treat: something
done to please oneself
62. dashing: elegant
63. unclasped: opened

expl ai ned why she made such a poi nt of starting from home at just the
same ti me each week - so as not to be late for the performance - and it
al so expl ai ned why she had qui te a queer
51
, shy feel i ng at tel l i ng her
English pupils how she spent her Sunday afternoons. No wonder! Miss
Brill nearly laughed out loud. She was on the stage. She thought of the old
i nval i d gentl eman to whom she read the newspaper four afternoons a
week while he slept in the garden. She had got quite used to the frail head
on the cotton pillow, the hol l owed
52
eyes, the open mouth and the high
pi nched
53
nose. If he'd been dead she mi ghtn't have noti ced for weeks;
she woul dn't have mi nded. But suddenl y he knew he was havi ng the
paper read to hi m by an actress! "An actress!" The ol d head lifted; two
points of light quivered
54
in the old eyes. "An actress - are ye?" And Miss
Brill smoothed
55
the newspaper as though it were the manuscri pt of her
part and said gently: "Yes, I have been an actress for a long ti me."
The band had been having a rest. Now they started again. And what they
played was warm, sunny, yet there was just a fai nt chi l l - a somethi ng,
what was it?C- not sadneSs -(no, not sadnes^- a somethi ng that made you
want to sing. The tune lifted, lifted, the light shone; and it seemed to Miss
Brill that in another moment all of them, all the whol e company, would
begi n si ngi ng. The young ones, the l aughi ng ones who were movi ng
together, they would begin, and the men's voices, very resolute and brave,
woul d joi n them. And then she too, she too, and the others on the
benches - they woul d come i n wi th a ki nd of accompani ment -
somethi ng low, that scarcel y rose or fel l
56
, somethi ng so beauti ful -
movi ng
57
... And Miss Brill's eyes filled with tears and she looked smiling
at all the other members of the company. Yes, we understand, we
understand, she thought - though what they understood she didn't know.
Just at that moment a boy and a girl came and sat down where the old couple
had been. They were beautifully dressed; they vygre in love. The hero and
heroine, of course, just arrived from his father's yacht. And still soundlessly
singing, still with that trembling smile, Miss Brill prepared to listen.
"No, not now," said the girl. "Not here, I can't."
"But why? Because of that stupid old thi ng at the end there?" asked the
boy. "Why does she come here at all - who wants her? Why doesn't she
keep her silly old mug
58
at home?"
"I t's her fu-fur which is so funny," giggled the girl. "I t's exactly like a fried
whi ti ng
59
."
"Ah,T)e off wi th you!" said the boy in an angry whi sper
60
. Then: "Tell
me, ma petite cheri e - " "No, not here," said the girl. "Not yet."
On her way home she usual l y bought a sl i ce of honey- cake at the
baker's. I t was her Sunday treat
61
. Someti mes there was an al mond in
her sl i ce, someti mes not. I t made a great di fference. I f there was an
al mond i t was l i ke carryi ng home a ti ny present - a surpri se -
somethi ng that mi ght very well not have been there. She hurri ed on the
al mond Sundays and struck the match for the kettl e i n qui te a
dashi ng
62
way.
But to-day she passed the baker's by, cl i mbed the stairs, went i nto the
little dark room - her room like a cupboarth- and sat down on the red
ei derdown. She sat there for a l ong ti me. The box that the fur came out
of was on the bed. She uncl asped
63
the neckl et quickly; qui ckl y wi thout
l ooki ng, l ai d it i nsi de. But when she put the l i d on she thought she
heard somethi ng cryi ng.
COMPREHENSI ON
1 Why was Miss Brill glad she wore her fur?
2 Who was sharing Miss Brill's 'special seat'?
Why was she show disappointed with them?
3 What had the previous week's couple talked about?
4What did Miss Brill notice about the other people
that sat on the benches and green chairs?
5 Why did the drum beat of the band seem to say
The Brute! The Brute!'?
6 When a little 'theatre' dog passed by, Miss Brill drew
aconclusion about what was happening. What was it?
7 Who sat down next to Miss Brill where the old
couple had been sitting?
8 What did the boy call Miss Brill? How did the girl
describe her fur?
9 What did Miss Brill not do as she returned home
that Sunday?
10 What did she hear when she put the fur back into
the box?
ANALYSIS-CHARACTER
1 Does the author tell us about Miss Brill by
describing her and commenting on her actions, or
ooes she us her personality through her thoughts and
actions?
2 Does Miss Brill speak to anyone in the course of the
story
7
3 Find evidence in the text which shows that Miss
RrtI is a creature of habit (i.e. does the same things
o w and over again).
A Miss Brill describes other people in the park (lines
57-62). In what way does this description reflect on
VfesBrill herself?
5 Miss Brill looks forward to overhearing the
conversation of strangers. What does this suggest
about her own life?
6 Miss Brill is very pleased at the idea that she is an
actress in a performance. What makes this idea so
appealing to her?
7 The fur wrap of which Miss Brill is so proud at the
beginning of the story is ridiculed by the girl who sits
near her ('It's exactly like a fried whiting'). Can you
see a parallel between the fur and Miss Brill? At what
point in the story do the two almost become one?
8 Is Miss Brill a round or a flat character?
9 Is she static or dynamic?
10 Did your response to this character change in the
course of the story? If so, at what point?
11 Consider the character's name: Miss Brill. What
does it tell us about her marital status? Is this
important in the context of the story?
Brill makes us think of the word 'brilliant'. In what way
is Miss Brill's 'brilliance' cut short in the story?
D.Tamic characters change as a result of experiences they have. Can you think of any experience you have had
that has affected you deeply and made you change as a person?
For example:
- the influence of a negative person may have restricted your growth and your ability to express yourself;
- a book you have read or a film you have seen may have given you a different insight into some important issue.
Try to think of an experience that you believe was particularly significant and explain the impact it had on you as
a person.
Conflict
Suspense
Subplot
Plot
The term pl ot refers to an author's arrangement of the events that make up a
story. The plot of a work is not necessarily the same as the story. When we tell a
story we generally start at the begi nni ng and conti nue in a chronol ogi cal order
unti l we come to the end. Plots, however, do not always fol l ow thi s pattern.
Many writers choose to mi x events up in order to provoke specific responses in
the reader. They may, for example, start in the middle of thi ngs (in medias res)
and use flashbacks or dialogue to refer to previous events.
The author's choices regarding plot do not stop simply at organising the events
of his tale. He must also decide when the story begins, whi ch events should be
dealt with at length, whi ch aspects of the story can be quickly summarised and
when the story shoul d end. Ti me is enti rel y subjecti ve. The events of several
years can be condensed i nto a paragraph, whi l e a compl ete chapter may be
dedicated to a particularly si gni fi cant moment. The author's aim in writing a
story will direct the choi ces he makes, and therefore analysing these aspects of
plot gives us invaluable insight i nto the meaning of his work.
Love stories, adventure stories, detecti ve stories, horror stories: writers never
seem to run out of ideas for stories. Although each story is unique, many of them
share some basic elements.
Confl i ct is the driving force behi nd many plots. It may come from:
outside: the main character may be in conflict with external forces such as his
family, society, physical hardship or nature;
within: the character may be forced to make a difficult choice, or he may have
to question his values and beliefs.
Suspense is al so an i mportant el ement in many pl ots. Creati ng suspense
generally involves denying the reader immediate access to information which is
essential to the full understanding of the story. The clearest example of this can
be found in detective stories, where the author does not reveal the identity of the
murderer unti l the very last moment. Suspense is often created through the
careful ordering of events in the story.
In some stories the main plot is accompanied by a subpl ot - a second story that
is complete in its own right. The subplot is usually linked in some way to events
in the main plot and generally helps to deepen our understanding of it.
QUESTIONS TO ASK WHEN ANALYSING PLOT
Are the events in the plot chronological? Does the plot begin at the start of the story or in medias res?
What effect do these choices have on the story?
Is the story based on conflict? Does the conflict come from outside or inside? What are the conflicting
forces?
Is suspense created in the plot? If so, how?
Are there any subplots? What are their functions?
'-utgirirfrrrrwr'- miiBTOfirirf
j
CASE STUDY 21
Graham Greene (1904-1991) is the author of novels, short stories, plays, travel books, essays and children's books.
He travelled widely and used a wide range of geographical locations for his works, which often deal with people on the
vergeof political, social or spiritual crisis. Several of his novels have been successfidly adapted for the cinema.
The Invisible J apanese Gentlemen
by Graham Greene
There were eight J apanese gentl emen havi ng a fish di nner at Bentley's.
They spoke to each other rarely in thei r i ncomprehensi bl e tongue, but
always with a courteous smile and often with a small bow
1
. All but one of
them wore glasses. Someti mes the pretty girl who sat at the wi ndow
beyond gave them a passing gl ance
2
, but her own probl em seemed too s
serious for her to pay real attention to anyone in the world except herself
and her compani on.
She had thi n blonde hair and her face was pretty and petite in a Regency
3
way, oval like a mi ni ature, though she had a harsh
4
way of speaking -
perhaps the accent of the school, Roedean or Chel tenham Ladies' College, 10
whi ch she had not l ong ago l eft. She wore a man's si gnet ri ng on her
engagement fi nger, and as I sat down at my tabl e, wi th the J apanese
gentlemen between us, she said, 'So you see we could marry next week.'
'Yes?'
Her compani on appeared a little distraught. He refilled their glasses with is
Chabl i s and sai d, 'Of course, but Mother ...' I mi ssed some of the
conversation then, because the eldest J apanese gentleman leant across the
table, with a smile and a little bow, and uttered
5
a whol e paragraph like
the mutter
6
from an aviary
7
, while everyone bent towards hi m and smiled
and listened, and I couldn't help attending to him myself
8
. 20
The gi rl 's fi ance resembl ed her physi cal l y. I coul d see them as two
miniatures hangi ng side by side on wood panels. He should have been a
young officer in Nelson's navy in the days when a certain weakness and
sensitivity were no bar to
9
promotion.
She said, 'They are giving me an advance
10
of five hundred pounds, and 25
they've sol d the paperback ri ghts al ready.' The hard commerci al
declaration came as a shock to me; it was a shock too that she was one of
my own professi on. She coul dn't have been more than twenty. She
deserved better of life.
He said, 'But my uncle ...' 30
'You know you don't get on wi th hi m. Thi s way we shal l be qui te
independent.'
'You will be independent,' he said grudgingly
11
.
'The wine-trade wouldn't really suit you, would it? I spoke to my publisher
about you and there's a very good chance ... if you began wi th some 35
readi ng...'
'But I don't know a thi ng about books.'
'I would help you at the start.'
'My mother says that writing is a good crutch
12
...'
'Five hundred pounds and hal f the paperback ri ghts is a pretty sol i d 40
crutch,' she said.
GLOSSARY -
1. bow: act of bending
forward to show
someone respect
glance: quick look
Regency: in Britain,
the period 1811-1820
harsh: unpleasantly
strong
uttered: said
mutter: very low
sound of indistinct
voices
aviary: largebird
cage
attending to him
myself: listening to
what hewas saying
no bar to: not an
obstacle to
10. advance: money
given before ajob is
finished
11. grudgingly: in away
that showed
resentment
12. crutch: means of
support, way of
earning money
7.
8.
9.
:
Wf
fb* s
E) 52 Introduction to Literary Appreciation
15
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
'This Chablis is good, isn't i t?'
'I daresay
13
.'
I began to change my opi ni on of hi m - he had not the Nelson touch. He
was doomed to defeat. She came al ongsi de and raked hi m fore and aft
14
.
'Do you know what Mr. Dwight said?'
'Who's Dwi ght?'
'Darling, you don't listen, do you? My publisher. He said he hadn't read a
first novel in the last ten years whi ch showed such powers of observati on.'
'That's wonderful ,' he said sadly, 'wonderful .'
'Onl y he wants me to change the ti tl e.'
'Yes?'
'He doesn't like The Ever-Rolling Stream. He wants to call it The Chelsea Set.'
'What did you say?'
T agreed. I do thi nk that wi th a first novel one shoul d try to keep one's
publ i sher happy. Especi al l y when, real l y he's goi ng to pay for our
marriage, isn't he?'
'I see what you mean.' Absent-mi ndedl y he stirred hi s Chablis wi th a fork
- perhaps before the engagement he had always bought champagne. The
J apanese gentl emen had fi ni shed their fish and with very little English but
with elaborate courtesy they were ordering from the middle-aged waitress
a fresh fruit salad. The girl looked at them, and then she looked at me, but
I thi nk she saw onl y the future. I wanted very much to warn her against
any future based on a first novel called The Chelsea Set. I was on the side of
hi s mother. It was a humi l i ati ng thought, but I was probabl y about her
mother's age.
I wanted to say to her, Are you certai n your publ i sher is tel l i ng you the
truth? Publishers are human. They may someti mes exaggerate the virtues
of the young and the pretty. Will The Chelsea Set be read in five years? Are
you prepared for the years of effort, 'the l ong defeat of doi ng nothi ng
well'? As the years pass writing will not become any easier, the daily effort
wi l l grow harder to endure, those 'powers of observati on' will become
enf eebl ed
15
; you wi l l be judged, when you reach your forti es, by
performance and not by promise.
'My next novel is goi ng to be about St. Tropez.'
'I didn't know you'd ever been there.'
'I haven't. A fresh eye's very
i mportant. 1 thought we
mi ght settle down there for
six months.'
'There woul dn't be much
l eft of the advance by that
ti me.'
'The advance is onl y an
advance. I get fi fteen per
cent after fi ve thousand
copi es and twenty per cent
after ten. And of course
another advance wi l l be
Edward Hopper,
Nighthawks (1942).
13.1 daresay: Yesit is
14. She came alongside
... and aft: she
approached him like
an enemy ship,
stopping beside him
and firing from all
sides
15.enfeebled: weakerned
due, darling, when the next book's finished. A bigger one if The Chelsea Set 90
sells well.'
'Suppose it doesn't.'
'Mr. Dwight says it will. He ought to know.'
'My uncle would start me at twelve hundred
16
.'
'But, darling, how could you come then to St. Tropez?' 95
'Perhaps we'd do better when you come back.'
She said harshly, 'I mi ghtn't come back if The Chelsea Set sells enough.'
'Oh.'
She looked at me and the party of J apanese gentl emen. She finished her
wine. She said, 'Is this a quarrel
17
?' 100
'No.'
'I've got the title for the next book - The Azure Blue.'
'I thought azure was blue.'
She l ooked at hi m wi th di sappoi ntment. 'You don't real l y want to be
married to a novelist, do you?' 105
'You aren't one yet.'
T was born one - Mr. Dwight says. My powers of observation ...'
'Yes. You told me that, but, dear, couldn't you observe a bit nearer home?
Here in London.'
'I've done that in The Chelsea Set. I don't want to repeat myself.' no
The bill had been lying beside them for some ti me now. He took out his
wallet to pay, but she snatched the paper out of his reach. She said, 'This is
my celebration.'
'What of?'
'The Chelsea Set, of course. Darl i ng, you're awful l y
18
decorati ve, but l i s
sometimes - well, you simply don't connect.'
'I'd rather ... if you don't mi nd ...'
'No, darling, this is on me
19
. And Mr. Dwight, of course.'
He submi tted just as two of the J apanese gentl emen gave tongue
20
si mul taneousl y, then stopped abruptl y and bowed to each other, as 120
though they were blocked in a doorway.
I had thought the two young peopl e matchi ng mi ni atures, but what a
contrast in fact there was. The same type of prettiness could contain weakness
and strength. Her Regency counterpart
21
, I suppose, would have borne a
dozen children without the aid of anaesthetics, while he would have fallen an 125
easy victim to the first dark eyes in Naples. Would there one day be a dozen
books on her shelf? They have to be born without an anaesthetic too. I found
myself hopi ng that The Chelsea Set would prove to be a disaster and that
eventually she would take up photographic modelling while he established
himself solidly in the wine-trade in St. J ames's
22
.1 didn't like to think of her as 130
the Mrs. Humphrey Ward
23
of her generation - not that I would live so long.
Old age saves us from the realization of a great many fears. I wondered to
whi ch publishing firm Dwight bel onged. I could i magi ne the bl urb
24
he
would have already written about her abrasive powers of observation.
There would be a photo, if he was wise, on the back of the jacket
25
, for 135
reviewers
26
, as well as publishers, are human, and she didn't look like Mrs.
Humphrey Ward.
I could hear them talking while they found their coats at the back of the
restaurant. He said, 'I wonder what all those J apanese are doing here?'
apanese?' she said, 'What J apanese, darl i ng? Someti mes you are so 140
evasive I thi nk you don't want to marry me at all.'
16. twelve hundred: one
thousand two
hundred (pounds)
17. quarrel:
confrontation,
argument
18. awfully: really
19. on me: for meto pay
20. gavetongue: spoke
21. Her Regency
counterpart: a
woman likeher in
Regency times
22. St. James's:
prestigious London
area
23. Mrs. Humphrey
Ward: dull but
successful writer of
popular novels
24. blurb: short
description of a
book's contents
25. jacket: book cover
26. reviewers: book
critics
COMPREHENSI ON
1 Where does the story take place?
2 What are the girl and her companion discussing?
3 What is the profession of both the girl and the
narrator?
4 What profession is the young man thinking of
entering? What would the girl like him to do instead?
5 According to the girl, what aspect of her writing
does the publisher most admire?
6 What opinion does the narrator have of writing as
a profession?
7 Where does the girl wish to set her next novel?
What is the title of her next book?
8 What does the narrator hope for the young woman
and her fiance?
9 Had the young woman noticed the party of
Japanese gentlemen at the next table?
ANALYSIS - PLOT
1 The author chooses as the focal point of his plot
the conversation between the young girl and her
fiance in Bentley's restaurant. Find references to
events which took place before and which may occur
after this point.
The author does not present the story chronologically.
He focuses on one specific moment, the conversation
in the restaurant, and uses dialogue to provide
important information about the past and to speculate
about the future. How does this manipulation of plot
influence the impact of the story?
It makes it more difficult to follow.
It heightens the tension.
It allows the writer to focus on the personality of
the characters.
It maintains the reader's interest by presenting the
story as a jigsaw puzzle that must be pieced together.
It keeps the reader guessing.
2 Conflict is an important element in this story.
a. What kind of conflict is the young man
experiencing? Is it internal, external or both?
b. What kind of conflict is the young girl
experiencing?
c. Does the scene he witnesses provoke conflict in the
narrator?
3 Suspense is often created by denying the reader
information that is essential to his understanding of a
story. At what point does the reader understand the
significance of the adjective 'invisible' in the title of
the story?
4 In a sense, the story of the Japanese gentlemen
forms a subplot to the main story. Consider the last
comment made by the young girl and explain how
the subplot throws a revealing light on the main story.
Conflict, both internal and external, is often an important element in plot. Consider these general conflictual
situations:
A. dissatifaction with the status quo fear of change
B. opinion of parents ->aspirations of son or daughter
C. peer pressure from friends - personal values and beliefs
Briefly outline a simple plot which would illustrate these conflictual situations. Case A has been done as an
example:
Roger lives in a rural community in Scotland. Hecomes from a modest farming family and his parents expect him to
leave school and work on the farm. Roger, however, wants more from life. Hewishes to complete his education and get
a degree in Veterinary Science. When he has finished his secondary education he is offered a place at university in
Glasgow. His parents accept his decision to leave, so Roger moves to Glasgow. Hefinds it hard to settle into this new
environment. Lifein the city overwhelms himand he finds it difficult to form friendships and relate to people. After his
first year of study, he decides to return home and work on the farm.
Narrators and point of view
In fi cti on the author does not address the reader directly. He creates a narrator
whose voice we hear as we read the story. It is from the narrator's poi nt of view that
we see events unfol d. The narrator may be a strong presence in the text
commenting on and interpreting the material he presents or, at the other end of the
spectrum, he may be almost invisible, simply allowing the story to present itself.
Narrators are divided i nto two broad categories: first-person narrators and thi rd-
person narrators. The category of third-person narrators is divided i nto three
subcategories: omni sci ent, l i mi ted and dramati c objecti ve.
Stream of consci ousness, a rel ati vel y recent devel opment i n narrati ve
technique, may be an extension of either first or third-person narratives.
First-person narrators
First-person narrators, who refer to themselves as T', tell stories in which they are
directly involved. In a first-person narrative the reader's vision of the story, or
poi nt of view, is limited to what the narrator himself knows, experiences, infers
or has learned second-hand from others.
First-person narrati ves are, by defi ni ti on, subjecti ve. The onl y thoughts and
feelings that first-person narrators experience directly are their own. The reader
can never expect to see characters and events as they actually are, but onl y as
they appear to the 'I ' narrator. Therefore special attenti on should be paid to the
personality of the first-person narrators. Are they reliable? Do they have biases
and prejudices that may influence how they tell the story?
In certai n fi rst-person narrati ves the reader can understand more than the
narrator himself. This is often the case when the narrator is a child or a not very
percepti ve adul t. By contrasti ng the narrator's percepti on of events and the
reader's more informed views, the author can create humour or irony.
The first-person narrati ve is commonl y associated wi th non-fi cti onal literary
forms such as biographies, memoi rs or diaries. When used in fi cti onal works it
lends authenti ci ty to the story. It is also perhaps the most.effecti ve form of
storytelling for getting the reader intellectually and emotionally involved.
Point of view
Third-person narrators
When a story is told by someone outside the action, he is called a third-person
narrator (because he refers to everybody in the story in the thi rd person: 'he',
'she', 'they'). In this form of narration the person who is telling the story is like an
observer who has witnessed what has happened, but plays no part in the events.
The omni sci ent thi rd-person narrator is a kind of god; he is all-knowing. He
knows everythi ng about the fi cti onal world he has created: he can read other
characters' i nnermost thoughts, he is able to be in several places at once, he
knows exactly what is going to happen and how each character will behave. He is
free to tel l us as much or as l i ttl e as he wi shes. An omni sci ent thi rd-person
narrator who interrupts the narrative and speaks directly to the readers is called
obtrusi ve. He may use these intrusions to summarise, philosophise, moralise or
to gui de the reader's i nterpretati on of events. Thi s ki nd of narrator was
particularly popular in the ei ghteenth and ni neteenth centuries. If the narrator
does not address the reader directly he is referred to as non-obtrusi ve.
Omniscient point
of view
Limited omniscient
point of view
Dramatic or objective
point of view
Stream of
consciousness
Interior monologue
When an author uses a l i mi ted omni sci ent narrator, he chooses a character in
the story and tells the story from his point of view. This character becomes the
centre of revelation and the reader sees the events and other characters from his
viewpoint. If the narrator moves back and forth between an omniscient viewpoint
and the viewpoint of the focal character, we refer to the narrative techni que as
'free indirect style'. Free indirect style is perhaps the most widely-used mode of
narration in modern fi cti on. Limited omni sci ent narrati on involves the reader
more than pure omniscient narration. By associating the narrating voice with one
of the characters in the story, the author gives it an identity and therefore makes it
more interesting for the reader. Also, because much of the story is told from the
partial viewpoint of one of the characters, the reader gets the idea that anything
can happen in the course of the novel, just as it can in real life.
When an author uses a dramati c or objecti ve poi nt of view, the story seems to be
told by no one. This narrative technique has often been compared to a videocamera
left running. The narrator does not mediate between the story and the reader. He
steps aside and allows the story to present itself through setti ng, acti on and
di al ogue. The reader is never taken i nsi de the mi nds of the characters. He is
presented with material which he alone must analyse and interpret. Although the
narrator does not actively participate in the storytelling, he does have an important
role to play in this type of narrative. It is the narrator who decides when to turn the
videocamera on and off and where to point it. He decides what material to present,
and his choices will obviously affect the reader's response. The dramatic point of
view is widely used by modern writers because of the impersonal and objective way
it presents experience.
Stream of consci ousness is the term appl i ed to any attempt by a wri ter to
represent the conscious and subconscious thoughts and impressions in the mi nd
of a character. This techni que takes the reader inside the narrating character's
mind, where he sees the world of the story through the thoughts and senses of
the focal character.
At the begi nni ng of the twenti eth century some authors, notabl y J ames J oyce,
Vi rgi ni a Wool f and Wi l l i am Faul kner, devel oped a stream of consci ousness
technique called i nteri or monol ogue. The term is borrowed from drama, where
monol ogue refers to the part in a pl ay where an actor expresses hi s i nner
thoughts aloud to the audience. In fiction, an interior monologue is a record of a
characters, thoughts and sense impressions.
As people do not think in complete, well-formed logical sentences, J oyce, Woolf
and Faulkner abandoned traditional syntax, punctuation and logical connecti ons
in order to represent the flow of a character's thoughts. For example, in J oyce's
Ulysses (1922) the reader finds himself with a transcript of one of the character's
thoughts which contains no commas, full stops or capital letters. The stop, start,
disjointed and often illogical nature of interior monol ogue makes it a challenge
for the reader to interpret.
QUESTIONS TO ASK WHEN ANALYSING NARRATIVE TECHNIQUE
Does the author use a first-person or third-person narrator1
Is the third-person narrator omniscient?
If the third-person narrator is limited, does he see the story from the point of view of one of the characters
in the story?
Is the point of view dramatic or objectivel
Does the author try to represent the thoughts of a character? What technique does he use to achieve this effect?
What effect does the author's choi ce of narrator have on the impact of the story?
imm-y -- ~
CASE STUDY 22
Irish-bom writer fames Joyce (1882-1941) is widely acclaimed for his experimentations with narrative technique. The
following is a story taken from his collection Dubliners, which was published in 1916.
The Boarding House
1
by James Joyce
MRS MOON EY was a butcher's daughter. She was a woman who was quite able
to keep things to herself: a determined woman. She had married her father's
foreman
2
and opened a butcher's shop near Spring Gardens. But as soon as
his father-in-law was dead Mr Mooney began to go to the devil. He drank,
plundered the till
3
, ran headlong
4
into debt. It was no use making him take
the pledge
5
: he was sure to break out again a few days after. By fighting his
wife in the presence of customers and by buying bad meat he ruined his
business. One night he went for his wife with the cleaver
6
and she had to
sleep in a neighbour's house.
After that they lived apart. She went to the priest and got a separation
from him with care of the children. She would give him neither money nor
food nor house-room; and so he was obliged to enlist himself as a
7
sheriff's
man. He was a shabby
8
stooped
9
little drunkard with a white face and a white
moustache and white eyebrows, pencilled
10
above his little eyes, which were
pink-veined and raw
11
; and all day long he sat in the bailiff's
12
room, waiting
to be put on a job. Mrs Mooney, who had taken what remained of her money
out of the butcher busi ness and set up a boardi ng-house in Hardwicke
Street, was a big imposing woman. Her house had a floating
13
population
made up of tourists from Liverpool and the Isle of Man and, occasionally,
artistes from the music halls. Its resident population was made up of clerks
from the city. She governed her house cunningly
14
and firmly, knew when to
give credit, when to be stern
15
and when to let things pass. All the resident
young men spoke of her as The Madam.
Mrs Mooney's young men paid fi fteen shillings a week for board and
lodgings
16
(beer or stout
17
at di nner excluded). They shared in common
tastes and occupations and for this reason they were very chummy
18
with
one another. They discussed with one another the chances of favourites and
outsiders
19
. J ack Mooney, the Madam's son, who was clerk to a commission
agent in Fleet Street, had the reputation of being a hard case
20
. He was fond
of using soldier's obsceni ti es: usually he came home in the small hours.
When he met his friends he had always a good one to tell them and he was
always sure to be on to
21
a good thing - that is to say, a likely horse
22
or a
likely artiste
23
. He was also handy with the mi ts
24
and sang comi c songs.
On Sunday nights there would often be a reunion in Mrs Mooney's front
drawing-room. The music-hall artistes would oblige
25
; and Sheridan played
waltzes and polkas and vamped
26
accompani ments. Polly Mooney, the
Madam's daughter, would also sing. She sang:
I'ma ... naughty
27
girl.
You needn't sham
28
:
You know I am.
Polly was a slim girl of ni neteen; she had light soft hair and a small full
mouth. Her eyes, which were grey with a shade of green through them, had a
abit of glancing
29
upwards when she spoke with anyone, which made her
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
GLOSSARY -
2.
3.
Boarding House: guest
house
foreman: worker in
chargeof other workers
plundered the till:
took money from the
cash register
headlong: straight
takethe pledge:
promiseto stop alcohol
cleaver: largebutcher's
knife
7. enlist himself as a:
apply for thepost of
8. shabby: untidy
9. stooped: with bent
and rounded shoulders
10. pencilled: drawn with
athin line
11. pink-veined and raw:
his eyes werered and
irritated
12. bailiff: public official
in chargeof
confiscating debtors'
possessions
13. floating: coming and
going
14. cunningly: astutely
15. stern: firm
16. board and lodgings:
food and room
17. stout: strongdark beer
18. chummy: friendly
19. favourites and
outsiders: racehorses
thought most likely to
win and race horses
with littlechance of
winning respectively
20. a hard case: ahard
man
21. beon to: to know, to
have discovered
22. likely horse: horse
with good chance of
winning arace
23. likely artiste: an easy
woman
24. handy with the mits:
good at boxing (mits:
boxing gloves)
25. would oblige: agreeto
sing
26. vamped: improvise
27. naughty: bad
28. sham: pretend
29. glancing: givinga
quick look
30. disreputable sheriff's
man: Polly's father
31. give her the run of:
put her in chargeof
32. shrewd: clever
33. meant business: was
serious about Polly
34. kept her own
counsel: refrained
from interfering
35.breeze: gentlewind
36. lace: decorative cloth
made of finely
interwoven threads
37.ballooned: undulated
38.sashes: window
frames
39.belfry: bell tower
40. peals: loud sounds of
ringing bells
41. worshippers: people
going to church
42. circus: circular area at
the intersection of
streets
43. revealing their
purpose... little
volumes: both their
modest behaviour
and thesmall prayer
books they were
holding showed that
they were going to
church
44. streaks: leftover slices
45. morsels: bits
46. rind: thick outer skin
47.awkward: uneasy,
embarrassed
48. in too cavalier a
fashion: indifferently
49. connived: tacitly
supported what was
happening
50. that in her wise
innocence-
tolerance: that she
was falsely innocent
and shehad guessed
the motives behind
her mother's
tolerance
51. gilt: covered with
gold
52. mantelpiece: shelf
abovea fireplace
53. through her revery:
whileshewas lost in
her thoughts
54. have the matter out:
discuss the issue
55.short twelve: shorter
mass service at twelve
o' clock
56. outraged: shocked
and offended
57. pleaded: put forward
look like a little perverse madonna. Mrs Mooney had first sent her daughter
to be a typist in a corn-factor's office but, as a disreputable sheriffs man
30
used
to come every other day to the office, asking to be allowed to say a word to
his daughter, she had taken her daughter home again and set her to do
housework. As Polly was very lively the intention was to give her the run of
31
the young men. Besides, young men like to feel that there is a young woman
not very far away. Polly, of course, flirted with the young men but Mrs
Mooney, who was a shrewd
32
judge, knew that the young men were onl y
passing the time away: none of them meant business
33
. Things went on so
for a long ti me and Mrs Mooney began to thi nk of sending Polly back to
typewriting when she noticed that something was going on between Polly
and one of the young men. She watched the pair and kept her own counsel
34
.
Polly knew that she was being watched, but still her mother's persistent
silence could not be misunderstood. There had been no open compl i ci ty
between mother and daughter, no open understanding but, though people
in the house began to talk of the affair, still Mrs Mooney did not intervene.
Polly began to grow a little strange in her manner and the young man was
evidently perturbed. At last, when she judged it to be the right moment, Mrs
Mooney intervened. She dealt with moral problems as a cleaver deals with
meat: and in this case she had made up her mind.
It was a bright Sunday morning of early summer, promising heat, but with
a fresh breeze
35
blowing. All the windows of the boarding house were open
and the lace
36
curtains bal l ooned
37
gently towards the street beneath the
raised sashes
38
. The belfry
39
of George's Church sent out constant peals
40
and
worshippers
41
, singly or in groups, traversed the little circus
42
before the
church, revealing their purpose by their self-contained demeanour no less than
by the little vol umes
43
in their gloved hands. Breakfast was over in the
boarding house and the table of the breakfast-room was covered with plates on
which lay yellow streaks
44
of eggs with morsels
45
of bacon-fat and bacon-rind
46
.
Mrs Mooney sat in the straw arm-chair and watched the servant Mary remove
the breakfast things. She made Mary collect the crusts and pieces of broken
bread to help to make Tuesday's bread-pudding. When the table was cleared,
the broken bread collected, the sugar and butter safe under lock and key, she
began to reconstruct the interview which she had had the night before with
Polly. Things were as she had suspected: she had been frank in her questions
and Polly had been frank in her answers. Both had been somewhat awkward
47
,
of course. She had been made awkward by her not wishing to receive the news
in too cavalier a fashion
48
or to seem to have connived
49
and Polly had been
made awkward not merely because allusions of that kind always made her
awkward but also because she did not wish it to be thought that in her wise
innocence she had divined the intention behind her mother's tolerance
50
.
Mrs Mooney gl anced i nsti ncti vel y at the l i ttl e gi l t
51
cl ock on the
mantelpiece
52
as soon as she had become aware through her revery
53
that
the bells of George's Church had stopped ringing. It was seventeen minutes
past eleven: she would have lots of time to have the matter out
54
with Mr
Doran and then catch short twelve
55
at Marlborough Street. She was sure
she would win. To begin with she had all the weight of social opi ni on on
her side: she was an outraged
56
mother. She had allowed him to live beneath
her roof, assuming that he was a man of honour, and he had simply abused
her hospitality. He was thirty-four or thirty-five years of age, so that youth
could not be pleaded
57
as his excuse; nor could i gnorance be his excuse
since he was a man who had seen something of the world. He had simply
taken advantage of Polly's youth and inexperience: that was evident. The
question was: What reparation would he make?
There must be reparation made in such cases. It is all very well for the man:
he can go his ways as if nothing had happened, having had his moment of
pleasure, but the girl has to bear the brunt
58
. Some mothers would be content 100
to patch up
59
such an affair for a sum of money; she had known cases of it.
But she would not do so. For her only one reparation could make up for the
loss of her daughter's honour: marriage.
She counted all her cards again before sending Mary up to Mr Doran's
room to say that she wished to speak with him. She felt sure she would win. 105
He was a serious young man, not rakish
60
or loud-voiced like the others. If it
had been Mr Sheridan or Mr Meade or Bantam Lyons her task would have
been much harder. She did not think he would face publicity. All the lodgers
in the house knew somethi ng of the affair; details had been i nvented by
some. Besides, he had been employed for thirteen years in a great Catholic 110
wine-merchant's office and publicity would mean for him, perhaps, the loss
of his sit
61
. Whereas if he agreed all might be well. She knew he had a good
screw
62
for one thing and she suspected he had a bit of stuff put by
63
.
Nearly the half-hour! She stood up and surveyed herself in the pier-glass
64
.
The decisive expression of her great florid face satisfied her and she thought 115
of some mothers she knew who could not get their daughters off their hands.
Mr Doran was very anxious indeed this Sunday morni ng. He had made
two attempts to shave but his hand had been so unsteady
65
that he had been
obliged to desist. Three day's reddish beard fringed
66
his jaws and every two
or three minutes a mist gathered on his glasses so that he had to take them 120
off and polish them with his pocket-handkerchief. The recollection of his
confession of the night before was a cause of acute pain to him; the priest
had drawn out
67
every ridiculous detail of the affair and in the end had so
magnified his sin that he was almost thankful at being afforded a loophole of
reparation
68
. The harm
69
was done. What could he do now but marry her or 125
run away? He could not brazen it out
70
. The affair would be sure to be talked
of and his employer would be certain to hear of it. Dublin is such a small city:
everyone knows everyone else's business. He felt his heart leap
71
warmly
in his throat as he heard in his excited imagination old Mr Leonard calling
out in his rasping voice: Send Mr Doran here, please. 130
All his l ong years of service gone for nothi ng! All hi s i ndustry
72
and
diligence thrown away! As a young man he had sown his wild oats
73
, of
course; he had boasted
74
of his free-thinking and denied the existence of
God to his companions in public-houses. But that was all passed and done
with... nearly. He still bought a copy of Reynolds's Newspaper
75
every week but 135
he attended to his religious duties and for ni ne-tenths of the year lived a
regular life. He had money enough to settle down on
76
; it was not that. But
the family would look down on her. First of all there was her disreputable
father and then her mother's boarding house was beginning to get a certain
fame. He had a notion that he was being had
77
. He could imagine his friends 140
talking of the affair and laughing. She was a little vulgar; sometimes she said I
seen and If I had've known. But what would grammar matter if he really loved
her? He could not make up his mind whether to like her or despise
78
her for
what she had done. Of course, he had done it too. His instinct urged him to
remain free, not to marry. Once you are married you are done for
79
, it said. 145
Whi l e he was si tti ng hel pl essl y on the side of the bed i n shi rt and
trousers she tapped lightly at his door and entered. She told hi m all, that
she had made a cl ean breast
80
of it to her mother and that her mother
would speak with him that morning. She cried and threw her arms round
his neck, saying: 150
- O, Bob! Bob! What am I to do? What am I to do at all?
58. bear the brunt: pay
the consequences
59. patch up: repair the
damage of
60. rakish: irresponsible,
dissolute
61. sit: job
62. screw: income
63. stuff put by: money
saved away
64. pier-glass: large high
mirror
65. unsteady: shaky,
trembling
66. fringed: had grown
on
67. drawn out: extracted
68.magnified his sin...
reparation: made
him feel so guilty that
hewas almost happy
to have this chance to
repair the damage
69. harm: damage
70. brazen it out: be
defiant, pretend he
had done nothing
wrong
71.leap: jump
72. industry: hard work
73. sown his wild oats:
done foolish things
74. boasted: talked
proudly of
75 .Reynolds's
Newspaper: radical
newspaper
76. settle down on: to
get married and start
a family
77. he was being had: he
had been conned,
framed
78. despise: hate
79. done for: finished
80. clean breast: full
confession
A
jam
60 I ntroduction to Literary Appreciation
81. feebly: weakly,
unconvincingly
82. bosom: breasts
83. altogether:
completely
84. for: because
85.gust: sudden rush of
air
86. loose: not tight
around her body
87. combing jacket:
bedroom jacket
88. instep: upper part of
a foot
89. furry slippers: flat
open shoes lined with
fur
90. glowed: gaveout a
soft light
91. steadied: adjusted
92. thoughtfulness:
. attention to his needs
93. tumbler: glass
94. tiptoe: the tip of their
toes
95.landing: area
between flights of
stairs
96. hold back: resist
97. missus: (Mrs)
Mooney
98. parlour: sitting room
99. waistcoat: sleeveless
garment worn under
a jacket
100. moaning:
lamenting
101. dimmed with
moisture: covered
with vapour (from
his perspiration)
102. stared upon his
discomfiture:
observed his
uneasiness
103. pantry: small room
where food is stored
104. nursing: holding
carefully
105. Bass: beer
106. return-room: room
in theguest house
107. on account of:
because of
108. there was no harm
meant: he hadn't
meant to insult the
girl
109. bloody well:
certainly
110. dipped: briefly
immersed
111. amiable: enjoyable
112. nape: back
113. bed-rail: bed frame
She would put an end to herself, she said.
He comforted her feebly
81
, telling her not to cry, that it would be all right,
never fear. He felt against his shirt the agitation of her bosom
82
.
It was not altogether
83
his fault that it had happened. He remembered well,
with the curious patient memory of the celibate, the first casual caresses her
dress, her breath, her fingers had given him. Then late one night as he was
undressing for bed she had tapped at his door, timidly. She wanted to relight
her candle at his for
84
hers had been blown out by a gust
85
. It was her bath
ni ght. She wore a l oose
86
open combi ng-jacket
87
of printed fl annel . Her
white i nstep
88
shone in the opening of her furry slippers
89
and the bl ood
glowed
90
warmly behind her perfumed skin. From her hands and wrists too
as she lit and steadied
91
her candle a faint perfume arose.
On nights when he came in very late it was she who warmed up his dinner.
He scarcely knew what he was eating, feeling her beside him alone, at night,
in the sleeping house. And her thoughtfulness
92
! If the night was anyway
cold or wet or windy there was sure to be a little tumbler
93
of punch ready for
him. Perhaps they could be happy together...
They used to go upstairs together on tiptoe
94
, each with a candle, and on
the third landing
95
exchange reclutant goodnights. They used to kiss. He
remembered well her eyes, the touch of her hand and his delirium...
But delirium passes. He echoed her phrase, applying it to himself: What am
I to do? The instinct of the celibate warned him to hold back
96
. But the sin
was there; even his sense of honour told him that reparation must be made
for such a sin.
While he was sitting with her on the side of the bed Mary came to the door
and said that the missus
97
wanted to see him in the parlour
98
. He stood up to
put on hi s coat and wai stcoat
99
, more helpless than ever. When he was
dressed he went over to her to comfort her. It would be all right, never fear.
He left her crying on the bed and moaning
100
softly: O my God!
Going down the stairs his glasses became so dimmed with moisture
101
that
he had to take them off and polish them. He longed to ascend through the
roof and fly away to another country where he would never hear again of his
trouble, and yet a force pushed him downstairs step by step. The implacable
faces of his employer and of the Madam stared upon his discomfiture
102
. On
the last flight of stairs he passed J ack Mooney who was coming up from the
pantry
103
nursi ng
104
two bottl es of Bass
105
. They saluted coldly; and the
lover's eyes rested for a second or two on a thick bulldog face and a pair of
thick short arms. When he reached the foot of the staircase he glanced up
and saw J ack regarding him from the door of the return-room
106
.
Suddenly he remembered the night when one of the music-hall artistes, a
little blond Londoner, had made a rather free allusion to Polly. The reunion
had been almost broken up on account of
107
Jack's violence. Everyone tried
to quiet him. The music-hall artiste, a little paler than usual, kept smiling and
saying that there was no harm meant
108
: but J ack kept shouting at him that if
any fellow tried that sort of a game on with his sister he'd bloody well
109
put
his teeth down his throat, so he would.
Polly sat for a little time on the side of the bed, crying. Then she dried her
eyes and went over to the looking glass. She dipped
110
the end of the towel in
the water-jug and refreshed her eyes wi th the cool water. She l ooked at I
herself in profile and readjusted a hairpin above her ear. Then she went back
to the bed again and sat at the foot. She regarded the pillows for a long time
and the sight of them awakened in her mind secret amiable
111
memories. She
rested the nape
112
of her neck against the cool iron bed-rail
113
and fell into a J
revery. There was no longer any perturbation visible on her face.
She wai ted on pati entl y, al most cheerful l y, wi thout al arm, her memor i es
gr adual l y gi vi ng pl ace to hopes and vi si ons of the f utur e. Her hopes and
vi si ons were so i ntri cate that she no l onger saw the whi te pi l l ows on whi ch
her gaze was fi xed or r emember ed that she was wai ti ng for anythi ng.
At l ast she heard her mother cal l i ng. She started to her feet and ran to the 210
bani sters
114
.
- Pol l y! Pol l y!
- Yes, mamma?
- Come down, dear. Mr Dor an wants speak wi th you.
Then she r emember ed what she had been wai ti ng for. 215
114. banisters: handrail
on astaircase
COMPREHENSI ON
1 Why did Mrs Mooney's marri age fail?
2 What did she do wi th the money from the
butcher's shop?
3 What kind of resi dents did she have in her
boardi ng house?
4 Did Mrs Mooney i ntervene i mmedi atel y when her
daughter Polly started havi ng an affair wi th one of the
resi dents?
5 What form of reparati on did Mrs Mooney want for
the 'l oss of her daughter's honour'?
6 Line 89 says 'She was sure she woul d wi n'. What
did she thi nk she woul d wi n?
7 What had Mr Doran reveal ed to the priest in
confessi on? What had been the priest's reacti on?
8 Why was Mr Doran rel uctant to marry Polly?
9 How did Polly show Mr Doran her 'thoughtful ness'
(line 166)?
1 0 What did Mr Doran l ong to do as he descended
the stairs to speak to Mrs Mooney?
11 Whose faces did he i magi ne were stari ng at hi m?
1 2 Polly stopped cryi ng whi l e Mr Doran went to
speak to her mother. What thoughts made her
'al most cheerful ' (line 206)?
ANALYSI S - POI NT OF VI EW
1 The narrati ve techni que in thi s short story is an
exampl e of free i ndi rect styl e. The narrator al ternates
between an omni sci ent poi nt of vi ew and the
vi ewpoi nts of characters in the story. Whi ch
characters' poi nts of vi ew are represented?
2 Find at l east one paragraph in the story where the
poi nt of vi ew is predomi nantl y
- omni sci ent:
- Mrs Mooney's:
- Mr Doran's:
- Polly's:
3 Why, in your opi ni on, does J ames J oyce use this
type of narrati ve techni que in his story?
To gi ve the reader greater i nsi ght i nto the mi nds of
his characters.
To make the tone of the story more detached and
sci enti fi c.
To show how reality is percei ved in di fferent ways
by di fferent peopl e.
To al l ow the reader to form his own opi ni ons about
the characters and thei r moti ves.
To add an el ement of humour to the story.
In the short story The Boarding House, J ames J oyce uses the mul ti pl e poi nt of vi ew of free i ndi rect speech to hel p us
understand the moti ves behi nd his characters' deci si ons. Try this experi ment to devel op your own ability to see
thi ngs from di fferent poi nts of view.
Work in pairs.
a. Thi nk of a confl i ctual si tuati on that i nvol ved another person whi ch upset, di sappoi nted or angered you (for
exampl e, an argument wi th a fri end, fami l y member, teacher).
b. Tell your partner what happened from your poi nt of view.
c. Try to put yoursel f in the posi ti on of the other person i nvol ved in the confl i ct and expl ai n the si tuati on as
convi nci ngl y as you can from his/ her poi nt of view.
d. Di scuss the resul ts of your exper i ment wi th your partner. Have you come to a better understandi ng of the
si tuati on?
. Sa
62 Introduction to Literary Appreciation
Theme versus subject
Formulating theme
Supporting theme
The title of the work
Multiple themes
Theme
Theme is the central idea that directs and shapes the subject matter of a story,
play or poem. It is the views of life or the insights i nto human experiences that
the author wishes to communi cate to his readers. I n certain types of literature
(fables, parables and propaganda pieces) the theme emerges forcefully as a moral
or a l esson that the author wi shes to teach, whi l e in others the theme is
embedded in the story. In the past, writers openly stated the theme of their work.
They usually put the words i nto the mouth of a character or used an omni sci ent
narrator to voice thei r opi ni ons. If the theme of a work is clearly stated in the
text, we refer to it as an overt theme. Most modern writers are reluctant to state
the themes of their work openly. They prefer to encourage the readers to thi nk
and draw thei r own concl usi ons. When the theme is hi dden in the acti on,
characters, setting and language of a story, we refer to it as an i mpl i ed theme.
The theme of a literary work shoul d not be confused wi th the subject or the
story. To say that a work is about 'love' is not identifying the theme; it is merely
stating the subject matter. Saying what happens in a story is also not a way of
i denti fyi ng the theme; it is si mpl y summari si ng the pl ot. The theme is the
abstract, generalised comment or statement the author makes about the subject
of the story. It is the answer to the questi on 'What does the story mean?', not
'What is the story about?'.
When formulating the theme of a literary work, hasty generalisations and cliches
should be avoided. Sweeping statements about life are rarely enl i ghteni ng, so
writers tend to avoid them. They are more i ncl i ned to expl ore compl ex issues
and propose tentative answers.
The theme of a poem, play or story should emerge from and be confirmed by the
analysis of pl ot, characters, setti ng, imagery, sound features and style. I f the
theme that is proposed leaves certai n el ements unexpl ai ned, or if there are
aspects of the story that do not support the theme, then it is probabl y
incomplete or incorrect.
The ti tl e the author gi ves the work shoul d al ways be taken i nto careful
consi derati on when tryi ng to i denti fy the theme. The title often suggests the
focus of the work and may provide clues about its meaning.
A single work may contai n several themes and readers may i denti fy different,
even opposi ng themes in the same work. Any theme that is supported by the
other elements of the work should be considered valid.
IIHi III II I
QUESTIONS TO ASK WHEN ANALYSING THEME
What is the subject of the story, play or poem? What general comment is the writer making about the
subject?
How do other elements in the story support the theme?
How are the theme and the title of the story, poem or play related?
Is there more than one theme in the work?
CASE STUDY 23
American writer Ernest Hemingway (1898-1961) is famous for novels such as The Old Man and the Sea and A
Farewell to Arms ( Texts G18 and G19). He was also aprolific and accomplished short story writer.
Old Man at the Bridge
by Ernest Hemingway
An old man with steel ri mmed spectacles
1
and very dusty cl othes sat by
the side of the road. There was a pontoon bri dge
2
across the river and
carts, trucks, and men, women and children were crossing it. (...) But the
old man sat there without moving. He was too tired to go any farther.
It was my business to cross the bridge, expl ore the bri dgehead
3
beyond 5
and fi nd out to what poi nt the enemy had advanced. I did thi s and
returned over the bridge. There were not so many carts now and very few
people on foot, but the old man was still there.
'Where do you come from?' I asked him.
'From San Carlos,' he said, and smiled. 10
That was his native town and so it gave him pleasure to menti on it and he
smiled.
'I was taking care of animals,' he explained.
"Oh,' I said, not quite understanding.
Yes,' he said, 'I stayed, you see, taking care of animals. I was the last one 15
to leave the town of San Carlos.'
Hedid not look like a shepherd
4
nor a herdsman
5
and I looked at his black
dusty clothes and his grey dusty face and his steel rimmed spectacles and
said, 'What animals were they?'
Various animals,' he said, and shook his head. 'I had to leave them.' (...) 20
What animals were they?' I asked.
There were three animals altogether,' he explained. 'There were two goats,
i nd a cat and there were four pairs of pigeons.'
And you had to leave them?' I asked.
Yes. Because of the artilllery. The captai n told me to go because of the 25
artillery.'
And you have no fami l y?' I asked, watchi ng the far end of the bridge
where a few last carts were hurrying down the slope of the bank.
No,' he said,' only the animals I stated. The cat, of course, will be all right.
K cat can look out for itself, but I cannot thi nk what will become of the 30
others.'
What politics have you?' I asked.
I am wi thout politics,' he said. 'I am seventy-six years old. I have come
twelve kilometres now and I thi nk now I can go no farther.'
Thi s is not a good pl ace to stop,' I said. 'I f you can make it, there are 35
trucks up the road where it forks
6
for Tortosa.'
I Hill wait a while,' he said, 'and then I will go.' (...)
He looked at me very bl ankl y and tiredly, then said, havi ng to share his
: rry with someone, 'The cat will be all right, I am sure. There is no need
: be unquiet about the cat. But the others. Now what do you thi nk about 40
~e others?'
they'll probably come through it all right.' /
GLOSSARY -
1. steel rimmed
spectacles: glasses
with asteel frame
2. pontoon bridge:
bridgebuilt on a
floating platform
3. bridgehead: position
an army takes from
which it can advance
or attack
4. shepherd: man who
looks after sheep
5. herdsman: man who
looks after goats or
cattle
6. forks: divides into
two or more roads
7. swayed: moved
8. dully: without
emotion

'You thi nk so?'
'Why not?' I said, watching the far bank where now there were no carts.
'But what will they do under the artillery when I was told to leave because 45
of the artillery?'
'Did you leave the dove cage unlocked?' I asked.
'Yes.'
'Then they'll fly.'
'Yes, certainly they'll fly. But the others. It's better not to thi nk about the 50
others,' he said.
'If you are rested I would go,' I urged. 'Get up and try to walk now.'
'Thank you,' he said and got to his feet, swayed
7
from side to side and
then sat down backwards in the dust.
'I was onl y taking care of ani mal s,' he said dully
8
, but no longer to me. 55
'I was only taking care of animals.'
There was nothi ng to do about him. It was Easter Sunday and the Fascists
were advanci ng toward the Ebro. It was a grey overcast day with a low
ceiling so their planes were not up. That and the fact that cats know how
to look after themsel ves was all the good luck that old man would ever 60
have.
COMPREHENSI ON
1 Where was the old man si tti ng and why?
2 What task did the narrator have to carry out?
3 Why was the old man the last person to l eave the
town?
4 Why was the old man concerned about the
ani mal s? Whi ch ani mal was he least worri ed about
and why?
5 Did the ol d man support ei ther si de in the confl i ct?
6 Why did the narrator want the old man to move
on?
7 What happened when the ol d man stood up to
l eave?
8 Is it clearly stated whether the ol d man survived
the war or not? How do you i nterpret the final
sentence in the story?
ANALYSI S-THEME
1 Whi ch of the fol l owi ng statements best summari ses
the theme of the short story?
War is evil.
Even when exposed to the atroci ti es of war some
peopl e do not l ose thei r basi c humani ty.
War reduces manki nd to the level of ani mal s.
Many i nnocent peopl e become vi cti ms of war.
War makes our everyday concerns seem ridiculous.
2 Focus on the title of the story Old Man at the
Bridge. Omi tti ng the arti cl e 'a/ an' is typi cal of capti ons
to pai nti ngs, photographs etc. In what sense is
Hemi ngway's story similar to a pai nti ng or a
photograph?
Formul ate the theme (not the subject!) of a story, poem, play or film scri pt you woul d like to wri te.
For example: elderly people are disregarded by modern society when in fact they have an invaluable contribution to
make.
7+K cer t Wy- 1485
'A knyght ther was, and that a worthy man,
that fro the tymethat hefirst bigan
To riden out, he loved chivalrie,
Troutheand honour, fredom and curteisie.'
From The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer
FROM THE ORIGINS
TO THE MIDDLE AGES
Beowulf
SH
' r
Myths and l egends
People all over the world tell stories. They tell stories of films they have seen, books they have read or simply
experiences they have had. Storytelling is as old as man himself. Long before TV or cinema or even books, it was
the main form of entertainment. Stories were passed on from generation to generation and some of those ancient
stories are still with us today in the form of legends, myths and folk tales.
Listen to the Canadian legend about how the sky was created and then answer the questions.
a. What shape was the earth originally?
b. What did Obweji own?
c. Why did Pateka go with Obweji?
d. What did Obweji do with Pateka's stone necklace?
e. What did Obweji do with the earth?
f. Where did Obweji go to sleep?
g. Were Obwejii servants on earth sad when he died?
h. How were his servants reminded of their master?
i. Who did Pateka marry?
j. How many children did they have?
I N
INTRODUCTION Beowul f was wri tten i n A ngl o-Saxon (Ol d Engl i sh), the l anguage whi ch, through
the centuri es, has devel oped i nto the Engl i sh l anguage we know today. As Angl o-Saxon is like a forei gn
l anguage even to a nati ve speaker of Engl i sh, the extracts you are goi ng to read have been transl ated
i nto modern Engl i sh. The transl ati on by Franci s Gunmere (publ i shed i n 1910) cl osel y fol l ows the origi-
nal text and mai ntai ns some of its styl i sti c features. There is a si mpl i fi ed modern Engl i sh transl ati on to
the ri ght i n Text Bl .
ti l l

Beowulf, as illustrated
inacartoon versionby
R. Crochoske (adaptation
byDrDavidBreeden).
THE STORY
Hrothgar, king of Denmark, suffered while his kingdom was being attacked by a devouring
monster, named Grendel. Grendel was protected by a magic spell and could not be hurt by
weapons made by man. He lived in the wastelands, and every night he visited Hrothgar's hall
carrying off and killing his guests.
Beowulf lived in the nearby kingdom of Geatland. From a very early age he showed signs of
great strength and extraordinary courage. He killed many sea monsters and defended his
country from enemy attacks. When he heard from mariners ofGrendel's murderous attacks,
he decided to help Hrothgar. Heand some of his bravest followers crossed the sea to Denmark
where they were welcomed by the king. A big feast was held in their honour.
That night everybody slept except Beowulf. Grendel entered Hrothgar's hall and killed one of
Beowulf's sleeping men. Beowulf, unarmed, fought the monster and with his great strength
tore out one ofGrendel's arms at the shoulder. Mortally wounded, Grendel retreated to his
home in the surrounding wastelands ( Text Bl ).
Grendel's mother came to avenge her monster son's fatal injury and carried off a Danish
nobleman and Grendel's torn off arm. Beowulf and his men followed the blood trail left by
the arm and came to the lake where Grendel's mother had taken refuge. Beowulf plunged into
the lake and swam into a chamber. Hefought Grendel's mother, killing her with an old sword
he found in an underwater cavern. Grendel's body was also lying in the cavern so Beowulf cut
off his head and brought it back to King Hrothgar ( Text B2).
There was a great feast in the hall to celebrate Beowulf's victory and an even greater celebra-
tion when he returned to his home country, where he was made king.
Beowulf 65
After fifty years of successful reign Beowulf had to face another evil creature, a fire breathing
dragon which was trying to destroy thecountry. Although he was very old, Beowulf slayed the
dragon but he was mortally wounded in the process.
10
Beowulf Mortally Wounds
(...) Now many an earl
1
of Beowulf brandi shed
2
blade ancestral
3
,
fain
4
the life of their lord to shield
5
,
their praised prince, if power were theirs;
never they knew, as they neared the foe
6
, 5
hardy-hearted heroes of war,
ai mi ng their swords on every side
the accursed to kill, no keenest
7
blade,
no fairest of fal chi ons
8
fashi oned
9
on earth,
could harm or hurt that hi deous
10
fi end
11
!
He was safe, by his spells
12
, from sword of battle,
from edge of iron. Yet his end and parting
cm that same day of this our life
woeful
13
shoul d be, and his wandering soul
far off flit
14
to the fi ends' domai n
15
.
Soon he found, who in former days,
harmful in heart
16
and hated of God,
on many a man such murder wrought,
that the frame of his body failed hi m now.
For hi m the keen-souled ki nsman
17
of Hygelac
18
held in hand; hateful alive
as each to other. The outlaw dire
19
took mortal hurt; a mi ghty wound
showed on his shoulder, and sinews
20
cracked,
and the bone-frame
21
burst. To Beowulf now
di e glory was given, and Grendel thence
22
i eath-si ck his den in the dark moor sought
23
,
noi some abode
24
: he knew too well
that here was the last of life, an end
erf his days on earth. 30
Grendel
Text B1
I
o
15
20
25
Beowulf's warriors brandished
many a sword, inheritances
from the ancient days,
trying to protect their chief,
but that did no good: they
could not have known, those
brave warriors as they fought,
striking from all sides, seeking
to take Grendel's soul, that
no battle sword could harm him -
he had enchantment against
the edges of weapons.
The end of Grendel's life was
miserable, and he would travel
far into the hands of fiends.
Grendel, the foe of God, who had
long troubled the spirits of men
with his crimes, found that
his body could not stand against the
hand grip of that warrior.
Each was hateful to the other
alive. The horrible monster
endured a wound: the bone-locks
of his shoulder gave way,
and his sinews sprang out.
The glory of battle went to
Beowulf, and Grendel,
mortally wounded,
sought his sad home
under the fen slope.
He knew surely that
his life had reached its end,
the number of his days gone.
GLOSSARY
L earl: follower
2- brandish: hold and wave
1 blade ancestral: sword
4. fain: willing
;
shield: protect
- foe: enemy
keen: sharp
falchion: sword
9. fashi on: make
10. hideous: horrendous
11. fiend: wicked or cruel
being
12.spell: magic charm
13. woeful: painful
14. flit: fly
15. (fiends') domai n: hell
16. harmful in heart: evil
17. ki nsman: relative
18. Hygelac: king of the
Geats
19. dire: horrible
20. sinew: cord connecting
muscle to bone
21.bone-frame: skeleton
22. thence: from there
23. sought: looked for
24. noisome abode: dirty
and dark home
466FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - Anglo-Saxon Poetry
COMPREHENSION
1 What did Beowulf's followers try to do?
2 What did they not know about the monster?
3 What evil deeds had Grendel done in the past?
4 What part of Grendel's body did Beowulf wound?
5 Where did Grendel go after he was injured?
6 Did Grendel know that he was going to die?
<N1
ANALYSIS
1 Find expressions in Text B1 that are used to avoid
the repetition of frequently recurring terms.
Beowulf line 4 praised prince
line 20
Beowulf's line 1-2
followers line 6
Grendel line 5
line 8
line 10
line 22
sword line 2
line 8
line 9
2 Rhythm* is an important stylistic element in poetry
throughout all ages including the Anglo-Saxon
period. The Gunmere translation you are reading tries
to maintain some of the original rhythmic elements.
Listen again to the recording as you read the
following extract (the stressed syllables are in bold
type). Are the lines rhythmic?
Soon he found, who in former days,
harmful in heart and hated of God,
on many a man such murder wrought,
that the frame of his body failed him now.
3 A feature which regulated the rhythm of Anglo-
Saxon poety is the pause or caesura*. In original
transcripts of the poem this is marked by a space
while in the Gunmere translation it is represented by a
comma.
Tha come of more under misthleotum
then came from the moor, under the mist-hills
Grendel gotigan Codes yrre baer
Grendel stalking, he bore God's anger.
Find examples of lines in Text B1 where Gunmere has
tried to reproduce the original caesura by dividing the
line with a comma, colon, semi-colon or full stop.
AmoderndayBeowulf
preparestodobattle with
Grendel (fromthe film
Beowulf starring Christoph
Lambert (1999).
Beowulf 5
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Alliteration Now many an earl
of Beowul f brandi shed blade ancestral
One of the most i mportant styl i sti c el ements of Angl o-Saxon poetry is alliteration.
Al l i terati on is the repeti ti on of the same consonant sound at the begi nni ng or in the
mi ddl e of two or more words. Angl o-Saxon poetry was recited, often accompani ed by
music, in front of an audi ence. Alliteration gave the language a musical quality. It also
played the same role as rhyme i n later poetry; it hel ped the poet and the audi ence to
memori se the poem.
Alliteration is still widely used in modern English. Songs, nursery rhymes, newspaper
headlines and advertisements often contai n alliteration.
1 Underline other examples of alliteration in Text B1.
2 Examine the headlines below and find examples of alliteration.
Four-legged friend's
five mountain Marathon
SMALL SCREEN STAR
DVD format gives you souncTvision
+mmm m ^ . . . ^ _ ^
3 Find more examples of alliteration in headlines in English newspapers or in
advertisements.
4 Underline examples of alliteration in this verse from the Elvis Costello song Shipbuilding.
The result of this shipbuilding
Wi th all the will in the world
Diving for dear life
When we could be diving for pearls
It's just a rumour that was spread around town
A telegram or a picture postcard
: > Are there any examples of alliteration in songs that you know?
il legends have become very popular in today's computer games because of their mix of magic, adventure
conquest. The monsters, dragons, magic rings, capes of invisibility, secret potions and the motives of love,
si and vengeance have all been reproduced in these games to entertain today's players. Have you ever played
#these games? What were the features you enjoyed?
-k i
' J
BE M
4 6 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - Anglo-Saxon Poetry
Text B2
Beowulf Kills Grendel's Mother
m
BPS
I I
r
is M
^firaij
S il
'Mid
1
the battle-gear
2
saw he a blade triumphant,
old-sword of Eotens
3
, with edge of proof,
warriors' heirloom
4
, weapon unmatched,
- save only 'twas more than other men
to bandy
5
-of-battle could bear at all -
as the giants had wrought
6
it, ready and keen.
Seized then its chain-hilt
7
the Scyldings'
8
chieftain,
bold and battle-grim
9
, brandished
10
the sword,
reckless of life
11
, and so wrathfully
12
smote
13
that it gripped her neck and grasped her hard,
her bone-rings breaking: the blade pierced through
that fated-one's flesh: to floor she sank.
Bloody the blade: he was blithe
14
of his deed
15
.
Then blazed forth light. 'Twas bright within
as when from the sky there shines unclouded
heaven's candle. The hall he scanned.
By the wall then went he; his weapon raised
high by its hilts the Hygelac-thane
16
,
angry and eager. That edge was not useless
to the warrior now. He wished with speed
Grendel to guerdon
17
for grim raids many,
for the war he waged on Western-Danes
oftener far than an only time,
when of Hrothgar's hearth
18
-companions
he slew
19
in slumber
20
, in sleep devoured,
fifteen men of the folk of Danes,
and as many others outward bore,
his horrible prey. Well paid for that
the wrathful prince! For now prone
21
he saw
Grendel stretched there, spent
22
with war,
spoiled
23
of life, so scathed
24
had left him
Heorot's
25
battle. The body sprang far
when after death it endured the blow,
sword-stroke savage, that severed its head.
GLOSSARY
1. 'Mid (amid): in the middle
of
2. battle-gear: weapons
3. Eotens: ancient
Scandinavian tribe
4. hei rl oom: object that has
been handed down from
generation to generation
5. bandy: give and take
blows
6. wrought: shaped
7. hi l t: handle
8. Scyldings: descendants of
Scyld Shefing, founder of
the Geat dynasty
9. grim: serious
10. brandish: hold and wave
11. reckless of life: fearless for
his own safety
12. wrathfully: angrily
13. smote: hit hard
14. blithe: happy
15. deed: action
10
'... theScyldings'
chieftain, boldand
battle-grim ...'
16. thane: lord
17. guerdon: pay back,
recompense
18. hearth: fireplace
19. slew: killed
20. slumber: sleep
21. prone: lying flat
22. spent: exhausted
23. spoiled: devoid, without
24. scathed: injured, wounded
25.Heorot: Hrothgar's dining
hall
Beowulf 69
COMPREHENSI ON
1 Who made the sword that Beowulf found?
2 Why had other men been unable to carry it into
battle?
3 Which part of Crendel's mother's body did
Beowulf strike?
4 What happened that made it possible for Beowulf
to see the body of Grendel in the cave?
ANALYSI S
1 Find examples of alliteration in the text.
2 Weapons were an essential part of life in the
historical period in which Beowulf is set. Only men
who belonged to the higher classes of society could
possess a weapon. Slaves and servants were not
5 Why did Beowulf want to take further revenge on
Grendel?
6 How many of Hrothgar's men had Grendel killed?
7 Was Grendel still alive at this point?
8 How did Beowulf mutilate the monster's body?

allowed to have them. They were often personalised
with names and handed down from generation to
generation.
Find evidence in the text to suggest that weapons
were highly valued by Anglo-Saxon society.
WRI TERS WORKSHOP
A nother feature of A ngl o-Saxon poetry is the formul ae. These were wi del y used
compound nouns or short phrases that were synonyms for often repeated words like
'ship', 'sea', 'king' or names.
As the poems were often composed on the spot about a recent event, formul ae gave the
poet ti me to thi nk. The word 'ki ng' for exampl e coul d be replaced by:
beaga brytta =the ring giver sinces brytta =the treasure giver freowine =a gracious friend
1 What expressions are used in Text B2 to avoid the repetition of:
Beowulf: line 7: ; line 18: ; line 29:
Grendel's mother: line 12:
sword: line 1: ; line 3:
Formul ae are not si mpl y synonyms, as each of them stressed a di fferent aspect of the
thi ng described.
2 Look at both the texts you have read so far. Make a list of the formulae you have found
for Beowulf. What characteristics of the hero do they emphasise?
The most unusual formul ae are known as kenni ngs. These are metaphori cal phrases
that are used instead of a noun. For exampl e, a ship was a 'sea-wood' or a 'wave-floater',
a body was 'bone-house' and bl ood was 'war-sweat'.
3 Find a kenning in the texts you have read for:
- body (Text B1, line 25):
- sun (Text B2, line 16):
Write your own kennings for the following: winter, summer, school, love, home, money,
teacher, car.
Example: Christmas = snow-holiday
A status symbol is an object which shows that the person who owns it has a high social status. Beowulf's
magnificent sword is a status symbol because it shows that he is the greatest warrior of his day. In our society
there are many status symbols such as big cars, yachts or even the things we wear. Try to think of at least four
objects that are regarded as status symbols today.
OVER T O Y OU
Medieval Poetr
The Bailad
The following ballad is one of the best known traditional English ballads and has been sung in different versions,
over hundreds of years, right up to the present day.
Listen to it and answer the questions.
a. What sad event does the young man announce in
the opening stanza?
b. How does the weather reflect his state of mind?
c. What does the young man decide to do?
d. After how long does the ghost start to speak?
e. What does the young man want from her?
f. What will happen if the young man kisses her?
g. Do you think they will meet again and if so, when?
GLOSSARY
unquiet: restless,
agitated, anxious
slain: killed, dead
mourn: grieve
crave: desire very
strongly
clay: material from
which bricks and
pots are made
'My breath ...
strong': my breath
smells badly
yonder: over there
grove: wood
Is wither'd to a
stalk: all the petals
are dead and only
the stem is left
Q The Unquiet
1
Grave
Col d blows the wind to my true love
And gentl y drops the rain
I never had but one true love
And in Greenwood she lies slain
2
.
I 'll do as much for my sweetheart 5
As any young man may;
I 'll sit and mourn
3
all on her grave
For a twel vemonth and a day.
When the twel vemonth and a day is past
The ghost began to speak; 10
'Why sit you here upon my grave,
And will not let me sleep?'
'There's one thi ng that I want, sweetheart,
There's one thi ng that I crave
4
,
And that is a kiss from your lily-white lips, 15
Then I 'll go from your grave.'
'My breast it is as col d as clay
5
,
My breath smells earthl y strong
6
And if you kiss my col d clay lips
Your days they won't be l ong.' 20
(...)
'O down in yonder
7
grove
8
, sweetheart,
Where you and I did walk,
The first flower that I ever saw
Is wi ther'd to a stalk
9
.
The stalk is wi ther'd and dry, sweetheart, 25
And the flower will never return
And since I lost my own sweetheart,
What can I do but mourn?
When shall we meet again, sweetheart?
When shall we meet agai n?' 30
'When the autumn leaves that fall from the trees
Are green and spring up again
Are green and spring up agai n.'
The Ballad 9 Q B ^
INTRODUCTION Ballads are short fol k songs that tell a story. The word 'bal l ad' comes from the l ate
Latin ballare (to dance), so 'bal l ad' ori gi nal l y meant a song wi th a dance. They are anonymous works
composed i n simple l anguage by unl ettered authors and handed down oral l y from generati on to gene-
rati on. Singers who l earned the ballads often made changes to both the text and the tune and therefore
popular ballads exist in many di fferent versi ons. Ballads were very popul ar i n Engl and throughout the
Middle Ages.
Robin Hood and the Bishop of Hereford Text B3
Robin Hood is a legendary English outlaw. He and his men lived in a forest, which may
ha\ e been Sherwood Forest near Nottingham, from where they attacked and robbed rich
travellers. They became folk heroes because they did not injure their victims and never
tabbed from the poor.
Robin, with the help of one of his best men, Little John, invites the Bishop of Hereford
into Barnsdale Wood for a drink. The Bishop is in for a surprise.
Others they may tell you of bold
1
Robin Hood,
Derry, derry, down!
Or else of the barons bold,
But I'll tell you how they served
2
the Bishop,
When they robbed him of his gold. 5
Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down!
Robin Hood, he dressed him in shepherd's attire
3
,
Derry, derry, down!
.And six of his men also,
And, when the Bishop he did come by, 10
They around the fire did go.
We are but poor shepherds' quoth
4
bold Robin Hood,
Derry, derry, down!
And keep sheep all the year, 15
But we've resolved to taste to-day
of the best of our King's deer.'
Thou'rt
5
a merry fellow;' the old Bishop said,
Derry, derry, down! 20
'The King of thy deeds
6
shall know;
Therefore make haste
7
, come along with me,
For before the King shalt go!'
o
GLOSSARY -
1. bold: brave,
courageous
served: treated,
tricked
attire: clothing
quoth: said
Thou'rt: you are
deeds: actions
make haste: hurry up
fit
Thelegendof RobinHoodisnot basedonhistorical fact, although thereis
that in1230lawenforcersinYorkshiretriedtocaptureanoutlawcalledRobinHood.
Thethemeof rebellionagainst theunjust rulingclass, seeninthelegendsof Robin
Hood, waspopular inliterature throughout Europeat that time. Hehasbeenthesubjt
of several films, including RobinHood, Prince of thieves (1991), starring KevinCostnei
8. bugle horn: small
trumpet
9. score: twenty
10. trusty: loyal
11.Barnsdale: a wood
12. sup: eat
Robin Hood he set then his back to an oak,
Derry, derry, down!
His foot against a thorn,
And underneath from his shepherd's cloak
Pulled out a bugle horn
8
.
Robin put the small end against his lips,
Derry, derry, down!
And loudly a blast did blow,
Till full six score
9
of his trusty
10
men
Came a-running in a row.
'What's the matter, master?' says Little J ohn,
Derry, derry, down!
'You call us so hastily.'
'Oh! Here's the Bishop of Hereford,
For to-day he passes by.'
Robin Hood he took then the old Bishop's hand,
Derry, derry, down!
And led him to gay Barnsdale
11
,
And made him sup
12
at his board that night,
Where they drank wine, beer and ale.
25
30
35
40
45
Daniel Madise, Robin Hood
and His Merry Men (1845).
*
The Bal l ad 11
'Call me i n the reck'ni ng
13
' the Bi shop then said,
Derry, derry, down!
'I 'm sure it's growing hi gh'
'Lend me your purse, Sir' said Little J ohn,
'And I 'll tell you by and by:'
Little J ohn he took then the old Bishop's cloak,
Derry, derry, down!
And spread it on the ground
And from the Bi shop his portmanteau
14
He tol d
15
five hundred pound.
Little J ohn he took then the old Bishop's hand,
Derry, derry, down!
And called for the pipes to play,
.And made the Bi shop to dance in his boots;
He went gladly on his way.
50
55
60
65
13. in the reck'ning:
when it is time to pay
14. portmanteau: bag
15. told: took
COMPREHENSION
1 How did Robin disguise himself to trick the Bishop?
2 What did he tell the Bishop he was going to do?
3 Where did Robin and his men take the Bishop and
what did they do?
4 What did the Bishop offer to do in return for Robin
Hood's hospitality?
5 Did the Bishop realise that Robin Hood and his
men had stolen his money?
ANALYSIS
1 Identify the lines where the singer/ narrator speaks
durectly to the listener/ reader. What is the purpose of
these lines?
To introduce the story.
To provide biographical details about Robin Hood.
To introduce the singer.
To involve the listener/ reader by creating
expectations.
2 The story is told through narrative and dialogue*.
find examples of both.
3 What evidence is there in the text that Robin
Hood was well-loved and respected by his men?
<'.hich of the following does Robin Hood use to trick
Bishop?
Intelligence Flattery Violence
Bribery Blackmail Cunning
4 The Bishop may be seen as representing the church
of the Middle Ages. Is his behaviour in the story fitting
for a man of God?
5 The line 'Derry, derry, down!...' is repeated
throughout the poem. What effect does it have?
6 Some of the grammatical structures used in the
poem would be considered unusual in modern
English, for example 'Robin Hood, he dressed him'
(line 7) instead of 'Robin Hood dressed himself'. Find
other examples.
7 What is the rhyming scheme of the poem (omit
lines which are repeated: 'Derry derry down')?
Is it regular throughout?
S O Listen again to the recording of the poem. Is
the rhythm of the ballad regular?
Stock images
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Whi l e other forms of poetry are characteri sed by i ndi vi dual or ori gi nal fi gures of
speech, the bal l ad empl oys 'ready-made' i mages whi ch are referred to as stock images.
Exampl es of stock i mages are 'snow-whi te ski n', 'bol d kni ghts', 'merry mai dens'.
Stock i mages were used because:
they were easi er to memori se and gave the si nger more ti me to mani pul ate the
story of the bal l ad;
because they were fami l i ar to the l i stener and they were easi er to understand. As
bal l ads bel onged to an oral tradi ti on, l i steners di d not have ti me to i nterpret
ori gi nal or compl ex i magery.
Find an example of stock imagery in The Unquiet Crave and Robin Hood and the Bishop of
Hereford.
OVER TO YOU Link the words in A to the words in B to create stock images.
A B
milk red
rose white
ruby knight
cherry sword
blood ladies
lily water
gallant
royal
coral
Today in many respects pop songs have taken the place of ballads. Choose one or two pop
songs you know and examine the lyrics. Are there any strikingly original images? Can you
think of any stock phrases or images that are widely used in pop/ rock songs? ('Come on
everybody', 'Ooh baby', 'My heart went boom/ bang', etc.)
Ballads are social documents. They give us an insight into what life was like in England at the time they were
written. In five hundred years' time, when people listen to songs that were composed in the twentieth and
twenty-first centuries, what will they learn about us?
Try to think of at least one famous song and what it will tell people in 2500.
The Canterbury Tales - Geoffrey Chaucer 13
The Canterbury Tales
by Geoffrey Chaucer
A pen-picture is a detailed and accurate description of a person in words. Firstly, you describe the person
physically, and then you give details about his or her personality, interests and abilities.
Choose someone you know personally, or a famous person you know a lot about, and write a pen-picture as
follows:
STEP ONE - Fill in the following notes:
1 Name: 5 Body:
2 Age: 6 Personality:
3 Job: 7 Skills and abilities:
4 Face: hair, eyes, nose, mouth, ears 8 Likes and dislikes:
STEP TWO - Using the information in Step One, write a pen-picture. Paragraph one should cover points 1-5,
while paragraph two should cover points 6-8.
knight
INTRODUCTION Goi ng on pi l gri mages in Medi eval Engl and was a way of combi ni ng rel i gi on wi th
pleasure. Peopl e from many di fferent wal ks of life woul d form a group, travel by cart and on foot to a
hol y shri ne, stay there for a whi l e and then go back home together. There was a hol i day atmosphere
i bout pi l gr i mages because for
most peopl e it was the onl y ti me pRan of Owe
they coul d get away f r om the
drudgery of thei r dai l y routi ne.
In The Canterbury Tales a group of
ri l gri ms is on its way to visit one
of Engl and's most famous cathe-
dral s i n the souther n ci ty of
Canterbury. I t is a vari ed group
representi ng a good cross-secti on
: f English soci ety of the day.
Rcve pnoreaee
fRillcr
Sfnpman
Chauceronthe
roadwithsome
of hischaracters.
THE PROLOGUE
n The Prologue' we are introduced to the pilgrims individually and Chaucer writes a pen-
~ssire of each one of them. Several members of religious orders form part of the group. In
~ixts B4 and B5 we are introduced to two female characters who are connected with the
*
r
rld of religion: a Prioress, who is the head nun in a convent (priory), and a wealthy
nan who is - apparently - very religious.
: The Canterbury Tales werewritten in an archaic formof English which is difficult tounder-
Tliefollowing modem versions of Chaucer's texts werewritten by Nevill Coghill. TextBS shows
- $ original version alongsidethemodern version.
* 'f -J*
l ^ t l
' ^ D , , 14 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - Medieval Poetry
o
Text B4
Visual Link B7
- GLOSSARY
a
St Loy: A saint
who was rather
controversial
because he
became rich by
collecting
religious relics.
b
Stratford-atte-
Bowe:
The site of a
monastery near
London where the
monks and nuns
spoke a form of
Norman French
that was very
different from
classical French.
1. coy (Middle
English): quiet
2. oath: swearword
3. she sang a service:
she sang religious
songs
seemly: proper,
correct
daintily: delicately
After: in the style of
meat: table
well taught: polite
withal: as well
10. morsel: piece of food
11. zest: interest
12. sedately: calmly
13. straining: trying very
hard
14. counterfeit: imitate
15.stately bearing:
aristocratic posture
16. dealings: behaviour
17. solicitous: kind to
others
18. made it smart:
caused it pain
19. fair of spread: wide
The Prioress
There also was a Nun, a Prioress,
Her way of smiling very simple and coy
1
.
Her greatest oath
2
was only 'By St Loy!
a
,
And she was known as Madam Eglantyne.
And well she sang a service
3
, with a fine 5
I ntoning through her nose, as was most seemly
4
,
And she spoke daintily
5
in French, extremely,
After
6
the school of Stratford-atte-Bowe
b
;
French in the Paris style she did not know.
At meat
7
her manners were well taught
8
withal
9
; 10
No morsel
10
from her lips did she let fall,
Nor dipped her fingers in the sauce too deep;
But she could carry a morsel up and keep
The smallest drop from falling on her breast.
For courtliness she had a special zest
11
, is
And she would wipe her upper lip so clean
That not a trace of grease was to be seen
Upon the cup when she had drunk; to eat,
She reached a hand sedately
12
to the meat.
She certainly was very entertaining, 20
Pleasant and friendly in her ways, and straining
13
To counterfeit
14
a courtly kind of grace,
A stately bearing
15
fitting to her place,
And to seem dignified in all her dealings
16
.
As for her sympathies and tender feelings, 25
She was so charitably solicitous
17
She used to weep if she saw but a mouse
Caught in a trap, if it were dead or bleeding.
And she had little dogs she would be feeding
With roasted flesh, or milk, or fine white bread. 30
And bitterly she wept if one were dead
Or someone took a stick and made it smart
18
;
She was all sentiment and gentle heart.
Her veil was carried in a seemly way,
Her nose was elegant, her eyes glass-grey;
Her mouth was very small, but soft and red,
Her forehead, certainly, was fair of spread
19
,
Portrait of the Prioress fromthe
15th-century Ellesmere manuscript
of The Canterbury Tales.
The Canterbury Tales - Geoffrey Chaucer
!H&iilLk^'
Almost a span
20
across the brows
21
,1 own
22
;
She was i ndeed by no means undergrown
23
.
Her cl oak
24
,1 noti ced, had a graceful charm. 40
She wore a coral tri nket
25
on her arm,
A set of beads, the gaudies
26
tricked
27
in green,
Whence
28
hung a brooch
29
of bri ghtest sheen
30
,
On whi ch there first was graven
31
a crowned A,
And lower, Amor vincit omnia
32
. 45
20. span: the width of a hand
21. brows: eyebrows
22. own: say
23. undergrown: short
24. cloak: coat without sleeves
25. trinket: kind of rosary bracelet
26. gaudies: the eleventh
bead on a string of
rosary beads
27. tricked: decorated
28. whence: from which
29. brooch: piece of
jewellery
30. of brightest sheen:
very shiny
31. graven: engraved, cut
32. Amor vincit omni a:
Love conquers all
COMPREHENSION
1 What did people call the Prioress?
2 What language did she speak?
3 How did she behave at table?
4 What did she try to imitate?
5 Find information in the text about the following
traits of her physical appearance:
nose:
eyes:
mouth:
forehead:
height:
6 How does the Prioress show that she loved
animals?
7 It was against convent rules for nuns to uncover
their forehead. Did the Prioress respect the rule? Give
a line reference.
8 Describe the rosary beads which the Prioress wore
on her arm. What hung in the place of a crucifix?
ANALYSIS
1 The narrator's description of the Prioress's table
manners is very detailed. Underline the expressions
which suggest that the Prioress is very refined at table.
2 The narrator draws attention to the fact that the
Prioress does not drop the tiniest particle of food or
sauce and leaves no trace of grease on her glass. In
your opinion does this suggest that he admires the
Prioress's refinement or is he making fun of her
preoccupation with table manners?
3 Focus on the lines which refer to the Prioress's love
of small animals.
a. How does she react if she sees a mouse caught in a
trap? In your opinion, is her reaction fitting or is
the narrator making fun of her?
b. According to monastic rule, nuns could not keep
pets. Does the Prioress obey this rule?
c What does the Prioress feed her small dogs?
Considering the fact that many people died of
hunger in this period, is it fair to say that the Prioress
s more concerned about animals than men?
4 The Prioress does not respect the rule which stated
that nuns should cover their forehead. What does this
suggest about her attitude towards how she looks?
5 The golden brooch which hangs from the Prioress's
rosary beads was also against convent rules. Focus on
the inscription Amor vincit omnia. Considering what
you know about the Prioress do you think Amor refers
to sensual or spiritual love?
6 Find evidence in the text to suggest that the
Prioress was attracted by the upper social classes and
wished to imitate them.
7 'Eglantyne' was a popular name for heroines in
medieval romances. Why do you think people called
the Prioress by this name? Is it an appropriate name
for the head of a priory of nuns?
8 The Prioress's favourite exclamation is 'By St Loy'.
Saint Loy was accused of having inappropriate worldly
interests. Could the Prioress be accused of having the
same weakness? Refer to the text in your answer.
I D

$
, 16 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - Medieval Poetry
mm
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Irony I rony can be defi ned as saying somethi ng whi l e you really mean somethi ng else. It is
very common in every day speech (for exampl e, when we say 'that was a clever thi ng
to do' meani ng 'that was very fool i sh') and it is also widely used in literature. Writers
general l y use i rony to criticise a subject indirectly. They often pretend to sympathi se
with a character when they are, in fact, exposi ng their weaknesses.
Chaucer, for exampl e, gives the impression that he is charmed by the ladylike manners
and sophi sti cated appearance of the Prioress. However, whi l e he praises her he al so
i ncl udes detai l s whi ch he knows the reader wi l l fi nd unfi tti ng for a woman of her
posi ti on. The text, therefore, has two levels of meani ng: a superfi ci al level at whi ch
Chaucer expresses hi s admi rati on for the Pri oress and a deeper l evel at whi ch he
playfully makes fun of her.
I rony allows a writer to criticise in an i ndi rect way. The writer cannot be 'accused' of
attacki ng the subject as there is no cl ear evi dence of thi s in the text. Chaucer, for
exampl e, seems to praise the Prioress - he leaves it enti rel y up to the reader to fi nd
reasons to criticise her.
TASKS 1 Underline words or phrases in the text that suggest that Chaucer admires the Prioress.
2 Make a list of the aspects of the Prioress that you find inappropriate for a nun.
OVER TO YOU Write a short ironic text about someone who is familiar to your classmates, i.e. a famous
person, a teacher, a student.
STEP ONE- Write a list of five things that everybody knows to be true about the person in
question.
Example: 7. Heis almost always late for class
2. ...
STEP TWO- Write the opposite of each of the statements in Step One.
Example: 7. Heis never late for class
2. ...
STEP THREE- Write a short text that includes the points in Step Two and read them aloud
in class.
The Prioress has perfect manners and always behaves in an appropriate way when in the company of others.
Does this mean she is a perfect individual? Does the way we act in public automatically reveal what kind of
person we really are? Discuss with the rest of the class.
The Wife of Bath
1
Text B5
Q
A worthy woman from beside Bath city
Was with us, somewhat deaf
2
, whi ch was a pity.
In making cl oth she showed so great a bent
3
She bettered those of Ypres and of Ghent
4
.
In all the parish not a dame dared stir
5
Towards the altar steps in front of her.
And if i ndeed they did, so wrath
6
was she
As to be qui te put out of chari ty
7
.
Her kerchiefs
8
were of finely woven ground
9
,
1 dared have sworn
10
they weighed a good ten pound
The ones she wore on Sunday, on her head.
Her hose
11
were of the finest scarlet red
And gartered
12
tight; her shoes were soft and new.
Bold
13
was her face, handsome and red in hue
14
.
A worthy woman all her life, what's more
She's had five husbands, all at the church door,
Apart from other company in youth;
No need just now to speak of that, forsooth
15
.
And she had thri ce been to J erusal em,
Seen many strange rivers and passed over them;
She'd been to Rome and also to Boul ogne
16
,
St J ames of Compostel l a
17
and Col ogne
18
,
And she was skilled in wandering by the way
19
.
She had gap-teeth
20
, set widely, truth to say.
Easily on an ambl i ng
21
horse she sat
Well wi mpl ed
22
up, and on her head a hat
As broad as is a buckl er
23
or a shield;
She had a flowing mantl e that conceal ed
Large hips, her heels spurred
24
sharply under that,
In company she liked to laugh and chat
And knew the remedies for love's mi schances,
An art in whi ch she knew the oldest dances.
A good wif was ther of biside bathe,
But she was somdel deef, and that was
scathe.
Of clooth-makyng she hadde swich an
5 haunt,
She passed hem of ypres and of gaunt.
In al the parisshe wif ne was ther noon
That to the offrynge bifore hire sholde goon;
And if ther dide, certeyn so wrooth was she,
That she was out of alle charitee.
10 Hir coverchiefs ful fyne weren of ground;
I dorste swere they weyeden ten pound
That on a sonday weren upon hir heed.
Hir hosen weren of fyn scarlet reed,
Ful streite yteyd, and shoes ful moyste and
newe.
15 Boold was hir face, and fair, and reed of
hewe.
She was a worthy womman al hir lyve:
Housbondes at chirche dore she hadde fyve,
Withouten oother compaignye in youthe, -
But therof nedeth nat to speke as nowthe.
And thries hadde she been at jerusalem;
She hadde passed many a straunge strem;
At rome she hadde been, and at boloigne,
In galice at seint-jame, and at coloigne.
She koude muchel of wandrynge by the weye.
Gat-tothed was she, soothly for to seye.
Upon an amblere esily she sat,
Ywympled wel, and on hir heed an hat
As brood as is a bokeler or a targe;
A foot-mantel aboute hir hipes large,
And on hir feet a paire of spores sharpe.
30 In felaweshipe wel koude she laughe and carpe.
Of remedies of love she knew per chaunce,
For she koude of that art the olde daunce.
I
20
25
Visual Link B7
GLOSSARY
1. Bath: important centre for
the cloth trade in medieval
England
2. somewhat deaf: she will
later explain that this was
due to a blow she received
from her fifth husband
3. bent: natural talent
-S. Ypres and Ghent:
important Flemish weaving
centres
v stir: move
wrath: angry
7. charity: In the Middle
Ages people went up to
the altar in order of social
importance with gifts
which they made
themselves. Chaucer plays
on the expression 'out of
charity' which means very
angry and also that the
Wife of Bath would no
longer offer her gift to
the church
8. kerchiefs: head-coverings
9. ground: material
10.1 dared have sworn: 1 am
almost sure
11. hose: stockings
12. gartered: tied
13. Bold: proud
14. hue: colour
15. forsooth: to tell the truth
16. Boulogne: pilgrims went to
pray to the image of the
Virgin Mary
17. St J ames of Compostella:
shrine of St James in Galicia
in western Spain
18. Cologne: In Germany.
It housed the shrine of the
three wise men and St.
Ursula
19. wandering by the way:
this suggests that she did
not always stay on the
'straight and narrow
way' of the church
20. gap-teeth: wide spaces
between her front
teeth. It was believed
to be a sign of low
moral standards
21. ambl i ng: walking
22. wimpled: wearing a
covering for the head
and neck
23. buckler: a small
circular shield
24: spurred: with sharp
points

18 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - Medieval Poetry
COMPREHENSION
1 Fill in the table with details from the text about the Wife of Bath's physical appearance and way of dressing.
Face:..,
Teeth:.
Hips:...
Headkerchief:
Stockings: ....
Shoes:
Hat:
Mantle:
Spurs:
2 What was the Wife of Bath's profession?
3 How many times had she been married?
4 Underline the names of places she had visited on pilgrimages.
ANALYSIS
1 Certain information in the text seems to suggest
that the Wife of Bath was a religiously devout person.
In which lines does the narrator say that she:
- attended mass and communi on: lines
- was married in church: lines
- went on many pilgrimages: lines
The narrator adds details that make the reader
question the Wife of Bath's sincerity and devotion.
Find information that contradicts the image of the
Wife of Bath as a holy and devout christian. Complete
the following sentences:
- she attended mass and communion but...
- she was married in church. However...
- she went on many pilgrimages because ...
2 The medieval church ordered women to cover
their hair so that it would not distract men during the
services. Did the Wife of Bath choose her headwear
out of a sense of modesty? Find other examples of her
vanity and desire to be at the centre of attention.
3 In lines 18, 23 and 32 the narrator makes indirect
references to the fact that the Wife of Bath led an
active sex life. Explain what is implied in each of
these sentences.
4 In the Middle Ages gapped-teeth were considered
to be a sign of:
boldness falseness
gluttony lasciviousness
Which of these characteristics does the Wife of Bath
have?
5 Which adjective is used twice to describe the Wife
of Bath? Is it used straightforwardly or ironically?
6 Although the narrator seems to imply that the Wife
of Bath has many defects do you get the impression
that he dislikes her? Which of the following may be
considered to be her saving graces? Justify your
choices by referring to the text.
She is:
independent extrovert
sociable generous
attractive sincere
successful H wealthy
sexually active strong-willed
modest vivacious
TASK
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
The term rhyme refers to the effect that is created when a poet repeats the same
sounds at the end of two or more lines. Rhyme has several i mportant functi ons:
it adds a musical quality to the poem;
it shows the poet's ability to mani pul ate the language;
in poems such as The Canterbury Tales, whi ch was composed for performance before
an audi ence, it serves the i mportant functi on of i ndi cati ng where one line ends and
another begins and it makes the poem easier to remember for both the performer and
the audi ence.
Listen to the recording of the original Middle English version of The Wifeof Bath and
read the text. Work out the rhyming scheme by writing the same letter of the alphabet
beside words that rhyme. Is the rhyming scheme regular throughout?
Rhyme in a poem or song is most effective when it is original and striking. Rhymes that are
worn or predictable ('love/ above', 'my lady/ my baby') are tiring and uninteresting. Read the
song lyrics and poem below and say whether you think the rhymes are worn or effective:
There was somethi ng in the air that ni ght
The stars were bright, Fernando
They were shi ni ng there for you and me
For liberty, Fernando
(Fernando, by Abba)
Here lies my wife: here let her lie
Now she's at rest, and so am I
(J ohn Dryden)
Think of songs or poems that you know where the rhyme is worn or effective.
?
DD
When the Wife of Bath goes to church it is as if she is taking part in a fashion parade. Can you think of other
occasions when people overdress because they want to impress peopl e? Think of an exampl e and tell your
dassmates.
Thepilgrims havingameal (engraving
byWynklyndeWrde, 1478).
On their way to Canterbury thepilgrims stop at an inn. The
owner of the inn asks each of thepilgrims to tell two stories
on their way to Canterbury and another two stories on their
way back. Theperson who tells thebest tale will have a free
dinner. Thereare twenty-four tales in all because thework is
incomplete.
ThefoxaddressesChanticleer.
The Nun's Priest's Tale
TheNun's Priest's Taleis an English version of a fable that was well-known all over Europe. Theproud, vain cock, the dom-
ineering hen and the crafty, shrewd fox wereeasily recognisable stock characters that English and continental audiences
could identify with.
A cock called Chanticleer lives in a farmyard with his seven
wives. One night he has a nightmare in which he sees an
animal coming toattack him. Heis very frightened and wakes
up shouting and sweating but oneof his wives, Lady Pertelote,
accuses himof being a coward ( Text B6).
One day a fox enters the farmyard intent on capturing
Chanticleer. He tells the cock that he has the most beautiful
voice he has ever heard and asks him tosing, fust as he starts
singing, the fox grabs him by the throat and carries him off
( Text B7).
Thefarmer's wife, her daughters and all thefarm animals run
after thefox in an attempt tosave Chanticleer and, just when
all seems lost, he manages to escape. He tells the fox that he
should stop and tell thecreatures who arechasing him togive
up because they will never beable tocatch him. Thefox thinks
this is agood idea, but themoment he stops, Chanticleer flies
up tothesafety of a tree. Hehas learnt his lesson and will never
listen toaflatterer again.
Lady Pertelote Speaks her Mind ii
Lady Pertelote accuses Chanticleer of being a coward because he is frightened of his dream.
'For shame
1
' she said, 'you ti morous pol troon
2
!
Alas, what cowardice! By God above,
You've forfeited
3
my heart and lost my love.
I cannot love a coward, come what may.
For certainly, whatever we may say, 5
.All women l ong
4
- and O that it mi ght be! -
For husbands tough
5
, dependabl e and free,
Secret, discreet, no niggard
6
, not a fool
That boasts
7
and then will find his courage cool
At every trifling
8
thi ng. By God above, 10
How dare you say for shame, and to your love,
That anythi ng at all was to be feared?
Have you no manl y heart to match your beard?
tad can a dream reduce you to such terror?'
u s Q
Visual Link B7
GLOSSARY -
1. For shame: you
should be ashamed of
yourself
2. poltroon: coward
3. forfeited: given up,
lost
4. long (for): want
5. tough: strong
6. niggard: mean person
7. boasts: talks proudly
8. trifling: unimportant,
insignificant
COMPREHENSION
1 How does Lady Pertelote react when Chanticleer
pfs her of his terrifying dream?
2 What kind of husbands do all women want
according to Lady Pertelote?
3 What kind of 'fool' does Lady Pertelote detest?
4 Why does Lady Pertelote accuse Chanticleer of
having no manly heart?
ANALYSIS
1 When Lady Pertelote discovers what has frightened
Chanticleer she abuses him verbally. Find line
references in the text.
ifre calls him insulting
names.
Line(s)
She compares him to a
fool.
Line(s)
She tells him she can
TO longer love him.
Line(s)
5he accuses him of not
laving a brave heart.
Line(s)
2 Lady Pertelote's speech is punctuated by
^damations. Underline some examples in the text.
What do they reveal about her feelings?
3 -tow would you describe Lady Pertelote's attack?
Savage Exaggerated Humiliating
-easonable 8 Appropriate Heartless
Other:
: _ d you agree that the text reverses traditional male
": "emale roles? Does this make the text humourous?
4 The Nun's Priest's Tale is an example of a beast
fable*.This narrative form features animals that
behave and speak as human beings.
Which of the following adjectives that are usually
associated with human beings would you use to
describe Lady Pertelote?
Nagging Independent Strong-willed
Courageous Confident B Insensitive
Other:
Discuss you choices with your classmates.
Listen again to the recording of Text B6.
Is it rhythmic? Find examples of end of line words
that rhyme.
Sf
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Iambic
pentameter
TASKS
I ambic pentameter is the most common rhythm pattern in English poetry and it was
first used in English by Geoffrey Chaucer. The modern version of the poem whi ch you
have read, by and large, mai ntai ns the original metre.
Listen to the recording of the lines from the poem. Number the syllables and mark
the unstressed syllables " and the stressed syllables '.
Example:
>r- *
xm
| 'For | shame' | she | said, | 'you | tim | o | rous | pol | troon! |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
| A | las | what | cow | ard | ice! | By | God | a | bove, |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
You've forfeited my heart and lost my love.
I cannot love a coward, come what may.
j
Chaucer was also the first Engl i sh writer to use heroic couplets: two l i nes of i ambi c
pentameter that rhyme. Thi s pattern of rhythm and rhyme became very popul ar in
English literature and was used, among others, by Shakespeare, Dryden and Pope.
OVER TO YOU
2 Write the same letter of the alphabet (A, B, C, etc.) next to the line ending with the same
rhyme. Is the rhyme scheme regular throughout?
Chaucer originally intended his work to be recited in front of an audience. How do you think
the strong and regular rhythm and rhyme schemes would have helped the performance of
the work?
Quarrelling husbands and wives are frequently used to add humour to books, films, etc. Can you think of any
other examples of warring couples that have made you laugh?
Chanticleer's Narrow Escape
The fox, whose name is Sir Russel Fox, has just asked Chanticleer to sing for him.
This Chanti cl eer stood hi gh upon his toes,
He stretched his neck, hi s eyes began to close,
His beak to open; wi th hi s eyes shut ti ght
He then began to sing wi th all his mi ght
1
.
Sir Russel Fox then l eapt
2
to the attack,
Grabbing his gorge
3
he fl ung
4
hi m oe'r his back
And off he bore
5
hi m to the woods, the brute
6
,
And for the moment there was no pursuit
7
.
(...)
Sure never such a cry of l amentati on
Was made by ladies of hi gh Trojan stati on
8
,
When I l i um
9
fell and Pyrrhus
3
with his sword
Grabbed Priam by the beard, their king and lord,
And slew
10
hi m there as the Aeneid tells,
As what was uttered
11
by those hens. Thei r yel l s
12
Surpassed them all in pal pi tati ng
13
fear
When they behel d
14
the rape
15
of Chanti cl eer.
Dame Pertelote emi tted sovereign shrieks
16
That echoed up in anguish to the peaks
Louder than those extorted
17
from the wife
Of Hasdrubal
b
, when he had lost his life
And Carthage all in flame and ashes lay.
She was so full of torment and di smay
18
That in the very flames she chose her part
And burnt to ashes with a steadfast
19
heart.
O woeful
20
hens, louder your shrieks and hi gher
Than those of Roman matrons
21
when the fire
Consumed their husbands, senators of Rome,
When Nero
c
burnt thei r ci ty and their home,
Beyond a doubt that Nero was thei r bal e
22
!
Text B 7
10
15
20
25
GLOSSARY -
In Virgil's Aeneid,
Pyrrhus kills Priam
while Troy is being
destroyed.
Hasdrubal was king
of Carthage in 146
BC, when it was
destroyed by the
Romans.
Nero was accused of
starting the fire that
destroyed Rome in
AD 64.
9.
mi ght: strength
leapt: jumped
gorge: throat
flung: threw
violently
bore: carried
brute: a cruel person
pursuit: chase
high Trojan station:
the upper classes in
Troy
I lium: Troy
10. slew: killed
11. uttered: shouted
12. yells: shouts
13. palpitating: agitated
14. beheld: saw
15.rape: capture
16. emitted sovereign
shrieks: screamed like
a queen
17. extorted: obtained,
heard
18. dismay: fear
19. steadfast: loyal
20. woeful: very sad
21. matrons: women
22. bale: destruction
COMPREHENSION
1 How did Chanticleer prepare himself to sing?
2 Why did he prepare himself so elaborately?
3 Why did Sir Russel Fox ask Chanticleer to sing
before his attack?
4 How did Sir Russel Fox carry Chanticleer away?
5 Where did he take his victim?
6 What did the hens start to do when they saw
Chanticleer being carried away?
7 What was Lady Pertelote's reaction to what had
happened?
ANALYSIS
1 The text is based on comparisons. Fill in the table below.
1 The hens l .a
I .b
2 The yells of the hens 2.a 2 The yells of the hens
are/ is compared to
2.b
3 Lady Pertelote 3
4 The shrieks of Lady Pertelote 4
2 Beast fables are often told to teach people how they should behave. What human weakness does the story of
Chanticleer warn against? How would you sum up the moral lesson of the tale?
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Mock heroic
OVER TO YOU
The mock heroi c form of sati re adapts the elevated heroi c style of classical epic poems
to a trivial subject. In Text B7 Chaucer compares the ani mal s in the farmyard to famous
Greek and Latin figures.
Underline words and expressions in the text that refer to people of high social standing.
Example: (linelO) ladies of hi gh Trojan station
What effect does comparing the farmyard events to momentous occasions in classical
literature have on the text? It makes it more:
P poetic comic elevated in tone ridiculous serious
Discuss your opinions with classmates.
Chaucer, in a humorous way, compares Chanticleer's abduction to the fate of Priam, Hasdrubal and Nero. The
farmyard is in the same state of confusion as Troy, Carthage and Rome when they were destroyed. If Chaucer
were writing today he could refer to the destruction of many more cities over the last seven hundred years. From
your knowledge of history write the names of four cities and when they were destroyed.
Writers' Gallery - Geoffrey Chaucer
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
(1340-1400)
WRITERS' GALLERY
Family Geoffrey Chaucer
was born some time between
1340 and 1345. We do not know the exact date. His fami l y
bel onged to the emergi ng mi ddl e class and his father was a
wealthy wine merchant in London. He received a good education
and whi l e still a boy he became a page to Princess Elizabeth,
daughter-in-law of the king, Edward III.
The army Chaucer joined the army and fought in France during
the Hundred Years' War. He was captured and held prisoner until
the king ransomed hi m. He took part in the peace negotiations
with France in 1360 and clearly served the king well, since he was
defined as a well-beloved personal attendant and granted a life
pension.
Travels In 1366 he married Philippa de Roet, a noblewoman and sister-in-law of a powerful man,
J ohn of Gaunt, who became Geoffrey's patron. From 1368 onwards Geoffrey travelled in Europe on
di pl omati c mi ssi ons. He visited Genoa and Florence where he became acquai nted with I talian
.iterature and in particular with the works of Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio.
Career In 1374 he was appointed Controller of Customs of Wools, Skins and Hides, a post he held
for twelve years. In 1386 he started a pol i ti cal career and represented the county of Kent in
Parliament. At that time he was also a J ustice of the Peace. He was appointed Clerk for the King's
'Vorks (the person who oversees building work in progress) first at Westminster, then at Windsor and
the Tower. For the last ten years of his life Chaucer retired. Throughout his life he had a comfortable
standard of living and he col l ected over sixty books. This was an impressive library before the
invention of printing, when books were rare and expensive. He took a lease on a house in the garden
: f Westminster Abbey, where he worked on his masterpiece, The Canterbury Tales.
Hedied on 25th October 1400 and was buried in a chapel of the Abbey which has since become
known as 'Poets' Corner'.
TASK
Trueor false? Correct the false statements,
a. Geoffrey Chaucer lived in the fourteenth
century.
: He was born into a poor illiterate family,
c. [Xiring his life he was a soldier, a diplomat, a
civil servant, a politician, a poet.
d. He died when he was around fifty-five or sixty
years old.
e. He is buried in Westminster Abbey, in what is
called Poets' Corner.
WORKS
Chaucer's work is generally divided into three periods:
The French period (up to 1370) Chaucer's early works are based
-rly on French models. His chief work during this time was the Book of the Duchess, an allegorical
.-nt written in 1369 on the death of Blanche, wife of J ohn of Gaunt, his patron.
mm..
MM
i mm- m m
The I talian period (up to c.1387) Chaucer's work was then i nfl uenced by I talian literature,
particularly by the works of Boccaccio and Dante. His major works in this period were:
The Parlement ofFoules, a medieval beast fable which tells of the mating of fowls on St Valentine's
Day and is believed to celebrate the betrothal of Richard II to Anne of Bohemia.
The House of Fame, which recounts the adventures of Aeneas after the fall of Troy and was influenced
by Dante's Divine Comedy.
Troylus and Criseyde, which combines an episode from the Iliad and elements of Boccaccio's version
of the same episode. It is still considered one of the great love poems in the English language.
The Legend of Good Women, which looks at love from a female point of view and recounts stories of
women, such as Cleopatra, who died for love. In this work Chaucer uses for the first time the heroic
couplet*, iambic pentameter* in rhyming pairs which he later used in The Canterbury Tales.
The English period In Chaucer's final period he wrote his masterpiece, The Canterbury Tales, and
achieved his fullest artistic power.
wm
THE CANTERBURY TALES
This unfinished poem of about 17,000 lines was written mostly
after 1387 and is widely considered to be one of the most brilliant
works in all literature. The poem introduces a group of pilgrims who are journeying from London to
the shrine of Thomas a Becket at Canterbury. They meet at the Tabard I nn in Southwark, London,
where the host, Harry Bailly, proposes that they have a storytelling competition. The best storyteller
will be given a free supper on his or her return to London. Chaucer originally planned that the work
should contai n 120 tales, four for each pilgrim, but at the time of his death he had only written
twenty-four and some of them were not complete.
The Prologue The pilgrims are described in the General Prologue; together, they represent a wide
cross-section of fourteenth-century English life, although the nobility and the poor are missing as
they would not have taken part in this type of group pilgrimage.
- -
$!0&guc
The Tales The tales are structured as a series of interlinked stories. Each tale is preceded by a pro-
logue in which the storyteller speaks about himself. The themes of the tales vary from the spiritual to
the earthy and humorous.
The pilgrims are often ill-
mannered and quarrelsome
and frequentl y i nterrupt
and criticise each other. The
Miller, for exampl e, tells a
story about an ageing car-
penter whose young wife is
unfai thful to hi m. The
Reeve, who is a trained car-
WilliamCaxton's Canterbury Tales
(1478), BritishLibrary.
Writers' Gallery - Geoffrey Chaucer
penter, retal i ates wi th a tal e about a mi l l er who is al so betrayed by hi s wi fe. Many of the tal es
counterbal ance or give another poi nt of view to the ideas presented in the preceding tale. The tales
permit open dialogue between people from different levels of society.
The pilgrims' tales include a variety of medieval genres that range from humorous beast fables* to the
serious homi l y or sermon.
Why it is a masterpiece The Canterbury Tales is a masterpiece for numerous reasons:
it is written in English in a period when it was a forgone concl usi on that all serious writing had to
be done in Latin or French. Chaucer himself was fluent in both these languages as well as in I talian;
it is a valuable social document as it gives us an i nsi ght i nto a cross-section of fourteenth-century
English society;
it i ncl udes experi mentati on with rhyme and rhythm patterns that greatly affected the literature
that followed;
it contai ns a cast of memorabl e characters that are brought to life by Chaucer's superb powers of
characteri sati on.
It is for these outstandi ng achi evements that Chaucer is generally regarded as the father of English
poetry. The Canterbury Tales was one of the first works to be printed by Wi l l i am Caxton's revol uti on-
ary printing press in 1478, and it has never been out of print since then.
TASKS
1 Answer these questions.
a. What is Chaucer's most important work from
the French period?
b. What literary genre does The Parlement of Foules
belong to?
c. Who is the protagonist of The House of Fame?
4. Which of Chaucer's poems is considered to be
one of the best love poems in English literature?
. Which famous Egyptian queen is one of the
characters of The Legend of Good Women?
2 Cross out incorrect statements.
The Canterbury Tales...
a. is a poem written in iambic pentameter.
b. was written in the later stages of Chaucer's life.
c. is unfinished.
d. is about fourteenth-century English aristocrats.
e. should have included 120 tales, according to
the original plan.
f. was originally written in Latin and translated
into English by Chaucer.
J Use the mind map to prepare a short talk about Chaucer's life and works.
Army
M
i d
,
dl e c l as
j -< t - Travel s
background \ I
Political career
Literary career
/ \
French period u Englis h period:
Italian period TheCanterbury Tales
-Patron: john of Gaunt
Buried in Poets' Corner
BBBD DD
Look at this list of abstract concepts:
Good Evil Beauty
Fear Greed Wealth
Kindness Intelligence Power
Find photographs from newspapers or magazines that exemplify one or more of these concepts. For example, a
military parade might represent power, while a huge yacht might represent wealth. Explain your choices to the class.
mam
Everyman
INTRODUCTION The ai m of Medi eval Drama was to entertai n and i nstruct. An exampl e of thi s
di dacti c form of theatre was the Moral i ty pl ay whi ch became extremel y popul ar duri ng the fourteenth
century. Moral i ty pl ays were i ntended to teach pri nci pl es and val ues. The characters i n the pl ays
personi fi ed abstract concepts such as greed, l azi ness and ki ndness. They debated moral issues and made
suggesti ons about how peopl e shoul d live.
Everyman, wri tten i n 1500, is one of the fi nest exampl es of medi eval Moral i ty pl ays.
THE STORY
God is angry because Everyman, who rep-
resents mankind, is more concerned with
material goods than spirituality. He sum-
mons Death and tells him to force
Everyman to justify how he has lived.
Everyman looks for friends who will stand
by him in this hour of need. He asks
Kindred (family) and Wealth to keep him
company but they immediately abandon
him. Strength, Beauty, Intelligence and
Knowledge all help Everyman along the
way, but it is Good Deeds alone that
accompanies him on his final journey
towards death.
A sixteenth-century
woodcut of Everyman.
Everyman
15
Everyman's Salvation KME! Q
This scene is taken from the end of theplay. The text is a modern version taken from a
recent production.
EVERYMAN: O J esu, help! All hath
1
forsaken
2
me.
GOOD DEEDS: Nay
3
, Everyman; I will bi de
4
with thee
5
.
EVERYMAN: Gramercy
6
, Good Deeds
7
! Now may I True friends see.
Knowledge, will ye
8
forsake me also?
KNOWLEDGE: Yea
9
, Everyman, when ye to Death shall Go; But not yet. 5
EVERYMAN: Gramercy.
Take exampl e, all ye that this do hear or see,
How they that I loved best do forsake me,
Except my Good Deeds that bi deth truly.
GOOD DEEDS: All earthly thi ngs is but vani ty; 10
Beauty, Strength, and Discretion do man forsake,
Foolish friends, and ki nsmen
10
, that fair spake
11
-
All fl eeth
12
save
13
Good Deeds, and that am I.
EVERYMAN: Have mercy on me, God most mighty.
GOOD DEEDS: Fear not; I will speak for thee.
EVERYMAN: Here I cry God mercy.
GOOD DEEDS: Let us go and never come again.
EVERYMAN: I nto thy hands, Lord, my soul I commend;
(In manus tuas, of mi ghts most
For ever, commendo spiritum meum)
[Hesinks into his grave]
KNOWLEDGE: Methi nketh
14
that I hear angels sing.
ANGEL: Thy reckoni ng
15
is crystal-clear.
Now shalt thou i nto the heavenl y sphere.
Where all ye shall come
That l i veth
16
well before the judgement day.
[Enter DOCTOR]
DOCTOR: Ye hearers, take it of worth, old and young,
And forsake Pride, for he deceiveth you in the end;
And remember Beauty, Five Wits, Strength, and Discretion.
They all at the last do every man forsake,
Save his Good Deeds there doth
17
he take.
For after death amends may no man make
18
.
THUS ENDETH THIS MORAL PLAY OF EVERYMAN
20
25
30
Visual Link B5
GLOSSARY
1. hath: have
2. forsaken: abandoned
3. Nay: no
4. bi de: stay
5. thee: you
6. Gramercy: thank you
7. Deeds: actions
8. ye: you
9. Yea: yes
10. ki nsmen: family
11. spake: spoke
12. fl eeth: run away
13. save: except
14. Methi nketh: I thi nk
15.reckoni ng: admission
of things you have
done
16. l i veth: live
17. doth: does
18. amends may no
man make: man
cannot atone for his
sins

COMPREHENSION
1 Why does Everyman thank Good Deeds?
2 Does Knowledge abandon Everyman immediately?
3 Which 'earthly things' are of little use to a man
when he faces death, according to Good Deeds?
4 Why does Good Deeds tell Everyman not to fear?
5 What makes Knowledge believe that Everyman has
gone to heaven?
6 Who, according to the angel, will enter the
'heavenly sphere' on the judgement day?
7 Why is it important that a man has Good Deeds to
take with him when he dies, according to the Doctor?
30 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - Medieval Drama
ANALYSIS
1 In his final speech the doctor speaks directly to the
public: 'Ye hearers, ...'.
Find three other examples where characters address
the audience.
Everyman: lines
Deeds: lines
Angel: lines
How do these direct addresses add to the didactic
nature of the text?
2 Would you consider the language used in the
to be
simple and straightforward?
elevated and poetic?
For what type of audience do you think this kind
play was performed?
3 Ci ) Listen to the recording and focus on the sou
features. Find exampl es of end of line rhymes a
alliteration.
Allegory
..^JESs - - fliSsljfej
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
An al l egory is a story, poem, picture, etc., in whi ch the characters and events not o
have meaning in themselves but also convey a second spiritual or philosophical mean'
I n the case of Everyman, for exampl e, the character Everyman on one level is simply
man facing death who has to account for how he has lived hi s life. On a second, more
phi l osophi cal level, Everyman stands for all men and the problems he faces are those
manki nd in general:
level 1 - an individual faci ng death
Everyman
level 2 - manki nd struggling with moral issues
Typical characteristics of an allegory are:
the presence of at least two levels of meani ng;
the personi fi cati on of abstract concepts such as virtues, vices, states of mi nd, etc.;
the representati on of historical personages and events;
the presentati on of moral or phi l osophi cal issues;
the i ntroducti on of humorous el ements.
Which of the elements of allegory listed above can be found in the excerpt from Everyman
you have read?
There are many different types of allegorical stories. Aesop's fables*, for example, or
parables* such as those told by Jesus are allegorical and therefore have more than one level
of meaning. Do you know any allegorical stories? If so, can you explain the different levels of
meaning?
You do a good deed when you help someone without expecting anything in return. A small one would be to help
an old person carry heavy bags home from the supermarket. A big one would be to donate most of your savings
to a charitable organisation. Some people say that in our commercialised world there are fewer good deeds than
in the past. Do you agree?
Give examples of good deeds that you know people do or of good deeds that you would like to see people do.
fly;
The Context
Historical and Social Background
f &
Britain: From earliest times to 1066
for how l ong the wi ndswept i sl ands off the northwest coast of
aental Europe were uninhabited remains a mystery. When and why
t first human beings set foot on British and Irish soil must also remain a matter
r speculation. What is known is that those first adventurers were followed by
; identifiable groups of migrants who settled i nto their new home.
THE EDGE OF EUROPE
ent times Britain was inhabited by Iberians. Little is known of these
who left behi nd them the barrows (large mound graves made of
or stone) that can still be seen in the south of Britain and at Stonehenge, a
ous circle of stones.
BRITAIN'S FIRST INHABITANTS
n 2000 and 1200 BC, the Celts began to migrate to Britain from
west Germany. They spoke thei r own Cel ti c language, and were
as Britons.
Celts lived in round, wooden huts in small villages and were mainly farmers,
hkey organi sed themsel ves i nto tri bes wi th a ki ng or queen as l eader and
matri bal wars were very common.
| fet 55 BC J ulius Caesar landed in Britain having conquered Gaul. After a
of military campaigns, small Roman settlements were created in
ith and east.
a hundred years later, in AD 43, the emperor Claudius sent a large army to
Roman control over a wider area. The Britons, led by Queen Boadicea,
bravely but were defeated. Boadicea chose to drink poison rather than be
prisoner. All of England and Wales was subdued.
Romans introduced their civilisation and language and built towns, roads,
and temples. Many of the towns were originally army camps and the Latin
for camp, castra, has remained
ny modern town names ending
h\ aster', 'chester' or 'cester', such as
ster, Manchester or Leicester.
: of the Roman roads are still in
ace today,
t Romans tried for over a century to
er Cal edoni a, as they cal l ed
id. but they did not succeed. In
1
ai d. Emperor Hadrian ordered the
i g of a wall across the north of
Bae md to act as a great defensi ve
r to stop attacks from the Scottish
who were known as Picts.
THE SECOND WAVE
THE ROMANS
Queen Boadicea
94 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - The Context
NEW INVADERS
The Anglo-Saxons
Life in Anglo-Saxon
Britain
The thane
CHRISTIANITY
St Augustine
Visual Links B2 and B4
The Venerable Bede
THE VIKINGS
r h m SbM X*
f U thO r g
N +U* kYHt
w h n i j ch peos t
L MH h X K l ^f l i
b e m Ingoedaaey
Runes: charactersof anancient Germanic ]
alphabet usedthroughout Northern Europe,
Scandinavia, theBritishIslesandIceland.
At the beginning of the fifth century AD, Rome withdrew its legions
Bri tai n to the conti nent to defend the borders of the empi re ag
barbarian attacks.
New invaders saw the opportunity for expansion and began to settle on the '
the Angles, Saxons and J utes came from the regions of continental Europe
correspond to the modern territories of Holland, Southern Denmark and W
Germany. They gradually took over the area that is now known as England
land of the Angles) while the Celts retreated north and west to Scotland and'
The new settlers brought with them an extensive body of tribal culture in the
of alliterative verse. Some of them
also used a runic alphabet to carve
messages, mostly on wooden sticks,
but writing was not used extensively
until the conversion to Christianity,
when manuscri pt technol ogy was
introduced from Rome and Ireland.
The Angl o-Saxons lived in smal l
villages; their houses were made of
mud, wood and straw and were
grouped around the house of thei r
lord. The Anglo-Saxons liked fighting,
gambl i ng and dri nki ng. They also
liked music and singing. Their sense
of hospi tal i ty was renowned, as was the hi gh respect they showed for
women. Life expectancy was not very long. The climate of England was
and damper at that ti me and few people lived beyond the age of forty-l
Epidemics and famine contributed to the high rate of mortality.
The 'thane' was the most important man in the village; he kept order and
hi s peopl e obey the law. There were no pri sons, and puni shment
according to the crime. Criminals were either mutilated, hanged, or comp
pay a sum of money called 'wergild'.
Bri tai n had been Chri sti an under the Romans, but the pagan
Saxons pushed Christianity westward and northward, where it survi
Wales, parts of Scotland and above all in Ireland. At the end of the sixth cen
Pope Gregory I sent a monk, Augustine, to bring Christianity back to Engl
Augustine established a Christian community in Canterbury and became the
Archbishop of Canterbury.
Churches were built all over the country and monks, whose simple mon
lives appealed to the common people, played a major role in the conversion]
the Anglo-Saxons.
With Christianity came Latin learning and the converted Anglo-Saxons prod"
academi c and sci enti fi c works of remarkabl e qual i ty for the peri od.
Venerabl e Bede, a scholar and hi stori an, wrote, in Latin, the first history^
Engl and. However, nearl y all the treasures of thi s gol den cul tural age wf
destroyed along with many monasteries by Britain's next invaders.
The Vikings, who came from Norway and Denmark, raided northern;
western Europe between the eighth and the ni nth centuries, carryi ngl B
anything of value they could find. During their raids the Vikings built t empoB
camps and their word for camp wik can still be found in modern place name*
such as Warwick and Norwich.
TheNorman i nvasi on was the last in British history, but it was by far the -| "HE MA K I N G
si gni fi cant, and its effects were to be felt for many centuri es after QF THE BRITISH NATION
l's hi stori c vi ctory at the Battle of Hastings. |
King Alfred
THE NORMANS
William the Conqueror
Visual Link B3
The most successful Vi ki ng i nvasi ons establ i shed settl ements al ong the north-
east coast. The Angl o-Saxons were unabl e to repel them and in 878 King Alfred
the Great si gned a treaty l eavi ng the Vi ki ngs i n control of northern Engl and
while he mai ntai ned power in the south.
The Vikings eventual l y bl ended in with the Angl o-Saxons and made i mportant
contri buti ons to the English language: for exampl e, nouns like skirt and sky and
pronouns like they and them are of Viking origin.
The power of the Angl o-Saxons was broken in AD 1066 by the Normans.
The Normans came ori gi nal l y from Denmark but after settl i ng on the
French coast they adopted French customs and a dialect of the French language.
The Norman ki ng Wi l l i am I (William the Conqueror) defeated the last Anglo-
Saxon ki ng Harol d II at the Battl e of Hasti ngs i n 1066 and took control of
southern England.
Sporadic resistance in the rest of the country was then crushed wi th the hel p of
advanced mi l i tary technol ogy i ncl udi ng moats and stone castles (Angl o-Saxon
castles were made of wood).
After the Norman conquest Angl o-
Saxon el ements of Engl i sh cul ture
survived pri mari l y among the l ower
cl asses, whi l e French and Lati n
elements predomi nated in aristocratic
circles. The animals tended by herders,
for exampl e, had Angl o-Saxon names
', lamb, pig) whi l e the fi ni shed
products served up on ari stocrati c
ubl es had names derived from French
beef, mutton, pork). I mportant aspects
of Angl o-Saxon l aw were, however,
rxorporated i nto English law.
TASK
I-iDOSe the correct option.
The early inhabitants of Britain, the Iberians, left behind
graves and a mysterious circle of stones erected
on the Salisbury Plain.
6 J J no trace of their culture and civilisation.
2 The Celts came from
* ! northern Italy around 400 BC and spoke Latin.
1J Germany and were called Britons.
1 ~~e Romans
* led by Julius Caesar landed in Britain in 55 BC.
: were defeated by Boadicea.
* (tomans conquered
1
southern and central Britain, where they built
towns and roads.
Sntain and defeated the Picts in Scotland.
5 The Anglo-Saxons
came when the Romans withdrew from Britain.
| ~b] defeated the Romans and took control of Britain.
6 Christianity was introduced by the
[a] Romans, then strengthened by St Augustine.
[b] Anglo-Saxons, who built churches and monasteries.
7 The Vikings
["a] invaded southern England, but soon left without
trace.
|~b~l came from Scandinavia and established
settlements along the coast of northern England.
8 The Normans
_aj led by King Harold II defeated the Vikings in 1066.
[~b] defeated the Anglo-Saxons at the Battle of
Hastings.
J FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - The Context
ENEMIES EVERYWHERE
The Hundred Years' War
Scottish resistance
I
Wales
THE SOCIAL ORDER
Britain 1066-1485: The Middle Ages
After the Battl e of Hastings the Normans took control of the whol e of
England, but they had to deal with threats from two sources: their fellow
countrymen in France and their rebellious Scots, Irish and Welsh neighbours.
At the begi nni ng of the Mi ddl e Ages, Engl and and France were al most one
country because many ari stocrats owned l and on both sides of the Channel ,
while the king divided his time between both. However, following a number of
wars, i ncl udi ng the Hundred Years' War, whi ch started i n 1337, Engl and
separated from France. The war was marked by victories and defeats that brought
about the loss or recovery of territories in France. In 1415 the English defeated
the French at the battle of Agincourt and won back Normandy, but the French,
led by the chari smati c French patri ot J oan of Arc, counterattacked. J oan was
captured and executed by the English in 1431. By 1453 the port of Calais was the
only possession England had in France.
Like the Romans, the Angl o-Normans had ambi ti ons to conquer Scotl and,
but despi te numerous attempts, they were unsuccessful . The Battl e of
Bannockburn (1314) marked the
ThefilmBraveheart
tellsthestoryof Scottish
resistancetoEnglish
invadersandthe
historic Scottishvictory
at theBattleof
Bannockburnin 1314.
hi gh poi nt in Scotti sh resi stance to
English aggression.
I rel and had been left al one for cen-
turies, until the Norman king Henry II
sent an army there in the el eventh
century. Although this expedition was
not very successful, it was significant
because it was the first time an English
government showed direct interest in
the neighbouring island.
For a long time Wales resisted Norman
attempts to bring it under control, but
by the end of the thi rteenth century
most resistance had broken down and
the Prince of Wales, the English king's
eldest son, ruled the country in the
English king's interests.
Li ke France, Engl i sh soci ety
adopted the feudal system and
there was strict di sti ncti on between
social classes.
The most powerful individual in the country was the king. He owned most of the
l and, was the leader of the army and coul d demand that the peopl e pay hi m
taxes. He made the laws with the help of advisers, and lived in a castle with his
closest followers, who made up the court.
Barons and lords were members of the aristocracy who were given land by the
king. They had almost absolute power in their territories.
Knights, merchants and yeomen made up the middle classes. The knights were
soldiers who fought for the lords and the king and were often rewarded with
land. The merchants were Britain's first businessmen and usually lived in towns.
The yeomen were farmers who owned small pieces of land.
The majori ty of the popul ati on were villeins or serfs, who were given a small
piece of land to work by a lord, but they did not own it. In return they had to give
most of what they produced to their lord and do any job he asked them to do.
H M
Ifr"-
Historical and Social Background 35
One tenth of the population were slaves. Unlike villains or serfs they had no land
to work and were owned by the lord, who used them as he wished.
Under the feudal system political power lay in the hands of the king. He
ruled through a system of patronage, whi ch meant that he gave land or
granted privileges to the people who were loyal to him and helped him in times
of need. The monarchy, however, could survive onl y through a constant supply
of money in the form of taxes, so the rel ati onshi p between the king and his
subjects was based on how much money the king wanted and how much people
were prepared to pay. An i mportant event i n the devel opment of thi s
relationship was the carrying out of the first census in English history during the
reign of King William I, in 1086. His officials went around the country and wrote
down the names of all the landowners and how much land they owned. In this
way the king knew how much tax to ask for from each individual. This census
became known as the Domesday Book.
THE SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT
~he nobles, who were the main contributors of money to the monarchy,
:elt that in return for their generosity they should have some say in the
xr'vernment of the country. Under pressure from them, King J ohn agreed to
::nsul t a representati ve counci l of the ari stocracy i n 1215. Thi s hi stori c
i zi eement was written down in a document known as the Magna Carta.
I n 1240, for the first time, the council of aristocrats which advised the king was
:nJ ed a 'parl i ament': Engl and was on the road of becomi ng the first and onl y
r.idiamentary monarchy in Europe.
- owever, tax money from the nobles was not enough to finance the upkeep of
the admi ni strati on and pay for the wars agai nst
r
rance; the mi ddl e cl asses were then asked to
contri bute as wel l . They compl i ed, but in 1349
kni ghts, yeomen and merchants uni ted to form the
Council of the Commoners and demanded, in turn,
to be consulted by the king when i mportant decisions
had to be taken.
From a si tuati on i n whi ch the ki ng enjoyed al most
absol ute power, by the end of the Mi ddl e Ages, two
councils, one made up of aristocrats and the other of
commoners, had a say in the runni ng of the country.
England became the first country in the world where
the principle that representatives of the people had a
right to parti ci pate in government was accepted. In
many ways the counci l s of the ari stocrats and
commoners were the prototype for today's House of
Lords and House of Commons.
The loss of power was not the only problem the monar-
chy had to face. Dynastic conflicts led to instability and
civil war in the second hal f of the fi fteenth century,
when two noble families fought each other to gain the
right to rule England. This confl i ct was known as the
Wars of the Roses because one facti on, the House of
York, had a white rose as their symbol while their oppo-
nents, the House of Lancaster, had a red rose. At the
r ittle of Barnet in 1471, the House of York eventually
n a decisive victory and secured the throne.
The Domesday Book
THE LOSS OF ABSOLUTE POWER
The Magna Carta
The first 'parliament'
The Council of the
Commoners
Read this extract from the Magna Carta (1215) (in modern English).
No ai d
1
shal l be col l ected in our ki ngdom wi thout the consent (of the Counci l ) except to ransom
person
3
, and to make our eldest son a kni ght, and once to marry our eldest daughter, and for thi s purpi
onl y a reasonabl e aid onl y shall be col l ected. (...) Furthermore we promi se that all (...) cities, towns, and
shall have all their liberties and privileges, and shall pay aids onl y with the common counsel of the
except in the three cases said above. (...)
We wi l l not for the future grant permi ssi on to any man to col l ect an ai d upon hi s free men save
ransomi ng hi s body, maki ng hi s el dest son a kni ght, and once marryi ng hi s eldest daughter, for whi d
reasonable aid onl y shall be col l ected. (...)
For a trivial
4
offence, a free man shall be fined onl y in proportion to the degree of his offence, and for a
offence correspondingly, but not so heavily as to deprive hi m of his livelihood
5
. I n the same way, a merchi
shall be spared his merchandi se, and a husbandman
6
the i mpl ements
7
of his husbandry
8
. (...) None of
fines shall be i mposed except by the assessment on oath of reputable men of the nei ghbourhood. (...)
No sheriff, constable, coroners, or other royal officials are to hold lawsuits that should be held by the royal ju:
KING J OHN
The 15th day of J une in the 17th year or our reign (1215)
GLOSSARY 3. our person: the king 6. husbandman: farmer
1. aid: tax 4. trivial: of small importance 7. i mpl ements: tools
2. ransom: set free 5. livelihood: means of living 8. husbandry: farming
TASKS
1 The extract focuses on two main issues. What are they?
2 Why do you think the barons felt compelled to force King John to make these promises?
Apart from the ki ng and the
nobl es, the greatest power in
Engl and in the Mi ddl e Ages was the
Church. In the el eventh century the
ki ng control l ed the Church and
appoi nted all the bishops, but in the
following centuries the Pope in Rome
gradually increased his influence and
took over the appoi ntment of
Church l eaders. Thi s l ed to confl i ct
between Church and State. Thi s
conf l i ct is best exempl i fi ed by the
rel ati onshi p between Thomas a
Becket, the A rchbi shop of Canter-
bury, and Ki ng Henry I I . The ki ng
and the A rchbi shop cl ashed over
jjj AscenefromBecket (1964), starring
RichardBurtonandPeter O'Toole.
THE CHURCH
where people should be tried - ecclesiastical or civil courts. Thomas refused to give
in and was murdered by Henry's knights in Canterbury Cathedral (1170).
Although the vast majori ty of the popul ati on could nei ther read nor write,
the Middle Ages saw the begi nni ng of an educati onal system in Engl and.
Monasteri es were the l eadi ng centres of cul ture, and the Church was the first
i nsti tuti on to set up school s, begi nni ng i n the el eventh century. The first lay
schools were opened by merchants in the towns some four centuries later. Oxford
and Cambridge universities were established as early as the thi rteenth century.
In modern terms, Engl and in the Mi ddl e Ages was a devel opi ng country
when compared to more economi cal l y advanced parts of Europe like Italy
and Flanders. English merchants fostered trade, especially in wool and texti l es,
and tended to live in towns. London, owing to its strategic posi ti on in the south
of the country, became a busy trading centre.
Many of the Angl o-Saxon laws were still applied throughout the Mi ddl e
Ages. For exampl e, vi cti ms of cri me were paid damages by offenders. The
Normans, however, added their own laws and the new system became known as
Common Law. Under Common Law, a new case was compared to similar cases
in the past and the judge then decided what to do in the new case. This system is
still in operati on in Britain today.
Life was very hard. In the Mi ddl e Ages over ni nety-fi ve percent of the
popul ati on lived in the country or in small villages. People lived off the
produce of the l and and, as the popul ati on increased, there was someti mes not
enough food for everybody. The average diet was very poor and people rarely ate
frui t or vegetabl es because frui t was thought to be dangerous to heal th and
vegetabl es were used onl y to season meat and soups. The resul ti ng l ack of
vi tami ns meant that disease was widespread.
One event, above all others, affected dai l y life. T hi s was the buboni c plague or
Bl ack Death, whi ch first broke out in 1348 and was not compl etel y eradicated for
centuries. It is estimated that one third of the popul ati on of late medieval England
was killed by the plague.
The Middle Ages was a period of slow change and devel opment in Britain.
When the first king of the Tudor dynasty, Henry VII, came to the throne in
1485, he found hi msel f at the head of a stable country that was about to embark
on a social and cultural renaissance.
EDUCATION
The role of the
monasteries
THE ECONOMY
THE LEGAL SYSTEM
The Common Law
DAILY LIFE
Visual Link B6
THE
The Black Death
Visual Link BS
EVE OF THE RENAISSANCE
TASKS
1 Match words and definitions.
1 Hundred Years' War
2 Domesday Book
3 Magna Carta
4 Black Death
5 Council of Commoners
6 Wars of the Roses
a Document giving the barons power and rights,
b Bubonic plague that ravaged Europe for centuries,
c Group of people from the middle classes who advised the king,
d First survey of the population in England.
e Series of conflicts between two noble families for the throne of England,
f Series of wars between England and France.
2 Write beside each event the century in which it took place.
Battle of Hastings Assassination of Thomas a Becket
Battle of Bannockburn Oxford and Cambridge universities established .
Failed expedition to Ireland Calais only English possession left in France
The English crown takes control of Wales Wars of the Roses
King John signs the Magna Carta Outbreak of Black Death
First census: the Domesday Book
Transcriptions by monks
BEOWULF
Beowulf, Texts B1 and B2
The setting
Visual Link B1
Historical content
PROSE
poems based on stories from the Old Testament. Cynewulf wrote poems about
the lives of the saints and apostles.
What remains of early Anglo-Saxon poetry today was written down by monks in
monasteri es from the end of seventh century onward. The monks often
eliminated pagan aspects of the works that contrasted with religion and added
elements of Christian morality.
F/ ET FE
mi ^! ].ix>V cym'44
Wnym gpflUMiWI .jkt>Vr &!
pte-me-W op fcyU \ -<Xf.u$ fcax^jl
Only about 30,000 lines of Anglo-Saxon
verse survive today. About ten percent of
this corpus is formed by the 3,182 lines of the
epic poem Beowulf, the oldest existing work of
literature in the English language. The Angles,
Saxons and Jutes took the story to Britain during
their fifth century invasions, then the story was
passed on from generation to generation until it
was eventually written down by an anonymous
writer, probably in the eighth century. The only
surviving manuscript of the poem dates from
the tenth century. It is currently housed in the
British Library in London.
The poem tells the story of the hero Beowulf in
his fights against supernatural creatures and
includes many references to other stories and
historical events. Most of the main action takes
pl ace in Geatl and (in Sweden) and on the
Danish island of Sjaelland (Zealand) during the
sixth century. However, the many digressions
extend the poem's geography to the rest of
Denmark, northern Germany, Poland and the
Low Countries.
Although there is no evidence that Beowulf himself ever existed, it seems that I
several poems were composed about the character. The poets obviously had a deep I
knowledge of Germanic history and even though Beowulf is a legendary figure the!
events of the poem occur in a real place and in a precise historical setting.
The oldest example of Anglo-Saxon prose is represented by laws written at 1
the begi nni ng of the seventh century. However, the most i mportant!
document from that peri od is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. I t was ori gi nal l y!
compiled on the orders of King Alfred the Great in approximately AD 890 andl
subsequently mai ntai ned and added to by generations of anonymous scri bes!
until the middle of the twelfth century. It is a detailed timeline of English history, I
whi ch includes i nformati on on agriculture, science, law, battles, religion and!
many other topics. It does not present a complete history of those times and it is
not one hundred percent accurate but it does give some idea of what happened]
in Britain over one thousand years ago.
LTUM ,0,1*511
<
&!( ;(Me- tej.1 '
(Cf=pinitf. lie]>.n" C|U>F1
p uniep. l>i>Unum mvnSuin \ a
o^Wi .Îvpylc ^
juiA- lyjulii fcokw- 50'Ur
fouf f"
4
'
,Efc| i coin* saws ("seif-bm jmi*5oj|
fcnbe- folctco^piu.-
lijule* liim |w3" 1
f bet {^"
The oldest existing copy of Beowulf
is a tenth-century manuscript
which miraculously survived a fire
that destroyed the library where it
was stored in the sixteenth century.
Some of the pages still bear the
marks of the fire. Today the
manuscript is housed in the British
Library, London.
TASK
Correct the following statements.
a. Nearly all modern English words derive from Old English words.
b. The very few examples of Anglo-Saxon poetry that have come down to us were written in manuscript form by
travelling minstrels called 'scops'.
c. The Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf is a mixture of fact and fiction.
d. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicleis an accurate historical account of the reign of King Alfred the Great.
The Li terary Background 41
ME A N WH I L E , E L SE WH E R E
LINK TO GERMAN LITERATURE: The Ni bel ungel i ed
One of the most famous European sagas to be composed in the same period as Beowul f is the Germanic epic poem
The Nibelungenlied (Song of the Nibelungs).
The Nibelungenlied was written down in old German by an anonymous scribe around AD 1200, but it dates from an
emiier period. The saga's characters belong to the Nibelung-Burgundian Germanic population, who settled between the
Rher Rhine and France in the fifth and sixth centuries AD. The Burgundians were exterminated by the Huns in 437.
The saga was told around fires at night and sung to the harp in the banqueting halls of kings and nobles. It was
known to all Germanic-speaking peoples in Germany and Scandinavia, as well as to the Angles and Saxons in Britain.
l i ke Beowulf, Siegfried, the hero of the saga, kills a dragon. By bathi ng in its bl ood, he acquires magi c powers
i nd becomes al most i nvi nci bl e. However, he also comes i nto possession of a treasure whi ch carries with it a
terrible curse: its owner will meet a vi ol ent death.
In the course of many adventures, Siegfried promi ses to marry Brunhi l d, queen of the Valkyries, but then
breaks his promise, and marries Kriemhild. Brunhi l d is furious and has Siegfried killed, but when he dies she
kills herself in despair.
Many years later, Kriemhild's second husband, Attila, king of the Huns, claims that Siegfried's treasure should
r t his, but Gunther, Kriemhild's brother, has hidden it at a secret location in the river Rhine (where, according
x legend, it is still hi dden today). I n the ensui ng battl e over the treasure between Attila and the Huns and
anther and the Nibelungs, Gunther and nearly all the Nibelungs are killed.
M desperati on at the death of her brother and the defeat of her peopl e, Kri emhi l d kills her two sons and
iermes them to her husband at the vi ctory banquet. She then murders hi m while he is sleeping and is herself
KSed by a kni ght who is horrified at what she has done.
TASK
Car you see any similarities between the legend of Beowulf and the legend of the Nibelungenlied? Make a list of the
ar mor elements. For example:
- They both belong to an oral storytelling tradition and were passed on from generation to generation until they were
fcufy written down.
iddle of the nineteenth century
Wagner, perhaps the greatest
"T of German opera, used The
enlied legend as the basis for his cycle
operas known collectively as Der Ring
tiungen.
C ^ Listen to one of the most famous pas-
i y from the opera The Valkyries. What
; land of emotions does the music evoke? Do
Lfou think it recreates the atmosphere of an
anic scene?
Bfou .vere asked to set the legend of Beowulf
T: -mjsic, what kind of music would you
- rose - heavy metal, acoustic folk music,
^crron c music, slow melodic music?
{to the world of music
Music fromThe Valkyries wasusedasthe
soundtrackinscenesfromthefilmabout
theVietnamwarApocalyps e Now.
Literature in the Middle Ages
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
MIDDLE ENGLISH
From Old English to
Middle English
Major changes
Printing
After the Norman i nvasi on three languages were spoken in Engl and.
The ruling Norman class spoke French, while English was the language of
the conquered Anglo-Saxons and Latin was the language of the Church
and scholars.
The English of this period was an unstable mixture of dialects. There were four
major dialects: Northern, East Midland, West Midland and Southern. It was the
East Midland dialect that eventually became the basis of the modern language.
This was because it was the dialect spoken in London, whi ch was becomi ng a
major commercial centre, and it was also the dialect of Cambridge and Oxford,
the two great centres of learning.
In what is referred to as the Middle English period (1150-1500) English underwent
momentous changes from both a grammatical and a lexical point of view.
During the Middle English centuri es noun and adjecti ve endi ngs gradually
disappeared. Grammatical gender also disappeared and gender in nouns related
only to the masculinity or femininity of living beings.
As the Anglo-Norman aristocracy eventually lost their ties with France, they
started to speak English but enri ched the l anguage by adding thousands of
French words to it.
By 1476, when William Caxton introduced printing to England, the language had
been greatly simplified grammatically and enriched lexically. Old English had been
transformed into a language which would form the basis for modern English.
THE EARLY MIDDLE ENGLISH
N o r m a n
Conquest did not have an i mmedi ate effect on Engl i sh
PERIOD (1066- 1350) literature. Old English sagas like Beowulf continued to be copied during
the second half of the eleventh century and Anglo-Saxon alliterative verse
Didactic poems was composed until well after 1066. Long didactic poems written in English were
also popular in this period. They presented stories from the Bible, saints' lives
and moral lessons, and were i ntended as i nstructi on for people who did not
know Latin or French.
Writing in Latin As English increasingly became the language of the uneducated common people
fewer works of literature were written in it. Latin was generally considered to be
Asixteenth-century
printingpress.
PS
The Literary Background 43
the language of serious writing. One example of a Latin work from this period is
Historia Regum Britanniae (1137) wri tten by Geoffrey of Monmouth. I t is a
collection of historical events and legends and it includes the first tales of King
Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table.
It was not until more than one century after the Battle of Hastings that French
models began to influence English literature. The chivalric romance, a form of
narrative poetry which developed in twelfth-century France, spread to Britain in
the thirteenth century. The plot of these poems usually centred around a single
knight who fought at tournaments, slayed dragons and underwent a series of
adventures in order to win the heart of his heroine. Romances introduced the
idea of courtl y love, accordi ng to whi ch the lover idealised and idolised his
beloved. The lover suffered agonies for his heroine but remained devoted to her,
and showed his love by adhering to a rigorous code of behaviour both in battle
and in his courtly conduct.
The romances written in Britain at this time are divided into three main categories:
the matter of Britain': stories that centre on the pseudo-historical King Arthur
who defended Celtic Britain against the Anglo-Saxons;
the matter of Troy': tales of the classical world such as the Seege ofTroye and
Kytig Alisaunder;
English Breton lays: short poems or songs that tell stories of otherworldly
magic and are modelled on those of professional Breton storytellers.
These unsophi sti cated works were written primarily for the emerging middle
dasses, and the manuscripts that preserve them are early examples of commer-
cial book production.
Further evi dence of i nfl uence from French l i terature comes in the form of
humorous beast epics, which first appeared in the thirteenth century. One of
the first examples of this genre is The Fox and the Wolf, an English version of the
French epic LeRoman de Renart.
The l yri c, whi ch was vi rtual l y unknown i n Old Engl i sh poetry, started to
circulate in the thi rteenth century. Lyrics were short songs that did not tell a
storv but expressed the thoughts or feelings of a speaker. The most frequent
topics in the Middle English secular lyrics are springtime and romantic love,
i el i gi ous lyrics also made an appearance at thi s ti me. The poets general l y
expressed their sorrow for Christ on the cross and for Mary. The religious devotion
M the poets is often expressed in language that is also used in love poetry.
Throughout the Middle Ages ballads*, short folk songs that tell stories, were very
rcpular. The Celts and Anglo-Saxons undoubtedly composed ballads, but we
ruive no record of these early works. The oldest recorded ballad in the English
language, called Judas, was written down in a late thirteenth century manuscript.
Many of the bal l ads, however, fi rst appeared i n wri tten form wi th the
Producti on of the printing press (1476).
ballads told different types of stories. There were ballads about the supernatural:
varies of ghosts and demons or people who returned from the dead to haunt the
firing. There were romanti c tragedies usually dealing with the separation of
wers through misunderstanding or the opposition of family.
Many ballads were about crime and its punishment, and often told the stories of
amvicted criminals who were about to be executed and repented for their sins
JO the executi on scaffold. Over forty ballads were about the folk hero Robin
rtood who was praised for his adventurous spirit, his sense of humour and his
_: acern for the poor. Finally, there were ballads recounti ng historical events,
_ :h as battles between the English and the Scots (The Border Ballads) or natural
asters such as shipwrecks and plagues.
Pieces of the Past, p. B44
Chivalric romances
The Canterbury Tales, Texts
B6 and B7
The lyric
pp. A19-20
The Unquiet Grave, p. B8
Robin Hood and the Bishop
of Hereford, Text B3
GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH'S HISTORIA REGUM BRITANNIAE
Geoffrey of Monmouth's Hi stori a Regum Bri tanni ae (History of the Kings of Britain) is not a reliable historical
source, as many of the events described in it are historically unfounded. From a literary point of view it is,
however,highly regarded, and has been a source of inspiration for many writers throughout the centuries. The heroic
deeds of King Arthur which are described in the book have been the subject of many subsequent literary works.
CHAP. IV
(...) At these words, al l of them, encouraged wi th the benedi cti on of the hol y prel ate, i nstantl y armed
themsel ves, and prepared to obey his orders. Also Arthur hi msel f, havi ng put on a coat of mai l
1
suitable to
grandeur of so powerful a king, placed a golden hel met upon his head, on whi ch was engraven the figure of
a dragon; and on his shoulders his shield called Priwen; upon whi ch the picture of the blessed Mary, mother
of God, was pai nted, in order to put hi m frequentl y in mi nd of her. Then girding on
2
hi s Cal i burn, whi ch
was an excel l ent sword made in the isle of Aval l on, he graced hi s ri ght hand wi th hi s l ance, named Ron,
whi ch was hard, broad, and fit for slaughter
3
. After this, havi ng placed hi s men in order, he bol dl y attacked
the Saxons, who were drawn out in the shape of a wedge
4
, as their manner was.
(...) he drew out his Cal i burn, and, cal l i ng upon the name of the blessed Virgin, rushed forward wi th great
fury i nto the thickest of the enemy's ranks; of whom (such was the merit of his prayers) not one escaped alive
that fel t the fury of hi s sword; nei ther
did he gi ve over the fury of hi s assaul t
unti l he had, wi th hi s Cal i burn al one,
ki l l ed four hundred and seventy men.
The Bri tons, seei ng thi s, fol l owed thei r
l eader i n great mul ti tudes, and made
slaughter on all sides (...)
AscenefromthefilmExcalibur
(1981): Arthur acceptingthemagic
swordfromtheLadyof theLake.
GLOSSARY
1. coat of mail: piece of armour
of metal rings or plate used to
protect the upper part of the
body
2. girding on: fastening, attaching
3. slaughter: killing
4. drawn out... wedge: positioned in a
V-shaped formation
TASKS
1 Make a list of the armour King Arthur wore and the weapons he carried into battle.
2 Underline the Christian references in the text.
3 Who was King Arthur fighting against?
4 How many men did King Arthur kill according to the text?
5 What was the outcome of the battle?
I
The Li terary Background 45
The Norman Conquest did not i ni ti al l y affect prose wri ti ng. Old English
prose texts were copi ed for more than a century after the Battl e of
Hasti ngs. However, i n the earl y thi rteenth century it was necessary to add a
glossary to hel p readers understand the texts, because the English language had
changed so much. French and Latin were the principal languages of prose. Those
works whi ch were wri tten in Engl i sh were i ntended pri mari l y for women who
could not read French or Latin, and i ncl uded several texts on the lives of women
sai nts and the 'A ncrene Wi sse' or 'Rul e of A nchoresses', a manual for the
guidance of women recluses outside regular religious orders.
PROSE
TASK
Vrswer these questions.
a. Why was French literature such a strong influence on English literature in the medieval period?
b- Which poetic forms came from France? Which one(s) already existed in the Anglo-Saxon tradition?
from 1350 to 1550 Engl and wi tnessed a pecul i ar l i ngui sti c si tuati on,
gualism and trilingualism had become very common among the small
ori ty of the popul ati on that coul d read. Lati n and French were
idered more suitable for serious writing and there was such dialectal diversity in
h that works could onl y be understood in the area where they were written.
The i nstabi l i ty of the l anguage of l i terature i n the f our teenth century is
plified by J ohn Gower (1330-1408), who wrote three major works:
in French (SpeculumMeditantis - The Mirror of the Thoughtful Man);
in Latin (Vox Clamantis - The Voice of one Crying in the Wilderness);
in English (Confessi oAmantis - The Lover's Confession).
Norman aristocracy lost all ties wi th France, English replaced French as the
age of the court. The ari stocracy began to patroni se Engl i sh vernacul ar
The stage was set for the tri umphal entrance of the father of Engl i sh
Geoffrey Chaucer.
nportance of Geoffrey Chaucer's contri buti on to the devel opment of
literature is unquesti onabl e. His i ntroducti on of a ten-syllable line
ubic pentameter* revol uti oni sed rhythm i n Engl i sh poetry. His
refl ects the vi ews and val ues of the soci ety i n whi ch he lived, but hi s
were not l i mi ted to l ocal events and contemporary issues. His themes
:of uni versal i nterest and he had a great tal ent for narrati ve wri ti ng. His
iece is The Canterbury Tales, an unfi ni shed series of stories tol d by a group
i ms journeyi ng from London to the shri ne of St Thomas a Becket and
Thi s outstandi ng work is an overvi ew of human nature and an
ledia of medieval literary styles.
poetry had become popular in the English language after it had
reduced by the Normans, but in the fourteenth century there was
J of al l i terati ve verse whi ch recal l ed the earl y Angl o-Saxon epi cs. An
pi e of al l i terati ve verse from thi s peri od is Wi l l i am L angl and' s Piers
s. It takes the form of a series of dream visions dealing wi th the spiritual
!oci al issues of fourteenth-century Engl and. I n hi s dream the poet sees,
I before hi m in a field, representatives from every class of English society,
can attacks the abuses of the Church and the vices of the monasti c orders,
: resents a pi cture of the hardshi ps common peopl e had to endure that
with the picture of a prosperous society presented by Chaucer.
THE LATER MIDDLE ENGLISH
PERIOD (1350-1550)
John Gower
POETRY:
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
The Canterbury Tales,
Texts B4-B7
OTHER POETS
William Langland
J j
ME A N WH I L E , E L SE WH E R E
LINK TO ITALIAN LITERATURE: Boccacci o
Travelling in Europe in the Middle Ages was not easy. Horse and carriage
were the onl y means of transport and travellers were often attacked by
outlaws. It is therefore surprising to see how much and how far peopl e
travelled around; scholars and diplomats criss-crossed the conti nent and
saw, read, wrote and swapped ideas.
Geoffrey Chaucer, for one, was greatl y i nf l uenced by the works of
Gi ovanni Boccacci o, whom he probabl y met during hi s travels in I taly.
Boccacci o's verse romance Filostrato was the source for Chaucer's Troylus
and Criseyde, and the framework idea in Boccacci o's Decameron, that a
group of peopl e leave Fl orence to escape the pl ague and tell stories to
entertai n themsel ves, is the basi s for the structure of The Canterbury
Tales. Boccacci o's last tal e in parti cul ar, the story of Gri sel da, became
i mmensel y popul ar in the late Mi ddl e Ages. Petrarch transl ated it i nto
Lati n, it was then transl ated i nto French and German, and Chaucer
retold it in English in The Clerk's Tale.
m
11
Giovanni Boccaccio.
TASK
Do some research on the similarities and the differences between The Decameron and The Canterbury Tales and
prepare a short talk.
CROSS-CURRICULAR LINK
-[ to Latin/Greek
The hero
1 What are the characteristics of a hero? Work in groups of four. Each of you should make a list of five words
that you would associate with the word 'hero'. When you have finished, pool your ideas and make a list of the
words you have come up with. What were the most common words? Read your list out to your classroom
and listen to their lists.
Based on the work of all the groups, make a list of the most common words associated with the idea of a hero.
2 Beowulf is the hero of northern European sagas. He lived in a world of powerful and mysterious forces where
nobility, fatalism, pride, loyalty, the search for glory and death all played important parts. He lived in violent
times in a violent environment where nature was often hostile and man was constantly under the threat of
death from marauding monsters.
A different type of hero was created in Mediterranean literature: Homer's Achilles and Ulysses, and Virgil's
Aeneas belonged to different times, cultures and societies, which they reflect in their heroic deeds.
Make a list of words that you would associate with each of these heroes.
What characteristics does Beowulf share with these classical heroes? Are there any important differences?
Who would you consider to be a modern hero? Think of three names. On the basis of your choices try to
define a modern hero. How do the heroes you have chosen reflect the times we live in?
THE
RENAISSANCE
1 4 8 5 - 1 6 2 5
All theworld's a stage,
And all the men and women merely players.'
From As You Like It by Wi l l i am Shakespeare
Doctor Faustus
by Christopher Marlowe
DBBD DD
In the play you are about to read the main character - Faustus - is terrified of going to hell. He cannot picture
what it is really like but he knows that he will have to endure terrible suffering for all eternity.
Try to build up a picture of what hell would be for you. For each of the five senses, describe a situation which you
would find unbearable. An example has been given to help you.
Sight I have to watch a video of the mutilated bodies of all the victims of all the wars in human history.
Taste All the food I eat is rotten and everything I drink tastes like acid.
Smell There is an all-pervasive smell of decomposing bodies.
Touch Everything I touch feels like the slimy skin of a snake.
INTRODUCTION Al though Chri stopher Marl owe's
fame was somewhat obscured by hi s contemporary,
Wi l l i am Shakespeare, he is regarded as one of the
great dr amati sts of the Engl i sh Renai ssance. I n
Doctor Faustus he has created one of the most com-
pel l i ng characters i n Engl i sh l i terature.
THE STORY
Faustus, having studied and been disappointed by all the sci-
ences, decides to explore the world of magic. Through magic,
he calls up Mephistopheles, a devil, and makes an agreement
with him: he will give his soul to Lucifer in return for twenty-
four years of life. During this time, Mephistopheles will be his
servant and do anything he asks him to do. For the rest of his
life, Faustus indulges in every imaginable earthly pleasure and,
thanks to the magical intervention of Mephistopheles, meets
famous people from thepast like Helen of Troy.
lustus makesadevilish
it with Mephistopheles.
Sound A constant squeaky noise like the one a new piece of chalk makes on a blackboard.
Doctor Faustus - Christopher Marlowe 3
As theend of thetwenty-four years draws near, Faustus begins torealise theenormity of the
agreement he has made. Heis terrified of death and begs tobe saved, bid, at theend of the
play, he is taken tohell by the devils.
Faustus's Last Hour
Text C I
This is the last scene in theplay. It is eleven o'clock and, at midnight, Faustus must give his
soul tothedevil and face eternal damnation.
Act 5, Scene 2
BAD ANGEL: N OW Faustus, let thine eyes with horror stare
1
I nto that vast perpetual torture-house.
There are the Furies
2
tossing
3
damned souls
On burning forks; their bodies boil in lead.
There are live quarters
4
burning on the coals
That ne'er can die. This ever-burning chair
Is for o'er tortured souls to rest them in.
These that are fed with sops
5
of flaming fire
Were gluttons
6
and loved only delicates
And laughed to see the poor starve
7
at their gates.
But yet all these are nothing; thou shalt see
Ten thousand tortures that more horrid be.
FAUSTUS: O, I have seen enough to torture me.
BAD ANGEL: Nay
8
, thou must feel them, taste the smart
9
of all.
He that loves pleasure must for pleasure fall.
And so I leave thee, Faustus, till anon
10
;
Then wilt thou tumble
11
in confusion.
10
15
[Exit BA D A NGEL . The clock strikes eleven]
FAUSTUS: Ah, Faustus,
Now hast thou but one bare
12
hour to live,
And then thou must be damned perpetually.
Stand still, you ever-moving spheres of heaven
13
,
That time may cease
14
and midnight never come!
Fair nature's eye
15
, rise, rise again, and make
Perpetual day; or let this hour be but
A year, a month, a week, a natural day,
That Faustus may repent
16
and save his soul!
O lente, lente currite noctis equi
17
1
20
25
GLOSSARY
Note: Elizabethan English is
different from modern English.
Here is a list of the most
frequently recurring archaic
words and their modern
equivalents.
thou: you
thee: you
thysel f: yourself
thi ne: yours
art: are
hath: has, have
doth: does
wi l t: will
shalt: shall
1. stare: look fixedly
2. Furies: goddesses who
punished criminals in
Roman and Greek
mythology
Q
CHARACTERS
Doctor Faustus,
a scholar
Bad Angel, a devil
<Mephi stophel es,
a devil
7.
9.
tossing: throwing
quarters: bodies
sops: small pieces
gl uttons: people who
eat too much
starve: die from
hunger
Nay: no
smart: sharp pain
10. anon: soon
11. tumbl e: collapse
12. bare: only
13.spheres of heaven:
planets
14. cease: stop
15.Fai r nature's eye: the
sun
16. repent: say you are
sorry for your sins
17.0 lente, lente currite
noctis equi: O slowly,
slowly run, you
horses of the night
4 THE RENAISSANCE - Drama
18. leap: jump
19. streams: flows
20. rend: tear
21. Yet will I call on him:
but I will call him
22. spare me: do not take
me
23.Stretcheth: stretches
24. bends ... brows:
looks angrily down at
Faustus
25. wrath: anger
26. Then: so
27. headlong: head first
28. gape: open wide
29. harbour: protect
30. You stars ... nativity:
Marlowe is referring
to astrology and the
belief that the
position of the stars
when you are born
can influence what
happens in your life
31. allotted: given me
32. draw up: pull up
33. entrails: the inside
part of an animal's or
person's body
34. yon: over there
35. labouring: pregnant
and slow-moving, as
if the cloud was about
to give birth
36. forth: out of you
37. limbs: parts of the
body
38. issue: come out of
39. watch: clock
40.'Twi l l ... anon: it will
be over soon
41. 0 God ... ransomed
me: O, God if you do
not want to (wilt not)
save me, do it for
your son, Jesus Christ,
who has freed (hath
ransomed) me
through his sacrifice
on the cross
42.0, no end ... souls: A
damned soul must
suffer forever
43. Why wert... soul?:
why were (wert) you
not born without a
soul? (Faustus is
talking to himself as
if he were another
person)
44. this: this soul
45. Pythagoras'
metempsychosis: a
theory, attributed to
Pythagoras, which
The stars move still; time runs; the clock will strike;
The devil will come, and Faustus must be damned.
O, I'll leap
18
up to my God! Who pulls me down? 30
See, see where Christ's blood streams
19
in the firmament!
One drop would save my soul, half a drop. Ah, my Christ!
Ah, rend
20
not my heart for naming of my Christ!
Yet will 1 call on him
21
. O, spare me
22
Lucifer!
Where is it now? 'Tis gone; and see where God 35
Stretcheth
23
out his arm and bends his ireful brows
24
!
Mountains and hills, come, come and fall on me
And hide me from the heavy wrath
25
of God!
No, no!
Then
26
will I headlong
27
run into the earth. 40
Earth, gape
28
! O, no, it will not harbour
29
me.
You stars that reigned at my nativity
30
,
Whose influence hath allotted
31
death and hell,
Now draw up
32
Faustus like a foggy mist
Into the entrails
33
of yon
34
labouring
35
cloud, 45
That when you vomit forth
36
into the air,
My limbs
37
may issue
38
from your smoky mouths,
So that my soul may but ascend to heaven.
[The watch
39
strikes]
Ah, half the hour is past!
'Twill all be past anon
40
. 50
O God,
If thou wilt not have mercy on my soul,
Yet for Christ's sake, whose blood hath ransomed me
41
,
Impose some end to my incessant pain.
Let Faustus live in hell a thousand years, 55
A hundred thousand, and at last be saved.
O, no end is limited to damned souls
42
.
Why wert thou not a creature wanting soul?
43
Or why is this
44
immortal that thou hast?
Ah, Pythagoras' metempsychosis
4S
, were that true
46
, 60
This soul should fly from me and I be changed
Unto
47
some brutish
48
beast.
All beasts are happy, for, when they die,
Their souls are soon dissolved in elements
49
;
But mine must live still to be plagued
50
in hell. 65
Curst
51
be the parents that engendered
52
me!
says that, when a person or
animal dies, their soul
migrates to the body of
another person or animal
46. were that true: if that were
true
47.Unto: into
48. brutish: showing no
human intelligence or
feeling
49. dissolved in elements:
disappear
50. plagued: punished
51. Curst: cursed (to curse
someone is to ask God
or another supernatural
power to harm someone)
52. engendered: gave birth to
Doctor Faustus - Christopher Marl owe 5
No, Faustus, curse thyself. Curse Lucifer,
That hath deprived thee of the joys of heaven.
[The clock striketh twelve]
O, it strikes, it strikes! Now, body, turn to air,
Or Lucifer will bear
53
thee quick to hell.
[Thunder and lightning]
O soul, be changed i nto little water drops,
And fall i nto the ocean ne'er to be found!
My God, my God, look not so fierce on me!
[Enter LUCI FER, MEPHI STOPHELES and other DEVI LS]
Adders
54
and serpents, let me breathe a while!
Ugly hell, gape not
55
. Come not, Lucifer!
I'll burn my books. Ah, Mephi stophel es!
[The DEVI LS exeunt
56
with him]
70
75
53. bear: carry
54. Adders: poisonous
snakes
55.gape not: do not
open up
56. exeunt-, leave
COMPREHENSION
1 What, according to the Bad Angel, is happening to
the following in hell?
Fill in the table referring to the text.
2 In lines 21-25 Faustus asks the planets to stand still.
What does he wish would happen?
3 What does Faustus believe might save him? (Line 32)
4 Why does he want to be hidden by mountains and
hills?
5 In line 40 where does he try to hide?
6 What does he ask the stars to do? (Lines 42- 48)
7 Underline the sentences where Faustus refers to
or addresses God and Christ. What i mage of God
does he portray?
A loving and merciful God.
A God of justice and punishment.
Is the image of Christ similar?
8 What compromise is he prepared to make with
God? (Lines 54-56)
9 Why does he wish that Pythagoras's theory of
metempsychosis were true?
10 Into what does he want his body and soul
transformed? (Lines 69-71)
What purpose would the transformation serve?
damned souls (line 3) the Furies are tossing them
on burning forks while
their bodies boil in lead
live quarters (line 5)
o'er tortured souls (line 7)
gluttons (line 9)
\ . f
5
- '^kjjgp:
ANALYSIS
1 Focus on the Bad Angel's description of hell (lines
3-10). Which of the senses do the details appeal to
most? Does the description reinforce the traditional
association of hell and heat?
2 Faustus uses short sentences, exclamations and
questions throughout his speech: 'O, I'll leap up to
my Cod!' (line 30) 'Who pulls me down?' (line 30)
'Ah, my Christ!' (line 32). Find other examples in the
text. What purpose do they serve?
To show that Faustus is in a state of confusion and
desperation.
To show that he is calm and meditative.
To add drama to his speech.
To make his speech more natural.
Other:
3 Find examples in the text where Faustus:
- addresses himself;
- refers to himself in the third person.
What does this suggest about his state of mind?
4 The striking of the clock is mentioned three times.
What effect do you think the reference to the passing
of time would have on an audience?
There are fifty lines in Faustus's speech before the
clock strikes midnight. How many are there before
and after the half past eleven chime? What does this
suggest about how time seems to be passing for
Faustus?
5 Elizabethan audiences came from a wide range of
social backgrounds ( p. C59). Which aspects of the
extract you have just read would have appealed to
the more popular sections of the audience and which
elements would have interested the more learned
spectators?
6 According to Christian doctrine, a sinner can save
his soul if he confesses his sin and makes an act of
sincere contrition. Why do you think Faustus's pleas
for mercy are unanswered?
He does not truly believe in a loving and merciful
God.
He never clearly admits to having committed a
grave sin.
He asks for mercy because he is afraid of eternal
damnation and not because he is sorry for what he
has done.
He continues to blame Lucifer for what has
happened (line 67) and does not take full
responsibility for his actions.
rm
m
Blank verse
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Blank verse consi sts of unrhymed i ambi c pentameters - ten-syl l abl e l i nes in whi ch
unstressed syllables are followed by stressed syllables.
| There | are | the | Fu | ries | toss | ing | damn | ed | souls |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
| On | burn | ing | forks; | thei r | bod | ies | boi l | in | lead |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Bl ank verse is the verse form that most cl osel y resembl es the natural rhythms of
English speech and it is the most frequentl y used verse form in English literature. It was
first used in drama by Chri stopher Marlowe and became the standard metre for plays in
the El i zabethan peri od. Doctor Faustus is wri tten pri mari l y i n bl ank verse. However,
Marlowe did not always strictly adhere to its rules.
In lines 40 to 48 find:
a) examples of blank verse;
b) examples of lines that do not conform to the rules of blank verse.
ft Listen to the recording of lines 40- 48. Pay particular attention to the rhythm and stress
patterns of the verse form. Try to read the lines using the same rhythm and stress.
Doctor Faustus - Christopher Marl owe 7
STAC I N6 THE PLAY
Performance A printed play that you read is an incomplete blueprint of a playwright's work, which only
elements becomes complete when performed. Performance elements such as casti ng, the choi ce of
actors, costumes, the clothes the actors wear, l i ghti ng, how the stage area is illuminated
and stage scenery or props (properties), the stage furniture, are all part of a meaningful
system of signs that, when added to the text, give the pl ay its full meani ng. Some
i ndi cati ons about the performance el ements may be i ncl uded in the playwright's stage
directions but it is generally the director of the play and his staff who make these decisions.
Through his choices a director tries to remain faithful to the playwright's intentions but also
to add his own personal vision of the play.
OVER TO YOU Work in groups of four. Discuss:
a. Which famous actor would you cast in the role of Doctor Faustus? Consider elements
such as age, tone of voice, physical characteristics, etc. Justify your choice. Which of your
classmates might best interpret the part and why?
b. If you were directing the scene you have just read, what kind of lighting, costumes and
stage scenery would you use? Faustus looks upward towards salvation and downwards
towards damnation. How would you represent this through the stage lighting?
c. The text refers to 'devils' and 'adders and serpents'. Would you use actors to represent the
devils and serpents? What kind of costumes would they wear? Where would you position
them? How would they move?
d. What kind of stage scenery and props would you use to create a suitable setting for the
scene? Would you choose an elaborate stage set or would you prefer simplicity, allowing
the audience to use their imagination? What would the advantage of your choice be?
Faustus wanted to know more and do more than any other
mortal man. In the end he paid a very high pri ce for his
superhuman powers. Today, as science pushes the frontiers of
human knowledge ever forwards, some people are arguing that
scientific research should be tightly controlled and, if necessary,
Smited, to avoid abuse by unscrupulous individuals or groups.
In which of the following fields do you think research should or
STould not be limited? Give details.
Medicine
Military technology
I Communications and information technology
Space exploration
Genetic modification of animals and plants.
A modern production of
Doctor Faus tus inwhich just
few, simpleprops areused.
Si S
WRITERS' GALLERY
Early years Christopher Marlowe
was born in Canterbury i n 1564,
the son of a prosperous shoemaker.
Education He was an excepti onal student and when he was
fi fteen he was awarded a schol arshi p to Ki ng's School i n
Canterbury, one of the oldest schools in Britain. He conti nued hi s
studies at Cambridge University, where he took his Bachelor of Arts
in 1583. Three years later he received his Master of Arts degree in
spite of opposi ti on by the Uni versi ty authori ti es, who suspected
hi m of converting to Roman Catholicism during a secret journey to
Rheims, France, the centre of Cathol i c senti ment. Marlowe at this
ti me was probabl y worki ng for the government i n Her Majesty's
Secret Service, spying on Cathol i c conspirators, so the government
authorities intervened on his behalf and the degree was granted.
University wits He moved to London, where he met other graduates who were involved in the literary
life of London. Together they formed a circle of young writers known as the 'University Wits'.
Plays From 1587 to 1593 he wrote and produced his four great plays: Tamburlaine Parts I and II, The
Jew of Malta, Edward the Second and Doctor Faustus. He was the first English playwright to use blank
verse* and to write genui ne tragedy*. His works were hi ghl y successful and had a major i nfl uence on
other playwrights of the period i ncl udi ng Shakespeare.
Tragic death Marl owe's death was mysteri ous; he was stabbed to death on May 30, 1593 i n a
tavern brawl. It is widely believed that he was deliberately assassinated for political reasons.
CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE
(1564-1593)
TASK
True or false? Correct the false ones.
a. Marlowe was born into a well-to-do family.
b. He was a very bright student and attended a
first-rate school and university.
c. He was never interested in either religious or
political matters.
d. In London he worked for a company called
'University Wits'.
e. He became a playwright and his works were
very famous in his own time.
f. He died a violent death at age twenty-nine.
B f f P H M ^^^^^B The fact that his life was so short makes Marlowe's contri buti on
^^^^^^^ BM Bi i l l ^B to drama even more remarkable. In many ways he gave to English
theatre the foundati on on whi ch Shakespeare was to build.
Each of his plays revolves around a protagoni st who is obsessed by a ruling passion:
Tamburl ai ne wishes to conquer the world;
Edward is bl i nded by his homosexual love;
Doctor Faustus aspires to unl i mi ted knowledge;
the J ew of Mal ta is obsessed by his love for gold.
However, his works are far more sophi sti cated than the medieval moral i ty plays whi ch tol d simple
tales of wickedness and well-deserved puni shment. Marlowe created tragedies in whi ch men, aware of
the potenti al l y catastrophi c consequences, make difficult decisions.
i'iMfr"
Writers' Gallery - Christopher Marlowe
U r Si k SSI P WMM H i f
TTietitlepagefor the1620 -
editionof Doctor Faus tus .
Doctor Faustus, Marlowe's best-loved work,
is based on a col l ecti on of German stories
cal l ed the Faustbuch, whi ch he probabl y
read i n Engl i sh transl ati on. The tal es in
the Faustbuch narrate in prose the real-life
story of the German scholar and travelling
magi ci an Georgi us Faustus. Marl owe
transforms these si mpl e stori es of good
and evi l i nto a compl ex drama whi ch
explores themes such as man's aspiration
to surpass all human l i mi tati on, and the
consequences of ambi ti on when it is not
restricted by a sense of morality.
Marl owe establ i shed blank verse* as the
pri nci pal verse form of El i zabethan
drama. He avoided monotony by varying
stresses and breaki ng up the l i nes wi th
pauses, excl amati ons and shortened
sentences, and using the syntax to reflect
the state of mi nd of the character.
In his short life Christopher Marlowe left a
lasting mark on Engl i sh drama. His early
death undoubtedl y depri ved literature of
even greater and more developed works.
The Tragical! Hiftoy of
the Life and Death
o/ Dodor Fauftus.
Wi th new Addiuons.
Wr i tten by (I:/. zWL'ar
Printed for loh Wright, and arc to be ibid si his f!'.op witboui
Newgate, at the iignc of clicBiUSc. 16*0.
TASKS
1 Complete the sentences.
a. Marlowe's characters are people who ...
b. Compared to earlier theatrical works,
Marlowe's dramas...
c. His most famous play, Doctor Faustus, is based
on ...
d. His use of blank verse influenced ...
2 Marlowe's life was short and intense, and
ended tragically. Imagine the news of his sudden
death is announced in a TV news bulletin. Prepare
the brief news report and act it out for the rest of
the class.
Romeo and Juliet
All over the world, the names Romeo and Juliet are synonymous with romantic love.
Here are two definitions of love taken directly from the play:
Love is ...
'a smoke made with the fume of sighs.'
'a madness most discreet, a choking gall and a preserving sweet.'
Now try to write your own definition of love.
Love is ...
INTRODUCTION Romeo and Juliet has always been one of Shakespeare's best-loved plays. It is an impassion-
ed cry in favour of love over hate, peace over war. It is simply one of the most gripping love stories ever told
( Visual Link C3).
CHARACTERS
The house of Capulet:
J uliet
Capulet, her father
Lady Capulet, her
mother
Tybalt, her cousin
The house of
Montague:
Romeo
Montague, his
father
Lady Montague,
his mother
Paris, suitor to
Juliet
Friar Lawrence
a
THE STORY
The Montagues and the Capidets are the two chief families of Verona, and for years they
have been enemies in a bitter feud. Romeo, a Montague, and Juliet, a Capulet, fall madly in
love ( Text C2) but they realise that their families will try to stand in their way.
Everything starts togo wrong for the two lovers. In a fight, Romeo kills Tybalt and as a punish-
ment, he is banished from Verona to Mantua. Juliet finds out that Romeo has to leave Verona
and so the two lovers decide toget married in secret. They are married by Friar Lawrence.
Juliet is very sad and depressed when Romeo goes away. Her father insists that the best way to
cheer her up is to have her marry Paris, an old friend, but Juliet refuses. In desperation she asks
Friar Lawrence to help her get out of the marriage with Paris and reunite her with Romeo.
Friar Lawrence devises an ingenious plan to help Juliet. He tells her to drink a magic potion
which will make her lose consciousness and everyone will think she is dead. However, she will
wake up after forty-two hours, and when she does, Romeo will be there to take her to Mantua.
Juliet does as Friar Lawrence has instructed and everybody thinks she is dead.
Friar Lawrence sends Romeo a letter telling him about theplan but Romeo does not receive it.
Heonly hears that Juliet is dead. Herushes back to Veronaand, when hegets to the graveyard,
he finds her seemingly lifeless body. Overcome by grief, he kills himself. When the effect of the
potion wears of f , Juliet wakes up. Shesees Romeo's dead body and commits suicide ( Text C3).
The two families realise that their feud has led to the deaths of the two lovers and promise
never to fight again.
Text C 2
- GLOSSARY
(See note on Elizabethan
English on p. C3)
1. wherefore: why
2. be ... my love: swear
you love me
What's in a Name?
It is night time and Juliet is on her bedroom balcony. She is talking out loud to herself but
does not realise that Romeo has climbed over the wall into her garden and is listening to her.
Act 2, Scene 1: Capulets' orchard
JULIET: O Romeo, Romeo, wherefore
1
art thou Romeo?
Deny thy father and refuse thy name;
Or if thou wilt not, be but sworn my love
2
,
And I 'll no longer be a Capulet.
Romeo and J uliet - William Shakespeare 11
ROMEO [Aside]:
Shall I hear more or shall I speak at this? 5
J ULI ET: 'Tis but thy name that is my enemy;
Thou art thyself, though not a Montague.
What's Montague? It is nor hand nor foot,
Nor arm nor face, nor any other part
Belonging to a man. O be some other name! 10
What's in a name? That which we call a rose
By any other word would smell as sweet;
So Romeo would, were he not Romeo called,
Retain
3
that dear perfection which he owes
4
Without that title
5
. Romeo, doff
6
thy name, is
And for thy name which is no part of thee,
Take all myself.
ROMEO: I take thee at thy word:
Call me but love and I'll be new baptised;
Henceforth
7
1 never will be Romeo. 20
J ULI ET: What man art thou that thus bescreened
8
in night
So stumblest on my counsel
9
?
ROMEO: By a name
10
I know not how to tell thee who I am.
My name, dear saint, is hateful to myself, 25
Because it is an enemy to thee;
Had I it written, I would tear the word.
J ULI ET: My ears have yet not drunk a hundred words
Of thy tongue's uttering
11
, yet I know the sound.
Art thou not Romeo, and a Montague? 30
ROMEO: Neither, fair maid, if either thee dislike
12
.
J ULI ET: H OW cam'st thou hither
13
, tell me and wherefore?
The orchard walls are high and hard to climb,
And the place death, considering who thou art,
If any of my kinsmen
14
find thee here. 35
ROMEO: With love's light wings did I o'er perch
15
these walls,
For stony limits cannot hold love out,
And what love can do, that dares love attempt
16
:
Therefore thy kinsmen are no stop to me.
3. Retain: keep 9. stumblest on my counsel:
4. owes: owns
overhears my thoughts
5. title: name
10. By a name: with a name
6. doff: get rid of
11. Of thy tongue's uttering:
of what you are saying
7. Henceforth: from now on
12. if either thee dislike: if you
8. bescreened: hidden do not like one or the other
13.cams't thou hi ther: did
you come here
14. ki nsmen: family relations
15. o'er perch: climb over
16. And what love ... attempt:
a person who is in love has
the courage to do anything
COMPREHENSION
1 In the opening lines (1-4) Juliet suggests how she
and Romeo can solve their problem. Explain her
proposals in your own words.
2 In line 18 Romeo speaks to Juliet. What gives him
the confidence to reveal himself?
3 What does Romeo want Juliet to call him? (Line 19)
4 How does Juliet recognise Romeo?
5 Why does Juliet describe the orchard as 'death' for
Romeo? (Line 34)
6 What helped Romeo climb the walls of the orchard
and overcome his fear of death? (Lines 36-39)
ANALYSIS
1 Romeo's love for Juliet is almost religious in its
intensity. Find two religious terms which Romeo uses
when speaking to Juliet.
2 Focus on the language that Romeo uses. What
adjective would you choose to describe it?
Bold Passionate
Confident Cautious
Other:
Underline sentences in which Romeo says that his love
for Juliet has made him brave in the face of death.
How would you describe Romeo's personality?
3 Which of the two characters seems more aware
and fearful of the dangers they are running? Quote
from the text.
4 It has been suggested that Romeo and Juliet suffer
a tragic fate because they are too impulsive. Find
evidence of Romeo's impulsiveness in the text.
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Dramatic
tension
Dramatic
irony
TASKS
OVER TO YOU
One of the greatest tasks faci ng a pl aywri ght is capturi ng and mai ntai ni ng the audi-
ence's attenti on. This is often done through dramati c tensi on or suspense. Suspense
or tensi on is created when the audience is uncertai n about what is going to happen. I n
the case of the scene you have read there are two sources of suspense:
At the beginning of the scene J uliet does not know that Romeo is in the orchard listen-
ing to what she is saying. The audience is, however, aware of Romeo's presence. This is
an example of dramati c i rony. The audience knows somethi ng that one or more of the
characters on stage do not know. Dramati c i rony is often used to add humour or sus-
pense to a scene. In this case, as J ul i et speaks there is a danger that she may say some-
thi ng whi ch Romeo will misinterpret. Overheard conversations are often the source of
misunderstandings in drama. The audience is kept in suspense until Romeo reveals him-
self in line 18.
The fact that Romeo may be discovered by J ul i et's fami l y also creates suspense. The
tender atmosphere whi ch the lovers create may at any moment be vi ol ated by the
hatred and vi ol ence of J ul i et's family. The presence of danger hei ghtens the tensi on
and makes the scene even more romanti c.
1 Explain how Romeo's aside in line 5 heightens the tension in the opening part of the scene.
2 Underline the sentences that remind the audience that Romeo is braving death in order
to declare his love for Juliet. How do these sentences contribute to creating suspense?
In what kind of books and films is suspense the main feature? Think of a book you have read
or a film that you have seen that included elements of suspense. How did you feel as you
read the book or watched the film? Do you enjoy the anxiety created by suspense? Have you
ever felt that the feelings are too intense (in the case, for example, of horror stories or films)?
S T A C I N 6 T H E P L A Y
Stage
directions
Deciding where the actors should stand and how they should move is extremely important
in the staging of a play. Sometimes the playwright will make suggestions about the actors'
movements in his stage di recti ons. These are usually included in the script in italics. It is
often, however, the director of the play who makes these decisions.
OVER TO YOU Imagine you are staging a production of the scene you have just read. Focus on the moment
when Romeo reveals himself to Juliet. Try to imagine how you would deal with this moment.
Does Juliet hear Romeo before she sees him? Where has Romeo been hiding? Does he
emerge from the shadows, is he standing below balcony, does he step out from behind a
tree? Does he appear very suddenly and startle Juliet or does he reveal himself slowly? Try to
write stage directions for this key moment in the scene.
Romeo and Juliet belong to opposing factions in Verona during the Renaissance. In today's world there are many
groups that regard each other as enemies. Make a list of opposing groups that you know. What would happen if
a boy and girl from opposing groups fell in love?
Ah, What an Unkind Hour Text C 3
Romeo is at the graveyard. He has just killed Paris, who had tried to stop him seeing Juliet,
and is now sitting beside Juliet's seemingly lifeless body.
Act 5 Scene 3: A churchyard, outside the tomb of the Capulets
ROMEO: O my love, my wife,
Death, that hath sucked the honey of thy breath,
Hath had nop'ower yet upon thy beauty.
Thou art not conquered, beauty's ensi gn
1
yet
Is cri mson
2
in thy lips and in thy cheeks, 5
And Death's pale flag is not advanced there.
(...)
Ah, dear J uliet,
Why art thou yet so fair? Shall I believe
That unsubstanti al
3
Death is,amorous,
, . , , , A . , i OMMM*
And that the lean abhorred monster keeps
Thee here in dark to be his paramour
5
?
For fear of that, I still will stay with thee,
And never from this palace of di m
6
ni ght
Depart
7
again. Here, here will I remai n
Wi th worms that are thy chambermai ds
8
; O here
Will I set up my everlasting rest
9
,
j^Lvi [ut'L'
And shake the yoke of inauspicious stars
From this world-wearied flesh
10
. Eyes, look your last
11
!
Arms, take your last embrace
12
! and, lips, O you
The doors of breath, seal
13
with a ri ghteous
14
kiss
A dateless bargain to engrossing Death
15
! ^ / j N ? /
10
15
20
GLOSSARY -
(See note on Elizabethan
English on p. C3)
1. ensign: flag
2. crimson: deep red
3. unsubstantial: not a
part of this world
4. lean: thin, hungry
5. paramour: lover
6. dim: dark
Depart: leave
chambermaids:
female servants
Will I set up my
everlasting rest: Will
1join you in death
10.And shake ... flesh:
and throw this heavy
weight of bad luck off
my tired body
11. look your last: take a
last look
12. embrace: hug
13. seal: authenticate
14. righteous: virtuous
15.dateless ... Death:
timeless contract with
all absorbing death
V o J
i.'S ' S
tM
16.conduct: poison
17. unsavoury:
unpleasant
18. dashing: throwing
violently (Romeo is
like a ship that is
thrown against the
rocks)
19. weary bark: tired boat
20. apothecary: chemist
(It refers to the chemist
who had given Romeo
some poison)
21. Thus: in this way
22. stoops: bends over
23. Alack: expression of
regret or surprise
(arch.)
24. stains: leaves a mark
25.masterless: belonging
to no one
26. gory: covered with
blood
27. pale: dead
28. steeped: soaked,
bathed
29.Ah, what ... chance:
How unkind was the
moment when these
horrible deeds were
done!
30. stirs: moves
31. comfortabl e:
supportive, consoling
32. thwarted our intents:
frustrated our plans
33. Thy husband in thy
bosom (heart):
Romeo
34. dispose of: send
35. Among a sisterhood:
in an order
36. Watch: guards
37. Come go: hurry up
and go
38. Go get thee hence: go
away
39. timeless: untimely, at
the wrong time
40. churl: brute
41. Haply: perhaps, maybe
42. restorative: medicine
(the kiss will 'cure' her
of life and restore her
to Romeo)
43. dagger: short knife
44. sheath: cover for the
blade of a knife
45. rust: to become
covered with rust (the
reddish-brown
substance that forms
on wet metal)

30
J ^
i
35
Come, bitter conduct
16
, come, unsavoury
17
guide!
Thou desperate pilot, now at once run on
The dashing
18
rocks thy seasick weary bark
19
! q
Here's to my love [Drinks] O true apothecary
20
! , 25
Thy drugs are quick. Thus
21
with a kiss I die. [Dies]
(...)
[Enter FRI AR LAWRENCE]
FRI AR LAWRENCE: Romeo!
[FRI AR stoops
22
and looks on the blood and weapons]
Alack
23
! Alack! What blood is that which stains
24
The stony entrance of the sepulchre?
What mean these masterless
25
and gory
26
swords
To lie discoloured by this place of peace?
[Enters the tomb]
Romeo! O, pale
27
! Who else? What, Paris too?
And steeped
28
in blood? Ah, what an unkind hour
Is guilty of this lamentable chance
29
!
[J ULI ET rises]
The lady stirs
30
. t J / \ l
r J
J UL I ET: O comfortable
31
Friar, where is my lord?
I do remember well where I should be;
And there I am. Where is my Romeo?
[Noise within]
FRI AR LAWRENCE: I hear some noise, lady. Come from that nest
Of death, contagion, and unnatural sleep. 40
A greater power than we can contradict
Hath thwarted our intents
32
, Come, come away.
Thy husband in thy bosom
33
there lies dead;
And Paris too. Come, I'll dispose of
34
thee
Among a sisterhood
35
of holy nuns.
Stay not to question, for the Watch
36
is coming.
Come go
37
, good Juliet, I dare no longer stay.
J UL I ET: Go get thee hence
38
, for I will not away. [FRI AR leaves]
What's here? A cup closed in my lover's hand?
Poison I see hath been his timeless
39
end.
O churl
40
, drunk all, and left po friendly drop
To help me after? I will kiss thy lips,
Haply
41
some poison yet doth hang on them,
To make me die with a restorative
42
.
[Kisses him] Thy lips are warm. 55
CAPTAI N OF THE WA TCH : [Within] Lead, boy, which way?
J UL I ET: Yea, noise? Then I'll be brief. [Takes ROMEO'S dagger
43
] O happy dagger,
This is thy sheath
44
; [Stabs herself]
there rust
45
and let me die.
[Falls on ROMEO'S body and dies]
45
50
Romeo and J uliet - Wi l l i am Shakespeare 121
COMPREHENSION
1 Why does Juliet not appear to be dead? (Lines 1-6)
2 What does Romeo call 'death' in line 9?
3 Why does he think death is keeping Juliet in this
dark place?
4 What reason does Romeo give for committing suicide?
5 What does Friar Lawrence see as he enters the tomb?
6 What is the first question Juliet asks when she awakens?
7 What, according to Friar Lawrence, has caused his
plan to fail?
8 Where does Friar Lawrence want to send Juliet?
9 Why is Juliet upset when she sees that the cup of
poison is empty?
10 Why does Juliet hurry her final act?
ANALYSIS |
1 In lines 1 - 6 Romeo says that Juliet does not appear
to be dead. Explain the dramatic irony* in what he
says. What effect does the irony of the situation have?
It increases tension and suspense.
It adds an element of humour.
It makes the audience more involved.
It makes the scene more tragic.
2 Find two examples of personification* in Romeo's
speech.
3 Throughout the play Romeo says that he is a victim
of fate. In which line does Romeo repeat that destiny
has been cruel to him?
4 By committing suicide Romeo believes that he will
be reunited with Juliet spiritually, so in his final speech
he focuses on the physical aspects of their love.
Underline the parts of the body he mentions.
5 Several times during the play life is compared to a
sea journey. How does the metaphor* in line 24
extend this image?
6 When Friar Lawrence enters the tomb he speaks in
exclamations and questions. What does the way he
speaks reveal about his state of mind?
7 Juliet notices that Romeo's lips are still warm and
therefore that he is not dead long. How does this add
to the tragedy of the scene?
8 Find references to the setting in the scene you have
read. How do you imagine the stage should be set for
this scene? What kind of atmosphere do you think the
setting* should create?
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Tragedy
M
TASK
OVER TO YOU
Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy. This is a form of drama in whi ch the chi ef character, the
tragic hero, undergoes a series of mi sfortunes whi ch eventual l y lead to his downfal l .
The hero passes from a state of happiness to a state of despair because of some weakness
- tragic flaw - in himself. The tragic hero is an i mportant man of hi gh social standing.
He is not evil - he is a mi xture of good and bad. The audience understands his weakness
but feels pity for hi m because his misfortunes are greater than he deserves. He is usually
doomed from the begi nni ng and there are often premoni ti ons of hi s downfall in what
he says. It is often fate or supernatural el ements that control his destiny, and death is
generally the onl y escape he can find from pain and suffering. Romeo is a good exampl e
of a tragic hero. He bel ongs to an i mportant family. A series of unfortunate events lead
to his downfall: he falls in love with J ul i et - daughter of his enemi es the Capulets -, he
kills Tybalt in a street fight, he does not receive Friar Lawrence's message .... Romeo's
tragic flaw is his impulsiveness and his passionate nature. He becomes totally engrossed
in his love for J ul i et and he does not consider the consequences of what he is doing.
Romeo's tragic flaw is his impulsiveness. Have you found any evidence of this trait in the
extracts you have read? What are the qualities that make the audience feel pity for Romeo?
Can you name any other famous tragic heroes/ heroines? Choose one of them, do some
research and briefly tell his/ her story.
ST A C I N C T H E P L A Y
Delivery
OVER TO YOU
Delivery in acting refers to the way an actor says his lines. The actor, with the help of the
director, must decide what tone of voice he is going to use, which words or expressions he is
going to emphasise, the pace at which he is going to deliver the lines, where he will make
pauses and what facial expressions or gestures he will make.
Work in groups of six. Divide Romeo's final speech in the following way:
Lines 1-6 0 my love ... not advanced there.
Lines 7-11 Ah, dear Juliet... to be his paramour?
Lines 12-18 For fear... world-wearied flesh.
Lines 18-21 Eyes, ... engrossing Death!
Lines 22-24 Come, bitter conduct... seasick weary bark!
Lines 25-26 Here's to my love ...I die.
Each of you should take one section of the speech and learn it. Decide how you are going to
deliver your lines. The following notes may help you.
Tone of voice: loud voice or whisper? Facial expressions?
Quickly or slowly? Pauses?
Gestures while performing? Words to emphasise?
Use your imagination and think of interesting ways to create the greatest dramatic effect.
In Romeo and Juliet one of the main themes is the generation gap. The term 'generation gap' was invented in the
1960s to define the different outlooks on life that younger and older people have. Throughout the play older
people warn the two young lovers that they should be less impetubus.(ln fact Romeo and Juliet meet, fall in love,
are parted and die in the space of just five days. The two young lovers do not listen to the advice of their elders.
They believe that nothing is as important as the love they feel for each other.
Do you feel that there is a gap in how younger people and older people see things in today's society?
Over which of the following issues is the difference in opinion most pronounced?
Work Money School and study Relationships Marriage
Dress Drugs Technology Race Nationalism
Choose one of the issues and explain how younger and older people's opinions differ with regard to it.
L
[ to the world of music
The scene you have read in Text C2 has often been described as a 'love-duet' in which two lovers take turns in
declaring their love for each other. The reference to music is not surprising as the entire play has been a source
of inspiration for musicians through the centuries. Berlioz's dramatic symphony Romeo et Juliette, Tchaikovsky's
symphonic poem, Prokofiev's ballet music and, more recently, Dire Straits's song Romeo and Juliet have all been
inspired by the play.
Read the lyrics of the Dire Straits' song. The following elements from the play can also be found in the song. Can
you identify them?
-J ul i et is above Romeo recalling the balcony scene.
- Juliet is startled by Romeo's presence.
- Romeo and Juliet come from the same social background.
- Romeo is prepared to run risks to show his love for Juliet.
- Romeo and Juliet use celestial imagery (stars/ moon, etc.) to describe their love for each other.
Romeo and Juliet
A lovestruck
1
Romeo sings a streetsuss
2
serenade
Laying everybody low
3
with a lovesong that he made
Finds a convenient streetlight steps out of the shade
Says something like you and me babe how about it?
4
Juliet says hey it's Romeo you nearly gimme
5
me a heart attack
He's underneath the window she's singing hey la my boyfriend's back
You shouldn't come around here singing up at people like that
Anyway what you gonna do about it?
Juliet the dice were loaded from the start
6
And I bet and you exploded in my heart
And I forget 1 forget the movie song
7
When you gonna realise it was just that the time was wrong Juliet?
Come up on different streets they both were streets of shame
Both dirty both mean yes and the dream was just the same
And I dreamed your dream for you and now your dream is real
How can you look at me as if I was just another one of your deals?
When you can fall for chains of silver you can fall for chains of gold
You can fall for pretty strangers and the promises they hold
You promised me everything you promised me thick and thin
8
Now you just say oh Romeo yeah you know I used to have a scene with him
Juliet when we made love you used to cry
You said I love you like the stars above I'll love you till I die
There's a place for us you know the movie song
I can't do the talk like they talk on TV
And I can't do a love song like the way it's meant
9
to be
I can't do everything but I'd do anything for you
I can't do anything except be in love with you
And all I do is miss you and the way we used to be
All I do is keep the beat
10
and bad company
All I do is kiss you through the bars of a rhyme
11
Julie I'd do the stars with you any time
Juliet when we made love you used to cry
You said 1 love you like the stars above I'll love you till 1 die
There's a place for us you know the movie song
A lovestruck Romeo sings a streetsuss serenade
Laying everybody low with a lovesong that he made
Finds a convenient streetlight steps out of the shade
Says something like you and me babe how about it?
GLOSSARY
1. lovestruck: in love
2. streetsuss: clever
3. Laying everybody
low: impressing
everybody
4. how about it?: what
do you think?
5. gimme: give me
6. the dice ... start: it
was obvious from the
beginning what the
result would be
7. movie song:
reference to the song
'There's a Place for
Us' from the
soundtrack of West
SideStory, a film
based on the story of
Romeo and Juliet
8. thick and thin:
through good and
bad times
9. meant (mean):
supposed
10. keep thebeat: play
music
11. thebars of a rhyme:
my music
'Thouarenot conquered, beauty's
ensignyetiscrimsoninthylips ...'
AscenefromFrancoZeffirelli's Romeo
and Juliet (1968).
M
A Midsummer Night's Dream
Choose one of the situations below and write a letter to a problem page asking for help with your dilemma. Add
as many details as you like.
Situation A
Your father does not approve of the person you love
and you know he will never give you his consent to
get married. He has someone else in mind that he
believes would make a better match but you do not
love the other person.
Situation B
You are going to get married. You like your fiance/ e
and you know that the marriage will be good but you
are really in love with someone else.
Each of the situations refers to one of the four main characters in A Midsummer Night's Dream: Hermia, Helena,
Lysander and Demetrius. When you have finished working on the play try to match each character to a situation.
INTRODUCTION Shakespeare had great powers of i magi nati on and hi s pl ays deal wi th a vast range of
topi cs and si tuati ons. I n A Midsummer Night's Dream the worl d of fai ri es comes i nto contact wi th the
human worl d and some very strange thi ngs happen.
THE STORY
The play takes place on the day and night before the wedding between Theseus and
Hippolyta. Egeus wants his daughter Hermia to marry Demetrius. She, however, is in love
with Lysander and so she refuses to do as her father says. Egeus asks Theseus to help him.
Theseus tells Hermia that under Athenian law a daughter must obey her father, and orders
her to marry Demetrius within four days or face death.
Hermia decides to escape from Athens with Lysander to a wood outside the city. Helena,
Hernia's close friend, is in love with Demetrius. The two had been lovers but had broken up.
Helena, however, wishes to restore their love and tries to win Demetrius's favour by telling
him of Hermia and Lysander's plan to elope. Demetrius, followed by Helena, enters the wood
to search for Hermia and Lysander.
The wood is inhabited by fairies. When Oberon hears Demetrius arguing with Helena, he tells
Puck topour some magic love-juice on his eyes so that thecouple will be reconciled.
But Puck makes a mistake and pours thejuice on Lysander's eyes, with the result that hefalls in
lovewith Helena. Demetrius and Helena have since been reconciled so now both Demetrius and
Lysander are in lovewith Helena while Hermia is ignored ( Text C4).
The lovers' lives have been thrown upside down by the fairies but Oberon decides to make
amends.
He tells Puck toput ajuice on their eyes while they are sleeping that will restore them to their
former state, so, when Lysander wakes up, he is again in love with Hermia. The two former
friends quarrel ( Text C5).
Situation C
You are in love with a man who is already engaged to
be married. Another man has declared his love but you
cannot forget your true love.
Situation D
You have been in love with a woman and planning
to marry her but suddenly you fall in love with another
woman and now you have no feel i ngs for your
fiancee.
CHARACTERS
Humans:
Theseus, Duke of
Athens
Hippolyta, Queen
of the Amazons,
engaged to Theseus
Egeus, Hernia's
father
Hermia, in love
with Lysander
Helena, in love
with Demetrius
Lysander, in love
with Hermia
Demetrius, in love
with Helena
Fairies:
Oberon, King of
the Fairies
Puck, a mischievous
goblin
A Midsummer Night's Dream - William Shakespeare 19
Theseus and Egeus forgive the lovers for running away and agree to Lysander marrying
Hermia. Theplay ends with threeweddings: Theseus marries Hippolyta, Demetrius marries
Helena, and Lysander marries Hermia.
A Double Cherry Parted ESBSB3 Q
Puck has mistakenly put some love-juice on Lysander's eyes, so now both he and Demetrius
arein lovewith Helena, while nobody loves Hermia. Helena cannot believe that thetwo men
are in love with her and accuses her best friend, Hermia, of plotting with Lysander and
Demetrius tomake fun of her.
Act 3, Scene 2: Another part of the wood
HERMIA: What love could press Lysander from my side?
LYSANDER: Lysander's love, that would not let him bide
1
,
Fair Helena, who more engilds
2
the night
Than all yon fiery oes
3
and eyes of light.
[ToHERMIA] Why seek'st thou me? Could not this make thee know 5
The hate I bare thee
4
made me leave thee so?
HERMI A: YOU speak not as you think; it cannot be.
HELENA: Lo, she is one of this confederacy
5
.
Now I perceive
6
they have conjoined
7
all three
To fashion
8
this false sport in spite of me
9
. 10
I njurious
10
Hermia, most ungrateful maid
11
Have you conspired, have you with these contrived
12
To bait
13
me with this foul derision?
Is all the counsel
14
that we two have shared -
The sisters' vows
15
, the hours that we have spent 15
When we have chid the hasty-footed time
For parting us
16
- O, is all forgot?
All schooldays' friendship, childhood innocence?
We, Hermia, like two artificial
17
gods
Have with our needles created both one flower
18
, 20
Both on one sampler
19
, sitting on one cushion,
Both warbling
20
of one song, both in one key,
A scene from the film
A Midsummer
Night's Dream (1935).
GLOSSARY
>enote on Elizabethan
J gi i sh on p. C3)
bide: wait
1 engilds: brightens up,
embellishes
oes: round, shiny pieces of
material used to ornament
dresses
- bare thee: have for you
5. confederacy: conspiracy
6. perceive: see
7. conjoined: joined together
8. fashion: create
9. in spite of me: to spite me,
to get at me
10. Injurious: hurtful, causing
injury
11. maid: girl
12. contrived: planned in a
secret way
13.bait: torment
14. counsel: talking as friends
15. vows: promises
16.When we have ... parting
us: when wehave criticised
(chid) time because it went
by too quickly (hasty-
footed), forcing usto part,
even though wewould have
liked to spend more time
together
17. artificial: highly
skilled in art
18. Have with our
needles ... flower:
We embroidered a
flower together
19. sampler: piece of
embroidery
20. warbling: singing
likea bird
THE RENAISSANCE - Drama
21. incorporate: of one
body
22. moulded: shaped
23.Two of the first ...
Duebut to one: like
two bodies in one as
on aheraldic shield
24. crest: decoration at
the top of a heraldic
shield
25. rent asunder: tear
apart
26. scorning: rejecting
27.Our sex ... for it: all
women will condemn
you as I do

As if our hands, our sides, voices, and minds
Had been incorporate
21
. So we grew together
Like to a double cherry, seeming parted
But yet an union in partition,
Two lovely berries moulded
22
on one stem,
So with two seeming bodies but one heart,
Two of the first, like coats in heraldry,
Due but to one
23
, and crowned with one crest
24
.
And will you rent our ancient love asunder
25
,
To join with men in scorning
26
your poor friend?
It is not friendly, 'tis not maidenly.
Our sex as well as I may chide you for it
27
,
Though I alone do feel the injury.
25
30
35
COMPREHENSION
1 Why does Lysander no longer love Hermia?
2 Does Hermia believe what Lysander says?
3 What does Helena think that Hermia, Lysander and
Demetrius have joined together to do?
4 Why is she particularly angry with Hermia?
5 How long have Helena and Hermia been friends?
6 What activity does Helena recall them doing
together? (Lines 19-24)
7 In lines 24-30 Helena makes two comparisons. What
does she compare her friendship with Hermia to?
8 Does she believe that she will be the only one to
criticise Hermia's behaviour?
ANALYSIS
1 In line 1 Hermia asks Lysander why he no longer
loves her. How would you describe Lysander's reply?
Truthful Straightforward Hurtful
Insensitive Reasonable
What justification can be given for Lysander's harsh
reply?
2 Helena asks three questions in her attack on
Hermia. Underline them in the text. What effect do
you think Helena hopes to achieve through her
questioning? She hopes:
to embarrass Hermia into an admission of guilt.
to win Hermia over to her side.
to discredit Hermia in front of Lysander and
Demetrius.
to get answers and understand why Hermia has
betrayed her.
3 In lines 19-24 Helena describes how she and
Hermia embroidered a flower together as an example
of how close they were as friends. Which adjectives
would you choose to describe the example she
chooses?
Intimate Feminine Trivial
Striking Calming
4 Helena says that she and Hermia were a 'double
cherry' (line 25). Do you think that this image is
effective? Justify your answer.
5 In lines 1-10 there is end-of-line rhyming. Write
the same letter of the alphabet beside the words
rhyme. Read the lines aloud emphasising the rhyme
pattern.
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Blank verse Shakespeare's plays have been described as poetic drama. Part of what gives his work its
HeroicCOUplet poetic quality is the rhythm and musicality of the language. In the extract that you have
read Shakespeare uses two verse forms: bl ank verse and rhymi ng (or heroic) couplets.
Bl ank verse consists of unrhymed i ambi c pentameters - ten syllable lines in which
unstressed syllables are followed by stressed syllables.
| Is | all | the | coun | sel | that | we | two | have | shared - |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
| The | sis | ters' | vows, | the | hours | that | we | have | spent |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A rhymi ng coupl et consists of two lines of iambic pentameter that rhyme in pairs: AA,
BB, and so on.
HERMIA: | What | love | could | press | Lys | an | der | from | my | side? |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
LYSANDER: | Lys | an | der's | love, | that | would | not | let | him | bide, |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
TASK
OVER TO YOU
The first part of the extract that you have read is written in rhyming couplets, the second
part is blank verse. At what point does the change take place? Say why you think the verse
form changes. Consider the following points:
- as Helena gets angrier her language becomes freer;
- blank verse is better suited to the tone of what Helena is saying.
Listen to the recording of lines 26-35. Pay particular attention to the rhythm and stress
patterns of the verse form. Try to read the lines using the same rhythm and stress.
STAC I NC TH E PLAY
Setting
OVER TO YOU
A Midsummer Night's Dreamtakes place in the daytime world of Athens, a state of disciplined
order and down-to-earth reality, and the night-time world of the enchanted wood, a realm
of disorder and fantasy. These two distinct settings must be created by stage scenery, prop-
erties (props) and lighting. Settings for a play may vary from extravagant expensive sets to
essential or abstract staging, depending on the budget that is available and the personal
preferences of the director. Whatever the case may be, the stage setting should not be a dis-
traction but should enhance the audience's understanding of the play.
The speech in Text C4 takes place in the enchanted night-time wood where fairies and
disorder rule. Work in groups and decide what stage scenery, props and lighting you would
use for a performance of the speech in your classroom. Take into consideration the amount
of time you have to prepare scenery and props, the space that is available and the possible
sources of light. Be realistic in your suggestions. Discuss your proposals with other groups.
Choose the best ideas and plan a performance.
ODD
Hermia and Helena have been friends since childhood but have fallen out because of a misunderstanding caused
oy Puck's mistake. From your own experience and knowledge make a list of reasons why long, close friendships
sometimes break up.
FA*
SMS.
i 22
TIG
w
Text C5
GLOSSARY
(Seenoteon Elizabethan
English on p. C3)
1. juggler: (artist who
keeps objects in the
air by throwing them
up quickly and
catching them again),
trickster, deceiver
2. canker-blossom: a
worm that eats into
and destroys aflower
3. maiden: young
woman, virgin
4. bashfulness: modesty
5. What, will... gentle
tongue: areyou
trying to force me
into answering you?
6. Fie: expression of
disgust(arch.)
7. puppet: asmall
human being or
animal
8. Ay, that way goes
the game: so, that is
theway shedid it
9. perceive:see
You Juggler! You Puppet!
Act 3, Scene 2: Another part of the wood
Hernia realises that Lysander really is in lovewith Helena and does not loveher anymore.
Sheaccuses Helena of stealing himfromher.
HERMI A : O me, you juggler
1
, you canker-blossom
2
,
You thief of love! What, have you come by night
And stolen my love's heart from him?
HELENA : Have you no modesty, no maiden
3
shame,
No touch of bashfulness
4
? What, will you tear 5
I mpatient answers from my gentle tongue
5
?
Fie
6
, fie, you counterfeit, you puppet
7
, you!
HERMI A : Puppet? Why so? - Ay, that way goes the game
8
.
Now I perceive
9
that she hath made compare
10
Between our statures
11
. She hath urged her height, 10
And with her personage, her tall personage,
Her height, forsooth
12
, she hath prevailed with him
13
.
And are you grown so high in his esteem
14
Because I am so dwarfish
15
and so low?
How low am I, thou painted maypole
16
? Speak! i s
How low am I? - 1 am not yet so low
But that my nails can reach unto your eyes
17
.
10. hath made compare:
compared
11. statures: heights
12. forsooth: truly
13. she hath prevailed with
him: shehas won him
over
14. esteem: favourable opinion
15. dwarfish: likeadwarf, short
16. maypole: tall pole around
which peopledanced on
May Day
17.1 am not yet... your eyes:
I am tall enough to scratch
your eyes out
COMPREHENSION
1 What does Hermia accuse Helena of doing?
2 Why does Hermia think Helena has called her a
puppet?
3 What, according to Hermia, has Helena used to
win Demetrius's love?
4 How does Hermia threaten to hurt Helena?
ANALYSIS
1 Hermia calls Helena a 'juggler', a 'canker-blossom'
and a 'thief of love' (lines 1-2). Try to explain why she
uses each of these offensive terms.
Example:
Shecalls Helena ajuggler because she plays with other
people's emotions.
2 Helena accuses Hermia of being a 'counterfeit' and
a 'puppet'. Which of the two insults offends Hermia
more deeply? Do you think that Hermia is envious of
Helena's height?
3 There is a pun*in line 1 3: 'And are you grown so
high in his esteem ...'. Can you explain it?
mm
:. -
if
OVER TO YOU
Comedy
Humour
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Comedy is a major form of drama. In it the characters amuse and entertain us rather
than engage our profound concern. We are confident that great disasters will not occur
and we know that the action will usually turn out happily for the chief characters.
Humour is the mai n i ngredi ent of a comedy. I t can be divided i nto three broad
categories:
verbal humour, when what the characters say is funny;
behavioural humour, when what the characters do is funny;
situational humour, when the situation the characters find themselves in is funny.
In the case of most comedy the humour is a mixture of all three categories.
Say whether the following are examples of verbal, behavioural or situational humour.
- Hermia and Helena, two very refined, ladylike characters, insult each other and threaten
each other with physical violence.
- Hermia, who previously was loved by both Lysander and Demetrius, is now despised by
both of them.
-There is a double meaning in the expression 'high in his esteem' which means 'respected'
but also may be a reference to the fact that Helena is very tall.
Make a list of three comic actors that you admire. Discuss whether their comedy is primarily
based on verbal, behavioural or situational humour or if it is a mixture of all three.
STAC INC THE PLAY
Movement Movement can be used to reveal character and mood to the audience. A character may
change the way he walks, for example, according to the mood he is in. Movement can also
be used to indicate the relationships between characters. One character may, for example,
walk away from another in disgust or slowly approach another in a confrontation that
produces rising tension. Where characters should stand and how they should move must be
carefully planned in the rehearsal stages of a play.
OVER TO YOU The characters in Text C5 feel a range of strong emotions including anger, hatred, shock,
insecurity, disgust and vengeance. Discuss how each character is feeling as she delivers her
lines. Work on how you are going to convey these emotions through the character's
movements. Experiment with space. Have two actors perform the piece standing as far apart
as possible and then as close to each other as possible. Which of the two options worked
best? Are some of the lines better shouted from a distance? Are other lines more effective
whispered fiercely at close physical contact? Have the two actors act out the scene using
numbers instead of the script. This will allow them to focus on movement and body
language.
On the basis of your experimentation decide how the characters should move in this scene
and then prepare a performance.
Wouldn't it be nice sometimes to live under the protection of a magic spell like the sleeping couples in
A Midsummer Night's Dream?
If you were living under a magic spell, how would you like your life to change?
Here are two examples to help you:
I would be able to read people's minds.
I would be protected fromall forms of physical danger.
i 24 THE RENAISSANCE - Drama
Hamlet
Read the following story which is loosely based on the plot of Hamlet.
Winston Hamlet and his brother Roger arepartners in a successful business. Roger is having an affair with Winston's
wife, Geraldine. Together they plan tokill Winston so that Roger will become thesoleowner of thecompany. While away
on a fishing trip together, Roger pushes his brother overboard, and manages toconvince thepolice that thedrowning was
an accident. Just twomonths later hemarries Geraldine.
Gertrudeand Winston's son, Freddie, is horrified at his father's death and his mother's remarriage. When he receives an
anonymous letter saying that his unclekilled his father, hedecides totake thelaw intohis own hands.
As Winston is sitting in a restaurant with Geraldine, Freddie walks in and shoots himdead. Hethen asks the restaurant
owner tocall thepolice and waits calmly until he is arrested. In court, he is found guilty of murder.
The judge is about to pass sentence. You are the judge. Choose one of the following sentences and explain why
you chose it.
Life-in-prison A fine (specify how much) Any other sentence?
A prison sentence (specify for House arrest (specify for how
how long) long)
INTRODUCTION Hamlet is probably the best-known character from Shakespeare's plays. He is a young
man who has to deal with the terrible trauma caused by his father's murder. What intrigues many theatre-
goers and literary critics is Hamlet's psychological make-up. Is he strong or weak? Is he really mad or is he
onl y pretending? These and many more questions conti nue to be asked about this fascinating character
( Visual Link C4).
THE STORY
CHARACTERS
Hamlet, Prince of
Denmark
Ghost of Old
Hamlet, Hamlet's
father and former
king
Claudius, current
King of Denmark
and fortner king's
brother
Gertrude, Queen of
Denmark and
Hamlet's mother
Polonius, close
adviser to Claudius
and father to
Ophelia and Laertes
Ophelia, Polonius's
daughter, in love
with Hamlet
Laertes, Polonius's
son
Claudius kills his brother Old Hamlet, marries his widow Gertrude and becomes King of
Denmark. Oneevening Hamlet sees his father's ghost who asks himtoavengehis death. From
that day on hestarts toact strangely and seems, tomany people, tobegoing mad. He dearly
wants toget revengeby killing Claudius but finds it hard toactually do it ( Text C6).
Herejects Ophelia, and continues tobehave very oddly. Claudius begins tosuspect that he
might know something about themurder and asks Polonius tospy on him.
While Hamlet is talking to his mother, Polonius hides behind a curtain tooverhear what is
being said. Hamlet realises someone is thereand stabs Polonius todeath through the curtain
( Text C7).
Claudius then decides to send Hamlet
away to England with two of courtiers
(Rosencrantz and Guildenstern), who
are under orders to kill him. Hamlet
outsmarts them and returns home to
learn that Ophelia has died in a state of
madness and desperation.
In a final attempt toget rid of Hamlet,
Claudius organises a sword fight between
him and Laertes. His plan goes terribly
wrong, however, and although Hamlet
does die, Claudius, Gertrudeand Laertes
arealso killed.
U L
I J I I
'To be, or not to be - that is the question.'
scene from the film Hamlet (1990),
starring Mel Gibson.
Ham let - William Shakespeare 25
To Be or Not to Be
Text C6
10
In this very famous speech Hamlet asks why man does not lose his will to livedespite the
obstacles he has to overcome.
Act III Scene I: A room in the castle
HAMLET: TO be, or not to be - that is the question.
Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows
1
of outrageous
2
fortune,
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles,
And by opposing end them? To die - to sleep -
No more; and by a sleep to say we end
The heart-ache
3
, and the thousand natural shocks
That flesh is heir to
4
; 'tis a consummation
5
Devoutly to be wish'd. To die - to sleep -
To sleep! perchance
5
to dream. Ay, there's the rub
7
;
For in that sleep of death what dreams may come,
When we have shuffled off
8
this mortal coil
9
,
Must give us pause. There's the respect
10
That makes calamity of so long life
11
.
For who would bear the whips and scorns
12
of time,
The oppressor's wrong
13
, the proud man's contumely
14
,
The pangs
15
of despised
16
love, the law's delay,
The insolence of office, and the spurns
17
That patient merit of the unworthy takes
18
,
When he himself might his quietus make
19
With a bare bodkin
20
? Who would these fardels bear,
To grunt
21
and sweat
22
under a weary
23
life,
But that the dread
24
of something after death -
The undiscovered country from whose bourn
25
No traveller returns - puzzles
26
the will,
And makes us rather bear those ills
27
we have
Than fly to others that we know not of?
Thus conscience does make cowards of us all,
And thus the native hue
28
of resolution
Is sicklied o'er
29
with the pale cast
30
of thought;
And enterprises of great pitch and moment
31
,
With this regard
32
their currents turn awry
33
,
And lose the name of action.
15
20
25
30
GLOSSARY
i See noteon Elizabethan
Engl i sh on p. C3)
1. slings and arrows: (slings:
pieces of cords with leather
in themiddleused to throw
stones; arrows: thin pointed
sticks that you shoot with
abow)
2. outrageous: adverse
3. heart-ache: pain
4. flesh is heir to: part of a
human life
5. consummation:
conclusion
6. perchance: perhaps
7. rub: impediment, obstacle
8. shuffled off: removed
9. coil: spiral loop (here: body)
10. respect: thought,
consideration
11. of so long life: last so long

12. whips and scorns:
(fig.) blows
13. wrong: unjust
actions
14. contumely: offensive
behaviour
15. pangs: sudden and
sharp feelings of pain
16. despised: rejected
17. spurns: rejections
18. of the unworthy
takes: receives from
people of littlevalue
19. his quietus make:
writehis own
quittance (document
stating that heis free
from debt)
20. bare bodkin: naked
dagger
21. grunt: emit the
sound that pigs make
22. sweat: perspire
23. weary: tiresome
24. dread: fear
25. bourn: boundary,
limit
26. puzzles: confounds
27.ills: adversities
28. native hue: natural
colour
29. sicklied o'er: turned
paleas if sick
30. cast: colour
31. pitch and moment:
importance
32. With this regard:
becauseof this
33. their currents turn
awry: change
direction
i 132THE RENAISSANCE - Drama
COMPREHENSION -
1 Focus on lines 1-5. Consider the two metaphors:
'...to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune'
'to take arms against a sea of troubles'
Which metaphor* represents passive submission to
the injustice and suffering of life and which one
suggests active rebellion?
2 What does Hamlet compare death to in lines 5-10?
3 Which expression in line 10 interrupts Hamlet's flow of
thoughts and introduces a different line of reasoning?
4 In line 12 Hamlet says that when we die we are
freed from 'this mortal coil'. Consider the meaning of
'coil' given in the glossary and explain what Hamlet
means in your own words.
5 In lines 15-21 Hamlet describes the suffering and
injustices of life. Find expressions which refer to the
following:
- unrequited love
- inefficiency in legal procedures
- political oppression
ANALYSIS
1 Which semantic field do the expressions 'slings and
arrows' (line 3) and 'to take arms' (line 4) belong to?
What image of life do they suggest?
2 By comparing death to sleep (lines 5-10) does
Hamlet depict it positively or negatively?
3 In the opening ten lines of Hamlet's speech each
infinitive is balanced by another of similar or opposite
meaning. Link each of the infinitives in column A of
the table below with an infinitive in column B.
A to be to suffer to die to sleep
B to take arms to dream not to be to sleep
4 Focus on lines 9-10: 'To die - to sleep -/ To sleep!
perchance to dream'. What effect does the repeated
use of infinitives create?
A soft, lulling effect
A harsh, rhythmic effect
5 In his list of the injustices man suffers (lines 15-21)
Hamlet uses personification*. In line 15 time is
personified and described as having 'whips' and
'scorns'. Can you find other examples of
personification in lines 15-21?
6 Which expression in line 30 parallels and contrasts
with the expression 'natural hue of resolution' in
line 29? Which words in line 30 link thought and
disease?
- ageing
- mistreatment by authority
- contempt
- unjust criticism
6 What escape from life's misery does Hamlet
suggest in lines 20-21?
7 In line 22 Hamlet uses the expression 'to grunt and
sweat'. Which negative aspect of life is he drawing our
attention to?
Social discrimination
Political injustices
Emotional turmoil
Physical hardship
Which expressions suggest that man is nothing more
than a beast of burden?
8 What is the 'undiscovered country' from which no
traveller returns, which Hamlet refers to in lines 24-25?
9 What, according to Hamlet, stops man from taking
action? (Lines 28-33)
7 Which of the following adjectives would you
choose to describe the tone of Hamlet's speech?
Justify your choice by referring to the text.
Angry Optimistic
Proud Philosophical
Ironic Melancholic
Passionate Dejected
8 In this speech Hamlet does not use the pronouns
or 'me'. Which personal pronouns does he use and
who do they refer to?
Would you consider the speech to be:
Hamlet's personal reflections on his immediate
situation?
a general analysis of the human condition?
On the basis of the answers you have given can you
explain the universal appeal of the speech?
9 What aspects of Hamlet's character emerge from
the speech?
His confusion
His lack of courage
His melancholy nature
His strong religious convictions
His weariness
His desire for revenge
His hatred of his uncle
His indecision
Other:
' îSf
Hamlet - William Shakespeare 27
WRITERS WORKSHOP
Soliloquy is a theatrical convention in which a character speaks aloud to himself. The
character may not necessarily be alone on the stage; other characters may be present
but if they are, it is assumed they do not hear the words of the soliloquy. The play-
wright uses soliloquy to convey directly to the audience the character's motives, inten-
tions and his innermost feelings and thoughts, or simply to fill in parts of the story.
Which of the following purposes does the soliloquy you have just read serve?
To fill in parts of the story
To explain Hamlet's motives
To outline Hamlet's intentions
To convey Hamlet's feelings about his immediate situation
To express Hamlet's thoughts on fundamental human problems
Soliloquy is used to develop the story or to help the audience to understand the inner
feelings of a character. Can you think of a similar convention that is often used in cinema for
the same purposes?
Hamlet is talking to his mother while Polonius is listening tc
curtain (arras).
Act III Scene 4: The Queen's closet
HAMLET: Now, mother, what's the matter?
QUEEN: Hamlet, thou hast thy father much offended.
HAMLET: Mother, you have my father much offended.
QUEEN: Come, come, you answer with an idle
1
tongue.
HAMLET: GO, go, you question with a wicked
2
tongue.
QUEEN: Why, how now, Hamlet!
HAMLET: What's the matter now?
QUEEN: Have you forgot me?
HAMLET: No, by the rood
3
, not so.
You are the queen, your husband's brother's wife;
And - would it were not so
4
! - you are my mother.
QUEEN: Nay
5
, then, I'll set
6
those to you that can speak.
HAMLET: Come, come, and sit you down; you shall not 1
You go not till I set you up a glass
Where you may see the inmost part of you.
otheir conversation behind a
10
budge
7
;
15
GLOSSARY -
(Seenote on Elizabethan
English on p. C3)
1. idle:lazy
2. wicked: bad, cruel
3. rood: crucifix
4. would it were not
so: I wish it was not
true
5. Nay: no
6. set: send (Polonius
and Claudius)
7. budge: move
8. draws (his sword):
takes his sword out
9. slain: killed
10. rash: foolish, stupid
11. wretched: worthless
12. Leavewringing: stop
twisting (from
discomfort or anxiety)
13.1shall, I f... stuff:
this I will do if I can
penetrate it
14. wag: shake, move
15.blurs ... modesty:
makes your grace and
palecolour of
modesty disappear
16.blister: thin watery
swelling under the
skin
17. vows: solemn
promises
18.dicers' oaths:
promises madeby
gamblers
19. roars: makes aloud
noise (likealion's)
20. thunders: makes a
loud noise (like that
of thunder)
21. index: list (of crimes)
22. counterfeit
presentment: portrait
(not real presentation)
23. brow: upper part of a
face, abovethe nose
24. Hyperion: in Greek
mythology, agiant-
sized god with
superhuman powers
25. threaten: say
menacing words
26. station: posture
27. New lighted on the
heaven-kissing hill:
newly, freshly arrived
on the high hill
28. A combination and a
form: acombination
of qualities and
physical presence
29. seal: official mark in
a document
30.mildew'd ear:
diseased ear of com
31. wholesome: healthy
32.Could you ... moor:
you abandoned Old
Hamlet (fair
mountain) and chose
Claudius (moor:
desolate land; batten:
become fat)
QUEEN: What wilt thou do? Thou wilt not murder me?
Help, help, ho!
POLONI US: [Behind] What, ho! Help, help, help!
HAMLET: [Draws
8
] How now! A rat? Dead! for a ducat, dead!
[Makes apass through the arras.]
POLONI US: [Behind] O ! I am slain
9
. [Falls and dies] 20
QUEEN: O me! What hast thou done?
HAMLET: Nay, I know not. Is it the king?
QUEEN: O ! what a rash
10
and bloody deed is this!
HAMLET: A bloody deed! Almost as bad, good mother,
As kill a king, and marry with his brother. 25
QUEEN: A S kill a king!
HAMLET: Ay, lady, 'twas my word.
[Lifts up the arras and discovers POLONI US]
Thou wretched
11
, rash, intruding fool, farewell!
I took thee for thy better; (...)
Leave wringing
12
of your hands. Peace; sit you down, 30
And let me wring your heart; for so I shall,
If it be made of penetrable stuff
13
(...)
QUEEN: What have I done that thou dar'st wag
14
thy tongue
In noise so rude against me?
HAMLET: Such an act 35
That blurs the grace and blush of modesty
15
;
Calls virtue hypocrite; takes off the rose
From the fair forehead of an innocent love,
And sets a blister
16
there; makes marriage vows
17
As false as dicers' oaths
18
. 40
(...)
QUEEN: Ay me, what act
That roars
19
so loud, and thunders
20
in the index
21
?
HAMLET: Look here, upon this picture, and on this,
The counterfeit presentment
22
of two brothers.
See, what a grace was seated on this brow
23
- 45
Hyperion
24
's curls, the front of J ove himself;
An eye like Mars, to threaten
25
and command;
A station
26
like the herald Mercury
New lighted on the heaven-kissing hill
27
;
A combination and a form
28
indeed 50
Where every god did seem to set his seal
29
,
To give the world assurance of a man.
This was your husband. Look you now, what follows:
Here is your husband, like a mildew'd ear
30
Blasting his wholesome
31
brother. Have you eyes? 55
Could you on this fair mountain leave to feed,
And batten on this moor
32
? Ha! Have you eyes?
You cannot call it love, for at your age
Macbeth - William Shakespeare 29
The hey-day in the blood is tame
33
, it's humble
34
,
And waits upon the judgement
35
; and what judgement
Would step from this to this?
(...)
QLTEN: O Hamlet, speak no more!
Thou turn'st my eyes into my very soul;
And there I see such black and grained spots
36
As will not leave their tinct
37
.
HAMLET: Nay, but to live
In the rank sweat
38
of an enseamed
39
bed,
Stew'd
40
in corruption, honeying
41
and making love
Ch er the nasty sty
42
-
QBEEN: O, speak to me no more;
These words, like daggers
43
, enter in my ears;
No more, sweet Hamlet!
LET: A murderer and a villain!
A slave that is not twentieth part the tithe
44
Of your precedent lord; a vice
45
of kings;
A cutpurse
46
of the empire and the rule
That from a shelf the precious diadem stole,
And put it in his pocket!
No more!
'Enter the GH OST in his nightgown.]
i: A king of shreds and patches
47
-
Save me, and hover
48
o'er me with your wings,
You heavenly guards! What would your gracious figure
49
?
: Alas, he's mad!
": Do you not come your tardy
50
son to chide
51
,
that, laps'd in time and passion
52
, lets go by
53
The important acting of your dread
54
command?
Oh say!
n Do not forget: this visitation
s but to whet thy almost blunted purpose
55
.
But. look, amazement
56
on thy mother sits.
Oh. step between her and her fighting soul -
Conceit
57
in weakest bodies strongest works -
Speak to her, Hamlet.
: How is it with you, lady?
:: Alas, how i s't with you,
That you do bend your eye on vacancy
58
,
Xnd with the incorporal air do hold discourse
59
?
C)
"Vhereon do you look?
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
- day ... tame: your
dual driveshould have
iminished
- -amble: unimportant
35. waits upon the judgement:
puts rational thought first
36. grained spots: ingrained
marks
37. leave their tinct: losetheir
colour, fade
38. rank sweat: smelly
perspiration
39. enseamed: lurid
40. Stew'd: immersed
41. honeying: sweet
talking
42. nasty sty: disgusting
pig's den
43. daggers: knives
44. tithe: tax often
percent given to
support thelocal
church
45. vice: clown (in
Morality plays 'vice'
impersonated human
vices and worethe
multicoloured clothes
that would later
become typical of
clowns)
46. cutpurse: thief
47. shreds and patches:
badly dressed
48. hover: stay in theair
49. would your gracious
figure: what is your
wish?
50. tardy: hesitating
51. chide: reprimand
52. laps'd in time and
passion: guilty of
letting timepass and
thepassion of
revengecool
53. go by: pass
54. dread: terrifying
55.but to whet...
purpose: only to spur
you into action
56. amazement: great
surprise
57. Conceit: imagination
58.bend ... vacancy:
look into an empty
space
59. hold discourse: talk
' J K
4 30 THE RENAISSANCE - Drama
HAMLET: O n hi m, on hi m! (...)
QUEEN: TO whom do you speak this?
HAMLET: DO you see nothing there?
QUEEN: Nothing at all; yet all that is I see.
HAMLET: Nor did you nothing hear?
QUEEN: No, nothing but ourselves.
HAMLET: Why, look you there! Look, how it steals away
60
!
My father, in his habit
61
as he liv'd!
60. steals away: disappears 61. habit: clothes
4 rat? Dead! for a ducat, dead!
i scene from Hamlet (1948),
tarring Laurence Olivier.
m
COMPREHENSION
1 When the queen speaks of 'thy father' (line 2) and
Hamlet speaks of 'my father' (line 3), are they
referring to the same person?
2 When Hamlet says that the queen will see 'the
inmost part of you' (line 15), is he speaking literally or
figuratively? Does the queen understand what her son
wishes to do?
3 Who does Hamlet think is hiding behind the
curtains?
4 What does Hamlet mean when he says that he
wants to 'wring' the queen's heart? (Line 31)
5 When the queen asks Hamlet what she has done to
anger him (lines 33-34), does he answer her question
directly?
ANALYSIS
1 In the opening lines of the text Hamlet uses the
queen's own words to point the finger of accusation
away from himself and towards her. Find two
examples.
How would you describe Hamlet's attitude towards
his mother in these opening lines?
Provocative Mocking
Sympathetic Respectful
Loving Other:
6 From line 43 to line 57 Hamlet compares his father
and his uncle Claudius.
In which lines does he describe his father?
In which lines does he describe his uncle?
7 At what point in the text does the queen seem to
admit that she has done something evil?
8 What overcomes the queen's judgement according
to Hamlet in lines 59-61?
9 Hamlet thinks that the ghost has come to
reprimand him. For what?
10 Does the ghost want Hamlet to take revenge on
his mother? Refer to the text in your answer.
11 Underline the sentences in the text that suggest
that the queen cannot see or hear the ghost.
1
2 Focus on lines 20-29. Hamlet thinks that he has
killed Claudius when in fact he has mistakenly
murdered Polonius. Underline sentences that convey
Hamlet's dispassionate indifference to his crime. How
would you explain his lack of emotion?
He feels his actions are justified because he is
avenging his father's death.
He is close to madness and no longer able to feel
emotions.
He has little interest in killing and revenge; he is
more passionate about saving his mother's soul.
3 Find an example of personification* in lines 37-42.
Referring to the text, complete the following
metaphors*:
The crime committed by the queen:
- makes modesty lose
- makes virtue become
- replaces a rose with
- transforms marriage vows into
What do the metaphors have in common with each
other and with the queen's actions?
4 Make a list of the gods Hamlet mentions in
describing his father (lines 46-55). What do these
allusions*to Greek and Latin mythology suggest
about Hamlet's view of his father?
In the image that follows (lines 54-55), Hamlet's
father and his brother Claudius are compared to 'two
ears of corn'. Why is Hamlet's father 'wholesome'
while Claudius is 'mildew'd'?
5 Complete the following table which analyses the
metaphor in lines 56-57.
6 Examine lines 66-69. What in Hamlet's opinion is
ne relationship between Claudius and the queen
rased on? Which words in particular convey Hamlet's
degust?
7 What aspects of Claudius's character does Hamlet
jnderline in the metaphors in lines 73-78?
8 Focus on the apparition of the ghost (lines 88-93).
Toes his attitude towards the queen confirm or
contrast with Hamlet's?
"he ghost is often considered to be a figment of
-amlet's imagination, an extension of his mind and
conscience. If this is the case, what does the ghost's
Ktrtude towards the queen suggest about the
âtionship between Hamlet and his mother?
II That Hamlet despises his mother and cannot
forgive her.
That Hamlet is caught between wishing to avenge
his father's death but not wishing to punish his
mother, whom he loves.
9 What purpose does the appearance of the ghost
serve?
It heightens tension by introducing a potentially
frightening supernatural element.
It helps the audience to follow the plot of the play.
M It makes the audience more sympathetic towards
the queen.
H If the ghost is interpreted as an extension of
Hamlet's thoughts, it shows the more forgiving
side of his nature.
10 Focus on the character of the queen. What is her
attitude towards Hamlet? Find evidence in the text
that suggests that:
- in the past her relationship with Hamlet was
positive: line
- she is afraid of what Hamlet might do in his current
state: line
- she loves Hamlet and knows the gentle side of his
nature: line
- she thinks that Hamlet is suffering from some form
of mental disorder: line
- she is concerned about Hamlet's well-being:
line
11 The queen speaks primarily in questions and
exclamations. Find some examples in the text. What
does her form of speech convey about her state of
mind? Do you feel sympathetic or angry towards the
queen in this scene?
12 Consider the aspects of Hamlet's character that
emerge from this text. Which of the following
adjectives would you choose to describe him on the
basis of this scene?
Passionate
Rational
Forgiving
Hysterical
Confused
Heartless
Mad
Righteous
Are they the same adjectives that you would use to
describe Hamlet in text C6?
Hamlet's father
love
j lust
wholesome, beautiful
lowly, ugly, barren
healthy, dignified
moor
batten
Hamlet's father
love
j lust
moor
batten
Figure
of speech
OVER TO YOU
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
A figure of speech is any use of language which deviates from the obvious or common
usage in order to achieve a special meaning or effect. We use figures of speech in every-
day conversation when we say, for example, 'money talks' (personification) or 'it's rain-
ing cats and dogs' (metaphor) or 'they are like two peas in a pod' (simile).
In literature, figures of speech are used to create a stronger intellectual or emotional
impact on the reader or spectator and to add a range of depth of association. For exam-
ple, when Hamlet describes his father and Claudius he uses striking figures of speech
which make the descriptions stronger and more memorable. When a writer's work is
rich in figures of speech we describe his style as figurative. The text from Shakespeare's
Hamlet that you have just read is an excellent example of highly figurative writing.
Choose two figures of speech form Text C7 that you find striking and explain why you think
they are particularly effective.
Re-write lines 41-53 in non-figurative style. Try to reduce what the characters say to its
essentials and avoid the use of figures of speech.
When you have finished, read the original figurative version and your new literal version
aloud. Comment with your classmates on how the impact of the text changes.
STAC I NC TH E PLAY
Suspense
OVER TO YOU
One way of incorporating suspense into a play is by giving the audience more information
than the characters themselves have, and allowing them to see dangers that the characters
are unaware of. The anxiety created in this situation is similar to what we feel when, in real
life, we can see that an accident is about to occur but we are unable to warn the person who
will be the victim.
Examine the scene you have just read from three different perspectives: Hamlet's, the
queen's, and the audience's. Use the table below to determine what each of them knows (/ )
or does not know (X).
Hamlet The queen The audience knows that...
Polonius is hiding behind the curtain.
Hamlet wishes to avenge his father's death.
The queen has been Claudius's accomplice.
Hamlet is talking to a ghost.
Do the characters and the audience share the same information?
Who has most information - Hamlet, the queen or the audience?
When a character and the audience do not share the same information it is important that the
playwright and the director draw attention to it. In the scene you have just read the queen
shares little of the information that the audience has. Go through the text and underline the
statements in which the queen's partial understanding of the situation emerges. Choose some
of the lines and discuss what facial expressions and movements should accompany what the
queen is saying, and in what tone of voice the lines should be delivered.
Hamlet criticises his mother for marrying her brother-in-law Claudius. He is like other sons and daughters who find
fault with their parents and are not afraid to say it.
What annoys young people about their parents?
Examples: they never listen to what wehave tosay. They think they know everything.
Add others.
Macbeth
When we say that The end justifies the means', we mean that anything we do is justifiable if it helps us reach an
objective. This line of thinking, however, can bring a person face-to-face with a moral dilemma in situations where
he must use slightly or totally illegitimate or immoral means to reach a legitimate objective.
1 Look at the following situations and indicate whether you think the end justifies (Yes) the means or not (No).
2 In small groups compare your answers.
3 One member of each group reports the results to the rest of the class.
Means End
Copy. Pass an exam. Yes No
Tell your boy/ girlfriend a lie. Meet another boy/ girl. Yes No
Spread false rumours about an opposing
candidate.
Win an election. Yes No
Shoot and injure an unarmed burglar who
is robbing your house.
Protect your property. Yes No
Evade taxes. Have enough money to provide a good
education for your handicapped child.
Yes No
Take drugs that improve performance but
do not damage health.
Win a sports competition. Yes No
INTRODUCTION The Macbeths are no ordinary couple. They are going to get
to the top and no one is going to stop them. Here is Shakespeare at his thrilling
best.
THE STORY
On their return from a victorious campaign, Macbeth and Banquo meet three witches. The
witches prophesy that Macbeth will be made Thane of Cawdor, while Banquo's sons will
become kings. The first prediction comes trueimmediately. Lady Macbeth is not content,
however, because shewants her husband tobeking and convinces himtokill Duncan ( Text
C8). The king's sons are wrongly suspected of the murder and flee abroad. Macbeth is
crowned king.
Macbeth feels that Banquo and his son could be a threat to his throne, so he orders their
assassination. The murderers manage to kill Banquo but Fleance escapes. Soon after the
killing, Banquo's ghost appears toMacbeth and he becomes increasingly worried about his
e\ il actions, which hesees no way of stopping. His wife has also been shaken by events and
skirts showing thefirst signs of madness.
He goes back to the witches tofind out what will happen in thefuture. They tell him to be
aryof Macduff, who has joined Malcolm in England, where they are raising an army to
snack Macbeth and dethrone him. When Macbeth hears of their plan hesends his soldiers to
'acduff's castle wherethey kill Macduff's wife and children.
CHARACTERS
Duncan, King of
Scotland
Malcolm, Duncan's
son
Donalbain,
Duncan's son
Macbeth, General
of the king's army
Banquo, General
of the king's army
Fleance, Banquo's
son
Macduff, Thane
of Fife
Lady Macbeth,
Macbeth's wife
Three witches
Banquo's ghost
Seyton, an officer
in Macbeth's army
Note: A thane was a
Scottish nobleman
who was given land
by the king.
Macduff and Malcolm gather their forces and march on Scotland. Macbeth sets up his
defences in Dunsinane Castle and waits for theenemy toarrive. Just before thebattle, to his
great surprise, he hears that Lady Macbeth has committed suicide ( Text C9). He fights
bravely but is killed in a fight by Macduff, while Malcolm is crowned king of Scotland.
[Text C8
Lady Macbeth has just read the letter from her husband telling her that he has been made
Thaneof Cawdor, and that Duncan is tostay in their castle that evening.
Act 1, Scene 5: A room in Macbeth's castle at Inverness
LADY MACBETH: (...) The raven
1
Himself is hoarse
2
That croaks
3
the fatal entrance of Duncan
Under my battlements
4
. Come, you spirits
That tend
5
on mortal thoughts, unsex me here
6
, 5
And fill me, from the crown to the toe
7
, top-full
Of direst
8
cruelty! Make thick my blood,
Stop up th' access and passage to remorse;
That no compunctious visitings of nature
9
Shake my fell purpose
10
, nor keep peace between 10
Th' effect and it
11
. Come to my woman's breasts,
And take my milk for gall
12
, you murdering ministers
13
,
Wherever in your sightless substances
14
You wait on nature's mischief
15
! Come, thick night,
And pall
16
thee in the dnnest
17
smoke of hell, is
That my keen knife see not the wound it makes,
Nor heaven peep
18
through the blanket
19
of the dark
To cry, "Hold
20
, hold!"
[Enter MA CBETH]
Great Glamis! Worthy Cawdor!
21
Greater than both, by the all-hail
22
, hereafter
23
! 20
Thy letters have transported me beyond
This ignorant
24
present, and I feel now
The future in an instant
25
.
MACBETH: My dearest love,
Duncan comes here tonight. 25
Q
GLOSSARY
English on p. C3)
1. raven: largeblack
bird, thought to bring
bad luck
2. is hoarse: cries out
roughly
3. croaks: makes a
harsh, low sound
4. battlements: top part
of acastle
5. tend: takecare of
6. unsex me here:
remove my
femininity
7. crown to the toe:
head to foot
8. direst: worst
9. compunctious ...
Unsex me Here
nature: natural feelings of
conscience
10.Shake ... purpose: change
my ruthless plan
11.nor keep ... it: come
between my plan and the
action itself
12.And take ... gall: replace
my milk with bitter
poison
13. ministers: here Lady
Macbeth isreferring to the
spirits
14. sightless substances:
invisible forms
15.wait ... mischief: help the
evil forces in nature
16. pall: cover
17.dunnest: darkest
18. peep: givea quick
secretive look
19.blanket: cover
20. Hold: stop
21.Great Glamis! Worthy
Cawdor!: Macbeth was
both thane of Glamis and
thane of Cawdor
22. all-hail: greeted by
everyone
23. hereafter: in future
24. ignorant: lacking
knowledge of the future
25. in an instant: very soon
LADY MACBETH: And when goes hence
26
?
MACBETH: Tomorrow, as he purposes
27
.
LADY MACBETH: O! never
Shall sun that morrow see
28
!
Your face, my thane, is as a book, where men 30
May read strange matters. To beguile the time,
Look like the time
29
, bear welcome
30
in your eye,
Your hand, your tongue: look like the innocent flower
But be the serpent under't. He that's coming
Must be provided for
31
; and you shall put 35
This night's great business into my despatch
32
;
Which shall to all our nights and days to come
Give solely sovereign sway and masterdom
33
.
MACBETH: We will speak further
34
.
LADY MACBETH: Only look up clear
35
; 40
To alter favour ever is to fear
36
.
Leave all the rest to me.
26. goes hence: goes away
27.as he purposes: so he
intends
28.Shall ... see: tomorrow
will not come for Duncan
29.To beguile ... the time: to
deceive the people around,
wear an expression that
suits the occasion
30. bear welcome: appear
welcoming, friendly
31. provided for: looked after
32. into my despatch: under
my control
33. sovereign sway
and masterdom: kingship
34. speak further: talk about
it again
35. look up clear: look at
me directly
36.To alter favour ... fear:
to change the expression
on your facemeans to
liveforever in fear
COMPREHENSION
1 Lady Macbeth calls on the spirits of evil to suppress her natural sentiments as a woman. She uses three very
forceful images. Link each image with the aspect of her nature she wishes to suppress.
Lines 5-7: unsex me here ... direst cruelty Maternal instinct
Lines 7-11: Make thick my blood ... Th' effect and it. Femininity
Lines 11-14: Come to my woman's breasts... nature's mischief Remorse
2 Why does she want the night to be very dark? (Lines 14-15)
3 What advice does Lady Macbeth give her husband? (Lines 30-38)
4 What will they gain by committing the murder, according to Lady Macbeth?
ANALYSIS
1 A raven is a black crow which is often associated
with death. Why is it appropriate that this bird
sounds the fanfare' for Duncan's entrance into
Macbeth's castle?
2 Find an example of personification* in line 17. Which
s presented as the stronger force: heaven and the
Dowers of good or nighttime and the powers of evil?
3 Lady Macbeth greets her husbands by saying
'Great Glamis! Worthy Cawdor!'. Why does she use
his titles instead of a more personal form of
salutation?
4 Lady Macbeth encourages her husband to deceive
Duncan through his body language. Which body parts
does she tell him to be particularly careful about and why?
5 According to Lady Macbeth, her husband should
pretend to be a flower while actually being the
serpent beneath it. What associations do you make
with the image of the serpent?
6 Lines 35-36 contain a number of double meanings.
provided for =fed or killed
business =feasting or murder
despatch =carrying out the welcome or killing
Does Lady Macbeth use these veiled words because
she is:
testing how Macbeth will react to the possibility of
murder?
still unsure herself about the awfulness of murder?
afraid that direct language will make Macbeth
refuse to act?
other:
Onomatopoeia
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OVER TO YOU
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-
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Onomatopoei a is the literary term that is used when the sound of a word resembles
the sound it denotes. Examples of onomatopoeia can be found in verbs such as:
buzz: the sound a bee makes
slam: the sound of a violently closed door
bang: the noise made by an explosion.
Find an example of onomatopoeia in the opening lines of Lady Macbeth's speech.
Link the onomatopoeiaic words to the sounds they denote.
hiss
rattle
screech
sizzle
whimper
fizz
sound made by frying food
sound made by a drink that contains a lot of gas
sound made by a snake
little, low, crying sound
short knocking sound made when something is shaken
unpleasant high-pitched cry
Tone
OVER TO YOU
STAC I N6 THE PLAY
In everyday speech the tone of voice we use can change the meaning of what we say. A
simple expression such as 'sit down' can become an order, an invitation or a question
depending on the tone that is used. Actors also use tone of voice to convey meaning. In the
extract you have just read, for example, line 26 'And when goes hence?' can be read as a
simple question or in a way that suggests that Duncan may never leave the castle,
depending on the tone the actor uses.
Occasionally the playwright will make suggestions about the tone that should be used. Words
such as 'angrily', 'playfully' or 'remorsefully' may appear in the stage directions. However, it
is usually the actor and the director who decide what tone would be most appropriate.
Work in three groups. Each group should focus on a section of Lady Macbeth's soliloquy.
Group 1 Lines 4-7 Come, you spirits ... Of direst cruelty!
Group 2 Lines 7-11 Make thick my blood ... Th'effect and it.
Group 3 Lines 11-14 Come to my woman's breasts ... on nature's mischief!
Experiment with different tones of voice when you say the lines: whisper them, hiss them
fiercely, speak them as if in a trance, chant them like a spell.
When Lady Macbeth says 'unsex me here', she implies that she should turn into a man in order to be able to
organise and carry out Duncan's murder.
From our twenty-first century perspective, does this idea that only men are capable of being clinically cruel and
cold-hearted still seem valid?
Can you think of any female characters in books, films or on TV that are cold-hearted and cruel? Discuss with your
classmates.
The Sound and the Fury
Text C9
Macduff's and Malcolm's army, made up of English and Scottish soldiers, is about to attack
Macbeth's army, which is defending thecastle ofDunsinane.
[Enter with drum and colours, MA CBETH, SEYTON and soldiers.]
\ LACBETH: Hang out our banners
1
on the outward walls;
The cry is still, "They come!" Our castle's strength
Will laugh a siege to scorn
2
; here let them lie,
Till famine and the ague
3
eat them up
4
.
Were they not forced
5
with those that should be ours
6
,
We might have met them dareful, beard to beard
7
,
And bear them backward home
8
.
[.4 cry within, of women]
What is that noise?
SEYTON: It is the cry of women, my good lord.
IExit]
?ETH: I have almost forgot the taste of fears.
The time has been, my senses would have cooled
To hear a night-shriek
9
; and my fell of hair
Would, at a dismal treatise, rouse and stir,
As life were i n't
10
.1 have supped full with horrors:
Direness
11
, familiar to my slaughterous
12
thoughts,
Cannot once start me
13
.
SRe-enter SEYTON]
Wherefore
14
was that cry?
\ : The queen, my lord, is dead.
ETH: She should have died hereafter
15
:
There would have been a time for such a word
16
.
ARY
*e on Elizabethan
on p. C3)
tanners: flags
Nir castle's strength ...
i: they will never be
b to capture our castle
ne: fever
tthem up: weaken them
I they can no longer fight
taced: reinforced
Oiethat should be ours:
zaeScottish soldiers
Wanting against Macbeth
e might ... beard: we
mzht have fought them in
lieopen, man-to-man
... home: and forced
"am back to where they
ne from
9. The time ... night-shriek:
in the past I would have
been afraid if I heard a cry
in the night
10. fell of hair ... As life were
i n't: when 1heard a
frightening story (dismal
treatise) my hair (fell of
hair) would stand up (rouse
and stir) as if it were alive
11. Direness: horror
12. slaughterous: murderous
13. Cannot once start me:
cannot frighten me now
14. Wherefore: what was the
reason for?
15. hereafter: later
16. a time for such a word: a
better time to hear this
10
15
17.Creeps ... day: one
day follows
(creeps) another in
the same
insignificant way;
creep: movein a
slow, quiet, careful
way
18.T0 ... time: until
the end of the
world
19. And all ... dusty
death: every day
wehavelived (all
our yesterdays),
somebody has been
shown the way
(lighted) to death
Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow,
Creeps in this petty pace from day to day
17
,
To the last syllable of recorded time
18
;
And all our yesterdays have lighted fools
The way to dusty death
19
. Out, out, brief
20
candle!
Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player
21
That struts and frets
22
his hour upon the stage,
And then is heard no more: it is a tale
Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,
Signifying nothing.
25
30
20. brief: short
21. player: actor
22. struts and frets:
tries unsuccessfully to
show dignity and
passion
COMPREHENSION
1 Does Macbeth believe that his castle can withstand
a siege?
2 Why does he not fight the enemy army in man-to-
man combat?
3 Why is Macbeth no longer fearful?
4 Does the future hold any promise for Macbeth?
5 Does he take any pleasure from thinking of the past?
6 Can he see any meaning in life?
ANALYSIS
1 Find an example of personification* in Macbeth's
opening lines (1-5).
2 In line 10 fear is presented as if it were a type of
food. Underline the expression that establishes this
association. The food imagery is continued in line 14
'I have supped full with horrors'. Try to explain this
image in your own words.
3 Focus on line 19 'She should have died hereafter'.
The word 'should' can mean 'would' or 'ought to'
and the line can be interpreted in a sympathetic or
unsympathetic way. If the meaning 'would' is taken, it
suggests that Macbeth no longer cares about his wife.
If 'should' is interpreted as 'ought to', it implies that
Macbeth feels his wife's death is premature, and that
perhaps he could have intervened to save her, or at
least had time to mourn her. Read the line in different
ways to suggest the two meanings. If you were the
director of the play which of the two interpretations
would you choose?
4 What is the effect of the repetition* of the word
tomorrow in line 21 ? How do you think this line
should be delivered?
Slowly in a weary tone
Quickly in a frantic tone
Other:
5 Macbeth describes life in a series of striking images
(lines 25-30). Link each image to the aspect of life he
wishes to underline.
Life is a ... Life is ...
brief candle insubstantial
walking shadow meaningless
poor player undignified
tale told by an idiot short
6 Macbeth's mood changes dramatically in the
course of this extract. Which of the adjectives below
best describe his mood in the following lines?
Lines 1-8
Lines 10-1 7
Lines 19-30
defiant philosophical sombre
hesitant reflective confident
nostalgic morbid
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Metaphor
TASKS
-
mm
''Hmk
OVER TO YOU
The language of Shakespeare's plays is highly poetic. One of the elements that gives his
work a poetic quality is the use of metaphors. A metaphor is an implied comparison
whi ch creates a total identification between the two things being compared. Words
such as 'like' or 'as' are not used. A metaphor is made up of three elements:
the tenor, i.e. the subject under discussion (for example, 'life');
the vehicle, i.e. what the subject is compared to (for example, a 'candle');
the ground, i.e. what the poet believes the tenor and the vehicle have in common (for
example, 'brevity').
Metaphors have several important functions. They arouse emotions and feelings and
help us to create mental pictures that are memorable. They often appeal to our senses.
They compress meaning i nto a few lines and help us to understand difficult abstract
ideas by making reference to familiar concrete items.
1 Consider the metaphors in lines 26-30. In each case 'life' is the tenor. What are the
vehicles and the grounds?
2 Which of the metaphors for life in Macbeth's soliloquy do you find most striking and why?
3 Do any of the metaphors help you to create mental pictures? Could you draw a picture
which would illustrate any of the metaphors?
Write your own metaphor for life and explain the ground. Example:
Lifeis a maths lesson.
Ground: the more timepasses the less you understand!
Timing
OVER TO YOU
STAC INC THE PLAY
Ti mi ng refers to the pace at which an actor delivers his lines. Through timing an actor can
direct the audience's attention to what is most important for the understanding of a play.
If an actor delivers all his lines at the same pace it is difficult for the audience to identify
and absorb essential information. This is particularly the case when the language of the
play is highly figurative as is the case in Shakepearean drama. Choosing the correct places
to pause and the correct speed of delivery is an essential part of an actor's preparation.
Actors have many techniques which they use to improve their timing. One such technique is
the addition of 'silent lines' to the text. These are lines that are not spoken aloud. The
unspoken words help the actor to achieve the appropriate timing.
Consider Macbeth's soliloquy at the end of the extract you have read. Read the soliloquy,
saying the added words (in italics) silently to yourself and the original text aloud.
Life's but a-walking shadow, [nothing more] a poor player [of no consequence]
That struts and frets his hour upon the stage, [of pain and disillusion]
And then is heard no more [goneforever]: it is a tale [asad tale]
Told by an idiot, [whodoes not understand what hesays] full of sound and fury, [empty noises]
Signifying nothing.
Choose a short extract (4-6 lines) from the material you have studied. Add some 'silent
lines'. Learn the passage by heart and prepare to perform the piece.
Macbeth, having been the most powerful man in Scotland, is now totally disillusioned with life. If you were to
meet him, what questions would you ask him?
3
repare some questions. Split up into pairs. Student A is the interviewer. Student B is Macbeth. When Student A
-as finished asking his questions, invert roles.
INTRODUCTION Shakespeare is known as 'the Bard', whi ch means 'poet'. This is because much of the
language in his plays is poeti c and because he also wrote poems. You are goi ng to read two of the 154 son-
nets that have come down to us. These two, like many others, give unusual perspectives on the theme of
love.
rDBDD DD
Have you ever felt that nothing is going right in your life? Have you ever wished that you were better-looking or
richer or more intelligent? Have you ever wished that you had more friends? If you have, then you will find it easy
to understand Shakespeare, who, in this poem, thinks about those times when he can see nothing good in his life.
Read the poem and find how he lifts himself out of depression.
Sonnets
M Sonnet 29
When in disgrace with fortune and men's eyes,
I all alone beweep
1
my outcast state
2
,
And trouble
3
deaf Heaven with my bootless
4
cries,
And look upon myself, and curse
5
my fate,
Wishing me like to
6
one more rich in hope, 5
Featured' like him, like him with friends possess'd
8
,
Desiring this man's art
9
and that man's scope
10
,
With what I most enjoy contented least
11
;
Yet in these thoughts myself almost despising
12
,
Haply
13
I thi nk on thee, - and then my state 10
(Like to a lark
14
at break of day arising
From sullen
15
earth) sings hymns at heaven's gate
16
;
For thy sweet love remember'd such wealth brings
17
,
That then I scorn
18
to change my fate with kings.
o
TextC
Visual Link C6
GLOSSARY
English on p. C3)
1. beweep: cry over
2. outcast state: condition of
being exiled, separated
3. trouble: disturb
4. bootless: useless
5. curse: complain angrily
about
6. Wishing me like to:
desiring to be
7. Featured: looking
8. with friends possess'd:
having friends
9. art: skill
10. scope: knowledge
11. With ... least: not even
enjoying thethings I most
likedoing
12. despising: hating
13. Haply: perhaps
14. lark: very small songbird
15.sullen: dark, sad
16. heaven's gate: doors of
paradise
17.thy sweet love ... brings:
the remembrance of your
lovebrings such richness
18. scorn: refuse
COMPREHENSION
1 Why does the poet weep? (Line 2) 3 What changes the poet's mood?
2 What does he envy in other men? 4 Who does the poet feel superior to, according to
a. (line 5) line 14?
b. (line 6)
c. (line 6)
d. (line 7)
e. (line 7)
ANALYSIS
1 Focus on line 2. How does the poet suggest that he
feels lonely and unloved? Can you find any other
evidence in the poem that the poet feels lonely?
2 What is heaven commonly believed to listen to?
Why does the poet feel that heaven is deaf? (Line 3)
3 Focus on lines 5-8. Does the poet envy other men
their material possessions? What do these lines
suggest about how the poet feels about himself?
4 Consider line 8. Does this line suggest that the
poet is happy or sad? In this line there is the
juxtaposition of two opposites. What are they?
5 The only image that the poem contains occurs in
line 11, where the poet compares himself to a lark
ascending in the sky. Would you agree that the image
is more striking because it is alone? What graphic
feature attracts our attention to the image?
6 Explain how line 12 contrasts with line 3.
7 The table below illustrates the poet's view of his
'state' at the beginning and at the end of the poem.
Beginning of the poem End of the poem
Heaven Heaven
Kings The poet
Other men Kings
The poet Other men
In what sense does the poet, like the lark, 'ascend' in
the course of the poem?
8 Work out the rhyming scheme of the sonnet*.
Where does the rhyming scheme change? Would you
agree that the last two lines of the sonnet summarise
its content?
The poem is written in iambic pentameter* - five pairs
of unstressed/ stressed syllables. Break line 1 into its
syllables and then mark the stressed syllables.
WRITERS WORKSHOP
Simile
OVER TO YOU
A si mi l e is a figure of speech in which a comparison between two distinctly different
things is indicated by the word Tike' or 'as'. Like a metaphor, a simile is made up of
three elements:
the tenor, i.e. the subject under discussion;
the vehicle, i.e. what the subject is compared to;
the ground, i.e. what the poet believes the tenor and the vehicle have in common.
Consider the simile in lines 11-12.
What is the subject under discussion? The tenor is
What is the subject compared to? The vehicle is
What do the two have in common? The ground is
Try writing a simile for an emotional state such as happiness, sadness, fear. Examples:
I was as happy as a lottery winner who had just been handed his cheque for a million pounds.
My heart was likea stone that sank to the bottom of a well.
-low do you pull yourself out of a state of depression or unhappiness? Make a list of the things you do that help to
cheer you up.
Rm' .
ki
4 2 T H E
RENAISSANCE - Poetry
Can someone love us if we are not very good looking or even quite ugly? Are we condemned to a life of misery if
we do not look like a film star? Read what Shakespeare thinks in the following poem. "
Q
Text C l l
Sonnet 130
GLOSSARY
English on p. C3)
1. dun: dark
2. wires: long, thin
pieces of metal. In
Elizabethan poetry
theword 'wire' was
used to refer to
golden, shiny hair
3. damask'd: light red
or pink
4. delight: pleasure
5. reeks: has an
unpleasant smell
6. grant: admit
7. go: walk
8. treads: walks with a
heavy step
9. As any ... compare:
as any woman who
was mistakenly
praised for being more
beautiful than her
My mistress' eyes are nothi ng like the sun;
Coral is far more red than her lips' red:
If snow be whi te, why then her breasts are dun
1
:
If hairs be wires
2
, black wires grow on her head.
I have seen roses damask'd
3
, red and white,
But no such roses see I in her cheeks;
And in some perfumes is there more del i ght
4
Than in the breath that from my mistress reeks
5
.
I love to hear her speak, - yet well I know
That musi c hath a far more pleasing sound:
I grant
6
I never saw a goddess go
7
, -
My mistress, when she walks, treads
8
on the ground.
And yet, by heaven, I thi nk my love as rare
As any she belied wi th false compare
9
.
10
COMPREHENSI ON
1 The poet describes his love through a series of
comparisons. Complete the table below with the
terms of comparison.
the poet's mistress terms of comparison
eyes
her lips
her breasts
her hairs
her cheeks
her breath
the way she walks
eyes
her lips
her breasts
her hairs
her cheeks
her breath
the way she walks
eyes
her lips
her breasts
her hairs
her cheeks
her breath
the way she walks
eyes
her lips
her breasts
her hairs
her cheeks
her breath
the way she walks
eyes
her lips
her breasts
her hairs
her cheeks
her breath
the way she walks
eyes
her lips
her breasts
her hairs
her cheeks
her breath
the way she walks
eyes
her lips
her breasts
her hairs
her cheeks
her breath
the way she walks
eyes
her lips
her breasts
her hairs
her cheeks
her breath
the way she walks
Are the comparisons negative or positive?
2 In describing his mistress the poet appeals to the
reader's sense of sight, smell and hearing. Say which
comparisons appeal to which sense.
Sight lines
Smell lines
Hearing lines
3 The sonnet can be divided into two parts, one in
which the poet views his mistress objectively and the
other where he views her subjectively.
Which lines give an objective view?
Which lines give a subjective view?
Can you explain the last two lines of the sonnet in
your own words?
4 Is the poet's mistress the same as other women
described in poems? Is the poet disappointed by
this or is it her uniqueness that makes his love 'rare'?
(Line 1 3)
I
Sonnets - William Shakespeare 43
ANALYSIS
1 The terms of comparison Shakespeare used
(eyes/ sun, lips/ coral, breasts/ snow, etc.) are typical of
Elizabethan courtly love poetry. Do you find these
comparisons original or banal? Does Shakespeare use
them seriously or is he ridiculing this type of poetry?
2 Imagine you had to read the poem aloud. What
tone of voice would you use?
Ironic Comic Serious
Romantic Mocking Apologetic
Other:
3 Although it was written as a witty attack on courtly
love sonnets, the message of the poem is serious.
Which of the following statements best summarises
the theme of the poem?
Women should not be glorified in poetry.
There are many different types of beauty.
True love does not demand physical perfection.
Beauty lies in the eye of the beholder.
4 Work out the rhyming scheme of the sonnet. At
which line does the rhyming scheme change? Would
you agree that the last two lines are different from the
rest of the poem? In what way?
5 The poem is written in iambic pentameter* - five
pairs of unstressed/ stressed syllables. Break line 1 into
its syllables and then mark the stressed syllables.
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
A parody imitates the work of another author, usually with the intention of ridiculing
it. Shakespeare's Sonnet 130 is a parody of a form of poetry whi ch was popular in
Elizabethan England. The Petrarchan love sonnet, in which a poet compared his lover
to natural beauties, was named after the fourteenth-century Italian poet who wrote a
series of love sonnets for his beloved Laura. This form of poetry was first imitated in
England by Sir Thomas Wyatt ( p. C55) at the beginning of the sixteenth century and
met with great success. Shakespeare hi msel f often wrote this form of love sonnet.
However, in Sonnet 130 he chooses to make fun of it.
Sonnet 1 30 is almost a mocking reply to a Petrarchan sonnet. Using the Shakespearean
'reply' as a basis try to to reconstruct the type of sonnet that is being parodied.
Petrachan Sonnet Sonnet 130
My mistress' eyes are like the sun My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun
(...) ()
Do you know of any other forms of parody, for example, films that parody other films or
comic actors that imitate and parody famous people? Think of an example and try to explain
how it works.
DB
Shakespeare says in this poem that you can love someone even if they are not good-looking. Which of the
following, do you think, are factors in attracting one person to another?
Sense of humour Sensitivity Wealth Intelligence
Physical strength Vulnerability Social class
Add some more factors of your own.
Parody
r-rSK
W R I T E R S ' G A L L E R Y
The beginnings Little is
known about the events of
William Shakespeare's life. He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in
1564, probably on April 23rd. His father, a glover by trade, was a
promi nent l ocal figure who hel d i mportant posi ti ons in the
government of the town. His mother came from a prosperous
local family.
Wi l l i am Shakespeare probabl y attended Stratford grammar
school, but he did not go on to study at university. When he was
eighteen he married Anne Hathaway, who was eight years his
seni or, and six months later his first chi l d Susanna was born,
followed three years later by twins Hamnet and J udith.
It is commonl y believed that Shakespeare left Stratford to avoid
being arrested for poaching.
Career He went to London where he did a series of jobs, including holding theatre-goers' horses
outside playhouses. He eventually became an actor, and by 1592 he was sufficiently well-known as a
dramatist to be the subject of an attack by the playwright Robert Greene (1558-1592). Greene wrote a
pamphlet in which he complained that uneducated dramatists were becoming more popular than
university men like himself. In it he called Shakespeare 'an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers'.
Success and prosperity In 1595 Shakespeare joined an important company of actors called The Lord
Chamberlain's Men (later changed to TheKing's Men) and performed at court. His success as a dramatist
grew. He mixed in high social circles and the Earl of Southampton, to whom he dedicated his sonnets,
became his patron and friend. His improved financial standing allowed him to invest in the building
of the Globe Theatre and in 1597 he bought New Place, the finest house in Stratford.
Retirement and death He retired to his hometown in 1611, where he died on April 23rd 1616.
WI L L I AM SHAKESPEARE
(1564- L616)
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TASK
Answer these questions.
a. When and where was Shakespeare born?
b. Who did he marry and at what age?
c. Why did Robert Greene call him 'an upstart crow'?
d. What was TheLord Chamberlain's Men?
e. What was The Globe?
f. How did he spend the last years of his life?
WORKS
His sources Shakespeare wrote thirty-seven plays in a period of
about twenty years, from 1591 to 1611. He used many sources for
his plays including the classical Greek and Latin writings of Plutarch and Plautus, the Italian works of
Matteo Bandello, Giraldo Cinzio and Ser Giovanni Fiorentino, and the English historian Holinshed's
Chronicles of England, Scotland and Ireland (1577), a source of material for many Elizabethan playwrights.
Writers' Gallery - William Shakespeare
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Shakespeare did not publish his plays. Some of his works were put together from notes taken in the
theatres or reconstructed from memory by actors. They are referred to as Bad Quartos. Quartos are
large-sized books made of sheets of folded paper. They are called 'Bad' because they are full of gaps
and mistakes.
In 1623, seven years after Shakespeare's death, two former actors and friends of Shakespeare's,
Heminge and Condell, decided to publish the first collection of his plays. The so-called First Folio
included thirty-five plays that were divided into 'Comedies, Histories and Tragedies'.
The Four Periods The plays were not dated. However, approximate dates have subsequently been
given to them based on:
references to contemporary events in the play;
references to the works of other writers which are dated;
style, plot, characterisation and metre used in the play.
Shakespeare's plays are usually divided into four periods:
First Period The first period covers the years from 1590 to 1595 and was a period of learning and
experimentation. In these years Shakespeare wrote very different types of plays:
chronicle plays dealing with the history of England, such as Henry VI and Richard III;
comedies which include A Midsummer Night's Dream and The Taming of the Shrew;
the tragedies Titus Andronicus and Romeo and Juliet.
'In the Globe Theatre, Southwark' from Vischers View of London (1616).
THE RENAISSANCE - Poetry
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Second Period During the second period, from 1596 to the turn of the century, Shakespeare focused
on chroni cl e plays and comedies and it is generally agreed that it was during these years that he
wrote his best comedies, including The Merchant of Venice, The Merry Wives of Windsor, Much Ado
About Nothing, As You Like It and Twelfth Night, which base their comedy on a wide range of themes
such as the pain and pleasure of love, mistaken identity and the degrading of materialistic and
humourless people.
Third Period During the third period, from 1600 to 1608, Shakespeare wrote his great tragedies.
These plays have given world theatre unforgettable characters such as Hamlet, King Lear, Othello
and Macbeth.
The comedies that were written in this period no longer have the bright, optimistic appeal of earlier
works. The darker elements that are found in works such as Measure for Measure seem to suggest that
Shakespeare was experi enci ng di ffi cul ti es in his personal life whi ch made his outl ook rather
pessimistic.
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TASK
Take notes under the following headings and prepare a short talk on Shakespeare's plays.
Sources:
Bad quartos:
First folio:
Main characteristics and major plays of:
- First period:
- Second period:
- Third period:
- Fourth period:
Shakespeare's reputation is based on:
Fourth Period A return to a happier state of mind is reflected in the plays of the final period from
1609 to 1612. The Tempest, for example, is set in the ideal world of an enchanted island where an
atmosphere of magic, music, romance and harmony prevails.
Shakespeare is widely regarded as
one of the greatest dramati sts in
worl d l i terature. The uni versal
appeal of his work is based on its
ti mel ess themes, unforgettabl e
characters and powerful language.
His ability to engage the audience's
attention has remained unsurpassed
to the present day.
cene from Prospero's
Dks, a Peter Greenaway film
>97) based on The Tempest
William Shakespeare.
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Writers' Gallery - William Shakespeare 47
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SHAKESPEARE'S
THEATRICAL GENIUS
Plays for audiences The relationship between audiences and
performers was very intimate in Elizabethan theatres. Spectators
sat on the stage or stood cl ose to the performer and openl y
expressed their opinions about what was taking place on stage. Shakespeare had an unparalleled
ability to entertain all sections of his audiences; the more intellectual elements enjoyed the poetic
language and subtle characterisation of his work while the less educated spectators delighted in the
compelling storylines, gory battlescenes and humorous intrigues.
Variety of themes The variety of timeless themes in Shakespeare's works is unsurpassed:
the appeal of an unsophisticated life in harmony with nature (As You LikeIt)-,
ambition and jealousy, deception and crime (Macbeth, Othello);
greed, corruption and ingratitude (King Lear);
love and politics (Antony and Cleopatra);
crime, guilt and punishment (Macbeth, Richard III);
the all-conquering power of love (Much Ado About Nothing);
the impatience of youth (Romeoand Juliet);
the pains and pleasures of love (TheMerry Wives of Windsor, Much Ado About Nothing, As You Like It).
Unforgettable characters Shakespeare portrayed an unforgettable gallery of characters:
Hamlet, a complex and sensitive idealist who is paralysed by indecision;
King Lear, a proud misguided father who loses his mind when he understands his daughters' true
nature;
Othello, a naive victim of his enemy's envy and treachery;
Macbeth, a soldier who is transformed i nto
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m
murderer by ambition;
Lady Macbeth, a schemi ng, ambi ti ous wife
who realises, too late, the horror of what she
has done;
Richard III, a liar, manipulator and murderer.
Mastery of language The highly poetic quality
of the language is a feature of all Shakespeare's
plays. In Elizabethan theatres scenery and props
were almost non-existent so Shakespeare had to
conjure up settings, moods, and atmospheres
with his words. His richly dense language, with
its striking imagery and musicality, is perhaps
his greatest legacy. Many of the lines from his
plays are so memorable that they have become
everday sayi ngs in the Engl i sh l anguage, for
example All's Well That Ends Well (title of a play),
'Neither a borrower nor a lender be' (Hamlet).
TASK
King Lear mourning the death
of his daughter, Cordelia.
Prepare a brief talk in which you outline the reasons for Shakespeare's greatness.
THE RENAISSANCE - Poetry
THE SONNETS
Shakespeare's sonnets - 154 in all - were first published in 1609
without the knowledge or consent of their author. Though there
is very little direct evidence which might point to a specific date of composition, on stylistic grounds
it is believed that they were written at an earlier date.
The sonnets have been conventionally divided i nto two groupings:
Sonnets 1-126 are addressed to or concern an unnamed 'fair youth', probably Shakespeare's friend
and patron the Earl of Southampton.
Sonnets 127-154 are about a woman who is conventionally referred to as the 'dark lady', presumably
Shakespeare's mistress. The poet speaks about his troubled love for the woman (who is married) and
describes a painful relationship in which they are both unfaithful to each other.
Themes The range of emotions explored in the sonnets is extraordinary: confident declarations of
unselfish love, sad parting words, expressions of joy at reunion or bitter disappointment at mutual
infidelity.
Styles The range of styles is greatly varied. In many sonnets the style is compl ex and rich while in
others the vocabulary, syntax and form are disarmingly simple. The best of the sonnets are widely
considered to be the finest love poems in English literature.
TASK
a. How many sonnets did Shakespeare write?
b. Who are sonnets 1-126 addressed to?
c. Who is the 'dark lady'?
d. Are all the sonnets written in the same style?
THE REAL SHAKESPEARE
The few existing documents about Shakespeare onl y certify that
he was born i n Stratford-upon-Avon in 1564, got marri ed at
eighteen, had three children, left Stratford and went to London, became an actor and owned a share
of the Globe Theatre. Evidence also exists that he returned to Stratford in his forties, bought a big
house, looked after his properties and died in 1616. In his will there is no menti on of returns from
plays or poems. Onl y six exampl es of his handwri ti ng exi st: six signatures, all wi th a di fferent
spelling of his name. His death went totally unnoticed. Scholars have wondered how someone with
Shakespeare's social and educational background could know so much about history, Italy, Latin,
Greek and all the other subjects that filled his plays. For over a century now many have voiced their
doubts about the real identity of the author of 'Shakespeare's plays'.
Writers' Gallery - William Shakespeare
The works of Shakespeare: TIMELINE
Period I
Plays of Experimentation
Period II
Artistic maturity:
Lyrical masterpieces
and Chronicle Plays
Period III
The Great Tragedies
Period IV
Last Plays
Approx. date
1590-1591
1592-1593
1593-1594
1594-1595
1593-1595
1596-1597
1598-1599
1600-1601
1602-1603
1604-1605
1606-1607
1608
1609
1609-1610
1611
Plays
Henry VI (parts I, II, III) (History plays)
Titus Andronicus (Tragedy)
Richard III (History play)
TheComedy of Errors (Comedy)
The Taming of the Shrew (Comedy)
The TwoGentlemen of Verona (Comedy)
Love's Labour's Lost (Comedy)
Romeo and Juliet (Tragedy)
Richard II (History play)
A Midsummer Night's Dream (Comedy)
King john (History play)
Sonnets
TheMerchant of Venice(Comedy)
TheMerry Wives of Windsor (Comedy)
Henry IV (I, II) (History plays)
Much AdoAbout Nothing (Comedy)
Henry V (History play)
As You LikeIt (Comedy)
Twelfth Night (Comedy)
Julius Caesar (History play)
Hamlet (Tragedy)
Troilus and Cressida (Tragedy)
All's Well That Ends Well (Comedy/ Romance)
Measure for Measure (Comedy/ Romance)
Othello (Tragedy)
King Lear (Tragedy)
Macbeth (Tragedy)
Antony and Cleopatra (Tragedy)
Coriolanus (Tragedy)
Timon of Athens (Tragedy)
Pericles (Tragedy)
Cymbeline (Romance)
The Winter's Tale(Romance)
TheTempest (Romance)
Henry VIII (probably incomplete, History play)
THE TUDOR YEARS
Three great leaders
Visual Link CI
Visual Link C5
GOVERNMENT
Henry VI I I
The nobles
RELIGION
The Reformation
Britain 1485-1625
The kings and queens of England in the si xteenth century all descended
from a Wel sh squire, Owen Tudor. Thi s dynasty produced three great
leaders who left an indelible mark on the country:
Henry VI I (1485-1509) restored people's faith in the monarchy;
Henry VI I I (1509-1547) established the Church of England;
El i zabeth I (1558- 1603) encouraged expl orati on of and trade wi th other
conti nents which would lead later to the creation of the British Empire.
Over the previ ous century the i nsti tuti on of the monarchy had been
greatly weakened by bi tter feuds whi ch meant that one king fol l owed
another in quick succession. Henry VII's main achievement was to stay in power
for over twenty years and prove that the monarchy could play a stabilising role
in the country.
A weak monarchy had meant a strong parl i ament, but a stronger monarchy
meant a weaker parliament with major decisions being taken in consultation with
a very small group of loyal advisers. In the case of Henry VIII, this often meant
onl y one adviser, the most influential of whom was the Archbishop of York, Sir
Thomas Wolsey.
At local level, the nobles, who had held a lot of power in the Middle Ages, saw
their influence watered down. The private armies that each local lord organised
to hel p mai ntai n feudal control over his own area were banned, and central
government increasingly took over total responsibility for law and order.
The si xteenth century was the century of the revolt against the Roman
Cathol i c Church in Europe, whi ch became known as the Reformati on
and saw the foundation of the Protestant Churches. The English Reformation was
In this Protestant propaganda
picture, a dying Henry VIII is
telling his son, Edward VI, to
uphold the true Protestant
religion. The pope has collapsed
at Edward's feet.
instigated by Henry VIII and initially revolved around his private life. When he
realised that his wife could not give him the male successor he so desperately
wanted, he asked the Pope to grant him a divorce so that he could marry Anne
Boleyn. When the Pope refused, he decided that the English Church would break
away from Rome, and with the Act of Supremacy in 1534, he became the head
of the Church of England. The irony of this story, which was to have a lasting
effect on English history, is that his new wife bore him a girl, Elizabeth I.
The break with the Roman Cathol i c Church was greeted favourably by most
English people, who were glad to see the end of i nterference by the Pope in
national affairs. Henry consolidated the new Church by closing all the monasteries
between 1536 and 1539, and gradually the Anglican Church took on its role as
the offi ci al state Church. The publ i cati on of the first Bi bl e in the Engl i sh
language (1539) and the Book of Common Prayer (1584) helped a great deal to
bring the new religion closer to the people.
Not everybody agreed with the Reformation and religious disputes were to breed
i ntol erance and vi ol ence for many years to come.
Under the reign of Mary, Henry VIIPs daughter by
his first wife and a Catholic, Protestant leaders were
executed, while Elizabeth I, although by no means a
religious fanatic, prohibited the celebration of the
Cathol i c mass. It was not unti l the fol l owi ng
century, however, that the divisions brought about
by the Engl i sh Reformati on woul d lead to open
conflict.
The Act of Supremacy
The Anglican Church
takes shape
Visual Link C2
Religious disputes
The burning in Antwerp in 1536 of
the heretic William Tyndale, who
wrote the first English translation
of the New Testament (1562).
Tudor England was basically self-sufficient. Food was in adequate supply
and the population grew steadily. Many people were involved in the wool
and cl oth industry and, up until about 1550, Holland conti nued to be
England's most important trading partner.
The need to produce more and more wool meant that life in the countryside
began to change. It was more profitable to keep sheep than grow crops, so there
was a move away from arable farming and crop-growing to pasture. This meant
that fewer people were needed to work the land, and a process began that in the
following centuri es would see mi l l i ons of people move from the country to
towns and cities.
Most towns were not much bigger than villages with the exception of London,
whi ch conti nued to grow rapidly as ei ghty percent of the nati on's trade was
carried out there. The towns were populated by merchants and craftsmen, but
living conditions were very poor and the lack of public sanitation was a constant
cause of disease.
However, Tudor England still remained basically a rural country with only ten
percent of people living in towns while ninety percent lived in villages, as they
had done in the Middle Ages. The local lord still held considerable power in his
area but the system of feudal slavery disappeared. There were no more serfs and a
farmer was secure on his land as long as he paid the rent.
Life was not easy for anyone in Tudor England, whether in the country or town,
but the Poor Law that was passed in 1601 would improve conditions for later
THE ECONOMY
AND EVERYDAY LIFE
Urbanisation
Rural England
The Poor Law
52 THE RENAISSANCE - The Context
generations. The law stipulated that parishes had to provide schools, hospitals and
childcare for orphans, and houses of correction for drunkards and tramps in their
local community. Although it would take over 400 years to complete, this was the
first small step in the setting up of what we now know as the 'welfare state'.
ENGLAND AND THE REST
OF THE WORLD
England and France
Expanding markets
England and Spain
Visual .Link C5
Colonial expansion:
a. The New World
b. Asia
For centuries, England's main rival in Europe had been France, and this
conti nued to be the case throughout the reign of Henry VI I I , when a
number of wars were fought which brought no great gain to either side.
The bal ance of power in Europe was changi ng, however, and the old rivalry
between the two neighbours was to be of secondary importance in the second
half of the sixteenth century.
With the collapse of the Dutch wool market in 1550, England found itself in a
posi ti on where it had to find new markets and new forms of trade to sustain
economi c and social development. With this aim in mind, Elizabeth I looked
beyond Europe towards Ameri ca and Asia. The first step towards col oni al
expansion was the building of a fleet that could transport goods and protect the
nation's interests at sea.
With the fleet in place, the one great obstacle that remained in England's way
was Spain. Spanish explorers were already opening up the American conti nent
for exploitation and had no intention of letting the English share in their gains.
From 1584 almost to the end of Elizabeth's reign, England and Spain fought a
war for the control of the seas. One of the main protagonists in the war was Sir
Francis Drake, who led the first expedition to circumnavigate the world between
1577 and 1580. He also took part in the battles that resulted in the destruction of
the Spanish Armada in 1588.
Mi l i tary success meant that the road was clear for English entrepreneurs to
establish colonies and open up new horizons for trade. Sir Wal ter Raleigh was
one of those intrepid pioneers. He helped establish a colony in Virginia in North
America and brought back potatoes and tobacco to Europe.
On the other side of the world the East I ndi a Company, whi ch was set up in
1601, started to do business with countries in Asia and laid the foundations for
the colonisation of India.
During Elizabeth I's reign,
England became a powerful,
prosperous nation in which
trade and arts flourished.
A direct consequence of the war between England and Spain was the colonisation
of Ireland. Elizabeth and her advisers were afraid that the Spaniards would use
Ireland, which had remained Catholic during the Reformation, as a base to attack
England. The Irish were defeated by the forces of Lord Mountjoy in 1601 and
their leaders had to flee. Elizabeth also encouraged Protestant farmers to take
land in Ireland in the hope that a sizeable Protestant colony would help pacify
the island. This colonisation continued throughout the seventeenth century and
was particularly successful in the north of the country.
When the last of the Tudor monarchs, Elizabeth I, died in 1603, she left
behind a realm that had changed greatly since her grandfather Henry VII had
become king in 1485. It was a prosperous and progressive country whose monarch
commanded the respect of the people both as head of the Anglican Church and
head of state. Prosperity brought a renewed interest in culture and learning. The
arts, particularly in the form of theatre and poetry, flourished. It was a country that
had fought to gain respect on the world stage and would expand its power and
influence in a way that must have been difficult to imagine at the time. However,
on the domestic front, storm clouds were gathering. As J ames I's reign drew to a
close in 1625, the rivalries between Parliament and monarchy and between the
different religious denominations were about to explode into open conflict.
c. In Ireland
THE TUDOR LEGACY
Prosperity and progress
Trouble ahead
TASKS
1 Link each sentence to a person.
a. 'The king follows my advice. I could manipulate him if I wanted to.'
b. 'Why do I have to disband my army? Will the king be able to defend me then?'
c. 'Marry me. I'll give you a boy.'
d. 'With this Act of Supremacy I declare myself the Head of the Church of England.'
e. 'We have to stop the Protestants. Arrest their leaders. Put them to death.'
f. 'Next week I'm travelling to Amsterdam on business.'
g. 'Your Majesty, the Spanish Armada is destroyed. Our great country is safe.'
h. 'I have created a kingdom where the arts flourish and people appreciate the
importance of culture and learning.'
2 Choose one of the topics and prepare a brief talk (max. 5 minutes). Use websites to find further information.
Elizabethan England Henry VIII Elizabeth I TheReformation Overseas explorations and the wars with Spain
Sir Thomas Wolsey
A nobleman
Elizabeth I
Sir Francis Drake
Mary I
Henry VIII
A cloth merchant
Anne Boleyn
MAIN EVENTS: The Renaissance
1485--1509 Reign of Henry VII
1509 -1547 Reign of Henry VIII
1534 Act of Supremacy
1536 -1539 Monasteries closed
1539 First Bible in English
1547--1553 Reign of Edward VI
1553--1558 Reign of Mary 1
1558--1603 Reign of Elizabeth 1
1577--1580 Sir Francis Drake sails around the world
1584 The Book of Common Prayer
1588 The Spanish Armada destroyed
1601 The Poor Law
The East India Company is set up
The Faerie Queene
An illustration for the
Shepherdes Calender
(1579) by Edmund
Spenser.
or more levels. Originally intended to be twelve books, only half of the work was
completed. Each book recounts the adventures of a knight, who represents one
of the twelve virtues that make a perfect gentleman. The main theme of the work
is the glorification of Queen Elizabeth and her court. In fact, at the end of the
story, Prince Arthur, the most important knight, is to marry the Faerie Queene
Gloriana, who represented Queen Elizabeth.
The Faerie Queene shows Spenser's great gift for creating refined and vivid word
pictures, and his ear for the musicality of the language. He introduced a new
metre into English poetry called the Spenserian stanza, which consisted of eight
lines of ten syllables plus a twelve-syllable line containing six iambic feet, with
the rhyming scheme ABABBCBCC. Spenser's belief that poetry should deal with
subjects far removed from everyday life and shoul d be wri tten in refi ned
language - unlike that which was used by common people - became the basic
principle for poetry throughout much of the Elizabethan period.
Al though it i ntroduced new el ements inspired by classical and conti nental
Renaissance models, Elizabethan love poetry maintained many of the features of
the courtly love poems of the Middle Ages. The lady to whom the poem was
addressed was distant and idealised and the poetic language was highly ornate
and musical. Poems were often set to music and sung to the accompaniment of
an instrument.
TASK
Choose the correct option.
1 During Elizabeth's reign the arts flourished
because
[a | the economy was strong and people had more
time and money for the arts,
b ! Greek refugees introduced classical Greek
culture to England.
2 Italy was regarded
a] with both contempt and admiration.
b | with suspicion and scorn.
3 Sir Philip Sidney wrote
~a~l tales in the style of Boccaccio's tales.
[~b] sonnets based on Petrarch's themes and style.
4 Edmund Spenser wrote
7a] religious poems each of which glorifies one of
the twelve virtues.
b] allegorical poems which, on one level, are
meant to glorify the reign of Queen Elizabeth.
5 In TheFairieQueene, Spenser
[a] uses a new poetic metre and highly refined
language.
I b] glorifies the everyday life of common people.
Whi l e much Renaissance poetry is of a very high quality, the greatest
literary works of the period are plays. The medieval tradition of Mystery
and Miracle plays conti nued under the reign of Henry VII. However, after the
schism from Rome and the Reformati on, Henry VIII put an end to medieval
religious drama. Humanism revived interest in classical drama and the plays of
Plautus, Terence and Seneca, among others, were transl ated i nto Engl i sh,
published and widely read. Seneca's tragedies were particularly popular and
created a taste for horror and bloodshed.
An example of Seneca's influence on English drama can be seen in the works of
Thomas Kyd. His highly popular play about bloody revenge called The Spanish
Tragedy (1587) has many Senecan el ements i ncl udi ng horror, vi l l ai ns,
corruption, intrigue and the supernatural.
Early English Renaissance playwrights accepted some of the conventions of clas-
sical theatre, but they adapted the form to suit their needs and did not content
themselves with simply producing poor imitations of classical models.
For several reasons English drama flourished under Elizabeth I and J ames I:
theatre appealed to all social classes, from the sovereign to the lowest class;
plays could be understood by the illiterate, who formed the largest section of
the population;
there had been a strong theatre-goi ng tradition in Britain since the Middle
Ages;
the theatre was patronised by the Court and the aristocracy;
the language of drama was less artificial than that of poetry;
there was a great number of talented playwrights who produced works of extra-
ordinary quality;
the prosperity of the Elizabethan and J acobean periods meant that people had
both the time and money to go to the theatre.
Drama was strictly linked to the Elizabethan world view which emphasised above
all else the principle of order. Early Elizabethans believed that a hierarchy existed
in the natural world which ascended from inanimate objects to animals, men,
angels and eventual l y God. Man was the central link in this chai n: his body
linked him to the animal world below him while his soul linked him to the spiri-
tual world above him. Man was at the centre of the universe because the moon,
the sun, the planets and the stars all revolved in orbit around the earth.
A number of factors, however, weakened Elizabethan beliefs in the principle of
universal order. The development of modern experimental science, for example,
establ i shed that the earth and other pl anets revolved around the sun, thus
displacing man from the centre of creati on. In The Prince (1513) Machiavelli
rejected the notion of a divinely ordained political hierarchy and explained how
political power could be won and held with no reference to the will of God.
Much Elizabethan drama is concerned with the hierarchical order of the universe
and what may occur if it is broken. In Macbeth when the king is killed the natural
order of society is broken, and the result is chaos and tragedy. The loss of order is
also reflected in the natural world (darkness in daytime, owls killing falcons,
horses eati ng each other) and in the i nner worl d of the characters (Lady
Macbeth's insanity). Only at the end of the play, when the rightful king sits on
the throne, is order restored. The breaking of the laws of order may also result in
comedy. In A Midsummer Night's Dream the disciplined ordered world of Athens is
contrasted with the night-time wood, which is a dark realm of disorder, chaos
and confusi on. Elizabethan heroes are no longer the allegorical paragons of
virtue of Medieval drama. They are full of passion and doubts and constantl y
question the world that surrounds them.
DRAMA
Thomas Kyd
(1558-1594)
Why drama flourished
Theprinciple of order
Questioning the principle
of order
Texts C8 and C9
Texts C4 and C5
The actors
The companies
and their patrons
The theatres
A play performed
on a platform raised
in the yard.
The actors were direct descendants of Medieval street performers. In spite of the
popularity of their performances, a law passed in 1572 still classified actors as
vagabonds, thus putting them at risk of being imprisoned depending on the will
of the various authori ti es. In order to overcome the problem they worked in
companies patronised by a nobleman, whose name the company took (The Earl
of Leicester's Men, The Lord Chamberlain's Men). The nobl eman gave them a
l etter of permi ssi on whi ch allowed them to travel around the country and
perform without fear of punishment.
Companies generally played in London in the winter and spring and travelled
around the country in summer, when the city was often ravaged by plague.
At the ti me when Shakespeare was acti ng there were approxi matel y twenty
companies of actors in London and more than one hundred provincial troupes.
As acti ng was consi dered i mmoral , there were no women in the compani es
female parts were played by boys whose voices had not yet changed. An average
play had a cast of about twenty. The main parts were played by company actors
Three or four boys were hired for the women's roles, and six or more hired men
played the mi nor roles or worked as musi ci ans, stage managers, wardrobe
keepers, prompters and stage hands. Some actors doubled for two or more minor
parts. Actors had to have good memories, strong voices and the ability to sing,
dance and fence. The costumes they wore were very elaborate sixteenth-century
creations which did not respect historical accuracy.
Until the building of permanent playhouses, plays were performed in inns, on a
platform raised in the yard. Guests at the inn watched the performances from the
second-storey galleries, while the common people took their places in front o'
the stage.
Playhouses were at first built outside the city walls because they were consider
to be centres of corruption. The first playhouse built in London was The Theatre
in 1576, followed by The Rose, The Swan and The Gl obe (1599). The comp
to which Shakespeare belonged, The Lord Chamberl ai n's Men, was one of
Structure of an
Elizabethan theatre
Outer and inner stage
few companies that owned its own playhouse. By the end of Shakespeare's career
they had two theatres: The Globe and The Blackfriars.
Elizabethan theatres were built with the i nn yard model in mi nd. They were
polygonal or circular three-tiered structures, open to the sun and rain. In the case
of The Gl obe, the open courtyard and three semi -ci rcul ar gal l eri es that
surrounded it could hold more than 1,500 people. The stage projected out into
the courtyard about five feet above the ground and had two main parts:
the outer stage was a rectangular platform where the main action of the play
took place. It was covered by a thatched roof but had no front or side curtains;
the i nner stage stood behind the outer stage and was concealed by a curtain.
Thi s stage was used when a scene took place in a more confi ned space (for
example the tomb scene in Romeo and Juliet) or when a character was supposed to
overhear the action on the main stage. On either side of the inner stage there was
a door through which actors entered and disappeared.
Below the floors of the outer and inner stages was a large cellar called hell. Actors in
'hell', who played the parts of ghosts, demons or fairies, would make dramatic
appearances through trap doors onto the main outer stage.
Over the main stage there was a third space which could be used by musicians,
represent a bal cony scene or stand for the walls of a city. Above the third level
there was a series of pulleys whi ch
>~> " coul d be used to suspend fairies,
angel s, ghosts and thunderbol ts.
Many special effects were used in
the theatre. Death scenes were very
I gory and realistic and animal organs
and blood were often used to make
battle scenes more realistic.
The audiences became very involved
in the play, particularly the spectators
in the yard, who were very close to
the acti on. Thei r ti ckets were
cheaper than the ti ckets of the
spectators si tti ng in the gal l eri es
and they participated by cheering,
hi ssi ng and even throwi ng rotten
vegetables.
8 PAL' LSS CHV*M
A view of London in the early sixteenth
century showing St Paul's cathedral and
The Theatres on The South Bank.
Special effects
Audiences
TASK
Cross out incorrect statements.
Elizabethan drama:
- had strong links with classical Greek and Latin drama.
- often featured the themes of corruption, intrigue
and revenge.
- flourished because it was popular with all social classes.
- only appealed to the higher, educated classes.
- often included the themes of order and hierarchy.
- emphasised the centrality of Nature as a guide to
human actions.
- often dealt with the consequences of the disruption
of hierarchical order.
WBHp'4
S OF T HE PAST
THE ELIZABETHAN THEATRE
This is what The Globe theatre looked like.
TASKS
1 Match letters and words.
galleries upper stage open courtyard actors'entrances onto the stage entrance 'special effects'level
outer stage hell inner stage
A = F =
B = G =
C= H =
D = I =
E =
2 Draw your own simplified plan of an Elizabethan theatre and prepare an oral description.
The two outstanding playwrights of the era were Chri stopher Marl owe ( pp.
C2-C9) and Wi l l i am Shakespeare ( pp. C10-49). One of their contemporaries,
Ben J onson, also made a significant contribution to the drama of the period. He
is best remembered for his play Volpone (1606), a satire on greed and corruption.
The main character Volpone is a rich avaricious Venetian. He is surrounded by
people who pretend to be his friends because they want to inherit his fortune.
Vol pone pretends to be ill and tri cks hi s so-cal l ed fri ends i nto gi vi ng hi m
expensive gifts, thus punishing them for their insincerity.
J onson also wrote a series of successful masques. A masque was an elaborate form
of court entertainment originally developed in Italy that involved poetic drama,
music, song, dance and spl endi d costumi ng. The pl ot was sl i ght and often
introduced mythol ogi cal and allegorical el ements. The characters, who wore
masks, were played by ladies and gentlemen of the court. The play ended with a
dance when the players removed their masks and took members of the audience
as partners.
Ben Jonson
(1572-1637)
Masques
One of the most important figures in the
devel opment of English prose style was
Francis Bacon. He wrote in Latin and in
English, and is best remembered for his
Essays (1625), i nspi red by the French
writer Montai gne. Bacon rejected the
long-winded overly ornate El i zabethan
style and replaced it with a plainer, more
strai ghtforward style, thus hel pi ng to
pave the way for modern English.
TASK
a. What work is Ben Jonson best remembered for?
b. What vices are ridiculed in his most important play?
c. Where were masques performed?
d. What kind of prose works were mainly developed
in Elizabethan England?
e. How did Bacon influence the development of
English prose style?
Prose writing in the Renaissance period did not reach the same standards
of excellence as poetry or drama. The geographical expeditions of the era
gave rise to travel literature in whi ch writers gave accounts of the voyages of
explorers such as Walter Raleigh and Francis Drake.
The great interest in classical and continental literature led to the translation of
many books into English: Thomas North's translation of Plutarch's Lives (1579),
Chapman's translation of Homer (1610)
and Paterick's Machi avel l i were all very
influential works.
The Authorised Version of theBible, produced
in 1611 by a team of forty-seven scholars,
is unquestionably one of the works which
greatly i nfl uenced the devel opment of
English prose style. Every Protestant home
had a copy of the Bible and many families
listened to daily readings.
PROSE
Accounts of explorations
and translations
The Bible
Francis Bacon
(1561-1626)
Essays
Francis Bacon, philosopher
and statesman.
MEANWHILE, ELSEWHERE
LINK TO ITALIAN LITERATURE: Petrarch
Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca, 1304-1374) was one of the leading figures in the Italian Renaissance, and during the
English Renaissance his work inspired early sonnet writers like Wyatt and Surrey ( p. C55).
Here is one of the many sonnets that Petrarch wrote in praise of Laura, the woman he loved.
Feeling ashamed that I still seem to pass
Over your beauty, Lady, in my rhyme,
I remember when I for the first time
Saw you, made for my love as no one was.
But the burden
1
1 find crushes my frame
2
,
The burden cannot be polished
3
by my file
4
,
And my talent which knows its strength and style
In this attempt becomes frozen and lame
5
.
Several times I moved my lips to cry;
But my voice was constrained within my lungs.
Which is the sound that can soar
6
up so high?
Vergognandotalor ch'ancor si taccia,
Donna, per mevostrabellezzain rima,
Ricorroal tempoch'i' vi vidiprima,
Tal chenuli'altrafiamai chemi piaccia.
Matrovopesonon dalemiebraccia,
Neovradapolir collamialima;
PeroI'ingegno, chesuaforzaestima,
NeI'operazion tuttos'agghiaccia.
Piu voltegiaper dir lelabbraapersi;
Poi rimaselavocein mezzo7 petto.
Maqual son ponamai salir tant'altro?
Several times I began writing songs;
But pen and hand and intellect were bound
7
To be conquered and caught in the first sound.
Pi volteincominciai di scriver versi;
MalapennaelamanoeI'intelletto
Rimaser vinti nel primier assalto.
GLOSSARY
1. burden: heavy
weight, the hard task
of describing your
beauty and my love
for you
2. frame: body
3. polished: made
lighter
4. file: pen, writingskills
5. lame: disabled,
handicapped
6. soar: fly
7. bound: tied
TASKS
1 Work out the rhyme scheme of the sonnet.
The original Italian version is ABBA ABBA CDE
CDE. Is it the same as the original?
2 What problem is introduced in the first eight
lines (octave) of the sonnet?
3 In the last six lines (sextet) does the poet
resolve the problem? (See page C55)
Petrarch.
-{to Tragedy
Tragedy
A tragedy is a play in which events have disastrous or fatal consequences for all or some of the characters,
and tragedy has been a popular form of theatre from Greek times up until the present day.
The Roman writer Seneca, whose nine tragedies were translated into English during the sixteenth century,
influenced many dramatists of the day, including William Shakespeare.
Seneca's tragedies and Renaissance tragedies often had some of the following features in common:
1 crime 5 revenge
2 bloodthirsty scenes 6 long reflective soliloquies
3 witchcraft and the supernatural 7 powerful rhetoric
4 very ambitious characters 8 characters who go through emotional crises
PROJ ECT
a. Choose two (or more) of the following plays.
b. Write the plots in your own words.
c. Explain, with reference to the story and/ or the actual text, which of the features listed above
the plays have or do not have in common.
Seneca (Lucius Annaeus c. 4 BC-AD 65) - Troades, Phaedra, Thyestes, Agamemnon, Hercules Furens
Thomas Kyd (1558-1594) - TheSpanish Tragedy (1587) - one of the most popular tragedies in the Elizabethan
period. p. C57.
Wi l l i am Shakespeare (1564-1616): Romeo and Juliet (c.1595) pp.C10-17, Hamlet (c.1601) pp. C24-32,
Macbeth (c.1605) pp. C33-39.
PROJ ECT
Choose one of the plays you have analysed and one of the following modern tragedies:
Tom Stoppard (1937-): Rosencratz and Guilderstern are Dead (1966)
Arthur Mi l l er (1915-): Death of a Salesman (1940)
Compare them by answering the following questions:
a. What is the tragedy in the play?
b. What emotional crises do the characters go through?
c. Are any of the characters heroic?
d. Is there a lot of violence and crime?
e. In which play are the stage directions more complete?
f. Are any of the characters very ambitious?
g. Which play do you feel is more realistic?
h. Are there many long speeches?
THE PURITAN,
RESTORATION AND
AUGUSTAN AGES
1625-1776
The mind is its own place, and in itself
Can make a Heaven of Hell, a Hell of Heaven.
From Paradise Lost (Book I) by J ohn Mi l ton
INTRODUCTION J ohn Donne was an i ntensel y passi onate man. I n the fol l owi ng two poems he
speaks di rectl y to hi s mistress and to God. He uses compl ex and someti mes contorted i mages, but when
the reader goes to the troubl e of understandi ng what they mean, he ful l y understands what l ove and
religious fai th meant to thi s hot-bl ooded poet.
J ohn Donne
If God really loves us why does he allow us to fall into the temptation of sin? Should He do more to help us to stay
on the right path? Read what John Donne suggests God should do to keep him from sinning.
Q m m Batter My Heart
Batter
1
my heart, three-person'd God
2
; for, you
As yet but
3
knocke, breathe, shine
4
and seeke to mend;
That I may rise, and stand, o'erthrow mee, and bend
5
Your force, to breake, blowe, burn and make me new.
I, like an usurpt towne, to another due
6
,
Labour
7
to'admi t you, but Oh to no end
8
,
Reason your viceroy in mee, mee should defend
9
,
But is captiv'd and proves weak or untrue.
Yet dearely I love you, and would be lov'd fain
10
,
But am betroth'd unto
11
your enemie:
Divorce mee, untie, or breake that knot againe,
Take mee to you, imprison mee, for I
Except
12
you enthrall mee
13
, never shall be free,
Nor ever chaste, except you ravish mee
14
.
GLOSSARY
Note: hereis alist of the most
frequently recurring archaic words
and their modern equivalents.
thou: you
thee: you
thyself: yourself
thy: your
thine: yours
art: are
hath: has, have
doth: does
wilt: will
shalt: shall
1.
2.
Batter: strikeviolently
three-person'd God: the
Holy Trinity (God the
Father, God the Son and
God the Holy Spirit)
but: only
shine: polish
bend: direct, apply
to another due: owing
duty and obedience to
another
7. Labour: work hard
8. to no end: with no result
9. Reason ... defend:
reason, who represents
God in the poet, should
defend him
10. fain: willingly
11.betroth'd unto: engaged
to bemarried to
12. Except: unless
13. enthrall mee: makea
slaveof me
14. ravish mee: possess me
sexually, rape me
HJliJi
.. gBBXfcti
John onne 3
COMPREHENSION
1 What does the poet ask God to do in line 1 ?
2 What, according to the poet, has God done up
until this point?
3 What must God do in order to make the poet rise
and stand? (Line 3)
4 What does the poet compare himself to in line 5?
He says that he owes obedience to another; who do
you think he is referring to?
5 What is God's viceroy in line 7? Why is it unable to
defend the poet?
6 What desire does the poet express in
line 9?
7 In line 10 the poet says that he is betrothed to
God's 'enemy'. Who is he referring to in your opinion?
What does the poet ask God to do with this union?
8 In which lines does the poet suggest that he is
unworthy of God's love?
9 How, according to the poet, can God make him
free?
10 How can God make him chaste?
ANALYSIS
1 Although this is a religious poem the language the
poet uses is violent. Underline all the verbs in the
poem which suggest violent action.
2 In line 1 the poet speaks of the 'three-person'd
God' which has the obvious meaning of the Trinity.
The idea of trinity is developed throughout the poem
as God is described as three different persons. In
which lines is God described as:
- a king? Line
- a conqueror? Line
- a lover? Line
3 There are also three different images of the poet. In
which lines does he compare himself to:
- a door/ gate? Line
- a town? Line
- a woman? Line
4 The poem is based on a series of oppositions. Fill in
the table below with the elements that oppose the
words and expressions in the left-hand column.
5 The poem is made up of three sentences. Find
where each sentence begins and ends. Which
sentences are made of quatrains (4 lines) and sestets
(6 lines)?
6 Find an example of alliteration* in the poem.
7 Look at this example of enjambement*.
Batter my heart, three person'd God; for, you
As yet but knocke, breathe, shine and seek to mend;
Find another one in the first four lines of the poem
and an example from the last four lines of the poem.
8 Look at this example of internal pause*or
caesura*.
Batter my heart, (pause) three person'd God;
(pause) for, (pause) you
Find other examples in the poem.
9 Would you consider the rhythm* of the poem to be
regular or broken? How does the rhythm of the poem
reflect the disorder and emotional disturbance of the
poet's mind?
10 Work out the rhyming scheme of the poem.
(Consider that 'enemie' in line 10 may be
pronounced to rhyme with T in line 12.)
Batter knocke
that 1 may rise and stand
breake, blowe, burn
bethroth'd
Except you enthrall me
chast
How do you think these violent oppositions affect the
tone of the poem? Do they make it more:
passionate? calm?
religious? dramatic?
striking? other:
\ i 4 THE PURITAN AGE - Poetry
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Conceit A concei t is a figure of speech which draws a comparison between two strikingly diff
ent things. In Batter My Heart, for example, the poet uses a conceit when he compa
himself to a usurped town. Much Elizabethan poetry used very conventional image
but J ohn Donne and other metaphysical poets ( p. D94) tried to use a wide range
sources including science, theology, alchemy and travel to make their imagery mo
innovative and effective.
SNEf K^l l i i P jj^p
In Batter My Heart the poet compares himself to a door or gate which has been closed to
Cod, a town which has been occupied by God's enemy and a woman who is engaged to
God's rival. Which of these conceits do you find most striking and effective and why?
OVER TO YOU Striking comparisons similar to the conceits of the metaphysical poets are often used in so
You'rethe cream in my coffee (Cole Porter)
You are in my blood, you're my holy wine (Joni Mitchell)
And after all, you're my wonderwall (Noel Gallagher)
Work in groups. Make a list of language areas that are not usually considered 'poetic', for
example the language of computers, sport, food, household objects, etc. Try to make con-
ceits for friends or loved ones or people you hate using these language areas. For example-
You are my screensaver.
You are cigarette ash on my favourite ice-cream.
Read your best conceits aloud to the rest of the class.
John Donne wants God to force him to be good. He says that God must imprison him because he does not have
enough self-discipline to resist sin and temptation.
Are there any areas of your life in which you feel you should have more self-discipline?
Are you disciplined in your approach to school and study?
Are you disciplined in what you eat, or do you find it difficult to resist the temptation of junk food?
Would people who know you describe you as 'dependable', 'punctual', etc.?
John onne 5
Is it true that when two people are head over heels in love it is as if they become one person? Read the following
poem and find out what John Donne thinks.
[Text 1)2
And now good morrow to our waking soules,
Which watch not one another out of feare;
For love, all love of other sights controules
9
, 10
And makes one little roome an every where.
Let sea-discoverers to new worlds have gone,
Let Maps to others, worlds on worlds have showne
10
,
Let us possesse our world, each hath one, and is one.
An allegorical representation
of a lover who is burning in
the flames of passion.
My face in thine eye, thine in mine appeares, 15
And true plaine hearts doe in the faces rest,
Where can we finde two better hemispheares
Without sharpe North, without declining West?
What ever dyes, was not mixt
11
equally
12
;
If our two loves be one, or, thou and I 20
Love so alike, that none do slacken
13
, none can die.
The Good-Morrow
1
I wonder, by my troth
2
, what thou, and I
Did, till we lov'd? Were we not wean'd
3
till then?
But suck'd on countrey pleasures, childishly
4
?
Or snorted
5
we in the seven sleepers den
6
?
'Twas so; But this, all pleasures fancies bee
7
. 5
If ever any beauty
8
I did see,
Whi ch I desir'd, and got, 'twas but a dreame of thee.
GLOSSARY
(Seenoteon p. D2)
1. Good Morrow: good
morning
2. by my troth: truly
3. wean'd: grown up
(to wean: to gradually stop
feedingababy milk and
start givingit ordinary
food)
4. But suck'd ... childishly:
did weonly enjoy
ourselves like carefree
children?
5. snorted: snored
6. seven sleepers den:
according to legend, seven
young Christians from
Ephesus werewalled up alive
as they attempted to escape
persecution by the emperor
Decius. They were found
aliveover two centuries later
7. But this ... fancies bee: all
other pleasures are only
imaginary and not
real when compared to our
love
8. beauty: beautiful woman
9. For love ... controules:
truelove removes
(controules) thedesire to
seeother people and
places
10.Let Maps ... showne: other
worlds can be discovered
with maps
11. mixt: mixed
12. What ever dyes ...
equally: thepoet is
sayingthat because
their loveis perfectly
balanced, it will never
die. At that time it was
believed that the lack
of perfect balance and
proportion in the
elements of which all
bodies are constituted
caused decay and death
13. slacken: to become
weaker

COMPREHENSION
1 The poem opens with a question. Formulate the
question in your own words. What possible answers
does the poet suggest in lines 2-4?
2 Is the poet's present lover the first woman he has
had a relationship with?
3 What setting is suggested in the second stanza?
Where are the lovers and what time of day is it?
Refer to the text to support your answer.
4 Why are the lovers uninterested in new sights,
discoveries and worlds?
5 What does the poet see reflected in his lover's
eyes?
6 What does the poet compare himself and his lov
to in line 1 7?
7 Why does he believe that their love will never die?
ANALYSIS
1 The poet refers to the lovers' past, present and future. Identify the lines that refer to each period.
Past: lines Present: lines Future: lines
2 The poet suggests that the lovers were childish and immature before they fell in love. Underline the words in
lines 2-4 that create the idea of childishness.
3 Focus on the opening lines. Find examples of:
- rapid questions:
- an exclamation:
- 'non-poetic' vocabulary:
- a run-on line*:
Would you agree that the language of the opening stanza is similar to that of everyday speech?
How do you find the opening lines of the poem?
Dramatic Striking Original Banal Other:
4 Now that the poet has found true love he feels that the past is no longer relevant. What expression does he use
in line 5 to dismiss that past as unimportant?
5 In the second stanza the poet says that he and his lover have created one world through their love. How many
times are the words 'one' and 'world' repeated in the stanza?
6 In line 9 the poet suggests that lovers sometimes watch each other out of fear. What may be the causes of
these fears in your opinion? Are the poet and his lover subject to these fears?
7 Lines 11-13 introduce the concept that love conquers space. In a complex conceit*a parallel is drawn between
geographers and lovers. Complete the parallel as illustrated in the table below.
Sea-discoverers through their overseas have reduced the new which they share with
expeditions world to maps others
The poet and his lover through the true love that have reduced the world which
they feel for each other to
8 In the second stanza the universe is reduced to a room. In the third stanza it is reduced to an even smaller
space. What is it?
9 Focus on line 18. Why do you think the north is described as 'sharpe' and the west is considered 'declining'?
In the new world the lovers create there is no north or west. By excluding them what does the poet hope not to
have in his world?
Coldness Light Old age Romance Mystery Illness
10 Explain how, in the last lines of the poem, the poet suggests that love also conquers time.
John onne 7
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Diction The term di cti on refers to the choice of words in a literary work. A writer's diction may
be described, for example, as abstract or concrete, colloquial or formal, techni cal or
common, literal or figurative. It may also be drawn from a particular lexical source.
J ohn Donne's poetic diction is often colloquial and rough. This is in sharp contrast to
other poets of the period who used extremely refined diction. It is one of the features of
J ohn Donne's poetry that makes it so innovative and striking.
Underline any words in the poem that you consider to be colloquial or 'non-poetic' in a
traditional sense.
OVER TO YOU
BPH;
mm
There are numerous adjectives to describe a writer's diction. Among them the most common
are:
ornate artificial plain simple colloquial literary
up-to-date archaic concrete abstract literal figurative
Read the brief extracts below and choose:
a) one or more adjectives from the list above which you think accurately describe the diction;
b) one or more adjectives that you think would be inappropriate in describing the diction.
Discuss your choices with your classmates.
/ ^
it: Sg
Fixer of Midnight
He went to fix the awning
Fix the roping
In the middle of the night
On the porch ...
Reuel Denney
You Fit Into Me
You fit into me
Like a hook into an eye
A fish hook
An open eye.
Margaret Atwood
La Belle Dame Sans Merci
Ah, what can ail thee, knight-at-arms
Alone and palely loitering;
The sedge is wither'd from the lake,
And no birds sing.
John Keats
From Paradise Lost
'Is this the region, this the soil, the clime,'
Said then the lost Archangel, 'this the seat
That we must change for Heaven?, this mournful gloom
For that celestial light?
John Milton
Come Home from the Movies
Come home from the movies
Black girls and boys
The picture be over and the screen
Be cold as our neighbourhood
Come home from the show,
Don't be the show.
LucilleClifton
DB
| ohn Donne says to his lover that she is the only woman for him and that he hopes their love will never die. These
are common themes in songs. Try to think of titles of songs or words from songs where these themes are
expressed.
Brail
Jr
/ a -
mm
JOHN DONNE
(1572- 1631)
Early years J ohn Do
born in London in 1572
Roman Catholic family at a time when members of that faith
under increasing pressure to conform to the teaching of the
established Church of England. Donne was educated at Oxford
possibly Cambridge but was not allowed to take a degree beca
his religion. He travelled abroad, visiting Italy and Spain
returning to London with a view to starting a career as a diplo
London in the 1590s was the centre of intellectual and lite
life in England and Donne took full advantage of all it had
offer. He led a wild life and was descri bed by one of
contemporaries as 'a great visiter of ladies, a great frequenter
plays and a great writer of conceited verses'.
Religion Throughout thi s period Donne was tormented by the questi on of his religion. If
remained loyal to the Roman Cathol i c faith, he would have to give up any hope of a success
career. On the other hand, three generations of his family had suffered exile and even death
defend their right to be Catholic. His own brother Henry had died in prison for sheltering a prie
Donne spent years studying all the poi nts of dispute between the Church of England and th
Catholic Church, and finally in 1593 he decided to convert to the Protestant faith.
Career He started his diplomatic career when he entered the service of Sir Thomas Egerton, Lord
Keeper of England, as his chief secretary. In 1601 he was elected Member of Parliament and at the
age of twenty-nine seemed set for an illustrious political career. A single act destroyed his bright
prospects. He secretly married Lord Egerton's ni ece and was i mpri soned for marryi ng a mi nor
without her guardian's consent. He was soon released, but he was dismissed from his position as
Egerton's secretary. He and his wife moved a short distance from London and managed as well as
they could under difficult financial circumstances.
In his personal life this was a happy time for Donne, and he
wrote many of the Songs and Sonnets which deal with the theme
of love in this period. Professionally, however, things were going
from bad to worse. He made applications to several possible
patrons but was unable to get a new state appointment.
He became seriously ill in 1608-1609 and wrote a treatise in
favour of suicide. Many of the Divine Poems, in which Donne
explores the concepts of sin and judgement, date from this
period. Having unsuccessfully tried to regain a career in politics
and diplomacy, Donne turned his attention to the Church. He
wrote essays and pamphlets condemning the Church of Rome.
In 1615 he was ordained into the Church of England and was
later made an honorary Doctor of Di vi ni ty at Cambri dge.
When he was elected Dean of St Paul's Cathedral he made a
series of memorable sermons which earned him the reputation
of being the greatest preacher of his generation. J ohn Donne
died in 1631 aged fifty-nine.
An illustration from
one of John Donne's
works depicting man
and the universe.
Writers' Gallery - John Donne
' " n M M H H H While his sermons won him public acclaim, J ohn Donne wrote
poetry exclusively for personal pleasure. During his lifetime his
poems were read only by his circle of friends in manuscript form. It was not until two years after his
death that they were published. His literary production includes:
Satires written in the 1590s based on the Latin models of J uvenal and Horace. The targets of these
works were the social evils of the day;
Songs and Sonnets, a collection of love poems;
Divine Poems, a collection of religious poetry;
Sermons and meditations, which include Donne's weekly sermons and his opinions on a wide range
of religious topics.
Metaphysical poetry Donne was a great literary i nnovator and is widely considered to be the
founder of the metaphysical school of poetry ( p. D94). His work was characterised by the use of
paradoxes*, epigrams*, puns* and conceits*, i.e. striking images that associate dissimilar ideas. Much
of the poetry written in the period in which he lived was musical, ornate and respectful: he rejected
these standards and wrote poems which were original, striking and irreverent. His use, for example, of
religious i magery in l ove poems and i mages of physi cal l ove in religious poetry shocked his
contemporaries, and his work was not widely appreciated in the eighteenth or nineteenth centuries.
His reputation grew at the beginning of the twentieth century, when his passionate, dramatic poetry
became popular again, and it is only since then that he has been widely recognised as one of the great
poets of the English language.
TASKS /
1 Choose the correct option.
1 John Donne was born
_a] a Catholic.
_bj a Protestant.
2 In his youth he devoted himself to
0 studying Greek and Latin classics.
_bj women, theatrical performances and
writing poems.
3 Converting to the Church of England was
an easy step which Donne took
lightheartedly.
~b~l a very difficult decision which Donne
thought about for years.
4 Donne's brilliant political career was
_aj destroyed by his secret marriage to his
patron's niece.
b long and successful, thanks to Sir Thomas
Egerton's protection.
5 Unable to find new employment, he
[a] contemplated and wrote about suicide.
1 b 1 decided to write poems in honour of Sir
Thomas Egerton.
6 When he was ordained into the Church of
England he
[~a~1 became a famous preacher,
bJ started travelling on delicate diplomatic
missions.
2 Tick the expressions that can be applied to
Donne's poetry.
Poems written for personal pleasure.
Poems expressing love for nature.
Religious or love poetry.
Paradoxes, epigrams, puns and conceits.
Musical, ornate and respectful poetry.
Original, striking and irreverent.
Epic poetry about heroic deeds.
Passionate, dramatic poetry.
\ i 177THE PURITAN AGE - Poetry
Andrew Marvell
INTRODUCTION There is somethi ng very modern about the poetry of Andrew Marvell. He may have
written over three hundred years ago, but his sophisticated imagery and direct style are perfectly suited to
the tastes of the twenty-first century reader.
The poet is trying to convince a girl to be his girlfriend. Read the poem and decide for yourself if the girl will be
convinced by his argument.
Q
GLOSSARY
(Seenote on p. D2)
1. Coy: reluctant
2. Mistress: awoman to
whom aman pledges
his love. In modern
times it refers to a
woman who has a
sexual relationship
with amarried man
3. Had we: if wehad
4. coyness: shyness
5. were no: would not
be
6. Should'st rubies find:
would find rubies
(precious red stones)
7. Humber: river that
flows through Hull,
Marvell's home town
8. the Flood: the Flood
which God sent to
cover Earth. Only
Noah and his Ark
survived it. Thepoet
means 'very ancient
times'
9. Till ... Jews: until the
end of time. It was
believed that theJews
would convert to
Christianity on
Judgement day
10.Times ... hurrying
near: the flying
chariot of time
approaching fast
11. yonder: over there, in
the distance
To his Coy
1
Mistress
2
Had we
3
but World enough and Time,
This coyness
4
Lady were no
5
crime.
We would sit down, and think which way
To walk, and pass our long Loves Day.
Thou by the Indian Ganges side
Should'st rubies find
6
:1 by the Tide
Of Humber
7
would complain. I would
Love you ten years before the Flood
8
:
And you should if you please refuse
Till the conversion of the Jews
9
.
(...)
But at my back I always hear
Times winged Charriot hurrying near
10
:
And yonder
11
all before us lye
Desarts
12
of vast Eternity.
(...)
Now therefore, while thy youthful hew
13
Sits on thy skin like morning dew
14
,
And while thy willing
15
Soul transpires
At every pore with instant Fires,
Now let us sport us
16
while we may;
And now, like am'rous birds of prey
17
,
Rather at once our Time devour,
Than languish in his slow-chapt pow'r
18
.
is
12. Desarts: deserts
13. hew: colour ('hue')
14. dew: drops of water that
form on outdoor surfaces at
night
15. willing: full of desire
16. sport us: enjoy ourselves
17. birds of prey: birds which
kill and feed on other animals
18. Rather ... pow'r: it is better
Marvell's Coy Mistress may have I
like this girl, who was painted by Van
Dyck between 7622 and 1627.
that wedevour our time
now, rather than lan
its jaws that slowly
everything (slow-chapt
with slowly moving jaiwfc
Andrew Marvell 11
Let us roll all our Strength, and all
Our sweetness, up into one Ball:
And tear our Pleasures with rough strife
19
,
Through the Iron gates of Life.
Thus
20
, though we cannot make our Sun
Stand still, yet we will make him run
21
.
25
19. And tear ... strife:
and enjoy our
pleasures with great
determination (rough
strife: violent battle)
20. Thus: in this way
21. though ... run: even
if wecannot stop time
(our Sun) wecan beat
it by livinglifewith
great intensity

COMPREHENSION
1 In the world the poet describes in lines 1-10 there
are no limits to time and space and therefore he and
his lover do not need to hurry their love. Say whether
the following lines refer to time or space.
Lines 3^1: Lines 5-7:
Lines 8-10:
2 In lines 11-14 the poet explains why he feels the
need to act immediately. Try to explain his argument
in your own words.
3 In the final section the poet suggests that he and
his mistress should seize the day and become lovers.
In doing this what will they conquer?
ANALYSIS
1 Focus on the imagery* of lines 11-12. The poet says
that 'Times winged Charriot' is directly behind him.
What does this striking image suggest about his
perception of time? How does it contrast with the view
of time presented in the first verse?
2 How would you define the tone of the opening verse?
Humorous Playful Facetious
Angry Persuasive Other:
What is the tone of lines 11-14?
Humorous Ironic Solemn
Pessimistic Sombre Other:
Do you agree that there is a sharp change of tone
from the first verse to the second?
3 In lines 13-14 the poet looks to the future and to
life after death. What image does he use to convey his
vision? Do you consider the image to be optimistic or
pessimistic? Justify your choice.
4 Consider lines 15-18 in which the poet focuses on
the woman's youth. He compares her complexion to
morning dew. Is the choice of the part of the day
significant?
In lines 1 7-18 he describes her soul as 'willing' and
associates it with fire. What does this suggest about
the lady's feelings for the poet?
5 Underline the verbs in lines 19-28. Are they
predominantly static or dynamic? Do they suggest that
the poet and his lover will take action or remain
motionless victims of time?
6 In the final verse the poet suggests that although
they cannot stop time, they can master it by living
each moment of their lives intensely. The concept of
the victim becoming master is conveyed through a
series of contrasts. Link each of the words in column A
with a contrasting word or expression in column B.
A B
amorous sweetness
devour run
strength birds of prey
pleasures slow-chapt
stand still strife
7 Does the tone of the final part of the poem differ
from the rest? How would you describe it?
Triumphant Optimistic Sarcastic
Playful Other:
8 Identify the rhyme scheme of the poem. Is it regular
throughout? Count the syllables in each line. What
kind of line does Marvell use?
tetrameter* pentameter* hexameter*
Find examples of in-linepauses* (marked by commas)
and run-on lines*. What effect do they have on the
poem? Choose from the following or add your own.
They make the rhythm less regular and therefore less
lightweight.
They make the poet's language more similar to
natural speech.
They interrupt the flow of the poem.
They add to the musicality of the poem.
Hyperbole
aife
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Hyperbole (Greek for 'overshooting') is an overstatement or a deliberate exaggeration,
used ei ther for serious or comi c effect. It is frequentl y used in everyday speech in
expressions such as:
'I've told you a million times not to put your feet on the sofa!'
'There are thousands of reasons why studying Greek and Latin is useful.'
In literature, hyperbole is used to catch the reader's attention. Its two fundamental uses
are diametrically opposed: to underline the gravity of the point the writer is making or
to add an element of humour.
OVER TO YOU
Find examples of hyperbole referring to space and time in the first verse of the poem Tohis
Coy Mistress.
Is the hyperbole used to underline the seriousness of the point the poet is making or to add
a touch of playful humour?
Experiment with hyperbole. Write three sentences in which you use hyperbole for comic
effect.
TheEnglish lesson was so boring the birds in the trees outside fell asleep.
Mr Wakefield's nose is so large that it enters a room a full minute before the rest of his body.
WhileI was waiting for the bus I grew a three-inch beard.
Marvell is urging a woman to become his lover. He believes that because life is so short, each day should be fully
enjoyed. This concept was first developed by the Latin poet Horace: 'Carpe Diem, quam minimum credula
postero' ('Seize the day, and believe in the future as little as you can').
This timeless theme inspired the Italian prince and poet Lorenzo De Medici in the fifteenth century:
Quant'e bella giovinezza Youth is so gay
che si fugge tuttavia! How quickly it slips away!
Chi vuol esser lieto sia: Be happy while you may
di doman non c'e certezza! For tomorrow might be your last day!
and the sixteenth-century French poet Pierre de Ronsard:
Cueillez, cueillez votre jeunesse: Pick, pick your youth
Comme a cette fleur, la veillesse Like this flower's, old age
Fera ternir votre beaute. Will spoil your beauty.
Now it is your turn. Add two or three more examples of 'Carpe diem' situations to the following:
I have an important test on Monday and I should be preparing for it. My friends are going to a football match
I think: Carpe diem! And I go with them.
Writers' Gallery - Andrew Marvell
ANDREW MARVELL
(1621- 1678)
Andrew Marvell was born on
31st March 1621. He started
writing poetry, primarily in Greek and Latin, during his life as a
student at Cambridge University, from which he graduated in 1638.
From 1642 to 1646 he travel l ed abroad to France, Hol l and,
Switzerland, Spain and Italy. When he returned to England he
became the tutor of twelve-year-old Mary Fairfax at her Yorkshire
home. It was at thi s ti me that he wrote some of his greatest
poems, including To his Coy Mistress. His friend J ohn Milton rec-
ommended him for the position of Assistant Latin Secretary to
the Council of State, a post he secured in 1657. In 1659 Marvell
was elected M.P. for his home town of Hull. He remained in poli-
tics for over twenty years, taking part in diplomatic missions to
Holland and Russia. He died in 1678.
WORKS
Poetry Today Andrew Marvell is best remembered for the lyrical
poems he wrote during the two-year period he spent as a tutor in
Yorkshire. At the time of writing, these poems were only known to a few of Marvell's close friends
including Milton ( pp. D14-22), and it was not until three years after his death that they were
printed for a wider audience. Marvell drew inspiration from a wide range of sources including the
Cavalier poets ( p. D94) and J ohn Donne ( pp. D2-9) but, like Milton, it was his classical training
that exercised the greatest influence on his work. His poetry shows his passion for life and his great
love of nature. Marvell was in some respects a forerunner of the Romantic movement ( pp. E115-
116) in his sheer enjoyment of the open air and country life.
Satirical poems From 1667 to the end of his life Marvell wrote a series of satirical poems about
public figures and the events of the day. His biting satirical attacks were directed towards political
leaders, members of the aristocracy, the Court and the king himself. To protect Marvell, the satirical
poems were only circulated among friends in manuscript form. It was not until 1688, ten years after
his death, that they were published.
Prose Marvell's prose work consists of political pamphlets and a long series of newsletters he wrote
to his constituents on the work of Parliament. The letters are important historical documents because
they give us information about proceedings in Parliament at a time when no other records were kept.
In the eighteenth century Marvell was chiefly remembered as an outstanding patriot and politician.
Marvell the poet had always had his admirers, but it was only at the beginning of the ni neteenth
century, during the Romantic period, that he was given the recognition he deserved.
TASK
True or false? Correct the false statements.
a. Marvell's best works include lyrical poems which
were published anonymously during his lifetime.
b. Marvell was greatly influenced by his studies of
ancient Greek and Latin authors.
c. Unlike poets before him, his love of nature is
authentic and sincere: nature is not just a
source of inspiration for similes and metaphors.
d. Marvell's poems are full of sadness and a sense
of incumbent tragedy.
e. Marvell's satirical poems against prominent
members of the society of his time (including
the king) were published posthumously.
f. The letters Marvell wrote to the people who
had elected him to Parliament are of
considerable historical importance.
Paradise Lost
by John Milton
D B 13 D
In the Bible, the figure of Satan stands for Evil while God stands for Good. Since then, in literature and art, Satan
has been depicted in many different ways. In groups, think of a book, a painting, or a film in which Satan is one
of the characters and answer the following questions.
1 What does he look like?
2 What kind of place does he live in?
3 Does he have any followers and/ or enemies and if
so, who are they?
4 Does he have any special powers and if so, what are
they?
5 Is the impression that is given of Satan positive,
negative or neutral?
INTRODUCTION When he sat down to write Paradise Lost, J ohn Mi l ton was inspired by religious fer-
vour and helped by a masterful command of the language. It took hi m five years to compl ete what has
since been recognised as the greatest epic poem in English literature. His picture-in-words of Hell is so
vivid that the reader feels he can almost walk i nto the page and find hi msel f surrounded by the fires of
damnati on ( Visual Link D4).
THE STORY
Paradise Lost is a retelling of the Bible story of Man's expulsion from Paradise in twelve
books. In Books I and II, Satan has just been defeated in battle by God and banished to
Hell, fromwhere heplans with theother fallen angels toget revenge. In Books III and IV he
flies toEarth, sees Adam and Evein the Garden of Eden and resolves to tempt them to dis-
obey God. In Books V-VIII thearchangel Raphael tells Adam and Eveabout Satan's rebel-
lion and their own creation, and warns themnot toeat thefruit from thetreeof knowledge.
In Book IX Adam and Eveeat theforbidden fruit and areexpelled fromParadise in Books X
and XI, while Satan celebrates his victory. The last book (Book XII) is an account by the
archangel Michael of what will happen after the fall of Man up to the coming of the
Messiah.
Q HaH Better to Reign in Hell (Book I)
Satan is addressing his followers soon after their arrival in Hell, but instead of crying
over what has been lost hegives an inspiring and defiant speech.
(...)
'Is this the region, this the soil
1
, the clime
2
,'
Said then the lost Archangel
3
, 'this the seat
4
That we must change
5
for Heaven, this mournful gloom
6
For that celestial light? Be it so
7
, since he
3. lost Archangel: Satan 5. change: exchange depressing darkness
4. seat: place 6. mournful gloom: sad and 7. Beit so: let us accept this
GLOSSARY
(Seenote on D2)
1. soil: land
2. clime: country
Paradise Lost - John Milton 15
Who now is sovran
8
can dispose and bid
9
5
What shall be right: farthest from him is best,
Whom reason hath equalled, force hath made supreme
Above his equals
10
. Farewell, happy fields
11
,
Where joy for ever dwells
12
! Hail
13
, horrors! hail,
Infernal World! and thou, profoundest Hell, 10
Receive thy new possessor - one who brings
A mind not to be changed by place or time.
What matter where, if I be still the same, 15
And what I should be, all but less than he
Whom thunder hath made greater
14
? Here at least
We shall be free; the Almighty hath not built
Here for his envy, will not drive us hence
15
;
Here we may reign secure, and in my choice
16
, 20
To reign is worth ambition, though in Hell
17
:
Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven.
8. he ... sovran: hewho rules
(God)
9. disposeand bid: do and
command
lO.farthest... equals: it is
better to beas far away as
possiblefrom God.
1am as intelligent as
heis and heonly won
power becausehis
armies werestronger than
mine
11. happy fields: heaven
(allusion to the
Elysian fields of Greek
mythology)
12. dwells: lives
13. Hail: welcome
14. What matter...
greater: It does not
matter where I am
becauseI am still the
same as I was before.
I am almost as good
as God who beat me
in battle
15.the Almighty ...
hence: God, who
built this place for us
and not for himself
(not... for his envy),
has no intention of
attacking it and
sending us away
(hence)
16.choice: opinion
17.To reign ... Hell: the
important thing is to
rule, even if it is in
Hell

COMPREHENSION
1 Where is Satan?
2 Is he happy to be far from God? Why?
3 According to Satan, how did Cod defeat him - by
power or reason? Did this represent a true victory for
God, in his opinion?
4 Does Satan accept that God is his superior?
5 Will his new surroundings change the way Satan
thinks?
6 List the reasons why Satan feels that Hell is
preferable to Heaven.
ANALYSIS
1 The extract contains contrasting descriptions of
Heaven and Hell. Underline them in the text. What
images of the two places are conveyed?
2 God is never mentioned explicitly in the text.
Underline words and expressions that refer to him.
How is God described by Satan? Choose from the
adjectives below.
Ambitious Just Loving
Competitive Evil Devious
3 Choose three adjectives from the list below to
describe Satan. Justify your choices by referring to the
text.
Courageous Evil Ambitious Proud
Fearless Selfish Humble
4 Although Milton wrote Paradise Lost to praise
God, some critics feel that Satan is the true hero of
the poem. Does Satan have any heroic qualities in
your opinion?
5 Consider lines 2-4. They are examples of run-on
line* (enjambement*).
Find other examples of run-on lines in the text.
What is the effect of this device?
It makes Satan's speech
more poetic but more artificial.
flow more naturally.
6 4 | J Paradise Lost is written in blank verse*.
| 'Is | this | the | re| gion, | this | the | soil, | the | clime,' |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
| Said | then | the | lost | Arch | an | gel, | 'this | the | seat |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
The metre is not regular throughout. Sometimes
Milton varies the number of syllables or the unstressed-
stressed syllable pattern. Listen again to the recording
of the following four lines and analyse them as above.
Receive thy new possessor - one who brings
A mind not to be changed by place or time.
Blank verse is generally regarded as the poetic metre
that most closely resembles the rhythm of natural
speech in English. Would you agree that Satan
speech sounds natural? Do you think that it could
successfully be performed as a theatrical monologue?
7 Milton was heavily influenced by his classical
studies. In his poetry he often used words of Latin
origin. Link the words in column A below to the
Latinate equivalent that Milton uses (in column B).
A B
place celestial
deepest possessor
heavenly region
hellish infernal
owner profoundest
Style
TASK
OVER TO YOU
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Style refers to the way a writer says what he wants to say. It is usually analysed in terms
of the diction (i.e. the choi ce of words), the sentence structure or syntax, the density
and types of imagery, the rhythm and sounds. Many adjectives are used to classify types
of style including formal, oratorical, ornate, sober, simple, elaborate, conversati onal .
Styles are also classified according to literary periods or traditions, for example, meta-
physical style and Restoration prose style, or according to an important work, for exam-
ple Biblical style. Style may also be described by making reference to its greatest expo-
nent, for example, Shakespearean style, Miltonic style and Byronic style.
Milton's style is very distinctive and is often referred to as grand style. The features are:
- the choice of words of Latin origin;
- allusions to the classical world;
- long sentence structures.
Find examples of each feature in the extract you have read.
Experiment with style. Rewrite the first ten lines of Satan's speech in a more informal style.
STEP ONE - Substitute the underlined words with other words or expressions (see list
below).
STEP TWO - Make sentences shorter and use any device that you think might make the
speech more informal.
sad darkness thebright lights of heaven Noproblem king say and do whatever helikes
bye-bye heaven where everyone is always happy Hi there, you deepest
'Is this the region, this the soil, the clime,'
Said then the lost Archangel, 'this the seat
That we must change for Heaven, this mournful gloom
For that celestial light? Be it so. since he
Who now is sovran can dispose and bid
What shall be right: farthest from him is best,
Whom reason hath equalled, force hath made supreme
Above his equals. Farewell, happy fields.
Where joy for ever dwells! Hail, horrors! hail,
Infernal World! and thou profoundest Hell (...)
Start like this:
Is this the place that we
must exchange for Heaven?
I guess we're going to have
to get used to ...
Learn your version of the speech by heart and perform it for your classmates.

An engraving
Gustave Dore
Paradise Lost
Sonnet XVI I I - John Milton 17
Satan says that, even though he has been defeated, he will build a new empire in Hell and never accept God's
supremacy. It almost seems that Milton has unintentionally made Satan into a hero who fights bravely against
adversity.
Try to think of examples of people, or groups of people, who fight or have fought against adverse circumstances
when it might have been easier to give up. The following areas where people can become heroes in the face of
adversity should help you get some ideas:
sport
family life
politics
social work
study
career development
natural disasters
war
illness
Q
Text D5
Sonnet XVIII: On the Late Massacre in Piemont
The Waldensians, or Valdesi, are a Protestant community that has lived for cen
a number of valleys that connect Italy to France. Milton, who was a devout Prot
and virulently anti-Catholic, wrote this poem when he heard about a massa
Waldensians by Catholic troops in 1655.
Avenge
1
, O Lord, thy slaughter'd
2
saints, whose bones
Lie scatter'd
3
on the Alpine mountains cold,
Ev'n them who kept thy truth so pure of old
4
,
When all our fathers worshipp'd stocks and stones
5
;
Forget not: in thy book
6
record their groans
7
Who were thy sheep
8
and in their ancient fold
9
Slain
10
by the bloody Piemontese that roll'd
Mother with infant down the rocks. Their moans
The vales redoubl'd to the hills, and they
To Heav'n
11
. Their martyr'd blood and ashes sow
O'er all th' Italian fields where still doth sway
The triple tyrant
12
; that from these may grow
A hundred-fold, who having learnt thy way
Early may fly the Babylonian woe
13
.
Christian writer
Tertullian's famous phrase
'Theblood of the martyrs
is the seed of the Church'
and theparableof the
sower (Matthew 13:3-9)
13.that from ... woe: that
from these seeds the
Protestant community
may multiply. The new
converts from Catholicism
will avoid thefateof all
Catholics which is to be
punished by God
(Babylonian woe). The
ancient city of Babylon
was considered acity of
perdition and was
identified by Protestants
with Rome.
GLOSSARY 8. sheep: followers
(Seenoteon D2)
9. ancient fold: old church
(fold: thegroup of people
1. Avenge: get justicefor you belong to and share
2. slaughter'd: murdered the samebeliefs as)
3. scatter'd: thrown over a 10. Slain: killed
widearea
11.Their moans ... Heav'n:
4. Ev'n ... old: those who
their cries of pain (moans)
preserved the true, pure
intensified (redoubl'd) as
religion in earlier times
they rose from the valleys
5. stocks and stones: to thehills and then up to
inanimate things Heaven
6. thy book: thebook that 12.Their martyr'd blood ...
God will consult on tyrant: theblood of these
Judgement day, when he martyrs is likeseeds sown
decides who will go to Hell all over Italy where the
or Heaven (Revelations Pope(the triple tyrant)
20:12)
still rules (doth sway). A
7. groans: cries of pain reference to the Latin
COMPREHENSION
1 Who are the 'slaughter'd saints' mentioned in line 1 ?
2 Where did the massacre take place?
3 What does the poet admire about the Waldensian's
faith?
4 Did the Piemontese spare the women and
children?
5 Who still rules Italy, according to the poet?
6 What does he hope will happen in the future?
Sonnet XVI I I - John Milton 19
ANALYSIS
1 Underline any words or expressions in the text that
refer to the Waldensians. Which of the following
characteristics do you think are emphasised?
Their saintliness
Their courage
Their skill in fighting
Their hatred of Catholics
Their purity
Their long-standing religious traditions
2 The images of the massacre are quite striking. Find
an image that has a strong visual appeal and one that
appeals to your sense of hearing.
5 Find examples of run-on-lines* (enjambement*) in
the poem. Do you feel that this device makes the
sentences long and complicated or gives a more
natural flow to the language?
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Poetry, plays, novels and stories whose primary purpose is to guide, instruct or teach
come under the heading of di dacti c l i terature. They are distinguished from purely
imaginative works (sometimes called 'mimetic' works) whose goal is purely to interest
and appeal to the reader. Di dacti c literature was particularly popular in seventeenth-
century England. Much of the poetry of the period was written to educate the readers
on subjects as diverse as morality, religion, philosophy, gardening and beer-making.
Propagandist literature is a particular type of didactic literature which tries to convince
the reader to take a position or direct action on a contemporary moral or political issue.
Milton's Paradise Lost may be considered to be didactic literature, while his sonnet On the
Late Massacre in Piemont falls into the category of propagandist literature.
Work in groups. Discuss how effective Milton's On the LateMassacre in Piemont is as
propagandist literature. In the course of your discussion answer these questions.
a. What was your reaction to the poem when you first read it? Were you surprised by the
vehemence of Milton's attack?
b. Do you think that Milton is objective in how he depicts the historical facts?
c. Do you think that the poetic form allows Milton to be more subjective? If he had written
an essay or a newspaper article, would the reader have demanded greater historical
authenticity and more analysis?
d. Do you think that poetry is an appropriate vehicle for political messages or do you think
they are better conveyed through journalism? What, if any, are the advantages of
expressing your political message in a poem?
Think of a poem, novel, film or song that you would consider didactic or propagandist.
Explain to your classmates the message contained in the work.
Think about examples such as Animal Farmby George Orwell, songs like Sunday, Bloody
Sunday by U2 and films like Schindler's List.
DO 1
Do you know any other songs that have political themes? If you do, find the lyrics of the song, make copies for
your classmates and listen to the song together. Do some research on the theme of the song and give a short talk
on what the song is about.
4 How would you describe the style* of the poem?
Elevated Colloquial Relaxed
Formal Sombre
Other:
One of the elements that contributes to creating the
style is allusions* to other great works of literature.
Use the notes in the glossary to identify allusions to
the Bible and other works of literature.
5 The poem is written in the form of a sonnet*.
Identify the rhyme scheme and then say whether the
poem is divided into an octave and a sestet
(Petrarchan sonnet) or three quatrains and a couplet
(Shakespearean sonnet).
Didactic
literature
P
WRITERS' GALLERY
JOHN MILTON
(1608- 1674)
Background and education
J ohn Mi l ton was born in
London in 1608 into a wealthy, well-educated family. His father,
who had been di si nheri ted by his fami l y for becomi ng
Protestant, instilled in his son from an early age a love of learn-
ing and strong religious beliefs. By the age of sixteen he could
write in Lati n and Greek and had a good knowl edge of
Philosophy. He attended Christ's College, Cambridge, where he
took his Master of Arts degree and distinguished himself as an
outstanding student. For a period of time he considered taking
religious orders, but finally decided to move back home, where
he continued his studies and wrote.
In 1638 he visited France and Italy. However, when news of the
Civil War in England reached him he returned home.
Political views He was an adamant supporter of Cromwell and Parliament, and when King Charles I
was executed he wrote a pamphlet in which he voiced his approval, saying it was the people's right to
call to account a Tyrant or Wicked King, and after due conviction to depose him and put him to death.
He was rewarded for his pamphlet when Parliament offered him the position of Latin Secretary to the
Commonwealth, a post comparable to a Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs today. Milton, who had
always had weak eyesight, was going blind, and doctors warned him not to take the job as it involved
translating into Latin all the government's foreign correspondence. Milton replied that he had to do
his duty for the Commonwealth and accepted the position. He eventually went totally blind.
Final years After the Restoration Milton spent a brief period in prison for the part he had played
in the Commonweal th, but he was wel l -respected and had powerful friends and so was soon
released. He spent the last years of his life in retirement dedicating himself to the writing of his
masterpieces: Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes. He died in 1674.
TASK
Underline the answers to these questions in the text.
a. What religion was Milton born into?
b. In which subjects did he excel?
c. What countries did he travel to in 1638?
d. What event persuaded him to return home?
e. What job was he offered as a reward for his anti-
Royalist stance?
f. Why was he arrested after the Restoration?
H f f M M H J ohn Milton's work can be divided into three phases.
ii^HI^HMailliiHillii^lilH Phase I: Early poems and a masque The first phase covers his
years as a student. When only fifteen years old he wrote his first poems, which were paraphrases of
Psalms. While studying at Cambridge he wrote poetry in Latin, as was the custom at the time, but it
was his burning ambition to produce great poetry in his native language, and in 1629 he wrote his
first masterpiece, the Odeon theMorning of Christ's Nativity, a celebration of the coming of Christ and
the abandonment of pagan Gods.
Milton was fascinated by Italian culture. He studied writers like Petrarch, Dante and Tasso, and their
works influenced his early poems L'Allegro and II Penseroso (1632).
Writers' Gallery - John Milton
In 1634 his masque Comus, which combined music, verse and dancing, was first performed. In 1637
he published his greatest minor poem, Lycidas, a pastoral elegy written in remembrance of the death
of a fellow student.
Phase II: Prose writings In his second phase of creativity Milton focused on prose writing. In 1643
he published The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce, claiming the right of a husband or wife to dissolve
a marriage on the grounds of incompatibility. In his personal life Milton had married a seventeen-
year old girl, the daughter of a Royalist family, in 1642. She left him after just a few weeks, largely, it
is said, because of his austere attitude to life and their religious differences. The two were, however,
reconciled, but Milton never fully forgave his wife and became a strong supporter of divorce.
One of his greatest prose works, Areopagitica ('Things to be declared before the Areopagus', a hill in
Athens where a respected council met to take important decisions), published in 1644, is Milton's
impassioned plea for freedom of speech and the press. In this pamphl et he compares the Greek
counci l and the Engl i sh Parl i ament, whi ch had just
passed a law controlling the press.
In the same year he wrote the pamphl et Of Education
which promoted encyclopaedic educational schooling
for the formation of humanistic leaders. However, while
publ i cl y Mi l ton expl ai ned the i mportance of a broad
educati on, in pri vate he did nothi ng to educate his
daughters. His eldest daughter was total l y i l l i terate.
Because his eyesi ght was fai l i ng he taught his other
daughters to read mechani cal l y to hi m in forei gn
languages, without understanding the words they read.
They took revenge by selling books from their father's
library.
In 1649 he wrote The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, in
which he justified the execution of Charles I. England
was cri ti ci sed by several European countri es for the
executi on of the monarch* In reply, Mi l ton wrote Pro
Populo Anglicano Defensio (Defence of the Peopl e of
Engl and) and Pro Populo Anglicano Secunda Defensio
(Second Defence of the People of England) in 1651 and
1654 respectively. Both documents were written in Latin
so that they could be read throughout Europe.
Phase III: Poetic masterpieces After the Restoration in 1660 Milton retired from public life and
dedicated himself to the writing of his great poetic masterpieces. He had always wanted to write an
epic poem in English in the classical style of Virgil's Aeneid, and initially he had considered the legend
of King Arthur as a suitable subject matter. However, he eventually chose the Fall of Man as his theme
and set to work on Paradise Lost. Published in 1667, Paradise Lost tells the story in twelve books of
Satan's banishment from Heaven and his attempt to take revenge on God through the temptation of
Adam and Eve. The poem is written in blank verse and observes the classical epic conventions:
the hero is a figure of great importance. Adam represents the entire human race;
the setting of the poem is ample in scale: the action takes place on Earth, in Heaven and in Hell;
JOANNIS MI L TONl
Angli
PRO POPUL O A N G L I C A N O
D E F E N S I O
Contra CUuJii zAr,on)mi, alias SMmafii,
Dcfcnfioncm R.EQI AM.
i f tN D/ N / ,
Typi VH GmLmu. Anno Domini i Sj i .
The title page for Pro Populo Anglicano
Defensio (1651).
, ; 22 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Poetry
St
the action involves superhuman deeds in battle and a long and arduous journey: Paradise Lost includes
the war in Heaven and then Satan's journey to the newly-created world to corrupt mankind;
there are catalogues of some of the principal characters, introduced in formal detail: in Book I
Milton describes the procession of fallen angels;
an epic poem is narrated in an elevated style that is deliberately distanced from ordinary speech:
Milton's grand style* is created by the use of Latinate diction and syntax, wide-ranging allusions
(there are references to Homer, Virgil, Dante, Tasso, Ariosto, Spenser and the Bible) and long
listings of names; .
the narrator begins by stating his theme and invoking a muse: in the opening lines Milton calls on
God to be his guiding spirit in writing his 'adventurous song';
the narrative starts when the action is at a critical point: Paradise Lost opens with Satan and the
fallen angels in Hell, gathering their forces and plotting revenge. It is not until Books V-VI I that we
learn from the angel Raphael about the events in Heaven that led to this situation.
Milton wanted to write a poem in praise of God. As he said in one of his sonnets, he wanted to use
his literary gifts 'to serve therewith my maker'. Some critics have claimed that the true hero of
Paradise Lost is, however, Satan. It has also been suggested that Milton may have identified a parallel
between Satan's struggle against the absolute power of God and his own fight against the absolute
authority of the monarchy.
In 1671 Milton published Paradise Regained in four books. Written in the same epic style as Paradise
Lost, it tells the story of Christ's temptation by Satan in the desert. In the same year he also published
Samson Agonistes, a play depicting the events leading up to the killing of Samson by the Philistines. It
observes the conventions of Greek tragedy and includes choruses, messengers and reports instead of
direct speech.
Reputation For over two hundred years Milton was regarded as one of the greatest writers in the
English language. At the beginning of the twentieth century some influential literary figures such as
Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot ( Module G) criticised his 'grand style', claiming that it was artificial and
rhetorical and too far removed from the speech of common people. Other critics have since argued
that his style is appropriate to the subject matter and epic form, and have rehabilitated him to a pre-
eminent role in English literature.
mm TASK
M ...
s
Prepare to speak for thirty
seconds about John Milton's
works. Concentrate on
selecting the most important
information. You may use the
spidergram as a guideline.
ofPf-gf
e
The Rape of the Lock
fry Alexander Pope
Briefly describe your morning routine. How much time do you spend showering, getting dressed, etc.? What is
the most annoying part of your routine? Is there any part that you enjoy?
INTRODUCTION Alexander Pope's massive literary output included much-admired translations of both
the Iliad and the Odyssey but his most famous poem is about a bizarre domestic incident. When one of his
friends, Lord Petre, cut off a lock of Miss Arabella Fermor's hair, Belinda in the poem, their two families,
started a feud. To defuse the tensi on he wrote The Rape of the Lock, whi ch made fun of the i nci dent
( Visual Link D5).
Beauty Puts on all its Arms
This text is taken from the first of the five Cantos that make up the complete poem.
And now, unveil'd
1
, the Toilet stands display'd
2
,
Each Silver Vase in mystic Order laid.
First, rob'd
3
in White, the Nymph
4
intent adores,
With Head uncover'd, the Cosmetic Pow'rs.
A heav'nly Image in the Glass appears, 5
To that she bends, to that her Eyes she rears
5
;
Th' inferior Priestess
6
, at her Altar's side,
Trembling
7
, begins the sacred Rites of Pride.
Unnumber'd
8
Treasures ope
9
at once, and here
The various Off'rings of the World appear; 10
From each she nicely culls with curious Toil
10
,
And decks
11
the Goddess with the glitt'ring Spoil
12
.
This casket India's glowing Gems unlocks
13
,
And all Arabia breathes
14
from yonder
15
Box.
The Tortoise here and Elephant unite, 15
Transform'd to Combs, the speckled
16
and the white.
Here Files of Pins
17
extend their shining Rows,
Puffs
18
, Powders, Patches
19
, Bibles, Billet-doux
20
.
Text D6
'... Th' inferior Priestess ... Trembling,
begins the sacred Rites of Pride.'
Aubrey Beardsley illustrated the 1896-
edition of The Rape of the Lock.
GLOSSARY 7. Trembling: shivering with 13.casket... unlocks: 17. Pins: pieces of metal
1. unveil'd: uncovered
excitement box (casket) reveals used to keep hair in
2. Toilet... display'd: dressing
8. Unnumber'd: countless (unlocks) the treasures of place
table stands in all its glory 9. ope: open
India 18. Puffs: pads to put
3. rob'd: dressed 10.culls ... Toil: carefully
14. breathes: emanates face powder on
4. Nymph: Belinda chooses perfume 19. Patches: artificial
5. rears: raises 11. decks: decorates IS. yonder: over there beauty spots
6. inferior Priestess: the 12. glitt'ring Spoil: shining 16. speckled: with spots (made 20. Billet-doux: love
servant products fromtortoise shell) letters
Now awful Beauty puts on all its Arms;
The Fair each moment rises in her Charms
21
, 20
Repairs her Smiles, awakens
22
ev'ry Grace,
And calls forth all the Wonders of her Face;
Sees by Degrees
23
a purer Blush
24
arise,
And keener Lightnings quicken
25
in her Eyes.
The busy Sylphs
26
surround their darling Care; 25
These set the Head, and those divide the Hair,
Some fold the Sleeve, whilst others plait the Gown
27
;
And Betty's
28
prais'd for labours not her own.
21.The Fair ... Charms:
the Lady becomes
more beautiful
22. awakens: wakes up
23. by Degrees: gradually
24. purer Blush: abetter-
looking red colour
25. keener Lightnings
quicken: more acute
sparks of light appear
26. Sylphs: guardian
angels
27. plait the Gown: fold
thedress
28. Betty: the servant

COMPREHENSION
The extract you have read can be divided into four parts.
- Belinda takes her place before the dressing table: line ...
- the work begins: line to line ;
- description of the objects on the dressing table: line
- the work is completed: line in line
Part 1
a. How is Belinda dressed?
b. What does she 'adore'? (Line 3)
c. Whose image appears in the glass? (Line 5)
How does Belinda react to it?
d. Why is Betty referred to as 'inferior'?
Part 2
e. What do the expressions 'Unnumber'd Treasures'
(line 9) and 'various Off'rings of the World' (line 10)
refer to?
f. Who is the 'Goddess' in line 12?
ANALYSIS
1 There are several examples of religious imagery* in
the text, for example: 'Each Silver Vase in mystic
Order laid'. (Line 2)
Find other words and expressions that are usually
associated with this semantic field.
2 Belinda's dressing is also compared to military
procedures, for example: 'And decks the Goddess
with the glitt'ring Spoil'. (Line 12)
Explain why lines 1 7 and 19 reinforce this association.
3 Does comparing Belinda's dressing to a religious
ceremony and military matters make it seem more
solemn or trivial?
4 Products from distant, exotic lands are cited in the
description of Belinda's dressing table. What are they
and where are they from? Does Pope make reference
to them to highlight Belinda's:
sophistication and refinement?
vanity and frivolity?
Say at which line each section begins and ends.
.... to line ;
. to line ;
Part 3
g. What can be found in the boxes from India and
Arabia?
h. What are the combs made of?
i. What other objects can be found on Belinda's
dressing table?
Part 4
j. Betty starts to apply Belinda's make-up. What
changes take place in Belinda's face?
k. Who helps Betty in preparing Belinda? What
specific tasks do they carry out?
5 In line 18 Pope lists the things on Belinda's dressing
table. Which one stands out from the others?
Why do you think Pope includes this incongruous
element?
To show:
that dressing had almost a religious significance for
Belinda.
that religion was of little importance to her.
that she was fervently religious.
6 Belinda is never referred to by name in the text.
Underline the words and expressions Pope uses to
refer to her and her behaviour. What impression do
you get of her? Do you think of her as:
humble modest
vain sophisticated
elegant frivolous
other:
The Rape of the Lock - Alexander Pope 25
7 Examine the verse form used in the poem.
a. Focus on the first two lines:
| And | now, | un | veil'd, | the | Toi | let | stands | dis | play'd, |
| Each | Sil | ver | Vase | in | my | stic | Or | der | laid. |
How many syllables are there in each line?
b. Mark the stressed syllables ' and the unstressed
syllables Which of the following stress patterns is
used?
Anapestic* Trochaic* I ambic*
c. Which of the following is the correct definition of
the verse form used by Pope?
Heroic couplet* Alexandrine* Blank verse*
d. Is the metre and structure of the poem regular or
irregular on the whole?
8 Identify the sound device that is used in line 18.
9 Find an example of personification* in line 19.
10 Find an example of an oxymoron* in line 19.
11 Explain the ironic use of the word 'purer' in line 23.
Can you identify an example of internal rhyme in the
same line?
12 Which of the following adjectives would you use
to describe Pope's diction*?
Colloquial Vague Scientific
Rich Plain m Ornate
Precise Concise
1 3 How would you describe the tone of the poem?
Solemn Ironic Elevated
Mocking Playful Religious
Other:
Mock-heroic
M r - J
M . &
t - r J
aK : . -mm
OVER TO YOU
mm
HI
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
A mock-heroi c (or mock-epi c) poem i mi tates the el evated style and conventi ons
(invocations of the Gods, descriptions of armour, battles, extended similes, etc.) of the
epic genre in deal i ng wi th a frivolous or mi nor subject. The mock-heroi c has been
widely used to satirise social vices such as pretentiousness, hypocrisy, superficiality, etc.
The inappropriateness of the grandiose epic style highlights the trivial and senseless
nature of the writer's target.
The Rape of the Lock is an exampl e of the mock-epi c form. I n it Pope uses the lofty,
serious style of classical epics not to describe battl es or supernatural events, but to
satirise the seriousness with which friends in his circle treated a breach of manners at a
social gathering: the stealing of a lock of hair.
The Rape of the Lock contains all the standard features of the epic genre:
A dream message from the gods Epic feast
Arming the heroes journey to the underworld
Sacrifice to the gods General combat
Exhortation to the troops Intervention of the gods
Single combat Apotheosis
Which of the epic features is parodied in the extract you have just read?
Experiment with the mock-heroic style. Write sentences in which you compare people or
everyday occurrences to characters or events in epic poetry.
Example: Thejourney was endless. When I got home I felt likeOdysseus returning to Ithaca!
In the extract from TheRape of the Lock you have read, Alexander Pope makes fun of the elaborate extent Belinda
goes to in order to make herself beautiful. How do you feel about the issue of vanity and the beauty industry?
THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Poetry
In 1972 American singer/ songwriter Carly Simon released the song You'reSo Vain, which became a worldwide
hit. There was much speculation at the time about who the subject of the song was. Many people believed the
song was about Mick jagger, the lead singer of the rock band The Rolling Stones (who actually sings backing
vocals on the chorus), others claimed it was about the actor Warren Beatty.
Read the lyrics of the song and compare it to Alexander Pope's attack on vanity. Which of the two is more direct?
Which is more effective?
You're So Vain
You walked into the party like you were walking onto a yacht
Your hat strategically dipped
1
below one eye
Your scarf it was apricot
You had one eye on the mirror as you watched yourself gavotte
2
And all the girls dreamed that they'd be your partner
They'd be your partner, and ...
You're so vain, you probably think this song is about you
You're so vain, I'll bet you think this song is about you
Don't you? Don't you?
You had me several years ago when I was still quite naive
3
Well you said that we made such a pretty pair
And that you would never leave
But you gave away the things you loved and one of them was me
I had some dreams, they were clouds in my coffee
Clouds in my coffee, and ...
I had some dreams they were clouds in my coffee
Clouds in my coffee, and ...
Well I hear you went up to Saratoga and your horse naturally won
Then you flew your Lear jet
4
up to Nova Scotia
To see the total eclipse of the sun
Well you're where you should be all the time
And when you're not you're with
Some underworld spy or the wife of a close friend
Wife of a close friend, and ...
L I N K
GLOSSARY
1. dipped: pulled down
2. gavotte: dance (agavotte isafast, happy French dance)
3. naive: inexperienced, innocent
4. Lear jet: aluxurious private plane
Carly Simon.
Writers' Gallery - Alexander Pope 27
WRITERS' GALLERY
LIFE AND WORKS
ALEXANDER POPE
(1688- 1744)
Early years Alexander Pope
was born in London in 1688,
the onl y son of a cl oth merchant. At the age of twel ve he
suffered from tubercolosis of the bone, which stunted his growth
and left him deformed and sickly for the rest of his life. Because
his family was Catholic he could not attend public schools or go
to uni versi ty, so he was l argel y sel f-educated. He based his
studies on the Classics and French and Italian authors.
Writing career From a very earl y age he showed a gift for
wri ti ng. When he was just si xteen years old he wrote his
Pastorals (1709), whi ch were based on cl assi cal model s and
showed his skill in using poetic metre. In his twenties he wrote
Essay on Criticism (1711), based on Horace's Ars Poetica, where he
' ' sets out his principles for writing poetry.
Written while he was still in his mid-twenties, The Rape of the Lock (1712-1714) is a masterpiece of
the mock-heroic*. It concerns the quarrel between two families caused by Lord Petre's cutting a love-
lock from the head of Arabella Fermor, Belinda in the poem. It is a playful poem full of paradoxes*,
witty observations and humorous epic allusions. It makes fun of the fatuous upper-class society it
depicts and shows Pope's unrivalled mastery of the heroic couplet*. The Rape of the Lock established
Pope's reputation in literary circles. He became friends with J onathan Swift and, together with some
other leading literary figures, they formed the 'Scriblerus Club' to discuss topics of contemporary
interest and to ridicule all false tastes in learning. In 1720 he completed a translation of Homer's
Illiad, and his translation of The Odyssey, which appeared in 1726, gave him financial independence.
He was one of the first poets to become economically self-sufficient through his poetry, and he was
widely recognised as the leading man of letters of his day.
The Dunciad (1728) is Pope's most celebrated satire. It is written in the mock-heroic style and is an
attack on the author's literary rivals, critics and enemies, who are grouped together and called
'Dulness'. In it Pope describes the tri umph of banal i ty (Dulness), whi ch takes over all the arts,
sciences, the theatre and the court and leads the world to cultural chaos and artistic bankruptcy.
Pope spent the last years of his life in Twickenham outside London, where he led a largely reclusive
life. In later years his health declined and he became physically dependent on others. He died in
1744.
Reputation Alexander Pope was the most celebrated poet of the early part of the ei ghteenth
century. In the second half of the century he fell out of favour, as tastes began to change and his
sophisticated poetry was considered to lack feeling. He did not appeal to readers again until the
begi nni ng of the twenti eth century, when once more his wit and techni cal abi l i ty found an
appreciative public.
TASK
Prepare a short report on Pope following the outline:
education health precocious artistic talent
different poetic forms reputation
Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard
by Thomas Gray
INTRODUCTION Al though Thomas Gray wrote many other poems, his Elegy Written in a Con
Churchyard is the one that has caught the i magi nati on of generati ons of readers. Certain lines like
Paths of Glory lead but to the Grave', are among the best-known in the language. The poem also has a
cial place in English literature because it marks the transition from the Augustan to the early Romantic
Graveyards are often sad and someti mes mysteri ous. They are nearl y al ways qui et pl aces where peopl e can thi nk
about thei r dead l oved ones undi sturbed by the noi se and bustl e of everyday life. The narrator in thi s poem has
wandered i nto a graveyard and thi nks about the many poor peopl e who are buri ed there. He asks hi msel f if thei r
lives are of less val ue than the lives of those who have been rich and successful . Read on and find the answer.
Q
Text D7
GLOSSARY
1.
4.
5.
blazing: burning
with strong, bright
flames
Hearth: whereafire
is burning
ply her Evening
Care: do her
household jobs, like
preparing dinner, in
theevening
to lisp ... Return: to
greet their father
when hecomes home
from work
envied Kiss: the
children arejealous
of one another
becausethey all
want to kiss their
father
Oft... yield: they
often gathered the
crops (Harvest) (a
sickleis atool for
cuttinggrass, corn,
etc.)
Their Furrow ...
broke: They often
ploughed (furrow:
plough) theland
to prepareit for
planting
How jocund ...
afield: how happy
they were (jocund)
when they drove
The Paths of Glory Lead but to the Grave
(...)
For them no more the blazing
1
Hearth
2
shall burn,
Or busy Housewife ply her Evening Care
3
:
No Children run to lisp their Sire's Return
4
,
Or climb his Knees the envied Kiss
5
to share.
Oft did the Harvest to their Sickle yield
6
, 5
Their Furrow oft the stubborn Glebe has broke
7
;
How jocund did they drive their Team afield
8
!
How bow'd the Woods beneath their sturdy Stroke
9
!
Let not Ambition mock
10
their useful Toil
11
,
Their homely J oys and Destiny obscure; 10
Nor Grandeur
12
hear with a disdainful
13
Smile,
The short and simple Annals
14
of the Poor.
The Boast of Heraldry
15
, the Pomp
16
of Pow'r,
And all that Beauty, all that Wealth e'er
17
gave,
Awaits alike
18
th' inevitable Hour. is
The Paths of Glory lead but to the Grave.
their horses (Team) through 12. Grandeur: thenobility, rich
thefields (afield)
9. How bow'd ... Stroke:
how thewoods bent down
beneath their strongblows
10. mock: makefun of
11.Toil: hard work
people
13. disdainful: showing
disrespect
14. Annals: history
15. Boast of Heraldry: the
prideof the aristocracy
(Heraldry is thestudy of the
history and insigniaof
families)
16. Pomp: ostentation
17. e'er: ever
18. Awaits alike: they all wait
for
Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard - Thomas Gray 29
Nor you, ye Proud
19
, impute to these the Fault
20
,
If Mem'ry o'er
21
their Tomb no Trophies raise,
Where thro' the long-drawn Isle and fretted Vault
22
The pealing Anthem swells the Note of Praise
23
.
Can storied
24
Urn
25
or animated
26
Bust
Back to its Mansion
27
call the fleeting
28
Breath?
Can Honour's Voice provoke the silent Dust,
Or Flatt'ry
29
sooth
30
the dull cold Ear of Death?
Perhaps in this neglected Spot
31
is laid
Some Heart once pregnant with
32
celestial Fire,
Hands that the Rod of Empire might have sway'd,
Or wak'd to Exstacy the living Lyre
33
.
But Knowledge to their Eyes her ample Page
Rich with the Spoils of Time did ne'er unroll
34
;
Chill Penury
35
repress'd their noble Rage
36
,
And froze the genial Current of the Soul
37
.
Full many a Gem
38
of purest Ray serene
39
,
The dark unfathom'd
40
Caves of Ocean bear
41
:
Full many a Flower is born to blush
42
unseen,
And waste its Sweetness on the desart
43
Air.
(...)
30
35
'Oft did the Harvest to their Sickle yield... How bow'd the
Woods beneath their sturdy Stroke!' An illustration for
Thomas Gray's Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard.
19. ye Proud: you proud
people
20.impute ... Fault: think it is
afault or defect
21. o'er: over
22.the long-drawn Isle ...
Vault: the centre of the
church and the decorated
ceiling
23.The pealing ... Praise:
resounding (pealing) reli-
gious songs are played and
sung in honour of the dead
person
24. storied: old and valuable
25. Urn: container that can be
used to hold the ashes of a
dead person
26. animated: lifelike
27. Mansion: big house
28. fleeting: lasting for a short
time
29. Flatt'ry: (flattery) insincere
praise
30. sooth: make calm
31. Spot: place
32. pregnant with: full of
33.Hands ... Lyre: this person
might have been an empe-
ror who held (sway'd) a
sceptre (Rod of Empire) in
his hand or played the lyre
beautifully
34.But... unroll: they never
had the chance to open
(unroll) and study the
books that contained
all the knowledge
gathered throughout
history (ample Page
Rich with the Spoils
of Time)
35. Chill Penury: cold
poverty
36. Rage: burning
ambition, energy
37. genial Current of the
Soul: talent, artistic
sensibilities and
abilities
38. Full many a Gem:
many precious stones
like diamonds
39. of purest Ray serene:
transparent (serene:
clear), of the highest
quality
40. unfathom'd:
mysterious, so far
down in the sea that
they have never been
seen
41. bear: hold
42. blush: blossom,
bloom
43. desart: desert
COMPREHENSION
1 Who does 'them' refer to in line 1 ?
2 Which adjectives would you use to describe the lives
of the people buried in the graveyard? (Second stanza)
Simple Outdoor Rural
Sophisticated Wealthy Happy
II Physical Intellectual
3 According to the poet in the third stanza, what
should Ambition and Grandeur not do?
4 Which of the following statements corresponds to
the view expressed by the poet in the fourth stanza?
Death, the great leveller, does not respect ancestry,
power, beauty or wealth.
Power, beauty, ancestry and wealth can make life
better and death more comfortable.
Death can take people away but it cannot remove
the memory left by their beauty, power, ancestry or
wealth.
5 Who are the 'Proud' referred to by the poet in the
fifth stanza? Are they buried inside the church or
outside in the graveyard? How do their tombs differ
from those of the humble villagers?
6 In the sixth stanza the poet gives two examples of the
trophies mentioned in the previous stanza. What are
they?
7 What is the 'Mansion' of 'fleeting Breath' in line 22?
8 In lines 23-24 the poet asks if the honours and
flattery that important people have received during
their lifetime can help them after they have died.
Does the poet know the answer to this question?
9 In the seventh stanza the poet says that the people
buried in the graveyard may have had talents or
qualities that they never exploited. He uses three
metaphors* to indicate them.
Link each metaphor to the talent or quality it refers to.
Metaphor Talent/quality
Heart once pregnant wi th
celestial Fire
Hands that the Rod of
Empire mi ght have sway'd
(Hands that) wak'd to
Exstacy the living Lyre
great statesmanship
musical genius
poetic inspiration
l O Two factors, according to the poet in the eighth
stanza, stopped the people buried in the graveyard
from realising their full potential. What are they?
ANALYSIS
1 In the first stanza the poet presents images of
simple rural life. Say which senses they appeal to
(S =Sight, H =Hearing, T =Touch).
I I blazing Hearth shall burn
] Housewife ply her Evening Care
[ | Children run to lisp
1 | the envied Kiss to share
2 In the third, fourth and fifth stanzas the poet
reflects on the humble lives of rural workers and the
more sophisticated lives of prominent men of society.
a. Which social group do these expressions refer to?
useful Toil Ambition homely Joys
Destiny obscure Grandeur
Boast of Heraldry Beauty Wealth
b. The poet seems to be defending the humble life of
rural workers. From whom and what?
3 Personification* is widely used throughout the
poem. Give a line reference for the personification for
each of items in the table below:
abstract
ideas
inanimate
objects
natural
elements
ambition:
grandeur:
memory:
honour:
flattery:
knowledge:
death:
storied urn:
bust:
dust:
the woods:
4 Find two examples of rhetorical questions* in the
extract from the poem.
If the ideas had been formulated in statements rather
than questions would they have been as effective?
5 Focus on the two metaphors in the final stanza.
How would you interpret them?
People have many different types of talent.
Talent often goes unnoticed.
Great talent is of no use to the dead.
The world of nature is more beautiful that anything
man can produce.
Do you find them both equally effective?
6 The poet often changes the normal word order of
a sentence.
For example, the normal word order of:
Oft did the Harvest to thei r Sickle yield
would be:
The harvest often yielded to their sickle
Find other examples of unusual word order in the poem.
7 Alliteration* is one of the elements that adds
musicality to the poem. Find some examples.
8 Define the rhyming scheme. Is it regular throughout?
9 How would you define the rhythm* of the poem?
Regular jerky
Slow-moving Fast-moving
Measured
"lO Would you consider the structure of the poem to
be carefully planned or spontaneous? justify your
answer.
11 As a person of culture and 'knowledge', the poet
is clearly not like the people who are buried in the
graveyard. Do you think that he identifies himself
with the other people he refers to in the poem
(Ambition, Grandeur, Proud)? How would you
describe the poet?
t Melancholy Solitary
Gregarious Light-hearted
Reflective Satirical
Isolated Optimistic
Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard - Thomas Gray 31
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
In synecdoche (Greek for 'faking together') a part of something is used to signify the
whole or vice versa, although this latter form is quite rare. An example of synecdoche
from everyday speech can be found in the proverb 'Many hands make light work',
where the expression 'many hands' means 'the labour of many people'.
An example of the whole representing a part can be found in expressions such as 'Put
some Deep Purple on the CD player', where the name of the band is used to signify one
of their CDs.
Synecdoche can be effecti ve in drawing someone's attenti on to one parti cul arl y
interesting aspect of what you are talking about.
In the fifth stanza of Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, Thomas Gray uses synecdoche to
represent a church. Can you identify the parts that represent the whole?
Use synecdoche to represent the following:
school a doctor an animal (dog, cat, elephant, etc.)
a car a policeman each of the seasons
One of the themes in Gray's poem is that many ambitious and talented people never succeed in fulfilling their
dreams because they are too poor ('Chill Penury repress'd their noble Rage').
Does the amount of money a person has limit what he can achieve in today's world?
Does money play an important part in becoming one of the following?
A leading politician A top sports person A top actor, actress or singer
A leading scientist A top lawyer A university professor
Are there any other fields where you think money can make the difference between being successful or not?
Synecdoche
P
\ i 32 THE PURI TAN AGE - Poetry
BBB
SBl l l
I I Hi Si

h
ggf
1 i
THOMAS GRAY
(1716- 1771)
WRITERS' GALLERY
Thomas Gray was born i
L ondon to a prosperou
mi ddl e-cl ass fami l y. Educated fi rst at Eton, he went on to
Cambri dge, where he became friends wi th Horace Walpole, th
son of the Pri me Mi ni ster. From 1739 to 1741 he travel l e
around Europe wi th Wal pol e, but whi l e i n I tal y the two
quarrel l ed and Gray returned home al one. That same year h'
father and hi s close friend Richard West died, and Gray return
to live for a ti me wi th hi s mother in the smal l vi l l age of Stoke
Poges in Bucki nghamshi re. Whi l e there he wrote the Sonnet o~
the Death of Richard West, his Ode on Adversity and the unfi ni shed
Hymn to Ignorance. After thi s peri od of recl usi on he returned to
Cambri dge, where he graduated i n Law i n 1743 and was
reconci l ed wi th Wal pol e. He was then appoi nted Professor of
Modern History at Cambridge, where he died in 1771.
WORKS
In 1750 Gray sent Wal pol e a manuscri pt of hi s most cel ebrated
poem Elegy Written in a Conntry Churchyard. It was publ i shed i n
1751 to great accl ai m, maki ng Gray one of the most celebrated poets of the ti me. I n his poem Gray
descri bes the smal l village graveyard of Stoke Poges, where the poet muses about the lives of the
villagers who lie buri ed there and contempl ates mortal i ty and human potenti al . At the end of the
poem he consi ders hi s own death and wonders if in some way hi s art wi l l grant hi m a form of
immortality. Little material was to follow his great poeti c masterpiece: a small col l ecti on of six poems
in 1753 and hi s two Pi ndari c odes, The Bard and Progress of Poesy i n 1757. He then started doi ng
research for a history of English poetry whi ch he i ntended to write. He also travelled around Scotl and
and England recording his impressions in letters, whi ch reveal his great interest in anci ent Celtic and
Norse poetry and hi s love of nature. I n 1768 he publ i shed Poems, whi ch i ncl uded hi s i mi tati ons of
Cel ti c and Norse verse, such as The Fatal Sisters and The Descent of Odin (1761), whi ch reawakened
interest in anci ent northern European mythol ogy.
Reputation Gray's beauti ful l y-wri tten verses, whi ch reveal a shift from neocl assi cal rati onal i ty to
i ntrospecti on and senti mental i ty, greatly i nfl uenced a new generati on of poets that emerged at the
end of the century. As a matter of fact, the gl oomy mel anchol y and medi tati ve qual i ty of Elegy
Written in a Country Churchyard were new i n the neocl assi cal peri od. It struck a chord wi th other
writers, who began to write in a similar style and became known as the 'Graveyard poets'.
TASK
Correct the following sentences.
a. Thomas Gray was largely self-educated as he
was born into a poor family.
b. He never left the little village of Stoke Poges
where he was born.
c. His most celebrated poem is a sonnet written to
mourn the death of his dear friend Richard West.
d. He never achieved great popularity in his own
lifetime.
e. He was fascinated by Greek mythology.
f. The themes of his masterpiece, Elegy Written in
a Country Churchyard, are love and pain of
separation.
ama in
The Way of the World
by William Congreve
Living wi th other peopl e is not al ways easy because every i ndi vi dual has habi ts and ways of doi ng thi ngs that
other peopl e may not like.
I magi ne that you have deci ded to go and live wi th another person for a l ong peri od. Draw up a list of rules that
you insist your partner must respect if your life together is to work out. For exampl e:
Wash the dishes straight after eating.
Wear earphones when listening to music.
INTRODUCTION When peopl e went to the theatre i n the second hal f of the seventeenth century
they wanted to have a l augh and be amused. Those who went to see The Way of the World were certai nl y
not di sappoi nted. Bri l l i ant di al ogue and an i ngeni ous if compl i cated pl ot kept the audi ence on the edge
of thei r seats. Yet Congreve did not wri te onl y to entertai n, and many of those who were amused by hi s
pl ays were real l y l aughi ng at themsel ves and the faul ts of thei r soci ety that he sati ri sed so accuratel y
( Vi sual Li nk D5).
THE STORY
Mirabell wants to marry Millamant but her aunt, Lady Wishfort, will not give her consent.
While Mirabell tries to convince Lady Wishfort to change her mind, a number of people do all
they can toprevent the marriage. In theend, all objections are overruled and the lovers marry.
Any More Conditions?
Millamant and Mirabell are talking about what their lives will be like if they get married,
and Millamant sets out some conditions that she would like Mirabell to respect.
Act 4, Scene 1
(...)
MI LLAMANT: (...) I 'll lie a-bed
1
in a morni ng as l ong as I please.
MI RABELL: Then I'll get up in a morni ng as early as I please.
MILLAMANT: Ah, idle creature
2
, get up when you will
3
- and d'ye
4
hear. I won't
be called names after I 'm married; positively
5
I won't be called names.
MI RABELL: Names! 5
MI LLAMANT: Ay, as
6
wife, spouse, my dear, joy, jewel, love, sweetheart and
the rest of that nauseous cant
7
in whi ch men and thei r wi ves are so
fulsomely
8
familiar; I shall never bear
9
that - Good Mirabell, don't let us
be familiar or fond
10
, nor kiss before folks, like my Lady Fadler and Sir
Francis; nor go to Hyde Park together the first Sunday in a new chari ot
11
, 10
to provoke eyes and whi spers
12
, and then never to be seen there
together again, as if we were proud of one another the first week, and
Text D 8
GLOSSARY
1. I'll liea-bed: I will stay in
bed
2. idlecreature: lazy person
3. will: want
4. d'ye: do you
5. positively: absolutely
Q
CHARACTERS
Mirabell, a man
Millamant, a
woman
Lady Wishfort,
Millamant's aunt
6. Ay, as: Yes, like
7. nauseous cant:
insinceretalk
8. fulsomely:
excessively
9. bear: accept, stand
10. don't let... or fond:
let us not behavein
an affectionateway
11. chariot: carriage
12. whispers: words
spoken quietly
, , 34 THE RESTORATION AGE - Drama
Mariage la Mode
(1743) by William
Hogarth.
ashamed of one another for ever after. Let us
never visit together, nor go to a play together,
but let us be very strange
13
and well-bred
14
; but 15
let us be strange as if we had been married a
great while, and as well-bred as if we were not
married at all.
MI RA BELL: Have you any more conditions to offer?
Hitherto
15
your demands are pretty reasonable. 20
MI L L A MA N T: Tri fl es
16
. - As
17
l i berty to pay and
receive visits to and from whom I please; to
write and receive letters without interrogatories
or wry faces
18
on your part. To wear what I
please, and choose conversati on with regard 25
only to my own taste
19
; to have no obligation
upon me to converse with wi ts
20
that I don't
like, because they are your acquaintance
21
, or to
be intimate with fools
22
, because they may be
your relations
23
. Come to dinner when I please; 30
di ne in my dressing room when I 'm out of
humour
24
, without giving a reason. To have my
closet
25
inviolate; to be sole empress of my tea-
tabl e
26
, whi ch you must never presume to
approach without first asking leave
27
. And lastly, 35
wherever I am, you shall always knock at the
door before you come i n. These arti cl es
subscribed
28
, if I continue to endure
29
you a little
longer, I may by degrees
30
dwindle into
31
a wife.
13. strange: detached
14. well-bred: polite
15.Hitherto: up to now
16. Trifles: things of little
importance
17. As: Like
18. wry faces: expressions

showing displeasure
19. to my own taste: that I like
20. wits: intelligent people
21.acquaintance: person you
know
22. intimate with fools: friendly
with stupid people
23. relations: family members
24. out of humour: in abad
mood
25.closet: private room
26.be sole ... tea-table: beleft
alone when I am having
tea
27. asking leave: asking for
permission
28. subscribed: accepted
29. endure: tolerate
30. by degrees: gradually
31. dwindle into: become
(diminishing myself)
COMPREHENSION
1 What are Mirabell and Millamant discussing?
2 In her speech Millamant makes a list of conditions. Find examples in the text of the following:
Things ...
- she and her husband should not do together;
- she should be free to do;
- she should not be obliged to do;
- her husband should not do;
- her husband should do.
3 How does Mirabell react to Millamant's requests?
The Way of the World - William Congreve
ANALYSIS
-
1 Which of the following adjectives would you use to
describe Millamant? Justify your choices.
Determined Dependent
Sweet Nonconformist
Outspoken Domineering
Humorous Honest
Other:
2 In her speech Millamant paints a picture of a
typical upper-class marriage (the type of marriage she
rejects) in the second half of the seventeenth century.
Was the institution of marriage at that time based on
true emotions or social conventions? Support your
answer by referring to the text.
3 How were women treated in the type of marriage
Millamant rejects? Were they considered equal or
inferior to their husbands? Refer to the text.
4 Mirabell and Millamant have strong feelings for
each other and decide to marry at the end of the
play. In her speech do you think that Millamant is
showing the selfish, domineering side of her nature,
or is she simply being brutally honest with the man
she loves?
5 Which adjectives would you choose to describe the
language used by the two characters?
Colloquial Conversational
Formal Intimate
Educated Refined
Sophisticated
Other:
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
The term 'wit' was originally used to refer to intelligence or inventiveness. In the six-
teenth and seventeenth century it came to be used to i ndi cate i ngenui ty in literary
invention and it was frequently used to describe the brilliant and surprising imagery of
the metaphysical poets ( p. C94). In the second half of the seventeenth century the
term 'wit' became associated with humour. It was used to refer to the humorous lin-
guistic i nventi on and wordplay whi ch characteri sed the comi c style of Restorati on
dramatists. It has maintained this meani ng to the present day.
An example of wordplay can be seen in Congreve's choi ce of names for his characters.
Each character is called after a particular personality trait. This form of character nam-
ing already existed in Morality plays ( p. B47), but Congreve uses it not for didactic
purposes, but for comi c effect.
The following is a list of names of the characters in The Way of the World. Match each name
to a corresponding definition.
Mirabell a person who has a thousand lovers
Millamant a very wilful person
Witwould a man who looks at all the beautiful women he sees
Wilfull a person who would like to be intelligent but is not
Fainall a person who wants something desperately
Wishfort a person who is false
Use the same technique to make up names for famous people or people that you and your
classmates know.
Miss Everlate somebody who always arrives late
Mr Enormouth somebody who never stops talking
Mrs Lookame somebody who likes attention
OVER TO YOU
J?
36 THE RESTORATION AGE - Drama
Dialogue-
driven plays
OVER TO YOU
ST A C I N C T H E P L A Y
In a play such as The Way of the World the action, i.e. what the characters do, is of limited
importance. Most of the events of the play take place in genteel drawing rooms and consist
of characters speaking to each other. When producing dialogue-driven plays where there is
little physical action, a director must find alternative ways of holding the audience's
attention. He must highlight the play's strengths which, in the case of Congreve's work, is
the sparkling dialogue, but also add elements which the audience will find visually
appealing. He must, however, make sure that any additions do not detract from the original
spirit of the play.
Read the review of a modern staging of The Way of the World. Make a list of the innovations
the director used to make the play more visually appealing to his audience.
Giles Havergal's production of
Congreve's great comedy is reduced to a
playing time of two and three-quarter
hours. This deprives us of a number of
pleasant lines, but also sharpens up the
plot mechanism, which in the first half
of the evening can sometimes be slowed
down by the wit. The best of the wit is
amplified by Sue Blane's black-and-
white set, scribbled over
1
in seventeenth-
century handwriting wherever there's
room.
When the lights go up, there is a table,
centre, covered with legal documents and
sunounded by three young men dressed
in formal present-day clothes and black
lawyer's gowns. Principally they are
employed as scene-shifters
2
, but
sometimes take an active part in the
business; for example, when Mirabell
and Millamant have agreed to exchange
a marriage contract, one of them
produces the document and hands it over.
Millamant's acceptance of Mirabell's
marriage proposal is beautifully done
by Paola Dionisotti, her final promise to
'dwindle into a wife' spoken with a
proper understanding of the consciously
artificial words. This feeling of
collaboration with the audience is one
of the prettier characteristics of a pretty
mise-en-scene
3
, with dialogues some-
times spoken to the spectators rather
than the characters on the stage, and
offstage people kept visible by placing
them into niches
4
on either side of the
stage, where they can show us what they
think of what is going on. Rupert
Frazer's Mirabell is inclined to freeze
into the attitudes of a tailor's dummy ,
but they are graceful attitudes and
reinforce the grace of his dialogue.
Review by B. A Young, FINANCIAL TIMES,
16March, 1984
(adapted and abridged)
1. scribbled over: written hastily
and carelessly
2. scene-shifters: people who
move scenery and props
3. mise-en-scene: staging
4. niches: secluded spaces
5. tailor's dummy: an object
made to look likeareal person
for fitting clothes
Work in groups. Imagine you have to stage the scene from TheWay of the World you have read.
What would you do to make it visually appealing? Make notes under the following
headings:
Setting (for example: seventeenth century or some other historical period?)
Costumes
Lighting
Stage scenery/ props
In a humorous way, Mirabell and Millamant are saying that a successful marriage needs careful planning. On a
scale from 0 (not important) to 10 (very important), say how important the following factors are in helping to
make a marriage a success.
- Come from the same town: _ Have the same hobbies and interests:
- Come from the same social background: - Like the same kinds of food:
- Come from the same religious background: - Have the same level of education:
- Have the same skin colour:
Writers' Gallery - William Congreve
WRITERS' GALLERY
Al though he was born in
Engl and, Wi l l i am Congreve
was educated in Ireland, where his father had been posted by the
army. He attended a prestigious grammar school and then he
received his Master of Arts at Trinity College, Dublin.
Congreve started writing at a very young age. While still in his teens
he wrote a novel which won him the respect of many influential
literary figures and allowed hi m to have his first play, The Old
Bachelor (1693), performed at the Drury Lane Theatre in London. It
was an immediate success, runni ng for the then unprecedented
length of two weeks. His next play, TheDouble Dealer, although now
consi dered an i mprovement on his first work, was not so well
received by the critics or audiences of the day.
Al though for Love (1695) and the tragedy The Mourning Bride
(1697) were successes. The Way of the World (1700), later considered to be Congreve's masterpiece,
was coolly received by the public and critics. Disappointed by the negative response, Congreve gave
up pl aywri ti ng at the earl y age of thi rty. He spent the rest of his life hol di ng some mi nor
government posi ti ons and writing occasi onal poetry and l i brettos for several operas. He also
translated the French playwright Moliere's Monsieur de Pourceaugnac. He was a very popular man and
throughout his life was highly respected by other eminent literary figures. This allowed him to live
mostly on his reputation and royalties from his plays. He died in 1729 in a carriage accident and was
buried in the Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey.
WI L L I AM CONGREVE
(1670- 1729)
WORKS
Wi l l i am Congreve was a true master of comedy. He drew
inspiration from a world he knew well: the fashionable, licentious
and often amoral court of Charles II.
Unlike other writers of the time, he did not create characters that were gross or farcical. His characters
were refined men and women who talked wittily and displayed quick brains and a sharp sense of
humour. Mi l l amant in The Way of the World is a perfect exampl e of Congreve's art: she is an
exquisitely well-drawn character, a lady of fashion who displays her intelligence, humour and heart
through her brilliant speeches. Congreve's work is witty and amusing but it also has a serious side. In
The Double Dealer, Love For Love and particularly in The Way of the World, he criticises the class to
which the play is addressed, accusing it of having lost the true value of love and replaced it with
sexual excess. One of the reasons for the lack of success of The Way of the World may indeed have been
that the theatre audience had gradually become aware that they were laughing at themselves.
TASK
a. How old was Congreve when he started his
literary career?
b. Which one of his plays is considered to be his
masterpiece?
c. Why were Congreve's characters different from
those commonly found in contemporary plays?
d. What are the main themes in Congreve's plays?
e. Which of the following describe Congreve's
dialogues?
Witty Moralistic
Clever Entertaining
Everyday Intelligent
Brilliant Philosophical
She Stoops to Conquer
by Oliver Goldsmith
Misunderstandings can sometimes be tragic but are often comic. The humour in many funny scenes in novels, plays
and films is based on one or more of the characters misunderstanding a situation. Complete the following task.
Richard meets Elaine at a disco and invites her out. They arrange to meet in a pub the following evening. When he
walks into the pub he sits down beside a woman he thinks is Elaine. She looks and is dressed very like her but she
is a completely different person. Complete the following dialogue.
RICHARD: Hi, have you been waiting l ong?
Ms X: Sorry?
RICHARD: Ah! Come on! Where would you like to go for di nner?
INTRODUCTION Gol dsmi th believed that theatregoers wanted to be amused. Many of the plays that
were written by his contemporaries were sentimental comedies, whi ch he thought were over-sentimental.
In She Stoops to Conquer, his most successful play, there is very little senti ment but a lot of comedy.
SHE
A COMEDY
THE STORY
Sir Charles Marlow and his friend Hardcastle arrange a marriage between their children,
Marlow and Miss Hardcastle. On his way tovisit thegirl, theyoung man asks some local peo-
ple if they can recommend an inn wherehecan spend thenight. TomLumpkin decides to have
some fun and tells himthat theHardcastle house is thebest inn in thearea. So, when hegets
there, he thinks that Hardcastle is the landlord of the inn ( Text D9) and that Miss
Hardcastle is a maid who is working there. This misunderstanding gives risetomany amusing
situations until Marlow eventually
STOOPS TO CONQUER;
I N FI VE ACTS.BY OLI VER GOLDSMI TH.
realises his mistake. Miss Hardcastle,
who has met Marlow both as herself
and as a maid, is sure that he loves
her, and so thecouplemarry.
The title page
from an edition
of She Stoops
to Conquer.
Note: The title of the play refers to the
fact that Miss Hardcastle pretends to
be from a lower social class to see if
she loves Marlow and if he loves her.
She 'Stoops', i.e. goes down the social
scale, to 'Conquer', i.e. win hi s love.
CHARACTERS
Hardcastle
Miss Hardcastle, his
daughter
Sir Charles Marlow
Marlow, his son
Tom Lumpkin, Miss
Hardcastle's cousin
She Stoops to Conquer - Oliver Goldsmith 206
You cannot be serious Text D9
Marlow thinks that Hardcastle's house is an inn, so he has ordered his servants to drink
as much as they want, believing that the landlord will be happy at making a lot of
money on beer. Hardcastle, however, believes that Marlow, who he correctly thinks is the
son of his friend Sir Charles Marlow and a welcome guest in his home, is abusing his
hospitality.
(Act IV)
[Enter HARDCASTLE.]
(. . . )
HARDCASTLE: (...) But, though I say nothing to
1
your own conduct, that of
your servants is insufferable. Their manner of drinking is setting a very
bad example in the house, I assure you.
MARLOW: I protest, my very good sir, that's no fault of mine. If they don't
drink as they ought they are to blame. I ordered them not to spare the 5
cellar
2
.1 did, I assure you. (To the side scene.) Here let one of my servants
come up. (To him.) My positive directions were, that as I did not drink
myself, they should make up for my deficiencies
3
below
4
.
HARDCASTLE: Then they had your orders for what they do! I'm satisfied
5
!
MARLOW: They had, I assure you. You shall hear from one of themselves. 10
[Enter SERVANT drunk.]
You, J eremy! Come forward, sirrah
6
! What were my orders? Were you
not told to drink freely, and call for what you thought fit
7
, for the good
of the house?
HARDCASTLE: [Aside) I begin to lose my patience. 15
J EREMY: Please your honour, liberty and Fleet Street
8
for ever! Though I 'm
but a servant, I 'm as good as another man. I'll drink for no man before
supper, sir, dammy
9
! Good liquor will sit upon a good supper, but a
good supper will not sit upon - hiccup
10
- my conscience, sir.
MARLOW: You see, my old friend, the fellow is as drunk as he can possibly 20
be. I don't know what you'd have more, unless you'd have the poor
devil soused in a beer-barrel
11
.
HARDCASTLE: Zounds!
12
He'll drive me distracted
13
if I contain
14
myself any
longer. Mr. Marlow, sir; I have submitted to your i nsol ence for more
than four hours, and I see no likelihood
15
of its coming to an end. I 'm 25
now resolved to be master here, sir, and I desire that you and your
drunken pack
16
may leave my house directly.
MARLOW: Leave your house! - Sure, you jest
17
, my good friend! What,
when I'm doing what I can to please you!
HARDCASTLE: I tell you, sir, you don't please me; so I desire you'll leave my 30
house.
MARLOW: Sure, you cannot be serious! At this time of night, and such a
night! You only mean to banter me
18
!
HARDCASTL'E: I tell you sir, I 'm serious; and, now that my passi ons are
roused
19
, I say thi s house is mi ne, and I command you to l eave it 35
directly.
Q
GLOSSARY
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
9.
to: about
not to spare the
cellar: drink as much
as they wanted to
make up for my
deficiencies:
compensate for the
fact that I do not
drink
below: downstairs,
where the servants
live
I'm satisfied: Now I
have proof of what I
suspected
sirrah!: Sir! (said in
an arrogant way)
fit: appropriate
Fleet Street: street in
London where there
were over thirty
taverns
dammy: (damn me):
an exclamation
which expresses anger
or annoyance
10. hiccup: involuntary
sound that shows
that he has drunk too
much
11. soused in a beer-
barrel: put into a
container full of beer
so that he is
completely wet
12. Zounds!: exclamation
expressing
indignation
13. distracted: mad
14. contain: control
15. likelihood:
probability
16. pack: group of wild
animals
17. you jest: you are
joking
18. banter me: make fun
of me
19. my passions are
roused: I am angry
40 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction
20. A puddle in a storm:
apuddleis a small
pool of water. During
astorm apuddleis
insignificant. Marlow
is saying that heis
not afraid of
Hardcastle
21.stir: move
22. bid: order
23.confound me ... did:
I certainly never did
(in an angry tone)
24.banteri ng: in ajoking
tone
25. brazen-nosed
bellows: bellows are
used to blow air into
afire. Thetop of this
bellows is made of
brass
26. take afancy to: like,
want to have
27. Rake's Progress: set
of engravings by the
English artist William
Hogarth (1697-1764)
28. slumbers: sleep
29. hearty: big
30. well-bred: well
brought up
31.coxcomb: stupid
man who spends too
much time and
money on his clothes
and appearance
32. bully: someone who
uses strength or
power to frighten and
intimidate weaker
people
33. presently: soon

MA RL OW: Ha! ha! ha! A puddle in a storm
20
.1 shan't stir
21
a step, I assure
you. (In a serious tone.) This your house, fellow! It's my house. This is my
house. Mine, while I choose to stay. What right have you to bi d
22
me
leave this house, sir? I never met with such impudence, curse me, never 40
in my whole life before!
HARDCASTLE: Nor I , confound me if I ever did
23
! To come to my house, to
call for what he likes, to turn me out of my own chair, to insult the
family, to order his servants to get drunk, and then to tell me This house
is mine, sir. By all that's impudent, it makes me laugh. Ha! ha! ha! Pray, 45
sir, (bantering
24
) as you take the house, what think you of taking the rest
of the furniture? There's a pair of silver candlesticks, and there's a fire-
screen, and here's a pair of brazen-nosed bellows
25
, perhaps you may
take a fancy to
26
them?
MA RL OW: Bring me your bill, sir, bring me your bill, and let's make no more so
words about it.
HA RDCA STL E: There are a set of prints, too. What thi nk you of the Rake's
Progress
27
for your own apartment?
M A RL OW: Bring me your bill, I say; and I'll leave you and your infernal
house directly. 55
HARDCASTLE: Then there's a mahogany table, that you may see your face in.
MA RL OW: My bill, I say.
HARDCASTLE: I had forgot the great chair, for your own particular slumbers
28
,
after a hearty
29
meal.
MA RL OW: Zounds! Bring me my bill, I say, and let's hear no more on it. 60
HARDCASTLE: Young man, young man, from your father's letter to me, I was
taught to expect a well-bred
30
modest man, as a visitor here, but now I
find no better than a coxcomb
31
and a bully
32
; but he will be down here
presently
33
, and shall hear more of it.
[Exit.]
COMPREHENSION
1 What does Hardcastle complain to Marlow about
in the opening lines of the scene?
2 Does Marlow think that Hardcastle is angry because:
the servants are drinking too much?
the servants are drinking too little?
3 Marlow's servant, Jeremy, starts a saying but
does not finish it (lines 18-19). Can you guess how
the saying should finish? Is what Jeremy says
coherent?
4 What course of action does Hardcastle choose to take?
5 What is Marlow's initial reaction to Hardcastle's
suggestion that he should leave the house?
6 Why does Marlow claim that the house is his?
(Lines 38-39)
7 What sarcastic suggestion does Hardcastle make
when Marlow says that the house is his?
8 Does Hardcastle listen to what Marlow is saying in
the final lines of the scene?
9 In his last statement Hardcastle indirectly reveals his
true identity to Marlow. How?
She Stoops to Conquer - Oliver Goldsmith 41
ANALYSIS
1 What information does the audience have that:
- Hardcastle does not? - Marlow does not?
How does having more information affect the
audience's response to the play?
It makes it easier to understand.
It creates tension among the audience.
It allows them to see the humour in the situation.
It gives them a deeper insight into the psychology
of the characters.
2 In the sentences below, Hardcastle expresses his
feelings of annoyance with the behaviour of Marlow's
servants.
a. Put them in order from the expression of least to
the expression of most annoyance.
I ] Now that my passions are roused (...)
I command you to leave it directly.
I say nothing to your own conduct, that of
your servants is insufferable.
I He'll drive me distracted if I contain myself any
longer.
I I I desire that you and your drunken pack may
leave my house directly.
I I I begin to lose my patience.
b. Find the line reference for each statement in the
text. As the scene develops, does Hardcastle's
anger increase or diminish?
3 In lines 45^18 Hardcastle seems to have reached
the climax* of his anger. As the scene proceeds how
does he channel his emotions?
By taking physical action against Marlow.
By verbally abusing Marlow.
By making Marlow the target of his sarcasm.
4 Focus on the character of Marlow.
a. How would you describe his attitude towards
Hardcastle, whom he believes to be an inn-keeper,
and Jeremy, his servant?
Respectful Condescending
Patronising Apologetic
Detached Rude
b. Marlow's attitude towards those he considers to be
of lower social rank (Jeremy, Hardcastle as the inn-
keeper and Kate as a barmaid) would have been
perfectly acceptable to an eighteenth-century
audience. Would a modern audience view his
behaviour in the same way?
5 One of the comic elements of the scene is created
by the lack of communication between Hardcastle
and Marlow. At what point in the scene does it
become clear that the two characters are not really
listening to each other?
6 Underline expressions that are repeated in the
passage. What purpose does repetition serve?
It makes the language more poetic.
It intensifies the humour by adding a crescendo
effect.
It helps the audience to follow the plot.
It underlines key concepts that are essential to the
understanding of the themes of the play.
STAC INC THE PLAY
Farce Farce is a type of comedy desi gned si mpl y to make an audi ence l augh. Typi cal
ingredients of farce include ludicrous plots, deception, mistaken identity, discovery,
coi nci dence, mi sunderstandi ng, cari cature, type characters, verbal humour and
physi cal horseplay. Farce is one of the oldest and most popular forms of theatre.
Farcical elements can be found in the ritual celebrations and theatre of ancient Greece,
the plays of the Roman writers Plautus and Terence, medieval Moral i ty plays, the
Commedia deU'arte, Moliere, Charlie Chaplin and today in the films of J i m Carrey and
Woody Allen. It is also a major ingredient in many television sitcoms.
Farce is often referred to as 'low comedy' because it does not require intellectualism or
literary sensitivity of the audience. Paradoxically, however, this 'low' form of comedy
can be extremely demanding and challenging for the actors and the director.
THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Drama
OVER TO YOU 1 The scene from She Stoops to Conquer that you have just read contains the following
farcical elements:
the type character: Jeremy, the drunken servant;
misunderstanding: between Hardcastle and Marlow.
How would you deal with these farcical elements of the play? Answer these questions.
a. How should the actor playing Jeremy deliver his lines? Practise saying the lines in a
'drunken state'.
b. When Marlow calls him to the front of the stage how should he walk?
c. How should he look (clothes, stage make-up)?
When you have discussed these issues prepare a short performance of lines 12-19.
2 Focus on the section from line 42 to the end of the scene. An outraged and sarcastic
Hardcastle is no longer listening to an increasingly irritated Marlow, who is asking for the bill.
a. Should the actor playing Hardcastle move or stand still as he makes Marlow the butt of
his sarcastic jokes? If you think he should move, describe his movements. In what tone
should he deliver his lines?
b. Should each of Marlow's requests for the bill be delivered in the same tone? How should
the actor show Marlow's growing impatience?
c. Consider the timing of the section. Should there be long gaps between Hardcastle's lines
or should they be delivered as a single speech? Should Hardcastle's lines drown out
Marlow's request for the bill?
When you have discussed these points, apply your ideas to a performance of this part of the
text.
The scene you have read is funny because Hardcastle and Marlow are victims of a misunderstanding. Think of a
situation, from your own experience or from a book or film, in which the humour was based on a
misunderstanding. Complete the details below.
People involved:
Where:
Misunderstanding:
What happened:
Writers' Gallery - Oliver Goldsmith 43
WRITERS' GALLERY
Oliver Goldsmith was born in
the west of Ireland, the son of
a poor cl ergyman. He entered Tri ni ty Col l ege in Dubl i n as a
schol arshi p student and had to do a series of meni al jobs,
including selling street ballads and waiting tables, to finance his
studies. In 1750 he tried to enter the Church, but his request for
ordi nati on was refused. He went to Edi nburgh to study
medicine, and then spent a few months at the Dutch university
of Leyden before setti ng off on a journey whi ch took hi m to
France, Switzerland and Italy. He made a meagre living playing
Irish tunes on the flute, and often depended on food distributed
at convent gates to survive.
In 1756 he arrived destitute in London, where he unsuccessfully
attempted a career in medicine. He found work as a hack writer,
reviewer and translator and worked for several periodicals. He wrote his Chinese Letters - later re-
published as The Citizen of the World, (1762) - a series of satirical essays describing English life
through the eyes of a Chinese visitor. He became friends with the influential critic and writer Samuel
J ohnson ( p. D104) and began to mix in literary circles. He was, however, notorious for spending
money in gambling and drinking, and his financial state was constantly precarious.
In 1768 he wrote his first play - The Good Natur'd Man - which, after initial rejection, was performed
at Covent Garden to moderate success. His theatrical masterpiece, She Stoops to Conquer, whi ch
followed, was well-received by the critics and immensely popular with the public. Between these two
plays he published his best-known poem, The Deserted Village, which draws in part on his childhood
memories of Ireland.
Despite his success as a writer, his inability to handl e his fi nances often led hi m to the brink of
bankruptcy, and in fact he died in poverty in 1774.
OLIVER GOLDSMITH
(1730- 1774)
WORKS
Oliver Goldsmith was often in desperate need of money, so much
of his writing was done in haste and is of inferior quality. He did,
however, write three remarkable works:
A novel, The Vicar of Wakefield (1766), which is still widely read. It tells the story of the kindly
reverend Dr Primrose, whose strong faith in God and belief in the essential goodness of mankind
help him and his family to overcome adversity. The novel is often criticised as overly sentimental
and pedantic. However, it holds an i mportant place in the history of English literature as it is
considered a forerunner of the didactic novels of the nineteenth century.
A poem, The Deserted Village (1770), which inspired the poets of the Romantic period. In the
poem Goldsmith looks back nostalgically to the idyllic pastoral life of the small country village of
Auburn (probably inspired by Goldsmith's childhood village in the west of Ireland).
A play, She Stoops to Conquer (1773), his greatest literary achievement, which continues to be
staged today. Criticising contemporary drama as unimaginative and melodramatic Goldsmith, for
his masterpiece, looked for inspiration to an earlier form of drama, the Comedy of Manners of the
Restoration period ( pp. D96-97). The play's well-structured comi c plot, based on mistaken
identities and likeable characters, made it an instant success with theatre audiences and helped
breathe new life into an art form that was experiencing a particularly colourless period.
TASK
Prepare a brief report on the life and works of Oliver Goldsmith.
COMPREHENSION
1 Why did Robinson decide to keep a written record of his experience?
2 Which is now a stronger force in Robinson: his reason or his sense of hopelessness?
3 Match A and B to reconstruct Robinson's pros and cons.
A B
He is alone on a desert island with little hope
of being found
He is far from the rest of the world
He does not have the company of other men
He has no clothes
He has no means of defence
He has nobody to talk to
but
however
he has been saved from death and may also be
saved from this terrible situation,
the weather is warm so he will not suffer from
cold.
there are no wild beasts that will harm him.
God has helped him to have everything he
needs for his survival,
he is alive.
he will not die of starvation because the island
is fertile.
4 When Robinson has finished making his list, he draws a conclusion about life in general.
Explain it in your own words.
ANALYSIS
1 Focus on the character of Robinson.
a. Find evidence in the text that:
- he is literate: lines
- he has strong religious beliefs: lines
- he believes in the power of reason: lines
- he is familiar with the world of trade and commerce: lines
- he has a practical approach to solving problems: lines
b. Which of the following social categories do you think Robinson most likely belongs to?
Unskilled lower class labourer
Middle class merchant/ professional
Aristocratic gentleman
Give reasons for your choice.
2 In his 'Evil' column, Robinson cites both psychological and material needs,
a. Tick the table below according to which kind of need is expressed.
Evil Psychological Material
I am divided from Mankind, a Solitaire, one banish'd from humane Society.
I have no Clothes to cover me.
I am without any Defence or Means to resist any Violence of Man or Beast
I have no Soul to speak to, or relieve me.
b. Do the same for the 'Good' column of Robinson's list.
Good Psychological Material
But 1 am not starv'd and perishing on a barren Place, affording no Sustenance.
But I am in a hot Climate, where if I had Clothes I would hardly wear them.
But I am cast on an Island, where I see no wild Beasts to hurt me, as I saw
on the Coast of Africa: And what if I had been Shipwreck'd there?
But God wonderfully sent the Ship in near enough to the Shore, that I have
gotten out so many necessary things as will either supply my Wants, or
enable me to supply my self even as long as I live.
Robinson Crusoe - Daniel Defoe 47
c. Does Robinson answer each 'psychological need' with a 'psychological solution'?
Which is more dominant: the practical or the emotional side of Robinson's nature?
3 Robinson's language is characterised by a series of 'balanced couples' which may be repetitions of the same
idea ('Condition, and the Circumstance I was reduc'd to'), or opposites ('good/ evil').
a. Find the missing elements in the following couples.
Reason/ Debtor/
Comforts/ something Negative/
b. Which adjective would you choose to describe the language Robinson uses to express himself?
Balanced Emotional
Confused Precise
Rational Journalistic
Poetic
c. What does Robinson's language reveal about his personality?
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Narrative technique refers to the way a story is told - how the author presents the
reader with the setting, characters, actions and events that make up a work of fiction.
In a first-person narrative the reader sees the event unfold through the eyes of a single
character: the narrator speaks as 'I ' and is himself a character in the story. The reader's
vision of the story or point of view is limited to what the first-person narrator himself
knows, experiences, infers or can find out by talking to other characters.
The first-person narrative is commonly associated with non-fictional literary forms such
as biography, memoirs or diaries. When used in fictional works it lends authenticity,
creating the illusion that the narrator is relating events that he has personally witnessed
or experienced. As the reader 'sees the world through the narrator's eyes', he is often
encouraged to identify and sympathise with the narrator's views.
1 Who is the T of the passage from Robinson Crusoeyou have just read?
Explain why this is an example of first-person narrative.
2 When Daniel Defoe first wrote Robinson Crusoehe presented it to the public as a true
story, not as a work of fiction. How did the narrative technique he chose help him to deceive
his readers?
Using the first-person narrative technique write the opening five to ten lines of a fictional
work that you think would capture the attention of readers.
The English saying 'Every cloud has a silver lining' means that there is something positive about any negative
situation. For example, in the terrible event of someone close to us dying, we often realise how important friends
and relatives are and appreciate them more than we normally would.
Think of a situation where a cloud has a silver lining and tell your classmates about it.
Text D l l
GLOSSARY
Note: theverbal
suffix -ed was often
spelt -'d for example
'sav'd' instead of
'saved'.
1. kept: stayed
2. beckon'd to: gestured
3. Cloaths: clothes
4. stark: completely
5. shew'd: showed
6. Abhorrence: disgust
7. Glass: telescope
8. plainly: clearly
9. takes: took
10.dextrously: skilfully
11.get... Intelligence:
know more
12. chill: cold
13. dreadful: horrible
14. humane: human
15.dy'd: coloured
16.mangl'd and
scorch'd: twisted and
burnt
17. Tokens: signs
18. next King:
neighbouring King
19. Wretches: evil people
20. hither: here
21. Heap: one on top of
the other
22. hankering: hungry
Civilising Friday
Robinson and Friday return to theplace where, theprevious day, Robinson had res
Friday fromhis fellow cannibals.
(...)
I kept
1
there with him all that Night; but as soon as it was Day, I beckon'd
to
2
hi m to come wi th me, and let hi m know, I would give hi m some
Cl oaths
3
, at which he seem'd very glad, for he was stark
4
naked: As we
went by the Place where he had bury'd the two Men, he pointed exactly to
the Place, and shew'd
5
me the Marks that he had made to find them again,
making Signs to me, that we should dig them up again, and eat them; at
this I appear'd very angry, express'd my Abhorrence
6
of it, made as if I
would vomit at the Thoughts of it, and beckon'd with my Hand to him to
come away, which he did immediately, with great Submission. I then led
him up to the Top of the Hill, to see if his Enemies were gone; and pulling
out my Glass
7
, I look'd, and saw plainly
8
the Place where they had been,
but no appearance of them, or of their Canoes; so that it was plain they
were gone, and had left their two Comrades behi nd them, without any
search after them.
But I was not content with this Discovery; but having now more Courage,
and consequently more Curiosity, I takes
9
my Man Friday with me, giving
him the Sword in his Hand, with the Bow and Arrows at his Back, which I
found he could use very dextrously
10
, making him carry one Gun for me,
and I two for my self, and away we march'd to the Place, where these
Creatures had been; for I had a Mind now to get some fuller I ntelligence
11
of them: When I came to the Place, my very Blood ran chill
12
in my Veins,
and my Heart sunk within me, at the Horror of the Spectacle: Indeed it
was a dreadful
13
Si ght, at least it was so to me; though Friday made
nothi ng of it: The Place was cover'd with humane
14
Bones, the Ground
dy'd
15
with thei r Blood, great Pieces of Flesh left here and there, hal f
eaten, mangl 'd and scorch'd
16
; and in short, all the Tokens
17
of the
triumphant Feast they had been making there, after a Victory over their
Enemies; I saw three Skulls, five Hands, and the Bones of three or four Legs
and Feet, and abundance of other Parts of the Bodies; and Friday, by his
Signs, made me understand, that they brought over four Prisoners to feast
upon; that three of them were eaten up, and that he, pointing to himself,
was the fourth: That there had been a great Battle between them, and their
next King
18
, whose Subjects it seems he had been one of; and that they
had taken a great Number of Prisoners, all which were carry'd to several
Places by those that had taken them in the Fight, in order to feast upon
them, as was done here by these Wretches
19
upon those they brought
hither
20
.
I caus'd Friday to gather all the Skulls, Bones, Flesh, and whatever
remain'd, and lay them together on a Heap
21
, and make a great Fire upon
it, and burn them all to Ashes: I found Friday had still a hankeri ng
22
Stomach after some of the Flesh, and was still a Cannibal in his Nature;
but I di scover'd
23
so much Abhorrence at the very
Thoughts of it, and at the least Appearance of it, that he
durst not discover it
24
; for I had by some Means let him
know, that I would kill him if he offer'd
25
it. 45
When we had done this, we came back to our Castle,
and there I fell to work for my Man Friday; and first of
all, I gave hi m a pair of Linnen Drawers
26
, which I had
out of the poor Gunner's Chest
27
I menti on'd, and
whi ch I found in the Wreck
28
; and whi ch with a little 50
Al terati on fi tted hi m very well; then I made hi m a
J erki n
29
of Goat's-skin, as well as my Skill would allow;
and I was now grown a tollerable good Taylor
30
; and I
gave him a Cap, which I had made of a Hare
31
-skin, very
conveni ent, and fashionable enough; and thus he was 55
cl oath'd
32
for the present, tol l erabl y well; and was
mi ghty wel l
33
pl eas'd to see hi msel f al most as well
cloath'd as his Master: It is true, he went awkwardly
34
in
these Thi ngs at first; weari ng the Drawers was very
awkward to hi m, and the Sleeves of the Wastcoat
35
60
gall'd
36
his Shoulders, and the inside of his Arms; but a
little easing them where he complain'd they hurt him, and using himself
37
to them, at length he took to them very well
38
.
The next Day after I came home to my Hutch
39
with hi m, I began to
consider where I should lodge hi m
40
, and that I might do well for hi m,
and yet be perfectly easy
41
my self;
(...)
But I needed none of all thi s Precauti on; for never Man had a more
faithful, loving, sincere Servant, than Friday was to me; without Passions,
Sul l enness
42
or Desi gns
43
, perfectl y obl i g'd and engag'd
44
; his very
Affections were ty'd
45
to me, like those of a Child to a Father; and I dare
say, he woul d have sacri fi c'd his Life for the saving mi ne, upon any
occasion whatsoever; the many Testimonies
46
he gave me of this, put it
out of doubt, and soon convinc'd me, that I needed to use no Precautions,
as to my Safety on his Account
47
.
hnaay snowing nis
submission to Robinson.
23. discover'd: showed
24. he durst not discover it:
he was afraid to say or show
it
25.offer'd: tried
26. Linnen Drawers: linen
underpants
27.Gunner's Chest: on the
ship, Robinson had found
some clothes in a box
(chest) that belonged to
one of his shipmates (the
Gunner)
28. Wreck: the ship
29.Jerkin: sleeveless jacket
30. Taylor: (tailor) aman who
makes clothes
31. Hare: rabbit-like animal
32.cloath'd: dressed
33. mighty well: very
34. awkwardly: uncomfortably
35. Wastcoat: (waistcoat) jacket
36. gall'd: rubbed against and
hurt
37. using himself: getting used
38.at length ... well:
eventually he liked them
39. Hutch: shelter
40. lodge him: find aplace for
himto live
41.be perfectly easy: feel safe
42. Sullenness: silent
displeasure or anger
43. Designs: secret plans
44. oblig'd and engag'd:
grateful and
interested in what he
was doing
45.ty'd: linked
46. Testimonies: examples
47. on his Account:
becauseof him
COMPREHENSION
1 What did Friday think they should do with the two
bodies? How did Robinson react to the idea?
2 What did Robinson find when he returned to the
place where Friday's enemies had been?
3 What had happened, according to Friday?
4 Friday clearly wished to eat some of the hu
remains. What stopped him from doing so?
5 What did Robinson do when he returned to his
shelter?
6 Why did Robinson feel that it was not necessary
protect himself from Friday?
ANALYSIS
1 Focus on the relationship between Robinson and
Friday.
a. Find two incidents in the text where Robinson's
wishes prevail over Friday's.
b. Examine the two episodes involving heavy physical
labour; the carrying of arms and the gathering
and burning of the human remains (lines 38^t0).
Do the two characters share the work equally?
c. Which word in line 9 suggests that the two
characters are not on an equal footing?
d. How does Robinson refer:
to Friday in
-l i ne (16):
- line (68):
- line (70):
to the other natives in
- line (20):
- line (36):
to himself in
- line (58):
- line (70):
e. What does Robinson's use of names reveal about
his attitude towards people that are not of his own
race and culture?
f. How would you define the relationship between
Robinson and Friday?
They show each other mutual respect.
Robinson feels superior to Friday and feels the
need to 'civilise' him.
Robinson is curious about the differences in
culture that emerge.
Friday feels that he owes Robinson a debt of
gratitude for saving his life.
Robinson treats Friday like a slave and has no
consideration for his feelings.
Robinson exploits Friday.
Robinson wishes to protect and educate Friday.
Other:
2 Focus on the descriptive passages in the extract,
from line 24 to line 29 and from line 46 to 63. How
would you define Robinson's descriptions?
Vague
Precise
Detailed
Scientific
Poetic
Verbose
Concise
Other:
3 The two episodes which Robinson describes are
very different. The aftermath of the cannibals' feast is
shocking and extraordinary, while the providing of
clothes for Friday is relatively trivial and mundane.
a. Does Defoe mark the difference between the two
episodes by a change in style or is the same style
used throughout the passage?
b. How would you describe the style used by Defoe?
Emotional
Lyrical
Journalistic
Pseudo-scientific
E Over-elaborate
c. What effect does this style create?
It makes the material seem more convincing.
It involves the reader on an emotional level.
It helps the reader to understand how Robinson
felt.
It allows the reader to form his own response to
the material.
m Other:
Realism
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
OVER TO YOU
The term realism is used to denote the attempt by writers to present an accurate
imitation of life as it is. The realist sets out to write fiction which reflects a world that is
convincing and recognisable to the common reader. He does this by:
writing about ordinary characters, usually of the middle class, who have no special
gifts. Under normal circumstances these characters would live unexceptional lives,
but in special conditions they may display a kind of heroism;
placing the characters in a setting that is familiar to the reader;
using a special literary style that gives the reader the illusion of actual experience. The
style may be defined as reportorial or journalistic, and it seems to render the events in
a matter-of-fact way;
being unselective in his choice of subject matter;
dealing, in the same way, with both the trivial and the extraordinary;
paying great, almost scientific attention to descriptive detail.
Use the checklist below to determine which of the features of a realistic novel Daniel Defoe's
Robinson Crusoe displays. Tick the features you have found in the extracts you have read.
Main character
He belongs to the middle class.
He has no exceptional talents.
Under special circumstances he shows heroic qualities.
Setting
He lives in surroundings that are familiar to the common reader.
Style
The events of the story are rendered with little emotion or sentiment, in what may be
described as a journalistic style.
Both trivial and extraordinary events are described in the same way.
Descriptions are detailed.
The following extract is an example of non-realistic writing. It is taken from Mary Shelley's
Frankenstein ( pp. E88-95) and describes the moment in which Frankenstein is woken from
his sleep by the monster he has just created. The emotionally-charged atmosphere is created
by the use of words like started, horror, chattered and convulsed. The vague description of the
monster heightens the tension by leaving much to the reader's imagination. Use the features
of realism - lack of emotion, attention to detail, etc. - to re-write the passage in a more
matter-of-fact, journalistic style.
Original Version
I started from my sleep wi th horror; a col d dew covered my forehead, my teeth
chattered, and every limb became convulsed; when, by the dim and yellow light of the
moon, as it forced its way through the window shutters, I behel d the wretch - the
miserable monster whom I had created. He held up the curtain of the bed; and his eyes,
if eyes they may be called, were fixed on me. His jaws opened, and he muttered some
inarticulate sounds while a grin wrinkled his cheeks. He might have spoken, but I did
not hear; one hand was stretched out, seemi ngl y to detai n me, but I escaped and
rushed downstairs.
Realistic Re-write
It was 4.08 a.m. when I awoke frommy sleep and saw the monster standing by my bedside.
My initial fear was caused by the monster's appearance and my uncertainty about his intentions.
He was...
Crusoe thinks that Friday's eagerness to eat his dead comrades is barbaric and totally uncivilised. What does the
term 'uncivilised' mean to you? What would you regard as uncivilised behaviour in our society? Discuss with your
classmates.
L I N K
-[ to the world of television
When it was published in 1 719, Robinson Crusoewas a runaway success. Part of its appeal was based on the fact
that readers believed that it was the true-life account of a shipwrecked sailor. People have always been fascinated
by true stories and today's public is no exception. The phenomenal success of Reality TV programmes (television
programmes based on real-life incidents) shows the public's continuing interest in the lives of others.
Reality TV programmes come in varying formats but they all share one basic characteristic: they are about real
people in real situations. Read the descriptions of popular Reality TV programmes in Britain and the USA, and say
if you have ever watched them or similar programmes.
What do you think the appeal of these programmes is?
The advancement of printing technology in the seventeenth century made a best-seller like Robinson Crusoe
possible. How has the advancement of technology (home video cameras, web cams, Internet access) contributed
to the evolution of Reality TV?
Many people enjoyed Robinson Crusoebecause they identified with the values and morals of the story's hero. Do
participants in Reality TV reflect the values and lifestyles of the people who watch them?
COPS
Cops takes you to the streets to
witness real police in action as they
confront the crime gripping a
nation's cities and comfort the
victims of violence.
Mobile cameras follow these real-
life cops around the clock, with no
restrictions on taping. During off-
duty hours, the camera goes behind
the scenes to capture the effects of
the job on their personal lives.
Do you want to be stranded on an island for 39 days for your
chance to win $1,000,000? Eating anything you can hnd,
like rats, bugs, fish and wild animals? Sixteen contestants on
CBS' Survivor have decided that's what they want to do!
This game show is unlike any other. Sixteen contestants
(survivors) are on an island and separated into two tribes. In
each episode the tribes challenge each other in endurance
tests and the losing tribe has to vote one of ^ members H
the island. The first contestant eliminated gets $2,5UU. tach
contestant after that wins more money up until the final
contestant who wins 1 Million Dollars!
BIG BROTHER
A new show, with a new look at television. This concept was first developed
in burope, but has been brought to North America by CBS. It's called Bis
Brother. Ten contestants have to live with each other for 100 davs for a
chance to win $500,000. The contestants have never met before and no one
knows what's going to happen. It takes place in a special house somewhere
in America. The Big Brother house isn't too large and is equipped with 28
cameras and 60 microphones watching the ten contestants constantly There
is no privacy in this house. There are cameras everywhere! The contestants
have to make their own food and grow their own vegetables Every other
week one contestant will be voted out of the house through telephone polls
1 he last one to remain will win a jackpot of $500,000!
Writers' Gallery - Daniel Defoe
mNsmsfmm
Family background and
education Little is known
about the personal life of Daniel Defoe. Even his date of birth is
not certain because his father, a Protestant Dissenter, did not
accept the authority of the State Church and refused to register
his son's birth. We do know, however, that Daniel Foe - he later
changed his name to the more fashionable Defoe - was born in
London, probably in September 1660. In his early years Defoe
attended a school for Dissenters, where he got a solid education.
When he finished his studies he went i nto trade and travelled
extensively in Europe.
DANIEL DEFOE
(16607- 1731)
Career On his return to Engl and he got marri ed and
established himself as a hosiery merchant. After the failure of his
business he turned to writing to earn money. He was deeply
interested in politics and wrote pamphlets and essays on the political issues of the day. His writings
were often critical of political institutions and the established Church; as a result of some of the
opinions he expressed he was arrested and spent time in prison.
Throughout his life Defoe was fascinated by trade and got involved in a number of mercanti l e
projects. However, most of his business ventures failed and he found himself in financial difficulty.
A helping hand came from Robert Harley, the leader of the Tory party, who offered him a job as a
secret agent for the government. Harley also helped hi m to set up his own journal, The Review, on
the condition that in his writings he would not attack the government.
Later years When he was sixty years old Defoe turned to novel-writing, and in 1719 he produced
his masterpiece, Robinson Crusoe. The next five years saw the appearance of four more novels and a
pseudo-factual account of London during the plague, A Journal of the Plague Year. In 1724 he
published a guide book in three volumes based on his travels around Britain, in which he gave a
detailed description of Britain in the early part of the eighteenth century. He died in 1731.
WORKS
Early writings Daniel Defoe was a prolific writer. His earliest
writings were political and largely consisted of pamphlets, essays
and articles for journals. He was well respected as a satirist and his satirical pamphlet The Shortest
Way with the Dissenters won him great popularity. In it Defoe, a Dissenter himself, demanded the
extermination of Dissenters, exaggerating and ridiculing views held by the State Church. He was
fined, imprisoned and pilloried for the work. While in prison he wrote the poem Hymn to the Pillory,
a mock-Pi ndari c ode* which was sold in the streets to his many supporters.
Fiction It was not until late in his literary career that Defoe turned to writing prose fiction. He had
read of the adventures of a sailor, Alexander Selkirk, who had been put ashore on the desert island of
J uan Fernandez in the Pacific Ocean, where he survived for five years before being rescued. Defoe
used Selkirk's story as the basis for his fictional work Robinson Crusoe. At the time when Defoe was
writing, the public demand was for fact-based writings such as diaries, travel journals, biographies
and l etters. Fi cti on was viewed wi th suspi ci on by the Puri tan mi ddl e-cl ass readers, as it was
considered to be a form of lying. Defoe found a way around this prejudice: he presented his work as
a true story based on real events. He also made a direct appeal to Puritan readers by including moral
m m t K r w - w w ssm mm
TASK
Cross out the false statements.
a. Defoe's literary career started out with political
pamphlets, essays and press articles.
b. Defoe gained a reputation as a satirist.
c. TheShortest Way with the Dissenters is a
pamphlet suggesting a quick way of getting rid
of Protestant Dissenters.
d. Hymn tothePiilory is a satirical mock-Pindaric ode.
e. Defoe used the diary of a sailor, Alexander
Selkirk, as a basis for an epic poem.
f. Defoe wrote a novel that met the demand for
fact-based writings.
g. The Puritans did not receive the work well
because of its immoral content.
h. After Robison CrusoeDefoe wrote four more
novels which have completely different
features.
i. Defoe's characters fight against difficulties by
placing great faith in Cod and in their own
resources.
The poster for the film
Moll Flanders (1996).
ROBIN
WRI GHT
MORGAN
FREEMAN
STOCKARD
CHANNING
SansI;:;
lessons in his work and showing that an
ordi nary man such as Robi nson, who
believed in God and in the principles of
sel f-rel i ance and hard work, coul d
overcome any obstacl e. In thi s way,
Robinson Crusoe became the model of the
middle class, a self-made man convi nced
that Britain had a right and duty to bring
civilisation to other parts of the world.
Following the success of Robinson Crusoe
Defoe wrote four more novel s between
1720 and 1724: Captain Singleton, Moll
Flanders, Colonel Jack and Roxana.
Features All of Defoe's novels share the
same characteristics:
they are presented as memoi rs or
autobiographies and are narrated in the
first person;
the setting is contemporary and realistic;
there is no real plot: the protagonist is presented in a chronological series of episodes;
the main character overcomes misfortune through self-reliance, hard work and belief in God;
each of the characters repents his evil actions and prays to God for salvation;
the prose style is plain yet powerfully effective.
A Modest Proposal - J onathan Swift 55
A Modest Proposal
by Jonathan Swift
Briefly descri be the photo.
What is your reacti on to it?
Do you thi nk that chi l d pover ty coul d be
el i mi nated in today' s wor l d or is it part of a
probl em that will al ways be wi th us?
Children in Africa
INTRODUCTION J onathan Swift was a compl ex character who showed how literature could be used
to make man aware of his own and society's shortcomi ngs. Read his proposals for the sol uti on of the
problem of child poverty in ei ghteenth-century I reland.
A Modest Proposal
For Preventing The Children of Poor People in Ireland
From Being A Burden
1
to Their Parents or Country, and
For Making Them Beneficial to The Public
It is a mel anchol y object to those who walk through this great town or
travel in the country, when they see the streets, the roads, and cabi n
2
doors, crowded with beggars
3
! the female sex, followed by three, four, or
six children, all in rags
4
and importuning every passenger for an alms
5
.
These mothers, instead of being able to work for their honest livelihood,
are forced to employ all their time in strolling
6
to beg sustenance for their
helpless i nfants: who as they grow up either turn thieves for want
7
of
work, or leave thei r dear nati ve country to fight for the Pretender
8
in
Spain, or sell themselves to the Barbadoes
9
.
I think it is agreed by all parties that this prodigious number of children in
the arms, or on the backs, or at the heel s of
10
thei r mothers, and
frequentl y of thei r fathers, is in the present depl orabl e state of the
ki ngdom a very great addi ti onal gri evance
11
; and, therefore, whoever
could find out a fair, cheap, and easy method of making these children
sound, useful members of the commonweal th, would deserve so well of
the public as to have his statue set up for a preserver of the nation. (...)
There is likewise
12
another great advantage in my scheme, that it will
prevent those vol untary aborti ons, and that horrid practice of women
murdering their bastard children, alas! too frequent among us! sacrificing the
poor innocent babes I doubt more to avoid the expense than the shame
13
,
which would move tears and pity in the most savage and inhuman breast.
The number of souls in this kingdom being usually reckoned
14
one million
and a half, of these I calculate there may be about two hundred thousand
Text 1)12
10
15
20
25
GLOSSARY -
Burden: something
too heavy to carry/to
bear
cabin: poor housing
beggars: poor people
begging in thestreet
rags: old and torn
clothes
an alms: money
strolling: walking
around
want: absence
Pretender: James
Stuart, son of James II
(1688-1766)
Barbadoes: this is a
referenceto the fact
that many Irishmen
emigrated to theWest
Indies
10. at the heels of:
following
11. grievance: problem
12. likewise: as well
13. shame: moral
discomfort
14. reckoned: calculated
9.
15. breeders: ableto have
children
16. apprehend: think
17. distresses: difficult
conditions
18. this being granted:
even supposing that
19. miscarry: losean
unborn child
20. reared and provided
for: maintained and
taken careof
21. utterly: totally
22. liable: subject
23. of my acquaintance:
that I know
24. wholesome: healthy
25.stewed: cooked in
sauce
26. fricassee: meat dish
27. for breed: to make
more children
28. fore or hind quarter:
front or back part
29. title: right
30. aprolific diet: food
that encourages
conception
31. Lent: forty days
before Easter, when
Catholics are not
supposed to eat meat
32. glutted: full to excess
33. popish: Catholic
34. endeavoring: trying
35. relieving: helping

couples whose wives are breeders
15
; from which number I subtract thirty
thousand couples who are able to maintain their own children, although I
apprehend
16
there cannot be so many, under the present distresses
17
of the
ki ngdom; but thi s bei ng granted
18
, there will remai n a hundred and
seventy thousand breeders. 1 again subtract fifty thousand for those women
who miscarry
19
, or whose children die by accident or disease within the
year. There only remains one hundred and twenty thousand children of
poor parents annually born. The question therefore is, how this number
shall be reared and provided for
20
, which, as I have already said, under the
present situation of affairs, is utterly
21
impossible (...).
I shall now therefore humbl y propose my own thoughts, whi ch I hope
will not be liable
22
to the least objection.
I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance
23
in
London, that a young heal thy child well nursed is at a year old a most
delicious, nourishing, and wholesome
24
food, whether stewed
25
, roasted,
baked, or boi l ed; and I make no doubt that it will equal l y serve in a
fricassee
26
or a ragout.
I do therefore humbly offer it to public consideration that of the hundred
and twenty thousand children already computed, twenty thousand may
be reserved for breed
27
, whereof only one-fourth part to be males; which is
more than we allow to sheep, black cattle or swine; and my reason is, that
these children are seldom the fruits of marriage, a circumstance not much
regarded by our savages, therefore one male will be sufficient to serve four
females. That the remai ni ng hundred thousand may, at a year old, be
offered in the sale to the persons of qual i ty and fortune through the
kingdom; always advising the mother to let them suck plentifully in the
last month, so as to render them plump and fat for a good table. A child
will make two dishes at an entertainment for friends; and when the family
dines alone, the fore or hi nd quarter
28
will make a reasonable dish, and
seasoned with a little pepper or salt will be very good boiled on the fourth
day, especially in winter.
I grant this food will be somewhat dear, and therefore very proper for
landlords, who, as they have already devoured most of the parents, seem
to have the best title
29
to the children.
I nfant's flesh will be in season throughout the year, but more plentiful in
March, and a little before and after; for we are told by a grave author, an
eminent French physician, that fish being a prolific diet
30
, there are more
children born in Roman Catholic countries about nine months after Lent
31
than at any other season; therefore, reckoning a year after Lent, the markets
will be more glutted
32
than usual, because the number of popish
33
infants is
at least three to one in this kingdom: and therefore it will have one other
collateral advantage, by lessening the number of papists among us.
I profess, in the sincerity of my heart, that I have not the least personal
interest in endeavoring
34
to promote this necessary work, having no other
moti ve than the publ i c good of my country, by advanci ng our trade,
providing for infants, relieving
35
the poor, and giving some pleasure to the
rich. I have no children by which I can propose to get a single penny; the
youngest being nine years old, and my wife past child-bearing.
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
A Modest Proposal - J onathan Swift 57
COMPREHENSION
1 What, according to the writer, saddens people who
walk through Dublin or travel in Ireland?
2 What do the children of the poor do when they
grow up?
3 How should the person who solves the problem
created by poor children be honoured?
4 What are the main causes of the voluntary abortion
or the murder of illegitimate children? (Paragraph 3)
5 Find the statistics in the fourth paragraph which
refer to this information.
Number of:
- inhabitants in the kingdom of Ireland;
- couples in which the wife is of child-bearing age;
- couples who can maintain their children financially;
- miscarriages/ infant deaths per annum;
- children born to poor parents.
6 Who informed the writer about the nutritional
potential of young children?
7 How many children of the poor will be reserved for
breeding? What will the male/ female ratio be among
the breeders? What will happen to the remaining
children of the poor?
8 Why should the children who are to be sold for
consumption be well-fed in the last month of their
first year?
9 Why does the writer think that landlords would
make good consumers of children?
10 Why will infant's flesh be particularly plentiful in
March?
11 What is the ratio between Catholic and non-
Catholic children in Ireland?
12 What proof does the writer give of having no
personal financial interest in his proposal?
ANALYSIS
1 In the opening paragraphs the writer seems to be
sympathetic to the cause of the poor. He speaks of
poor women who would like to have an 'honest
livelihood', refers to the children of the poor as
'helpless' and 'innocent' and wishes to make them
'sound, useful members of the commonwealth'. Does
the attitude expressed by the writer towards the poor
at the beginning of the text prepare the reader for
the suggestion he is about to make? Why does Swift
want the reader to be 'unprepared' for the proposal
in the sixth paragraph?
2 The passage is written in the style of a scientific
discourse. Divide the text into the following parts:
- Identification of a principal and secondary problem
to be addressed: paragraph(s)
- Close analysis of the problem including relevant
statistical data: paragraph(s)
- Proposal of solution and its ramifications:
paragraph(s)
- Conclusion: paragraph(s)
3 Some features that we normally associate with
scientific, economic or political texts are included in
the passage. Find examples of the following:
- use of statistics;
- references to authoritative sources.
4 Focus on the attention to detail. Underline the
number of ways a child can be cooked, according to
the writer, in the sixth paragraph. Find another
example in which the writer shows great attention to
detail.
5 What effect do the pseudo-scientific style of the
text and the attention to detail create? Which ending
would you choose for the following statement?
The detached scientific style of the passage and the
attention to detail ...
a. ... makes the proposal less horrific.
b.... makes the proposal even more horrific.
6 Find references in the text where the writer
describes his proposal as 'modest' or 'humble'.
Does the writer's insistence on the modest nature of
his proposal make it seem even more outrageous?
Satire
f
-
OVER TO YOU
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Satire is the art of ridiculing a subject through laughter and scorn. While comedy evokes
laughter as an end in itself, satire uses laughter as a weapon against a vice. Satire may be
directed at an individual, a type of person, a social class, an institution, a political ideology,
a nation or even the entire human race. Satirists try to use their art to improve the world we
live in. By making the vice they target contemptible and repulsive, they hope to contribute
to its elimination ( Visual Link D5).
A satire may have several targets. Making references to Text D12 say which you would
consider to be the objects of Swift's satire in A Modest Proposal.
Which contemporary social injustice would you choose to satirise? What preposterous
solution to the problem would you put forward as your 'modest proposal'?
Satire does not exist only in literature. It is also popular in films, TV shows, songs, comic strips, cartoons, etc.
Can you think of any examples?
L I N K
-[ to the world of music
After he had seen a documentary about the devastating effects of famine in Ethiopia, Irish pop singer Bob Geldof
called upon his fellow musicians to join together to raise funds for the stricken people. He wrote the song Do
they know it's Christmas?, which he recorded with a host of other pop celebrities including George Michael, Bono
of U2 and Sting. The record was released in November 1984 and was a huge Christmas hit all over the world.
All proceeds from the record were spent on helping famine victims in Ethiopia.
ft Read the lyrics of the song and then answer the questions below.
Do they Know it's Christmas?
It's Christmas time
There's no need to be afraid
At Christmas time
We let in light and we banish shade
And in our world of plenty
We can spread a smile of joy
Throw your arms around the world
At Christmas time
But say a prayer
Pray for the other ones
At Christmas time it's hard
But when you're having fun
There's a world outside your window
And it's a world of dread and fear
Where the only water flowing
Is the bitter sting of tears
And the Christmas bells that ring there
Are the clanging chimes of doom
Well tonight thank God it's them instead of you
Feed the world
Let them know it's Christmas time
Feed the world
Do they know it's Christmas time at all?
1 Both Bob Geldof's song and Jonathan Swift's essay address social issues. They both try to draw public
attention to the problem of poverty and, in the case of Geldof's song, the devastating effect of famine. Is the
tone of the two works similar? Which of the two would you consider to be harsher?
2 In the opening lines of the song Geldof underlines man's humanity. Find sentences in which mankind is
described as warm and loving. Does Swift make any references to man's goodness in his work?
Swift's is a biting attack on man's inhumanity to man. Geldof's work is an appeal to man's humanity. Which of
the two is more effective, in your opinion?
3 Do you respond better when people criticise negative aspects of your personality or when they appeal to your
more positive instincts?
Gulliver's Travels - J onathan Swift 59
Gulliver's Travels
by Jonathan Swift
Does the perfect human being exist? Jonathan Swift certainly did not think so. He was an acute observer of
human faults and frailties and pointed out in no uncertain way how imperfect we are.
Here are some common faults: pride, greed, aggression, cruelty, jealousy.
Add to the list and give a practical example of one of them.
For example, greed: sometimes, even though people are very rich, they do not relax and enjoy their wealth but keep
working toget even richer.
INTRODUCTION Gulliver's Travels appeals to both children and adults for different reasons. Children
are fascinated by the l one traveller who has adventure after adventure in strange lands peopled by ti ny
midgets, giants and talking horses. For an adult the book is a hi ghl y sarcastic and often funny condem-
nati on of man's i gnorance, cruelty and pride.
THE STORY
10
l.
On being shipwrecked, Lemuel Gulliver swims to theisland ofLillipid. Heis amazed to find
that all the inhabitants are no more than six inches (13 cm) tall. He then travels to other
strange places, including Brobdingnag ( Text D13), a land of giants, before ending his
adventures among theHouyhnhnms, asophisticated and highly intelligent raceof horses.
The Benefits of Gunpowder î
Gulliver explains totheking of Brobdingnag how people in Europeusegunpowder, and offers
tohelp make it for him.
TRAVELS PART II
A Voyage to Brobdingnag
Chapter 7
(...)
But, great allowances should be given to a King who lives wholly secluded
from the rest of the world, and must therefore be altogether unacquainted
with the manners and customs that most prevail in other nati ons
1
: the
want of
2
which knowledge will ever
3
produce many prejudices, and a certain
narrowness of thinking, from which we and the politer countries of Europe 5
are wholly exempted
4
. And it would be hard indeed, if so remote a Prince's
notions of virtue and vice were to be offered as a standard for all mankind.
To confirm what I have now said, and further to show the miserable effects
of a confined education, I shall here insert a passage which will hardly obtain
belief
5
. In hopes to ingratiate myself farther i nto his Majesty's favour
6
, I
told him of an invention discovered between three and four hundred years
ago, to make a certain powder, into a heap
7
of which the smallest spark of
fire falling, would kindle
8
the whole in a moment, although it were as big
GLOSSARY
3.
4.
5.
But, great
allowances ... other
nations: because the
kingknew nothing
(altogether
unacquainted) of the
world outsidehis own
kingdom (wholly
secluded), wemust
havesympathy for
him and makea
special effort to
understand him
the want of: the lack
of
ever: always
exempted: freefrom
will ... belief: will be
hard to believe
In hopes ... favour:
in order to make the
king likeme more
heap: amassed
quantity
kindle: set fireto
I ^ ^ ^ ^
9. rammed: pushed
10. hollow: empty
11. brass: asoft metal
12. lead: ahard metal
13.discharged: shot
14. ranks: lines of soldiers
15.batter: beat, knock
16. masts and rigging:
parts of aship that
hold up the sails
17. lay all waste: destroy
everything
18. engine: cannon
19.besieging: attacking
20. rip up: tear up
21. burst: explode
22. splinters: pieces of
wood and stone
23. dashing out:
smashing
24. the manner of
compounding them:
how to mix them
25. pretend to dispute:
try to challenge or
oppose
26. tribute of
acknowledgement:
thank you
as a mountai n, and make it all fly up in the air
together, with a noise and agitation greater than is
thunder. That, a proper quanti ty of this powder
rammed
9
i nto an hollow
10
tube of brass
11
or iron,
according to its bigness, would drive a ball of iron
or lead
12
with such violence and speed as nothing
was able to sustain its force. That the largest balls 20
thus discharged
13
, would not only destroy whole
ranks
14
of an army at once, but batter
15
the
strongest walls to the ground, sink down ships
with a thousand men in each, to the bottom of the
sea; and when linked together by a chain, would 25
cut through masts and rigging
16
, divide hundreds
of bodies in the middle, and lay all waste
17
before
them. That we often put thi s powder i nto large
hollow balls of iron, and discharged them by an
engi ne
18
i nto some ci ty we were besi egi ng
19
, 30
whi ch woul d rip up
20
the pavements, tear the
houses to pieces, burst
21
and throw splinters
22
on
every side, dashi ng out
23
the brai ns of all who
came near. That I knew the ingredients very well,
which were cheap, and common; I understood the 35
manner of compounding them
24
, and could direct
his workmen how to make those tubes of a size
proportionable to all other things in his Majesty's
kingdom, and the largest need not be above a hundred feet long; twenty
or thirty of which tubes, charged with the proper quantity of powder and 40
balls, would batter down the walls of the strongest town in his dominions
in a few hours, or destroy the whole metropolis, if ever it should pretend
to dispute
25
his absolute commands. This I humbly offered to his Majesty
as a small tribute of acknowledgment
26
in return of so many marks that I
had received of his royal favour and protection
27
. 45
The King was struck with horror at the description I had given of those
terrible engines, and the proposal I had made. He was amazed how so
impotent and grovelling
28
an insect as I (these were his expressions) could
entertain such i nhuman ideas, and in so familiar a manner as to appear
wholly unmoved at all the scenes of blood and desolation, whi ch I had 50
painted as the common effects of those destructive machines, whereof
29
he said, some evil genius, enemy to mankind, must have been the first
contri ver
30
. As for hi msel f, he protested, that al though few thi ngs
delighted him so much as new discoveries in art or in nature, yet he would
rather lose half his kingdom than be privy to
31
such a secret, which he 55
commanded me, as
32
I valued my life, never to mention any more.
27.marks ... protection: the
many favours hehad done
for me
28. grovelling: low, servile
29. whereof: of which
30. contriver: inventor
31.be privy to: know
32. as: if
Gulliver's Travels - J onathan Swift 61
A strange effect of narrow principles and short viewsl that a prince possessed
of every quality whi ch procures veneration, love, and esteem; of strong
parts
33
, great wisdom and profound learning, endued wi th
34
admirable
talents for government, and almost adored by his subjects, should from a
nice unnecessary scruple, whereof in Europe we can have no conception, let
slip an opportuni ty to put i nto his hands, that would have made hi m
absolute master of the lives, the liberties, and the fortunes of his people.
60
33. of strong parts: with
astrong character
34. endued with: with
COMPREHENSION
1 According to Gulliver (paragraph 1) why should
the king be excused for not being acquainted with
the 'manners and customs' of other nations?
2 What are the negative repercussions of the king's
'confined education'? (Paragraph 1)
3 In which lines in the second paragraph does
Gulliver define:
- gunpowder? Line to
- guns/ cannons? Line
- bullets/ cannon balls? Line
Why doesn't Gulliver refer to these inventions by name?
4 In the second paragraph Gulliver explains the uses
of the powder to the king. Use the text to link the
verbs in box A with the expressions in box B.
5 Gulliver says that he knows the ingredients for the
powder (paragraph 2). What does he volunteer to do
for the king in return for the 'royal favour and
protection' he has received?
6 Under what circumstances would the king need
the powder, according to Gulliver?
7 How does the king react to Gulliver's proposal?
8 What does he command Gulliver never to do
again?
9 What does Gulliver attribute the king's reaction to?
(Paragraph 4)
10 What opportunity has the king let slip by,
according to Gulliver?
A
destroy batter sink down cut through
lay waste rip up tear dash out
B
the houses to pieces all before them
whole ranks of an army at once
the brains of all who came near the pavements
the strongest walls to the ground masts and rigging
ships with a thousand men in each
ANALYSIS
1 From whose point of view is the episode narrated?
Gulliver's The king's
An external narrator Both Gulliver's and the king's
2 Focus on the first paragraph.
a. Which expressions show that Gulliver feels that his
culture is superior to the king's?
b. How would you define Gulliver's attitude towards
the king?
Sympathetic Patronising
II Respectful Dismissive
IS Other:
3 Focus on the second paragraph.
a. In his speech on gunpowder Gulliver refers to
numbers and measurements. Find examples in the
text.
b. How would you describe Gulliver's description of
gunpowder and its uses?
ft Logical Scientific Incoherent
Subjective Practical IS Theoretical
OS Other:
c. What impression of Gulliver is created? Choose
from the following adjectives.
Rational SB Passionate Precise
II Emotional S Scientific Detached
Logical Creative
IS Other:
THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction
4 Focus on the third paragraph.
a. Underline the words and expressions that convey
the king's:
- reaction to Gulliver's proposal;
- assessment of Gulliver;
- opinion of the creator of gunpowder.
b. On the basis of his reaction to Gulliver's suggestions,
which of the following adjectives would you choose
to describe the king?
Narrow-minded Detached Passionate
Humane Prejudiced Conservative
Other:
5 Which of the two characters, Gulliver or the king,
represents Swift's point of view? justify your answer.
6 In the first paragraph Gulliver accuses the king of
having 'prejudices' and 'narrowness of thinking'.
In the second paragraph he speaks of the king's
'confined education' and in the fourth paragraph he
refers to his 'narrow principles and short views'. Are
these accusations more appropriately applied to the
king or to Gulliver? Justify your answer.
7 Re-read the first sentence of the second paragraph.
Does the episode Gulliver recounts expose the
'miserable effects' of the 'confined education' of the
king?
Do you detect an ironic twist in this sentence?
8 Does the physical difference between the king and
Gulliver take on another meaning in the light of your
analysis?
9 Which of the following are targets of Swift's satire?
The British sense of superiority
The British monarchy
Western civilisation
Gunpowder
Man's insensitivity to the suffering of others
Man's disregard for human life
Man's obsession with power
The British parliamentary system
Which target do you think he most successfully ridicules?
10 How would you define Swift's style?
Poetic Figurative Ornate
Complex Clear Simple
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
An unreliable narrator is one whose interpretation and evaluation of events do not
coi nci de with the beliefs held by the author. The unrel i abi l i ty of a narrator is not
always i mmedi atel y obvi ous. The reader is often i ni ti al l y led to bel i eve that the
narrator is reliable, and encouraged to share his viewpoint. The delayed exposure of the
fallibility of the narrator adds humour and bite to a satirical text.
In Text D1 3 Gulliver is a fallible narrator. At what point in the passage does it become clear
that he is unreliable, i.e. that Swift does not share his beliefs?
The character in the passage who represents Swift's point of view is the king. Briefly re-tell
the story from the king's viewpoint. Start like this:
Oneday Gulliver informed me that he had something very important to tell me. Hestarted to
describe apowder which he said...
Does the new version maintain the same level of humour and satirical bite as the original?
The king is amazed to hear that humans use gunpowder to kill each other and destroy each other's cities.
Gulliver is amazed the king is so ignorant of the ways of the world and the realities of war.
Organise a debate in which one side supports the view that in the future, through education and diplomacy, we
will be able to build a world which will not need weapons or armies.
The other side supports the view that there will always be armies, weapons and wars because man is by nature
power-hungry and violent.
Unreliable
narrator
TASK
OVER TO YOU
Writers' Gallery - J onathan Swift
WRITERS' GALLERY
I ^HH Family and education J onathan
Swift was born in Dubl i n of
English parents. His father died before he was born and he was
maintained by a rich relative. He was educated at Trinity College,
Dublin, where he was an unruly and uninterested student.
Stella I n 1689 he moved to Engl and, where he became a
secretary to Sir William Temple, a retired statesman. Frustrated in
his expectati ons of a career, he returned to I rel and and was
ordained a priest in the Church of Ireland. Life as a modest parish
priest did not suit him, however, so he returned to Temple's home
as a tutor to a young girl, Esther J ohnson, who was to play an
important role in his life and whom he would later immortalise as
'Stella' in his writings.
I n London When his patron died in 1699, Swift returned to Dublin, where he was later joined by
Esther-Stella. During one of his frequent trips to London he met Addison and Steele ( p. D104)
who published Swift's A Tale of a Tub. Like most writers of the period, Swift was actively involved in
pol i ti cs and i ni ti al l y he supported the Whi gs. Disgusted, however, by thei r al l i ance wi th the
Dissenters, he joi ned the Tories. He became a close friend of Tory leaders and was introduced to
writers of similar political views, such as Pope ( pp. D23-27), Gay ( p. D108) and Congreve ( pp.
D33-37). Together they formed the 'Scriblerus Club' to discuss topics of contemporary interest and
collaborate on joint literary projects.
It was during his time spent in London that he wrote a series of letters to Esther-Stella, which were
posthumously (1768) published as the Journal toStella. The letters, written in part in baby talk, show
Swift's softer side and give a fascinating view of life in London at the beginning of the eighteenth
century. While in London Swift started seeing another young lady, whom he called 'Vanessa' in the
poem Cadenus and Vanessa. The relationship ended abruptly when 'Vanessa' demanded that he choose
between her and Stella. The separation led to Vanessa's death 'of a broken heart' in 1723.
Back in I reland In 1713 Swift moved back to Ireland where, outraged by the injustices he perceived
in England's treatment of Ireland, he used his writing skills to support Irish causes, producing some of
his most memorable political pamphlets. The publication of A Modest Proposal for the Universal Use of
Irish Manufacture (1720), The Drapier's Letters (1724) and his masterpiece Gulliver's Travels (1726) won
him public acclaim. Swift's final years were spent largely alone and with serious health problems,
which became even worse after Stella's death in 1728. He died at the age of seventy-eight and was
buried in St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, by the side of his beloved Stella.
The man and the writer J onathan Swift was a complex, passionate individual. His biting satirical
writing has often given rise to the idea that he was a mi santhrope. However, he showed great
concern for his fellow human beings, spending a third of his i ncome on charities and dedicating
much of his time and writing to the causes of the poor and the victims of injustice.
TASK
J onathan Swift had a compl ex personality. After reading about his life, what opi ni on have you formed of
the man?
ays
64 THE AUGUSTAN AGE 229THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction
iMfSgSt.
-I
* -
i Pl l i Sfft
1
WORKS
J onathan Swift was a prolific writer who is best remembered for
three great satirical works.
The Battle of the Books (1704) is a mock-heroic satire in which Swift imagines a real battle between
books at the Royal Library over the controversy about ancient and modern learning. The Ancients
are led by Homer while the Moderns are under the leadership of Milton.
A Tale of a Tub (1704) is a satirical allegory about the three major religious groupings in eighteenth-
century Britain: Roman Catholics, Anglicans and Dissenters. The narrator tells the story of a father
who leaves each of his three sons a coat (the Christian religion) with strict instructions that on no
account should they alter it. Peter (St - the Roman Catholic Church), Martin (Luther - the Anglican
Church) and J ack (Calvin - the Dissenters) gradually disobey their father by altering their coats to
make them more fashionable. Though the book was meant to defend the Church of England, many
passages pour a torrent of ridicule on all three opponents.
Gulliver's Travels (1726) is generally regarded to be J onathan Swift's masterpiece, one of the great
literary works and perhaps the greatest satiric work of all time. Like all of his other writings, Swift
published the Travels under a pseudonym. Several of his writings had already incurred the wrath of
i mportant people, and there was enough criticism of the English government and monarchy to
bring charges of sedition. Initially Swift set out to write a satire on the vices and follies of his time,
but as the work proceeded he widened his aim to target virtually every aspect of human experience.
Swift's satire is pointed and pessimistic: his task is to expose absurdities, not to provide remedies.
The book takes the form of a parody of travel literature, which at the time was very popular. It is
divided into four books:
In Book I Lemuel Gulliver, a surgeon on a merchant ship, tells of how he was shipwrecked and
washed up on the island of Lilliput, where the i nhabi tants are onl y six inches tall. Despite their
di mi nuti ve size, the Li l l i puti ans have del usi ons of grandeur, and the pomp of thei r emperor
(representing the British monarchy) and their war with their neighbours across the channel (the war
between England and France) are made to look ridiculous.
In Book II Gulliver is in Brobdingnag, a kingdom of giants. In an interview with the king about
European civilisation, Gulliver boasts about the marvels of gunpowder and the glory of the judicial
system. To Gulliver's surprise, the king is horrified and says that what he has heard would lead him
to bel i eve that manki nd is 'the most perni ci ous Race of little odi ous Vermi n that Nature ever
suffered to crawl upon the surface of the Earth'.
In Book III Gulliver visits Laputa, a flying island where the nobles literally have their heads in the
cloud. Here the satire is directed against philosophers, men of science and historians. On Laputa
Gulliver meets philosophers who have become so absorbed in their speculations that they are totally
divorced from reality.
In Book IV Gulliver travels to the land of the Houyhnhnms, rational horse-like creatures that are
contrasted with the filthy humanlike Yahoos. The two races represent the two extremes of human
potential: rationality and bestiality. When Gulliver returns home, he feels so alienated from his own
species that he prefers to spend his time in the stable with the horses than with his own family.
TASK
Condense the text 'Swift's works' into a thi rty-second talk. As you do not have much ti me you should
only choose the most significant i nformati on.
Pamela - Samuel Richardson 65
Pamela
by Samuel Richardson
People have many different ways of letting someone know they like them. Sometimes a smile or a wink is a way
of saying you would like to know another person better. A more direct approach would be to say straight out,
'Where have you been all my life?' to someone you have never spoken to before.
1 Try to think of five different strategies that people use to attract the attention of someone they like.
2 Make a list of all the strategies on the board and vote to see which one most people in the class think is most
effective.
INTRODUCTION Samuel Ri chardson was one of the chi ef exponents of the epi stol ary novel i n
English. An epistolary novel was a series of letters between the mai n characters, that together made up
a coherent story. Pamela was the most successful of this type of novel i n the ei ghteenth century and,
like many successful books and films today, encouraged Richardson to write a sequel, Pamela II.
THE STORY
Pamela Andrews is apoor, intelligent fifteen-year-old. When her kind employer, Lady B, dies,
she has to work for her son, Mr B, who tries to seduce her in every possible way, but she
rejects him indignantly. Tobreak down Pamela's resistance, he takes her off to his country
house and imprisons her for forty days. Hecontinues toput pressure on her togive in to his
desires ( Text D14) and almost rapes her twice. In desperation Pamela thinks of commit-
ting suicide, but she realises that even though her master has treated her abominably, she
quite likes many things about him. Mr B accepts that violence and harassment will get him
nowhere, and is delighted tofind that when heexpresses his lovefor Pamela in gentler terms,
she reveals her tender feelings towards him. She turns down his first offer of marriage but
eventually accepts that she can trust himand agrees tobecome his wife.
Thenovel is made up of letters, written mostly by Pamela, and her personal diary of events.
Lucifer in the Shape of my Master
This passage is taken fromPamela's diary. Sheis walking in thegarden with Mr B.
Wednesday Morning
(...)
He presently began by squeezing my hand; and then, truly, all the way we
walked, he would put his arm about my waist. I would have removed his
arm: but he called me little fool! and bid
1
me not distrust his honour. Had
he not told me, he said, that I might rely upon it
2
? And it would be better
for me if I did.
He then said abundance of kind and praiseful things
3
, enough to make me
proud, had not his designs
4
been so apparent. After walking about, he led
me into a little alcove
5
in the further part of the garden, which having a
Pamela Andrews, a
young servant girl
Mr B, Pamela's
master
Text D14
GLOSSARY -
3.
bid: ordered
rely upon it: count
on it
abundance ...
praiseful things: a
lot of compliments
designs: objective
alcove: acovered,
hidden place
ST., ^ ^,f* ^
6. which having ...
resisted: I agreed to
go to the alcove
because I knew there
was apassage
through it
7. teazing: (teasing)
playful
8. I might: I should
9. and would ... him:
and wanted to get
away from him
10. demean himself:
lower himself to my
level
11. reverence: respect
12. my ever-honoured
lady: Lady B
13. fast: tight and close
14. notwithstanding:
despitewhat I had
said
15.and had I not ...
regardless of: and
had I not ignored
16. bold: courageous, less
shy
17. useme thus: abuse
me likethis
18. haughty: arrogant
19. alike: equally
20.and perhaps ... did
not: if I did not obey
him hemight use my
disobedience as an
excuse to punish me
21. disdain: it would be
dishonourable for
him to run after his
servant girl
22. throwing abroad:
throwing out
23. With unwilling feet:
reluctantly, becauseI
did not want to
24. endeavour: try
25. Command from me
... with pleasure: I
do not mind dyingif
that is what you want
26. shew: show
27. seek not: do not try
28. fabric: my character
and morals
29. affected: moved and
touched emotionally
30.yards: 1yard: 0.9144
m
31. attend him: wait for
him
passage through it, I the less resisted

6
; and still the less, as he had led me
through once wi thout stoppi ng; but then stoppi ng in it, he began to be 10
very teazi ng
7
. He made me sit on hi s knee; and sti l l on my struggl i ng
against such a freedom, he bi d me rely on his honour, sol emnl y assuring
me that I mi ght
8
. But then kissing me very often, though I resisted every
ti me, I tol d hi m, at last, and would have got from hi m
9
, that I woul d not
stay with hi m in this place. I would not be so freely used. And I wondered 15
he shoul d so demean hi msel f
10
.1 tol d hi m, moreover, that he would level
all di stance between us, and I shoul d lose all reverence
11
for hi m; though
he was the son of my ever-honoured lady
12
.
He held me fast
13
notwi thstandi ng
14
, professing honour all the ti me with
hi s mouth, though hi s acti ons did not correspond. I begged and prayed 20
that he would let me go: and had I not appeared qui te regardless of
15
all he
said, and resol ved not to stay, if I coul d hel p it, I knew not how far he
would have proceeded:
(...)
He put hi s arm round me, and his other hand on my neck; whi ch made
me more angry and bol d
16
; and he said, 'Who then am I ?' 'Why', said I, 25
(struggling from hi m, and i n a great passi on) 'to be sure, you are Lucifer
hi msel f in the shape of my master, or you could not use me thus
17
.' 'These
are too great l i berti es,' said he, in anger; 'and I desire, that you will not
repeat them, for your own sake: for if you have no decency towards me, I'll
have none towards you.' 30
I was runni ng from hi m; and had got at a l i ttl e di stance, when he in a
haughty
18
tone, cal l ed out, 'Come back! Pamel a, come back when I bi d
you!' Too wel l I knew, as I tol d you before, that every pl ace was al i ke
19
dangerous to me; and that I had nobody to run to for safety: and I stopped
at his call; for he stopped too, as if to see if I would obey hi m, and perhaps 35
to have a pretence against me if I did not
20
; or in di sdai n
21
to run after a
girl as me. 'How can I, sir,' said I, throwi ng abroad
22
my supplicating arms,
'how can I go back, to a gentl eman who has so demeaned hi msel f to hi s
poor servant gi rl ?' 'Come back,' repeated he in a more haughty tone,
throwi ng out in a threateni ng manner one arm, and l ooki ng tal l er than 40
usual, as I thought, and he is a tall, and very majesti c man.
What could I do? Wi th unwi l l i ng feet
23
, and slow, I went back; and seeing
hi m l ook angry, I hel d my hands together, and wept, and said, 'Pray sir,
forgi ve me.' (...) 'I wi l l endeavour
24
, sir,' said I 'al ways to preserve that
decency towards you, that veneration for you, whi ch is due from me to the 45
son of that ever-honoured lady, who taught me to prefer my honesty to my
life. Command from me, sir, that life, and I will lay it down with pleasure
25
,
to shew
26
my obedi ence to you. But I cannot be patient, I cannot be passive,
when my virtue is in danger. For God's sake, sir, seek not
27
to destroy the
fabric
28
whi ch your good mother took so much pleasure in building up.' 50
He seemed affected
29
, yet angrily said, he never saw such a fool in all hi s
life! And wal ki ng by the side of me some yards
30
wi thout sayi ng a word,
he at last went in, bidding me attend hi m
31
in the garden after dinner.
Pamela - Samuel Ri chardson 67
COMPREHENSION
1 What did Mr B tell Pamela to rely on as she tried to
resist his advances?
2 Pamela accuses Mr B of 'levelling all distances'
between them (lines 16-1 7). Explain what she means
in your own words.
3 When Mr B asks 'Who then am I?' (Line 25) What
reply does he expect? How does he react to Pamela's
answer?
4 Why, according to Pamela, does Mr B stop running
after her?
5 Why does Pamela ask for forgiveness? (Line 44)
6 Why does Pamela go back when Mr B calls?
7 What is Pamela prepared to sacrifice for her
master? What is she not prepared to sacrifice?
ANALYSIS
1 Find examples of the following narrative techniques in the passage:
a. narration of events c. dialogue which is indirectly reported
b. dialogue which is directly reported d. description.
Which narrative techniques does Richardson use most?
2 From whose point of view* is the story told? Can we tell if Pamela is describing exactly what happened? Have
we any direct insight into what Mr B is thinking? How are Mr B's thoughts indirectly presented in the text?
3 Focus on the character of Pamela. Which of the following adjectives best describe her?
Helpless Obedient Calculating Innocent Two-faced
Dignified Independent Moralistic Determined Diplomatic
4 Consider how Mr B is presented in the passage. How would you describe him?
Arrogant Manipulative Authoritarian Patient Tenacious
5 Pamela is told through a series of letters and a personal journal. What effect(s) does the journal style create?
It helps the reader to understand what the narrating character (in this case Pamela) is thinking.
It encourages the reader to identify and sympathise with the narrator.
It gives the reader an objective account of events.
It makes the reader the 'addressee' of the letters or journal and involves him more directly in the story.
Intimidating
,
The novel of
incident and
the novel of
character
WRITERS WORKSHOP
The novel of incident and the novel of character are two broad categori es that are
widely used to classify novels. The novel of i nci dent is story-driven: the plot is carefully
devel oped and the reader's attenti on is hel d by the unfol di ng of events. The novel of
character is character-dri ven and focuses on the character's moti ve for what he or she
does and how he or she will turn out as a person. I n thi s type of novel the reader finds
psychol ogi cal l y compl ex characters, whose i nner worlds of feelings and emoti ons are
explored and analysed.
In the extract you have read is the emphasis on what the characters do or the motives
behind their actions? On the basis of your analysis, do you think that Samuel Richardson's
Pamela is generally classified as a novel of incident or a novel of character?
Most works strike a balance between the development of storyline and character analysis,
but some genres favour one of the two: adventure or science fiction stories, for example,
are generally story-driven, while love stories or stories exploring human relationships are
usually character-driven. Can you think of a novel, play or film that you would consider to
be predominantly story-driven or character-driven?
Do you admire Pamela for the way she deals with Mr B? Do you think her reaction is just right or should she
have behaved differently? Discuss in groups.
i 68 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction
WRITERS' GALLERY
Early years Samuel Richardson
was born i nto a lower mi ddl e
class family. When he was seventeen years old he was apprenticed
to a printer, whose daughter he married, and in 1721 he set up his
own printing business. He was extremely hard-working and his
business prospered and grew. On the personal front, however, he
suffered tragedy: six of his children died in infancy and his wife
died in 1731. Two years l ater he remarri ed and had six more
children, four of whom survived.
Writing career Richardson's career as a writer began at an early
age. By the ti me he was thi rteen he was composi ng letters for
young lovers and writing prefaces and dedications for booksellers.
He started novel-writing almost by accident at the age of fifty-one.
He was asked to compose a guide to letter-writing on the problems
of daily life for the poorly-educated. While writing the models he occasionally continued the same
subject from one letter to another. One such 'series' of letters i nvol ved a father writing to his
daughter in service on hearing that her master had tried to seduce her. The exchange of letters
between father and daughter gave him an idea for a novel. He had heard the story of a young girl in
service who had preserved her virtue and was rewarded by marriage, and he used this as his central
theme. He interrupted his work on the letter-writing guide and set to work on Pamela, or Virtue
Rewarded (1740) whi ch he compl eted in just two months. The col l ecti on of model letters was
published a year later as Letters to and for Particular Friends.
Richardson went on to write two more novel s: Clarissa (1747-1748) and Sir Charles Grandison
(1753-1754). In later life he suffered from nervous disorders whi ch today would probabl y be
identified as Parkinson's disease. He died in 1761.
SAMUEL RICHARDSON
(1689- 1761)
WORKS
a
Pamel a Ri chardson, al ong wi th Defoe ( pp. 44- 54) and
Fielding ( pp. 70-78), is credited with giving shape to perhaps
the most influential literary genre of the past three centuries: the novel. Written in an epistolary
form and as a personal journal, Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740) became, by eighteenth-century
standards, a best-seller. The epistolary form which he used in it was already popular in France but
Richardson took it to new hei ghts. The single-story plot, built on domesti c confl i ct in familiar
indoor settings, contrasted greatly with the episodic adventures in an exotic desert island setting of
Defoe's Robinson Crusoe ( pp. D44-54). Richardson also explored the psychological dimension of
characters and showed a deep insight into the workings of the heart. The influential contemporary
literary cri ti c Dr J ohnson ( p. D104), said, 'if you were to read Richardson for the story your
impatience would be so much fretted that you would hang yoursel f... but there is more knowledge
of the human heart in one letter of Richardson's than in all of Tom Jones.'
In 1742, Richardson published a second part to Pamela, where the heroine is displayed as a perfect
wife and mother, who writes l ong letters of advice on moral , domesti c and general subjects.
Although very successful at the time, today it is considered of less importance.
Clarissa Written again in the epistolary form, Clarissa, Richardson's second novel, tells the story of a
well-bred young lady who, against the advice of her family, elopes with an unscrupulous man who
holds her prisoner and rapes her. When she realises she has made a mistake, she distances herself from
Writers' Gallery - Samuel Richardson
her persecutor and dies alone in shame and grief. Clarissa, the longest novel in the English language
(over a million words), was very well received in England and on the continent, where it was translated
into French, Dutch and German.
Sir Charles Grandison For hi s thi rd and fi nal
novel , Sir Charles Grandison (publ i shed in seven
vol umes 1753- 1754), Ri chardson chose a mal e
protagoni st. The novel tel l s the story of the
benevol ent Sir Charl es, who is torn between his
love for a beautiful English woman, Harriet Byron,
and an I talian noble lady, Cl ementi na Porretta. Sir
Charles is saved from his dilemma when, at the last
minute, the Roman Catholic Clementina refuses to
marry a Protestant heretic. Sir Charles remains loyal
to his faith, returns to England and marries Harriet.
Reputation Samuel Richardson was a self-educated
tradesman who had little formal literary training,
yet he made an impact on English literature which
is nothi ng less than remarkable. His work, which in
the ni neteenth century was particularly criticised
for excessive sentimentality and moralism, is today
acknowledged as having been extremely influential
in the development of the English novel.
'He held me fast notwithstanding, professii
honour all the time with his mouth, thougl
his actions did not correspond.' From Pam<
TASK
1 Samuel Richardson was
a p r i n t er
by trade.
b j a publisher
2 He suffered
[a] from extremely poor health,
[bj devastating personal tragedies.
3 His first novel, Pamela, or VirtueRewarded, is
[a~l made up of an exchange of letters
between father and daughter.
about a father struggling to persuade his
daughter to preserve her virtue.
4 Pamela aims to
!~a~l entertain readers with humorous situations.
fb"l stimulate readers to meditate on the
rewarding principles of virtue.
5 Richardson's second novel, Clarissa, is
1 a j a completely different novel, narrated in
the third person.
"b] also based on letters.
6 Sir Charles Grandison is
the male protagonist of Richardson's third
epistolary novel.
[5] the main character of a play which
Richardson wrote in later life.
Tom Jones
by Henry Fielding
Think of a film where there is a fight scene and answer the following questions.
1 Who was fighting? Were they individuals or groups?
2 Were they using weapons and, if so, what were they?
3 Was anyone killed or injured?
4 How did the fight end?
5 Was it realistic or comic?
INTRODUCTION Henry Fi el di ng descri bed Tom Jones as a 'comi c epi c i n prose'. I t is i ndeed epic
l ength and descri bes a huge cross-secti on of peopl e i n a humor ous way. Fi el di ng had an in- de
knowl edge of human nature and depi cted hi s characters wi th all thei r vi ces and vi rtues. Tom Jones is
no means a perfect human bei ng but, for al l hi s faul ts, he comes across as one of the most l ova
characters i n Engl i sh l i terature ( Vi sual Li nk D5).
CHARACTERS
Tom Jones, Mr
Allworthy's nephew;
Blifil's half-brother
Mr AUworthy, a
country gentleman;
Tom's and Blifil's
uncle
Blifil, Tom's half-
brother
SquireWestern, Mr
Allworthy's
neighbour
Sophia, Squire
Western's daughter
Thwackum, Tom's
and Blifil's teacher
- > GLOSSARY
THE STORY
As a new-born baby, Tomis abandoned and found in the bedroom of Mr AUworthy, a kind,
gentleman who brings him up along with his dead sister's child, Blifil. The two boys are t
different; while Tomis honest, brave and trustworthy, Blifil is insincere, cruel and scheming
Oneof the boys' teachers is Mr Thwackum, a brutish and sadistic church chaplain. He
an alliance with Blifil against Tom ( Text D15) and manages to convince MrAllwo
disown the boy. Tomis forced to leave his home and seek his fortune.
During his travels Tom has many adventures and shows what a generous and able man
is. He is also very handsome and many women fall for him, but he is still in love with
childhood sweetheart, Sophia.
To his great surprise, Mr AUworthy finds out that Tom's mother was his own sister. He
realises that he has been tricked into believing that Tomwas wicked and welcomes him
home. Tom marries Sophia and forgives everyone who has wronged him, including his b
brother Blifil.
Text D15
1. darted: flashed
2. Fieupon it!: archaic
expression of disgust
wicked slut: immoral
woman
hath: has
abridged ... tuition:
you no longer need
lessons from me
3.
A Battle Royal
Thwackum and Blifil have heard Tom talking to a girl in the woods and want to know H
she is. Thegirl runs off while Tomfaces his two opponents.
... And now Thwackum, havi ng first darted
1
some livid l i ghtni ng from his
fiery eyes, began to thunder forth, 'Fie upon it!
2
Fie upon it! Mr J ones. Is it
possi bl e you shoul d be the person?' - 'You see,' answered J ones, 'i t is
possi bl e I shoul d be here.' - 'And who,' said Thwackum, 'is that wi cked
sl ut
3
wi th you?' - 'I f I have any wi cked slut wi th me,' cri es J ones, 'i t is
possible I shall not let you know who she i s.'- T command you to tell me
i mmedi atel y,' says Thwackum: 'and I would not have you i magi ne, young
man, that your age, though it hath
4
somewhat abri dged the purpose of
tui ti on
5
, hath totally taken away the authori ty of the master. The relation
Tom J ones - Henry Fielding 71
of the master .and schol ar is i ndel i bl e; as, 10
i ndeed, al l other rel ati ons are; for they al l
deri ve thei r ori gi nal from heaven. I woul d
have you thi nk yourself, therefore, as much
obl i ged to obey me now, as when I taught
you your fi rst r udi ments.' 'I bel i eve you 15
woul d,' cri es J ones, 'but that wi l l not
happen, unl ess you had the same bi rchen
6
argument to convi nce me.' 'Then I must tell
you pl ai nl y,' said Thwackum, 'I am resolved
to discover the wi cked wretch
7
.' 'And I must 20
tel l you pl ai nl y,' r etur ned J ones, 'I am
resol ved you shal l not.' Thwackum then
offered to advance, and J ones l ai d hol d of
hi s arms; whi ch Mr Bl i fi l endeavoured to
rescue
8
, decl ari ng, 'he woul d not see hi s ol d 25
master i nsul ted.'
J ones now f i ndi ng hi msel f engaged wi th
two, thought it necessary to rid hi msel f of
one of hi s antagoni sts as soon as possi bl e.
He, therefore, appl i ed to the weakest fi rst; 30
and, l etti ng the parson go, he di rected a
bl ow at the young squi re's breast, whi ch
luckily taki ng place, reduced hi m to measure
hi s l ength on the ground
9
.
Thwackum was so i ntent on the di scovery, that, the moment he found
hi msel f at liberty, he stept forward di rectl y i nto the fern
10
, wi thout any
great consi derati on of what mi ght, i n the mean ti me, befal
11
hi s fri end;
but he had advanced a very few paces i nto the thi cket
12
, before J ones
havi ng defeated Blifil, overtook the parson, and dragged hi m backward by
the skirt of hi s coat.
Thi s parson had been a champi on i n hi s youth, and had won much
honour by hi s fi st, both at school and at the uni versi ty. He had now,
i ndeed, for a great number of years, decl i ned the practi ce of that nobl e art;
yet was hi s courage full as strong as hi s fai th, and hi s body no less strong
than ei ther. He was moreover, as the reader may, perhaps, have
concei ved
13
, somewhat i rasci bl e i n hi s nature. When he l ooked back,
therefore, and saw hi s fri end stretched out
14
on the ground, and found
hi msel f at the same ti me so roughl y handl ed by one who had formerl y
been onl y passi ve i n all confl i cts between them, (a ci rcumstance whi ch
hi ghl y aggravated the whol e) hi s pati ence at l ength gave way; he threw
hi msel f i nto a posture of offence, and col l ecti ng al l hi s force, attacked
J ones in the front, wi th as much i mpetuosi ty as he had formerl y attacked
hi m i n the rear
15
.
Our her oe
16
recei ved the enemy's attack wi th the most undaunted
i ntr epi di ty
17
, and hi s bosom r esounded wi th the bl ow
18
. Thi s he
pr esentl y
19
returned wi th no l ess vi ol ence, ai mi ng
20
l i kewi se at the
'lories now finding himself
engaged with two, thought it
necessary to rid himself of one ...'
6. birchen: with astick
(Thwackumused to
beat Jones)
7. wretch: evil person
8. endeavoured to
rescue: tried to save
9. reduced him ... on
the ground: he fell
and lay on the ground
10. fern: agreen plant
with large leaves
11.befal: happen to
12. thicket: agroup of
bushes and small trees
13.conceived: realised
14. stretched out: lying
15.in the rear: from
behind (Thwackum
used to beat him on
the backside)
16. heroe: hero
17. undaunted
intrepidity: fearless
bravery
18.his bosom ... blow:
you could hear a loud
noise when his chest
(bosom) was hit
19. presently: soon
20. aiming: targeting
4
21. dexterously: skilfully
22. belly: stomach
23.two pounds ...
proceed: Thwackum
had eaten so much
(two pounds: one
pound: 0.4536 kg)
that (whence: from
where) when Jones
hit him in the
stomach therewas no
noise (hollow:
empty)
24. lusty: powerful
25. much more pleasant
... describe: it was
moreenjoyable and
easier to seethe fight
than to writeor read
about it
26. the latter: Thwackum
27.that... dubious: there
was no doubt who
would win the fight
28. engaging: fighting
29.for though ... duet:
although Thwackum
(thepedagogue) had
recently been used to
beating his students
individually (the
human instrument:
the human body),
likeamusician who
plays on his own, he
was still ableto join
Blifil in beatingJones,
as if they were two
musicians playing a
duet
30.The victory ...
numbers: theside
which had more
peoplewould win the
fight
31.on a sudden:
suddenly
32. paid their
compliments: hit
33.d-n'd: damned: an
expression which
shows you are angry
with someone
34. ROYAL: abattle royal
is anoisy confused
fight
35. raged: continued
36. laid sprawling:
knocked down
37.to apply for quarter:
to surrender, to admit
defeat
38.happening... the
field: hewas going
through thefield
with some friends by
chance
parson's breast; but he dexterousl y
21
drove down the fist of J ones, so that
it reached onl y hi s bel l y
22
, where two pounds of beef and as many of
pudding were then deposited, and whence consequentl y no hol l ow sound
coul d proceed
23
. Many l usty
24
blows, much more pleasant as well as easy 60
to have seen, than to read or describe
25
, were given on both sides: at last a
vi ol ent fall in whi ch J ones had thrown his knees i nto Thwackum's breast,
so weakened the l atter
26
, that vi ctory had been no l onger dubi ous
27
, had
not Blifil, who had now recovered his strength, again renewed the fight,
and, by engagi ng
28
with J ones, given the parson a moment's ti me to shake 65
his ears, and to regain his breath.
And now both together attacked our heroe, whose bl ows did not retai n
that force wi th whi ch they had fallen at first; so weakened was he by his
combat wi th Thwackum: for though the pedagogue chose rather to play
solos on the human i nstrument, and had been l atel y used to those only, 70
yet he still retai ned enough of his anci ent knowledge to perform his part
very well in a duet
29
.
The vi ctory, accordi ng to modern custom, was l i ke to be deci ded by
numbers
30
, when, on a sudden
31
, a fourth pai r of fists appeared in the
battl e, and i mmedi atel y paid thei r compl i ments
32
to the parson; and the 75
owner of them at the same time, crying out 'Are not you ashamed, and be
dn'd
33
to you, to fall two of you upon one?'
The battl e, whi ch was of the ki nd, that for di sti ncti on's sake is cal l ed
ROYAL
34
, now raged
35
with the utmost vi ol ence during a few mi nutes; till
Bl i fi l bei ng a second ti me l ai d sprawl i ng
36
by J ones, Thwackum 80
condescended to apply for quarter
37
to his new antagoni st, who was now
found to be Mr Western hi msel f: for in the heat of the acti on none of the
combatants had recognized hi m.
I n fact, that honest squire, happeni ng, in his afternoon's walk wi th some
company, to pass through the fi el d
38
where the bl oody battle was fought, 85
and havi ng concl uded from seeing three men engaged, that two of them
must be on a side, he hastened
39
from hi s compani ons, and wi th more
gal l antry
40
than pol i cy
41
, espoused
42
the cause of the weaker party. By
whi ch generous proceedi ng
43
, he very probabl y prevented Mr J ones from
becomi ng a vi cti m to the wr ath
44
of Thwackum, and to the pi ous
45
90
friendship whi ch Blifil bore his old master; for besides the disadvantage of
such odds
46
, J ones had not yet sufficiently recovered the former strength
of his broken arm
47
. Thi s rei nforcement, however, soon put an end to the
acti on, and J ones with his al l y
48
obtai ned the victory.
39. hastened: left quickly
40. gallantry: courage
41. policy: wisdom, sagacity
42. espoused: supported
43. By which generous
proceeding: thanks to his
help
44. wrath: anger
45. pious: hypocritical.
Blifil seemed to bea
perfect, virtuous boy, but
hewas insincere and
calculating
46. odds: probability. In the
fight theodds were against
Jones winning because he
was up against two
opponents
47. broken arm: Jones had
broken his arm while
rescuing Mr Western's
daughter, Sophia, when she
fell off her horse
48. ally: Mr Western
Tom J ones - Henry Fielding 238
COMPREHENSION
1 What does Tom Jones refuse to tell Thwackum?
2 What expression does Thwackum use to refer to
the lady who is hiding?
3 What excuse does Blifil make for getting involved
in the fight?
4 While Tom is fighting with Blifil what does
Thwackum do? Is he concerned about Blifil's well-being?
5 How did Thwackum 'win honour' at school and at
university?
6 When Tom was Thwackum's student, why was he
passive in all conflicts between them? In what sense
did Thwackum, the teacher, attack Tom from the rear?
7 Why did no 'hollow sound' emerge from the
parson's belly?
8 What saved Thwackum from being beaten by Tom?
9 Why does Squire Western feel that the parson
should be ashamed of himself?
TO Apart from the fact that he was fighting against
two adversaries, what made Tom Jones's chances of
obtaining victory slim?
ANALYSIS
1 Which narrative mode is used in the text?
Narration of events Dialogue Description
2 Is the narrator* internal or external to the story?
Does the reader see the episode from more than one
point of view*?
3 Find a sentence in which the narrator addresses the
reader directly.
Find a line in the text where the narrator refers to the
art of writing.
Who does the pronoun 'our' refer to in line 54?
Would you define the relationship between the
narrator and the reader as close or distant?
Which of the following words would you choose to
define the narrator?
Detached Unobtrusive Omnipresent
Interfering Objective Humorous
Other:
4 Before becoming a novelist Henry Fielding was a
successful playwright. What aspect of his novel-
writing was clearly influenced by his experience in the
theatre? What elements of the passage you have just
read would make it suitable for a stage performance?
5 Are the characters in the passage presented through:
- their words and actions?
- their thoughts and feelings?
Is there any evidence in the text that Fielding is
interested in the inner worlds of his characters?
6 Which of the following adjectives would you
choose to describe Tom?
Arrogant Heroic Gallant
Impetuous Stoic
7 Fielding often plays with the names of his characters.
Thwackum is a combination of 'thwack', which means
'to give a hard and noisy blow' and 'um' which means
'them'. Why does Fielding give the character this name?
8 Find information in the text that suggests that
Thwackum:
- is authoritarian;
- has a fiery temper;
- is gluttonous;
- has no concern for others;
- inflicts corporal punishment on his students;
- has always enjoyed physical combat.
Thwackum is a teacher and a parson. Is his behaviour
fitting for an educator and a man of God?
9 Thwackum personifies hypocrisy, one of the vices
that Fielding targets throughout his novel. How
would you describe the way in which Fielding attacks
Thwackum and what he represents?
Bitter Sarcastic Humorous
Effective Pedantic Heavy-handed
10 Focus on the description of the fight scene
(paragraphs 2-8).
Find where the narrator:
- describes the blows as pleasant to see;
- compares fighting to playing music;
- refers to blows as 'compliments'.
Which of the following adjectives best suits the
description in your opinion?
Light-Hearted Solemn Graphic
Violent Realistic
Other:
11 What is the overall tone of the passage?
Satirical Light-hearted Detached
Philosophical Rational
Other:
12 Fielding described his novel as a 'comic epic in
prose'. Can you identify both epic and comic
elements in the passage you have read?
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
The narrator In a novel the person who is telling the story is referred to as 'the narrator'. The narrat
may be first-person or third-person.
The first-person narrator has a part in the story. He speaks as 'I' and usually talks
about himself although he may also narrate a story about other people.
The third-person narrator stands outside the story. He always refers to the characters
by name or uses the third-person pronouns 'he', 'she' or 'they'.
The third-person narrator may be omniscient or non-omniscient.
The omni sci ent narrator knows everythi ng about the fi cti onal world he is
describing. He reports on all the characters and events and knows not onl y what
characters do but also their thoughts and motivations.
The non-omniscient narrator tells the story in the third person, but limits himself to
what is experi enced, thought and felt by a single character or at most by a very
limited number of characters in the story.
The narrator may also be intrusive or non-intrusive.
The intrusive narrator has opinions about the characters and expresses his views on
the personalities or events.
The non-intrusive narrator does not comment or evaluate. He remains impartial
and describes without intruding.
Referring to the definitions above and the passage you have read, explain why the narrator
in Henry Fielding's Tom jones is defi ned as a third-person omni sci ent intrusive narrator.
OVER TQ YOU The intrusive narrator usually openl y addresses the reader to comment or eval uate on what is
happeni ng in the story. He may summari se past events, anti ci pate future devel opments or
offer moral general i sati ons on topi cs that are related or unrelated to the plot.
Read the following extract from Tom jones. Add an intrusion in whi ch the narrator addresses
the reader directly.
Exampl e:
Mr Allworthy had been absent a full quarter of a year in London. I regret, reader, that I cannot
tell you exactly what he was doing because it was a delicate matter of aprivate nature.
From Tom Jones, Chapter III
Mr Al l worthy had been absent a full quarter of a year in London, on some very
particular business (...) He came to his house very late in the evening and after a short
supper with his sister, retired much fatigued to his chamber. Here, having spent some
minutes on his knees (...) he was preparing to step into bed, when, upon opening the
cloaths, to his great surprise, he beheld an infant wrapt up in some coarse linnen in a
sweet and profound sleep, between his sheets. He stood some time lost in astonishment
at this sight; but as good nature had always the ascendant in his mind, he soon began
to be touched with sentiments of compassion for the little wretch before him.
Thwackum kept discipline in the cl assroom by beati ng his students, and in the text you have read Tom is, in some
ways, getti ng his own back on his old teacher. Do you think that corporal puni shment mi ght be an effective way
of keepi ng students under control ? What do you think are the best ways to mai ntai n discipline in a cl assroom?
Discuss with your cl assmates.
Writers' Gallery - Henry Fielding
WRITERS' GALLERY
Early years Henry Fielding
was born i nto an aristocratic
family in Somerset, in 1707. He was educated first at Eton, then
for two years at the Dutch University of Leyden. A decline in
family fortunes obliged him to interrupt his studies and return to
London where, in the nine-year period from 1728 to 1737, he
wrote over twenty plays. Much of his work was satirical and
targeted the leading political figures of the day, exposing political
and social corrupti on. His last play, Love in Several Masques,
enraged the government to the extent that it i ntroduced the
Licencing Act of 1737, according to whi ch all plays had to be
submitted for the censorship of the Lord Chamberlain.
Career Fielding decided to stop writing for the theatre and
turned his literary talents to novel-writing. He married a lady of
means and resumed his legal studies, qualifying as a court lawyer in 1740. In his legal work he came
into contact with people of all social ranks, and this helped him to see the good and evil in society,
which he describes in his novels.
In 1744 his wife died and, three years later, in the face of much criticism, he married her former
maid. He continued to be successful in his legal career. In 1748 he was made J ustice of the Peace for
Westminster and the following year London Magistrate. He was seriously concerned about social
injustice and judicial corruption, and dedicated much of his time to improving prison conditions
and fi ghti ng for judi ci al reform. He and his brother J ohn were responsi bl e for London's first
organised police force.
Fielding's health was poor, so in 1754 he decided to move to Portugal, where he hoped the more
temperate climate would help him recover. After a few months, however, he died and was buried in
the English cemetery in Lisbon.
HENRY FIELDING
(1707- 1754)
WORKS
Plays Fielding was a successful playwright and wrote some
notabl e plays i ncl udi ng Tom Thumb: a Tragedy (1730), whi ch
ridicules one of the most popular forms of theatre at the time: the heroic tragedy.
Novels His true talent emerged, however, when he turned his attention to novel-writing. His first
novel is a parody of Samuel Richardson's best selling Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded ( pp. D65-67).
Fielding deplored the sentimentality, hypocrisy and middle-class moralising of Richardson's work. In
his novel An Apology for the Life of Mrs Shamela Andrews (1741) he depicts Richardson's central
character not as an innocent virtuous girl but as a scheming, devious social climber.
His second novel, The History of the Adventures of Joseph Andrews (1742), tells the story of Pamela's
good and modest brother J oseph, who has to defend his virtue from the attacks of his mistress, Lady
Booby. In 1747 Fielding began work on his greatest literary achievement: The History of TomJones, A
Foundling ( pp. D70-74).
Features of Tom J ones More than any other writer of his time, he saw the vast potential of the
novel as a new literary genre. Several features of his novel mark it out as a clear development of and
improvement on the works of Defoe and Richardson:
the plot is no longer a series of episodes or a single story: it involves a large cast of characters,
representing various social ranks, and the episodes are interwoven in a structured and organised way;
i
TASK
Prepare to answer these questi ons in no more than 100 words:
a. What were Henry Fielding's most memorabl e works?
b. What are the innovative el ements in his novels?
each of the novel's eighteen books
is prefaced by an i ntroductory
chapter in whi ch the reader is
reminded that what he is reading
is fi cti on, and i nstructi ons are
given on how to approach what
for contemporary readers was a
relatively new literary form;
an omni sci ent thi rd-person
narrator is used to comment on
the action. The reader is not asked
to identify with the protagonists,
and the detachment allows hi m
to appreciate the comic episodes;
the story is not used as a vehicle
for Puri tan moral i si ng. Tom is
not, for example, criticised for his
numerous sexual encounters.
Fielding's belief that man, whatever
his fi nanci al standi ng or soci al
background, has a natural inclina-
ti on towards goodness emerges
i ndi rectl y from the acti on in the
novel and the warml y humane
manner in which the characters are
portrayed.
Fielding's classical educati on and
ari stocrati c fami l y background
di sti ngui shed hi m from other
novelists of the early eighteenth century, like Defoe and Richardson. He considered the novel to be a
'comi c epic in prose', dealing not with heroic actions but with the trivial events of daily life. His
final novel Amelia shows his deep concern for social issues. His humour and his innovations in the
structure of the novel have earned him the title of 'father of the English comic novel'.
Tristram Shandy - Laurence Sterne 77
Tristram Shandy
by LaurenceSterne
Can you explain the play on words and double meanings in the following sentences?
In jail, convicts use cell phones. Math teachers have lots of problems.
Santa's helpers are subordinate clauses. It is better to love a short girl than not a tall.
When a clock is hungry it goes back four seconds. To some, marriage is a word; to others, a sentence.
INTRODUCTION Tristram Shandy is uni que i n the hi story of Engl i sh l i terature. I n a peri od when the
conventi ons for the novel were bei ng l ai d down by wri ters such as Defoe, Fi el di ng and Ri chardson,
Laurence Sterne chal l enged those conventi ons. Unfi ni shed sentences, bl ank pages, exuberant di gres-
si ons, wordpl ay, dashes, di agrams and eccentri c typography are just some of the i nnovati ve features of
thi s remarkabl e work. The most revol uti onary aspect, however, is the ti me structure. Sterne does not
present the reader wi th a chronol ogi cal order of events, but fol l ows the thought patterns of the mai n
character. Thi s means that i deas and stori es are mi xed up together in a confused way just as they are i n
our mi nds ( Vi sual Li nk D5).
THE STORY
In simple terms Tristram Shandy is an autobiography in which Tristram tells the
story of his life from infancy, through adolescence, and up to early manhood.
However, most of the book is a series of digressions which move away from the main
story into areas which range from philosophy and science to religion and military
strategy. The reader is dragged away from the main story to such an extent that
Tristram's birth is only described in Volume III. Tristram goes into great detail in
describing his father, Walter, a man of great learning who tends to get lost in
convoluted philosophising and his Uncle Toby ( Text D16) who is obsessed with
military fortifications. The book ends in Volume IX with yet another digression
which leaves the reader wondering why the book should finish at that particular point.
You Shall See the Very Place M SB
When he was a soldier, Uncle Toby was wounded in his private parts. In this text he
offers to show Mrs Wadman, whom he likes, where exactly he was wounded. Corporal
Trim is Uncle Toby's servant.
Volume I X, Chapter XX
You shall see the very place, Madam, said my uncl e Toby.
Mrs Wadman bl ush'd
1
l ook'd towards the door turn'd pale
CHARACTERS
Uncl e Toby,
Tristram's uncle
Mrs Wadman, a
lady UncleToby likes
Corporal Trim,
UncleToby's servant
GLOSSARY -
Note: theverbal
suffix -erf was
commonly spelt -'d
1. blush'd: became red
in the face
2. slightly: abit
3. for the sake of: in
order to help
4. Ld: Lord
5. drop down: faint
6. Whilst: while
7. parlour: sitting room
8. garret: small room in
the attic
9. prithee: an archaic
form of 'please'
10. step directly for it:
get it now
11.Montero cap: a
hunter's hat
12. lame: disabled
13. quoth: said
14. shews: shows
15.mere words: words
alone
16.first springs:
beginning
17. mist which hangs
upon: fog that
surrounds
18. endeavour: try
19. thrice: three times
20. emunctories: nasal
passages
21. whereabouts: where
22. blow: injury
23. gave aslight glance:
quickly looked at
24. waistband: the top
part of his trousers
25.plush breeches: good
quality trousers
26. It fell out otherwise:
something different
happened
27.St Nicolas: a
fortification
28. salient: projecting
29. St Roch: a
fortification
30. stick apin: point to,
using apin
31.sensorium: brain
32.Namur: city in
Belgium where Uncle
Toby fought
33. purchased: bought
34. pasted down: stuck
on
35. aid: help
36. lumber: material that
has been stored away
blush'd slightly
2
again recovered her natural colour blush'd worse
than ever; which for the sake of
3
the unlearned reader, I translate thus
"Ld
4
! I cannot look at it
What would the world say if I look'd at it?
I should drop down
5
, if I look'd at it
I wish I could look at it
There can be no sin in looking at it.
I will look at it."
Whi l st
6
all thi s was runni ng through Mrs Wadman's i magi nati on, my
uncle Toby had risen from the sopha, and got to the other side of the par-
lour
7
-door, to give Triman order about it in the passage
* * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * I believe it is in the garret
8
, said my uncle
Toby I saw it there, an' please your honour, this morni ng, answered
Trim Then prithee
9
, step directly for it
10
, Trim, said my uncle Toby, and
bring it into the parlour.
The Corporal did not approve of the orders, but most chearfully obey'd
them. The first was not an act of his will the second was; so he put on his
Montero cap
11
, and went as fast as his lame
12
knee would let him. My uncle
Toby returned into the parlour, and sat himself down again upon the sopha.
You shall lay your finger upon the place said my uncle Toby. I
will not touch it, however, quoth
13
Mrs Wadman to herself.
This requires a second transl ati on: it shews
14
what little knowledge is
got by mere words
15
we must go up to the first springs
16
.
Now in order to clear up the mist which hangs upon
17
these three pages,
I must endeavour
18
to be as clear as possible myself.
Rub your hands thrice
19
across your foreheads blow your noses cleanse
your emunctories
20
sneeze, my good people! God bless you
Now give me all the help you can.
Volume I X Chapter XXVI
(...)
And whereabouts
21
, dear Sir, quoth Mrs Wadman, a little categorically,
did you receive this sad blow
22
? In asking this question, Mrs Wadman
gave a slight glance
23
towards the waistband
24
of my uncle Toby's red plush
breeches
25
, expecting naturally, as the shortest reply to it, that my uncle
Toby would lay his fore-finger upon the place It fell out otherwi se
26

for my uncle Toby having got his wound before the gate of St Nicolas
21
, in
one of the traverses of the trench, opposi te to the sal i ent
28
angle the
demibastion of St Roch
29
; he could at any time stick a pin
30
upon the iden-
tical spot of ground where he was standing when the stone struck hi m:
this struck instantly upon my uncl e Toby's sensorium
31
and with it,
struck his large map of the town and citadel of Namur'
2
and its environs,
whi ch he had purchased
33
and pasted down
34
upon a board by the
Corporal's aid
35
, during his long illness it had lain with other military
l umber
36
in the garret ever si nce, and accordi ngl y the Corporal was
detached in to the garret to fetch it.
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Tristram Shandy - Laurence Sterne 79
My uncl e Toby measured off thi rty toi ses
37
, wi th Mrs Wadman's scissors,
from the returni ng angle before the gate of St Nicolas; and wi th such a vir-
gin modesty laid her finger upon the place, that the goddess of Decency, if
then in bei ng if not, 'twas her shade
38
shook her head, and wi th a
finger waveri ng
39
across her eyes forbid her to expl ai n the mi stake.
ss
37. toises: units of
measurement
38.if not ... shade: if she
was not there, it was
her shadow
39. wavering: shaking
COMPREHENSION
1 The passage revolves around a basic misunder-
standing about the word 'place'. When Uncle Toby in
line 8 offers to show Mrs Wadman the very place, he
intends the place (on a map) where he suffered his
injury. What does Mrs Wadman think he means?
2 What is Mrs Wadman's reaction to being shown
the place? Is she at all curious?
3 In line 20 Uncle Toby gives Trim an order 'about it'.
Is it immediately clear what 'it' refers to?
4 Uncle Toby orders Corporal Trim to 'step directly
for it' (line 24). What physical handicap makes
'stepping directly' an act which is 'not of his (Corporal
Trim's) will', i.e. something he cannot do even if he
wants to?
5 In lines 30- 33 the misunderstanding between
Uncle Toby and Mrs Wadman continues. What is
Mrs Wadman referring to when she says she will not
touch 'it'?
6 Uncle Toby suffered his injury 'below the waist'.
Where is this made obvious in the text? Does this
explain Mrs Wadman's embarrassed reaction to Uncle
Toby's suggestion that she should see the place?
7 Where and how was Uncle Toby injured?
8 What was the 'it' (referred to in question 3) that
Corporal Trim was sent off to get?
9 Why didn't Mrs Wadman explain her
misunderstanding to Uncle Toby?
ANALYSIS
1 The chapter opens with Uncle Toby and Colonel
Trim calling upon Mrs Wadman.
What do you think the asterisks at the beginning of
text represent?
Bad language which is unprintable.
Gestures such as shaking hands, sitting down, etc.
I I The pleasantries exchanged by the characters.
2 Why does the narrator choose to use asterisks?
Because:
what is said would be offensive to the reader.
the initial exchanges between the characters would
be of little interest to the reader.
they liven up the page graphically.
3 In which line in the opening paragraph does the
narrator refer to the readers?
4 In lines 8-11 the narrator describes Mrs Wadman's
reaction to Uncle Toby's proposal, which he then
translates into thoughts in lines 12-17.
Link each reaction to a thought.
Example:
Reaction: Mrs Wadman blush'd
Thought: L d! I cannot look at it.
Reaction Thought
Look'd towards the door
Turn'd pale
Blush'd slightly again
Recovered her natural colour
Blush'd worse than ever
5 Consider the exchange between Uncle Toby and
Corporal Trim in lines 20-29. Is the complete dialogue
reported? What graphical devices does the narrator
use to replace the missing information?
6 In lines 34- 38 the narrator again addresses the
reader. He announces that he is going to 'clear up the
mist', implying that he is going to clarify some ideas
that may not have been fully understood. He says he
must clear himself. What does he invite the reader to
do? In what way has the reader 'cleared' himself? Can
you explain the play on word 'clear'?
7 It is not until Chapter XXVI that the
misunderstanding about the word 'place' is resolved
and the meaning of 'it' is revealed to the reader. How
does delaying these revelations affect the text?
It intensifies the humour. It frustrates the reader.
It builds up expectation. It confuses the reader.
8 Which adjective(s) would you choose to define the
tone in which the narrator addresses the reader?
Friendly Detached Pedantic
Sarcastic Playful Serious
Other:
9 Laurence Sterne was influenced by the philosopher
John Locke's theory on the associaton of ideas, which
holds that man's thoughts are linked together
irrationally, without any apparent logical connections.
Are there any examples of incomplete, interrupted
ideas or illogical associations in the text that show the
Lockean influence in Sterne's writing?
10 Laurence Sterne is generally acknowledged as an
innovator of the highest originality who pointed the
way for twentieth-century writers such as James Joyce,
Virginia Woolf and Marcel Proust. Like his modern-day
counterparts, Sterne transforms his readers from
passive recipients to active contributors. In what way
is the reader called upon to make an active
contribution to the text you have just studied?
The
anti-novel
I i tf-V' I
TASK
K i l l
f i t s 5
.
Jmk
>'
OVER TO YOU
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
The term anti -novel refers to novels that break with the traditional conventions of the
genre. Anti-novels rely for their effect on the confounding of the reader's expectations by:
the omission or annihilation of traditional elements (character, plot etc.);
the introduction of innovative elements.
Laurence Sterne is widely considered to be the father of the English anti-novel. Some of the
anti-novel features of his masterpiece TristramShandy include:
- a non-conventional plot in which the hero of the story is born in the third volume of the book;
- an eccentric narrator who, for example, tells the reader to turn back several pages and read
a passage a second time;
- syntactical, layout and typographical innovations such as unfinished sentences, blank
pages and dashes or asterisks which the reader must interpret.
Which of the features of the anti-novel can you identify in the passage you have read?
An example of a typographical innovation which Sterne used in TristramShandy can be seen
in the following extract from Volume IX, Chapter 4:
Whilst a man is free cried the Corporal, giving a flourish with his stick thus
A thousand of my father's most subtle syllogisms could not have said more for celibacy.
Use a typographical feature to express an idea of your
own.
For example:
I got the ball on the halfway line. I skipped past a midfield
player and a defender. Therewas just the goalkeeper
between me and thegoal. I ran first to the left, dropped my
shoulder, rounded himon the right and stuck the ball into
the left hand corner of the goal.
In TristramShandy Laurence Sterne broke all the rules that had been established for novel writing. Do you know any
form of contemporary comedy (films, TV shows, stand-up comedians) that you would consider unconventional?
In what way are they innovative?
Writers' Gallery - Laurence Sterne
aisiia
WRITERS' GALLERY
Early years Laurence Sterne
was born in Ireland of English
parents. When he was el even years old his fami l y settl ed in
Hal i fax, in the north of Engl and, and he attended the l ocal
grammar school. In 1731 Sterne's father died, leaving the family
penniless. With the financial help of a generous relative, Sterne
succeeded in entering Jesus College, Cambridge, as a sizar (poor
student) and received his degree in 1737. He then entered the
Angl i can church and became a vi car in a smal l pari sh in
Yorkshire.
Family life I n 1741 Sterne marri ed El i zabeth Luml ey.
However, their family life was not very happy. Despite personal
misfortune, Sterne seemed to make the most of his situation. He
spent his ti me pl ayi ng the vi ol i n, readi ng widely, pai nti ng,
socialising with the local gentry and courting the local ladies. He earned a reputation as a preacher
and his sermons were eagerly awaited.
Writing career In 1759 he began work on his novel The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy,
Gentleman. The first version of Volumes I and II was rejected, but a revised version of the material
was published in 1760. The novel was successful despite the fact that many i nfl uenti al men of
letters, including Dr J ohnson ( p. D104), Richardson ( pp. D65-69) and Goldsmith ( pp. 38-43),
expressed negati ve opi ni ons. Sterne became a cel ebri ty and was well recei ved by London's
fashionable society and invited to court. As a result of his literary success he was offered the curacy
of Coxwold in Yorkshire, where he named his home, Shandy Hall. In 1761 he published four more
volumes of Tristram Shandy, which again met with great success. He undertook a seven-month tour
of France and Italy during 1765, which provided him with material for a second novel, A Sentimental
Journey (published in 1768). After his travels he returned to London, where he fell in love with Mrs
Eliza Draper, the young wife of an official of the East India Company, for whom he wrote a journal
(Letters from Yorick to Eliza), whi ch was published after his death in 1768. Soon after his burial
Sterne's body was taken by grave robbers and used for an anatomy lecture in Cambridge. Someone
recognised the body, and it was quietly returned to the grave. It is now buried close to Shandy Hall,
which has become a museum.
S^^^Hf f l PWRI ^^^^^H Tristram Shandy Sterne's literary reputation is built mainly on
his masterpi ece The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy,
Gentleman. Written in ni ne volumes, it is unquesti onabl y one of the most original works in the
history of English literature. There is no plot in the conventional sense of the word (the reader has to
wait unti l Volume III for the mai n protagoni st to be born) and there is no clearly i denti fi abl e
beginning, middle or end to the storyline. Essentially the book is a series of exuberant digressions on
subjects as diverse as bi rth and death, joy and sorrow, wit and folly. The narrator, Tri stram,
introduces the reader to a series of memorable characters:
Walter, Tristram's father, whose obsession is science;
Uncle Toby, Walter's brother, whose passion is the recreation of military sieges;
Corporal Trim, who shares Toby's love for all things military;
LAURENCE STERNE
(1713- 1768)
TASK
Prepare a brief report on the life and works of Laurence Sterne.
The titlepage for an early nineteenth-century
edition of A Sentimental Journey.
lit m Arr.v aI.JAM .
Puhlish'd by IS. I iufl-h<'8. Sulloll.- Strrrt.
and mm/ /" luiil <n ill /'".i/mvAV/.,
1ROB.
' ">< CapiiW. IW-
Parson Yorick, the argumentati ve yet ami abl e local vicar;
Dr Slop, the i ncompetent man midwife who delivers Tristam;
Mrs Wadman, the nei ghbour who wishes to marry Toby.
Uncl e Toby and Parson Yorick are generally regarded as two of the great comi c characters in English
literature.
The cast of eccentri c characters is onl y one exampl e of originality in Tristram Shandy. Sterne seems to
have set out to del i beratel y under mi ne the rul es for novel wri ti ng as establ i shed by Defoe,
Ri chardson and Fielding. I ndeed, his work is often referred to as an anti -novel . Other exampl es of
i nnovati on are:
the fragmented storyl i ne, i n whi ch the sequence of events is del i beratel y di sordered. Sterne
mai ntai ned that thi s non-l i near approach to storytel l i ng was more successful i n capturi ng the
essence of human experience;
a new perception of time. I nfluenced by Locke's Essay concerning Human Understanding, Sterne believed
that ti me as measured by the clock had little relation to ti me as perceived by the human mi nd;
typographical i nnovati ons whi ch included bl ank pages, dots, dashes, passages in foreign languages,
chapters reduced to one line and misplaced chapters.
Senti mental J ourney Sterne's second and last novel
Sentimental Journey through France and Italy (1768) is
written in a similar style to Tristam Shandy. I n it Sterne
uses the character of Parson Yorick, who describes his
journey through France (he never actual l y reaches
I tal y). The novel is a parody of the travel l i terature
whi ch was popular at the ti me and, in particular, the
work of Tobias Smollet, who is caricatured in the book
as Smelfungus.
The extent of Laurence Sterne's creati ve geni us was
onl y trul y appreci ated after hi s death. His great skill
in creating comi c characters i nfl uenced a host of later
writers, i ncl udi ng Charles Di ckens ( Modul e F). His
experi mentati on wi th the noti on of ti me and free
association of ideas foreshadowed Bergson's theory of
'la duree' and J ames J oyce's ( Modul e G) 'stream of
consci ousness'. He is wi del y regarded as one of the
truly outstandi ng figures in English literature.
C
(.''"raws ^ -'/ V/ / ^,
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ontext
Britain 1625-1702
In order to understand the political and social developments in Britain in
the seventeenth century, we must first have a clear idea of the religious
make-up of the country. The vast majority of the population belonged to one of
the following three religious groups:
The Church of England (Anglican Protestants). This was the official state
Church as established by Henry VIII during the Reformation. It did not differ
greatly from the Roman Cathol i c Church and had a hierarchical structure
governed by archbishops and bishops. To many English people it was a living
symbol of their country's independence from what they saw as a corrupt Pope
in Rome.
The Roman Catholic Church (Catholics). A sizeable minority did not accept
the Reformation and remained Cathol i c in the hope that the Reformation
would be overturned and that their religion would become the religion of
state as it had been in the past.
Puritans, Presbyterians and Dissenters. These groups, also known as non-
conformi sts, started to form duri ng the rei gn of El i zabeth I . They were
Protestants who believed that the Reformation had not been radical enough and
that the Church of England was still too close to the Roman Catholic Church.
They elected their ministers and criticised as undemocrati c the hierarchical
structure of the other Churches. They had
very strict moral principles and believed that
the way to sal vati on lay in a life of hard
work and avoidance of all forms of frivolous
entertainment.
As we shal l now see, these rel i gi ous
di fferences were to have an enormous
influence on seventeenth-century Britain.
The Tudor monarchs had made it
clear, beyond any doubt, that it was
the king or queen who ruled the country
and not Parliament. This autocratic attitude
was brought to even further l engths by
J ames I and reached a high poi nt during
the reign of Charles I (1625-1649), who
believed he had a divine right to rule and
his acts were answerable onl y to God. I n
1629 Charl es even dissolved Parl i ament
and ruled for eleven years without one.
'ing Charles I.
DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS
/249 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context
King v. Parliament
Visual Links D1and D2
The Civil War
Oliver Cromwell
The Republic
The Restoration
Visual Link D3
fames II
This is an illustration (1658) of Oliver Cromwell standing
on Error and Fiction. The three figures on the column on
the right are England, Scotland and Ireland.
The Puri tans, however,
refused to accept passively the
systemati c di scri mi nati on
they were subjected to. The
House of Commons gradually
became a Puritan stronghold
from which opposition to the
king was organi sed. When
Charles was forced to reopen
Parliament in 1640 to ask for
taxes to fi nance a war in
Scotland, Parliament refused
to help hi m and insisted on
having more say in the run-
ning of the country. They also
accused hi m of not doi ng
enough to suppress Catholics,
though his unwillingness to
do so may have been because
his wife was Cathol i c. The
breaking poi nt between the
two sides came when Parlia-
ment demanded control of
the army (1642). Charl es's
refusal meant that Civil War
was inevitable.
A Puritan army, under the command of Oliver Cromwell, was organised to fight
against the king's royalist forces, which included lords, nobles and members of
the Angl i can church. The Puri tans were popul arl y known as 'Roundheads'
because they had very short hair while the supporters of Charles were known as
'Cavaliers'. The war ended with a Puritan victory and Charles was executed on
J une 30th 1649.
Cromwell and his followers set about founding a republic, which became known as
the Commonwealth. The monarchy and the House of Lords were abolished while
the country was ruled according to Puritan principles. The new republic's greatest
asset was Cromwell, a charismatic political leader and a brilliant military strategist
at the head of the efficient 'New Model Army'. His military exploits included the
suppression of rebellions in Ireland and Scotland and the defeat of both Holland
and Spain. On his death in 1658 there was no one of the same calibre to follow
him, so the Commonwealth fell into decline and eventually collapsed in 1660.
After twenty years of political strife, the English people were happy to welcome
back the monarchy in the form of Charles II, who had lived in exile in France.
Thi s period is known as the Restoration because the system of government
returned to what it had been before the Cromwellian revol uti on. Opposition
from Catholics and Puritans was suppressed but Charles, mindful of the mistakes
his predecessors had made, was careful to consul t Parliament before making
decisions, and so managed to maintain a peaceful balance of power.
The relative tranquillity of Charles' reign, whi ch lasted twenty-five years, was
i nterrupted when J ames II (1685-1688) came to the throne and once again
rel i gi on was a catal yst for confl i ct. J ames was a Cathol i c and wanted to re-
establish Catholicism as the main religion in the land. His policy of appointing
Cathol i cs to top government posi ti ons was a serious threat to a Protestant
Historical and Social Background 85 uUffl
establ i shment that feared losing power. They found a champi on, however, in
William I I I (1689-1702), whose Protestant army forced J ames to flee from
England to Ireland. William followed him across the Irish Sea and his victory at
the Battle of the Boyne in 1690 marked the definitive end to any Catholic hopes
of ever again acceding to the English throne.
William's victory became known as the Glorious Revolution because he was the
first monarch to officially recognise the constitutional rights of Parliament. The
Bill of Rights, an 'Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties of the Subjects' (1689)
clearly marked the boundaries of the monarch's powers; for example:
no law could be passed or repealed without the approval of Parliament;
all taxation had to be approved by Parliament;
no armed forces could be kept wi thi n the ki ngdom wi thout the consent of
Parliament.
With the passing of this bill the era of the divine right of kings had finally come
to an end.
William III
The Glorious Revolution
The Bill of Rights
ggspsgi P
IE PAST
,, - ,, -v v '
THE DI VI NE RI GHT OF K I NGS
Read what fames I said about theDivine Right of kings.
The kings were, before any Parliaments were holden
1
or laws made; and by
them was the land distributed (which at the first was wholly
2
theirs), states
erected and forms of government devised
3
and established. And it follows of
necessity the Kings were the authors and makers of the laws and not the
laws of the Kings. And according to these fundamental laws it lies in the
power of no Parliament to make any kind of law without his sceptre giving it
the force of a law.
(...) And as ye
4
see it manifest that the king is over-lord of the whole land, so
is he master over every person that inhabiteth the same, having power over
the life and death of every one of them (...) A good king will frame
5
all his
actions to be according to the law, yet is he not bound thereto
6
but of his
good will, and for good example-giving to his subjects.
(1598)
(...) The state of monarchy is the supremest thing upon earth: for kings are not only God's lieutenants
7
upon
earth and sit upon God's throne, but even by God himself they are called gods. In the Scriptures kings are
called gods, and so their power after a certain relation is compared to the Divine power.
(From a speech to Parliament - 1610)
GLOSSARY
1. holden: held
2. wholly: completely
3. devised: planned
4. ye: you
5. frame: shape
6. bound thereto: obliged to
do it
7. lieutenants: substitutes
TASK
These sentences re-phrase the concepts expressed in the texts above. Put them in the order they appear in the text.
The king is the supreme ruler of the land and of all its people.
A good ruler will act according to the law not because he has to, but out of good will and to set a good
example for his subjects.
Parliament cannot make laws unless the king agrees.
Monarchs existed before Parliaments and laws were created.
Kings are God's representatives on earth and their power derives to them from God.
TASKS
1 The seventeenth century was an age of conflict.
Match the opponents in columns A and B.
A B
Anglican protestants James II
Kings Roundheads
Cavaliers Catholics
Oliver Cromwell Parliament
William III Charles 1
2 Find words that match these definitions.
a. Religious groups that distanced themselves radically
from the Church of Rome.
b. Principle stating that the monarch is only
answerable to God.
c. Republic founded by Cromwell.
d. Return of the monarchy.
e. Conflict with little bloodshed.
f. Document limiting the monarch's powers.
THE ECONOMY AND
EVERYDAY LIFE
Improved standard
of living
Free time
London
What was life like for the average Engl i sh person in thi s century of
religious and political conflict?
In general, working life was very much as it had been in Tudor times, as
eighty percent of the population continued to make a frugal living off the land.
In the second half of the century, however, there was a marked improvement in
the economy, mainly thanks to newly-created wealth being brought back from
the colonies. The way in which spices were used to preserve meat is an example
of how col oni al expansi on improved the quality of life in England. Previous
generations onl y ate fresh meat because they had no way of preserving it and
consequentl y, for l ong peri ods duri ng the wi nter, they were l i mi ted to a
vegetarian diet. When pepper and other spices were brought back from India and
the East, meat was available all year round.
How people spent their free time was greatly influenced by the political climate.
When the Puri tans came to power, all forms of publ i c entertai nment were
banned and all theatres were closed. The Restoration produced a strong reaction
against the moral rigidity of the Commonwealth and people started having fun
again. London became a booming theatrical centre, while sports of various kinds
were played, including fox hunting and a rudimentary form of football.
London continued to be the country's main social, political and economic centre
despite two events which greatly disturbed the life of the city. The outbreak of
plague in 1665 and the Great Fire of 1666 deci mated the popul ati on and
destroyed most of the buildings.
Gradually the city recovered from these two terrible blows and grew so quickly in
the latter years of the century that by 1700 one tenth of the English population
lived there. The economic prosperity that characterised this period can be seen in
the constructi on of such publ i c bui l di ngs as St Paul's Cathedral , whi ch was
started in 1675, the Bank of England (1694) and the Stock Exchange (1698).
ENGLAND AND THE REST
OF THE WORLD
Mercantilism
At war with Holland
As we have seen, the economi c boom of the second hal f of the
seventeenth century was greatl y hel ped by col oni al expansi on. Thi s
expansion was one facet of an economic policy called Mercantilism that
was put into practice by successive governments from the end of the seventeenth
century right through the eighteenth century. The acquisition of new colonies
was encouraged because they provided cheap raw materials and new markets for
goods produced in England.
In 1652 conflicting interests over control of sea trade led to a series of naval wars
with Holland. After two years the Dutch were defeated and no ships challenged
the English trade vessels on the seas.
m j
William Penn (1644- 1718), the
founder of the state of Pennsylvania,
negotiates the sale of land with a
group of native Indians.
Expansi on was both towards the east and west. Mi grati ons to the New Worl d
conti nued throughout the century. By 1640, the Puritans had started over twelve
towns, home to 15,000 people, mai nl y along the eastern coasts.
To the east lay the exoti c ri ches of I ndi a. The East I ndi a Company, whi ch had
been established at the very start of the century, set in moti on a hi ghl y profitable
trade in tea, spices and other goods through the ports of Madras in the west and
Bombay in the east. Although very few English people actually settled in I ndia in
the seventeenth century, the foundati on was laid for col oni al expansi on in the
following centuries.
As the ei ghteenth century dawned, two of England's historic conflicts seemed to
have been resolved:
The Church of Engl and, fol l owi ng the failure of the Puritan Commonweal th
and the vi ctory of Protestant Wi l l i am over Cathol i c J ames, had establ i shed
itself firmly as the domi nant Church in the land.
Parliament had gained power at the expense of the monarchy. William's Bill of
Rights, whi ch recognised the central role of Parl i ament in government, was a
f undamental step i n the process that eventual l y l ed to the creati on of a
parliamentary democracy.
All in all, the seventeenth century in England, although it was a ti me of constant
rel i gi ous and pol i ti cal fi ghti ng and feudi ng, was an age that stabi l i sed the
relationships between Church and state, and between Parliament and monarchy,
in a way that guaranteed a solid base for future economi c and colonial expansion.
Westward expansion
Eastward expansion
Summing up
TASKS
1 Write sentences about seventeenth-century England.
This was the century when ...
This was a time when ...
From an economic point of view ...
From a religious point of view ...
From a political point of view ...
Despite wars, conflicts, disease and even a Great Fire, ...
2 Prepare a brief talk on the historical background to
seventeenth-century English literature. Choose one of
the topics below.
a. Religion in seventeenth-century Britain
b. King v. Parliament
c. The Restoration
d. Everyday life in the seventeenth century
e. England and the rest of the world.
sshi jf
88 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context
Britain 1702-1776
r r- c When Queen Anne, the last of the Stuart dynasty, acceded to the throne
FROM CONFLICT TO STABILITY . . , , . , .
7
' ' , ,
in 1702, Britain was leaving behi nd a century that had seen it torn apart
by religious and political divisions. These divisions having been resolved to a
satisfactory degree if not totally, the country could look forward to a new century
of relative peace, stability and prosperity.
AGRICULTURE
Land enclosures
For centuri es, agri cul ture had provi ded empl oyment for most of the
population. Over the years very little had changed, and in 1700 farmers
and peasants still grew crops on small disorganised holdings or raised sheep on
common land, open fields that nobody owned but anybody could use.
I n order to meet the ever-i ncreasi ng demand for wool , the system of l and
enclosure was intensified. What had previously been common land was split up
and fenced off into large farms that were bought by wealthy farmers.These farms,
whi ch coul d rely on new vari eti es of grass that enabl ed sheep and cattl e to
survive the winter, soon became highly efficient and provided the necessary raw
material for the booming clothing industry.
THE START OF THE INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
Mechanisation
Wi th wool now bei ng produced i n greater quanti ti es than ever, new
technologies and efficient labour organisation were needed to transform it
quickly into the finished products that an expanding market demanded.
To satisfy this demarid small factories were built.
The production process was split up so that every worker did onl y one specific
job. Thi s di vi si on of l abour i ncreased producti on dramati cal l y and became
accepted procedure in all factori es. Al ong wi th i nnovati ve work practi ces,
mechanisation was the key to success for the newly-born British industrial sector.
Automati c l ooms that coul d make cl oth far more qui ckl y and in far greater
quantities than ever before were first invented in the 1760s and marked a giant
step forward in the Industrial Revolution.
If wool and cloth were the prime sources of wealth during the early years of the
I ndustrial Revolution, coal and iron were the foundati on stones on whi ch the
revol uti on was bui l t. Both were in pl enti ful suppl y and woul d provi de
respectively the energy and the tools for industrial expansion.
Both industry and agriculture had met the challenges of a changi ng world by
i nnovati ng and moderni si ng. These changes i mproved the qual i ty of life for
many, but others found their lives turned upside-down and struggled to come to
terms with a new world.
THE DOWNSIDE OF PROGRESS
Working conditions
As more and more land was encl osed and common l and became more
scarce, thousands of peasants were forced to find other ways of making a
living. Many went to work in the cities, while those who remained in the country
often fell i nto poverty. I n order to deal with the i ncreasi ng number of poor
peasants, workhouses were built all over the country. These were grim and often
cruel institutions where the destitute were given just enough to eat in return for
their labour. The workhouse was to remain a feature of British life right up to and
during the nineteenth century.
Those who went to the cities did find paid employment, but they had to endure
subhuman living and working condi ti ons. Factories had an insatiable need for
workers, so children were employed along with men and women. No allowance
was given for their age and they had to work the same long hours and endure the
same unhealthy environment their parents had to.
Historical and Social Background 89 uUffl
Cities found it difficult to cope with the new arrivals. Many families lived in
overcrowded slums without any form of sanitation. Some people did not even
have beds and slept on sawdust on the floor. It is of little surprise then that, on
average, one in four babies died at birth.
Living conditions
Despite the constant struggle to make a living in both city and country,
the quality of people's lives improved in various ways.
Hospi tal s became a feature of most new towns, with the resul t that life
expectancy increased for those who managed to survive birth. Many towns also
col l ected a new tax cal l ed 'rates'. Thi s money was used to i mprove l i vi ng
conditions and, where it was put to good use, a sense of civic pride developed
among the i nhabi tants. In the country, farmers who had benefi ted from the
agri cul tural revol uti on bui l t fi ne bri ck houses that made thei r lives more
comfortable and lessened the hardships of winter. Travelling also became easier
as more roads were built, while a network of canals was used mainly to transport
goods.
Two drinks played a big part in everyday life in eighteenth-century Britain: gin
and coffee. Dri nki ng al cohol was a way to escape from the drudgery of the
working day, so the gin palaces that sprang up in many towns became the
favourite haunts of people in search of company and cheap liquor. The social
effects of heavy drinking were devastating, however, as families were ruined and
town centres were transformed into battlefields for drunken mobs.
Coffee, brought in from the colonies, was a more genteel drink than gin. The first
coffee house was opened in London in 1652, to be followed by many more in the
eighteenth century. They were the favourite meeting places for the middle and
upper classes, who exchanged information about politics, literature, business and
the affairs of the day.
EVERYDAY LIFE
Quality of life
Coffee houses
The voice of the middle classes was to be heard not onl y in the coffee THE RLSE OF
houses but in society at large. They were the people who had become rich THE MIDDLE CLASSES
thanks to the agricultural and industrial revolutions, and on whom the
economi c well-being of Britain increasingly depended. They were the farmers Visual Link D8
who had moderni sed thei r encl osed l ands, the factory owners whose
entrepreneuri al spirit woul d transform Bri tai n i nto the first i ndustri al i sed
country in the world, and the merchants who traded around the world.
For centuries, power had rested with the aristocracy and had been handed down
from father to son, but in eighteenth-century Britain power became increasingly
associated with money, and those who had it became more and more influential
in the fields of politics and the arts.
I nitiative, self-reliance, faith and patriotism were the qualities that helped the
middle classes to become the driving force in Britain in the eighteenth and later
centuries.
GOVERNMENT
Prime Minister
Tories and Whigs
The House of Hanover
Economic progress, powered by the middle classes, was greatly helped by
the stable political climate of the time.
The Glorious Revolution ( p. D85) had limited the power of the monarch in
favour of Parliament.
Thi s process was consol i dated during the ei ghteenth century and led to the
creati on of a consti tuti onal monarchy. Under thi s system the king or queen
formally appointed ministers, but they were then answerable to Parliament. The
monarch depended on Parliament for his i ncome and could not suspend laws
passed by it.
The ministers formed a Cabinet that made major policy decisions. Gradually it
was felt that one member of the Cabi net should act as leader to coordi nate
government strategy, and so the post of Prime Minister was created. Sir Robert
Walpole, who was a member of the cabinet between 1721 and 1742, is regarded
as being the first Prime Minister in British history.
Another major devel opment was the establ i shment of a two-party pol i ti cal
system in parliament. The old aristocracy and the Church of England tended to
support the Tory party, while the emerging middle classes generally supported
the Whigs, who held a majority in parliament for sixty years from the reign of
George I. The term 'Tories' is still used to refer to the Conservative party today.
While Parliament ran the country, the monarchy remained a powerful symbol of
Bri ti sh i denti ty and a l i nk wi th the past. After the reign of Queen Anne
(1702-1714), George I came to the throne and started the dynasty of the House
of Hanover, which lasted until 1837. A curious indication of how little the king
counted in ruling the country was the fact that George I could not even speak
English.
AT HOME AND ABROAD
Scotland
Colonial expansion
Although the first three quarters of the eighteenth century were generally
peaceful , parl i ament had to cal l out the army peri odi cal l y to sti fl e
rebellion at home and protect strategic interests abroad.
The unification of England and Scotland in 1707 was not universally accepted
north of the border. A rebel movement grew and fought for Scotti sh
independence, but it was finally defeated at the battl e of Culloden in 1745.
Following wars with France and Spain, Canada and Florida in North America,
Senegal in Africa and Grenada in the West I ndies became British possessions,
while the East India Company ( p. D87) consolidated its monopoly over trade
in the East. Al though France and Spai n did thei r utmost to thwart Bri ti sh
ambitions, the number of colonies continued to grow. They supplied cheap and
plentiful supplies of fur, sugar, tea, coffee, tobacco and silk, while Captain J ames
Cook opened new horizons when he became the first white man to set foot in
Australia in 1770.
Historical and Social Background 256uUffl
The first blow to British colonial expansion occurred in 1776, when the
American colonies declared their independence from the mother country
( p. El 12). The loss of America was indeed a big shock, but it was to
prove a minor setback in the economi c and social development of the country.
The economi c growth and relative pol i ti cal stabi l i ty that characteri sed the
eighteenth century were to have lasting effects. America may have been lost, but
the Industrial Revolution, the Agricultural Revolution and the strength of British
trade made a solid foundation from which Britain could set its sights on being a
major world power.
THE MAKING OF A WORLD
POWER
Ziive, the British
nder, is greeted by the
eader, Mia /affier;
g the British victory at
le of Plassey (1757).
TASK
a. What agricultural revolution took place in the eighteenth century?
b. How was industrial productivity increased?
c. How did the quality of life gradually improve?
d. What social class emerged in the eighteenth century?
M ECHA NI SA TI ON
This extract is from a petition written by workers in Leeds (a major wool manufacturing centre in the North of
England). It appeared in a local newspaper in 1786.
... the Scribbling-Machines
1
have thrown thousands of our petitioners out of employ
2
, whereby
3
they ... are
not able to procure a maintenance for their families, and deprived them of the opportunity of bringing up
their children to labour. ... The number of Scribbling-Machines ... being no less than one hundred and
seventy ... as each machine will do as much work in twelve hours, as ten men can in that time do by hand ...
one machi ne will do as much work in one day as would otherwise employ twenty men. ... We therefore
hope, that the feelings of humanity will lead those who have it in their power to prevent the use of those
machi nes, to give every discouragement they can to what has a tendency so prejudicial to their fellow-
creatures.
... But what are our children to do; are they to be brought up in idleness
4
? I ndeed as things are, it is no
wonder to hear of so many executi ons
5
; for our parts, though we may be thought i l l i terate men, our
conceptions are, that bringing children up to industry, and keeping them employed, is the way to keep them
from falling into those crimes, which an idle habit naturally leads to.
(...)
Signed, on behalf of THOUSANDS, by Joseph Hepworth Thomas Lobley, Robert Wood Thos. Blackburn
GLOSSARY
1. Scribbling-
Machines: automatic
wool-making
machines
2. employ: work
3. whereby: becauseof
which
4. idleness: lack of
activity
5. executions: death
penalties
An employer keeps a
close eye on his worke
in this seventeenth-
century textile mill.
TASK
In our automated world we take it for granted that machines and gadgets work for us.
Think of one machine, gadget, home appliance or electronic device that is commonly used today. Describe what
it does. Then say how long it took and how much work was needed to do the same job in the past.
Historical and Social Background 93 u U f f l
MAIN EVENTS: The Puritan, Restoration and Augustan Ages
1625-1649 Reign of Charles 1
1629 Charles 1 dissolves Parliament and rules for eleven years without one
1640 Charles reopens Parliament
1642-1649 Civil War
June 30th 1649 Charles 1 executed
1649-1660 The Commonwealth
1652-1654 War with Holland
1660-1685 Reign of Charles II
1666 The Great Fire of London
1685-1688 Reign of James II
1689-1702 Reign of William III
1689 The First Bill of Rights
1690 The Glorious Revolution
1702-1714 Reign of Queen Anne (last of the Stuart dynasty)
1707 Unification of Scotland and England
1714-1727 Reign of George 1 (first king of the House of Hanover)
1727-1760 Reign of George II
1721-1742 Sir Robert Walpole becomes first de facto Prime Minister
1745 Scottish rebels defeated at the battle of Culloden
1756-1763 The Seven Years' War between England and France
1760-1820 Reign of George III
1770 Captain Cook discovers Australia
1776 American Declaration of Independence
y , , 94 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context
The Literary Background
POETRY
The Cavalier poets
The Metaphysical poets
John Donne
(1572-1631)
Songs and Sonnets
Puritan and Restoration Literature
For a period after the Renaissance, poetry lost its originality and power
and generally consisted of poor copies of Elizabethan models. There were,
however, some poets who broke with the Elizabethan tradition. They are commonly
divided into two groups: the Cavalier poets and the Metaphysi cal poets.
The Cavalier poets defended the monarchy against the Puritans during the reign of
Charles I. They included Robert Herrick, Thomas Carew, Robert Lovelace and Sir
J ohn Suckl i ng. They did not believe in an overly studious approach to the writing
of poetry. They saw the ideal gentleman as being a lover, a soldier, a wit, a musician
and a poet, and their poetry reflects their rather light-hearted approach to life. Their
poems embodied the spirit of the upper classes before the Puritan Commonwealth.
They wrote poetry for occasions such as births, marriages or great parties. They are
remembered primarily as the first poets to celebrate the events of everyday life,
and as such are the forerunners of an important tradition in English literature.
The Metaphysical poets, who included George Herbert, Ri chard Crashaw and
Henry Vaughan, fol l owed in the tradi ti on of J ohn Donne. The features of
Metaphysical poetry are:
the use of conceits*: comparisons between objects which at first glance seem to
have nothi ng in common;
the argumentative quality of the love poems, in which the poet tries to persuade
his lover to share his point of view;
the dramati c quality of the language, whi ch often seems to be one side of a
dialogue between the poet and his lover, or God, or himself;
the wide range of subjects from which the poet draws his imagery. Metaphysical
poets used, for example, the areas of the sciences, travel, medicine, al chemy
and philosophy to create original imagery. This is in stark contrast with much
of El i zabethan poetry whi ch used the stock i magery of the peri od (birds,
flowers, sun, moon, stars);
the use of wit*: wit in the seventeenth century referred to the ability to relate
di ssi mi l ar ideas, and i mpl i ed i ntel l ectual geni us. The Metaphysi cal poets
displayed this form of genius in the use of paradoxes*, conceits* and puns*.
The term 'metaphysical', which was used by the literary critic Samuel J ohnson
( p. D104) in the eighteenth century, may be misleading because the poetry did
not deal with philosophical speculation but with the themes of religion and love.
J ohnson, who was not an admi rer of thi s form of poetry, used the word
'metaphysical' to criticise what he considered to be the poets' desire to be original at
any cost. He was not alone in his criticism and, in fact, the Metaphysical poets were
unpopular throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It was not until
the beginning of the twentieth century that the admiration of the great modern
poet T.S. Eliot helped generate new appreciation for Donne and his followers.
The father of metaphysical poetry was J ohn Donne ( pp. D2-9). Although he
lived in the Elizabethan era, his poems were published posthumously and belong
both thematically and stylistically to this period.
In Songs and Sonnets Donne deals with the theme of love in a way that strongly
contrasts wi th the El i zabethan tradi ti on. Love is presented as an i ntensel y
i nti mate and physical experience. The poems are addressed to a very real lover,
often the poet's wife. The rhythm of the poems is the rhythm of natural speech
and the l anguage is dramati c. Stri ki ng and ori gi nal i mages cal l ed conceits*
associate dissimilar ideas, while paradoxes*, epigrams* and puns* are common
features. The poet often tries to persuade his lover to share his poi nt of view
through poetry which appeals both to the intellect and the emotions.
J ohn Donne deals with religious themes in the Holy Sonnets in an equally original
way. The poet addresses God in a tone that often borders on the irreverent, and
uses the language of physical suffering and love to describe his spiritual crises
and devotion.
While some poets fall clearly into the categories of Metaphysical or Cavalier, one of
the greatest poets of the era, Andrew Marvell ( pp. D10-13), combined features
of both schools. Marvell's style has the elegant sophistication of the Cavaliers while
his use of intense imagery, paradox and wit* is reminiscent of the metaphysicals.
Marvell was a prolific prose writer and essayist, but it is for his poems, which were
first printed three years after his death, that he is best remembered.
The greatest seventeenth century poet J ohn Mi l ton ( pp. D14-22) also defies
cl assi fi cati on. Al though some of hi s greatest works were publ i shed i n the
Restorati on period, Mi l ton bel ongs in spirit to the Puritan age of Cromwel l 's
Commonweal th, which he supported fervently. He was educated as a Humanist
( p. C54) and had a thorough knowledge of classical Greek and Latin literature.
His masterpiece Paradise Lost (1667) is written in the style of the Aeneid or the
Iliad and contains the classic conventi ons of the epic: elevated subject matter, an
i nvocati on to God, a begi nni ng in medias res, and detailed lists of characters.
Milton's passion for Greek and Latin made him very fond of long sentences - the
very first in Paradise Lost runs to sixteen lines - and both his sentence structure
and ri ch vocabul ary are l argel y Lati n-deri ved. His style and di cti on greatl y
influenced later English poetry.
Classical influences can also be seen in the work of J ohn Dryden. The son of a
weal thy Puritan family, he received a classical educati on and had a thorough
knowl edge of Greek and Latin l i terature. He was i nspi red by the Lati n poets
Virgil, Horace, Ovid and Tibullus and tried to reproduce the balance and clarity
of thei r work in his poetry. He became a master of the heroic couplet* - two
rhymi ng l i nes of i ambi c pentameters - and rhetori cal devi ces such as
parallelism*, antithesis* and repetition*. His best work is political: Absalom and
Achitophel (1681-1682), generally considered to be his greatest poem, was written
in support of the court in a period of political crisis.
Al though he is best remembered for hi s poetry, Dryden also wrote prose and
drama and is widely regarded as the father of literary criticism. He wrote several
essays on poetry and theatre, and tried to establish guidelines for good taste in
literature. He exercised a major i nfl uence on the poets of the early ei ghteenth
century, in particular Alexander Pope ( pp. D23-27).
Holy Sonnets
Andrew Marvell
(1621-1678)
John Milton
(1608-1674)
Visual Link D4
John Dryden
(1631-1700)
TASK
Write a name on each line
Father of literary criticism .
Wrote poems combining features of both the Cavalier
and the Metaphysical poets
Was mainly inspired by Latin poets
Wrote Absalom and Achitophel
Wrote the Holy Sonnets
Father of Metaphysical poetry
Wrote Paradise Lost
Wrote Songs and Sonnets
ill
DRAMA
Theatres closed
New theatres
Restoration theatres
Visual Link D4
Heroic tragedy
The Comedy of Manners
No great dramatists emerged in the immediate post-Shakespearean period.
Playwrights conti nued to write in the Shakespearean style but did not
reach the same great literary heights or introduce innovations of any note.
In 1642 the Puritans closed the theatres, declaring them improper places for
decent peopl e. Theatres remai ned cl osed for ei ghteen years and were not
reopened unti l Charl es II was restored to the throne in 1660. After the
Restoration the frugal, sober and sombre society created by the Puritans was
replaced by a more pleasure-seeking and licentious attitude to life. The immoral
behaviour of the Court set an example that was readily followed by the upper
classes.
The king, Charles II, ni cknamed 'the
Merry Monarch', was a patron of the
theatre and during his reign he com-
mi ssi oned the bui l di ng of two new
theatres: Drury Lane (1674) and the
Theatre Royal, Covent Garden (1732).
Restorati on theatres were very dif-
ferent from El i zabethan pl ayhouses
( pp. C58- 60). They were smal l er
and i ndoor. The audi ence no l onger
surrounded the stage but sat facing the
actors, who did not enter the stage
through doors at the back as they had
in El i zabethan ti mes, but from the
sides. Pai nted scenery was used to
reproduce settings. Performances took
place at night: the audience sat in the
dark while the stage was i l l umi nated
by candles and torches. Female roles,
which in the past had been played by
young boys, were now played by
women.
The middle and lower classes, who still lived by a strict Puritan moral code,
consi dered theatre-goi ng to be i mmoral , so drama became a form of
entertainment for the upper classes, and theatres became meeting places where
socialites displayed their fashionable clothes and discussed the latest gossip.
Restoration audiences favoured spectacular productions. Shakespeare's works
continued to be performed but changes were often made to the original texts to
make the productions more lavish and sensational. The Court had spent almost
twenty years in France, and the French influence can be seen in a new type of
drama called heroic tragedy, which became popular for a while. Heroic tragedies:
tried to emulate epic poetry;
were mainly about love and valour; the main character was generally a hero whose
passionate love conflicted with the demands of honour and his patriotic duty;
were written in rhyming couplets and in an elevated style, both of which made
the language extremely artificial.
Dryden's All for Love is a good example of this type of drama.
It was, however, in a type of pl ay cal l ed the Comedy of Manners that the
Restoration found its peculiar excellence.
Its main features were:
it reflected the life of the Court, which was portrayed as being immoral, corrupt
and licentious but also elegant, witty and intelligent;
Christopher Wren built St Paul's Cathedral
(1675- 1710) on the site of the building
that had been destroyed by the Creat Fire
of 1666.
H
97 O P
its main targets of criticism were middle-class values and ideals, conventions,
hypocrisy and above all the institution of marriage. True love was rarely a theme
as sex was favoured over feelings;
the dialogues were prose rather than verse. The comi c effect was achi eved
primarily through the wit and sparkle of the dialogue, which was often in the
form of 'repartee', a kind of verbal fencing match of witty comments and replies;
in Elizabethan drama comic characters were usually low and humble in origin.
In the Comedy of Manners they were aristocratic ladies and gentl emen who
were easily recognised by the audience as fashionable members of society;
two new mal e character types were created: the gallant and the fop. The
gallant was usually the hero of the play. He was a witty, elegant, sophisticated
yet cynical lover. The fop was a figure of fun, ridiculed for his stupidity and
pompous pretentiousness;
the leading female characters generally had no feelings or morals. Their only
interests were fashion and breaking their marital vows;
the characters usual l y had names that captured some aspects of thei r
personality: Scandal, Lady Fidget, Petulant, Mrs Squeamish, Sir Fopling Flutter
and Tattle. Although this form of character naming dates back to the Morality
plays ( p. B47), it is important to note that the Comedy of Manners had no
moral didactic purpose. These plays were written purely to entertain theatre
audiences.
Whi l e the Comedy of Manners was a distinctly English form of drama, it was
clearly i nfl uenced by Conti nental writers and trends. Restoration dramatists
learned how to develop characters from the French playwright Moliere (1622-
1673), whose elegant style also became a model to be i mi tated. The Spanish
writer Calderon de la Barca (1600- 1681) showed them how to organi se a
compl ex plot that often involved mul ti pl e subplots. The I talian Commedia
dell'Arte provided inspiration for the more farcical elements of the plays.
The most outstanding writer of the Comedy of Manners was William Congreve
( pp. D33-37). I n his masterpi ece The Way of the World he el i mi nated the
coarser el ements of the genre and pushed its literary limits to new heights of
sophistication and refinement.
The Comedy of Manners has continued to be a popular form of theatre. In the
eighteenth century, playwrights eliminated the i ndecency but mai ntai ned the
wit and gaiety. In the early nineteenth century under Queen Victoria it declined,
to be revived, however, by Oscar Wilde ( Module G) at the turn of the century.
Since then it has become popular again through the works of both British and
American writers.
Meanwhile, Elsewhere,
p. D98
William Congreve
(1670-1720)
Visual Link D5
TASK
MEANWHI LE, ELSEWHERE
LINK TO FRENCH LITERATURE: Mol i ere
English Restoration comedy was greatly influenced
by the works of the French playwright and actor
J ean-Baptiste Poquelin, better known as Moliere.
Like Congreve, he satirised the shortcomings and
hypocrisy of his society, but went even further than
his English counterpart in poi nti ng out the
idiosyncrasies of humanity at large.
His comedi es, whi ch are still widely produced
today, ridicule human vices as exemplified in his
characters: Le Tartiiffe (1664) is a religious hypocrite,
Le Misanthrope (1666) is anti soci al , Le Malade
Imaginaire (1673) is a self-centred hypochondriac
and the main character in L'Avare(1669), Harpagon,
is so greedy that he forces his chi l dren i nto
unwanted but lucrative marriages.
As well as pointing out the defects of individuals,
Moliere also examined the relationships between
people. In L'Ecole des Maris (1661), for example, an
older husband tries, wi th disastrous results, to
come to terms with his younger wife ( Milton,
p. D21).
While Moliere's place is assured in the history of
European theatre, he is also remembered every
day in the French language because the names of
his characters are used to describe a person who
has a particular vice, e.g. a hypocrite is a Tartuffe
and a miser is a Harpagon.
Le Malade Imagine
(1673).
TASKS
1 Link each person to a quote.
Harpagon
Tartuffe
Le Malade Imaginaire
Le Misanthrope
The husband in L'Ecole des Maris
'Why did I ever get married?'
'I must have some rare disease.'
'Money makes the world go round.'
'If only everyone was perfect like me.
'Whoneeds friends anyway?'
2 What modern vices would you ridicule in a play? What name would you give the characters that represent
them? For example: A drunkard - Mr Beerall. Choose one of your characters and prepare a fifty-word plot for a play.
PROSE
Robert Burton
(1577-1640)
Sir Thomas Browne
(1605-1682)
John Milton
(1608-1674)
John Bunyan
(1628-1688)
The great political and social turmoil of the first half of the seventeenth
century was reflected in the prose writing of the time. The burning issues
of religion, education, politics and philosophy were the subjects of pamphlets,
essays and treati ses. The l anguage used in these prose works was heavi l y
i nfl uenced by Latin, whi ch was still the principal language of i nternati onal
culture. Sentences were long and complex in structure, vocabulary was Latinate
and concepts were frequently repeated.
Robert Burton and Sir Thomas Browne are perhaps the two most representative
prose writers of the period.
Robert Burton wrote The Anatomy of Melancholy (1621), a huge treatise of over
half a mi l l i on words. It is an analysis of the causes, symptoms and cures for
melancholy, which was considered an illness at the time.
Sir Thomas Browne wrote Religio Medici (1642), a spiritual autobiography in
which he shows that religion and science can coexist.
Although he preferred poetry (he described writing prose as writing with his left
hand), J ohn Mi l ton also produced some excel l ent pamphl ets i ncl udi ng
Areopagitica (1644), a defence of free speech and writing, and Of Education (1664)
in which he expresses his opinions on how young people should be educated.
All three of these writers were extremely familiar with Latin, and its influence is
cl ear i n thei r works: the sentences are l ong and compl ex wi th numerous
subordinate clauses which often lead to confusion.
The writer who most successfully captured the Puritan spirit is undoubtedly J ohn
Bunyan. A firm believer in Parliament, he joined Cromwell's army at the age of
si xteen to fi ght agai nst
Charl es I. When the army
di sbanded in 1649 Bunyan
returned home to Bedford
near London and started
preaching. He was self-taught
and based most of hi s
l earni ng on the Authorised
Version of the Bible, whi ch
had been published in 1611.
Duri ng the Restorati on he
was i mpri soned for twel ve
years for preaching without a
l i cence. He subsequentl y
spent several spells in prison
but finally obtained a licence
and conti nued preachi ng
until his death in 1688.
He started wri ti ng his great
masterpi ece The Pilgrim's
Progress, which was published
in 1678, during one of his
periods in prison. It is a pow-
he first picture in J ohn Bunyan's
he Pilgrim's Progres s , which he
egan to write in 1675.
The Pilgrim's Progress
The scientific revolution
Visual Link D6
The Royal Society
A new prose style
Thomas Hobbes
(1588-1679)
John Locke
(1632-1704)
The diary
Samuel Pepys
(1633-1703)
Pieces of thePast, p. D102
John Evelyn
(1620-1706)
erful allegory of man's quest for salvation that is widely considered to be one of
the greatest works of religious literature of all time and a forerunner to the eigh-
teenth-century novel.
It tells the story of the mai n character, Christian, who travels from the City of
Destruction to the City of God, has many adventures and faces many perils on
his way. The language is simple and concise and accurately represents the speech
of rural peopl e at the ti me when Bunyan wrote. The book's engagi ng pl ot,
humorous episodes and often i roni c tone made it hugel y successful in Britain
and abroad.
The scientific revolution, whi ch took place after the Restoration, also played an
i mportant part in creating a new and clear, conci se prose style. Charles II was
fasci nated by sci ence and carri ed out hi s own experi ments i n anatomy.
Empiricism - the idea that scientific assertions had to be tested by experiment -
was becomi ng increasingly i mportant. From 1697 weekly lectures were held in
London on astronomy, geometry, medi ci ne, law, di vi ni ty and musi c. These
lectures - whi ch strangely for the ti me were given in English and not Latin -
attracted some of the great thinkers of the time and prompted the foundation of
the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge. I nterest in
experi mental sci ence led to the di scoveri es of such great sci enti sts as I saac
Newton, who demonstrated the laws of gravitation, and Edmund Halley, who
published the first star catalogue based on the telescope, and calculated the orbit
of many comets, including the comet of 1682 called 'Halley's comet'.
The new studies in experimental science needed clear, concise language. English
gradually abandoned the l ong and compl ex sentence structures whi ch led to
ambiguities and obscurities and replaced them with a simpler, more accurate style.
The new prose style can be seen in the works of the two great philosophers of the
period, Thomas Hobbes and J ohn Locke.
Thomas Hobbes, in his work Leviathan (1651), expressed his support for absolute
monarchy as the onl y form of government that can protect soci ety from the
destructive greed of the individual.
J ohn Locke supported the opposite viewpoint in his Two Treatises of Government
(1690), which greatly influenced the leaders of the American Revolution, and in
whi ch he suggested that a parl i ament elected by the people is the best form of
government. Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) made an
important contribution to the development of English empiricism. Both Hobbes
and Locke wrote with clarity and economy.
The second half of the seventeenth century saw the emergence of a new literary
form: the diary. As science started to explore the workings of the human mind,
people became more interested in themselves, and started to keep records of their
private thoughts and actions in diaries.
The most famous diarist of the period was Samuel Pepys. He was an extraordinary
man: he founded the Royal Navy, was an outstanding Civil Servant and became
President of the Royal Society. It is not, however, the public side of the man that
his diary reveals but the intimate details of his private life. He wrote the diary in
eleven volumes between 1660 and 1669. He wrote for himself, in a secret code of
shorthand, contractions and foreign words, and the texts were only deciphered in
1825. He spoke of the great events of the day such as the Great Plague (1665), the
Great Fire (1666), the Dutch Wars (1664) and political intrigues. But it is his frank
accounts of everyday life in a wealthy family, written in a simple style and rich in
detail and humour, that make his work unique.
Pepys's friend J ohn Evelyn, a country gentleman and one of the founders of the
Royal Society, also kept a diary. He started writing it when he was only twenty-one
| Pppjl| j^ 9
The Li terary Background 101 Q [ M
years old and continued for most of his life. He was interested in gardens, travel
and life at court. He wrote mostly about places and events and his diary is full of
information and scientific observation. Unlike Pepys, he did not include intimate
details about his personal life. Indeed, the more detached, impersonal tone suggests
that he may have wri tten the diary not purely for personal pleasure but for a
possible future audience. Like Pepys', his diary is a valuable historical document.
Seventeenth-century English literature will be remembered for the contri buti on
of the Cavalier and Metaphysical poets and, in particular, for the work of J ohn
Donne, Andrew Marvell and J ohn Mi l ton. The great theatrical i nnovati on was
The Comedy of Manners, whi ch has si nce become a standard of the Engl i sh
stage. The century's greatest achievement was, however, in prose writing, where
the development of a straightforward, concise and accurate prose style provided
the foundation on which the great novel writing of the eighteenth century could
be built.
Summing up
The Great Fire of
.ondon (1666).
TASK
a. Most prose works in the seventeenth century were
l a] religious pamphlets, philosophical essays and
scientific texts.
~b] collections of short stories and didactic novels.
b. Prose writers wrote in
a simplified form of Latin.
~b~| a Latinate form of English.
c. John Bunyan wrote ThePilgrim's Progress,
[a] a humorous novel about the travels of an
allegorical character.
j~b~l a deeply religious pamphlet written in highly
complex Latinised English.
d. Samuel Pepys's diary deals with
fa] great events and everyday life.
fb] the history of The Royal Navy.
SAM UEL PEPYS' S DI ARY
Samuel Pepys's diary includes interesting comments on theLondon theatrical scene.
'(I went) To the Theatre, where was acted Beggars Bush; it was very well done;
and here the first time that ever I saw woman come upon the stage.' (3rd
January 1661)
'And here [at the King's Theatre] I sitting behi nd in a dark place, a lady
spit
1
backward upon me by a mistake, not seeing me, but after seeing her
to be a very pretty lady, I was not troubled at it at all.' (28th J anuary 1661)
'Saw The Scornful
2
Lady now done by a woman whi ch makes the play
appear much better than ever it did to me.' (12th February 1661)
'To the King's Theatre, where we saw Midsummers Nights Dreame, which I
have never seen before, nor shall ever I see in my life. I saw, I confess,
some good danci ng and some handsome women, whi ch was all my
pleasure.' (29th September 1662)
'Here [at the King's Theatre] I saw ... Lady Cromwell, when the House began to fill she put on her vizard
3
, and
so kept it on all the play; which of late is become a great fashion among the ladies, which hides their whole
face. So to the Exchange, to buy things with my wife; among others, a vizard for herself.' (12th J une 1663)
'To the King's House to The Mayd's Tragedy; but vexed
4
all the while with two talking ladies and Sir Charles
Sedley, yet pleased to hear their discourse ... And one of the l adi es... did sit with her mask on, all the play,
and being exceedingly witty as ever I heard woman, did talk most pleasantly with him; but was, I believe, a
virtuous woman, and of quality. He would fain
5
know who she was, but she would not tell; yet did give him
many pleasant hints
6
of her knowledge of him, by that means setting his brains at work to find out who she
was, and did give hi m leave to use all means to find out who she was but pulling off her mask. He was
mighty witty, and she also making sport of him very inoffensively, that a more pleasant rencontre
7
1 never
heard. By that means lost the pleasure of the play wholly ...' (18th February 1666)
'After dinner with my wife to the King's House, to see The Mayden Queene, a new play of Dryden's mightily
commended
8
for the regularity of it and ... wit; and the truth is, there is a comical part done by Nel l ... that I
never can hope ever to see the like done again by a man or woman ... but so great performance of a comical
part was never, I believe, in the world before as Nell doth this, both as a mad girlie and then, most and best
of all, when she comes like a young gallant
9
... It makes me, I confess, admire her.' (2nd March 1667)
'To the King's House, and there, going in, met with [actress] Knepp, and she took us up [to the backstage and
room where] Nell was dressing hersel f... she gave us frui t... But, Lord! to see how they were both painted
would make a man mad, and did make me l oath
10
them; and what base company of men comes among
them, and how lewdly
11
they talk! ... But to see how Nell cursed
12
, for having so few people in the pit
13
, was
pretty; the other house [theatre] carrying away all the people at the new play.' (5th October 1667)
GLOSSARY
1. spit: expelled saliva
2. Scornful: showing contempt
3. vizard: mask
4. vexed: annoyed
5. fain: willingly
6. hints: suggestions
7. rencontre: unexpected meeting
8. commended: recommended,
praised
9. gallant: afashionablegentleman
10. loath: loathe, feel disgust for
11. lewdly: obscenely
12. cursed: said obscenities
13. pit: theareain front of thestage
TASK
Use a red pen to underline comments which apply only to the age when the diary was written (for example: 'the
first time that ever I saw woman come upon the stage'). Use a blue pen to underline comments which could
equally be used to describe the situation today. Look at the text now: Is there more red or blue?
Augustan Literature
The seventeenth century was a period of tumultuous change, witnessing
as it did a revolution, a civil war, major parliamentary reform and the
emergence of a powerful new middle class. The extravagance of the Renaissance
was replaced by Puritan pragmatism and although the Commonweal th failed,
Puritan morality became an integral part of the English character.
The scientific revolution and rationalist philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes,
Rene Descartes and J ohn Locke ( p. D100) spread the idea that reason rather
than rel i gi on was the key to the understandi ng of man and the world that
surrounds hi m. It is not surprising, therefore, that the ei ghteenth century
brought with it a general desire for order, clarity and stability. Writers of the
period drew inspiration from the Latin poets Virgil, Horace and Ovid who, under
the patronage of Emperor Augustus (27 BC-AD 14), created the golden age of
classical literature. English writers tried to emulate the Latin poets, and indeed
the early and mid-eighteenth century became known as 'the Augustan Age'. The
influence of the classical writers is most clearly seen in the poetry of the first half
of the century.
The poets of the Augustan Age admired the harmony, concision, elegance
and technical perfection of classical literature. They tried to adhere to the
guidelines for good taste set out in Horace's Ars Poetica, which was widely studied
at the time. In it the Roman poet established the basic principles for the writing
of poetry.
Evidence of the Augustan poets' self-control can be seen in their quest for perfect
form. They imitated classical literary genres such as the epic, pastoral, satire* and
Pindaric ode*. They paid great attenti on to rhyme and metre: iambic
pentameters* rhymed in pairs (heroi c couplets*) became the standard poeti c
measure. They sought technical perfection rather than originality.
The early eighteenth-century poets believed that the language of poetry should
be far removed from everyday speech. They wrote for a cultured upper-class
reading public in high poetic diction and Latinate sentence structures.
The neo-classical poets, as they came to be called, did not write poetry to express
their own feelings. They believed that the poet had a social role: to explore the
universal human experience and expose society's evils. Not surprisingly, much of
their greatest work came in the form of satire.
The greatest poet of the Augustan age was Al exander Pope. When he was just
sixteen he wrote his Pastorals, in which he displayed great skill in poetic metre.
In 1714 he published his masterpiece, the mock-heroi c poem The Rape of the
Lock. In this satire of Augustan society he shows his unrivalled skill in the use of
the heroic couplet. Most of the work that followed was moral and satirical. The
Dunciad (1728) is a satirical attack on the debased moral values of eighteenth-
century society; the Essay on Man and Moral Essays are philosophical verse essays
on the human condition.
Pope was unquesti onabl y the most popular poet of his day. In the ni neteenth
century his work was widely criticised as lacking poetic value and depending too
heavily on i mi tati on. The great twenti eth-century poet and cri ti c T.S. Eliot,
however, re-appraised the work of Pope, stating that he preferred the conscious
craftsmanship and attention to poetic form of the neo-classicals to the poetry of
personal emoti ons, whi ch characteri sed the Romanti c peri od of the l ate
eighteenth and early nineteenth century ( Module E).
INTRODUCTION
'TheAugustan Age'
POETRY
Horace's Ars Poetica
Alexander Pope
(1688-1744)
Visual Link D5
PROSE
Journalism
The Tatler
Al though the neo-cl assi cal poetry of the Augustan Age is still widely
admired, the eighteenth century is best remembered for the development
of prose-writing. The early part of the century witnessed a dramatic rise in prose
output in the form of journalism, essay writing, political satire and pamphleteering.
This proliferation of prose-writing can be attributed to a number of factors:
the advancement of pri nti ng technol ogy, whi ch made publ i shi ng more
efficient and cheaper;
the expansion of the school system and the subsequent growth in the number
of people who could read and write;
the opening of circulating libraries, which gave people access to newspapers,
journals and books;
the growth in the number of middle-class readers. In previous centuries reading
had largely been confi ned to the ari stocracy and the upper classes. By the
beginning of the eighteenth century the middle classes were better educated
and wished to understand the world in whi ch they had become a potent
economic and political force;
the increase in the number of women readers. The Puritans considered their
wives to be equal partners in marriage, busi ness and spiritual affairs, and
encouraged them to read. Ti me-consumi ng household tasks such as making
bread, candl es and cl othes were no l onger necessary si nce most of these
commodi ti es could now be bought in shops, and consequentl y women had
more time to dedicate to reading.
The new middle-class reader-
ship was largely Puritan and
showed a distinct preference
for factual wri ti ng over
fiction (which they regarded
to some extent as lying). In
response to thi s taste there
was a remarkabl e prolifera-
ti on of journal i sti c writing.
Two great figures stand out
in this field in the early part
of the century: Ri chard
Steele and J oseph Addison.
When Richard Steele started
publ i shi ng his newspaper
The Tatler in 1709, there
were already several newspa-
pers in ci rcul ati on contai n-
ing information about home
and forei gn affai rs. Steel e
understood that the new
middle-class reader needed
to be entertai ned as well as
informed, and so he includ-
ed in his newspaper articles
on fashi on, taste, gossip,
duel l i ng and gambl i ng as
well as serious pieces on the
pol i ti cal issues of the day.
Later Steel e joi ned forces
I
T H E
S P E C T A T O R ,
I . THURSDAY, MARCH I , 1710- 11.
Non fumum ex fulgore, fed exfumo ilare lucem
Cogitat, ut fpeciofa dehinc miracula promat.
HOR. Ars Poet. ver. 143.
Onewith aflafh begins, and endsinfmoke ;
The other out of fmokebrings glorious light,
And (without railing expettation high)
Surprifes u s with dazzlingmiracles. R O s co M M O N .
I
HAVE obferved, that aReader feldom perufes
a book with pleafure, until he knows whether
thewriter of it be a black or a fair man, of a
mild or choleric difpofition, married or a bache-
lor, with other particulars of the like nature, that
conduce very much to the right underftanding of
an author. To gratify this curiofity, which is fo
natural to areader, I defign this paper and my next
as prefatory difcourfesto my followingwritings, and
-hall give fome account in them of thefeveral per-
fons that are engaged in this work. As the chief
VOL. I, f A trouble
The first issue ofThe Spectator (1710).
with his old school friend J oseph Addison and together they published a new
periodical called The Spectator (1711-1714).
Like its predecessor, The Spectator was aimed at a middle-class reading publ i c.
However, it contai ned more essays on literary and moral issues and was less
concerned wi th pol i ti cal news. I t was wri tten i n clear, si mpl e, al most
conversati onal prose whi ch could be understood by any reasonabl y educated
person. Its appeal was i ncreased by the i ntroducti on of a group of fi cti ti ous
characters representing all walks of life in eighteenth-century England including
commerce, the army, the country gentry, the Church and the town. It appeared
daily and was immensely popular. Its articles were often the subject of debate in
the fashionable coffee houses which had become centres of business transactions
and social life.
Samuel Johnson also started his literary career as a journalist, making contributions
to various publications and eventually publishing his own periodical, The Rambler.
A great classicist, J ohnson wrote poetry, drama, essays on pol i ti cal and moral
matters, biographies and literary criticism of the highest order. However, he is
perhaps best remembered for his Dictionary of the English Language (1755), the
first attempt to standardise the pronunciation, definitions and meaning of over
40,000 English words.
The eighteenth-century novel was, to a large degree, an evolution of the
non-fi cti onal prose-writing of the period. Prose fi cti onal works of the
previous centuries, based on old legends, ancient battles and chivalrous medieval
adventures, had little appeal for the new middle-class readers who wished to read
about themsel ves and the world they lived i n. Five towering literary figures -
Daniel Defoe, Samuel Richardson, Henry Fielding, J onathan Swift and
Laurence Sterne - moulded fictional prose into a literary form that appealed to
the ei ghteenth-century reader. I n doing so they created the domi nant literary
genre of the next three centuries: the modern novel.
Not surprisingly, many of the early novel i sts started thei r literary careers in
journal i sm. Dani el Defoe wrote for several peri odi cal s and started his own
newspaper, The Review, before turning to novel-writing at the age of sixty.
His first novel, Robinson Crusoe (1719), was loosely based on the real-life experience
of a shipwrecked sailor, Alexander Selkirk, and was presented as a true story in
diary form told by the hero himself. The fact that it was published as a true story
made it more acceptabl e to mi ddl e-cl ass readers, who regarded fi cti on wi th
suspicion. The hero of the story, Robinson, also had a strong appeal for the new
readership as he was a perfect example of the Puritan ideal of a self-made man: an
ordinary man who, through hard work and faith i n God, overcomes adversity.
Robinson Crusoe is generally regarded as the first novel in the English language.
Defoe went on to write five more novels, Captain Singleton, Moll Flanders, Colonel
Jack, Roxana, Memoirs of a Cavalier and a pseudo-factual account of London
during the great plague entitled A Journal of the Plague Year.
Whi l e Dani el Defoe showed little interest in the feelings and thoughts of his
characters, Samuel Richardson's contri buti on to the development of the novel
lies in the attention he paid to his characters' psychological profiles.
His most successful novel, Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740), tells the story of a
young servant girl who, having resisted the amorous advances of her master,
wins his heart and eventual l y marries hi m. The novel is composed of letters,
mostly written by Pamela, and her personal diary of events. The epistolary form
was already popul ar i n France but Ri chardson raised it to new hei ghts. I t is,
however, in the creation of characters with psychological depth that Richardson
The Spectator
Samuel Johnson
(1709-1784)
THE NOVEL
Daniel Defoe
(1660-1731)
Robinson Crusoe
Samuel Richardson
(1689-1761)
Pamela, or Virtue
Rewarded
U) il 06 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context
Henry Fielding
(1707-1754)
Visual Link D5
Tom J ones
Jonathan Swift
(1667-1745)
shows his greatest skill. His characters are not simply men of action involved in
perilous adventures: they have i nner worlds of feel i ng and emoti ons whi ch
Richardson explores with insight and sensitivity. Pamela also shows Richardson's
mastery of dialogue, whi ch is presented in the form of long transcriptions of
conversations in the letters.
Pamela was greatly appreciated by the middle-class readership for its morality
and realism, and by eighteenth-century standards it was a runaway best-seller.
Richardson published two more novels, both in the epistolary form: Clarissa
(1747-1748) and Sir Charles Grandison (1753-1754).
Henry Fielding, the son of an aristocratic family, found the moralising in Pamela
so offensive that he wrote An Apology for the Life of Mrs Shamela Andrews (1741),
an i rreverent parody of Ri chardson's work. Fi el di ng was the first writer to
consciously explore and define the new literary genre. Unlike his predecessors,
he made no attempt to disguise his work as fact in the form of memoirs or letters.
He considered the novel to be a 'comic epic in prose', dealing not with the heroic
acti ons of the cl assi c epi c poems but wi th the uni mportant and preferabl y
humorous events of daily life.
In 1749, he published what many consider to be his masterpiece, The History of
TomJones, A Foundling. The novel tells the story of an orphan, Tom J ones, who
after many adventures discovers his true identity and marries the lady he loves.
Fielding was the first English novelist to create a well-structured compl ex plot
i nvol vi ng many characters drawn from di fferent social classes. His work is
innovative and original and he is generally considered to be the father of the
English comic novel.
While Henry Fielding employed humour to criticise the failings of eighteenth-
century society, J onathan Swift used hard-hitting and at times bitter satire. Swift,
like Defoe, started his career as a journalist. He quickly gained a reputation as a
satirist targeting, among other subjects, political corruption and English misrule
in Ireland.
A scene from Gulliver's
Travels (1996).
1
LI NK TO FRENCH LI TERATURE: Vol t ai r e
Jonathan Swift stands out among English writers of the eighteenth century as the one who attacked most fiercely the
shortcomings of his society and of man in general. Satire was his most powerful weapon, a weapon that was also used
togreat effect in France by Voltaire.
Francois-Marie Arouet (1694-1778), better known as Voltaire, was one of the leading intellectual figures behind the
French Enlightenment. He was agreat admirer of England and having been exiled there from 1726 to 1729, he wrote
the Lettres Philosophiques (1773) which attacked the French monarchy.
He was a tireless campaigner against evil, injustice and hypocrisy. In his most popular work, Candide (1759), the
hero, a young man called Candide, travels around the world and tries to understand the evils of life.
In the following text from Chapter 3 he is caught up in a war between the Bulgarians and the Arabs. Read it and
answer the questions.
Never was anything so gallant, so well accoutred
1
, so brilliant, and so finely disposed as the two armies. The
trumpets, fifes
2
, hautboys
3
, drums, and cannon made such harmony as never was heard in Hell itself. The
entertainment began by a'discharge
4
of cannon, which, in the twinkling of an eye
5
, laid flat about 6,000 men
on each side. The musket
6
bullets swept away, out of the best of all possible worlds, ni ne or ten thousand
scoundrels
7
that infested its surface. The bayonet was next the sufficient reason of the deaths of several
thousands. The whole might amount to thirty thousand souls. Candide trembled like a philosopher, and
concealed himself as well as he could during this heroic butchery.
At length, while the two kings were causing Te Deums
8
to be sung in their camps, Candide took a resolution
to go and reason somewhere else upon causes and effects. After passing over heaps of dead or dying men, the
first place he came to was a neighbouring village, in the Arabian territories, which had been burned to the
ground by the Bulgarians, agreeably to the laws of war. Here lay a number of old men covered with wounds,
who beheld
9
their wives dying with their throats cut, and hugging their children to their breasts, all stained
10
with blood. There several young virgins, whose bodies had been ripped
11
open, after they had satisfied the
natural necessities of the Bulgarian heroes, breathed their last; while others, half-burned in the flames,
begged to be dispatched
12
out of the world. The ground about them was covered with the brains, arms, and
legs of dead men.
Chapter 3
GLOSSARY
1. accoutred: equipped 5. twinkling of an eye: one second
6. musket: rifle
7. scoundrels: bad and dishonest men
8. TeDeums: religious songs
9. beheld: saw
10. stained: discoloured
tl.ripped: torn
12. dispatched: sent
2. fifes: small flutes
3. hautboys: oboes
4. discharge: firing
TASK
Who is Voltaire attacki ng in this passage?
Underl i ne the words that are i roni c.
Gulliver's Travels
Visual Link D5
Laurence Sterne
(1713-1768)
Tristram Shandy
DRAMA
Licensing Act: 1737
John Gay
(1685-1732)
Oliver Goldsmith
(1730-1774)
His great satirical novel, Gulliver's Travels, was published in 1726 and was an
immediate success. It has been interpreted at many different levels: as a travel
book for children, a biting political satire and an i ndi ctment of a society that
accepts war and corruption and rejects altruism and reason as a way of life.
Perhaps the most innovative work in the new field of novel-writing was done by
Laurence Sterne, an Anglican priest who seemed to adhere to none of the rules
that had been established for the new genre.
His Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (1761), ostensi bl y an
autobiography, includes so many digressions that by conventional standards the
plot is preposterous. Add to thi s unfi ni shed sentences, bl ank pages, pages
containing just one word, and idiosyncratic syntax and it is clear that this novel is
the work of a very ori gi nal mi nd. Sterne seems to suggest that the orderly
chronological narration of events which could be found in other novels of the
period did not reflect the perception of time and space which exists in the human
mind. In his attempt to capture human consciousness, Sterne foreshadows the
work of twenti eth-century novelists such as J ames J oyce, Virginia Wool f and
William Faulkner ( Module G).
The eighteenth century was not a particularly interesting period for drama.
The Li censi ng Act of 1737 allowed the Lord Chamberl ai n to censor
theatrical performances, and many tal ented writers i ncl udi ng Henry Fielding
turned their attention from drama to the new literary genre of novel-writing. While
theatre-goers in the seventeenth century were largely aristocratic, the eighteenth-
century theatre audience was predominantly middle class and dictated new trends:
the seventeenth-century Comedy of Manners ( pp. D96-97) was rejected for
its licentiousness and amorality;
Shakespeare conti nued to be performed, but hi s plays were often cut or
transformed to suit the public's taste;
melodramas - unimaginative sentimental pieces with strong didactic elements
- became very popular but were of little literary value;
pantomime, a mixture of singing, dancing and knockabout comedy, which was
clearly inspired by the Italian Commedia dell'Arte, was also very fashionable.
Perhaps the most notable theatrical work of the early part of the century is J ohn
Gay's The Beggar's Opera (1727). The play is a combination of prose and sixty-nine
songs set to traditional or fashionable melodies of the day. In it Gay makes fun of
the fashion for Italian opera and satirises contemporary politics. T/ ie Beggar's Opera
is generally considered to be the forerunner of the modern musical.
Towards the end of the century a more refined version of the Comedy of Manners
again became popular. Playwrights such as Ol i ver Gol dsmi th in She Stoops to
Conquer ( Text D9) and Ri chard Bri nsl ey Sheri dan in The School for Scandal
maintained the witty dialogue of Restoration comedies and excluded the indecent
and amoral elements.
A PERIOD OF TRANSITION
In the second hal f of the ei ghteenth century, the admi rati on for the
classical ideals which had characterised the Augustan Age began to wane:
the grandeur, rati onal i sm and elevated senti ments of the early part of the
century gave way to a simpler, more genuine form of expression;
there was a renewed interest in nature and the simple rural life;
in France the influential philosopher J ean J acques Rousseau questi oned the
importance of reason and exalted man's emotional capacities and imaginative
powers.
In English literature the earliest evidence of this cultural shift can be seen in the
poetry of Thomas Gray and the Graveyard Poets, and in Horace Walpole's Gothic
novel, The Castle ofOtranto.
A flier printed to attract people to
one of the earliest productions of
J ohn Cay's Beggar's Opera.
a/jusid v t j u v (/<m /i'arrnvriwiMtJ 'fof/o;
fis- fxri to- tAa/ej noted n>/ifcA c/ta.rrri e/uL, agtc
y entsr tastt/ tn, cfotinoJ t f c / e n t t ) & Monnv,
eqqa<rh wr tfc i/czm~ onTV .
Thomas Gray's literary reputation rests on a handful of poems written in the
middle years of the century. One of these poems, Elegy Written in a Country
Churchyard ( Text D7), is generally considered to be his masterpiece. In it the
poet walks around a graveyard reflecting on the mortality of the villagers who are
buried there. In the final lines the poet considers his own death and composes
his epitaph. The sentimental, melancholic introspection of the poem was a clear
shift from the neo-classical style, and foreshadowed what was to come during the
Romantic period.
Thomas Gray's work inspired a group of poets known as the 'Graveyard Poets'. Like
Gray, they found inspiration in graveyards and wrote on the theme of mortality.
In 1764, Horace Walpole, a close friend of Gray's, published a novel entitled The
Castle of Otranto. This tale tells the story of a family curse and is full of ghosts,
demons, torment, images of ruin and decay and violent emotions. Walpole was so
unsure of how the public would react to his work that he published it anonymously,
claiming that it was a translation of a work by a medieval Italian writer.
The novel was, in fact, a great success and gave rise to a new literary genre: the
Gothi c novel (the word Gothi c at the time was synonymous with the wild and
barbarous). This genre was further developed by Ann Radcliffe and Mary Shelley
in the Romantic period ( p. E88-95).
Thomas Gray
(1716-1771)
The Graveyard Poets
Horace Walpole
(1717-1797)
The Gothic Novel
TASK
a. Why is the first half of the eighteenth century called
'The Augustan Age'?
b. What factors encouraged authors to turn to prose
writing?
c. What trends dominated theatrical tastes in the
eighteenth century?
d. What changes took place on the literary scene in
the second half of the century?
-[to Art/Science/Mathematics
The Seventeenth Century - An Age of Discovery
The seventeenth century in Europe was an age of research, discovery
and i nnovati on in a wide range of fi el ds. The mathemati ci an
Leibnitz (1646- 1716) devised cal cul us, Galileo (1564- 1642)
perfected the telescope, and the philosophers Hobbes (1588-1679)
and Locke (1632-1704) examined how best to organise the state.
Britain produced, in particular, a group of scientists, a mathematician
and an architect whose work has had a lasting effect on their fields of
study. They were:
J ohn Napier (1550-1617) mathematician - he invented logarithms.
J ohn Ray (1627- 1705) natural i st - he i nvented a new system of
classification for plants.
Robert Boyle (1627- 1691)
physi ci st, general sci enti st,
phi l osopher. Not onl y did he
formul ate Boyl e's Law on gas
pressure, but he also helped to
Ian Vermeer, The Geographer
(c. 1668).
separate the science of chemistry from alchemy.
Robert Hooke (1635-1702) mathemati ci an, physicist, astronomer
and naturalist. Among his many inventions was the first pneumatic
pump.
Isaac Newton (1642- 1727) mathemati ci an and physi ci st - he
formulated the Law of Gravity and developed calculus independently
of Leibnitz.
Christopher Wren (1632-1723) mathemati ci an, astronomer and
architect. A leading scientist of his day and president of the Royal
Society. He is best remembered for his reconstructi on of St Paul's
Cathedral after the Great Fire of London (1666).
PROJECT
a. Fi nd out as much as you can about the wor k of one of the above men. Your research will be done in I tal i an,
but try to get used to taki ng notes in Engl i sh. Use a di cti onary to fi nd the transl ati on for key wor ds.
b. Prepare a tal k in Engl i sh on what you have r esear ched.
c. If you have ti me, do some mor e research on di scoveri es and devel opments that have been made si nce the
si xteenth centur y in the fi el d you have exami ned.
A potrait of J ohn Locke by
Herman Vereist (16417- 1690?).
A potrait of David Hume by
lames Tassie (1735- 1799).
Montesquieu.
CROSS-CURRICULAR LI NK [ t 0 philosophy/History
The Age of Reason
Robinson Crusoe was a huge best-seller in the eighteenth century because it told the story of a man who,
even though he believed in God, used his powers of logic and reasoning to resolve practical problems. He
was an heroic figure for an age that wanted to free itself from the superstitions of the past and build a future
based on man's ability to understand the world around him and change it.
Philosophers in England and France, in particular, developed theories that were to change the political and
social histories of their countries. Choose one of the following and do a research project as indicated below
( Visual Link D6).
J ohn Locke (1632-1704)
In many ways he was the father of the Age of Reason. Among his many writings were Thoughts concerning
Education (1693) on how to bring up young boys and his Letters on Toleration (1689-1704), which defend
the right to freedom of religious belief and expression.
David Hume (1711-1766)
Hume wrote on a wide range of topics, including politics in Political Discourses (1752) and religion in
Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (1779).
Montesqui eu (1689-1755)
In his most influential work, De TEsprit des Lois, he argues against despotism.
PROJECT
Fi nd out what the mai n i deas are in the work/ works menti oned. Expl ai n why these i deas wer e new and a break
wi th the past. Expl ai n how these i deas i nf l uenced the soci al and/ or pol i ti cal hi story of the country.
THE ROMANTIC
AGE
1776-1837
7 wandered lonely as a cloud,
that floats on high o'er vales and hills.'
From I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud by Wi l l i am Wordsworth
INTRODUCTION Robert Burns is Scotl and's nati onal poet. He wrote both in standard English and
Scotti sh dialect. His prol i fi c output i ncl udes thousands of songs and poems, the best known of whi ch
Auld Lang Syne whi ch is sung all over the Engl i sh-speaki ng worl d on New Year's Eve. The two
that fol l ow deal wi th love, a favourite theme of Burns, who was famed for his amorous adventures.
Robert Burns
In this poem Burns is tryi ng to say in the most convi nci ng way possi bl e, 'I will al ways l ove you'. Read it and say i
you thi nk that the woman he is wri ti ng to will be convi nced.
Text E l
GLOSSARY
1. Luve: love
2. newly sprung: just
blossomed
3. fair: beautiful
4. art thou: you are
5. bonie lass: pretty girl
6. thee: you
7. a': all
8. gang: go
9. melt wi': liquefy with
10. farethee weel:
goodbye
11. awhile: for the
moment
12.Tho': even if

A Red, Red Rose
O My Luve
!
's like a red, red rose,
That's newly sprung
2
in J une
O my Luve's like the melodie
That's sweetly play'd in tune.
As fair
3
art thou
4
, my boni e lass
5
,
So deep in luve am I;
And I will love thee
6
still, my dear,
Till a'
7
the seas gang
8
dry.
Till a' the seas gang dry, my dear,
And the rocks melt wi'
9
the sun:
I will love thee still, my Dear,
While the sands o' life shall run.
And fare thee weel
10
, my onl y Luve!
And fare thee weel, a while
11
And I will come again, my Luve,
Tho'
12
it were ten thousand mile!
10
Alfred Chalon,
Girl reading a letter.
Robert Burns 3
COMPREHENSI ON
1 Who is the poet addressi ng in the poem? 3 What is he tel l i ng his l ove?
2 What is he about to do?
ANALYSIS
1 The first quatrai n contai ns two similes*. Anal yse
them by filling in thi s tabl e.
tenor common ground vehicle
My Luve (l i ne 1)
my Luve (l i ne 3)
2 In the second and thi rd quatrai ns the poet says that his l ove is everl asti ng. Underl i ne the striking visual i mages
he uses to underl i ne the strength of his feel i ngs.
3 The tabl e bel ow lists some of the features of medi eval ballads*. Ti ck the features of the medi eval bal l ad that you
fi nd in thi s poem and gi ve exampl es.
The medieval ballad A Red, Red Rose
- narrates a story whi ch begi ns in medias res
- l eaves the moti ves behi nd the character's acti ons
unexpl ai ned
- contai ns f ew descri pti ve detai l s
- is composed in si mpl e two or four line stanzas
- consi sts of al ternate four and three stress lines
- rhymes on the second and the fourth l i ne
- makes extensi ve use of repeti ti on
- uses stock descri pti ve phrases
- i ncl udes a refrain
tells the story of a man who must l eave his l over
4 Find examples of alliteration* and assonance*.
5 How woul d you defi ne the l anguage of the poem?
Si mpl e Conversati onal Di rect Sophi sti cated Artificial Other:
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Hyperbol e (Greek for 'overshooter') is the use of exaggerati on to draw attenti on to or
underl i ne the i mportance of a parti cul ar statement. I t is often used to provoke a
reacti on, or for serious or comi c effect. Perhaps the most famous exampl e of hyperbol e
in Engl i sh literature is when Chri stopher Marlowe's hero Doctor Faustus ( pp. C2-7)
asks of Helen of Troy, 'Is thi s the face that l aunched a thousand ships ...?'
Hyperbole is commonl y used in everyday speech:
I'd give my right arm for a slice of pizza.
A type of hyperbole in whi ch the exaggeration is magnified so greatly that it refers to an
impossibility is called an adynaton (from Greek a, 'wi thout' and dynasthai, 'to be able').
Find two exampl es of adynaton in the poem A Red, Red Rose.
Create your own sentences usi ng hyperbol e or adynaton.
Hyperbole
TASK
OVER TO YOU
Thi nk of a l ove poem in Engl i sh or i nto your own l anguage you like and read it al oud to the rest of the cl ass.
4 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry
A kiss can mean di fferent thi ngs in di fferent contexts and cul tures. It can be a si gn of af f ecti on or a si mpl e
greeti ng. Read the fol l owi ng poem and say if you can associ ate wi th the feel i ngs that thi s parti cul ar kiss expresses.
o
- GLOSSARY
X. seal: mark
2. pledge: promise
3. bliss: happiness
4. dumb: mute
5. Dove-like fondness:
pureaffection
6. Glowing: bright
7. Sorrowing joy: joy
that gives pain
8. Lingering: not
wanting to separate
9. thine: yours
E Humid Seal of Soft Affections

Humid seal
1
of soft affections,
Tenderest pledge
2
of future bliss
3
,
Dearest tie of young connections,
Love's first snowdrop, virgin kiss!
Speaking silence, dumb
4
confession, 5
Passion's birth, and infant's play,
Dove-like fondness
5
, chaste concession,
Glowing
6
dawn of future day!
Sorrowing joy
7
, Adieu's last action,
(Lingering
8
lips must now disjoin), 10
What words can ever speak affection
So thrilling and sincere as thine
9
!
The Kissby Francesco
Hayez (1867).
COMPREHENSION:
1 Circle the words in the first quatrai n that suggest
that a kiss forms a bond between two peopl e.
2 Underl i ne the phrases in the second and third
quatrai ns that convey the i dea that kissing is a form of
communi cati on.
3 Whi ch phrases in the text woul d you associ ate wi th
a rel ati onshi p that is in its earl y stages?
4 Whi ch phrase(s) suggest(s):
a) hope b) i nnocence c) affecti on/ tenderness
d) sadness e) pl ayful ness?
ANALYSIS
1 The poem is very musi cal . Work out the rhyming
scheme*. Is it regul ar?
a. Listen to the poem. Is the rhythm iambic* (an
unstressed syllable fol l owed by a stressed syl l abl e)
or trochaic* (a stressed syllable fol l owed by an
unstressed syl l abl e)?
b. Find exampl es of alliteration*.
c. What is the domi nant consonant sound in the
poem? Do you find it appropri ate for a poem
about kissing?
2 Find exampl es of oxymorons* in the poem.
Think of names of songs or lines from songs where 'kiss' is used, and make a list on the board.
Writers' Gallery - Robert Burns
5g
i l l i Si Sl l l i
W R I T E R S ' G A L L E R
Robert Burns was born in
Scotl and in 1759, the eldest
of seven chi l dren. Al though the fami l y often had fi nanci al
difficulties, Burns received a good education and was well-read.
A renowned lady's man from a young age, he wrote hi s first
poems in praise of women when he was just fifteen years old. His
many casual rel ati onshi ps resul ted i n the bi rth of several
illegitimate children and a series of legal actions. To avoid these
legal difficulties he decided to leave Scotland and emigrate to the
West I ndi es. However, just as he was about to l eave, hi s first
book, Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect, was accepted for
publ i cati on and was an immediate best-seller. Burns decided to
stay in Scotl and and moved to Edinburgh, where he became a
nati onal celebrity. The second edition of his poems sold 3,000
copies, an enormous number by the standards of the day.
The following year he married the woman with whom he had already had four children (and would
have five more) and started to work on a col l ecti on of tradi ti onal Scotti sh fol k songs whi ch
eventually ran to six volumes, The Scots Musical Museum. The collection included 160 songs by Burns
himself, including the world-famous Auld Lang Syne (Old Times Past) and the poem A Red, Red Rose.
Fame did not, however, bring a reliable i ncome and Burns was obliged to take a job as a tax collector.
Nevertheless, he continued transcribing traditional folk songs and writing songs. He had written 114
songs for his new book when he died, aged thirty-seven. Such was his popularity that over 10,000
people lined the streets on the day of his burial and Scots all over the world still celebrate the birth
of their national poet on 25th J anuary.
ROBERT BURNS
(1759- 1796)
WORKS
For many people, Burns's work epitomises the romance and beauty
of Scotland. In his poems he sings with great sincerity of the simple
joys of ordinary people, and the virtues of friendship, compassion and domestic life. He is at his best in
the poems which celebrate the things he loved, especially women and drink, or those which express
his love for the beauty of his native countryside. His passionate love for its country and its traditions
have made him a symbol of national identity.
Of his 368 songs the most famous are Scots, Wha Hae (1793), the rallying cry of Bruce to his men at
Bannockburn and Auld Lang Syne, a sweet mel anchol i c song about friendship.
Some of Burns's songs have been set to music by great composers such as Mendelssohn, Schumann,
Haydn, Shostakovich and Beethoven.
TASK
Wri te a summar y of Burns's life and works in the fol l owi ng order:
- fami l y background
- di ffi cul ti es in pri vate life
- success as a poet
- mai n themes in his poems
- Scotti sh nati onal i sm and tradi ti on
m
A kiss can mean di fferent thi ngs in di fferent contexts and cul tures. It can be a si gn of af f ecti on or a si mpl e
greeti ng. Read the fol l owi ng poem and say if you can associ ate wi th the feel i ngs that this parti cul ar kiss expresses.
Q
GLOSSARY
1. seal: mark
2. pledge: promise
3. bliss: happiness
4. dumb: mute
5. Dove-like fondness:
pureaffection
6. Glowing: bright
7. Sorrowing joy: joy
that gives pain
8. Lingering: not
wantingto separate
9. thine: yours

COMPREHENSION
1 Ci rcl e the words in the first quatrai n that suggest
that a kiss forms a bond between two peopl e.
2 Underl i ne the phrases in the second and third
quatrai ns that convey the idea that kissing is a form of
communi cati on.
3 Whi ch phrases in the text woul d you associ ate wi th
a rel ati onshi p that is in its early stages?
4 Whi ch phrase(s) suggest(s):
a) hope b) i nnocence c) affecti on/ tenderness
d) sadness e) pl ayful ness?
ANALYSIS
1 The poem is very musi cal . Work out the rhyming
scheme*. Is it regul ar?
a. Listen to the poem. Is the rhythm iambic* (an
unstressed syllable fol l owed by a stressed syl l abl e)
or trochaic* (a stressed syllable fol l owed by an
unstressed syl l abl e)?
b. Find exampl es of alliteration*.
c. What is the domi nant consonant sound in the
poem? Do you find it appropri ate for a poem
about kissing?
2 Find exampl es of oxymorons* in the poem.
H
Think of names of songs or lines from songs where 'kiss' is used, and make a list on the board.
Writers' Gallery - Robert Burns
P H H I
Robert Burns was born i n
Scotl and in 1759, the eldest
of seven chi l dren. Al though the fami l y often had fi nanci al
difficulties, Burns received a good education and was well-read.
A renowned lady's man from a young age, he wrote hi s first
poems in praise of women when he was just fifteen years old. His
many casual rel ati onshi ps resul ted i n the bi rth of several
illegitimate children and a series of legal actions. To avoid these
legal difficulties he decided to leave Scotland and emigrate to the
West I ndies. However, just as he was about to leave, hi s first
book, Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect, was accepted for
publication and was an immediate best-seller. Burns decided to
stay in Scotland and moved to Edinburgh, where he became a
nati onal celebrity. The second edition of his poems sold 3,000
copies, an enormous number by the standards of the day.
The following year he married the woman with whom he had already had four children (and would
have five more) and started to work on a col l ecti on of tradi ti onal Scotti sh fol k songs whi ch
eventually ran to six volumes, The Scots Musical Museum. The collection included 160 songs by Burns
himself, including the world-famous Auld Lang Syne (Old Times Past) and the poem A Red, Red Rose.
Fame did not, however, bring a reliable income and Burns was obliged to take a job as a tax collector.
Nevertheless, he continued transcribing traditional folk songs and writing songs. He had written 114
songs for his new book when he died, aged thirty-seven. Such was his popularity that over 10,000
people lined the streets on the day of his burial and Scots all over the world still celebrate the birth
of their national poet on 25 th January.
ROBERT BURNS
(1759-1796)
WORKS
For many people, Burns's work epitomises the romance and beauty
of Scotland. In his poems he sings with great sincerity of the simple
joys of ordinary people, and the virtues of friendship, compassion and domestic life. He is at his best in
the poems which celebrate the things he loved, especially women and drink, or those which express
his love for the beauty of his native countryside. His passionate love for its country and its traditions
have made him a symbol of national identity.
Of his 368 songs the most famous are Scots, Wha Hae (1793), the rallying cry of Bruce to his men at
Bannockburn and Auld Lang Syne, a sweet melancholic song about friendship.
Some of Burns's songs have been set to music by great composers such as Mendelssohn, Schumann,
Haydn, Shostakovich and Beethoven.
TASK
Wri te a summar y of Burns's life and works in the fol l owi ng order:
- fami l y background
- di ffi cul ti es in pri vate life
- success as a poet
- mai n themes in his poems
- Scotti sh nati onal i sm and tradi ti on
, 6 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry
William Blake
INTRODUCTION William Blake was a visionary. He did not like the rational, materialistic world arou
him, but dreamed of a wprld where imagination and feelings would be central to people's lives. In the th
poems that follow he envisages a world where the colour of a person's skin will be irrelevant, and presents
with two very contrasting images of God ( Visual Link E5).
Living in a soci ety where the col our of your skin is di fferent from that of nearl y everybody el se's around you can
cause probl ems for a person in today's worl d. When Blake was wri ti ng - two hundred years ago - these probl ems
were accentuated because soci eti es were less mul ti cul tural than they are today.
In the poem you are goi ng to read, a bl ack boy, wi th the hel p of his mother, tries to find a way to tear down the
barriers that have been built between him and whi te chi l dren.
What sol uti on does he come up wi th?
Songs of I nnocence
Q msm The Little Black Boy
GLOSSARY
4.
5.
1. bore: gavebirth
2. southern: acountry
in the southern
hemisphere
3. bereav'd: deprived,
without
lap: theupper part of
your legs when you
aresitting down
a littlespace: for a
short time
6. to bear: to stand, to
put up with
7. beams: shining lines
of light from thesun
8. shady: not in thesun
9. grove: small wood
10. loveand care: the
person I loveand
look after
My mother bore
1
me in the southern
2
wild
And I am black, but O! my soul is white;
White as an angel is the English child:
But I am black as if bereav'd
3
of light.
My mother taught me underneath a tree 5
And sitting down before the heat of day,
She took me on her lap
4
and kissed me,
And pointing to the east began to say.
Look on the rising sun: there God does live
And gives his light, and gives his heat away. 10
And flowers and trees and beasts and men receive
Comfort in morning joy in the noon day.
And we are put on earth a little space
5
,
That we may learn to bear
6
the beams
7
of love
And these black bodies and this sun-burnt face 15
Is but a cloud, and like a shady
8
grove
9
.
For when our souls have learn'd the heat to bear
The cloud will vanish we shall hear his voice.
Saying: come out from the grove, my love and care
10
,
And round my golden tent like lambs rejoice. 20
f William Blake 7
Thus
11
di d my mother say and ki ssed me,
A nd thus I say to 'l i ttl e Engl i sh boy;
When I f r om bl ack and he f r om whi te cl oud free
12
,
A nd r ound the tent of God l i ke L ambs we j oy
13
:
I 'l l shade
14
hi m f r om the heat ti l l he can bear,
To l ean i n j oy upon our father's knee.
A nd then I 'l l stand and str oke
15
hi s si l ver hai r,
A nd be l i ke hi m and he wi l l then l ove me.
25
IX.Thus: in this way
X2.When I ... free: when
heno longer has a
whitecloud and 1 no
longer haveablack
one
X3.joy: rejoice
X4. shade: protect him
by blockingthesun
X5.stroke: caress
COMPREHENSION
1 What col our does the bl ack boy bel i eve his soul is?
2 What does he compare the English child to in line 3?
3 Where, accordi ng to the bl ack boy's mother, does
Cod live?
4 What does Cod gi ve to the natural worl d and man?
5 Why are we put on earth, accordi ng to the bl ack
boy's mother?
6 What does she compare thei r 'bl ack bodi es' and
'sun-burnt face' to in the fourth stanza?
7 What happens when peopl e die, accordi ng to the
bl ack boy's mother?
8 What will the bl ack boy do when he and the
English boy l eave thei r 'cl ouds'?
9 When will the English boy love the bl ack boy?
ANALYSIS
1 The poem is built around a seri es of contrasts,
a. Put the fol l owi ng terms from the poem i nto the
appropri ate col umn,
bl ack whi te
bl ack bodi es sun-burnt face
whi te angel shady grove
bl ack cl oud whi te cl oud
shade silver hair
brightness darkness
b. Whi ch col umn refers to the English boy and whi ch
col umn refers to the bl ack boy?
2 The bl ack boy is clearly aware that the col our of his
skin makes hi m di fferent.
a. Whi ch line in the first stanza conveys the i dea that
he is envi ous of the English chi l d?
b. Whi ch lines suggest that the bl ack boy is unhappy
wi th the col our of his skin?
3 How woul d you defi ne the rel ati onshi p between
the bl ack boy and his mother? justify your answer by
referring to the text.
Loving Detached
Formal Si mpl e
Uncivilised Other:
4 In the third stanza the boy's mother associ ates God
wi th the sun.
a. What kind of God does she depi ct? Refer to the
text in your answer.
A l ovi ng Cod
A God of mercy
A God of puni shment
A God of justi ce
Other:
b. Whi ch line suggests that God views man as part of
nature?
5 In the fourth stanza the boy's mother expl ai ns the
meani ng of life to her son. Does she vi ew life as a
joyous experi ence, or as a l earni ng experi ence, or as
an experi ence of hardshi p and sufferi ng? Refer to the
text in your answer.
THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry
6 Whi ch i mage in the fifth stanza conveys the idea of
God as a shepherd?
7 Al though he is a vi cti m of di scri mi nati on, the little
bl ack boy seems to hol d no hatred for the English
boy. Find evi dence in the last stanza of his wi l l i ngness
to hel p the English boy.
8 Focus on the fi nal ji ne of the poem. The little bl ack
boy is al ready resi gned to the fact that he will not
recei ve the l ove of the English boy in this life. He
hopes that when he di es he will be like the English
boy, who will then l ove hi m.
a. Whi ch adjecti ves woul d you choose to descri be the
little bl ack boy?
Loving Nai ve
Sel f-l oathi ng Prejudi ced
Vi cti mi sed I nnocent
Other:
b. In the title of the poem Blake underl i nes the fact
that the boy is 'little'. How does thi s affect your
response to the poem?
LINK
9 The speaker in the poem is a little chi l d. In part of
the poem he speaks di rectl y to the reader, and in the
rest he reports what his mother says. In his poetry
Blake often represents the speech of chi l dren by
linking i deas wi th the si mpl e conjuncti on 'and'.
a. Find evi dence of the use of thi s techni que in the
poem.
b. Focus on lines 21 and 22. Can you i denti fy non-
standard usage of grammar and syntax? What does
this suggest about the person who is speaki ng?
10 Listen agai n to the recordi ng of the poem.
I dentify the rhymi ng scheme. How woul d you defi ne
the rhythm of the poem?
Soft and rel axi ng Harsh and aggressi ve
Does it suit the content of the poem?
[ to the world of music
Afro-Ameri can fol ksongs or worksongs were songs that were sung by slaves in the British col oni es before slavery
was abol i shed. At the ti me he wrote The Little Black Boy, William Blake was deepl y i nvol ved in the abol i ti oni st
movement. Read the fol ksong. Can you see any similarities between how the little bl ack boy in Blake's poem
vi ews the present and the future, and how they are represented in the song?
I want to go home
"Dere'V no rain to wet you,
O, yes, I want to go home.
Dere's no sun to burn you,
O, yes, I want to go home;
O, push along, believers,
O, yes, &c.
2
Dere's no hard trials,
0, yes, &c.
Dere's no whips a-crackin',
O, yes, &c.
My brudder on de wayside,
O, yes, &c.
O, push along, my brudder,
O, yes, &c.
Where dere's no stormy weather,
O, yes, &c.
Dere's no tribulation,
0. yes, &c."
GLOSSARY
1. Dere: there
2. Sc.: etc.
f
William Blake 9
Today we accept it as natural that there are many theori es, both sci enti fi c and religious, to expl ai n how the worl d
was made. Wi l l i am Blake, like most of his contemporari es, bel i eved that God made the worl d. But what is God
really like? Here is the first of Blake's two, very di fferent, depi cti ons of God.
Little Lamb who made thee
1
?
Dost thou
2
know who made thee?
Gave thee life & bid thee feed
3
.
By the stream & o'er the mead
4
;
Gave thee clothing of delight, 5
Softest clothing wooly
5
bright;
Gave thee such a tender voice,
Making all the vales
6
rejoice!
Little Lamb who made thee?
Dost thou know who made thee? 10
Little Lamb I'll tell thee,
Little Lamb I'll tell thee!
He is called by thy
7
name,
For he calls himself a Lamb:
He is meek
8
& he is mild, 15
He became a little child:
I a child and thou a lamb,
We are called by his name.
Little Lamb God bless thee.
Little Lamb God bless thee. 20
GLOSSARY
1. thee: you 5. wooly: woolly
2. Dost thou: do you 6. vales: valleys
3. bid theefeed: told you to eat 7. thy: your
4. o'er the mead: over the 8. meek: very quiet and
meadow, field gentle
COMPREHENSION
1 Who is the poet addressi ng? What questi on does
he ask the addressee?
2 What gifts has the Creator gi ven the l amb?
3 Underl i ne the words in the first stanza that refer to
where the l amb lives.
The Lamb H gU Q
William Blake, The Lamb
(1789).
4 Who is the poet referring to as 'He' in line 13?
5 In line 14 the poet says that the Creator calls himself
a 'Lamb'. Can you expl ai n this biblical reference?
6 What does the poet mean when he says in line 16
that the Creator 'became a little chi l d'?
ANALYSIS
1 The poem is f ormed by a questi on and an answer.
In whi ch l i nes is the questi on posed and in whi ch l i nes
is it answered?
2 Find descri pti ve detai l s in the first stanza that
appeal to the reader's:
- sight: By the stream & o'er the mead
- touch:
- heari ng:
3 A mood of gentl e happi ness is created in the first
stanza. Underl i ne the words that convey thi s
atmospher e. What kind of worl d is depi cted in the
poem?
4 In the second stanza the poet establ i shes a link
between the Creator, the l amb and the poet as a chi l d.
a. In whi ch l i nes are these links made?
b. What qual i ti es do the Creator, l amb and chi l d
(poet) share?
c. What does the Creator, who became the chi l d
J esus, have in common wi th l ambs?
5 Whi ch of the fol l owi ng woul d you consi der to be
the mai n theme* of the poem?
The i nnocence and joy of the l amb and chi l dhood
refl ect the true nature of God.
God has created many wonderful thi ngs, i ncl udi ng
l ambs and chi l dren.
If man lives in cl ose contact wi th nature, he
becomes mor e godl i ke.
Man can onl y trul y experi ence God through nature.
God is not responsi bl e for all the evil that exi sts in
the worl d. Evil is the resul t of man's corrupti on.
6 How woul d you descri be the l anguage of the
poem?
Sophi sti cated Refi ned
Chi l dl i ke Si mpl e
Poeti c Sci enti fi c
In what way does the di cti on of the poem rei nforce
the theme?
7 Exami ne the musi cal features of the poem.
a. Is the rhymi ng scheme regul ar?
b. Find exampl es of alliteration* in the poem.
Exampl e: Little Lamb
c. Find exampl es of assonance* in the poem.
Example: By the stream & o'er the mead.
d. What are the prevai l i ng consonant and vowel
sounds? Woul d you consi der them to be harsh or
gentl e?
Listen to the recordi ng agai n. Whi ch of the
fol l owi ng is the pr edomi nant metr e?
I ambic*
Trochaic*
Anapestic*
Is the rhythm of the poem strong and regul ar or
weak and i rregul ar?
f. Underl i ne exampl es of repetition* in the poem.
Repeti ti on and a strong trochai c rhythm pattern
are typi cal of nursery rhymes and prayers.
In what way is it appropri ate that Bl ake's poem
shoul d remi nd the reader both of a nursery rhyme
and a prayer?
f William Blake 11
Is God al ways kind and gentl e and hel pful ? Read thi s poem and fi nd out what Blake thi nks.
Songs of Experience
Tyger
1
Tyger, burning bright,
In the forests of the night;
What immortal hand or eye,
Could frame
2
thy fearful
3
symmetry
4
?
In what distant deeps
5
or skies
Burnt the fire of thi ne
6
eyes!
On what wings dare
7
he aspire
8
?
What the hand dare seize
9
the fire?
And what shoulder, & what art
10
,
Could twist the sinews
11
of thy
12
heart?
And when thy heart began to beat,
What dread
13
hand? & what dread feet?
What the hammer? What the chain,
In what furnace was thy brain?
What the anvil
14
? What dread grasp
15
,
Dare its deadly terrors clasp
16
?
When the stars threw down their spears
17
And water'd heaven with their tears:
Did he smile his work to see?
Did he who made the Lamb make thee?
Tyger, Tyger burning bright,
In the forests of the night:
What immortal hand or eye,
Dare frame thy fearful symmetry?
The Tyger
10
15
20
EH Q
GLOSSARY
9.
1. Tyger: tiger
2. frame: make
3. fearful: frightening
4. symmetry:
symmetrical form or
shape
5. deeps: low,
underground places
6. thine: your
7. dare: to bebrave
enough to do
something
8. aspire: riseup, fly
high likeIcarus
seize: to takehold of
something suddenly
and violently; hereit
means 'steal thefire'
likePrometheus
10. art: skill, ability
11. sinews: muscles
12. thy: your
13. dread: frightening
14. anvil: heavy iron
block on which pieces
of metal areshaped
usingahammer
15.grasp: theway you
hold something
16. clasp: hold tightly
17. spears: poles with
sharp ends, used as a
weapon in thepast
COMPREHENSION
1 Who is the speaker addressi ng in the poem?
2 What questi on does he ask in the first stanza?
3 Where does the speaker thi nk the creator may have
found the fire of the ti ger's eyes? (Line 5)
4 Accordi ng to the fourth stanza, where was the
ti ger's brai n created?
5 How did the stars react to the creati on of the ti ger?
6 What questi on does the speaker ask in line 20?
ANALYSIS
1 The poem opens wi th a striking visual i mage of the
ti ger 'burni ng bri ght in the forests of the ni ght' (l i nes
1- 2) . Expl ai n the contrast contai ned in thi s i mage.
2 In line 4 the poet uses the word 'symmetry'.
a. What do you thi nk he is referri ng to?
The geometri cal desi gn of the ti ger's face/ body.
The bal ance of beauty and danger in the ti ger.
The good and evil that the ti ger may represent.
b. Why, in your opi ni on, does the poet descri be the
symmetr y as 'fearful '?
3 In the second stanza the poet refers to 'the fi re' in
the ti ger's eyes.
a. What associ ati ons do you make wi th fi re? Are they
posi ti ve or negati ve or a mi xture of both?
b. Lines 7 and 8 make references to the l egends of
I carus and Prometheus. What links the ti ger to the
two l egends? What characteri sti cs does the Creator
of the ti ger share wi th the two Greek heroes?
4 Does the thi rd stanza focus on the Creator's
psychol ogi cal profi l e or on his physi cal attri butes?
Whi ch word in line 12 underl i nes the potenti al danger
of the ti ger?
5 The fourth stanza suggests that the ti ger was
created in a f orge. Whi ch of the fol l owi ng concepts
do you associ ate wi th a f orge?
Li ght Dark
Heat Col d
Danger Securi ty
Fire Power
Have the concepts you have chosen al ready been
used in the poem?
6 I denti fy the use of personification* in l i nes 1 7- 18.
How woul d you expl ai n the reacti on of the stars when
they wi tnessed, the creati on of the ti ger?
They wi shed to def end themsel ves agai nst the
dangers posed by the ti ger.
They fel t i nsi gni fi cant and hel pl ess bef ore the
magni f i cence of God's new creati on.
They were saddened by the destructi ve nature of
the ti ger.
7 Why does the poet ask if the same Creator made
both the l amb and the ti ger? (Li ne 20)
8 Apart from one word, the final stanza is i denti cal to
the first stanza. Whi ch word has been changed? Have
the poet's questi ons about the nature of the Creator
been answered in the course of the poem or has his
perpl exi ty been i ntensi fi ed?
9 Whi ch of the fol l owi ng emoti ons does the ti ger
i nspi re in the poet? You can choose mor e than one.
Fear Horror
Awe Di sbel i ef
Admi rati on Confusi on
Pani c
1 0 Exami ne the musi cal features of the poem.
a. Work out the rhymi ng scheme. Is it regul ar?
b. Find examples of alliteration* and assonance*.
Listen to the recordi ng agai n. Whi ch of the
fol l owi ng is the predomi nant metr e?
I ambic*
Trochaic*
Anapestic*
Is the rhythm of the poem gentl e and soothi ng or
strong and stri ki ng? Is it appropri ate to the theme
of the poem?
d. Underl i ne exampl es of repetition* in the poem.
e. What is the mai n syntacti cal structure?
11 Compare and contrast The Lamb and The Tyger in
terms of:
T he L amb The Tyger
musi cal features
syntax
di cti on
the ani mal
the Creator
the poet's response
f William Blake 13
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Symbols A symbol is an example of what is called the transference of meaning: a writer takes a
concrete item - an object, a colour, a person, a place, an animal - and attributes to it a
deeper meaning. Sometimes writers use symbols which are part of their culture, water
representing life, for example. Writers can also use non-conventional, private symbols. We
usually understand their meaning from the context in which they occur.
Bl ake rel i ed heavi l y on symbol i sm in hi s poetry. Exami ne the symbol s of the l amb and the
ti ger used in the poems you have just read. Dr aw a spi der gr am of the associ ati ons you make
for each ani mal . What do you thi nk they r epr esent?
a 3 a t H Y H J In our dai l y lives we are sur r ounded by symbol s. Choose a symbol that represents a country,
an i deol ogy, a company, a br and of products, etc., and pr epar e a shor t tal k on its ori gi ns and
meani ng.
The link between musi c and Bl ake's poetr y is establ i shed
in the ti tl e of the col l ecti ons in whi ch The Lamb and The
Tyger appear: Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience.
T he p o ems have, as you have seen t hr ou gh your
anal ysi s, many musi cal qual i ti es. C hoose t wo pi eces of
musi c whi ch you thi nk in some way woul d r epr esent the
poems and be pr epar ed to justi fy your choi ces.
Title page for The Songs of
Innocence (1794), by William Blake.
Early years in London
Wi l l i am Bl ake was born in
London i n 1757, where he was raised in a state of economi c
hardship and received very little formal educati on. He showed
early signs of artistic tal ent and, at the age of fourteen, became
an apprenti ce i n an engraver's shop, where he worked and
learned the craft for seven years.
A period of great creativity The year 1783 marked the
begi nni ng of a peri od of great creati vi ty i n Bl ake's l i fe. He
publ i shed hi s first vol ume of poetry, Poetical Sketches, and
invented a new method of printing, which he called 'illuminated
printing', a mixture of engraving and painting which he claimed
his dead brother Robert had revealed to him in a dream. In 1789
he engraved and published his first great literary work, Songs of
Innocence, followed in 1794 by The Maniage of Heaven and Hell and Songs of Experience. His output was
outstandi ng: he made hand-col oured engravi ngs for both hi s own poems and other authors'.
However, his books were not printed and circulated in sufficient numbers to make his work profitable.
Depression and mysticism His disappointment at this lack of recognition led Blake to depression
which verged on insanity. This gl oomy period lasted seven years, from 1810 to 1817. He lived in a
dirty studio, completely alienated from the material world and claiming that visions of angels, spirits,
prophets and devils were inspiring his work.
The last years After 1818 he stopped wri ti ng poetry but conti nued to produce engravi ngs,
i ncl udi ng the illustrations for Dante's Divine Comedy, whi ch he left uncompl eted at his death in
1827. He was buried in a common grave in relative obscurity.
Songs of I nnocence and Songs of Experi ence Blake's greatness
as one of the l eadi ng poets of Engl i sh Romanti ci sm is best
expressed in his 'illuminated books' - Songs of Innocence (1789) and Songs of Experience (1794) - which
he re-pri nted several ti mes. They are vi sual and poeti c masterpi eces where art and text are
inextricably linked and mutually enrich each other.
The lyrics in the Songs of Innocence are fresh, direct observations and show life as perceived by children;
they read like simple, tender poetry written in a natural, unaffected style. However, these simple
poems and illustrations often hide deeper meanings and more intricate patterns than first appear.
The poems in the Songs of Experience reflect a gloomier vision of the world, where Evil has the upper
hand over Good. I nnocence and Experience, 'the two contrary states of the human soul', are shown
in direct contrast in such poems as The Lamb ( Text E4) and The Tyger ( Text E5).
Propheti c Books In the so-called Prophetic Books, a series of long symbolic poems which he started
wri ti ng in 1789, Blake expresses hi s condemnati on of ei ghteenth-century pol i ti cal and soci al
tyranny. The inspiration for these poems, which reflect Blake's view that the poet/ artist is a prophet
inspired by visionary messages, is Milton ( pp. D14-22), of whose spirit Blake himself believed to
be the living embodi ment. The Prophetic Books, whi ch contai n some of his most powerful images,
denounce authority in often abstruse language through a cast of imaginary mythological characters.
Writers' Gallery - William Blake
^ - M m m m m m m m * m m
The Marriage of Heaven and Hell In the same years a prose work, The Marriage of Heaven and Hell,
develops Blake's idea that 'without Contraries is no progression'. The work includes aphorisms, anec-
dotes and the 'Proverbs of Hell', such as 'The tygers of wrath are wiser than the horses of instruction'.
The Profecies A radical all of his life, Blake sympathised with the forces of revolution and he praised
the American War of I ndependence in America: A Prophecy (1793), and the French Revolution in Europe:
A Prophecy (1794). Tyranny and freedom are also the themes of the Book ofUrizen (1794).
Milton and J erusal em Blake's mature work i ncl udes vi si onary epi cs wri tten and i l l ustrated
between 1804 and 1818. The most outstanding works are Milton and Jerusalem. In both works Blake
chose to have no conventional theme, characters, rhyme, or metre. He based his works on a series of
highly personal symbols which are often difficult to interpret.
A romantic poet and a philosopher Appreciated onl y by his close circle of friends and admirers
such as Coleridge ( pp. E24-31) and Keats ( pp. E52-63), Blake went largely unnoticed in his own
time and in the Victorian period. Critics only discovered his work a full century after his death, and
gave due recogni ti on to its originality. Today Blake is accl ai med as one of the most inspired and
original poets and painters of his time. His belief in the absolute predominance of I magination over
Reason subverted all the rules that governed eighteenth-century art and poetic forms ( Visual Link
E5). He rejected the basic principles of the Age of Reason and the classic models that restricted free
artistic and poetic expession.
A revolutionary spirit Blake lived in a peri od of great
soci al changes: the Ameri can, French and I ndustri al
Revolutions all took place during his l i feti me. Embracing
these revol uti onary ideas, he became a bi tter critic of his
own ti me. He asserted that rel i gi on, pol i ti cs and
industrialism were 'dark Satanic Mills' and 'Prisons are built
with stones of Law, Brothel s with bricks of Rel i gi on'. He
called the new industrial England a 'l and of poverty' and
expressed his bl eak vi si on in many poems. Unl i ke other
British radicals of his time (Wordsworth, pp. El 6-23) he
never disowned his views. He was not daunted by the Reign
of Terror in France and continued until his death to believe
that 'Active Evil is better than Passive Good'.
William Blake, The Ancient of Days
(God as an Architect), 1794.
TASK
Use the f ol l owi ng key concepts to pr epar e a report about the life and works of Wi l l i am Bl ake.
- Born i nto economi c hardshi p - Songs of Innocence and Songs - Largel y unnoti ced duri ng hi s
- Early arti sti c tal ent of Experience ti me
- Engraver's appr enti ce - Lack of r ecogni ti on - Li terary and arti sti c i nnovator
- I l l umi nated pri nti ng - Radi cal pol i ti cs
( I E ) 16 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry
William Wordsworth
INTRODUCTION Wi l l i am Wordsworth is best known as a nature poet who found beauty, comfort
and moral strength in the natural world. If he were alive today he would probably be a member of an
organi sati on that campai gns to protect the envi ronment. For hi m the worl d of nature is free from
corrupti on and stress, and offers man a means of escape from industrialised society ( Visual Links E2
and E3).
Have you ever fel t you study too much or that there is too much to study? Well, read the fol l owi ng poem because
William Wordsworth has some advi ce for you!
Text E6
The Tables Turned
- GLOSSARY
1. quit: leave
2. you'll grow double:
you will not beable
to stand up straight
3. clear your looks: give
your eyes arest
4. toil: hard work
5. lustre: light
6. mellow: soft
7. dull: boring
8. strife: struggle
9. linnet: small brown
singingbird
10.my life ... in it: there
is moreto belearned
from thelinnet than
from books
11. hark: listen
12. blithe: cheerful
13. throstle: singingbird
14.no mean preacher: a
good teacher
15. forth: out
16. ready wealth: riches
ready to beenjoyed
17. breathed: expressed
18. vernal: connected
with spring
19. sages: wisepeople
20. lore: knowledge
21. meddling: interfering
22. Mis-shapes: changes
thenatural form
23. dissect: analysein
detail
10
(...)
Up! up! my Friend, and quit
1
your books;
Or surely you'll grow double
2
:
Up! up! my Friend, and clear your looks
3
;
Why all this toil
4
and trouble?
The sun above the mountain's head,
A freshening lustre
5
mellow
6
Through all the long green fields has spread,
His first sweet evening mellow.
Books! 'tis a dull
7
and endless strife
8
:
Come, hear the woodland linnet
9
,
How sweet his music! on my life,
There's more of wisdom in it
10
.
And hark
11
! how blithe
12
the throstle
13
sings!
He, too, is no mean preacher
14
:
Come forth
15
into the light of things, is
Let Nature be your Teacher.
She has a world of ready wealth
16
,
Our minds and hearts to bless -
Spontaneous wisdom breathed
17
by health,
Truth breathed by cheerfulness. 20
One impulse from a vernal
18
wood
May teach you more of man,
Of moral evil and of good
Than all the sages
19
can.
Sweet is the lore
20
which Nature brings;
Our meddling
21
intellect
Mis-shapes
22
the beauteous forms of things: -
We murder to dissect
23
.
A detail from Wivenhoe Park,
Essex, by J ohn Constable
(1816).
25
William Wordsworth
Enough of Science and of Art;
Close up those barren
24
leaves
25
; 30
Come forth, and bring with you a heart
That watches and receives.
COMPREHENSION
1 In the first stanza the poet descri bes the negati ve
effects of studyi ng too hard. What negati ve physi cal
effect and psychol ogi cal effects does he menti on?
2 What ti me of the day is it? How has the poet's
fri end spent the day?
3 Whi ch adjecti ves does the poet use to descri be the
eveni ng sun? In what way can the light be
fresheni ng? Who does 'His' refer to in line 8?
4 What adjecti ve does he use to descri be life spent
studyi ng books in the third stanza?
5 Who does 'He' refer to in line 14? What does the
poet hear in the l i nnet's song?
24.barren: not fertile
25. leaves: pages of a
book

6 Who or what does 'She' refer to in line 17? What
'weal th' can nature gi ve us, accordi ng to the poet in
the fifth stanza?
7 What can a 'vernal wood' teach, accordi ng to the
sixth stanza?
8 Whi ch is the effect of the human i ntel l ect on one's
percepti on of the beauty and knowl edge of nature?
(Seventh stanza)
9 Whi ch line in the first stanza does line 30 echo?
1 0 What does man need to bri ng wi th him in order
to appreci ate nature? (Ei ghth stanza)
ANALYSIS
1 The poem expl ores the theme of man's
communi on wi th Nature. Whi ch poeti c devi ce does
the poet use to draw man and nature cl oser together?
Rhetorical questi ons I rony K Personification*
2 The rel ati onshi p between man and nature as
descri bed in the poem is al most religious in its intensity.
Find exampl es of rel i gi ous terms used in the text.
3 In the poem the dull, col ourl ess worl d of books is
contrasted wi th the bri ght, col ourful worl d of Nature.
Find references to the l i ght and col our of nature in
the text.
4 Exami ne the tabl e bel ow.
Do we normal l y associ ate these concepts and peopl e
wi th the worl d of books or the worl d of nature?
Check the references in the poem. Is the usual
associ ati on uphel d?
5 Explain the pun* in line 30.
6 Find exampl es of excl amati ons and imperatives in the
poem. I dentify the rhymi ng scheme. Whi ch adjecti ve(s)
woul d you use to defi ne the mood of the poem?
7 Read the fol l owi ng extract from The Preface to The
Lyrical Ballads ( p. El 18), the collection of poems in
whi ch The Tables Turned first appeared. In it
Wordsworth comments on the l anguage of his poetry.
There will also be found in these volumes little of what
is usually called poetic diction; I have taken as much
pains to avoid it as others ordinarily take to produce it;
this I have done (...) to bring my language near to the
language of men (...)
One of Wordsworth's objecti ves was to wri te poetry in
the l anguage used by common men. How woul d you
define the language of TheTables Turned? Do you
thi nk he reached his goal of wri ti ng in the l anguage
of men?
8 The expressi on 'to turn the tabl es' means 'to i nvert'
or 'to change around'. How woul d you rel ate the title
of the poem TheTables Turned to its contents?
abstract concepts people
wi sdom
truth
moral evil and good
preacher
teacher
sage
Wordsworth says that the worl d of nature is a source of knowl edge and l earni ng.
Look at the fol l owi ng list of sources of l earni ng in today's worl d and rank them in order of i mportance. Compare
and di scuss your order of i mportance wi th your cl assmates.
The home The mass medi a The school The I nternet
4
mill
. 18 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry
Whi l e out wal ki ng in the country on a bri ght, wi ndy day, Wordsworth saw fields of daffodi l s stretchi ng out before
hi m. His si ster Dor othy was wi th hi m and says in her J ournals, 'I never saw daf f odi l s so beauti f ul '. Does
Wordsworth manage to convey the beauty of the fl owers to you?
Q BEES I Wandered Lonely As A Cloud
I wandered
1
lonely as a cloud
That floats
2
on high o'er vales
3
and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host
4
, of golden daffodils
5
;
Beside the lake, beneath
6
the trees, 5
Fluttering
7
and dancing in the breeze.
Continuous as the stars that shine
And twinkle
8
on the milky way
9
,
They stretched in never-ending line
Along the margin of the bay: 10
Ten thousand saw I at a glance
10
,
Tossing
11
their heads in sprightly
12
dance.
The waves beside them danced; but they
Outdid
13
the sparkling
14
waves in glee
15
;
A poet could but not be gay
16
, 15
In such a jocund company;
1 gazed
17
- and gazed - but little thought
What wealth the show to me had brought:
For oft
18
, when on my couch
19
I lie
In vacant or in pensive mood
20
, 20
They flash upon that inward
21
eye
Whi ch is the bliss
22
of solitude;
And then my heart with pleasure fills,
And dances with the daffodils.
GLOSSARY
1. wandered: moved 6. beneath: under 11. Tossing: moving in an for along time
slowly
7. Fluttering: moving quickly
uncontrolled way 18. oft: often
2. floats: moves slowly likeabird's wings 12. sprightly: energetic 19. couch: sofa
in theair
8. twinkle: shine 13. Outdid: did better 20.In vacant ... mood:
3. o'er vales: over the intermittently 14. sparkling: shining not thinking about
valleys
9. milky way: whiteband of brightly anything or thinking
4. host: largenumber stars that can beseen across 15. glee: happiness
deeply about something
5. daffodils: yellow
thesky at night 16. gay: happy
21. inward: inner, inside
springflowers 10. glance: quick look 17. gazed: looked attentively
22. bliss: perfect happiness
William Wordsworth
COMPREHENSION
1 Wher e is the poet in the first stanza and what is he
doi ng? Is he al one or in company?
2 What does he unexpectedl y come across?
3 Find references in the text to the col our, the
l ocati on, number and movement of the daffodi l s.
4 In whi ch l i ne does the poet descri be his response
to the scene?
5 Wher e is the poet in the fourth stanza, and what is
he doi ng?
6 What 'fills' the poet's 'heart wi th pl easure' and
makes it 'dance'?
ANALYSIS I
1 In the openi ng two l i nes the poet says that he
'wandered l onel y' and compar es hi msel f to a 'cl oud
that fl oats on hi gh'. What state of mi nd is he i n?
2 The descri pti on of the daffodi l s contrasts wi th the
poet's feel i ngs. Find words in lines 3- 6 that contrast
wi th 'l onel y' and 'wanderi ng and fl oati ng'.
3 I denti fy the simile* that opens the second stanza.
Find the words in thi s stanza that convey the i dea of
a) mul ti tude, b) bri ghtness and c) movement.
4 Find exampl es of personification* in the second
and thi rd stanzas. What is the movement of the
daffodi l s compar ed to?
5 Find three synonyms in the thi rd stanza for 'happy'
and 'happi ness'. The sounds of the words that the
poet chooses to descri be the daffodi l s al so convey the
sense of joy they i nspi re. Whi ch words in the first
three stanzas woul d you consi der j oyous-soundi ng?
6 Focus on l i ne 17. The daffodi l s have had an al most
hypnoti c effect on the poet. How is thi s i dea
conveyed?
7 In the fourth stanza the setting* has changed. Is
the tense of the verbs in thi s stanza the same as the
others? The mood has al so changed. Whi ch words in
lines 19- 20 suggest a mood that is more: a) stati c,
b) mel anchol y, c) medi tati ve?
8 What metaphor* does the poet use for human
i magi nati on in line 21 ? Whi ch word recal l s the
sparkl i ng bri ghtness of the daffodi l s?
9 Whi ch words in l i nes 23- 24 recapture the emoti on
and movement of the first three stanzas?
T O Read Wordsworth's defi ni ti on of a poet:
He is a man ... who rejoices more than other men in
the spirit of life that is in hi m. (...) he has (...) a
disposition to be affected more than other men by
absent thi ngs as if they were present; an ability of
conjuri ng up in hi msel f passions, whi ch are indeed far
from being the same as those produced by real events,
yet do (...) more nearly resemble the passions
produced by real events, than any thi ng whi ch (...)
other men are accustomed to feel in themselves.
Explain how I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud supports
thi s defi ni ti on of the poet.
When Wordsworth calls up the i mage of the daffodi l s in his mi nd, he relives the sensati ons of wonder and joy he
fel t when he first saw them. Thi nk of a natural setti ng whi ch you parti cul arl y liked and wri te a short account of
the emoti ons it stirs up in you.
!0 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry
In English there is a sayi ng, 'Stop the worl d, I want to get off'. Peopl e use it when they are under great stress and
woul d literally like the worl d to stop movi ng, so that they can have a rest. Wordsworth feel s like thi s in the
fol l owi ng poem and woul d like to see a radical change in his life.
Q
Text E8 The World Is Too Much With Us
GLOSSARY
1. lateand soon: all the
time, forever
2. lay waste: lose
3. sordid boon: squalid
benefit
4. bares her bosom:
shows her breasts
howling: makinga
lot of noise
up-gathered: quiet,
closed
out of tune: playing
or singing higher or
lower than the
correct musical note
It moves us not: it
(theworld) has no
emotional effect on us
suckled: fed (with
milk from thebreast)
10. creed outworn: an
old-fashioned religion
11. lea: area of grassy
land
12. glimpses: visions
13. forlorn: sad
14. Havesight of: see
15. Proteus: Greek sea
god
16. Triton: Greek seagod
who played atrumpet
(horn) madefrom a
shell which was
covered in flowers
and leaves
(wreathed)
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
The world is too much with us; late and soon
1
,
Getting and spending, we lay waste
2
our powers;
Little we see in Nature that is ours;
We have given our hearts away, a sordid boon
3
!
The Sea that bares her bosom
4
to the moon;
The winds that will be howling
5
at all hours,
And are up-gathered
6
now like sleeping flowers;
From this, for everything, we are out of tune
7
;
It moves us not
8
. - Great God! I'd rather be
A Pagan suckled
9
in creed outworn
10
;
So might I, standing on this pleasant lea
11
,
Have glimpses
12
that would make me less forlorn
13
;
Have sight of
14
Proteus
15
rising from the sea
Or hear old Triton
16
blow his wreathed horn.
10
William Wordsworth
COMPREHENSI ON
1 In l i ne 2 the poet says that we have l ost 'our
power s'. What power s is he referri ng to and why have
we l ost t hem?
2 Whi ch l i ne conf i r ms that man has become
al i enated f r om natur e?
3 Who or what wi tnesses the beauty of the sea,
accor di ng to the poet in l i ne 5?
4 In l i nes 6- 7 the poet gi ves two contrasti ng
descri pti ons of the wi nds: 'howl i ng at all hours' and 'up-
gather ed now like sl eepi ng fl owers'. Whi ch i mage
descri bes how the wi nds woul d like to be? Whi ch i mage
descri bes how the wi nds are due to man's i ndi fference?
5 Whi ch l i nes suggest that the poet woul d like to
return to a mor e pri mi ti ve and chi l dl i ke state? What
woul d he hope to gai n f r om returni ng to a si mpl er
way of l i vi ng?
ANALYSIS
1 The poem is wri tten in the f or m of a sonnet*. Is it a
Petrarchan or a Shakespear ean sonnet? I denti fy the
r hymi ng scheme. Expl ai n the structure of the poem in
ter ms of quatrai ns and sestets.
2 Whi ch figure of speech* does the poet use in l i nes
5- 6 to suggest that man and nature shoul d be one?
3 Li ne 5 suggests that the sea reveal s her beauty to
manki nd, who is i ndi fferent and pr eoccupi ed wi th the
materi al worl d. What i mage in l i ne 7 rei nforces the
i dea of nature conceal i ng her beauty? What do the
still wi nds and the sl eepi ng f l owers have in common?
4 Wher e is the turni ng poi nt in the poem? How is the
reader's attenti on drawn to i t? How does the
expressi on 'i t moves us not' contrast wi th what fol l ows?
5 The fi nal si x l i nes of the poem contai n several
ref erences to gods and rel i gi on. Underl i ne them.
What rel ati onshi p between rel i gi on and nature is
establ i shed in these l i nes?
Oxymoron
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
An oxymor on is the combi nati on of words whi ch at first sight seems to be contradi c-
tory or i ncongruous, but whose surprising juxtaposi ti on emphasises a contrast, express-
es a truth or creates a dramati c effect. Oxymorons are paradoxi cal metaphors that are
reduced to two words, usual l y adjecti ve-noun ('burni ng i ce') or adverb-adjecti ve
('painfully beauti ful ').
I denti fy an oxymor on in l i ne 4 of The World Is Too Much With Us.
Is it an adj ecti ve- noun combi nati on or an adver b- adj ecti ve combi nati on?
What pur pose does it serve?
I I To express a truth To cr eate a dr amati c ef f ect
To emphasi se a contr ast All of the above
OVER TO YOU Cr eate thr ee oxymor ons of your own.
DD
Is Wor dswor th' s message in thi s poem r el evant today? Do we l ead such stressful l i ves that we have no ti me to
appr eci ate the worl d ar ound us? What cr eates stress for us today? Di scuss wi th your cl assmates.
I, v
A
M
M B
WLs
% IFL^H
WI L L I AM WORDSWORTH
(1770- 1850)
Early years William Wordsworth
was born in 1770 in a little town
in the Lake District in the north-west of England. When he was
just eight years old his mother died, and he also lost his father
fi ve years l ater. The chi l dren were separated and rai sed by
guardians.
I n 1787 Wordsworth entered Cambri dge, but he was not
parti cul arl y i nterested in his studies. Whi l e still a uni versi ty
student he went on a three-month walking tour of France, the
Swiss Alps and Italy, and was greatly impressed by the beauty of
the l andscape. When he fi ni shed hi s degree he returned to
France for a year and became a passi onate supporter of the
democratic ideals of the French Revolution. Financial problems,
however, forced hi m to return to England, where he went to live
with his sister Dorothy in a small village in Dorset. In 1793 he published his first two books of verse,
which received little notice from either the critics or the public.
The friendship with Coleridge Two events then changed his life forever: he i nheri ted a sum of
money whi ch covered his daily necessities and, in 1795, he met Samuel Taylor Coleridge ( pp.
E24-31), a poet with similar radical political and literary views. This friendship had a lasting impact
on both poets. Wi l l i am and Dorothy went to live cl ose to Col eri dge. Together they di scussed
political issues, read, wrote, exchanged theories on poetry and commented on each other's work.
In this period of intense creativity they produced the Lyrical Ballads (1798), a landmark in English
Romanti ci sm. Coleridge contri buted four poems and Wordsworth ni neteen to the col l ecti on. The
col l ecti on was not well-received by the literary critics of the day. Later that year Wordsworth, his
sister Dorothy and Coleridge travelled to Germany. Coleridge conti nued his studies in philosophy,
whi l e Wordsworth wrote several of his fi nest lyrical poems and started work on The Prelude, an
autobiographical poem which he continued to revise throughout the rest of his life.
Two years later a second edition of the Lyrical Ballads appeared, with new poems by Wordsworth,
who also provided a prose Preface illustrating his and Coleridge's principles of poetry.
The Lake District, home and marriage Wi l l i am and Dorothy moved to Grasmere, one of the
loveliest villages in the Lake District, a region whi ch Wordworth i mmortal i sed in his poetry. In
1802 Wordsworth married a chi l dhood friend and together they had five chi l dren. During thi s
period he produced Poems, in Two Volumes (1807), a col l ecti on whi ch includes some of his finest
verse and most famous sonnets. His reputation began to grow and his work became increasingly
popular. He did, however, suffer personal tragedy when two of his children died. His close friend
Col eri dge was experi enci ng serious heal th probl ems and the two became estranged and never
fully reconciled.
Maturity and conservatism As his fame as a poet grew, Wordsworth became more conservative
politically. He was given a well-paid government job and openly campaigned for the conservative
Tory party. The younger generati on of Romanti c poets criticised hi m for abandoni ng the radical
pol i ti cs and i deal i sm of hi s youth, whi l e recogni si ng the debt they owed hi m for the great
innovations of his poetry.
Writers' Gallery - William Wordsworth 23
WORKS
The Lyri cal Bal l ads Wordsworth's contri buti on to Engl i sh
poetry cannot be overestimated. His work with Coleridge on the
Lyrical Ballads established Romanticism as a literary movement in England, and the prose Preface to
the second edition came to be considered as a Romantic manifesto ( p. El 18).
Many critics consider the long poem The Prelude, published posthumously in 1850 in twenty-four
books to be his greatest achievement. The poem describes the crucial experiences and stages of the
poet's life and is an i ntrospecti ve account of his emoti onal and spiritual devel opment. Further
evidence of Wordsworth's genius can be found in Poems, in Two Volumes (1807), which contains,
among other celebrated poems, 'I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud' ( Text E7).
Nature Wordsworth was a great innovator. He found his
greatest inspiration in nature, which he believed could elevate
the human soul and exert a posi ti ve moral i nfl uence on
human thoughts and feelings. He identified Nature with God
and was more pantheistic in his vision than Christian. His
poetry celebrates the lives of simple rural people, whom he sees
as being more sincere than people living in cities. Children are
also regarded as pure and innocent, uncorrupted by education
and the evils of the world ( Visual Links E2 and E3).
Poetry as intuition Wordsworth believed that i ntui ti on,
not reason, should guide the poet. I nspiration should come
from the direct experience of the senses. Poetry, he wrote in
the Preface, originates from 'the spontaneous overflow of
powerful feel i ngs' whi ch is fi l tered through 'emoti on
recollected in tranquillity'.
Reputation Wordsworth renewed English poetry both in
content and style. He started writing at a time when poetry
was constrained by literary conventions, affected diction and
emphasis on form. By rejecting these restraints, Wordsworth
permanently extended the range of English poetry.
A drawing of Tintern Abbey, by the great romantic
painter I. W. Turner (c. 1794). After a visit to Tintern
Abbey William Wordsworth wrote one of his best-
known poems.
' '
As he advanced in age, however, his poetic vision grew weaker and his output was largely uninspired
and written in the 'elevated' artificial style against which he had rebelled. In 1840 he was awarded a
government pension and the title of Poet Laureate, in recognition of his contri buti on to English
literature. He died in 1850, a few days after his eightieth birthday.
TASK
Whi ch of the f ol l owi ng do you fi nd in Wor dswor th's bi ogr aphy?
Pol i ti cal passi on and i nvol vement Personal tr agedy A cademi c excel l ence
Hosti l e cri ti ci sm I nterest in f or ei gn cul ture Consi stency of vi ews
Lack of moral standar ds Li terary i nnovati on Love of nature
I ntense Chri sti an bel i efs I deal i sm f ol l owed by conser vati sm Tal ent as a sati ri st
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner
by Samuel Taylor Coleridge
INTRODUCTION Whi l e walking in the hills in the Lake District, William Wordsworth suggested to
close friend, Coleridge, that he write a story about an adventure at sea. Coleridge took up the suggestio
and the result was The Rime of the Ancient Mariner.
Of the Romanti c poets, Coleridge was one of the most imaginative, and in the Rime he transports t'
reader i nto fantastical, unforgettable settings ( Visual Link E4).
We someti mes associ ate certai n thi ngs wi th good luck and bad luck. For exampl e, a rabbi t's f oot is thought to
bri ng good luck whi l e wal ki ng under a l adder means troubl e in store. Such human supersti ti ons play a bi g part in
the poem you are about to read.
The killing of
the albatross as
illustrated by
Custave Dore
(1875).
THE STORY
The Rime, or story, is told by theAncient Mariner to a man who is on his way to a wed-
ding. The Mariner was working as a sailor on a ship that was blocked in by icenear the
South Pole. Suddenly an albatross appears out of the fog and is welcomed as a sign of
good luck by the crew. Not long after, the icesplits and the bird flies alongside theship as
it continues its voyage. Then, one day, for no apparent reason, the Mariner shoots and
kills the albatross. The ship is blown north to theEquator into a honible sea where there
is no wind. The sailors say it is theMariner's fault for bringing about their bad luck, and
hang the albatross around his neck so that he will never forget what a terrible thing he
has done ( Text E9). All the sailors die and he sees no way out of a hopeless situation
until, one night, he is so struck by the beauty of the watersnakes that are swimming
around the ship, that he blesses them. The albatross falls from his neck ( Text E10)
and the ship sails home. Heis saved, but as apenance he has to travel around the world
and tell his story, which serves as a warning to everyone to love all God's creatures.
Note: The notes in a smaller font are a summary of what happens in the poem.
Text E9
- GLOSSARY
1. hellish: evil
2. work 'em woe: bring
them bad luck
3. averred: claimed
4. wretch: evil person
5. slay: kill
Water, Water, Every Where
TheAncient Mariner has just killed the albatross.
Part II
(...)
(The shipmates cry out against the ancient Mariner for killing the bird of good luck.)
And I had done a hellish
1
thing.
And it would work 'em woe
2
:
For all averred
3
1 had killed the bird
That made the breeze to blow.
Ah wretch
4
! said they, the bird to slay
5
, 5
That made the breeze to blow!
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner - Samuel Taylor Coleridge 303
(But when the fog cleared off, they justify the same, and thus make themselves accomplices to
the crime.)
Nor dim
6
nor red, like God's own head,
The glorious Sun uprist
7
:
They all averred I had killed the bird
That brought the fog and mist
8
. 10
'Twas right, said they, such birds to slay,
That bring the fog and mist.
(The fair breeze continues; the ship enters the Pacific Ocean, and sails northward, even till it
reaches the Line.)
The fair breeze blew, the white foam
9
flew,
The furrow
10
followed free;
We were the first that ever burst
11
15
I nto that silent sea.
(The ship hath been suddenly becalmed.)
Down dropped
12
the breeze, the sails dropped down,
'Twas sad as sad could be;
And we did speak only to break
The silence of the sea! 20
30
All in a hot and copper
13
sky,
The bloody Sun, at noon,
Right up above the mast
14
did stand,
No bigger than the Moon.
Day after day, day after day,
We stuck
15
, nor breath
16
nor motion
17
;
As idle
18
as a painted ship
Upon a painted ocean.
(And the Albatross begins to be avenged.)
Water, water, every where,
And all the boards
19
did shrink
20
;
Water, water, every where,
Nor any drop
21
to drink.
The very deep
22
did rot
23
: O Christ!
That ever this should be!
Yes, slimy things
24
did crawl
25
with legs 35
Upon the slimy sea.
About, about, in reel and rout
26
The death-fires
27
danced at night;
The water, like a witch's oils,
Burnt green and blue and white. 40
And some in dreams assured were
28
Of the Spirit that plagued
29
us so;
Nine fathom
30
deep he had followed us
From the land of mist and snow.
25
6. dim: dark
7. uprist: roseup
8. mist: light fog
9. foam: whitespray on
thetop of waves
10. furrow: track that a
boat leaves behind it
in thesea
11. burst: moved
suddenly
12.dropped: fell
13. copper: reddish-
brown metal
14. mast: tall poleon
which thesails of the
ship arehung
15. Westuck: wedid not
move
16. breath: wind
17.motion: movement
18. idle: not moving
19.boards: thewood
from which theship
was made
20. shrink: become
smaller
21. drop: very small
amount of liquid
22. deep: thebottom of
thesea
23. rot: start
decomposing
24. slimy things:
slippery, unpleasant
creatures likesnakes
25. crawl: movevery
slowly
26. in reel and rout: as if
they weredancing
27. death-fires: optical
illusions created by
an electrical storm.
They wereknown as
St Eimo's fires and
werebelieved by
sailors to mean that
death was on theway
28. assured were: were
sure
29. plagued: caused
continual suffering
30. fathom: one fathom
is 1.8metres
We stuck, nor breath nor
motion; as idle as a painted
ship upon a painted ocean.'
31. utter: total
32. drought: period when
thereis no rain
33. withered at the root:
their tongues were
dyinglikeaplant that
does not get any water
34. choked: suffocated
35. soot: black powder
produced when
something is burnt
36. well a-day:
exclamation
expressing displeasure
at what happened on
that day

(A Spirit had followed them; one of the invisible inhabitants of this planet, neither departed
souls nor angels; concerning whom the learned Jew, J osephus, and the Platonic
Constantinopolitan, Michael Psellus, may be consulted. They are very numerous, and there is
no climate or element without one or more.)
And every tongue, through utter
31
drought
32
, 45
Was withered at the root
33
;
We could not speak, no more than if
We had been choked
34
with soot
35
.
(The shipmates, in their sore distress, would fain throw the whole guilt on the ancient Mariner:
in sign whereof they hang the dead sea-bird round his neck.)
Ah! well a-day
36
! what evil looks
Had I from old and young! 50
Instead of the cross, the Albatross
About my neck was hung.
COMPREHENSION
1 What 'hellish thi ng' had the mari ner done? How
did the other crew members react to the mari ner's
deed? What made them change thei r reacti on?
2 In what way did the other sailors become
'accompl i ces to the cri me'? See the second note.
3 What path did the shi p take? What did the sailors
run out of?
4 What type of ani mal s did the mari ner see? What
spectacl e did he wi tness at ni ght?
5 What was causing the sailors' mi sfortune? (Stanza 10)
6 Why coul d they no l onger speak?
7 What did the other sailors do to puni sh the mari ner
for his cri me?
ANALYSIS
1 Coleridge wrote TheRimeof the Ancient Mariner in
the form of a ballad*. Here are some of the features of
a medi eval bal l ad.
a. Tick the features that you identify in Col eri dge's
work and fi nd exampl es. A bal l ad:
narrates a story.
recounts the adventures of the ancient mariner
is composed in si mpl e two or four line stanzas.
consi sts of al ternate four and three stress line.
rhymes on the second and fourth line.
contai ns few descri pti ve detai l s.
l eaves the moti ves behi nd the characters' acti ons
unexpl ai ned.
makes extensi ve use of repetition*.
uses stock descri pti ve phrases such as 'mi l k-whi te
steed' for a whi te horse, etc.
i ncl udes a refrain.
b. Medi eval bal l ads are general l y di vi ded i nto five
categori es, accordi ng to the subject matter of thei r
stori es. Whi ch of the fol l owi ng categori es do you
think The Rimeof the Ancient Mariner could be
classified under?
Love stori es Cri me and puni shment
Historical bal l ads Outl aws and bad men
K Ballads of the supernatural
c. Why do you thi nk Col eri dge chose the bal l ad form
for his work?
2 Underl i ne sentences in the text where the sun or
the sea are menti oned. Are they descri bed in a
realistic or symbol i c way?
3 Find rel i gi ous references in the second, ei ghth and
twel fth stanzas, and a reference to the supernatural in
the tenth stanza. Do you thi nk the sea-ani mal s
descri bed in the ei ghth stanza are real or supernatural ,
or coul d they be ei ther?
4 How woul d you defi ne the atmosphere created in
the poem?
What el ements contri bute to the creati on of the
atmosphere?
5 Consi der the simile* in lines 27-28. What does it
convey?
A sense of paralysis A sense of beauty
The i dea of col our The idea of an unreal world
Other:
6 Explain the paradox* contai ned in the i mage in the
seventh stanza.
7 Find exampl es of end-of-line rhymes*, regul ar
rhythm patterns and alliteration*.
mmmm
Internal
rhymes
OVER TO YOU
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Internal rhymes are rhymes that occur within a line. Like the more frequently used
end rhymes (the rhyming of final words) they are used to add a musical quality to the
language.
There are several exampl es of i nternal rhyme in the text you have just read. Exampl e:
For all averred I had killed the bi rd
Find other exampl es in lines 5 and 15.
Experi ment wi th i nternal rhyme. Thi nk of two or three words that rhyme and try to i ncl ude
them in the same sentence. Exampl e:
same, name Hetold me his name, which was the same
Text E10
The Ancient Mariner observes the awfid situation he finds
himself in.
Part IV
( )
Alone, alone, all, all alone,
Alone on a wide wide sea!
And never a saint took pity on
My soul in agony.
(He despiseth the creatures of the calm.)
The many men, so beautiful! 5
And they all dead did lie:
And a thousand thousand slimy
1
things
Lived on, and so did I.
Alone On A Wide Wide Sea!
GLOSSARY
1. slimy: slippery and
unpleasant like
snakes
2. rotting:
decomposing
3. deck: top level of a
ship
4. or ever: before
5. gusht: (gushed)
come out
6. wicked: evil
7. whisper: very quiet
voice
8. lids: eyes
9. close: closed
lO.balls: eyeballs
tl.pulses: pulsations
12.load: heavyweight
13.weary: tired
I looked to heaven, and tried to pray;
But or ever
4
a prayer had gusht
5
,
A wicked
6
whisper
7
came, and made 15
My heart as dry as dust.
I closed my lids
8
and kept them close
9
,
And the balls
10
like pulses
11
beat;
For the sky and the sea, and the sea and the sky
Lay like a load
12
on my weary
13
eye, 20
And the dead were at my feet.
(And envieth that they should live, and so many be dead.)
I looked upon the rotting
2
sea,
And drew my eyes away; 10
1 looked upon the rotting deck
3
,
And there the dead men lay.
many men, so
beautiful! And they all
dead did lie...'
'Oh happy living things!
no tongue their beauty,
might declare...'
14.sweat: liquid that
comes through your
skin when you are
hot or frightened
15.melted: disappeared
16.limbs: bodies
17.reek: have an
unpleasant smell
18.curse:
condemnation
19.drag: pull down
20.abide: stop
21.beams: shining lines
of light
(But the curse liveth for him in the eye of the dead men.)
The cold sweat
14
melted
15
from their limbs
16
,
Nor rot nor reek
17
did they:
The look with which they looked on me
Had never passed away. 25
An orphan's curse
18
would drag
19
to hell
A spirit from on high;
But oh! more horrible than that
Is the curse in a dead man's eye!
Seven days, seven nights, I saw that curse, 30
And yet I could not die.
(In his loneliness and fixedness he yearneth towards the
journeying Moon, and the stars that still sojourn, yet still move
onward; and every where the blue sky belongs to them, and is
their appointed rest, and their native country and their own
natural homes, which they enter unannounced, as lords that are
certainly expected and yet there is a silent joy at their arrival.)
The moving Moon went up the sky,
And no where did abide
20
:
Softly she was going up,
And a star or two beside - 35
Her beams
21
bemocked the sultry main
22
,
Like April hoar-frost
23
spread;
But where the ship's huge
24
shadow lay,
The charmed
25
water burnt alway
26
A still and awful red.
(By the light of the Moon he beholdeth God's creatures of the great calm.)
Beyond the shadow of the ship,
I watched the water-snakes.
They moved in tracks of shining white,
And when they reared
27
, the elfish
28
light
Fell off in hoary flakes
29
.
Within
30
the shadow of the ship
I watched their rich attire
31
:
Blue, glossy green, and velvet black,
They coiled
32
and swam; and every track
Was a flash of golden fire.
22.bemocked the sultry
main: made fun of the hot
and windless sea
23.hoar-frost: white powdery
ice
24.huge: very big
25.charmed: under a magic
spell
26.alway: always
27.reared: came up out of the
sea
28.elfish: magical
29.hoary flakes: small ice-
likepieces
30.Within: inside
31.attire: clothes
32.coiled: twisted and
turned
(Their beauty and their happiness.)
(He blesseth them in his heart.)
O happy living things! no tongue
Their beauty might declare
33
:
A spring of love gushed
34
from my heart,
And I blessed them unaware
35
:
Sure my kind saint took pity on me,
And I blessed them unaware.
(The spell begins to break.)
The self-same moment I could pray;
And from my neck so free
The Albatross fell off, and sank
36
Like lead
37
into the sea.
55
60
33.no tongue ...
declare: nobody
would beable to put
into words how
beautiful they were
34.gushed: came out
quickly and in large
quantities (likewater
from a pipe)
35.unaware: without
realising what I was
doing
36.sank: went down
below the surface of
the water
37.lead: aheavy metal
COMPREHENSION
1 Why was the mari ner al one? What happened when
he tried to pray? Did he get relief from cl osi ng his eyes?
2 Had the bodi es of the dead crew members begun
to decompose?
3 Whi ch was worse, accordi ng to the mari ner: the
curse of an orphan or the curse of a dead man's eye?
4 What col our did the sea become in the light of the
moon? What col our was the sea in the shadow of the
boat?
5 What did the mari ner see in the water? What did
he unconsci ousl y do?
6 When did the al batross fall from the mari ner's neck?
ANALYSIS
1 This secti on of the poem may be di vi ded i nto two
parts. In the first part the mari ner l ooks i nwards, at his
own condi ti on and l aments his mi sfortune. In the
second part he l ooks outwards at his surroundi ngs
and finds a sense of harmony wi th nature. I dentify the
turni ng poi nt in the text.
2 The themes of religion and the supernatural are
strongl y present in this secti on of the poem. Find
references to religion in the first, fourth, seventh and
twel fth stanzas. I dentify the supernatural el ements in
the text.
3 Explain the use of personification* in the ei ghth
stanza. Whi ch words/ expressi ons (al so consi der the
note) suggest that the moon is a beni gn natural
el ement?
4 Focus on the descri pti on of the watersnakes in the
tenth and el eventh stanzas. Underl i ne the col ours and
the verbs of movement the mari ner uses. Do you
thi nk that the watersnakes are real or magi cal ani mal s,
or coul d they be consi dered to be both?
5 The sun and the moon are two of the central
symbols* in the poem. Underl i ne the lines in whi ch
they are menti oned in the two texts you have read.
Whi ch is associ ated wi th pain and sufferi ng and whi ch
wi th gentl eness and forgi veness?
6 The al batross is al so an i mportant symbol in the
poem. The killing of the al batross has been
i nterpreted in several di fferent ways:
- man's i ndi fference towards nature;
- man's lack of Christian values;
- the cruci fi xi on of J esus Christ;
- the betrayal of basi c human val ues and i nsti ncts;
- the suppressi on of the creati ve drive and
i magi nati on in man.
Do you agree with any of these i nterpretati ons or
do you have your own personal vi ew? Justify your
response.
As you read Text El 0 agai n, listen to the
recordi ng and identify musi cal features such as
alliteration*, repetition*, rhyme* and rhythm*.
Thi nk of a common supersti ti on. Do some research i nto its origin and expl ai n your fi ndi ngs to the rest of the cl ass.
HJ MHHHHH Early years Samuel Tayl or
^^^^^^^H w H H H U ^^^H Col eri dge was born i n 1772,
the youngest of ten chi l dren. When his father died he was sent
away to a London chari ty school for chi l dren of the clergy. He
was an avi d reader and a bri ght student. I n 1791 he went to
Cambri dge, but he suddenl y i nterrupted his educati on to enl i st
in a regi ment of l i ght dragoons. Later he was re-admi tted i nto
Cambri dge, where he met the radi cal poet Robert Southey,
whose sympatheti c views on the French Revol uti on he shared.
Together they pl anned the foundati on of an egalitarian Utopian
communi ty in New England. The project was abandoned but the
two friends col l aborated on a verse drama, The Fall of Robespierre
(1794).
Marriage Col eri dge l eft Cambri dge wi thout a degree and,
al most on impulse, married Southey's fiancee's sister. The marriage, whi ch produced four chi l dren,
was a failure: the coupl e lived apart for most of their lives.
Encounter with Wordsworth I n 1795 Coleridge met Wi l l i am Wordsworth ( pp. E16-23), a poet
wi th si mi l ar pol i ti cal and l i terary vi ews. The encounter produced one of the most creati ve
partnershi ps in Engl i sh l i terature. The result of thei r col l aborati on was the Lyrical Ballads (1798),
whi ch opened wi th one of the four poems that Coleridge had contri buted: The Rime of the Ancient
Mariner ( Texts E9 and E10). He also began, but never compl eted, three other ballads, the finest of
whi ch is Christabel, and composed his cel ebrated opi um-vi si on Kubla Khan. In 1798 he travelled to
Germany wi th Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy. He had become disillusioned wi th the pol i ti cal
radi cal i sm i nspi red by the French Revol uti on and turned hi s attenti on to German phi l osophy,
especially the ideas of the phi l osopher I mmanuel Kant. He learned German, studied phi l osophy at
Gotti ngen Uni versi ty and transl ated some works by the romanti c poet Friedrich von Schi l l er i nto
English.
Drug addiction In 1800 he returned to England and went with the Wordworths to live in the Lake
District. By this ti me he had become addicted to opi um, whi ch was the onl y available relief for the
pain he suffered due to various heal th probl ems. I n 1804 he left for Malta, hopi ng to overcome hi s
addi cti on and i mprove hi s heal th in a warmer cl i mate. He worked as secretary to the governor of
Malta for two years and then returned to England.
The Lake District I n 1808 he moved back to the Lake Di stri ct, cl ose to the Wordsworths and
Southey. Together they became known as the 'Lake Poets'. He fell in love wi th Wordsworth's sister-
in-law, a love that was to be a source of great suffering all through his life.
The end of a friendship I n 1810 hi s fri endshi p wi th Wordsworth came to a bi tter end. His
addi cti on to opi um got worse, produci ng terri bl e mood swings and maki ng hi m unabl e to work
producti vel y. I n the attempt to free hi msel f of the habi t he went to l i ve i n the househol d of a
physi ci an in London.
London and fame In the following years he slowly regained his heal th, worked as a journalist and
gave lectures that established his reputati on as a distinguished literary critic.
Writers' Gallery - Samuel Taylor Coleridge
- 3 * - f v y - ^mmm^mm^mm^
I n 1816 the publ i cati on of the poems Christabel and Kubla Khan consol i dated his fame. The
fol l owi ng year he wrote hi s major prose work, Biographia Literaria ( p. El 19), a series of
dissertations on subjects ranging from literary criticism and philosophy to sociology.
He died in 1834. His epitaph, which he wrote to sum up a life of suffering, reads:
Beneath this sod
A Poet lies; or that which oncewas he.
0 lift onethought in prayer for S.T.C.
That he, whomany ayear with toil of breath,
Found Death in Life, may herefind Lifein Death.
Lyrical Ballads Coleridge's reputation as a poet is based on a
small but magnificent corpus of work. The best expression of his
poetic vision can be found in his collaboration with Wordsworth in the Lyrical Ballads ( p. El 18).
The contribution to the collection by the two poets was very different. While Wordsworth wrote
poetry inspired by the simple things of everyday life, Coleridge turned to the past for mystery and
wonder and took the readers into the fantastic world of the i magi nati on. Wordsworth asked the
readers to enjoy his natural descriptions, Coleridge on the other hand asked them to 'suspend
disbelief' and let him lead them into mysterious and supernatural worlds.
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner This can be clearly seen in The Rime of the Ancient Mariner
( Texts E9 and E10), where the juxtaposition of ordinary experience with supernatural events, and
the use of powerful symbols (the sun, the moon) and striking images create an eerie, otherworldly
atmosphere which stimulates the reader's imagination.
Kubla Khan Kubla Khan, started in 1798 and publ i shed unfi ni shed in 1816, was apparentl y
inspired by a dream in an opium-induced sleep. Coleridge woke up with a clear image of the poem,
but lost the vision, except for a few lines, when a visitor disturbed hi m. The poem's theme is the
fabulous ancient Orient and its magic rites. Its most striking features are its suggestive imagery and
musical rhythm.
Christabel In the same year Coleridge published another unfinished poem, Christabel, which he
had written over a period of ti me. The poem is a medieval romance of the supernatural, whi ch
includes many Gothi c el ements. Coleridge was very disappointed when Wordsworth refused to
include it in the second edition of the Lyrical Ballads.
Biographia Literaria Though he is best known today for his poetry, Coleridge wrote articles and
dissertations on philosophy, political analysis and theology. His treatises and lectures made him the
most i nfl uenti al Engl i sh l i terary cri ti c of the ni neteenth century. In his Biographia Literaria
( p. El 19), considered his greatest critical work, Coleridge developed theories that were intended to
be the introduction to a great philosophical work, which he never produced.
TASK
Use the fol l owi ng headi ngs to take notes on Col eri dge's life and works and then prepare a short report.
- Early life and educati on - Contri buti on to the Lyrical Ballads - Ger many
- Fri endshi p wi th Wordsworth - Heal th probl ems - Rehabi l i tati on and final years
MHMM
George Gordon Byron
INTRODUCTION Byron is remembered as much for his life as for his poetry. His amorous adventures
and whol ehearted parti ci pati on in pol i ti cal movements were just two aspects of a life that hel ped to
make hi m a l egendary, heroi c figure. The poems that fol l ow reveal Byron's many-si ded nature. He
praises a beautiful girl, he compl ai ns that he no longer has the energy to enjoy life as he used to and
he resolves to give his support to the Greek i ndependence movement.
Pai nters must al ways pay cl ose attenti on to the qual i ty of light in thei r pai nti ngs. A little more l i ght or shade can
change our i mpressi on of the subject matter greatl y. In thi s poem Byron, like a pai nter, focuses his attenti on on
light and how it can enhance beauty.
Q
Text E l l
GLOSSARY
1 climes: regions or
climates
Thus mellow'd ...
denies: her beauty is
soft (mellow'd). It is
atender light, not the
harsh, bright light
(gaudy) of daytime
shade: pieceof
darkness
ray: pieceof light
Had half impair'd:
would damage
waves: undulates
raven tress: shiny
black hair
dwelling-place:
home
9. brow: forehead
10. win: conquer people's
heart
11. tints that glow: soft
colours that shine
4
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
She Walks In Beauty
She walks in beauty, like the night
Of cloudless climes
1
and starry skies;
And all that's best of dark and bright
Meet in her aspect and her eyes:
Thus mellow'd to that tender light
Which heaven to gaudy day denies
2
.
One shade
3
the more, one ray
4
the less,
Had half impair'd
5
the nameless grace
Which waves
6
in every raven tress
7
,
Or softly lightens o'er her face;
Where thoughts serenely sweet express
How pure, how dear their dwelling-place
8
10
And on that cheek, and o'er that brow
9
,
So soft, so calm, yet eloquent,
The smiles that win
10
, the tints that glow
11
, is
But tell of days in goodness spent,
A mind at peace with all below,
A heart whose love is innocent!
Maria Bicknell
(Mrs John Constable) by
lohn Constable (1816).
George Gordon Byron
COMPREHENSION
1 What does the poet compare the lady's beauty to,
in the openi ng two lines of the poem?
2 Which word in line 6 suggests that daylight is too
strong?
3 Which phrase means 'beauty' in line 8?
4 Make a list of the physical features that are
menti oned in the poem.
ANALYSIS ;
1 Contrast the phrase 'She walks in beauty' with 'She
is beautiful'. What nuances of meani ng does the
phrase used by Byron suggest?
That the beauty he is describing is out of the
ordinary, compl ex, mysterious.
That he is describing more than physical beauty.
That the lady he is describing is not only beautiful
herself, but is also surrounded by beauty.
2 The openi ng simile* compares the lady's beauty to
the light of a starry, cloudless night. What is the poet
trying to capture in this simile?
The undefinable quality of the lady's beauty.
The fact that her beauty is composed of different
el ements: darkness and light.
The delicacy and gentl eness of the lady's beauty
(contrast with the 'gaudy' light of day).
The fact that the lady's beauty contains somethi ng
sinister, a dark quality.
3 The lady's beauty is compared to the perfect
bal ance of opposites (line 3: 'best of dark and bri ght').
Find other exampl es of balancing opposites in the
second and third stanzas.
4 Find words or phrases in the poem that associate
the lady's beauty with softness, calmness and purity.
5 Find exampl es of personification* in the poem.
6 Identify the rhyming scheme of the poem. Find
examples of alliteration*, assonance* and run-on
lines*.
7 ft Listen again to the recording of the poem.
How would you define the rhythm*? Is it in keeping
with the theme of beauty in the poem?
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Parallelism is the repeti ti on i n the same l i ne or i n cl ose proxi mi ty of si mi l ar syntacti cal
structures. An exampl e of paral l el i sm i n She Walks in Beauty can be found i n l i ne 7:
One shade the more, one ray the less
Paral l el i sm is a sophi sti cated form of repeti ti on whi ch is used to emphasi se the mean-
i ng of the separate cl auses. I t al so creates a harmoni ous syntacti cal bal ance whi ch adds
a musi cal qual i ty to the l anguage.
Identify the repetition of conjuncti ons in the first verse of the poem. Find exampl es of
parallelisms within the same line and in successive lines in the final verse of the poem.
Parallelisms are often used in proverbs and sayings, for exampl e: 'live and let live', 'all's well
that ends well'. Think of some exampl es in your own l anguage.
Byron associates the beauty of the woman with ni ght-ti me. Which ti me of day do you particularly like? Do you
look forward to a balmy summer's evening or do you thrill at a glorious sunrise on a frosty winter's morni ng?
Tell the rest of the class.
rnMmmf:
Byron was onl y thirty-six when he di ed, but in the fol l owi ng short poem he seems to need a rest from the hecti c
life he has l ed.
Text E12
So We'll Go No More A-Roving
A portrait of Byron by
Thomas Phillips (1835).
So we'l l go no mor e a- r ovi ng
1
So l ate i nto the ni ght,
T hough the hear t be sti l l as l ovi ng,
A nd the moon be sti l l as br i ght.
For the sword outwear s
2
i ts sheath
3
,
A nd the soul wears the breast,
A nd the heart must pause to br eathe,
A nd L ove i tsel f have rest.
T hough the ni ght was made for l ovi ng,
A nd the day returns too soon,
Yet we'l l go no mor e a- r ovi ng
By the l i ght of the moon.
10
GLOSSARY
1. a-roving: verb form used in
poetry or songs (roving:
goingout to enjoy ourselves)
2. outwears: lasts longer than
3. sheath: thecovering for a
sword
COMPREHENSION
1 Divide the poem i nto:
a. Statement of i ntent: lines
b. Expl anati on: lines
c. Reformul ati on of i ntent: lines
2 When did the poet go 'a-rovi ng'? What kind of
activities do you thi nk 'rovi ng' i ncl uded?
3 What seems to have caused the poet to stop
rovi ng?
ANALYSIS
I
1 The poet uses the pronoun 'we' and not 'I '. What
effect does thi s have on the poem?
It involves the reader more directly.
It suggests that the 'rovi ng' was done in company.
It di stances the reader from the poem.
2 Focus on the metaphor* in the openi ng line of the
second stanza. The 'sword' represents the poet's
spirit, whi l e the 'sheath' represents his body. By
compari ng his spirit to a sword, what does the poet
suggest about his atti tude to life?
3 How woul d you defi ne the tone of the poem?
4 The poem is based on an ol d Scotti sh folk song.
Whi ch of the fol l owi ng features of folk songs can you
identify in it?
Col l oqui al verb form
A refrain
Strong and regul ar rhythm* and rhymi ng scheme
Extensi ve use of repetition*
A chorus (a repeated verse)
George Gordon Byron
In this poem Byron is sayi ng that he no l onger has the energy to live at the hecti c pace he has been used to.
Do you thi nk there is a ti me in life when we shoul d or must sl ow down and gi ve up some of the thi ngs we like
doi ng, or can we keep goi ng wi th the same energy and enthusi asm of youth as we grow ol der? Discuss wi th your
cl assmates and find exampl es of peopl e who you thi nk have managed to live life to the full even in thei r later years
(for exampl e: Nel son Mandel a, Ti na Turner).
Byron was never a man to settl e for a qui et home life of easy comfort and was al ways l ooki ng for new adventures.
Thi s poem was wri tten just a few months before he di ed. Read it and find out what new project was to take up all
his energi es in his final days.
On This Day I Complete My Thirty-Sixth Year
Text E13
'Ti s
1
ti me thi s hear t shoul d be unmoved
2
,
Si nce other s i t hath ceased to move
3
:
Yet, though I cannot be bel oved
4
,
Sti l l l et me l ove!
M y days are i n the yel l ow l eaf
5
;
The fl owers and frui ts of l ove are gone;
The wor m
6
, the canker
7
, and the gri ef
8
Are mi ne al one!
T he fi re that on my bosom preys
9
I s l one
10
as some vol cani c i sl e;
N o tor ch i s ki ndl ed
11
at i ts bl aze -
A f uneral pi l e
12
.
The hope, the fear, the j eal ous care,
T he exal ted por ti on
13
of the pai n
A nd power of l ove, I cannot share,
But wear the chai n.
But 'tis not thus
14
- and 'tis not here -
Such thoughts shoul d shake my soul , nor now,
Wher e gl ory decks the hero's bi er,
Or bi nds hi s br ow
15
.
10
15
20
GLOSSARY
1. 'Tis: it is
2. unmoved: not feel strong
emotions
3. Since ... move: because my
heart (it) and emotions no
longer causepassion in
other people(hath ceased:
havestopped)
4. beloved: loved by others
5. My days ... yellow leaf:
I am getting older
6. worm: long, thin insect
that is usually associated
with death
7. canker: destructive
infection
8. grief: great sorrow
9. Thefire ... preys: the
fireof passion that is
eating away (preys) at
my heart (bosom)
10. lone: alone
11. kindled: lit
12. funeral pile: large
amount of wood on
which adead body is
burnt
13. exalted portion:
large amount
14.'Tis not thus: it is not
in this way
15.Where glory ...
brow: whereglory
can beseen on the
hero's face(binds his
brow) as heis carried
away from the
battlefield on apiece
of wood (bier)
%f
16. banner: abigflag
used as astandard by
an army
17. Greece: Byron helped
theGreeks in their
struggleagainst
Turkish domination
18.The Spartan ...
shield: when
Spartans died in
battlethey were
carried (borne) from
thefield on their
shields (pieces of
metal or wood that
soldiers used to
protect themselves
from attack)
19.Think ... lake: think
of your ancestors.
Byron was descended
from thekings of
Scotland
20. strikehome: attack
theenemy, in this
casetheTurks
21.Tread ... down:
repress (tread: walk
on) these reawakened
passions, i.e. thoughts
of love
22. Unworthy
manhood: you are
not acting as aman
should in these
circumstances
23. thee: you
24. frown: an angry or
unhappy facial
expression
25.thou ... thy youth:
you regret your youth
26. Seek out: look for
27. grave: aplacein the
ground whereadead
body is buried
The sword, the banner
16
, and the fi el d,
Gl or y and Gr eece
17
, ar ound me see!
The Spartan, bor ne upon hi s shi el d
18
,
Was not mor e free.
A wake! (not Gr eece - she is awake!) 25
A wake, my spi ri t! T hi nk thr ough whom
T hy l i f e- bl ood tracks i ts par ent l ake
19
,
A nd then stri ke home
20
!
Tread those revi vi ng passi ons down
21
,
U nwor thy manhood
22
! - unto thee
23
30
I ndi f f erent shoul d the smi l e or f r own
24
Of beauty be.
I f thou regret'st thy youth
25
, why live?
T he l and of honour abl e death
I s here: - up to the fi el d, and gi ve 35
A way thy br eath!
Seek out
26
- l ess of ten sought than f ound -
A sol di er's grave
27
, for thee the best;
Then l ook ar ound, and choose thy gr ound,
A nd take thy rest. 40
George Gordon Byron
COMPREHENSION
1 Why, accordi ng to the poet, should his heart no
l onger be moved? (First stanza)
2 What awaits the poet in the future? (Second stanza)
3 Does the poet still feel passion? Is it shared by others?
(Third stanza) Whi ch aspects of love can the poet no
l onger share? (Fourth stanza)
4 Why does the poet feel that this is not the ti me or
pl ace for gl oomy thoughts on lost love? Where is the
poet and what is he involved in?
5 What, accordi ng to the poet, should give him the
strength to fi ght?
6 What 'honourabl e death' does he desire?
ANALYSIS
1 The poem deals with several themes: love,
loneliness, agei ng, valour and death. Find at least one
line reference for each of them.
3 In lines 6 and 7 whi ch words convey the joys of
love and the pain of bei ng wi thout love? What
musical devi ce is used in the phrase suggesti ng the
joys of love?
4 The idea of fire is used in an extended metaphor
in the third stanza. What does the fire represent?
Whi ch striking fire i mages represent the poet's
loneliness and despai r?
5 Whi ch aspects of love does the poet focus on in
the fourth stanza? Are they the features of love that
peopl e generally wish to share?
6 In the sixth and seventh stanzas the poet refers to
Greece's glorious past (lines 23- 24) and to his own
nobl e ancestry (lines 27- 28). How do these thoughts
condi ti on his atti tude to death?
a They make him more cheerful .
They make him see death as an honourabl e end.
7 In the final part of the poem the poet sees death as
an honourabl e escape from the pain of living unloved.
Underline the euphemisms* he uses for death in the
last two stanzas.
8 The poem is written in the form of a soliloquy*.
In the first part of the poem he uses the pronoun 'I '.
Whi ch pronoun does he use in the second part? What
does this change signal?
The poet's wish to cast off his gl oomy thoughts.
The poet's uncertai nty about bei ng involved in
battl e.
The poet's desire to change.
9 How would you defi ne the tone of the poem?
1 0 I dentify the rhyming scheme* of the poem.
Is it regular throughout?
Each stanza is composed of three iambic tetrameters*
(four feet) fol l owed by a iambic dimeter* (two feet).
What effect does the short final line of each stanza
create?
It interrupts the flow of the poem and adds tensi on.
It makes the rhythm more dramati c.
It makes the rhythm more regular.
It adds variety.
2 Analyse the metaphor* used by the poet in line 5
using the tabl e below.
tenor common ground vehicle
agei ng
Byron is regarded as a hero in Greece for the part he played in the nati onal l i berati on struggl e agai nst Turkish
domi nati on. From your studies of history and literature, find another writer who was actively involved in a political
or social cause. Descri be the cause whi ch they supported and the part whi ch they played in it ( Visual Link E1).
. i 316THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry
WRI TERS' GALLERY
mm
Family background George
Gor don Lord Byron was bor n
i n L ondon i n 1788. Hi s parents had been l i vi ng i n France whi l e
hi di ng f r om thei r cr edi tor s, but j ust bef or e Byr on' s bi r th hi s
mot her r etur ned to Engl and. Hi s f ather stayed on i n Fr ance,
wher e he di ed thr ee years l ater, possi bl y commi t t i ng sui ci de.
Byron was bor n l ame and l i mped all of hi s l i fe.
Education He was educated at Harrow and then at Cambri dge.
A n avi d reader of the cl assi cs, especi al l y poetry, he wr ote and
publ i shed i n 1807 hi s fi rst work, Hours of Idleness, a col l ecti on of
senti mental poems. T he cri ti cs were not i mpressed and Byr on
repl i ed to hi s detractors wi th a f amous sati re, English Bards and
Scotch Reviewers.
When hi s great uncl e di ed the fol l owi ng year, Byron i nheri ted the ti tl e (Baron Byron of Rochdal e),
some money and the Byrons' ancestral home, Newstead Abbey.
GEORGE GORDON BYRON
(1788-1824)
The 'Grand Tour' I n 1809 he set out on hi s 'Grand Tour', the customary tri p abroad that affl uent
educated young men went on. Over two years, he vi si ted al l the Medi terranean countri es and started
work on the poeti cal account of thi s tri p, Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, whi ch took hi m ei ght years to
compl ete ( Vi sual L i nk E6).
Success and scandal Back i n Engl and he publ i shed the fi rst two cantos of Childe Harold. The poem
met wi th i nstant success and establ i shed Byron as one of Engl and's l eadi ng Romanti c poets. He was
just twenty-four years ol d when he 'awoke one day to fi nd hi msel f f amous'.
He was very outspoken about hi s radi cal pol i ti cal vi ews, and hi s pri vate l i fe was the source of much
scandal . A r umour that a r el ati onshi p wi th hi s hal f-si ster had l ed to the bi r th of a chi l d began to
ci rcul ate and outraged f ashi onabl e soci ety.
Marriage and self-exposed exile I n 1815 Byron tri ed to fi nd stabi l i ty i n marri age, but hi s wi fe l eft
hi m just bef or e the bi r th of Ada, hi s onl y l egi ti mate chi l d. At thi s poi nt he had become a soci al
outcast. He l eft Engl and never to return and went to Geneva, wher e he was j oi ned by Percy and
Mar y Shel l ey ( pp. E 88- 95) and Mar y's stepsi ster Cl ai r e Cl ai r mont, wi th whom Byr on had a
daughter, Al l egra. Thi s was one of the most producti ve peri ods of hi s l i fe. He began the poem The
Prisoner ofChillon, fi ni shed the thi rd canto of Childe Harold and started the drama Manfred.
I taly I n 1816 moved to Veni ce, where he l i ved wi th ni neteen-year-ol d Countess Teresa Gui cci ol i and
her r i ch, aged husband. T hr ough Teresa and her f ami l y he j oi ned a br anch of the Car bonar i ,
conspi rators fi ghti ng agai nst the Austri an oppressors. He then joi ned other Bri ti sh radi cal exi l es, such as
Shel l ey ( pp. E40- 51) at Pisa, where they publ i shed a pol i ti cal journal , The Liberal. I n 1822, shortl y
before Shel l ey drowned i n a boati ng acci dent, the group of Engl i sh expatri ates went thei r separate ways.
Greece Byron's heal th was not good, but when he heard that the Greeks were prepari ng a revol t
agai nst the Turks he j oi ned the i nsurgents at Mi ssol onghi . He contr i buted money a the cause and
Writers' Gallery - George Gordon Byron
iMtiF um&H wm? ^ s m
was made commander i n chi ef, but di d not l i ve l ong enough to take part i n any mi l i tary acti on. I n
1824 hi s heal th fai l ed hi m, and he di ed on April 19th. He was onl y thi rty-si x years ol d. Hi s remai ns
were sent back to Engl and,whi l e hi s heart was buri ed at Mi ssol onghi .
Poems Byr on wrote poems i n a great vari ety of metres, such as She Walks in Beauty ( Text E l l )
and Ode on Venice i n whi ch the poet cel ebrates the ci ty's beauty and l aments i ts decay. Childe Harold's
Pilgrimage, a poem i n f our cantos wr i tten between 1812 and 1819, tel l s the stor y of a young
di si l l usi oned nobl eman who travel s to the pl aces that Byron had vi si ted on hi s Grand Tour. Harol d is
enchanted by the gl ori ous past of these countri es as refl ected i n thei r monuments and admi res the
wonder s of the natur al worl d. The unf i ni shed poem Don Juan, whi ch many cri ti cs consi der hi s
masterpi ece, is a pi caresque verse sati re wi th several autobi ographi cal references. The hero's travel s,
adventures, l ove affai rs, i deas, i mpressi ons and feel i ngs are very cl ose refl ecti ons of what Byron di d,
fel t and thought. The poem is al so a sati re agai nst conventi onal restrai nt, soci ety and the Romanti c
poets who had turned f rom pol i ti cal radi cal i sm to conservati sm ( pp. E22- 23).
Drama The drama Manfred is i nspi red by the frustrati on i nduced by the refl ecti on that man is 'hal f
dust, hal f dei ty, al i ke unfi t to si nk or soar'. The protagoni st is the stereotype of the Romanti c hero:
ambi guousl y handsome, tor mented, passi onate, mel anchol i c, emoti onal , sol i tary. Torn between
nobl e aspi rati ons and si n, and unabl e to sol ve the dual i sm, he commi ts sui ci de.
Tragedy The tragedy i n fi ve acts Marino Faliero, Doge of Venice dramati ses an epi sode i n Veneti an
hi story, when the doge f ormed an al l i ance wi th the peopl e to overthrow the state. The mai n i nterest
of Marino Faliero, l i ke i n all hi s other theatri cal works, l i es i n i ts pol i ti cal content.
Reputation A l though Byr on' s wor k was wi del y cr i ti ci sed on mor al gr ounds and f r equentl y
attacked by cri ti cs, it was i mmensel y popul ar i n Engl and and the rest of Europe; hi s sal es were better
i n Ger many and France than i n Bri tai n. As a Romanti c i con hi s i mpor tance was enor mous. The poet
Tennyson ( Modul e F) summed up the general reacti on to hi s death when he wrote on heari ng the
news: ' the whol e wor l d dar kened to me' . Byr on embodi ed the Romant i c spi ri t and gave i t a
recogni sabl e face. He l eft behi nd hi m the enduri ng i mage of the Byroni c hero: a gl oomy, unsati sfi ed
soci al outcast, a wanderer i n forei gn l ands, a fi ghter agai nst soci al i njusti ce, who i n hi s quest for self-
real i sati on, refuses to accept soci al codes and conventi ons.
Byr on exper i mented wi th di f f er ent l i ter ar y genr es, i ncl udi ng
poetry and drama.
TASK
Byron's life seems to reflect the essence of the typical Romanti c hero'. Whi ch el ements do you find in his
bi ography that support this statement?
. i 318 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry
Percy Bysshe Shelley
I NTRODUCTI ON At the end of hi s essay, A Defence of Poetry ( 1821) , Shel l ey wr ote that ' Poets are t he
unacknowl edged l egi sl ators of the worl d'. H e bel i eved that poetr y was a force f or good, both for the i ndi vi -
dual and soci ety. Thr ough hi s poetr y he fel t he coul d change hi s f el l ow man and change the worl d.
Natural setti ngs or natural phenomena can have a profound effect on us. A gl ori ous sunset mi ght fill us wi th a
sense of peace, whi l e a very l oud cl ap of thunder mi ght make us shake in fear.
Shel l ey is si tti ng in a wood besi de the river Arno near Fl orence at the end of summer. He is fasci nated by the
power and majesty of the west wi nd and hopes it will hel p hi m pull out of his depressi on.
Q InSgMEi Ode To The West Wind
i
O wi l d West Wi nd, thou
1
br eath of A utumn' s bei ng,
Thou, f r om whose unseen pr esence the l eaves dead
Are dri ven
2
, l i ke ghosts f r om an enchanter f l eei ng
3
,
Yellow, and black, and pale, and hectic
4
red,
Pestilence-stricken
5
multitudes: O thou, 5
Who chariotest
6
to their dark wintry bed
T he wi nged seeds
7
, wher e they l i e col d and l ow,
Each l i ke a cor pse
8
wi thi n i ts grave
9
, unti l
T hi ne
10
azure si ster of the Spr i ng
11
shal l bl ow
Her cl ar i on
12
o'er the dr eami ng earth, and fi l l 10
(Dri vi ng sweet buds
13
l i ke f l ocks
14
to feed i n ai r)
Wi th l i vi ng hues
15
and odour s pl ai n
16
and hi l l :
Wi l d Spi ri t, whi ch art
17
movi ng everywhere;
Destroyer and preserver; hear, oh, hear!
GLOSSARY
I
1. thou: you
2. Thou, from ...
driven: even though
they cannot seeyou,
theleaves areblown
away by you
3. enchanter fleeing: running
away from amagician
4. hectic: bright
5. Pestilence-stricken:
diseased
6. chariotest: carries
7. winged seeds: seeds flying
as if they had wings
8. corpse: dead body
9. grave: wheredead
bodies areburied in the
ground
10. Thine: your
11. azuresister of
the Spring: zephyr
(gentle wind
announcing thearrival of
spring)
12.clarion: trumpet
13.buds: young flowers
14. flocks: groups of birds
15. hues: colours
16. plain: flat land
17. art: are
Percy Bysshe Shelley 41
II
T hou on whose str eam
18
, mi d
19
the steep sky's commoti on
1
L oose cl ouds l i ke earth's decayi ng l eaves are shed
21
,
Shook f r om the tangl ed boughs
22
of H eaven and Ocean
23
,
A ngel s of rai n and l i ghtni ng
24
: ther e are spread
On the bl ue surface of thi ne aery surge
25
,
L i ke the br i ght hai r upl i f ted f r om the head
,20
15
20
Of some fi erce Maenad
26
, even f r om the di m verge
27
Of the hor i zon to the zeni th's
28
hei ght,
The l ocks
29
of the appr oachi ng stor m. T hou di rge
30
Of the dyi ng year, to whi ch thi s cl osi ng
31
ni ght
Wi l l be the dome
32
of a vast sepul chre,
Vaul ted
33
wi th al l thy congr egated mi ght
34
25
Of vapours, f r om whose sol i d atmospher e
Bl ack rai n, and fi re, and hai l wi l l bur st
35
: oh, hear!
Ill
Thou who di dst waken f r om hi s summer dr eams
The bl ue Medi ter r anean
36
, wher e he l ay,
L ul l ed by the coi l of hi s crystal l i ne streams
37
,
Besi de a pumi ce i sl e
38
i n Bai ae's bay
39
,
A nd saw i n sl eep ol d pal aces and towers
Qui veri ng wi thi n the wave's i ntenser day
40
,
Al l over gr own wi th azure moss
41
and fl owers
So sweet, the sense f ai nts
42
pi ctur i ng
43
t hem! T hou
For whose path the A tl anti c's l evel power s
30
II
18. stream: air-flow
19. mid: in themiddleof
20. commotion: noisy confusion
21. Looseclouds ... shed: the
sky is likeatreefrom which
scattered (loose) clouds are
dropped down (shed) like
dying (decaying) leaves
22.Shook ... boughs: shaken
down from the intertwined
i tangled) branches (boughs)
23. Heaven and Ocean: they
areinterconnected because
vapour from theOcean
evaporates up to Heaven,
whereit forms clouds
24. Angels of rain and
lightning: theclouds are
35
thefirst, innocent signs
that therewill beafierce
storm
25. aery surge: powerful seaof
air
26. Maenad: in Greek
mythology, afemale
follower of thegod of wine
(Dionysus). During
celebrations Maenads
danced in awild (fierce)
way
27. dim verge: dark edge
28. zenith: thehighest point
reached by thesun or moon
in thesky
29. locks: hair; here: theclouds
30. dirge: sad song (of the
wind)
31. closing: approaching
32. dome: circular roof
33. Vaulted: covered
34. congregated might:
assembled strength
35.Of vapours ... burst: from
thethick solid clouds that
thewest wind has gathered
together, aviolent storm
(fire: lightning, hail: frozen
rain) will erupt (burst)
III
36.Thou ... Mediterranean:
duringthesummer the
Mediterranean was calm
and seemed to beasleep but
then you woke (didst
waken) him up
37.Lulled ... streams:
theseais madeto feel
sleepy (lulled) by the
serpentine movement
(coil) of crystal clear
underwater currents
(crystalline streams I
38. pumice isle: island of
volcanic rock
39. Baiae's bay: bay near
Naples that was
popular with Roman
emperors
40.And saw ... day: you
could seetheruins of
theold town shaking
slightly (quivering)
below thesurfaceof
theintensely bluesea
(wave's intenser day)
41. moss: flat plant that
grows on wet
surfaces. Under the
seait looks blue
42. faints: loses
consciousness
overcomeby emotion
43. picturing: looking at
Shelley portrayed at
Caracalla Baths by
Joseph Severn.
44.Thou For whose ...
chasms: when you
blow, the Atlantic
(Atlantic's level
powers: the Atlantic
when it is calm)
makes apath for you
between its giant
waves (chasms: deep
spacebetween two
rocks. In this caseit is
between two waves)
45. sea-blooms: sea
flowers
46. oozy woods: the
slimy, slippery plants
that grow on the sea
bed
47. sapless: sap is aliquid
substancethat carries
food through a plant.
Underwater plants do
not haveany sap
48. foliage: leaves of a
plant
49. despoil: destroy
IV
50. mightest bear: might
carry
51. swift: fast
52. pant: breathe quickly
53. beneath: under
54. impulse: power
55.comrade: companion
56. wanderings: travels
57. Asthen ... vision:
when I was aboy
I did not think (Scarce
seemed) it was
impossible (a vision)
to run faster than
(outstrip) thewind
58.1 would ... striven:
I would never have
tried
59. Asthus: likeI am
doing now
60. prayer in my sore
need: I am praying to
you because I am in
deep despair
61. thorns: sharp points
(on aplant such as a
rose)
62.1 bleed: I am losing
blood
63. chained and bowed:
imprisoned and bent
over in asign of
submission
64. tameless: someone
who will always be
wild and freeand
cannot be brought
under control
Cleave themselves i nto chasms
44
, while far below
The sea-blooms
45
and the oozy woods
46
which wear
The sapless
47
foliage
48
of the ocean, know 40
Thy voice, and suddenly grow grey with fear,
And tremble and despoil
49
themselves: oh hear!
IV
If I were a dead leaf thou mightest bear
50
;
If I were a swift
51
cloud to fly with thee;
A wave to pant
52
beneath
53
thy power, and share 45
The impulse
54
of thy strength, only less free
Than thou, O uncontrollable! If even
I were as in my boyhood, and could be
The comrade
55
of thy wanderings
56
over Heaven,
As then, when to outstrip thy skiey speed 50
Scarce seemed a vision
57
; I would ne'er have striven
58
As thus
59
with thee in prayer in my sore need
60
.
Oh, lift me as a wave, a leaf, a cloud!
I fall upon the thorns
61
of life! I bleed
62
!
A heavy weight of hours has chained and bowed
63
55
One too like thee: tameless
64
, and swift, and proud.
V
Make me thy lyre
65
, even as the forest is:
What if my leaves are falling like its own!
The tumult of thy mi ghty
66
harmonies
Will take from both a deep, autumnal tone, 60
Sweet though in sadness. Be thou, Spirit fierce,
My spirit! Be thou me, impetuous one!
Drive my dead thoughts over the universe
Like withered
67
leaves to qui cken
68
a new birth!
And, by the i ncantati on of this verse, 65
Scatter
69
, as from an unextinguished hearth
70
Ashes and sparks, my words among mankind!
Be through my lips to unawakened
71
earth
The trumpet
72
of a prophecy! O Wind,
If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind? 70
65. lyre: the Aeolian harp
that produces music
when thewind blows
through it
66. mighty: powerful
67. withered: dead
68. quicken: stimulate
69. Scatter: throw around a
widearea
70. hearth: placewhereafireis
burning
71. unawakened: still
sleeping
72. trumpet: messenger. A
trumpet is, literally, a
musical instrument that
you blow into
COMPREHENSION
1 The poem is divided into five stanzas. Choose a
headi ng for each one.
The effect of the wind on the sea.
The relationship between the poet and the wind.
The effect of the wind on the land.
The effect of the wind on the sky.
The relationship between the poet and the rest of
manki nd.
2 Focus on the first stanza.
a. The poem is written in the form of an ode*. Who or
what is the poem addressed to?
b. What does the poet compare to 'ghosts' (line 3)
and 'pestilence-stricken mul ti tudes' (line 5)?
c. In what sense is the wind both and a 'destroyer'
and a 'preserver'?
3 Focus on the second stanza.
a. What, accordi ng to the poet, are like leaves shaken
from 'Heaven and Ocean'?
b. In what sense are the cl ouds 'angel s'/ messengers?
c. The stormy sky forms a sepulchral dome over the
land. Who or what has di ed?
4 Focus on the third stanza.
a. Where was the Medi terranean sl eepi ng before the
west wind awakened it?
b. What can the wind see bel ow the waves? (Line 33)
c. How does the Atlantic form a 'path' for the wi nd?
d. How does the underwater foliage react to the
'voi ce' of the wi nd?
5 Focus on the fourth stanza.
a. What wishes does the poet express in lines 43^46?
b. What does he wish to share with the wi nd?
c. In what way was the poet's life different when he
was a boy?
d. If the poet were a leaf, a cl oud, a wave or a boy
agai n, what would he not have to do?
e. What qualities does the poet share with the wi nd?
(line 56)
6 Focus on the fifth stanza.
In the final stanza the poet makes a series of requests.
I dentify the line in whi ch he asks the wi nd:
- to transform him into a musical i nstrument: line
- to become his spirit: line
- to carry his thoughts around the universe: line
- to spread his words among men: lines
ANALYSIS
1 From a structural poi nt of view the poem is a
combi nati on of the sonnet* form and terza rima*.
Work out the rhyming scheme of the poem and note
down the number of lines in each stanza.
2 The l anguage used throughout the poem is highly
figurative. The poet piles metaphor* upon metaphor
to create dense, el aborate imagery*. Find the vehicles
for the following tenors in the first stanza: wind,
leaves, earth.
3 Many of the i mages Shelley creates appeal to the
senses. Find the i mages that appeal to the various
senses:
smell line 12
hearing lines 23- 24
sight line 41
touch line 54
4 The i magery in the poem is drawn from the
scientific, mythical and biblical spheres. Find an
exampl e for each.
5 Underline words and expressi ons in the poem that
are associ ated with death and destructi on, and life
and regenerati on.
Does the poet view destructi on as:
a futile end to a life cycl e?
a necessary step towards renewal and regenerati on?
6 In the fourth stanza the pronoun T appears for
the first ti me. Underline the expressi ons that suggest
that the poet:
- is in a state of suffering.
- has qualities whi ch will allow him to overcome his
suffering.
7 In his essay A Defence of Poetry Shelley wrote:
'For the mind in creation is as a fading coal, which
some invisible influence, like an inconstant wind,
awakens to transitory brightness.'
'Man is an instrument over which a series of external
and internal impressions are driven, likethe alterations
of an ever-changing wind over an Aeolian lyre.'
In whi ch lines of the fifth stanza are similar ideas
expressed?
8 The central symbol* of the poem is the wi nd:
a natural force whi ch causes destructi on and rebirth.
It can be i nterpreted in the context of the poem:
- as the political force of revolution whi ch destroys
the old order and builds a new and better future;
- as the creative force of the i magi nati on, whi ch
transforms the old and familiar into the new and
beautiful;
- as freedom, which rises up and overthrows any form
of tyranny.
Do you find any of these i nterpretati ons particularly
convi nci ng?
9 Focus on the musical features of the poem.
Find exampl es of:
- alliteration*
- assonance*
- end rhyme*
- run-on lines*
Listen again to the recordi ng. How would you
define the musicality of the poem?
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Personi fi cati on is a type of metaphor i n whi ch human characteri sti cs such as emoti ons,
personal i ty, behavi our and so on are attri buted to an ani mal , obj ect or i dea:
The proud lion surveyed his kingdom.
The pri mary f uncti on of personi f i cati on is to make abstract i deas cl earer to the reader
by compar i ng them to everyday human exper i ence. H umani si ng col d and compl ex
abstracti ons can bri ng them to l i fe, render them mor e i nteresti ng and make them easi er
to understand.
Find one exampl e of personification for each of the following in Ode to the West Wind and
write the line references:
wind seeds the Medi terranean
the Atlantic sea fol i age wave
What purpose does personification serve in Shelley's poem?
Personify in one or more sentences one of the following abstract ideas:
Boredom Hatred Pride Kindness Victory Revenge
Poetry can be inspirational and affect the reader deeply. In Shelley's opi ni on, it can bring about 'a new birth' and
be 'the trumpet of a prophecy'.
Think of a poem in any l anguage that you really like. Write down briefly why you like it and how it makes you feel.
TASK
OVER TO YOU
Personification
T hr oughout hi story, ki ngs and emper or s have bui l t monument s to commemor at e thei r vi ctor i es and
achi evements and to l eave a remi nder of thei r greatness to later generati ons. Shel l ey asks the questi on, 'I s all the
effort that is put i nto maki ng these monuments to posteri ty really worthwhi l e?'
Text E15
GLOSSARY
1. Ozymandias: Ramses
II of Egypt (thirteenth
century BC), who had
huge monuments
built duringhis reign
and whosecolossal
tomb was shaped like
a Sphinx
2. trunkless: without
theupper part of the
body
3. sunk: buried in the
sand
4. shattered: broken
into littlepieces
5. frown: facial
expression of
displeasure
6. wrinkled: twisted or
curled
7. sneer: facial
expression showing
contempt, as if you
aresuperior to others
8. Which yet survive ...
heart that fed: have
outlived thesculptor
who imitated/made
fun of (mocked)
them and theking
who felt them
9. ye: you
10. Mighty: powerful
11. wreck: something
that has been
destroyed
12. boundless: limitless

Ozymandias
1
I met a travel l er f r om an anti que l and
Wh o sai d: Two vast and trunkl ess
2
l egs of stone
Stand i n the deser t... Near them, on the sand,
Hal f sunk
3
, a shatter ed
4
vi sage l i es, whose f r own
5
,
A nd wr i nkl ed
6
l i p, and sneer
7
of col d command,
Tel l that i ts scul ptor wel l those passi ons read
Whi ch yet survi ve, stamped on these l i fel ess thi ngs,
The hand that mocked t hem and the hear t that f ed
8
:
A nd on the pedestal these words appear:
' My name i s Ozymandi as, ki ng of ki ngs:
L ook on my works, ye
9
Mi ghty
10
, and despai r!'
N othi ng besi de r emai ns. Round the decay
Of that col ossal wreck
11
, boundl ess
12
and bare
The l one and l evel sands stretch far away.
A lithograph showing
Ramses II temple.
COMPREHENSION
1 Who did the poet meet?
2 What did the traveller see in the desert?
3 What detai l s did he noti ce on the face?
4 What words appeared on the pedestal ?
5 What surrounded the monument?
. i 324THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry
ANALYSIS
1 Underline the words and expressi ons whi ch
descri be Ozymandi as as represented by the statue.
What picture of the pharaoh emerges? Do the
content and tone of the inscription (lines 10- 11)
confirm this view of the ki ng?
2 Circle the words and expressi ons whi ch descri be
the l andscape surrounding the statue. Whi ch aspects
of the setti ng emerge most forcefully? Does the
setti ng in whi ch the monument stands make it seem
ridiculous?
3 The poem is built on an ironic situation whi ch is
hi ghl i ghted in line 11.
a. Why did Ozymandi as originally believe the mi ghty
should despair when they looked on his works?
b. Why should the mi ghty despair when they look on
his works today?
4 How woul d you descri be the tone of the
inscription?
5 What is the tone of the line that follows 'Nothi ng
besi de remai ns'?
What is the effect of the stark contrast in tone?
To hi ghl i ght Ozymandi as's magni fi cence.
To underline the central irony of the poem.
To emphasi se the destructi ve nature of ti me.
6 Note down the number of lines in the poem. What
poeti c form did Shelley use?
The poem can be divided into three parts. Whi ch lines
are dedi cated to the descri pti on of the monument,
the inscription and the surroundi ngs?
7 Focus on the musical features of the poem.
a. Work out the rhyming scheme*. Is it regular
throughout?
b. Find exampl es of alliteration* and run-on lines*.
c. The following words are taken from the final three
lines of the poem. Read them al oud:
remai ns round boundl ess bare
l one level far away
What effect is created?
An echoi ng effect whi ch suggests the vast
bareness of the desert.
A playful rhyming effect whi ch suggests that the
poet is making fun of Ozymandi as.
A slow, mournful, cl angi ng effect whi ch suggests
that the poet is mourni ng the destructi on of a
magni fi cent work of art.
8 On the basis of your analysis, defi ne the theme* of
the poem.
r H
Woul d the world be a poorer pl ace if there were no forms of commemorati on? What do you think are the best
ways to ensure that peopl e will be remembered? Is too much ti me and money spent on rememberi ng the past?
Discuss with your cl assmates.
Shel l ey, like Byron, had a rebel l i ous spi ri t and attacked i njusti ce and corrupti on in earl y ni neteenth- centur y
Engl and. In the fol l owi ng poem he pai nts a very negati ve pi cture of political and social life in the year 1819.
Does he bel i eve that this si tuati on can ever change?
England In 1819
Text E16
A n ol d, mad, bl i nd, despi sed
1
, and dyi ng ki ng
2
, -
Pri nces, the dregs
3
of thei r dul l race, who f l ow
Thr ough publ i c scor n
4
, - mud f r om a muddy spri ng
5
, -
Rul ers who nei ther see, nor feel , nor know,
But l eech
6
-l i ke to thei r f ai nti ng countr y cl i ng
7
,
Ti l l they drop, bl i nd i n bl ood, wi thout a bl ow, -
A peopl e starved and stabbed
8
i n the unf i l l ed
9
f i el d
10
, -
A n army, whi ch l i berti ci de and prey
Makes as a two- edg'd sword to al l who wi el d
11
, -
Gol den and sangui ne
12
l aws whi ch tempt
13
and sl ay
14
;
Rel i gi on Chri stl ess, Godl ess - a book seal ed
15
;
A Senate - Ti me's worst statute unr epeal ed
16
, -
Are graves
17
, f r om whi ch a gl ori ous P hant om may
Burst, to i l l umi ne our tempestuous day.
A scene fr^,,,
Madnes s of King
George (1994).
GLOSSARY
1. despised: hated
2. An old ... king: GeorgeIII,
who was blind and
mentally ill. Hedied in
1820
3. dregs: thelowest forms of
human lifewho deserveno
respect
4. scorn: thefeeling that
someone is stupid or
useless
5. mud ... spring: these
peoplearecorrupt (mud:
wet, dirty earth) liketheir
ancestors were(spring: a
placewherewater comes
up naturally from the
ground). Lines 2and 3are
also areferenceto George
Ill's disreputable son, who
was PrinceRegent from
1811 to 1820
6. leech: small soft creature
that sucks blood from
animals
7. cling: hold very tightly
8. stabbed: killed with aknife
9. unfilled: not cultivated
10. A people ... field: this is a
referenceto the Peterloo
Massacrein August 1819,
when troops attacked
peaceful protesters
( p. E107)
11. An army ... wield: the
army is likeasword with
two edges. With oneit kills
freedom (liberticide), while
with theother it hunts
down and kills (prey)
people (wield: hold the
sword)
12. sanguine: stained with
blood
13. tempt: lead into temptation
14. slay: kill
15.Religion ... sealed:
thestate Protestant
religion is all-powerful
and intolerant
16.Time's ...
unrepealed: the
statuteis thelaw
which prevented
Catholics and
Dissenters from
holding office
( p. E108)
(unrepealed: not
abolished)
17. graves: wherepeople
areburied when they
die
COMPREHENSION
1 Here is a list of the targets of Shelley's attack in the
poem. Find the comments he makes about them:
King, Princes, Rulers, Army, Laws, Religion, Senate.
2 What are the subjects of the verb 'are' in line 13?
3 What mi ght the 'Phantom' (line 13) do?
ANALYSIS
1 Note down the number of lines in the poem.
What poeti c form does it take? Where does the
turning poi nt occur?
2 Focus on the sound and rhythm* of the poem.
a. Work out the rhyming scheme. Is it regular?
b. Find exampl es of alliteration* and run-on lines*.
c. Consi der the punctuati on. How many full stops are
there? Circle commas and dashes. Does the poem
flow smoothl y or is the rhythm irregular?
d. What does the rhythm of the poem convey?
The poet's sad, reflective mood.
The poet's anger and frustration.
The tumul tuous state of English affairs.
W The poet's passive resignation to what is
happeni ng in Engl and.
3 Focus on the l anguage used in the poem.
a. Does the poet favour:
short, sharp words?
compl ex, sophi sti cated words?
Give exampl es.
b. What does the choi ce of words suggest?
That in his anger and frustration the poet uses
words as blows to strike agai nst his targets.
That the poet wished to use simple terms that
coul d be understood by the common man.
4 The i mages that Shelley uses to attack the political
and religious leaders of his country are extremel y
powerful. Whi ch one do you find most effective and
why?
5 The l anguage throughout the poem is highly
figurative. Focus on the following key i mages and try
to interpret them.
a. In what sense is the field in whi ch the peopl e starve
and are stabbed 'untitled'? (Line 7)
b. In what way is the state religion 'a book seal ed'?
(Line 11)
c. Why are the religious and political leaders
consi dered 'graves'? (Line 13)
d. How do you interpret the 'glorious Phantom' (line
13) and in what sense mi ght it 'illumine' the
'tempestuous day'?
6 Whi ch adjecti ves woul d you choose to defi ne the
tone* of the poem? Is it the same throughout?
In thi s poem Shel l ey condemns the massacre of unarmed civilians by the army (The Peterl oo Massacre 1819,
p. E107). Think of one other i nci dent in history where i nnocent civilians were killed by troops.
Explain the context in whi ch the massacre happened.
The four students who were killed at Ohio State University
were protesting against the war.
GLOSSARY
1. Tin soldiers: armed soldiers used to control marches
2. Nixon: US president during theprotests against the
Vietnam war
3. drumming: thesound of battledrums, i.e. conflict
4. Gottaget down to it: wakeup to reality
5. gunning: firing, shooting
LINK
OHIO
Tin soldiers
1
and Ni xon
2
coming,
We're finally on our own.
This summer I hear the drumming
3
,
Four dead in Ohio.
Gotta get down to it
4
Soldiers are gunning
5
us down
Should have been done long ago.
What if you knew her
And found her dead on the ground
How can you run when you know? (twice)
by Neil Young(from thealbumDeja Vu)
TASKS
1 Who is the target of Neil Young's attack in the song and why?
2 At the ti me this song was wri tten, US soci ety was bombarded by news and i mages of vi ol ence. How does Neil
Young try to personal i se the events that took pl ace in Ohi o and thereby i ncrease thei r i mpact on the l i stener?
3 How woul d you descri be the tone of the song? Is it similar to the tone of Shel l ey's poem?
E
iA s jM
fc
WRI TERS' GALLERY
Early years Per cy Bysshe
Shel l ey was bor n i n 1792 i nto
a pr osper ous ar i stocr ati c f ami l y. He was educated at Oxf or d
wher e hi s pol i ti cal and phi l osophi cal readi ngs l ed hi m to co-
wr i te a di sser tati on, The Necessity of Atheism, the f i rst open
prof essi on of athei sm to be pr i nted i n Engl and, for whi ch the
Oxf or d author i ti es expel l ed hi m. Shel l ey's f ather demanded a
publ i c r etr acti on of t he pamphl et , but Shel l ey r ef used and
i nstead el oped to Scotl and wi th the si xteen-year-ol d daughter of
a cof f ee house propri etor. Thi s caused a per manent break wi th
hi s fami l y.
PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY
(1792-1822)
Political writings The coupl e spent some ti me i n I rel and, where
Shel l ey got i nvol ved i n pr omoti ng pol i ti cal ri ghts for Cathol i cs.
He returned to Wal es, where he tri ed to set up a commune of Ti ke spi ri ts'. Duri ng thi s peri od he wrote
pamphl ets pr omoti ng 'free l ove' and condemni ng, among other thi ngs, royal ty, meat- eati ng and
rel i gi on. I n 1813 he publ i shed hi s first maj or poem, Queen Mab, whi ch contai ned many of hi s earl y
pol i ti cal and phi l osophi cal i deas.
SPSS
p f ^ p l
i Sgi
A tempestous life I n 1814 he moved to L ondon, wher e he came under the i nf l uence of the
phi l osopher Wi l l i am Godwi n and fel l i n l ove wi th hi s si xteen-year-ol d daughter, Mary. He l eft hi s
wi f e, Harri et, who had j ust had thei r fi rst chi l d and was expecti ng a second. T he death of hi s
gr andf ather tempor ar i l y sol ved Shel l ey's f i nanci al pr obl ems and al l owed hi m and Mar y to el ope
abroad accompani ed by Mary's fi fteen-year-ol d stepsi ster, J ane 'Cl ai re' Cl ai rmont.
Havi ng travel l ed ar ound Europe, the three settl ed i n Geneva where, i n the summer of 1816, they
were j oi ned by L ord Byr on ( pp. 32- 39) , who became Cl ai re's l over. I t was duri ng thi s peri od of
rel ati ve tranqui l l i ty that Shel l ey composed some of hi s best poems. Mar y gave bi rth to thei r son,
Wi l l i am, and began work on her novel , Frankenstein ( pp. E88- 95).
I n the autumn of 1816 Harri et drowned hersel f i n Hyde Park i n L ondon, so Shel l ey was free to marry
Mary. He returned to Engl and and tri ed to wi n custody of hi s two chi l dren by hi s fi rst marri age, but
hi s reputati on as an athei st worked agai nst hi m. Duri ng hi s ti me i n Engl and he associ ated wi th Keats
and other l i terary fi gures, and worked on pol i ti cal pamphl ets and essays.
Self-exile in I taly Di si l l usi oned wi th Bri tai n, i n debt and sufferi ng f rom i l l -heal th, Shel l ey moved
wi th hi s f ami l y to I tal y, wher e he wr ote the deepl y mel anchol i c Stanzas Written in Dejection and
Prometheus Unbound, a l yri cal drama i n four acts.
The death of hi s adored son 'Wi l l -mouse' was a personal tragedy and caused hi s wi fe Mary to have a
nervous breakdown. The fami l y settl ed i n Tuscany. The summer of 1819 wi tnessed an extraordi nary
burst of creati ve energy. Shel l ey wrote some beauti f ul l yri cs i ncl udi ng To a Skylark, The Cloud and
perhaps hi s best-l oved poem, Ode to the West Wind ( Text E14). His pol i ti cal wri ti ng was i nspi red by
the news from Engl and and i ncl uded the sonnet England 1819 ( Text El 6). The peri od at Pisa saw the
bi rth of hi s youngest son, Percy Fl orence, and the publ i cati on of hi s famous A Defence of Poetry (1821).
I n 1822 Shel l ey moved hi s fami l y to Leri ci . I n August 1822 he was drowned i n the bay of La Spezi a.
Hi s body was cremated on the beach at Vi areggi o i n the presence of Byron and other cl ose fri ends.
Writers' Gallery - Percy Bysshe Shelley
mm> . u m m w m - mmm^^s&mm
H f T I M i S H ^H I B Queen Mab and The Revol t of I sl am Shel l ey's earl y works are
^^^M I M B A i i l i i i ^^^^^^H char acter i sed by i ntense pol i ti cal passi on. I n the poem Queen
Mab, for exampl e, Shel l ey attacks such 'evi l s' as commer ce, the monarchy, marri age, rel i gi on and the
eati ng of meat . I n pl ace of these vi ces he pr oposes r epubl i cani sm, f r ee l ove, at hei sm and
vegetari ani sm. The Revolt of Islam is a l ong al l egori c poem whi ch transposes a hi ghl y personal i sed
versi on of the French Revol uti on i nto an Ori ental setti ng. The poem contai ns many autobi ographi cal
references, and i ntroduces the theme of struggl e and renewal whi ch is present i n much of hi s l ater
work.
I talian period (1818-1822) Shel l ey's wri ti ngs duri ng hi s peri od i n I tal y i ncl ude some of hi s fi nest
work:
The Cenci (1819), a verse tragedy based on the true story of Beatri ce Cenci , who was executed for
murderi ng her father i n Rome at the end of the si xteenth century. The story, whi ch i nvol ved i ncest
and athei sm, f asci nated Shel l ey and so he made i t the basi s of a pl ay whi ch shows str ong
Shakespearean i nfl uences.
Prometheus Unbound ( 1820) : a l yri cal dr ama i n f our acts. Pr ometheus, the gi ant who i n Gr eek
mythol ogy stol e fi re f r om heaven and gave i t to man, becomes a her o who embodi es the mor al
sal vati on of Man f rom tyranny.
Odes The year 1819 al so saw the composi ti on of some of Shel l ey's fi nest l yri cs: Ode to Liberty, The
Cloud, To a Skylark and Ode to the West Wind. The l atter is consi dered by many cri ti cs to be Shel l ey's
greatest short poem. I n it the poet asks the spi ri t of the West Wi nd to be both destroyer and preserver,
and to regenerate hope and energy i n Nature, i n the poet hi msel f and i n manki nd i n general . I t is
wri tten i n fi ve maj esti c stanzas, each taki ng the f orm of a sonnet. The musi cal patterns, whi ch are
bui l t on internal rhyme*, assonance* and run-on lines*, cl earl y show the poet's mastery of hi s art.
A Defence of Poetry (1821) is an essay i n whi ch Shel l ey argues that poetry can reform the worl d. I n it
he cl ai ms that the poet is a mi ssi onary, a prophet and a l eader who, through hi s quest for the eternal
truths of beauty, can show the way to a better soci ety.
Reputation As a wri ter, Shel l ey has been cr i ti ci sed f or hi s obscur e symbol i sm, i ntel l ectual
arrogance and i ntense sel f-pi ty. However, i n hi s greatest works he transcends these l i mi tati ons and
conveys a message of hope and aspi rati on through stri ki ngl y beauti ful prose and poetry.
TASK
The many personal tragedi es he experi enced did not deter Shelley from spreadi ng his message of hope
for a better world. Discuss this statement, making reference to the i nformati on you have read about his
life and works.
J ohn Keats
The worl d of virtual real i ty is an artificial worl d whi ch someti mes seems more real and sati sfyi ng than our own
everyday worl d. When J ohn Keats l ooks at the pai nti ngs on an anci ent Greci an urn, he seems to l ose hi msel f in a
perfect, unchangi ng real i ty of trees that never l ose thei r l eaves and l ove that never ends. What l esson does he
learn from his trip i nto thi s virtually perfect worl d?
Text El 7
I
GLOSSARY
6.
7.
8
Thou: you
unravished: virgin,
pure
foster-child: adopted
child
Sylvan: rural
who canst... rhyme:
in this way (thus)
your paintings can
(canst) tell astory
better than apoem
leaf-fringed: with
leaves around the
edges
haunts: moves likea
spirit
What leaf-fringed ...
both: what story
(legend) about gods
or men is told in your
pictures
9. Tempe: valley in
ancient Greece
10.Arcady: region in
ancient Greecethat is
synonymous with
beautiful countryside
11. maidens: young
women
12. loth: reluctant, not
wantingto do
something
13.pursuit: chase,
running after
someoneor
something
14. pipes and timbrels:
musical instruments
Ode On A Grecian Urn
Thou
1
sti l l unr avi shed
2
bri de of qui etness,
T hou f oster- chi l d
3
of si l ence and sl ow ti me,
Syl van
4
hi stori an, who canst thus express
A f l owery tal e mor e sweetl y than our r hyme
5
:
What l eaf -f ri nged
6
l egend haunts
7
about thy shape 5
Of dei ti es or mortal s, or of both
8
,
I n Tempe
9
or the dal es of A r cady
10
?
What men or gods are these? What mai dens
11
l oth
12
?
What mad pur sui t
13
? What struggl e to escape?
What pi pes and ti mbr el s
14
? What wi l d ecstasy? 10
II
Heard mel odi es are sweet, but those unhear d
Are sweeter; theref ore, ye
15
soft pi pes, pl ay on
16
;
N ot to the sensual ear, but, mor e endeared,
Pi pe to the spi ri t di tti es of no tone
17
:
Fai r youth
18
, beneath
19
the trees, thou canst not l eave i s
T hy song, nor ever can those trees be bar e
20
;
Bol d
21
Lover, never, never canst thou ki ss,
T hough wi nni ng near the goal
22
yet, do not gri eve
23
;
She cannot f ade
24
, though thou hast
25
not thy bl i ss
26
,
Forever wi l t
27
thou l ove, and she be fai r
28
! 20
II
15.ye: you
16. play on: continue playing
17.Not to the ... no tone: do
not play real music for our
ears (sensual ear: thereal
ear that can hear musical
notes) but silent music
(ditties of no tone) for our
spirit, which welikeeven
more(more endeared)
18. Fair youth: good-looking
young man
19.beneath: under
20. bare: without leaves
21. Bold: confident, not shy
22.Though winning ... goal:
even though you arevery
near thegirl
23. grieve: besad
24. fade: disappear
25.hast: have
26. thy bliss: your happiness
27. wilt: will
28. fair: beautiful
John Keats 53
III
A h, happy, happy boughs
29
that cannot shed
30
Your l eaves, nor ever bi d the Spri ng adi eu
31
;
A nd, happy mel odi st
32
, unwear i ed
33
,
Forever pi pi ng
34
songs f orever new;
Mor e happy l ove! mor e happy, happy l ove! 25
Forever war m and sti l l to be enj oyed,
Forever panti ng
35
, and f orever young;
Al l br eathi ng human passi on far above,
That l eaves a heart hi gh- sor r owf ul
36
and cl oyed
37
,
A bur ni ng f orehead, and a par chi ng
38
tongue
39
. 30
IV
Wh o are these comi ng to the sacri fi ce?
To what gr een al tar, O myster i ous pri est,
L eadest thou
40
that hei f er
41
l owi ng
42
at the ski es,
A nd al l her si l ken f l anks
43
wi th garl ands dressed?
What l i ttl e town by ri ver or sea shore, 35
Or mountai n- bui l t wi th peacef ul ci tadel ,
I s empti ed of thi s fol k, thi s pi ous
44
mor n?
A nd, l i ttl e town, thy
45
streets for ever mor e
Wi l l si l ent be; and not a soul to tel l
Why thou art
46
desol ate, can e'er
47
return. 40
O A tti c
48
shape! Fai r atti tude
49
! wi th br ede
50
Of mar bl e men and mai dens over wr ought
51
,
Wi th forest br anches and the tr odden
52
weed
53
;
Thou, si l ent f orm, dost tease us out of thought
54
As doth
55
eterni ty: Col d Pastoral
56
! 45
When ol d age shal l thi s gener ati on waste
57
,
T hou shal t
58
r emai n, i n mi dst of
59
other woe
60
T han ours, a f ri end to man, to whom thou say'st
61
,
'Beauty is truth, tr uth beauty, - that is al l
Ye know on earth, and al l ye need to know.' 50
lohn Keats's
drawing of a
grecian urn.
Ill
29.boughs: branches
30. shed: let fall
31. bid theSpring adieu: say
goodbyeto thespring
32. melodist: musician
33. unwearied: not tired
34. piping: playing
35.panting-, desiring
36. high-sorrowful: very sad
37. cloyed: wearetired of it
becauseweno longer get
pleasurefrom it
38. parching: thirsty
39.More happy ... a
parching tongue: the
eternal loveon theurn is
happier than our more
passionate\ ovethat ends
and leaves us sad
IV
40. Leadest thou: areyou
leading
41. heifer: young cow
42. lowing: thedeep sound
that cattlemake, mooing
43. silken flanks: shiny sides
44.pious: holy
45.thy: your
46. art: are
47. e'er: ever
48. Attic: from Athens
49. attitude: disposition
of figures in a
painting
50. brede: intricate
design
51. overwrought:
elaborately decorated
52. trodden: stepped on
53. weed: wild plants
54.dost tease ...
thought: takes us
away (tease out:
separate) from our
serious thoughts
55. As doth: as does
56. Pastoral: work of art
or literature about
rural life
57. When ... waste:
when this generation
shall die
58. shalt: shall
59. in midst of: in the
middleof
60.woe-, sorrow and
sadness
61. thou say'st: you say
COMPREHENSION
1 Who does 'Thou' refer to in line 1 ?
2 In the openi ng three lines the poet addresses the
urn in three different ways. Identify them.
3 Through a series of questi ons the poet describes a
Bacchanalian scene that is depi cted on the urn. What
is it?
4 In line 13 the poet says we cannot use the 'sensual
ear' to hear 'unheard melodies'. What should we use to
hear them, according to line 14?
5 In the second stanza the poet describes the scene on
the urn in more detail. What is the 'Fair youth' beneath
the trees doi ng? What can the 'Bold Lover' never do?
6 In the third stanza why are the songs 'forever new'
(line 24) and the love 'Forever warm' (line 26)? Which
lines describe the effect of human love?
7 In the fourth stanza the poet describes a second
scene that is depicted on the urn. What is it?
8 In the final stanza the poet addresses the urn in four
different ways. Identify them.
9 Underline the sentences that contain the message
conveyed by the urn.
ANALYSIS
1 Which words suggest the silence of the urn in the
opening two lines? The silence of the urn is underlined
by the use of the si bi l ant's' sound . Underline all the
words in the opening two lines that contain an's'
sound. Explain the paradox* in the silent urn expressing
a tale 'more sweetly than our rhyme'.
2 Find an exampl e of metonymy* in line 4.
3 As he looks at the scene depicted on the urn, the
poet feels uncertainty and exci tement. How is his
hei ghtened emotional state conveyed in lines 7- 10?
4 The second stanza introduces the paradox of
'unheard' melodies. Which expression in line 14 repeats
this idea? The poet says that unheard melodies are
sweeter because they 'Pipe to the spirit'. How do you
interpret this concept?
5 In the second stanza the poet suggests that the
immobility of art has both positive and negative
consequences. Say whether the following are positive
(P) or negati ve (N) aspects.
thou canst not leave/ Thy song
nor ever can those trees be bare _E_
Bold Lover, never, never canst thou kiss
She cannot fade thou hast not thy bliss
Forever wilt thou love she be fair
6 Find exampl es of the personification* in lines 22 and
27. The contrast between the world of art and reality is
conti nued in this stanza. Which adjectives describe love
as it is depi cted in the scene on the urn? From which
semanti c field are the i mages describing human love
drawn (line 30)?
7 Extensive use is made of repetition* in the third
stanza. Which words are repeated? What does the
repetition of these words highlight?
The joy and permanence of the scene on the urn.
The poet's dissatisfaction with the transience of real
life and love.
8 A sense of mystery surrounds the pastoral scene
described in the fourth stanza. How does the sentence
structure help to create this eni gmati c atmosphere?
9 Find an exampl e of synecdoche* in line 39.
10 The poet uses four different expressions to address
the urn in the fifth stanza. Which expression:
- indicates where the urn is from?
- underlines its beauty?
- highlights its silence?
- suggests that it is lacking in human warmth?
11 The poet's attitude toward the urn is ambi val ent
throughout the poem. He is fascinated by the timeless,
youthful world represented on the urn whi ch,
however, he sees as lacking in human passion and the
possibility of change. Which expressions describing the
urn in lines 45 and 48 reiterate these conflicting views?
12 The final two lines of the poem have been the
subject of much debate. Which of the interpretations
below do you feel is closest to your own?
The world of art is superior to the real world of mankind.
An artist, by revealing beauty through his work,
reaches man's highest achi evement, i.e. truth.
Art can console man through its beauty. It cannot
offer solutions to man's worldly problems.
Man should live his life truthfully and in the constant
search for beauty.
Keats seems to fall in love with the perfect, never-changing world he sees on the urn. Think of a scene in a work of
art or a photograph which makes you feel like Keats does. Consider the setting, the characters and the actions.
John Keats 333
When someone is in a state of ecstasy he or she someti mes falls i nto a trance, a state in whi ch a person seems to
be hypnoti sed. A trance can be brought on, for exampl e, by an i ntense spiritual experi ence or by narcoti c drugs.
When J ohn Keats heard a ni ghti ngal e sing one ni ght, he was so enchanted that he fell i nto a trance. As you read the
poem, noti ce how he gradual l y loses consci ousness of the worl d around him onl y to suddenl y wake up at the end.
Ode To A Nightingale
1
Text E18
M y heart aches, and a dr owsy
2
numbness
3
pai ns
M y sense
4
, as though of heml ock
5
1 had drunk,
Or empti ed some dul l opi ate
6
to the drai ns
7
One mi nute past
8
, and L ethe-wards had sunk
9
:
'Ti s not thr ough envy of thy happy l ot,
But bei ng too happy i n thi ne happi ness
10
, -
That thou, l i ght- wi nged Dr yad
11
of the trees,
I n some mel odi ous pl ot
12
Of beechen gr een
13
, and shadows number l ess
14
,
Si ngest
15
of summer i n f ul l - thr oated
16
ease.
II
O, for a dr aught of vi ntage
17
! that hath been
Cool ed
18
a l ong age i n the deep-del ved ear th
19
,
Tasti ng of Fl or a
20
and the countr y green,
Dance, and Pr ovencal
21
song, and sunbur nt mi r th
22
!
O for a beaker
23
ful l of the war m South,
Ful l of the true, the bl ushf ul
24
H i ppocr ene
25
,
Wi th beaded bubbl es wi nki ng at the br i m
26
,
A nd pur pl e- stai ned
27
mouth;
That I mi ght dri nk, and l eave the worl d unseen,
A nd wi th thee
28
fade away
29
i nto the forest di m
30
:
10
i s
20
GLOSSARY
1. Nightingale: small brownish
bird that sings beautifully,
especially at night
6.
drowsy: sleepy
numbness: sensation of
beingunableto think, feel
or react in anormal way
sense: all my senses, my
being
hemlock: apoisonous plant
that causes death through
paralysis
dull opiate: narcotic drug
containing opium which
makes you want to sleep
drains: drink to thevery
last drop
past: ago
Lethe-wards had sunk: In
Greek mythology, Lethewas
ariver that caused
forgetfulness. Thepoet is
sayingthat theopiatehas
madehim forget everything
10.'Tis not... happiness:
I havenot become sleepy
and forgetful becauseI am
jealous of you, but because
you havemademevery
happy
11. light-winged Dryad: wood
nymph who flies easily
through theair. A nymph is
aspirit of naturewho, in
Greek and Roman legend,
appeared as ayounggirl
12. plot: pieceof land
13.beechen green: green like
beech trees
14. numberless: thereareso
many you cannot count
them
o
15. Singest: sings
16. full-throated: at full
voice
17. draught of vintage:
drink of wine
18. hath been Cooled:
has been kept cold
19. deep-delved earth:
deep down under the
ground
20. Flora: Roman goddess
of flowers
21. Provencal: from
Provence, in southern
France, homein the
MiddleAges to the
troubadours, who
composed and sang
lovelyrics
22. mirth: happiness and
laughter
23. beaker: drinking cup
24. blushful: red
25. Hippocrene:
fountain on Mount
Helicon that was
sacred to theMuses
and asourceof poetic
inspiration
26. With beaded...
brim: thewinemakes
bubbles likebeads
(beaded) around the
top of thecup (brim),
which seem to be
winking (to closeand
open oneeyequickly,
to send amessageto
someone).
27. stained: coloured
28. thee: you
29. fadeaway: disappear
30. dim: dark
mt
, 56 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry
III
31. hast: has
32.weariness ... fret:
tiredness, illness, and
worry
33. groan: long, deep
sound that you make
when you arein pain
34. palsy: an illness that
makes your arms and
legs shakebecause
you cannot control
your muscles
35. spectre-thin: as thin
as aghost
36. leaden-eyed: with
eyes that show a
person is sad
37. lustrous: shining
38.Or new Love ... to-
morrow: Lovecannot
desire(pine) theeyes
of Beauty for more
than oneday
IV
39. Bacchus and his
pards: wine (Bacchus
is theGreek and
Roman god of wine
and thepards are
leopards who pulled
Bacchus' chariot)
40. viewless: invisible
41.Poesy: poetry
42.Though ... retards:
even though I am
depressed and
worried
43. haply: by chance
44. Clustered around:
surrounded
45. Fays: fairies
46. verdurous glooms:
green darkness
47. winding mossy
ways: twisting roads
that arecovered in
moss (aflat, green
plant)
III
Fade far away, di ssol ve, and qui te f orget
What thou among the l eaves hast
31
never known,
T he weari ness, the fever, and the f ret
32
Here, wher e men si t and hear each other gr oan
33
;
Wher e pal sy
34
shakes a few, sad, l ast grey hai rs,
Wher e youth grows pal e, and spectr e- thi n
35
, and di es;
Wher e but to thi nk is to be ful l of sorrow
A nd l eaden- eyed
36
despai rs,
25
Wher e Beauty cannot keep her l ustrous
3
eyesj
Or new L ove pi ne at t hem beyond to- mor r ow
38
30
IV
Away! away! for I wi l l fl y to thee,
N ot char i oted by Bacchus and hi s pards
39
,
But on the vi ewl ess
40
wi ngs of Poesy
41
,
T hough the dul l br ai n perpl exes and retards
42
:
A l ready wi th thee! tender is the ni ght,
A nd hapl y
43
the Queen- M oon is on her thr one,
Cl ustered ar ound
44
by al l her starry Fays
45
;
But her e ther e is no l i ght,
Save what f r om heaven is wi th the breezes bl own
Thr ough verdurous gl ooms
46
and wi ndi ng mossy ways
47
.
I cannot see what fl owers are at my feet,
N or what soft i ncense hangs upon the boughs
48
,
But, i n embal med
49
darkness, guess each sweet
50
Wher ewi th the seasonabl e mont h endows
51
T he grass, the thi cket
52
, and the frui t-tree wi l d;
Whi te hawthor n
53
, and the pastoral egl anti ne
54
;
Fast f adi ng
55
vi ol ets cover ed up i n l eaves;
A nd mi d- May's el dest chi l d,
The comi ng musk- r ose
56
, ful l of dewy
57
wi ne,
T he mur mur ous
58
haunt
59
of fl i es on summer eves
60
.
35
40
45
50
48. boughs: branches of trees
49. embalmed: perfumed
50.guess ... sweet: I try to
makeout what fragrances
come from thevarious
plants
51. Wherewith ... endows:
which May (seasonable
month) gives
52. thicket: group of bushes
and small trees
53. hawthorn: small whitetree
that has small whiteleaves
and red berries
54. pastoral eglantine: fragrant
pink rosewhich is often
referred to in pastoral
poetry
55. Fast fading: dying quickly
56. musk-rose: afragrant wti
rose
57. dewy: dew is thedrops <
water that form duringt
night on plants and other
objects
58. murmurous: noisy
59. haunt: placepeopleliket
goto
60. eves: evenings
John Keats 57
III
Darkling
61
1 listen; and, for many a time
I have been half in love with easeful Death,
Called him soft names in many a mused rhyme
62
,
To take i nto the air my quiet breath;
Now more than ever seems it rich to die, 55
To cease
63
upon the midnight with no pain,
While thou art pouring forth thy soul
64
abroad
65
In such an ecstasy!
Still wouldst thou
66
sing, and I have ears in vain
67
-
To thy high requiem become a sod
68
. 60
VII
Thou wast
69
not born for death, immortal Bird!
No hungry generations tread thee down
70
;
The voice I hear this passing night was heard
In ancient days by emperor and clown:
Perhaps the self-same song that found a path
71
65
Through the sad heart of Ruth, when, sick for home,
She stood in tears amid the alien corn
72
The same that oft-times hath
73
Charmed
74
magic casements
75
, opening on the foam
76
Of perilous
77
seas, in faery
78
lands forlorn
79
. 70
VIII
Forlorn! the very word is like a bell
To tol l
80
me back from thee to my sole self!
Adieu! the fancy cannot cheat so well
81
As she is famed to do, deceiving
82
elf
83
.
Adieu! adieu! thy plaintive anthem fades
84
75
Past the near meadows
85
, over the still stream
86
,
Up the hill-side; and now 'tis buried deep
In the next valley-glades
87
:
Was it a vision, or a waking dream?
Fled
88
is that music: - Do I wake or sleep? 80
VI
61. Darkling: in the darkness
62. mused rhyme: poem
63. cease: die
64.pouring ... soul: singing so
beautifully at thetop of
your voice
65.abroad: over awidearea
66. wouldst thou: you would
67.1 have ears in vain: I would
not beableto hear any more
68. To thy ... sod: you would
continueto singwhile
I would bedead (sod: a
pieceof earth)
VII
69. wast: were
70. tread thee down: oppress
you
71. path: way
72.Perhaps ... corn: in the
Bible, Ruth heard the song
of the nightingale while she
was crying nostalgically for
her native home, Israel
(alien corn: foreign land)
73. oft-times hath: often has
74. Charmed: entranced
75. casements: windows
76. foam: whitespray
77. perilous: dangerous
78. faery: fairy
79.in faery ... forlorn: the
nightingale's song is often a
feature of romantic fairy
tales (forlorn: sad)
VIII
80. toll: call
81. the fancy ... well:
my imagination
(fancy) cannot trick
(cheat) me anymore
and I must return to
thereal world
82. deceiving: to deceive
is to make someone
believe something
that is not true
83. elf: imaginary
creature likeasmall
person with pointed
ears
84. plaintive anthem
fades: your high, sad
song dies away
85. meadows: fields
86. still stream: calm,
small river
87. valley-glades: valleys
88. Fled: disappeared

An illustration for a
nineteenth-century edition
of Ode to a Nightingale.
COMPREHENSION
1 How does the poet feel, accordi ng to the openi ng
four lines of the poem? Are these feel i ngs caused by
happi ness or pai n? Refer to line 6 in your answer.
2 What does the poet long for in the second stanza?
What would drinking 'a draught of vi ntage' help him
to do, accordi ng to lines 19- 20?
3 In the third stanza the poet descri bes the world
from whi ch he wishes to escape. Find i mages for the
following and quote the line references:
suffering agei ng sorrow and despair
illness ephemeral love and beauty
4 What, accordi ng to the poet in the fourth stanza,
will carry him to the ni ghti ngal e?
5 In the fifth stanza the poet descri bes the luxuriant
undergrowth in the wood. Circle the names of the
plants and flowers that are at his feet. Can he see
them? How does he know they are there?
6 Consi der the sixth stanza. What has the poet often |
consi dered as a possible escape from the suffering of
human life? Why does this particular moment seem
suitable for dyi ng? What thought stops the poet from
choosi ng the opti on of death?
7 Who else has heard the ni ghti ngal e's song?
What has the ni ghti ngal e's song inspired?
8 What is i magi nati on unabl e to do, accordi ng to
line 73?
ANALYSIS
1 The languid feel i ngs of the poet are mirrored by
the slow, flowing movement of the openi ng four lines.
Find exampl es in these lines of caesura*, run-on lines*
and broad vowel sounds.
Whi ch of these features:
- creates a flowing movement?
- slows the rhythm down?
- creates pauses?
2 The poet attri butes his dulled and drowsy mood to
happi ness. Is there any suggesti on, however, in this
first stanza, that the poet is experi enci ng sorrow and
suffering? Consi der his apparent need to forget ('and
Lethe-wards had sunk', line 4).
3 The description of the poet's state of mind is in
stark contrast to the description of the bird. Whi ch
words and expressi ons in lines 6- 10 suggest the
carefree happi ness of the ni ghti ngal e?
4 In the second stanza the poet creates an
atmosphere of warmth and merri ment. By suggesti ng
that the wi ne he wishes to drink should be 'cool ed',
he conveys the idea of a warm cl i mate.
a. Find other words and expressi ons that you would
associ ate with the concepts of warmth and
merri ment.
b. The joyful playfulness of lines 11- 18 is enhanced
by the use of alliteration*, assonance*,
onomatopoeia* and i mages which appeal to the
senses. Find exampl es of each of the above.
c. The mood in the final two lines of the stanza has
changed. Whi ch words create a darker, more
sinister atmosphere?
5 In the third stanza the poet presents a graphi c
portrayal of human misery. He uses metonymy* ('hear
each other groan', line 24) and personification*
('Where palsy shakes', line 25) to create striking
i mages. Find another exampl e of metonymy (for
agei ng) in line 25 and personification in line 29.
6 Exami ne the poet's choi ce of words in lines 23- 28.
Are they mostly monosyl l abi c or polysyllabic?
Consi der the rhythm* created by these words. How
would you defi ne it? Does the rhythm mirror the
content of the stanza?
7 In the fourth stanza the poet says that he will
escape from human suffering through poetry.
a. Whi ch i mages in this stanza suggest joyfulness?
b. Whi ch line i ntroduces a note of sorrow?
c. What word in the final line of the stanza reiterates
the sense of sadness?
8 The beauty of the world of nature as descri bed in
the fifth stanza contrasts sharply with the suffering of
the human world in the third stanza. The poet piles
i mage upon i mage appeal i ng to all five senses. Say to
whi ch sense(s) the following i mages refer to.
- flowers are at my feet
- embal med darkness
- whi te hawthorn
- fading violets
- musk-rose full of dewy wi ne
- the murmurous haunt of flies
9 Note the onomatopoeia* of line 50. Whi ch sounds
are repeated to suggest the buzzing of the flies?
John Keats 59
10 In the sixth stanza the poet consi ders death as a
possi bl e escape from human suffering.
a. What euphemism* for death is used in line 54?
b. The climax* of the stanza comes in lines 55- 56,
when the poet seems ready to embrace death.
How woul d you descri be the l anguage he uses at
this moment of hei ghtened emoti on?
c. The poet refuses to choose death because he
wishes to conti nue listening to the ni ghti ngal e's
song, whi ch he calls 'high requi em' in the final line
of the stanza. Whi ch word contrasts sonically with
'hi gh requi em' and suggests the i nappropri ateness
of death?
1 1 In the seventh stanza the ni ghti ngal e's song
becomes a symbol*. What does it symbol i se?
18 Beauty The immortality of art
Creative inspiration I magination
Could it represent all of these concepts?
1 2 What is the tone of the final stanza and how is it
created? Has the ni ghti ngal e's song provi ded a
solution to human suffering or has it only provided
temporary relief?
In the light of your answer to questi on 11, how do
you interpret the final stanza of the poem?
1 3 Focus on the structure of the poem.
a. Note down the number of lines in each stanza. The
lines are written in iambic pentameter*, with the
excepti on of one line in each stanza. Whi ch one?
b. Work out the rhyming scheme of the first two
stanzas. Is it regular?
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Assonance i s the use of si mi l ar vowel sounds r epeated i n successi ve or pr oxi mate
words contai ni ng di fferent consonants. I t creates vowel r hyme as i n the words 'name',
'hate', 'favour'.
Li ke al l i terati on, assonance gi ves poetry a musi cal qual i ty. I t al so determi nes r hythm:
heavy, broad sounds 'o', 'u', 'a' (though, turn, heart, pai n) tend to sl ow the r hythm
down;
sl ender 'i ' and 'e' (thi s, l et) sounds create a qui cker pace.
Exami ne lines 1- 3 and lines 45^48 of Ode to a Nightingale.
a. Find exampl es of assonance. What vowel sounds domi nate?
Long and broad Short and sl ender
b. What kind of rhythm do they create?
c. In lines 1- 3 the poet is descri bi ng the suffering of human mortality, while in lines 45- 48
he is descri bi ng the joys of nature. Explain why the rhythm of each secti on is appropri ate
to the contents.
Use broad vowel assonance to write a sl ow-paced sentence.
Use sl ender vowel assonance to write a qui ck-paced sentence. Exampl e:
All the tall flowers surrounded the house. She will miss him in spring.
I magi ne you are standi ng near Keats when he says, 'I have been half in love with easeful Death'. He seems to be
toying with the idea of suicide. What woul d you say to convi nce him not to do it.
OVER TO YOU
Assonance
Wmm
Have you ever fel t that there are just not enough hours in a day, or days in a week, to do all the thi ngs you woul d
like to do? J ohn Keats had good reason to worry about how short life is because he knew that, because of ill heal th,
he woul d di e young. This poem was wri tten in 1818, just three years before he di ed at the age of twenty-fi ve.
Text E l 9 When I Have Fears
When I have fears that I may cease to be
1
Bef ore my pen has gl eaned
2
my teemi ng
3
brai n,
Bef ore hi gh- pi l ed
4
books, i n char acter y
5
,
H ol d l i ke ri ch garners
6
the ful l r i pened
7
grai n;
When I behol d
8
, upon the ni ght's starred face,
H uge cl oudy symbol s of a hi gh r omance
9
,
A nd thi nk that I may never l i ve to trace
Thei r shadows, wi th the magi c hand of chance
10
;
A nd when I feel , fai r
11
creature of an hour,
That I shal l never l ook upon thee
12
mor e,
Never have rel i sh
13
i n the f aery
14
power
Of unr ef l ecti ng l ove; - then on the shor e
Of the wi de worl d I stand al one, and thi nk
Ti l l l ove and f ame to nothi ngness do si nk
16
.
15
10
GLOSSARY
1. cease to be: die
2. gleaned: collected or
gathered
3. teeming: full, prolific
4. high-piled: alarge amount,
oneon top of theother
5. charactery: (archaic)
writing
6. garners: buildings where
grain is stored
7. full ripened: fully grown
and ready to begathered,
mature
8. behold: see
9. high romance: great poem
10. And think ... chance:
1think 1may never beable
to write(trace) about them
(Their shadows), inspired
by my imagination (the
magic hand of chance)
11. fair: beautiful
12. thee: you
13. relish: great enjoyment
14. faery: fairy (archaic speUin
15.shore: coast
16. sink: go down
COMPREHENSION
The poem is wri tten in the form of a sonnet*, whi ch can be di vi ded i nto three quatrai ns and a coupl et. Link each
division of the poem to its subject matter.
first quatrai n
second quatrai n
third quatrai n
coupl et
The poet expresses his fear that death will depri ve him of his love.
The thought of death i sol ates the poet and paral yses his ability to thi nk.
The poet expresses his fear that death will cut short his work as a poet. Wri ti ng poetry is
compared to harvesti ng.
The poet fears that death will not al l ow hi m to compl ete his work as a poet. Wri ti ng poetry
is compared to drawi ng ni ght skies.
John Keats 61
ANALYSIS
1 The poet is fearful that death will deprive him of
artistic fulfilment. Whi ch words in the openi ng
quatrain suggest abundance, and therefore make the
sense of deprivation stronger?
2 The poet chooses the ni ght sky as a symbol* of
artistic inspiration. Link the words taken from the
second quatrain with the aspect of artistic inspiration
they convey.
high (line 6) Vastness
magi c (line 8) Superiority
huge (line 6) Mystery
3 Underline the expressi on in the third quatrain
whi ch suggests the transi ence of beauty.
4 The poet attri butes magi cal powers to 'unrefl ecti ng
love'. What kind of love is 'unrefl ecti ng', in your
opi ni on?
5 Whi ch words/ expressions in the final coupl et
suggest:
- the relative insignificance of the individual in the
general scheme of the universe?
- the alienation of the poet?
- despair?
How do you interpret the final two lines of the poem?
6 The poem is constructed on a series of subordi nate
clauses, based on the words 'When I ...'. In whi ch line
of the poem is the condi ti on i ntroduced by the
openi ng phrase compl eted? What punctuati on marks
signal the turning poi nt?
What effect does this postponi ng syntax have on the
poem?
It creates tensi on and expectati on.
It underlines the poet's despair.
It adds mystery to the poem.
7 Consi der the syntax of lines 12- 13. What devi ce
makes the expressi on 'I stand al one' stand out?
8 Work out the rhyming scheme* of the poem. Is it
regular throughout? Find exampl es of alliteration*
and assonance* in the first two lines.
9 Find the expressi ons in the poem that capture the
following typically Romanti c concepts:
- the spontaneous, al most magi cal process of artistic
creati on:
- the isolation of the poet:
Keats accompl i shed a great deal in his very short life. Think of another famous person who accompl i shed a lot
even though he died young.
HfH^^^H^^H Early years J ohn Keats was
^ H I H I I ^H bor n i n L ondon, wher e hi s
father was the manager of a l arge l i very stabl e. Hi s earl y l i fe was
marked by a seri es of personal tragedi es: hi s father was ki l l ed i n
an acci dent when he was ei ght years ol d, hi s mother di ed when
he was fourteen and one of hi s younger brothers di ed i n i nfancy.
He recei ved rel ati vel y l i ttl e f ormal educati on and at age si xteen
he became an appr enti ce to an apothecar y- sur geon. Hi s fi rst
at t empt s at wr i ti ng poetr y date f r om t he year s of hi s
apprenti ceshi p and i ncl ude Imitation of Spenser, a homage to the
El i zabethan poet he greatl y admi red.
WORKS
I n hi s shor t l i terary career J ohn Keats wr ote some of the most
outstandi ng and best-l oved poems i n the Engl i sh l anguage.
Hi s earl y poems i ncl uded the sonnet On First Looking into Chapman's Homer (1816), whi ch descri bes
the poet's del i ght at first readi ng Chapman's seventeenth-century transl ati on of the Greek epi c poem.
Endymion (1817) tel l s the story of a young shepherd whom the moon- goddess Sel ene puts to sl eep
eter nal l y so that she can enj oy hi s beauty. A l though the poem is str uctur al l y weak and of ten
obscure, it shows fl ashes of i mmatur e geni us.
The Eve of St. Agnes is a r omanti c l ove story whi ch bl ends el ements of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet,
Chaucer and Boccacci o. The ri ch sensuousness of the i magery i n the poem is an i ndi cati on of the
greatness to come.
The great year Despi te f r equent and per si stent per i ods of i l l ness, Keats dedi cated hi msel f to
wri ti ng, and i n what is of ten referred to as the Great Year (1819) he pr oduced some of hi s f i nest
works, i ncl udi ng hi s fi ve great odes.
Death in I taly Keats's heal th was now i n a cri ti cal state and Shel l ey asked hi m to j oi n hi m i n Pi sa.
He di d not accept Shel l ey's i nvi tati on but di d deci de to move to I tal y, where he hoped the warmer
cl i mate woul d i mpr ove hi s condi ti on. Bef ore l eavi ng, he managed to publ i sh a thi r d vol ume of
poems, Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St. Agnes and Other Poems. I n 1820 he settl ed i n Rome, where he
di ed i n February 1821 at the age of twenty-fi ve.
The Odes I n the fi ve odes of 1819, Ode to Psyche, Ode on a Grecian Urn ( Text E17), Ode to a
Nightingale ( Text E18), Ode on Melancholy and To Autumn, Keats r eached the pi nnacl e of hi s
J OHN KEATS First poems I n 1816 K eats obt ai ned a l i cence to pr acti se
( 1795- 1821) apothecary, but abandoned the professi on for poetry. He became
fri ends wi th Shel l ey ( pp. E40- 51) and i n Mar ch 1817 hi s fi rst
book of poems was publ i shed. A l though i t sol d poorl y, thi s fi rst vol ume of work i ntroduced hi m i nto
i mpor t ant l i ter ar y ci r cl es. He met sever al of the gr eat l i ter ar y f i gur es of the day i ncl udi ng
Wordsworth, who exerci sed an i mportant i nf l uence on hi s approach to wri ti ng poetry. I n 1817 Keats
l eft L ondon and travel l ed ar ound the Lake Di stri ct, Scotl and and N or ther n I rel and, where he was
i mpr essed by the beauti f ul rugged l andscape. When he r etur ned f r om hi s travel s he nur sed hi s
brother Tom through the fi nal stages of tubercul osi s. After hi s brother's death he met and fel l i n l ove
wi th Fanny Brawne, but hi s own heal th was begi nni ng to fai l .
Writers' Gallery - John Keats
creati ve powers. They are l yri cal medi tati ons
on art and real l i f e, exper i ence and
aspi r ati ons, l i f e and dr eams. T hese odes,
whi ch are so ri ch i n exqui si te and sensuous
detai l , r epr esent for the many the cr owni ng
achi evement of Engl i sh Romanti ci sm.
La Belle Dame Sans Merci Wri tten at about
the same ti me as the Odes, the bal l ad La Belle
Dame Sans Merci, whi ch was publ i shed
posthumousl y, i n l i ne wi th the Romanti c taste
f or M edi eval setti ng and descr i bes t he
destructi ve si de of an i dyl l i c l ove.
Letters Apart from poetry, Keats al so wrote a
seri es of l etters, publ i shed posthumousl y, i n
whi ch he r ecor ded hi s t hought s on poetr y,
l ove, phi l osophy and peopl e and events of hi s
day. M any of the l etter s i ncl ude val uabl e
commentari es on hi s work and gi ve a prof ound
i nsi ght i nto hi s ar ti sti c devel opment . T he
t went i et h- cent ur y l i ter ar y cr i ti c T.S. El i ot
( Modul e G) descri bed the l etters as 'the most
i mportant ever wri tten by an Engl i sh poet'.
; yw- vmm wmmt* sm. mm
Reputation After a parti cul arl y savage attack on one of hi s earl y works, Keats wrote to hi s brother
'I thi nk I shal l be among the Engl i sh Poets after my death'. Hi s pr ophecy has i ndeed come true.
Keats's reputati on conti nued to grow duri ng the ni neteenth century, and si nce then he has, together
wi th Wordsworth, been the most wi del y read of the Engl i sh Romanti c poets. Hi s Ode on a Grecian
Urn, Ode to a Nightingale and To Autiimn are as wel l -known and l oved as anythi ng by Shakespeare.
TASK
Explain how the events of J ohn Keats's life help us to understand the major themes of his poetry:
- the passing of ti me;
- the immortality of art;
- death as an escape from human suffering;
- beauty and art as a means of overcomi ng despair.
Emma
by faneAusten
The themes of love and romance have been deal t wi th in every art form in every era. Today romanti c films, fi cti on
and musi c are as popul ar as ever.
Try to r emember a l ove story you have seen or read and compl ete the fol l owi ng notes:
Names of the mai n characters: Setti ng:
An i mportant event in the story: Endi ng:
CHARACTERS
Emma Woodhouse
Harriet Smith,
Emma's friend
Mr Elton, the local
vicar
Mr Cole, a vicar's
friend
Visual Link E7
THE STORY
Emma is a love story in which young men and women who live in the same area meet at
dances, in each other's homes or while walking in the village.
Emma, the main character, is a clever, pretty, twenty-one-year old, who lives alone with her
father, Mr Woodhouse, near the village of Highbury. She becomes friends with seventeen-
year-old Harriet, who has been abandoned by her parents. Emma decides that she will find a
suitable husband for Harriet, but stops her marrying Robert Martin, a local farmer, because
she thinks he is not good enough for her. She believes that Mr Elton, the local vicar, would be
a much better match. ( Text E20)
Her attempt to make a match between Harriet and Mr Elton fails miserably but, undeterred,
she tries to pair Harriet off with Frank Churchill. However, Frank announces a surprise
engagement toJane Fairfax, while Harriet herself believes that Mr Knightley, a close friend of
Emma's, is in love with her. As it turns out, Mr Knightly is really in love with Emma and
asks her to marry him. ( Text E21) She accepts and decides to stop interfering in other peo-
ple's lives. So, when she hears that Harriet has accepted Robert Martin's second proposal o
marriage, she wishes the couple all the best.
Text E20
This Would Not Do!
GLOSSARY
1. lane: narrow street
2. slight bend: small
curve
3. took ... footpath: left
themain road and
walked down aside
path
4. This would not do:
this would not suit
her plans
5. under pretence of
having: pretending
that shehad
6. stooping down ...
occupation of:
bendingover and
completely blocking
7. begged ... walk on:
asked them to keep
walking
Emma and Harriet bump into Mr Elton on the road.
They wal ked on. T he l ane
1
made a sl i ght bend
2
; and when that bend was
passed, Mr. El ton was i mmedi atel y i n si ght.
(...) Emma wants Harriet and Mr. Elton to be alone.
A nxi ous to separ ate her sel f f r om t hem as far as she coul d, she soon
af ter war ds took possessi on of a nar r ow f ootpath
3
, a l i ttl e r ai sed on one
si de of the l ane, l eavi ng them together i n the mai n road. But she had not
been t her e t wo mi nu t es w h en she f ou nd t hat H ar r i et' s habi t s of
dependence and i mi tati on wer e br i ngi ng her up too, and that, i n shor t,
they woul d bot h be soon after her. Thi s woul d not do
4
; she i mmedi atel y
stopped, under pr etence of havi ng
5
some al terati on to make i n the l aci ng
of her hal f - boot , and st oopi ng d own i n compl et e occupat i on of
6
t he
f ootpath, begged t hem to have the goodness to wal k on
7
, and she woul d
f ol l ow i n hal f a mi nute. They di d as they were desi red; and by the ti me she
10
Emma - Jane Austen 65
15
20
25
30
j udged i t r easonabl e to have done wi th her boot, she had
t he comf or t of f ur t her del ay i n her power
8
, bei ng
ov er t ak en
9
by a chi l d f r om t he cot t age, set t i ng out
10
,
accor di ng to or der s, wi th her pi tcher
11
, to f etch br ot h
12
f r om Hartf i el d. To wal k by the si de of thi s chi l d, and tal k
to and quest i on her, was t he most natur al t hi ng i n t he
worl d, or woul d have been the most natural , had she been
acti ng then wi thout desi gn
13
; and by thi s means the other s
wer e sti l l abl e to keep ahead, wi t hout any obl i gati on of
wai t i ng f or her . She gai ned on t hem, howev er ,
i nvol untar i l y; the chi l d's pace was qui ck, and thei r s was
sl ow; and she was t he mor e concer ned at i t, f r om thei r
bei ng evi dentl y i n a conver sati on whi ch i nter ested t hem.
Mr. El ton was speaki ng wi th ani mati on, Harri et l i steni ng
wi th a ver y pl eased attenti on; and E mma havi ng sent the
chi l d on, was begi nni ng to thi nk how she mi ght draw back
a l i ttl e mor e, when they bot h l ooked ar ound, and she was
obl i ged to j oi n them.
Mr . El t on was sti l l t al ki ng, sti l l engaged i n some
i nteresti ng detai l ; and Emma exper i enced some di sappoi ntment when she
f ou nd t hat he was onl y gi vi ng hi s f ai r co mp an i o n an accou nt of
yesterday's party at hi s f ri end Col e's, and that she was come i n hersel f f or
14
the Sti l ton cheese, the nor t h Wi l tshi r e, t he butter , the cel l ery, the beet-
root, and al l the dessert.
' Thi s woul d soon have l ed t o somet hi ng bet t er of cour se' , was her
consol i ng ref l ecti on, ' any thi ng i nterests between those who l ove; and any
thi ng wi l l serve as i ntr oducti on to what i s near the hear t
15
. I f I coul d but
have kept l onger away.'
T hey now wal ked on together qui etl y, ti l l wi thi n vi ew of the vi car age
pal es, when a sudden resol uti on, of at l east getti ng Harri et i nto the house,
made her agai n f i nd somet hi ng ver y mu ch ami ss
16
about her boot, and
fal l behi nd to arrange i t once mor e. She then br oke the l ace off short, and
dexter ousl y
17
thr owi ng i t i nto a di tch
18
, was presentl y obl i ged to entr eat
19
t hem to stop, and acknowl edged her i nabi l i ty to put hersel f to r i ghts
20
so
as to be abl e to wal k home i n tol erabl e comf or t.
' Par t of my l ace i s gone, ' sai d she, ' and I do not k now how I am to
contr i ve
21
. I real l y am a most tr oubl esome compani on to you both, but I
hope I am not so of ten i l l -equi pped. Mr. El ton, I must beg l eave to stop at
your house, and ask your housekeeper for a bi t of r i bband or stri ng, or any
thi ng just to keep my boot on. '
35
40
45
50
8. shehad ... power: she
found another chanceof
distancing herself from the
couple
9. overtaken: passed
10. setting out: startinga
journey
11. pitcher: akind of container
12. fetch broth: go and get
broth (hot soup)
13.acting ... design: talkingto
thechild not becauseit was
part of aplan
14. shewas come in herself
for: sheherself had joined
in theconversation only to
hear about
15.any thing ... heart: any
topic of conversation may
help two peopleto get
closer
'... She soon afterwards
took possession of a narrow
footpath... leaving them
together in the main road.'
16. very much amiss:
completely wrong
17. dexterously: with
great ability
18. ditch: long narrow
holedugalongsidea
road
19. entreat: ask
20.acknowledged ...
rights: had to admit
shewas not ableto
fix thelace
21. contrive: put it right
THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction
COMPREHENSION
1 How did Emma first try to separate herself from
Harriet and Mr Elton?
2 Why did her first attempt to di stance herself fail?
3 What did she then do to get the coupl e to
overtake her?
4 Why did she talk to the child who overtook her?
5 Why did she feel obl i ged to join the coupl e?
6 What were Harriet and Mr Elton talking about
when she joi ned them?
7 What did she do so that Mr Elton would invite
Harriet and her to his house?
ANALYSIS
1 In this passage both the exterior world of Emma's
acti ons and the interior world of Emma's thoughts and
feelings are descri bed. Make a list of the acti ons Emma
takes to di stance herself from Harriet and Mr Elton,
quoti ng from the text and giving line references.
ACTIONS
- she soon afterwards lines 3^1
took possession of a
narrow footpath
2 Emma feels a range of emoti ons in this passage. Find
a line reference for each emoti on and explain its origin.
line emotion origin
line 3 anxi ety She wants Harriet
and Mr Elton to be
al one.
frustration
concern
di sappoi ntment
consol ati on
3 Can you find any evi dence in the text that the social
setting* of the novel is the upper or mi ddl e cl ass?
4 Which adjectives would you use to descri be Emma?
justify your choi ces.
mmm
Third-person
narrator:
omniscient
narrator and
free indirect
speech
Wm
- m
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Exchangi ng l etters, a di ary or journal , narrati on by one of the characters or by someone
outsi de the events - authors can choose f r om many di fferent ways of tel l i ng a story.
When a stor y is tol d by someone outsi de the acti on, he is cal l ed a ' thi rd-person
narrator' (because he refers to everybody i n the story i n the thi rd person: 'he', 'she' or
'they'). I n thi s form of narrati on the person who is tel l i ng the story is l i ke an observer
who is wi tnessi ng or has wi tnessed what has happened, but pl ays no part i n the events.
I n a cer tai n sense the thi r d- per son nar r ator is a ki nd of god (the ter m ' omni sci ent
narrator' is al so used). We have the sensati on that he knows exactl y what is goi ng to
happen and how each char acter wi l l behave. Thi s ki nd of nar r ator was parti cul arl y
popul ar i n the ei ghteenth and ni neteenth centur i es. T he nar r ati ve techni que J ane
A usten uses i n Emma is a devel opment of the thi rd-person narrati ve. Someti mes the
narrator is omni sci ent, at other ti mes he sees thi ngs f rom the mai n character's poi nt of
vi ew. I n setti ng the scene, for exampl e, the narrator is i ndependent, l ooki ng down on
the characters f rom a poi nt outsi de the acti on. At other ti mes it is cl earl y Emma's poi nt
of vi ew that is expressed:
Emma - Jane Austen 67
But she had not been there two minutes when she found that Harriet's habits of dependence
and imitation were bringing her up too, and that, in short, they would both be soon after her.
This would not do; she immediately stopped, under the pretence of having some alteration to
make in the lacing of her half-boot. (...)
A l though the narrati ng voi ce remai ns outsi de the story, the phrase 'Thi s woul d not do'
i s obvi ousl y an expr essi on of Emma' s poi nt of vi ew, conveyi ng her f r ustr ati on at
Harri et's behavi our . The techni que of shi f ti ng the nar r ati ve vi ewpoi nt between an
objecti ve account and subjecti ve i nterpretati on is cal l ed f ree i ndi r ect speech.
Thi s techni que makes the reader feel l ess detached f rom the story. Al so, because much
of the story is tol d f rom the parti al vi ewpoi nt of one of the characters, the reader gets
the i dea that anythi ng can happen i n the course of the novel , just as it can i n real l i fe.
I n the case of Emma i t adds an el ement of humour , as the reader contr asts the way
Emma sees the worl d ar ound her and how i t real l y i s. Free i ndi rect speech is wi del y
used i n moder n novel wri ti ng.
Read again lines 22- 36 and exami ne how the poi nt of view shifts from the omni sci ent
narrator to Emma by identifying the following statements as objecti ve view of events (O) or
as Emma's view of events (E).
I I Mr Elton and Harriet are having a conversati on.
L J The conversati on between Mr Elton and Harriet is interesting.
I I Mr Elton is speaking with ani mati on and Harriet is pleased by what she hears.
I I Emma is gai ni ng ground on Mr Elton and Harriet.
Mr Elton is talking about his friend's party.
I I Emma interrupts them at an interesting poi nt in their conversati on.
Read the paragraph below, whi ch is based on the events of Text E20. Whi ch character's
poi nt of view is woven into the text? Justify your answer by referring to the text.
Mr Elton continued to talk to the rather dull Harriet about the party he had attended at Cole's
home. Meanwhile, the charming Emma had fallen behind and was talking to a child.
Thankfully, the child was walking quickly and so Emma would soon rejoin the company. As
the child overtook them, Mr Elton noticed that Emma was no longer with her. He turned to
see where she was and, to his disappointment, noticed that she was still some distance away.
He slowed his pace down and eventually she caught up with them. He could see that she was
happy to be in his company again.
Has Emma any right to organi se Harriet's life for her? Should she not mind her own business? Is she acti ng in her
young friend's best interests? Discuss.
,68 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction
Text E21
More Than Just Friends
CHARACTERS
Emma Woodhouse
Mr Knightley, a
closefriend of
Emma's
- GLOSSARY
1. have in
contemplation: be
planning
2. that I fear is a word:
that is theword I do
not want to hear
from you
3. look the question:
seehow shewould
react
4. overpowered:
shocked
5. dread: terror
6. as was ...
convincing: as he
was ableto usein
order to persuade her
7. Bear with: try to
accept
8. The manner...
recommend them:
theway I behaved
with you did not
really show what my
feelings were
9. groundless: without
substance, unreal
Having mistakenly believed that Mr Knightley is in
love with Harriet, Emma is relieved to discover that he
is, in fact, in love with somebody else.
'But if you have any wi sh to speak
openl y to me as a fri end, or to ask my
opi ni on of any thing that you may have in
contempl ati on
1
- as a friend, i ndeed, you
may command me. - I will hear whatever 5
you like. I will tell you exactly what I think.
'As a friend!' - repeated Mr. Knightley. -
'Emma, that I fear is a word
2
- No, I have no
wish. - Stay, yes, why should I hesitate? - I
have gone too far already for conceal ment. 10
- Emma, I accept your offer - extraordinary
as it may seem, I accept it, and refer myself
to you as a friend. - Tell me, then, have I no
chance of ever succeeding?'
He stopped in his earnestness to look the question
3
, and the expression is
of his eyes overpowered
4
her.
'My dearest Emma,' said he, 'for dearest you will always be, whatever
the event of this hour's conversation, my dearest, most beloved Emma -
tell me at once. Say "No", if it is to be said.' She could really say nothi ng. -
'You are si l ent,' he cri ed, wi th great ani mati on; 'absol utel y si l ent! at 20
present I ask no more.'
Emma was almost ready to sink under the agi tati on of thi s moment.
The dread
5
of being awakened from the happiest dream, was perhaps the
most prominent feeling.
'I cannot make speeches, Emma:' - he soon resumed; - and in a tone of 25
such sincere, decided, intelligible tenderness as was tolerably convi nci ng
6
.
- 'I f I loved you less I mi ght be able to talk about it more. But you know
what I am. - You hear nothi ng but truth from me.'
(...)
'Bear with
7
the truths I would tell you now, dearest Emma.'
(...)
'The manner, perhaps, may have as l i ttl e to recommend them
8
. God 30
knows, I have been a very indifferent lover. - But you understand me. -
Yes, you see, you understand my feelings - and will return them if you
can. At present, I ask onl y to hear, once to hear your voice.'
Whi l e he spoke, Emma's mi nd was most busy, and, wi th all the
wonderful velocity of thought, had been able - and yet wi thout losing a 351
word - to catch and comprehend the exact truth of the whole; to see that
Harriet's hopes had been enti rel y groundless
9
, a mistake, a delusion, as
complete a delusion as any of her own - that Harriet was nothi ng; that she
was everything herself.
Emma - Jane
COMPREHENSION
1 At the begi nni ng of the passage, what kind of
relationship does Emma believe exists between herself
and Mr Knightley?
2 Why does Mr Knightley fear the word 'fri end'?
3 What is Mr Knightley referring to when he asks if
he would have 'no chance of ever succeedi ng'?
4 Why does Emma say nothi ng in answer to Mr
Knightley's questi on?
5 What 'exact truth' has Emma understood by the
end of the passage?
ANALYSIS
1 Focus on Mr Knightley's speech pattern. Find
exampl es of:
- hesitations: lines
- interrupted, unfinished sentences: lines
- repeti ti on: lines
What does the unstructured, chaoti c way in whi ch Mr
Knightley speaks reveal about his state of mi nd?
2 Find the line in whi ch Mr Knightley refers to his
inability to express himself appropriately.
3 Does Mr Knightley ever directly state that he loves
Emma? Make a list of the sentences that help Emma
to understand how Mr Knightley feels for her.
4 Attribute the adjecti ves in the list bel ow to Mr
Knightley or Emma on the basis of the passage you
have just read. Some adjecti ves may be included in
both col umns.
Shy Emotional Insecure Mature
Sincere Perceptive Speechless
Mr Knightley Emma
Throughout the novel Mr Knightley is portrayed as
cal m, mature and el oquent, while Emma is seen as
i mmature, interfering and somewhat superficial. Is this
how they are portrayed in this key passage?
Have atti tudes to marri age changed much si nce jane Austen's day? Are young peopl e as anxi ous to get married
today as J ane Austen's characters were? Discuss.
Pride and Prejudice
by faneAusten
What rol e shoul d parents pl ay in thei r chi l dren's choi ce of a partner? Say whether you agree or not wi th the
fol l owi ng statements and expl ai n why.
I I Parents shoul d hel p thei r chi l dren find a partner.
I | Parents have no ri ght whatsoever to i nterfere in thei r chi l dren's rel ati onshi ps.
1 The agreement of parents to a marri age is i mportant because they will be more willing to hel p the young
coupl e financially.
[1 ] Arranged marri ages, in whi ch parents choose who thei r son or daughter is goi ng to marry, are the ones
most likely to succeed.
Visual Link E7
THE STORY
The Bennets have five daughters and Mrs Bennet's driving ambition is to see all of them
married ( Text E22). Charles Bingley has come to live nearby with his friend Darcy. When
Darcy realises that Charles likes Jane Bennet, he does his best to separate them on the
grounds that her family are socially inferior. He himself likes Elizabeth Bennet, but when he
says so to her, she says she can have nothing to do with someone who looks down on her
family ( Text E23). She changes her mind about him, however, when she learns that he
has helped another sister, Lydia, who had eloped with a military officer, and the story ends
happily with a double wedding between Charles and Jane, and Elizabeth and Darcy.
Text E22
CHARACTERS
Mr and Mrs Bennet
Elizabeth, Jane and
Lydia Bennet, three
of the Bennets' five
daughters
Charles Bingley, a
neighbour to the
Bennets
Darcy, Charles's
friend
Lady Catherine de
Bourgh, Darcy's aunt
and one of the richest
people in the area
GLOSSARY
1. acknowledged:
recognised, admitted
2. bein want of: need
3. rightful: legal
4. is let at last: has
finally been rented
What A Fine Thing for Our Girls!
In the opening chapter Mrs Bennet tells her husband of the arrival in the neighbourhood
of Mr Bingley, an excellent prospective husband for one of their daughters.
IT is a truth universally acknowledged
1
, that a single man in possession of
a good fortune must be in want of
2
a wife.
However little known the feelings or views of such a man may be on hi s
first enteri ng a nei ghbourhood, this truth is so well fixed in the mi nds of
the surrounding families, that he is considered as the rightful
3
property of
some one or other of their daughters.
'My dear Mr Bennet,' said hi s lady to hi m one day, 'have you heard that
Netherfield Park is let at l ast
4
?'
Mr Bennet replied that he had not.
'But it is', returned she; 'for Mrs Long has just been here, and she told me
all about it.'
Mr Bennet made no answer.
'Do not you want to know who has taken i t?' cried his wife i mpati entl y.
'You want to tell me, and I have no objecti on to heari ng it.'
This was i nvi tati on enough.
Pride and Prejudice - Jane Austen 71
' Why, my dear, you must know, Mr s L ong says
that N etherf i el d is taken by a young man of l arge
f or tune f r om the nor th of Engl and; that he came
down on M onday i n a chai se and f our
5
to see the
pl ace, and was so much del i ghted wi th i t that he 20
agreed wi th Mr Morri s i mmedi atel y; that he is to
take possessi on bef or e Mi chael mas
6
, and some of
hi s servants are to be i n the house by the end of
next week.'
' What is hi s name?' 25
'Bi ngl ey.'
'I s he mar r i ed or si ngl e?'
' Oh! si ngl e, my dear, to be sure! A si ngl e man of
l arge f or tune; f our or fi ve thousand a year. What
a f i ne thi ng for our gi rl s!' 30
' H ow so? H ow can i t af f ect
7
t hem?'
' M y dear M r Bennet, ' r epl i ed hi s wi f e, ' how can
you be so t i r esome
8
! Y ou must k now t hat I am
thi nki ng of hi s mar r yi ng one of them. '
'I s that hi s desi gn
9
i n settl i ng her e?'
'Desi gn! N onsense, how can you tal k so! But i t is very l i kel y
10
that he may
fal l i n l ove wi th one of them, and ther ef or e you must vi si t hi m as soon as
he comes.'
'I see no occasi on f or that. Y ou and t he gi rl s may go, or you may send
t hem by themsel ves, whi ch per haps wi l l be sti l l better, for, as you are as
hand some as any of t hem, M r Bi ngl ey mi ght l i ke you t he best of t he
party.'
' My dear, you f l atter
11
me. I cer tai nl y have had my share of beauty, but I do
not pr etend to be any thi ng extr aor di nar y now. When a woman has fi ve
gr own up daughters, she ought to gi ve over
12
thi nki ng of her own beauty.'
'I n such cases, a woman has not of ten much beauty to thi nk of .'
'But, my dear, you must i ndeed go and see Mr Bi ngl ey when he comes i nto
the nei ghbour hood. '
i t is mor e than I engage f or
13
, 1 assure you.'
'But consi der your daughter s. Onl y thi nk what an establ i shment i t woul d
be f or one of t hem. Si r Wi l l i am and L ady L ucas ar e det er mi ned to go,
mer el y on t hat account
14
, f or i n gener al , you k now t hey vi si t no new
comer s. I ndeed
15
you must go, for i t wi l l be i mpossi bl e f or us to vi si t hi m,
i f you do not. '
'You are over scrupul ous, surel y. I dare say
16
Mr Bi ngl ey wi l l be very gl ad to
see you; and I wi l l send a f ew l i nes by you to assur e hi m of my hear ty
consent to hi s mar r yi ng whi ch ever he chuses
17
of the gi rl s; though I must
thr ow i n a good wor d for my l i ttl e Li zzy.'
i desi re you wi l l do no such thi ng. Li zzy is not a bi t better than the others;
and I am sur e she i s not hal f so h an d some as J ane, nor hal f so good
humour ed as Lydi a. But you are al ways gi vi ng her the pr ef er ence.'
35
40
45
50
55
60
The Bennet family from the
filmPride and Prejudice
(1995).
m
5.
6.
chaiseand four: type
of carriagepulled by a
horse
Michaelmas: 29th
September, St
Michael's holy day
7. affect: beof interest
for
8. tiresome: annoying
9. design: plan
10. likely: probable
11. flatter: say adulatory
words
12. giveover: renounce
13.1engage for: I wish
to promise
14. merely on that
account: solely for
that purpose
15. Indeed: surely
16.1daresay: I think
17. chuses: chooses
'They have none of them much
18
to recommend them,' replied he; 'they
are all silly and ignorant like other girls; but Lizzy has something more of
quickness than her sisters.'
'Mr Bennet, how can you abuse
19
your own children in such a way? You 65
take delight in vexi ng
20
me. You have no compassion on my poor nerves.'
'You mistake me, my dear. I have a high respect for your nerves. They are
my old friends. I have heard you menti on them with consideration these
twenty years at least.'
'Ah! you do not know what I suffer.' 70
'But I hope you will get over it, and live to see many young men of four
thousand a year come i nto the neighbourhood.'
'It will be no use to us, if twenty such should come, since you will not visit
them.'
'Depend upon it, my dear, that when there are twenty I will visit them all.' 75
Mr Bennet was so odd a mi xture
21
of qui ck parts
22
, sarcasti c humour,
reserve, and caprice, that the experi ence of three and twenty years had
been insufficient to make his wife understand his character. Her mind was
less difficult to develope. She was a woman of mean
21
understanding, little
i nformati on, and uncertai n temper. When she was di scontented, she 80
fancied
24
herself nervous. The business of her life was to get her daughters
married; its solace
25
was visiting and news.
18. They have none of
them much: they
havenothing special
19.abuse: insult
20. vexing: provoking
21. so odd a mixture:
such astrangemix
22. quick parts: clever
mind
23. mean: little
24. fancied: considered
25.solace: fun

COMPREHENSION
1 What, accordi ng to the openi ng sentence, are
weal thy young men in search of?
2 What news does Mrs Bennet gi ve her husband?
What i nformati on does she have about Mr Bi ngl ey?
3 How does Mr Bennet react to his wi fe's suggesti on
that he shoul d visit Mr Bi ngl ey?
4 Whi ch of his daughters seems to be Mr Bennet's
favouri te?
ANALYSIS
1 The narrati ve techni que used in this passage is free
indirect speech*. Whi ch character's vi ewpoi nt is
represented in the openi ng line?
2 The passage contains third-person narration* and
di al ogue.
a. Whi ch of the two narrati ve techni ques is used
predomi nantl y in:
- lines 1- 6: ?
- lines 7- 75: ?
- lines 76- 82: ?
b. What is the functi on of:
- the openi ng secti on of narrati on?
To descri be the characters.
To descri be the setti ng.
To outl i ne the mai n theme of the novel .
5 Why, accordi ng to Mrs Bennet, does her husband
'abuse' his own chi l dren?
6 Why does Mr Bennet call his wi fe's nerves his 'ol d
fri ends'? (Li ne 66)
7 Make a list of the words and expressi ons the
narrator uses in the final paragraph to descri be:
- Mr Bennet:
- Mrs Bennet:
- the central di al ogue?
To i ntroduce Mr and Mrs Bennet and reveal
somethi ng of thei r characters.
To al l ow the author to comment on the
acti on.
To devel op the storyl i ne.
To i ntroduce opposi ng vi ewpoi nts on an issue
whi ch the author bel i eves to be worthy of
seri ous consi derati on.
- the final secti on of the narrati on?
To confi rm what has emerged about the
characters in the precedi ng di al ogue.
To draw concl usi ons about the topi c under
di scussi on.
To devel op the storyl i ne.
3 Focus on the character of Mr Bennet.
a. Find exampl es in the di al ogue of his 'qui ck parts'
and 'sarcasti c humour'.
b. Mr Bennet asks his wi fe a seri es of questi ons.
Underl i ne them in the text.
Does he ask the questi ons because:
he is genui nel y i nterested in what his wi fe is
tal ki ng about?
he wi shes to show his wi fe the absurdi ty of what
she is sayi ng?
c. Mr Bennet seems to enjoy teasi ng his wi fe by
del i beratel y mi sunderstandi ng her. Find exampl es
in the text.
d. Mr Bennet descri bes his daughters as 'silly and
i gnorant like other girls'. How do you i nterpret this
comment?
4 Focus on the character of Mrs Bennet.
a. Find evi dence in the di al ogue:
- of her i nterest in materi al possessi ons:
- of her bei ng 'of mean understandi ng':
b. Why do you thi nk Mrs Bennet is so preoccupi ed
wi th fi ndi ng husbands for her daughters?
Consi der the historical peri od in whi ch the novel
was wri tten when gi vi ng your answer.
5 Focus on the rel ati onshi p between Mr Bennet and
his wi fe. Woul d you consi der it to be a:
fl atteri ng realistic
depressi ng romanti ci sed
vi ew of life as a coupl e after twenty-three years of
marri age? J ustify your answer.
At the ti me when the novel was wri tten, women were al most total l y dependent on men financially, and therefore
it was very i mportant for a woman to find a husband. J ane Austen herself never got marri ed and woul d have faced
consi derabl e fi nanci al hardshi p if, after her father's death, she, her mother and her sister had not been supported
by her brothers. Is it equal l y i mportant for women to get marri ed today from a fi nanci al poi nt of vi ew?
You Are Mistaken, Mr Darcy
Darcy has just told Elizabeth that, despite her inferior social background, he wants to
marry her. She has said no.
'A nd thi s,' cri ed Darcy, as he wal ked wi th qui ck steps across the r oom, 'i s
your opi ni on of me! Thi s is the esti mati on i n whi ch you hol d me! I thank
you for expl ai ni ng i t so ful l y. M y faul ts, accor di ng to thi s cal cul ati on, are
heavy i ndeed! But per haps,' added he, stoppi ng i n hi s wal k, and tur ni ng
towar ds her, ' these of f ences mi ght have been over l ooked
1
, had not your
pr i de
2
been hur t by my honest conf essi on of t he scrupl es that had l ong
pr evented my
3
f or mi ng any seri ous desi gn. These bi tter accusati ons mi ght
have been suppressed, had I , wi th greater pol i cy, conceal ed
4
my struggl es,
and f l atter ed you i nt o t he bel i ef of my bei ng i mpel l ed by unqual i f i ed,
unal l oyed i ncl i nat i on
5
; by r eason, by r ef l ect i on, by ever y t hi ng. But
di sgui se
6
of every sort is my abhor r ence. N or am I ashamed of the f eel i ngs
I rel ated
7
. T hey wer e natur al and just. Coul d you expect me to r ej oi ce i n
the i nf eri ori ty of your connecti ons? To congr atul ate mysel f on the hope of
rel ati ons, whose condi ti on i n l i fe is so deci dedl y beneath my own?'
El i zabeth fel t her sel f gr owi ng mor e angr y every moment ; yet she tri ed to
the utmost
8
to speak wi th composur e when she sai d,
Text E23
10
15
GLOSSARY -
1. overlooked: not
considered
2. had not your pride:
if your pridehad not
3. long prevented my:
for along time
stopped mefrom
4. concealed: hidden
5. flattered...
inclination:
convinced you that I
was driven towards
you without any
reservations
6. disguise:
dissimulation
7. related: told you
about
8. to theutmost: with
maximum effort
u g
74 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction
Elizabeth Bennet (Jennifer Ehle) and
Mr Darcy (Colin Firth) in the film
Pride and Prejudice (1995).
9. than as ... refusing
you: other than it
saved mefrom the
preoccupation that
I would havefelt on
rejecting you
10. mingled: mixed
11. conceit: feelingof
superiority
12. ground-work of:
basis for
13. whom I could ever
beprevailed on: that
I would ever be
persuaded to
14. hastily: in ahurry
15.by every review of
it: each timeshewas
goingover what had
happened

Y ou are mi staken, Mr Darcy, i f you suppose that
the mode of your decl ar ati on af f ected me i n any
ot her way, t han as i t spar ed me t he concer n
w hi ch I mi ght have f el t i n r ef usi ng you
9
, had
you behaved i n a mor e gentl eman- l i ke manner . '
She saw hi m start at thi s, but he sai d not hi ng,
and she conti nued.
'Y ou coul d not have made me the of f er of your
h an d i n any possi bl e way t hat wou l d hav e
tempted me to accept i t.'
A gai n hi s ast oni shment was obvi ous; and he
l ooked at her wi th an expr essi on of mi ngl ed
10
i ncr edul i ty and mor ti f i cati on. She went on:
' F r om t he v er y begi nni ng, f r om t he f i r st
moment , I may al most say, of my acquai ntance
wi th you, your manner s, i mpr essi ng me wi th the
f ul l est bel i ef of your ar r ogance, your concei t
11
,
and your sel fi sh di sdai n of the f eel i ngs of others,
wer e such as t o f or m t hat gr ound - wor k of
12
di sappr obat i on, on w hi ch succeedi ng event s
have bui l t so i mmov eabl e a di sl i ke; and I had
not k nown you a mo n t h bef or e I f el t t hat you
wer e t he l ast man i n t he wor l d w h o m I coul d
ever be prevai l ed on
13
to marry.'
' Y ou hav e sai d qui t e enou gh, mad am. I per f ect l y co mp r eh en d your
f eel i ngs, and have now onl y to be ashamed of what my own have been.
Forgi ve me for havi ng taken up so much of your ti me, and accept my best
wi shes for your heal th and happi ness.'
A nd wi th these words he hasti l y
14
l eft the r oom, and El i zabeth hear d hi m
the next moment open the f r ont door and qui t the house. T he tumul t of
her mi nd was now pai nf ul l y great. She knew not how to suppor t hersel f ,
and f r om act ual weak ness sat d ow n and cr i ed f or hal f an hour . H er
astoni shment, as she ref l ected on what had passed, was i ncreased by every
revi ew of i t
15
. That she shoul d recei ve an offer of mar r i age f r om Mr Darcy!
That he shoul d have been i n l ove wi th her for so many mont hs! So much
i n l ove as to wi sh to mar r y her i n spi te of al l t he obj ect i ons whi ch had
made hi m pr event hi s fri end's mar r yi ng her si ster, and whi ch must appear
at l east wi th equal f orce i n hi s own case, was al most i ncredi bl e!
45
COMPREHENSION
1 What, accordi ng to Darcy in the openi ng
paragraph, shoul d he have done in order to win
El i zabeth's affecti ons?
2 Was it the way Darcy made his decl arati on that
made Elizabeth refuse? (Lines 1 7- 26)
3 What were the first traits Elizabeth noti ced when
she first met Darcy?
4 What made Darcy's proposal of marri age to
Elizabeth 'al most i ncredi bl e'?
ANALYSIS
1 Focus on the character of Darcy.
a. Is there any evi dence in the text of what Elizabeth
descri bes as his 'arrogance', 'concei t' and 'di sdai n'
of the feel i ngs of others?
b. What does Darcy pride himself on?
Whi ch comment made by Elizabeth seems to
offend him most profoundl y?
c. As a single, wealthy, socially superior young man,
Darcy automati cal l y assumes that Elizabeth will
accept his proposal of marri age. Find evi dence in
the text of his disbelief at her refusal. What does
Darcy's reacti on suggest about the social values
and conventi ons of the ti me?
2 Focus on the character of Elizabeth.
a. Whi ch of the following adjecti ves do you think best
descri be her?
Sel f-composed I ntelligent Passive
Vindictive Hysterical I ndependent
b. Is there any evi dence in the text that she may have
been i mpetuous in formi ng her opi ni on of Darcy?
Whi ch expressi on suggests that she is exaggerati ng
her dislike of Darcy?
c. Consi der the final paragraph. Is there any
suggesti on that Elizabeth may admi re Darcy and
be flattered by his attenti on? Does the final
paragraph confirm or contradi ct what she has said
previously in the passage?
3 Consi der the style of the passage. How woul d you
descri be it?
Elegant Sophi sti cated Bal anced
Conversati onal Artificial Polite
Dramati c Other:
4 Elizabeth and Darcy are involved in a passi onate
row. The l anguage they use does not, however, seem
to reflect the emoti onal l y-charged situation: there are
no repetitions, i ncompl ete sentences, short
excl amati ons or i ncoherenci es. What effect does the
polished di al ogue create?
It reminds the reader that both Darcy and Elizabeth
bel ong to the refined upper and middle classes.
It helps maintain the l i ght-hearted, ironic tone of
the novel.
It makes the characters seem more realistic.
It adds an el ement of humour to the novel.
It exposes the author's inability to write convi nci ng
di al ogues.
Other:
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
There are two basi c techni ques for reveal i ng a character: 'showi ng' and 'telling'.
A wri ter shows characters thr ough di al ogue, monol ogue or i nteri or monol ogue. The
reader is l eft to i nterpret and draw concl usi ons f rom what is sai d wi th l i ttl e or no hel p
f rom the narrator.
A wri ter tel l s the reader about characters when he descri bes thei r personal i ty, appearance,
feel i ngs and moti ves for thei r behavi our. The reader does not have much freedom to form
an opi ni on and must depend on what the narrator says about the character.
In Text E23 J ane Austen uses a mi xture of showi ng and telling.
I dentify the lines where she:
- shows character through di al ogue: lines
- tells the reader about the characters' feelings: lines
In the final paragraph J ane Austen uses the techni que of telling to descri be Elizabeth's
physical and emoti onal response to what has happened. I magi ne you are re-writing this
scene for the stage or ci nema. Write a monol ogue for Elizabeth through whi ch you show the
contents of this paragraph. I nclude stage di recti ons for physical acti ons.
What do the following types of pride mean to you?
National pride Civic pride Family pride Personal pride
Is pride a positive or negati ve emoti on or both? Give exampl es.
Showing and
telling
Family background J ane
A usten was bor n on 16t h
December, 1775, i n the vi l l age of Steventon, near Basi ngstoke, i n
H ampshi r e. T he sevent h of ei ght chi l dr en of the Rever end
George A usten and hi s wi fe, Cassandra, she was educated mai nl y j
at home and never l i ved apart f rom her fami l y.
Social background As a young woman, she enj oyed danci ng at
l ocal bal l s, wal ki ng i n the H ampshi r e countr ysi de and vi si ti ng
fri ends. She was an avi d reader. She read both the seri ous and the |
popul ar l i ter atur e of the day (her f ather had a l i br ar y of 500 j
books by 1801, and she wrote that she and her f ami l y were 'great
novel r eader s, and not ashamed of bei ng so' ). She was ver y j
fami l i ar wi th ei ghteenth- centur y novel s, i ncl udi ng the works of
Ri char dson ( pp. D 65- 69) and Fi el di ng ( pp. D 70- 76) . 1
Thr ough her acti ve soci al l i fe, she met many men who wanted to marry her, but she remai ned si ngl e ;
al l her l i fe. On one occasi on, she di d accept a proposal of marri age f rom the br other of one of her
cl osest fri ends, but she changed her mi nd the fol l owi ng day.
Writing career She started wri ti ng i n her earl y teens. Her earl i est works i ncl uded parodi es of the
l i terature of the day and were ori gi nal l y wri tten for the amusement of her fami l y. Most of the pi eces j
are dedi cated to her rel ati ves or fami l y fri ends. I n the peri od between 1811 and 1817 she wrote her j
si x maj or novel s. Success was not i mmedi at e. I ndeed publ i sher s decl i ned to even l ook at the
manuscri pt of Pride and Prejudice (1813). However, when her novel s were eventual l y publ i shed they
were general l y wel l -recei ved.
I n 1816 her heal th began to fai l and i n 1817 she went to Wi nchester i n search of medi cal attenti on,
but she di ed there after two months. Her body was buri ed i n Wi nchester cathedral .
JANE AUSTEN
(1775-1817)
I Background I n the per i od when J ane A usten wr ote, gr eat
changes were occurri ng i n Europe. The French Revol uti on and the
col l apse of the 'anci en regi me' i n France were fol l owed by the Napol eoni c wars. I n Engl and, too, thi s
was a peri od of pol i ti cal and soci al unrest. Musi c, l i terature and pai nti ng were al so undergoi ng change
i n the form of the great Romanti c Revol uti on ( pp. E115- 116). There is hardl y any menti on of these
events i n J ane A usten' s novel s. Her novel s deal wi th the r el ati onshi ps bet ween f ami l i es and
i ndi vi dual s i n a rural setti ng. She hersel f sai d 'Three or four fami l i es i n a Country Vi l l age is the thi ng
to work on'. She conf i ned her wri ti ng to the worl d she knew from fi rst-hand experi ence.
Novels Her maj or novel s are Sense and Sensibility (1811), Pride and Prejudice (1813), Mansfield Park
(1814), Emma (1816), Persuasion (1818) and Northanger Abbey (1818).
Setti ng Emma perfectl y exempl i fi es the l i mi ted canvas on whi ch A usten chose to work. Wi th the
excepti on of the pi cni c excursi on to Box Hi l l , al l the acti on is conf i ned to the mi ddl e and upper cl ass
homes of the vi l l age of Hi ghbury. The characters i n her novel s are al so drawn f rom the soci al mi l i eu
she knew best. They bel ong to the ari stocracy, gentry and mi ddl e cl asses. Her greater understandi ng
of the femal e mi nd is al so refl ected i n her work ( Vi sual L i nk E7).
Themes Further evi dence of J ane Austen's preoccupati on wi th her i mmedi ate worl d may be f ound
i n the themes of her novel s. The tradi ti onal val ues of the mi ddl e and upper cl asses such as property.
Writers' Gallery - Jane Austen 77
decor um, money and mar r i age
are her maj or concer ns. I n both
Emma and Pride and Prejudice
mar r i age pr ovi des the basi s
of the pl ot. I t is not sur pr i si ng
that mar r i age was a maj or
pr eoccupat i on. At that ti me,
women of the mi ddl e and upper
cl asses were, of necessi ty, total l y
dependent on thei r husbands or
f ather s. J ane A usten her sel f
experi enced the risk of bei ng l eft
unsuppor ted. When her f ather
di ed, he l eft hi s wi dow and two
daughter s a ver y smal l annual
i ncome. L i fe woul d have been
di f f i cul t f or the thr ee w omen
had not t he sur vi vi ng sons
contri buted to thei r i ncome.
Characters J ane A usten is probabl y best r emember ed for her anal ysi s of character and conduct.
Her characters have strengths and weaknesses, they go through ti mes of tri al s and they l earn l essons.
T hey are not dri ven by wi l d passi ons. The str ong i mpul ses and i ntensel y emoti onal states they
experi ence are regul ated, control l ed and brought to order by pri vate refl ecti on.
J ane Austen's commi tment to reason and common sense rather than great passi ons l i nks her work to
the ei ghteenth- century tradi ti on of cl assi ci sm. There is l i ttl e evi dence i n her work of the passi onate
Romanti c themes of the turn of the century.
Style J ane A usten's novel s gi ve the i mpr essi on of ease, but they are i n fact the resul t of caref ul
thi nki ng by the author who was constantl y revi si ng them. I rony, wi t and cl ear, bal anced, apparentl y
si mpl e l anguage are all essenti al el ements of her styl e. The vi vi dness of the characters and the l i vel y
di al ogue have made the novel s excel l ent materi al for theatr e and ci nema adaptati on. I n fact, i n
r ecent years J ane A usten has enj oyed r enewed popul ari ty, thanks to hugel y successful f i l ms and
tel evi si on seri es based on her novel s.
TASKS
1 What kind of social background did J ane Austen
have?
2 What kind of literature influenced her as a
writer?
3 Did she lead a secl uded life?
4 When did she start writing?
5 Were her novels accepted for publication
i mmedi atel y?
6 As a writer, was she influenced by
contemporary social, political and cultural events?
7 What is the setti ng of her novels?
8 What are the major themes of her novels?
9 What are the characteri sti cs of her style?
1 0 Does her work bel ong more to the ei ghteenth-
century neo-classical tradition or to the turn-of-
the-century romanti c tradition?
Ivanhoe
by Sir Walter Scott
Stori es based on heroi c acti on have al ways been very popul ar.
a. Thi nk of an adventure story or acti on movi e you have seen recentl y. Whi ch of the fol l owi ng characteri sti cs
woul d you attri bute to the hero of the story?
Brave
I ntel l i gent
Strong
Good-l ooki ng
Honest
Modest
Others:
b. Prepare a ten-l i ne summary of the pl ot.
CHARACTERS
Richard the
Lion heart, king of
England
PrinceJohn,
Richard's brother
Cedric, Saxon leader
Lady Rowena,
Saxon lady
Athelstane, Saxon
knight
Ivanhoe, Cedric's
son
Brian de Bois-
Guilbert, Norman
knight
Reginald Front-de-
Boeuf, Norman
knight
Isaac, a Jew
Rebecca, Isaac's
daughter
THE STORY
Ivanhoe is set in England during theMiddle Ages, towards theend of the twelfth cen
when England's popidation was both of Saxon and Norman descent.
While King Richard the Lionheart is fighting an unsuccessful crusade in theHoly La
Prince John has usurped the throne of England. The Saxon leader, Cedric, still hopes
restore a Saxon to the throne by arranging a marriage between Lady Rowena a
Athelstane, both of whom are of royal Saxon descent. So, when Cedric's son, Ivanhoe, fc
in love with Lady Rowena and threatens to ruin his plans, he sends him away on t
crusades. King Richard and Ivanhoe return toEngland together. They takepart, incogni
in a tournament at Ashby and defeat theNorman heroes, Sir Brian deBois-Guilbert and
Reginald Front-de-Boeuf ( Texts E24 and E26). Ivanhoe reveals his identity while Rich
keeps his.
Thefollowing day, Ivanhoe, Cedric, Rowena, Athelstane and thetwoJewish characters, Is
and his daughter, Rebecca ( Text E25), are taken prisoner by Bois-Guilbert and held
Front-de-Boeuf's castle. Thecastle is placed under siege by a force led by Richard and Rob
Hood. After an epic battle, all theprisoners arefreed, except Rebecca, who is kidnapped
Bois-Guilbert. Sheis accused of being a witch but Ivanhoe, in truechivalric spirit, offers
defend her name in battle against the Norman knight. Ivanhoe defeats Bois-Guilbert a
Rebecca is freed.
Richard reveals his identity at last and reclaims the throne, while Ivanhoe, who has b
reconciled with his father, marries Rowena. Rebecca leaves England with her father for ever.
GLOSSARY
1. utmost: greatest
2. tide: winning trend
3. lists: sections of the
arena
Text E24
Fight On, Brave Knights
T he champi ons thus encounter i ng each other wi th the utmost
1
fury, and
wi th al ternate success, the ti de
2
of battl e seemed to f l ow now towards the
souther n, now towards the nor ther n extr emi ty of the l i sts
3
, as the one or
I vanhoe - Sir Walter Scott 79
nineteenth-century
edition of Ivanhoe.
the other party prevai l ed. Meanti me the
cl ang
4
of the blows and the shouts of the 5
combatants mixed fearfully with the sound
of the trumpets, and drowned the groans
5
of those who fell, and lay rolling defenceless
beneath the feet of the horses. The splendid
armour of the combatants was now 10
(Maced
6
with dust and Wood, and %ave -way
at every stroke of the sword and battle-axe.
The gay plumage, shorn from the crests
7
,
drifted upon the breeze like snowfYakes. AW
that was beauti ful and graceful in the 15
martial array
8
had disappeared, and what
was now vi si bl e was onl y cal cul ated to
awake terror or compassion.
Yet such is the force of habit, that not only
the vul gar spectators, who are natural l y 20
attracted by sights of horror, but even the
ladies of di sti ncti on, who crowded the
galleries, saw the confl i ct with a thri l l i ng
i nterest certai nl y, but wi thout a wish to
withdraw their eyes from a sight so terrible. 25
Here and there, indeed, a fair cheek might
turn pale, or a faint scream
9
might be heard,
as a lover, a brother or a husband was struck
from
10
his horse. But in general, the ladies
around encouraged the combatants, not 30
only by clapping their hands and waving their veils and kerchiefs
11
, but
even by excl ai mi ng, 'Brave l ance! Good sword!' when any successful
thrust or blow took place under their observation.
Such being the interest taken by the fair sex
12
in this bloody game, that of
the men is more easily understood. It showed itself in loud acclamations
upon every change of fortune, while all eyes were so riveted
13
on the lists
that the spectators seemed as if they themselves had dealt and received
the blows which were so freely bestowed
14
. And between every pause was
heard the voice of the heralds, exclaiming, 'Fight on, brave knights! Man
dies, but glory lives! Fight on. Death is better than defeat! Fight on, brave
knights! For bright eyes behold your deeds
15
.'
The battle commences and the crowd roars on its heroes.
4. clang: metallic noise
5. groans: expressions of pain
6. defaced: dirtied
7. shorn from the crests: cut
from thetop of the helmets
8. martial array: armour worn
in battle
9. faint scream: weak cry of
horror
10. struck from: forced to fall off
11. kerchiefs: handkerchiefs
12.Such being ... sex: if
women showed such great
interest
13.riveted: firmly fixed
14. bestowed: given
15.For bright... deeds:
becausebeautiful
women arewatching
your glorious actions
COMPREHENSION
1 Why is the battle referred to metaphorically as a
'tide'? (Line 2)
2 What sounds could the spectators hear?
3 What defaced the armour of the combatants?
4 What happened to the coloured feathers that the
combatants wore on their crests?
5 What reactions did the battle evoke from the
spectators?
6 How did the ladies in the crowd react to the
spectacle?
7 How did the ladies encourage the combatants?
8 How did the men show their appreciation for the
spectacle?
9 Why, according to the spectators, should the
knights fight on?
ANALYSIS
1 Say whether the following descriptive details appeal
to your sense of sight (S) or your sense of hearing (H):
[~~~1 the tide of battle seemed to flow now towards the
southern, now towards the northern extremity of
the lists
[ 1 the clang of the blows
j I the shouts of the combatants
I | the groans of those who fell
I | the splendid armour of the combatants was now
defaced with dust and blood
1 | the gay plumage, shorn from the crests, drifted
upon the breeze like snowflakes
2 This extract is typical of Walter Scott's elegant style
which is often based on symmetrical patterns of syntax.
Focus on the first sentence. The expressions in column
A are balanced by the expressions in column B.
a. Find the elements which provide balance in the
first sentence of the second paragraph and
complete the table.
b. Can you find other examples of symmetrical
patterns in the syntax of the passage?
3 When the narrator says, 'the vulgar spectators,
who are naturally attracted by sights of horror', he is
commenting on what he sees and becomes an
obtrusivenarrator*. Where else does the narrator
comment on what he sees? Give line references.
A B
utmost fury
now towards the
southern
the one
alternate success
now towards the
northern
the other party
A B
the vulgar spectators,
who are naturally
attracted by sights of
horror,
saw the conflict with a
thrilling interest
certainly
WRITERS WORKSHOP
Descri pti ve passages try to recreate both the visual and emotive elements of a scene,
situation or character. Through the careful choi ce of words and images, the writer tries
to bri ng the scene to life for the reader. In descriptive passages, writers often try to
communi cate physical sensations. They choose words whi ch recreate in the readers'
imagination, sounds, smells, tastes, sight or tactile experiences.
1 In text E24 which senses does Walter Scott appeal to? Give examples from the text.
2 Which of the following does Scott try to convey to the reader in his description of the
tournament scene?
Noise Movement Grace Beauty
Horror Confusion Fighting technique
OVER TO YOU
Wri ters of ten use fi gures of speech to make thei r descr i pti ons mor e vi vi d. A fi gure of
speech i s an examp l e of l anguage bei ng used i n an unusual way. Si mi l es and
metaphors are very common fi gures of speech.
A si mi l e i s an expl i ci t compar i son whi ch uses ' l i ke' , ' as' or 'as i f ' to compar e two
el ements whi ch are unal i ke.
A metaphor is an i mpl i ed compar i son wher e the l i nki ng wor d is omi tted.
Find in Text E24:
a) a metaphor for a battl e;
b) a simile for the shorn pl umage.
Wri te a brief descri pti on (max. 100 words) of one of the fol l owi ng:
a car crash a major sporti ng event a busy ci ty street
a rock concert a political demonstrati on
Your descri pti on shoul d i ncl ude detai l s whi ch appeal to the senses of si ght and heari ng. You
may al so i ncl ude detai l s whi ch appeal to the other senses, if you wi sh.
Find a report of a sports event. Does the wri ter i ncl ude any descri pti ve el ements? Are there any aspects of the
descri pti on that appeal to the senses? Does the journal i st use any si mi l es or metaphor s? How effecti ve is the
journal i st in recreati ng the scene he is descri bi ng? Prepare a short eval uati on of the report.
Unhappy Israelites
e.
Text E25
a*
'
Oneof the main characters in I vanhoe is Rebecca, a Jewish girl who is accused of being
a witch. In Text E25 Walter Scott explains the roleof theJewish community in Medieval
England.
(...) for, except per haps the f l yi ng fi sh, ther e was no race exi sti ng on the
ear t h, i n t he ai r, or t he water s, w h o wer e t he obj ect of such an
uni nt er mi t t i ng, gener al , and r el entl ess per secuti on as t he J ews of thi s
per i od. U pon the sl i ghtest and most unr easonabl e pr etences
1
, as wel l as
upon accusat i ons t he most absur d and gr oundl ess
2
, thei r per sons and
pr oper ty were exposed to every tur n
3
of popul ar fury; for N or man, Saxon,
Dane, and Br i t on, howev er adver se
4
t hese r aces wer e t o each ot her ,
cont ended whi ch shoul d l ook wi th gr eatest detestati on upon a peopl e
whom i t was accounted a poi nt of rel i gi on to hate
5
, to revi l e
6
, to despi se
7
,
to pl under
8
and t o per secute. T he ki ngs of t he N or man r ace, and t he 10
i ndependent nobl es, who f ol l owed thei r exampl e i n al l acts of tyr anny,
mai nt ai ned agai nst thi s devoted peopl e a per secuti on of a mor e regul ar,
cal cul ated, and sel f -i nterested ki nd. I t is a wel l - known story of K i ng J ohn,
t hat he conf i ned a weal t hy J ew i n one of t he r oyal castl es, and dai l y
caused one of hi s t eet h t o be t or n out
9
, unt i l , w h en t he j aw of t he
unhappy I sr ael i te was hal f di sf ur ni shed
10
, he consent ed t o pay a l arge
sum, whi ch i t was the tyrant's obj ect to extor t f r om hi m. T he l i ttl e ready
15
GLOSSARY -
1. pretences: false
reason, pretexts
2. groundless: without
reason
3. every turn: every
manifestation
4. however adverse: no
matter how hostile
5. whom it was
accounted ... hate:
that religion itself
taught to hate
6. revile: hate
7. despise: look down
upon
8. plunder: steal their
property
9. caused ... torn out:
had oneof the man's
teeth extracted
10.the jaw ...
disfurnished: the
mouth was missing
half of theteeth
11. wringing: extorting
12. Exchequer: tax-
collecting office
13. dispoiling and
distressing: extorting
money and causing
suffering
14. bills of exchange:
written promises to
pay
15.for which ...
indebted to them:
commerce owes to
theJews
16. secured: madesafe
17.in a measure ...
opposition to: partly
working against
18. watchful: careful to
noticewhat is
happening
19. uncomplying:
inflexible

mo n ey w hi ch was i n t he cou nt r y was chi ef l y i n possessi on of thi s
persecuted peopl e, and the nobi l i ty hesi tated not to f ol l ow the exampl e of
thei r soverei gn i n wr i ngi ng
11
i t f r om t hem by every speci es of oppressi on,
and even per sonal torture. Yet the passi ve cour age i nspi red by the l ove of
gai n i nd uced t he J ews t o dar e t he var i ous evi l s t o w hi ch t hey wer e
subj ect ed, i n consi der at i on of t he i mmen se pr of i ts w hi ch t hey wer e
enabl ed to real i se i n a countr y natur al l y so weal thy as Engl and. I n spi te of
ever y ki nd of di scour agement, and even of the speci al cour t of taxati ons
al r eady ment i oned , cal l ed t he J ew' s Exchequer
12
, er ected f or t he ver y
pur pose of di spoi l i ng and di st r essi ng
13
t hem, t he J ews i ncr eased,
mul ti pl i ed, and accumul ated huge sums, whi ch they transf erred f r om one
hand to another by means of bi l l s of exchange
14
- an i nventi on f or whi ch
commer ce i s sai d to be i ndebted to t hem
15
, and whi ch enabl ed t hem to
t r ansf er t hei r weal t h f r om l and t o l and, that, w hen t hr eat ened wi t h
oppr essi on i n one country, thei r treasure mi ght be secur ed
15
i n another .
T he obsti nacy and avar i ce of the J ews bei ng thus i n a measur e pl aced i n
opposi ti on to
17
the f anati ci sm and tyr anny of those under whom they l i ved,
seemed to i ncrease i n pr opor ti on to the per secuti on wi th whi ch they were
vi si ted; and the i mmense weal th they usual l y acqui red i n commer ce, whi l e
it f r equentl y pl aced t hem i n danger, was at other ti mes used to extend thei r
i nf l uence, and to secure to t hem a cer tai n degree of pr otecti on. On these
t er ms t hey l i ved; and t hei r char act er , i nf l uenced accor di ngl y, was
watchf ul
18
, suspi ci ous and ti mi d - yet obsti nate, uncompl yi ng
19
and ski l ful
i n evadi ng the dangers to whi ch they were exposed.
20
25
30
35
40
COMPREHENSION
1 Does the narrator feel that the persecuti on of the
J ews was justi fi abl e? Refer to the text.
2 Whi ch four 'races' were uni ted in thei r persecuti on
of the J ews? How was the persecuti on of the J ews by
the Norman king and nobl es di fferent from
persecuti on carri ed out by other groups?
3 What torture was inflicted on a weal thy J ew hel d
capti ve by King J ohn, accordi ng to a wel l -known story?
4 Why were the J ews often subjected to extorti on?
5 What gave the J ews courage? Why did they remai n
in Engl and?
6 What was the J ew's Exchequer?
7 What i mportant commerci al i nventi on was made
by the J ews?
8 Al though they were often the vi cti ms of
di scri mi nati on and persecuti on, the J ews were al so
influential and, to some extent, protected. Explain thi s
statement, referring to the text.
ANALYSIS
1 The tabl e divides the text i nto three major poi nts. Find materi al in the text whi ch exempl i fi es each poi nt.
1 Exampl es of persecuti on of the J ews Their persons and property were exposed to every turn of popular fury...
2 Reasons why J ews remai ned in Britain
3 A posi ti ve and a negati ve consequence
of J ewish weal th
2 Do the following words, whi ch are used to descri be
the jews, have positive (P), negati ve (N), or neutral
(NT) connotati ons? Write the appropri ate
abbrevi ati on besi de each word.
I | Devoted O Obsti nacy f H Avarice
I | Suspicious O Timid [ J Obsti nate
i I Uncompl yi ng Q Skilful
3 What effect does telling the story of King J ohn and
the weal thy J ew have on the text?
The gory details make the passage more interesting.
The story helps the reader to understand the
general poi nt Scott is maki ng.
The general i sati ons of the text are supported by the
specific detail of this story.
The tone of the passage is l i ghtened by the
storytel l i ng.
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Fiction is often used to comment on political and social issues. By addressing a subject
in a fictional text, the writer can enhance its interest and force. Because he chooses a
non-journalistic approach, the writer is not obliged to base his writing exclusively on
facts. He can add el ements such as anecdotes or personal experi ences and may
generally distort reality to serve his purpose.
In the passage you have read Walter Scott explains how the J ewish communi ty lived in
Medieval England.
- Is his writing based purely on fact or does it also include other el ements?
- Is Scott fully sympatheti c to the plight of the J ews?
- Are there el ements of humour in the text?
- Is Scott's style pedanti c or does he use a lighter touch? Would you consi der his approach to
be subjecti ve or objecti ve? justify your answer.
- Is Scott's main aim to inform the reader, to entertai n the reader, or a mi xture of both?
Can you think of any work of fiction you have read or film that you have seen that had a
social or political message? Why do you think a writer would choose fiction and not
straightforward journalism to make a political or social statement? Are there any ways in
whi ch it mi ght be more effecti ve? Woul d the two forms of writing reach the same kind of
publ i c?
In groups, make a list of ethni c, national or social groups whi ch are discriminated agai nst in today's world. Choose
one of the groups and make a list of adjecti ves that are commonl y associ ated with those peopl e. Write a brief
account of why you think they are the victims of discrimination.
4 Consi der Scott's style. Find exampl es of multiple
verbs or adjecti ves.
What effect does the techni que of making lists of
adjecti ves or verbs have on Scott's wri ti ng?
It is easier to understand what he is trying to say.
If he used only one or two words, the writing
woul d not be as effective.
Comment on
political and
sociaHssues
The Tournament
I
Ivanhoe, incognito, challenges the Norma
knight Sir Brian de Bois-Guilbert at the
tournament at Ashby. The Norman knigh
enters battle with mixed emotions because he
knows that if he wins, Rebecca, the woman he
loves, will die, but if he loses, he will no longer
be regarded as the greatest Knight Templar.
horse, was soon on
foot, hastening to
mend his fortune with
his sword...'
- GLOSSARY
1. .Visor: protection for
theeyes
2. ashy: likeashes
3. flushed: coloured
4. thrice: three times
5. Faites ... chevaliers:
Do your duty,
knights!
6. gageof battle: battle
prize
7. Laisser aller: Let go
8. in full career: at full speed
9. This issue ... foreseen:
everybody knew this was
goingto happen
10. reeled: turned violently
11. stirrups: metal loops
attached to asaddlewherea
rider puts his foot for
support
But I v anhoe was al r eady at hi s
post, and had cl osed hi s vi sor
1
, and
assumed hi s l ance. Boi s- Gui l ber t di d
the same; and hi s esqui r e r emar ked,
as he cl asped hi s vi sor, that hi s f ace,
w hi ch had, not w i t hst and i ng t he
vari ety of emoti ons by whi ch he had
been agi tated, conti nued dur i ng the
whol e mor ni ng of an ashy
2
pal eness,
was now beco mi n g v er y mu ch
f l ushed
3
.
T he her al d t hen, seei ng each
champ i on i n hi s pl ace, upl i f ted hi s
voi ce, r epeati ng t hr i ce
4
- Faites vos
devoirs, preux chevaliers
5
/ A f ter t he
thi r d cry, he wi thdr ew to one si de of
the l i sts, and agai n pr ocl ai med that
none, on per i l of i nst ant deat h,
shoul d dare by word, cry or acti on to
i nterf ere wi th or di sturb the fai r fi el d
of combat . T he Gr and Master , w ho
hel d i n hi s hand the gage of battl e
6
, Rebecca's gl ove, now thr ew i t i nto the
l i sts, and pr onounced the fatal words, Laisser aller
7
.
T he t r umpet s sounded, and t he k ni ght s char ged each ot her i n f ul l
car eer
8
. T he wear i ed hor se of I vanhoe, and i ts no l ess exhaust ed ri der,
went down, as al l had expected, bef or e the wel l - ai med l ance and vi gorous
steed of t he T empl ar . T hi s i ssue of t he combat al l had f or eseen
9
; but
al though the spear of I vanhoe di d but, i n compar i son, touch the shi el d of
Boi s- Gui l ber t, that champi on, to the ast oni shment of al l who behel d i t,
reel ed
10
i n hi s saddl e, l ost hi s sti rrups
11
, and fel l i n the l i sts.
I vanhoe, extr i cati ng hi msel f f r om hi s f al l en hor se, was soon on f oot,
hasteni ng to mend hi s f or tune wi th hi s sword; but hi s antagoni st ar ose
i s
not. Wi l f r ed
12
, pl aci ng hi s f oot on hi s breast, and the sword's poi nt to hi s
thr oat, commanded hi m to yi el d
13
hi m, or di e on the spot. Boi s- Gui l ber t
r etur ned no answer. 35
' Sl ay
14
h i m not , Si r K ni ght , ' cr i ed t he Gr and M aster , ' unshr i v en
15
,
unabsol ved; ki l l not body and soul ! We allow him vanquished
16
.'
H e descended i nt o t he l i sts, and co mman d ed t hem to u n h el m t he
conquer ed champi on. Hi s eyes were cl osed; the dark red fl ush was sti l l on
hi s br ow
17
. As they l ooked on hi m i n astoni shment, the eyes opened; but
4 0
they were f i xed and gl azed. T he f l ush passed f r om hi s brow, and gave way
to t he pal l i d hue
18
of death. U nscat hed
19
by the l ance of hi s enemy, he
had di ed a vi cti m to the vi ol ence of hi s own contendi ng passi ons.
'Thi s i ndeed i s the j udgement of God, ' sai d the Gr and Master, l ooki ng
upwards - 'Fiat voluntas tua
20
'.
45
12. Wilfred: Ivanhoe.
Ivanhoe's full nameis
Wilfred of Ivanhoe
13. yield: surrender
14. Slay: kill
15. unshriven: before
hehas confessed his
sins
16. Weallow him
vanquished: weclaim
victory over him
17. brow: forehead
18. hue: colour
19. Unscathed:
untouched, not
injured
20.Fiat voluntas tua: let
your will bedone
COMPREHENSION
1 Put the fol l owi ng seri es of events in the correct
order:
I | I vanhoe poi nted his sword at Bois-Guilbert's throat.
I I The Grand Master said, 'Fiat vol untas tua'.
J Boi s-Gui l bert di ed.
1 I The kni ghts cl osed thei r visors.
Both kni ghts fell to the ground.
The Grand Master threw Rebecca's gl ove i nto the
lists.
2 What col our had Boi s-Gui l bert's face been all
morni ng?
3 What woul d happen to anyone who di sturbed the
combat?
4 What did the Grand Master throw i nto the lists?
5 Whi ch of the two combatants was exhausted?
Whi ch of the two kni ghts struck the better bl ow?
6 Why were the spectators astoni shed when Bois-
Gui l bert fell from his horse? Whi ch of the two kni ghts
recovered more qui ckl y from thei r fall?
7 Who asked I vanhoe not to kill Boi s-Gui l bert?
8 What was the cause of Boi s-Gui l bert's death?
ANALYSIS
1 Ivanhoe is set in the Mi ddl e Ages. In this passage
Wal ter Scott refers to a number of representati ve
fi gures from that historical peri od.
a. Find the line reference to each of them and try to
expl ai n what they did in your own words.
- the esqui re: line
- the heral d: line
- the Grand Master: line
b. What effect does the inclusion of these fi gures have
on Scott's work?
It makes it more authenti c.
It makes it difficult for the readers to understand.
It hel ps to recreate the atmosphere of the peri od.
It gi ves the reader an i nteresti ng i nsi ght i nto
medi eval life.
2 Underl i ne the words and expressi ons that refer to
the col our of Boi s-Gui l bert's face. What do you thi nk
the changes in col our represent?
Scott's descri pti on of the battl e between the two heroes is al most ci nematogr aphi c in its attenti on to detai l .
Can you thi nk of any great 'fi ght scenes' from films that you have seen?
HVMHHH| H| | Family background Sir
Wal ter Scott was bor n i n
Edi nburgh on 15th August, 1771. When he was onl y two years ol d
he got pol i o, whi ch l eft hi m l ame f or the rest of hi s l i fe. To
conval esce, he stayed wi th hi s grandparents i n the Scotti sh Border
country, where he read wi del y about Scotti sh hi story and tradi ti on.
^H Features Scott was a bor n storytel l er. I n hi s novel s he pl aced
M M M B a i i B i i i ^^^^^^B vi vi d characters i n vi ol ent, dr amati c hi stori cal setti ngs. Ivanhoe
(1820), for exampl e, is set agai nst the conf l i ct between N or mans and Saxons i n Engl and. Scott is al so
wi del y regarded as a master of di al ogue. He coul d capture the regi onal speech of hi ghl and peasants
wi th the same ease as he coul d r epr oduce the sophi sti cated, pol i shed el oquence of kni ghts and
ari stocrats.
Scott arranged hi s pl ots and characters so the reader enters i nto the l i ves of both great and ordi nary
peopl e. He bel i eved that every human was basi cal l y decent regardl ess of cl ass, rel i gi on, pol i ti cs or
ancestry, and was the fi rst novel i st to portray peasant characters sympatheti cal l y and real i sti cal l y
and to recogni se the i mpor tant rol e they had i n hi story. I n Ivanhoe, for exampl e, there are many
f amous hi stor i cal fi gures l i ke Ri char d the L i onhear t and Robi n H ood but the her o of the novel ,
I vanhoe, is an ordi nary kni ght, no di fferent f rom thousands of others.
Tol er ance is a maj or t heme i n Scott's hi stor i cal works. Hi s her oes represent the 'mi ddl e cour se'
between extremes. I vanhoe is an exampl e of a hero who is both tol erant and fearl ess i n hi s pursui t of
justi ce. He remai ns l oyal to Ri chard, the l egi ti mate ki ng of Engl and, he respects Robi n Hood because
he gi ves to the poor, and he ri sks hi s own l i fe to save Rebecca's. Scott was al so very open- mi nded i n
rel ati on to the recent hi story of Scotl and. On the one hand, he recogni sed that hi s country's uni on
wi th Engl and woul d bri ng commer ci al progress and moder ni sati on, but on the other he mour ned
Ballads and poems Wh en he r etur ned to Edi nbur gh, he
became a l awyer, but hi s real l ove was wr i ti ng. He col l ected
Scotti sh stori es and bal l ads i n Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border
( 1802- 1803) bef ore dedi cati ng hi msel f to poetry. The Lay of the
Last Minstrel (1805) and The Lady of the Lake (1810) are two of hi s
most popul ar poems.
The Waver l ey N ovel s He is best remembered, however, as the fi rst great wri ter of hi stori cal novel s
i n the Engl i sh l anguage. Hi s fi rst novel Waverley, whi ch deal s wi th the Scotti sh rebel l i on of 1745,
appeared anonymousl y i n 1814 and was i mmedi atel y successful . The novel s whi ch f ol l owed were
publ i shed by 'the author of Waverley' and so were cal l ed the Waverley Novels.
Financial ruin Scott was ver y popul ar among hi s contempor ar i es. Hi s novel s r eached wi de
audi ences i n Bri tai n and abroad, and he was accl ai med as one of the l eadi ng European wri ters of hi s
day. I n r ecogni ti on of hi s work, he was made a bar onet i n 1820. At the hei ght of hi s career, the
bankr uptcy of hi s busi ness associ ates br ought hi s own f i nanci al rui n. Scott ref used al l of f ers of
assi stance and spent the rest of hi s l i fe wri ti ng to pay off an enor mous debt. He di ed on September
21st, 1832.
i A ML
Writers' Gallery - Sir Walter Scott 87
the l oss of Scotl and' s I ndependence
and the decl i ne of i ts nati onal i denti -
ty and tr adi ti ons. Thi s i s one of the
maj or themes of the Waverley Novels
whi ch i ncl uded Waverley (1814), Guy
Mannering, ( 1815) , The Antiquary
(1816), and Rob Roy (1817).
TASK
Use these headi ngs to prepare a short report on Walter Scott's life and works.
- chi l dhood
- a career in law, literature and business
- Waverley and the birth of the historical novel
- di al ogue
great and ordinary peopl e
literary accl ai m and financial ruin
Romanti c el ements in his work
i nfl uence on other writers
? vw - mmm* a mm
Reputation Scott cr eated a new
l i ter ar y f or m, the hi stor i cal novel ,
whi ch is sti l l popul ar to thi s day. He
tol d the stori es of f i cti onal characters
and real peopl e agai nst aut hent i c
hi stori cal backgrounds. Hi s i nterest i n
the past, hi s concer n for the common man, hi s use of r egi onal speech and hi s descr i pti ons of
beauti ful natural setti ng pl aced hi m fi rml y i n the r omanti c tradi ti on. Hi s i nf l uence on novel i sts such
as George El i ot, the Brontes, J ames Feni more Cooper and Al essandro Manzoni was prof ound.
Frankenstein
by Mary Shelley
Al ong wi th Dracul a, Frankenstei n has become a fi gure of terror and horror for generati ons of readers and ci nema
goers. But what is a monster? The di cti onary defi nes a 'monster' as:
a. an i magi nary beast, usually made up of vari ous ani mal or human parts;
b. a person, ani mal or pl ant wi th marked deformi ty;
c. a cruel , wi cked or deformed person.
Try to create your own pen pi cture of a monster using the headi ngs bel ow, and then see if the creature you have
i magi ned is in any way like the creature descri bed in the texts.
My Frankenstein
Sex: Mal e Femal e Other
Physical appearance
Way of tal ki ng
Way of wal ki ng
Di et
Reacti on to the outsi de worl d (the city, the countrysi de, etc.)
Reacti on to peopl e
CHARACTERS
Victor
Frankenstein, a
scientist
The monster,
although heis not
given anamein the
novel hehas come
tobeknown as
Frankenstein
Visual Link E4
THE STORY
Victor Frankenstein is born and grows up in Geneva before going to university in Ingolstadt.
A brilliant student, hesoon dedicates all his efforts tofinding thesecret of life ( Text E27).
After many years of work in his laboratory, thecreaturehehas been working on comes to life,
but Victor is horrified when hesees how grotesque it is ( Text E28).
The monster escapes and lives alone and isolated in a forest for many years. A small family
livein a cottage nearby. Hewatches themsecretly as they go about their daily business and
gradually grows fond of them. From listening to them he eventually understands what they
are saying.
Oneday hefinds a book written by Victor Frankenstein and realises how hehas been created.
Heloses any faith hehas ever had in humanity and sets out toget revengeon his creator.
Meanwhile, Victor lives in constant fear that the monster will return. When he hears that
his brother has been killed and a family friend is unjustly hanged for the murder, he
realises that the monster is responsible. While walking in the Alps near Chamonix, he
unexpectedly meets his creation, who asks him tomake him a wife so that he will not be so
lonely. At first he agrees, but then he changes his mind when he thinks of the catastrophic
consequences of the couple having children. Consequently, the rampage of destruction
continues and the monster first kills Victor's wife, Elizabeth, on their wedding night, and
then his best friend.
The scientist follows the monster to the Arctic and vows to destroy him, but dies in the
attempt tofind him, whilehis monstrous creation wanders off intotheicy wastes, never to be
seen again.
Frankenstein - Mary Shelley 89
A Sudden Light Broke In Upon Me
Text E27
t r ue . Some mi r acl e mi ght hav e pr oduced i t, yet t he stages of t he
di scover y wer e di sti nct and pr obabl e. A fter days and ni ghts of i ncr edi bl e
l abour and fati gue, I succeeded i n di scoveri ng the cause of gener ati on and
l i fe; nay
14
, mor e, I became mysel f capabl e of bestowi ng
15
ani mati on upon
l i fel ess matter.
to
15
Victor Frankenstein tells us how he carried out research into the structure of the human
body.
One of t he p henomena whi ch had pecul i ar l y attr acted my at t ent i on
was the structure of the human f r ame
1
, and, i ndeed, any ani mal endued
wi t h l i f e. Wh en ce
2
, I of t en asked mysel f , di d t he pr i nci pl e of l i f e
pr oceed
3
? I t was a bol d quest i on, and one w hi ch has ever been
consi der ed as a myst er y; yet wi t h how man y t hi ngs ar e we u p on t he
br i nk of becomi ng acquai nt ed
4
, i f cowar di ce or car el essness di d not
r estr ai n our enqui r i es. I r evol ved these ci r cumstances i n my mi nd, and
d et er mi ned t hencef or t h
5
t o appl y mysel f mor e par t i cul ar l y t o t hose
br anches of natur al phi l osophy whi ch rel ate to physi ol ogy. Unl ess I had
been ani mated by an al most super natur al enthusi asm, my appl i cati on to
thi s study woul d have been i r ksome
6
, and al most i ntol er abl e. To exami ne
t he causes of l i f e, we mu st f i r st hav e r ecour se t o d eat h. I became
acquai nt ed wi th t he sci ence of anat omy: but thi s was not suf f i ci ent; I
must al so obser ve the natur al decay and cor r upti on of the human body.
I n my educati on my f ather had taken t he gr eatest pr ecauti ons that my
mi nd shoul d be i mpr essed wi th no super natur al hor r or s. I do not ever
r emember to have tr embl ed at a tal e of supersti ti on, or to have f eared the
appar i t i on of a spi r i t. Dar k ness had no ef f ect u p on my f ancy; and a
chur chyar d was to me mer el y t he r eceptacl e of bodi es depr i ved of l i fe,
whi ch, f r om bei ng the seat of beauty and str ength, had become f ood f or
the wor m. N ow I was l ed to exami ne the cause and progress of thi s decay,
and f or ced to spend days and ni ghts i n vaul ts and char nel houses
7
. M y
at t ent i on was f i xed upon ever y obj ect t he most i nsuppor t abl e t o t he
del i cacy of the human f eel i ngs.
I saw how t he f i ne f or m of man was degr aded and wasted; I behel d
8
the cor r upti on of death succeed to the bl oomi ng cheek
9
of l i fe; I saw how
t he wor m i nher i ted the wonder s of eye and br ai n. I paused, exami ni ng
and anal ysi ng al l t he mi nu t i ae of causat i on
10
, as exempl i f i ed i n t he
change f r om l i fe to death, and death to l i fe, unti l f r om the mi dst of thi s
dar k ness a sudden l i ght br ok e i n u p on me - a l i ght so br i l l i ant and
w ond r ou s
1 1
, yet so si mpl e, t hat whi l e I became di z z y
12
wi t h t he
i mmensi t y of t he pr ospect w hi ch i t i l l ustr ated, I was sur pr i sed, t hat
among so many men of geni us who had di rected thei r enqui r i es towar ds
t he same sci ence, t hat I al one shoul d be r eser ved t o di scov er so
astoni shi ng a secret.
Remember , I am not r ecor di ng the vi si on of a madman. T he sun does
not mor e cer tai nl y shi ne i n the heaven, than that whi ch I now af f i r m i s
20
25
30
35
40
GLOSSARY -
1. frame: body
2. Whence: from where
3. proceed: come from
4. upon the brink ...
acquainted: very
closeto getting to
know
thenceforth: from
then on
irksome: unpleasant
charnel houses:
storageplaces for
bodies of dead people
beheld: observed
succeed ... cheek:
destroy aflourishing
life
10. minutiae of
causation: details of a
process of causeand
effect
11. wondrous: wonderful
12. dizzy: feeling
confused
13.The sun ... true: my
words areas trueas
thefact that thesun
is shining in thesky
14. nay: no
15.bestowing: giving
9.
COMPREHENSION
1 What was Victor's attenti on attracted by?
2 What, accordi ng to Victor, had stopped peopl e
from understandi ng the mystery of life?
3 Whi ch areas of study did Victor dedi cate himself to?
4 What made Victor persevere in studies whi ch for
most peopl e would have been 'i rksome and al most
i ntol erabl e'?
5 What chi l dhood experi ence made Victor unafraid
of supernatural horrors?
6 Where did Victor carry out his research?
7 What did Victor witness while carrying out his
research?
8 Did Victor make his discovery wi thout much effort?
9 What did Victor di scover?
ANALYSIS
1 In the first part of the passage Victor descri bes his
great desire for knowl edge and understandi ng.
Underline words and expressi ons (lines 1-1 3) whi ch
relate to areas of study and Victor's curiosity and
desire to know more.
How would you descri be the type of l anguage used
by Victor?
Conversati onal Scientific
Formal Essential
Ornate Other:
2 From line 13 to line 29 Victor explains how he
i nvesti gated the causes of death. Underline all the
words in this secti on that deal with death and the
supernatural.
a. Is Victor's description of his work sanitised or does
it contai n graphi c and disturbing details?
b. What does the fact that Victor was fearless and
tireless in the pursuit of his work suggest about him
as a man?
c. Does he come across as average or extraordi nary?
3 Consi der the following phrases taken from the text:
revolved these circumstances in my mind, and
determined thenceforth...
Unless I had been animated by ...
Now I was led to examine ... and forced to spend
days and nights...
My attention was fixed ...
I was surprised...
a. Are the verbal phrases used by Victor strong or
weak?
b. Whi ch of the following adjecti ves woul d you use to
descri be Victor?
Cold Ambitious
Mad Eccentric
Sel f-confi dent Fanatical
4 From line 29 to line 40 Victor creates expectati ons
about his discovery. Underline the words and
expressi ons that suggest that he has made an
enormous breakthrough.
Do the impressions the reader has formed about
Victor make his extraordi nary achi evement more
credi bl e?
5 What i mage represents the discovery of the secret
of life in lines 29- 30? Is it an original i mage?
Is it effective in this context?
WRITERS WORKSHOP
First-person r
narrative
SSi f p
l i f e
TASKS
WL
OVER TO YOU
T he passage you have read is an exampl e of a fi rst-person narrati ve. T he story is tol d
by the mai n char acter , Vi ctor , who uses t he fi rst per son pr onoun T to descr i be hi s
exper i ence. Readi ng a fi rst-person narrati ve is l i ke l i steni ng to somebody tal ki ng about
themsel ves. I t is of ten mor e i nvol vi ng because the exper i ence is presented as f i rst-hand.
In Frankenstein it is i mportant that the reader finds the fi rst-person narrator, Victor,
convi nci ng because he is goi ng to tell a story whi ch coul d easily be di smi ssed as i ncredi bl e.
1 Find references in the text to Vi ctor's unorthodox upbri ngi ng, his unendi ng thirst for
knowl edge, his passi onate nature and his tireless pursuit of the understandi ng of the mystery
of life.
2 Find exampl es of Vi ctor's attempts to reassure the reader that what he is sayi ng really
happened.
Do you thi nk that Vi ctor's passi onate nature and unconventi onal educati on make hi m more
or less credi bl e as a narrator? J ustify your answer.
Briefly re-wri te (seventy words) the mai n poi nts of the passage in a thi rd-person narrati ve.
Discuss how a di fferent perspecti ve can affect the reader's response.
Have you ever spent 'days and ni ghts of i ncredi bl e l abour and fati gue' pursui ng a personal goal ?
Were you successful and was it worth the effort?
The Accomplishment Of My Toils
After years of work, Victor Frankestein finally sees his creation come to life.
I t was on a dreary
1
ni ght i n N ovember , that I behel d the accompl i shment
of my toi l s
2
. Wi t h an anxi ety that al most amount ed to agony, I col l ected
the i nst r ument s of l i fe ar ound me, that I mi ght i nf use a spark of bei ng
i nt o t he l i f el ess t hi ng t hat l ay at my f eet. I t was al r eady one i n t he
mor ni ng; the r ai n patter ed di smal l y agai nst t he panes
3
, and my candl e
was near l y bur nt out, when, by t he gl i mmer
4
of the hal f - ext i ngui shed
l i ght, I saw the dul l yel l ow eye of the creature open; i t br eathed hard, and
a convul si ve mot i on agi tated i ts l i mbs.
H ow can I descri be my emoti ons at thi s catastr ophe, or how del i neate
the wr etch
5
whom wi th such i nf i ni te pai ns and care I had endeavour ed to
f or m
6
? Hi s l i mbs wer e i n pr opor ti on, and I had sel ected hi s f eatur es as
beauti f ul . Beauti f ul ! - Gr eat God! Hi s yel l ow ski n scar cel y cover ed t he
wor k of muscl es and arteri es beneath; hi s hai r was of a l ustrous bl ack, and
f l owi ng; hi s teeth of pearl y whi teness; but these l uxur i ances onl y f or med a
mor e hor r i d contr ast to hi s water y eyes, that seemed al most of the same
col our as t he dun- whi t e sockets
7
i n whi ch t hey wer e set, hi s shr i vel l ed
compl exi on
8
and strai ght bl ack l i ps.
iText 281
GLOSSARY
1. dreary: dark and
depressing
2. beheld ... toils: saw
theresult of my hard
work
3. pattered ... panes:
struck against the
windows (panes: glass
s
sheets of awindow)
in an incessant and
gloomy way
4. glimmer: very weak
light
5. delineate the
wretch: describe the
10
6.
unfortunate creature
endeavoured to
form: created
through great effort
7. dun-white sockets:
brownish-grey eye
holes
15 8. shrivelled
complexion:
withered, dried out
skin
9. breathless: that
causes oneto stop
breathing
10. lassitude: tiredness
11. shroud: sheet
covering adead body
12. folds of flannel: lines
formed in the
material
13. dew: drops of
perspiration
14. chattered: madea
noise
15.muttered: said in a
low voice
16. grin: smile
17. wrinkled: formed
lines on
18. seemingly to detain
me: apparently as if
to hold meback
T he di f f er ent acci dents of l i fe are
not so changeabl e as t he f eel i ngs of
human nature. I had wor ked har d for
near l y two years, for the sol e pur pose
of i nf usi ng l i f e i nt o an i nani mat e
body. For thi s I had depr i ved mysel f
of r est and heal t h. I had desi r ed i t
wi t h an ar dour t hat f ar exceed ed
mod er at i on: but now t hat I had
f i ni shed, t he beaut y of t he dr eam
vani shed, and br eathl ess
9
hor r or and
di sgust f i l l ed my hear t . U nabl e t o
endur e the aspect of the bei ng I had
created, I r ushed out of the r oom, and
conti nued a l ong ti me tr aver si ng my
bedchamber , unabl e to compose my
mi nd t o sl eep. A t l engt h l assi tude
10
succeeded to the tumul t I had bef or e
endur ed; and I t hr ew mysel f on t he
bed i n my cl othes, endeavour i ng to
seek a f ew moment s of f or getf ul ness.
But i t was i n vai n: I sl ept, i ndeed, but
was di sturbed by the wi l dest dreams. I
thought I saw El i zabeth, i n the bl oom
of heal t h, wal k i ng i n t he str eets of
I ngol stadt. Del i ghted and surpri sed, I
embr aced her, but as I i mpr i nted the
f i r st ki ss on her l i ps, t hey became
l i vi d wi t h t he hue of deat h; her
f eatur es appear ed t o change, and I
thought that I hel d the cor pse of my dead mot her i n my arms; a shr oud
11
envel oped her f or m, and I saw the gr ave- wor ms cr awl i ng i n the f ol ds of
f l annel
12
. I star ted f r om my sl eep wi th hor r or ; a col d dew
13
cover ed my
f or ehead, my teeth chatter ed
14
and every l i mb became convul sed: when,
by the di m of the yel l ow l i ght of t he moon, as i t f or ced i ts way thr ough
the wi ndow shutters, I behel d the wr etch - the mi ser abl e monster whom I
had created. He hel d up the cur tai n of the bed; and hi s eyes, i f eyes they
may be cal l ed, wer e f i xed on me. Hi s j aws opened, and he mut t er ed
15
some i nar ti cul ate sounds, whi l e a gr i n
16
wr i nkl ed
17
hi s cheeks. He mi ght
have spoken, but I di d not hear; one hand was str etched out, seemi ngl y to
detai n me
18
, but I escaped, and r ushed downstai r s. 1 took r ef uge i n t he
cour tyar d bel ongi ng to t he house whi ch I i nhabi ted; wher e I r emai ned
dur i ng t he r est of t he ni ght , wal k i ng up and d own i n t he gr eatest
agi tati on, l i steni ng attenti vel y, cat chi ng and f ear i ng each sound as i f i t
were to announce the appr oach of the demoni acal cor pse to whi ch I had
so mi ser abl y gi ven l i fe.
20
25
30
35
40
45
COMPREHENSION
1 How did Victor feel just before he gave life to the
monster?
2 What were the first movements the monster made
when it was brought to life?
3 How did Victor feel about his creati on?
4 What did Victor do, when he wi tnessed the horror
he had created?
5 What did Victor dream about?
6 What did Victor see when he awoke from his
ni ghtmare?
7 How did Victor spend the rest of the ni ght?
ANALYSIS
1 Find the following in the openi ng paragraph of the
text.
- the ti me of year:
- the ti me of day:
- the weather condi ti ons:
- the quality of the light:
a. What kind of atmosphere does the description of
the setting create? Choose from the fol l owi ng:
Calm Exci tement Expectati on
Terror Security Fear
b. Would you consi der this a typical setti ng for a
horror story?
2 Make a list of the aspects of the monster's
appearance that Victor descri bes as 'beauti ful '.
Make a list of the features he finds particularly repellent.
3 Consi der the first two paragraphs. What is Victor's
mood in the first paragraph? How does it change in
the second paragraph? I dentify the line whi ch signals
the change in mood. Where else in the text does
Victor's mood change suddenl y?
4 Consi der the dream sequence in the third
paragraph. Whi ch expressi ons link the description of
Elizabeth's body to the description of the monster?
What i mage of death links Victor's description of his
work in Text E27 to the description of his mother's
corpse in the dream sequence?
5 In the course of this passage Victor experi ences
various states of mind.
a. Underline all the words and expressi ons that
descri be how he felt.
b. Compare Victor's state of mind in this text with
how he felt in Text E27. What are the main
di fferences? Are there any similarities?
6 Victor attri butes his fear and repulsion to the
hi deous appearance of the monster. Does it seem
logical that at the moment of his greatest discovery
Victor should be preoccupi ed with the physical
aspects of his creati on? Is there any evi dence in the
text to suggest that Victor's anxi ety may also be due
to the fact that he feels he has exceeded some natural
boundary in his work?
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
The setting of a novel refers to:
- the physical locale in which the action takes place;
- the time of day or year;
- the climatic conditions;
- the historical period.
The setting helps the reader, to visualise the action and adds credibility and authenticity
to the story. It may also be used to create atmosphere and to reflect the state of mind of
the characters.
In the text you have just read, the setti ng is Victor's home on a dark rainy November ni ght.
It is one o'cl ock in the morni ng and Victor is working by the hal f-exti ngui shed light of a
candl e.
Does the setti ng help to create expectati on in the reader?
What kind of expectati ons does it create?
Is Victor's emoti onal turmoil more convi nci ng in this setti ng? Do you generally experi ence
hei ghtened anxi ety and fear during daylight hours or at ni ght? How would the i mpact of the
passage differ if the setti ng had been, for exampl e, a warm, sunny day?
Choose one of the following situations and write a fifty-word description of the setti ng. Your
description should include references to the physical location, the ti me of year and day, the
atmospheri c condi ti ons and the quality of the light.
The perfect date The last day of the summer holidays
The funeral of a loved one The day your team won a major trophy
The ni ght before an i mportant exami nati on
Vi ctor Frankenstei n tried to di scover the secrets of human life with di sastrous consequences. In the twenti eth
century scientists di scovered that most of the secrets of human life are to be found in our genes. How manki nd
shoul d use geneti c engi neeri ng and how far we shoul d go in tamperi ng wi th nature are subjects of heated
debate.
Tick the chart bel ow:
1 agree with 1 disagree with 1do not know
1 Human cl oni ng
2 Animal cl oni ng
3 Geneti cal l y-modi fi ed plants
4 Geneti c testing of foetuses to discover mal formati on
or di sease
5 Choosi ng what your child is goi ng to look like
6 Geneti c fingerprinting by the police
7 Geneti c testing of prospective empl oyees by employers
Copy the chart onto the board and write in the results for the whol e class.
Hold a class discussion on all the issues in the chart.
Check if anyone has changed their minds on any issue after the discussion and change the class results
accordi ngl y.
Writers' Gallery - Mary Shelley 95
MARY SHELLEY
(1797-1851)
WRI TERS' GALLERY
Family background M ar y
Shel l ey was bor n i n L ondon
i n 1797 to wel l -known parents. Her father, Wi l l i am Godwi n, was
a r adi cal wr i ter and phi l osopher , whi l e her mother , Mar y
Wol l stonecraft, was a pi oneer of women's l i berati on. From i nfancy,
Mary was surrounded by f amous phi l osophers, wri ters and poets,
i ncl udi ng Wi l l i am Bl ake and Samuel Col eri dge.
Elopement with Shelley At the age of si xteen, Mar y ran away
wi th the twenty-one-year-ol d poet Percy Shel l ey ( pp. E40- 51).
Shel l ey personi f i ed the geni us that she had admi red her enti re
l i f e. H owever , t he poet was al r eady mar r i ed and thei r
r el ati onshi p shocked soci ety. She became a soci al outcast and
even her open- mi nded l i beral f ather coul d not forgi ve her. She
l eft Engl and and went wi th Shel l ey to l i ve on the conti nent.
Writing and personal misfortunes The i dea of wr i ti ng Frankenstein came when Mar y was on
hol i day i n Swi tzerl and i n 1816 wi th Shel l ey and Lord Byron ( p. E32- 39). They were tel l i ng each
ot her ghost stor i es and deci ded that each of t hem woul d wr i te thei r own. I n a hal f - waki ng
ni ghtmar e, Mar y struck on the i dea of a man- made monster , and i mmedi atel y set about wri ti ng
Frankenstein, whi ch she then fi ni shed i n May 1817. She wrote the novel whi l e bei ng over whel med
by a seri es of cal ami ti es i n her l i fe. The worst of these were the sui ci des of her hal f-si ster and Shel l ey's
wi fe. After the sui ci des, Mar y and Shel l ey rel uctantl y marri ed. Publ i c hosti l i ty towards the coupl e
was f i erce. T hey moved to I tal y, but thei r stay ther e was not a happy one. Thr ee of thei r f our
chi l dren di ed. When Mar y was onl y twenty- f our years ol d, her husband dr owned near La Spezi a,
l eavi ng her penni l ess wi th a two-year-ol d son. She returned to Engl and, where she devoted hersel f to
her son's wel fare and educati on and conti nued her career as a professi onal wri ter. She di ed i n 1851.
WORKS
Mary Shel l ey wrote several works - Valperga (1823), a r omance set
i n f our teenth- centur y I tal y and The Last Man (1826), a vi si on of
the end of human ci vi l i sati on, set i n the year 2100 - but she i s best r emember ed as the author of
Frankenstein, or the The Modern Prometheus (1818). I n the novel , events such as the l oss of her mother
at an earl y age and the death of three of her four chi l dren are refl ected i n her i nterest i n the themes of
bi rth and creati on. She dedi cated the novel to her father, whose vi ews on property, soci al justi ce and
educati on are r epr esented. She shar ed Per cy Shel l ey' s i nter est i n sci ence and, i n parti cul ar, i n
chemi stry and evol uti onary theori es. She was i n cl ose contact wi th other maj or poets of the day and
was i nf l uenced by thei r wri ti ng, i n parti cul ar by Col eri dge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner ( Texts E9
and E10), whi ch is al so the tal e of a cri me agai nst nature. Many cri ti cs see the monster as representi ng
Rousseau's nobl e savage ( p. E124). The transf ormati on of Frankenstei n from a gentl e, l ovi ng bei ng
to a murderous monster refl ects many of the contempor ar y bel i efs regardi ng how soci al envi r onment
affects man's behavi our. Mary Shel l ey's work embodi es the spi ri t of the age i n whi ch it was wri tten.
Her ambi val ent atti tude towar ds the monster , bot h l ovi ng and f earf ul , mi r r or s the mi xtur e of
f asci nati on and apprehensi on that i ntel l ectual s of the day fel t towards revol uti on and change after
the events of the French Revol uti on.
m
w l f e f
W'.' g -
a s f
mMmM
JSKKm
m 1
The Tell-Tale Heart
by Edgar Allan Poe
Do you have any of the fol l owi ng irrational fears? Fear of:
flying mi ce/ rats cl owns small spaces
bei ng al one open spaces darkness dogs
cats birds mi rrors cl ocks
denti sts crowds spi ders/ i nsects
Do peopl e ever bother you for illogical reasons? Have you ever met anyone and taken an i nstant dislike to them
for no obvi ous reason?
Text E29
Visual Link E4
GLOSSARY
1. dreadfully: terribly
2. sharpened my
senses: mademy
senses more intense
3. dulled: madeless
intense
4. Hearken: Listen
5. haunted: persecuted
6. vulture: largebird
which feeds on dead
animals
rid: free
fancy me: think I am
foresight: ability to
imaginewhat will
happen
10. latch: short metal bar
used to block adoor
11. thrust in: pushed in
12.cunningly: astutely
13. hinges: metal parts
that join adoor to
the frame
14. creaked: madea
noise
7.
9.
The Eye
15
TRUE! - ner vous - very, very dreadf ul l y
1
ner vous I had been and am; but
why wi l l you say that I am mad? T he di sease had shar pened my senses
2
-
not destr oyed - not dul l ed
3
t hem. A bove al l was t he sense of hear i ng
acute. I hear d al l t hi ngs i n t he heaven and i n t he ear th. I hear d many
thi ngs i n hel l . How, then, am I mad? H ear ken
4
! and observe how heal thi l y
- how cal ml y I can tel l you the whol e story.
I t i s i mpossi bl e to say how fi rst t he i dea enter ed my br ai n; but once
concei ved, i t haunted
5
me day and ni ght. Obj ect there was none. Passi on
ther e was none. I l oved the ol d man. He had never wr onged me. He had
never gi ven me i nsul t. For hi s gol d I had no desi re. I thi nk i t was hi s eye! i o
yes, i t was thi s! He had the eye of a vul tur e
6
- a pal e bl ue eye, wi th a f i l m
over i t. Whenever i t fel l upon me, my bl ood r an col d; and so by degrees -
ver y gr adual l y - I made up my mi nd to take the l i fe of the ol d man, and
thus ri d
7
mysel f of the eye forever.
N ow thi s i s the poi nt. You f ancy me
8
mad. M admen know nothi ng. But
you shoul d have seen me. You shoul d have seen how wi sel y I pr oceeded -
wi th what cauti on - wi th what f oresi ght
9
- wi th what di ssi mul ati on I went
to wor k! I was never ki nder to the ol d man t han dur i ng t he whol e week
bef or e I ki l l ed hi m. A nd every ni ght, about mi dni ght, I tur ned the l atch
10
of hi s door and opened i t - oh so gentl y! A nd then, when I had made an
openi ng suf f i ci ent for my head, I put i n a dark l anter n, al l cl osed, cl osed,
that no l i ght shone out, and t hen I thr ust i n
11
my head. Oh, you woul d
have l aughed to see how cunni ngl y
12
1 thrust i t i n! I moved i t sl owl y - very,
very sl owl y, so that I mi ght not di sturb the ol d man' s sl eep. I t took me an
hour to pl ace my whol e head wi thi n the openi ng so far that I coul d see 25
hi m as he l ay upon hi s bed. Ha! Woul d a mad man have been so wi se as
thi s, A nd then, when my head was wel l i n the r oom, I undi d the l anter n
cauti ousl y - oh, so cauti ousl y - cauti ousl y (for the hi nges
13
cr eaked
14
) - I
undi d i t just so much that a si ngl e thi n ray fel l upon the vul ture eye. A nd
thi s I di d for seven l ong ni ghts - every ni ght just at mi dni ght - but I f ound 30
20
The Tell-TaleHeart - Edgar Allan Poe 97 O H M
so
the eye always closed; and so it was impossible to do the work; for it was
not the old man who vexed
15
me, but his Evil Eye. And every morni ng,
when the day broke, I went bol dl y i nto the chamber, and spoke
courageously to him, calling him by name in a hearty
16
tone, and inquiring
how he has passed the ni ght. So you see he woul d have been a very 35
profound old man, indeed, to suspect that every night, just at twelve, I
looked in upon him while he slept.
Upon the eighth night I was more than usually cautious in opening
the door. A watch's mi nute hand moves more qui ckl y than did mi ne.
Never before that night had I felt the extent of my own powers - of my 40
sagacity. I could scarcely contai n my feelings of triumph. To thi nk that
there I was, opening the door, little by little, and he not even to dream of
my secret deeds
17
or thoughts. I fairly chuckled
18
at the idea; and perhaps
he heard me; for he moved on the bed suddenly, as if startled
19
. Now you
may think that I drew back - but no. His room was as black as pitch with 45
the thick darkness, (for the shutters were close fastened, through fear of
robbers), and so I knew that he could not see the opening of the door, and
1 kept pushing it on steadily
20
, steadily.
I had my head in, and was about to open the lantern, when my thumb
slipped upon the tin fastening
21
, and the old man sprang up in bed, crying
out - 'Who's there?' I kept quite still and said nothing. For a whole hour I
did not move a muscle, and in the meantime I did not hear him lie down.
He was still sitting up in the bed listening; - just as I have done, night after
night, hearkening to the death watches in the wall.
Presentl y
22
I heard a slight groan
23
, and I knew it was the groan of
mortal terror. It was not a groan of pain or of grief - oh, no! - it was the
l ow sti fl ed
24
soundJ hat arises from the bottom of the soul when
overcharged with awe
25
. I knew the sound well. Many a ni ght, just at
mi dni ght, when alt The worl d sl ept, it has wel l ed up from my own
bosom
26
, deepening, with its dreadful echo, the terrors that distracted
me. I say I knew it well. I knew what the old man felt, and pitied hi m,
although I chuckled at heart. I knew that he had been lying awake ever
since the first slight noise, when he had turned in the bed. His fears had
been ever since growing upon hi m. He had been trying to fancy them
causeless
27
, but could not. He had been saying to himself - 'It is nothi ng 65
but the wind in the chimney - it is only a mouse crossing the floor, or 'It
is merely a cricket which has made a single chirp.' Yes, he had been trying
to comfort himself with these suppositions: but he had found all in vain.
All in vain; because Death, in approaching hi m, had stalked
28
with his
bl ack shadow before hi m, and envel oped the vi cti m. And it was the 70
mournful influence of the unperceived shadow that caused him to feel -
al though he nei ther saw nor heard - to feel the presence of my head
within the room.
When I had waited a long time, very patiently, without hearing him lie
down, I resol ved to open a l i ttl e - a very, very l i ttl e crevi ce
29
i n the 75
lantern. So I opened it - you cannot imagine how stealthily
30
, stealthily -
55
60
The Sleep of Reas on
produces Mons ters by
Francisco Goya (1797).
15. vexed: disturbed
16. hearty: friendly and
sincere
17. deeds: actions
18. fairly chuckled:
laughed to myself
19.startled: frightened
20. steadily: constantly
21. tin fastening: metal
bar
22. Presently: then
23. slight groan: soft cry
24. stifled: suffocated
25. awe: terror
26. welled up ... bosom:
built up inside me
27. fancy them
causeless: think there
was no logical reason
for them
28. stalked: walked
slowly likeahunter
29. crevice: opening
30. stealthily: slowly and
secretly
i 9jJ THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction
unti l , at l ength
31
a simple di m
32
ray, like the thread of the spider, shot
from out the crevice and fell full upon the vulture eye.
It was open - wide, wide open - and I grew furious as I gazed upon
33
it.
I saw it with perfect distinctness - all a dull blue, with a hideous
34
veil over 80
it that chi l l ed
35
the very marrow
36
in my bones; but I could see nothi ng
else of the old man's face or person: for I had di rected the ray as if by
instinct, precisely upon the damned spot.
And have I not told you that what you mistake for madness is but over-
acuteness of the sense? - Now, I say, there came to my ears a low, dull, 85
quick sound, such as a watch makes when envel oped in cotton. I knew
that sound well, too. It was the beating of the old man's heart. It increased
my fury, as the beating of a drum stimulates the soldier i nto courage.
But even yet I refrained
37
and kept still. I scarcely breathed. I held the
lantern motionless. I tried how steadily
38
I could mai ntai n the ray upon 90
the eye. Meanti me the hel l i sh tattoo
39
of the heart i ncreased. It grew
quicker and quicker, and louder and louder every instant. The old man's
terror must have been extreme! It grew louder, I say, louder every moment!
- Do you mark
40
me well I have told you that I am nervous: so I am. And
now at the dead hour of the night, amid the dreadful silence of that old 95
house, so strange a noise as this excited me to uncontrol l abl e terror. Yet,
for some mi nutes longer I refrained and stood still. But the beating grew
louder, louder! I thought the heart must burst. And now a new anxi ety
seized
41
me - the sound would be heard by a neighbour!
31.at length: finally
32. dim: not bright
33. gazed upon: looked at
34. hideous: hateful
35. chilled: froze
36. marrow: soft substance
insidebones
37. even yet I refrained:
even then I did not
act
38. steadily: fixedly
39. hellish tattoo: infernal
beating
40. mark: understand
41. seized: captured
COMPREHENSION
1 How had the di sease affected the narrator's sense
of heari ng?
2 Whi ch physical aspect of the old man di sturbed the
narrator?
3 How did the narrator treat the old man duri ng the
week before he killed hi m?
4 What did the narrator do for seven ni ghts in a row?
5 Why was he unabl e to do his 'work'?
6 What caused the ol d man to wake up?
7 When, accordi ng to the narrator, did he hi msel f
groan wi th terror?
8 What did the narrator see in the ray of l i ght from
the l antern?
9 What sound did the narrator fear woul d be heard
by the nei ghbours?
The Tell Tale He
ANALYSIS
1 What kind of narrator tells the story?
2 How woul d you descri be the way the story begi ns?
Dramati c Conventi onal
Startl i ng Confusi ng
Unorthodox Other:
3a. T he narrator repeatedl y rejects the suggesti on that
he is mad. In lines 2- 3 he says that madness dulls
the senses, whi l e his senses are sharp. Find other
statements in whi ch the narrator di ssoci ates
hi msel f from madness and madmen.
b. He al so makes several references to his sagaci tyj n
line 16 he says 'You shoul d have seen how wisely
I proceeded'. Find other sentences in whi ch the
narrator refers to his wi sdom.
c. Is the narrator's cl ai m to be sane and wi se
convi nci ng? Is it supported by his behavi our?
4 Underl i ne sentences in whi ch the narrator:
- addresses the reader di rectl y;
- assumes that he knows what the reader is thi nki ng.
How woul d you defi ne the rel ati onshi p that is
establ i shed between the reader and the narrator?
Di sconcerti ng Tense
Rel axed Friendly
Overpoweri ng Other:
5 The narrator identifies the old man's eye as the
source of his di scomfort.
a. Circle references to the eye in the text. Does he
ever refer to both of the ol d man's eyes? How does
referring to a si ngl e eye rei nforce the associ ati on
wi th a vul ture's eye?
b. What effect does focussi ng on a si ngl e eye have?
It makes the ol d man seem ugly.
It makes the cri me more justi fi abl e.
It dehumani ses the old man.
Other:
The Old Man's Hour Had Come
T he ol d man' s hour had come! Wi th a l oud yel l
1
, I thr ew open the l anter n
and l eaped
2
i nto the r oom. He shr i eked
3
once - once onl y. I n an i nstant I
dr agged
4
hi m to t he f l oor , and pul l ed t he heavy bed over hi m. I t hen
smi l ed gai l y, to f i nd the deed so far done. But, for many mi nutes, the heart
beat on wi th a muf f l ed
5
sound. Thi s, however , di d not vex me; i t woul d
not be hear d thr ough the wal l . At l ength i t ceased. T he ol d man was dead.
I r emov ed t he bed and exami ned t he cor pse. Yes, he was stone, st one
dead. I pl aced my hand upon the hear t and hel d i t ther e many mi nutes.
Ther e was no pul sati on. He was stone dead. Hi s eye woul d tr oubl e me no
mor e.
I f sti l l you thi nk me mad, you wi l l thi nk so no l onger when I descri be
the wi se pr ecauti ons I took for the conceal ment of
6
the body. T he ni ght
waned
7
, and I wor ked hasti l y
8
, but i n si l ence. Fi rst of al l I di smember ed
the corpse. I cut of f the head and the ar ms and the l egs.
I t hen t ook up thr ee pl anks
9
f r om t he f l oor i ng of t he chamber , and
deposi t ed al l bet ween t he scant l i ngs
10
. I t hen r epl aced t he boar ds so
cl everl y, so cunni ngl y, that no hu man eye - not even hi s - coul d have
detected anythi ng wr ong. Ther e was nothi ng to wash out - no stai n of any
ki nd - no bl ood- spot whatever. I had been too war y f or
11
that. A tub
12
had
caught al l - ha! ha!
When I had made an end of these l abors, i t was f our o' cl ock - sti l l dark
as mi dni ght. As the bel l sounded the hour, ther e came a knocki ng at the
street door. I went down to open i t wi th a l i ght heart, - for what had I now
Text E30
10
15
20
GLOSSARY
yell: cry
leaped: jumped
shrieked: screamed
dragged: pulled
muffled: suffocated
the concealment of:
hiding
waned: gradually
disappeared
hastily: in ahurry
planks: wooden
boards
10. scantlings: small
pieces of wood
11. wary for: careful
about
12. tub: largeround
container
Jjg0 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction
13.suspicion ...
aroused: he had
suspected a criminal
action was in progress
14. lodged at: passed to
15.deputed ... premises:
sent to search the
house
to fear? There entered three men, who i ntroduced themsel ves, wi th
perfect suavity, as offi cers of the pol i ce. A shri ek had been heard by a 25
nei ghbour during the ni ght; suspicion of foul play had been aroused
13
;
information had been lodged at
14
the police office, and they (the officers)
had been deputed to search the premises
15
.
I smiled, - for what had I to fear? 1 bade the gentlemen welcome
16
. The
shriek, I said, was my own in a dream. The old man, I menti oned, was 30
absent in the country. I took my visitors all over the house. I bade them
search - search well. I led them, at length, to his chamber. I showed them
his treasures, secure, undisturbed. In the enthusiasm of my confidence, I
brought chairs i nto the room, and desired them here to rest from thei r
fatigues, while I myself, in the wild audacity of my perfect triumph, placed 35
my own seat upon the very spot beneath which reposed the corpse of the
victim.
The offi cers were sati sfi ed. My manner had convi nced them. I was
si ngul arl y at ease
17
. They sat, and whi l e I answered cheeri l y
18
, they
chatted of familiar thi ngs. But, ere
19
long, I felt myself getting pale and 40
wished them gone. My head ached, and I fancied a ri ngi ng
20
in my ears:
but still they sat and still chatted. The ringing became more distinct: - It
conti nued and became more distinct: I talked more freely to get rid of
21
the feeling: but it conti nued and gained definiteness - until, at length, I
found that the noise was not within my ears. 45
No doubt I now grew very pale; - but I talked more fluently, and with a
heightened voice. Yet the sound increased - and what could I do? It was a
low, dull, qui ck sound - much such a sound as a watch makes when
enveloped in cotton. I gasped for breath
22
- and yet the officers heard it
not. I tal ked more qui ckl y - more vehementl y; but the noi se steadi l y 50
increased. I arose and argued about trifles
23
, in a high key and with violent
gesticulations; but the noise steadily increased. Why would they not be
gone? I paced the floor to and fro
24
with heavy strides
25
, as if exci ted to
fury by the observations of the men - but the noise steadily increased. Oh
God! What could I do? I foamed
26
- I raved
27
- I swore
28
! I swung
29
the 55
chair upon whi ch I had been sitting, and grated it upon the boards, but
the noise arose over all and continually increased. It grew louder - louder
- louder! And still the men chatted pleasantly, and smiled. Was it possible
they heard not? Almighty God! - No, no! They heard! - They suspected! -
They knew! - They were maki ng a mockery
30
of my horror! - Thi s I 60
thought, and thi s I thi nk. But anythi ng was better than thi s agony!
16.bade ... welcome: asked 22.gasped for breath: 26.1 foamed: drops of
them to comein breathed with difficulty salivafell from my
17. at ease: comfortable 23. argued about trifles: mouth
18. cheerily: happily talked about unimportant 27.1 raved: I talked wildly
19. ere: before things 28.1 swore: I used bad
20. fancied a ringing: felt a
24
- P
aced t h e floor t o a n d f r o:
language
ringing sound walked up and down 29.1 swung: I turned around
21.get rid of: freemyself of 25. strides: paces 30. mockery: fun
The Tell-TaleHeart - Edgar Allan Poe 379 OHM
A ny t hi ng was mor e t ol er abl e t han t hi s der i si on! I coul d bear t hose
hypocr i ti cal smi l es no l onger ! I fel t that I must scr eam or di e! and now -
agai n! - Hark
31
! L ouder! L ouder! L ouder! L ouder!
'Vi l l ai ns!' I shri eked, ' di ssembl e
32
no mor e! I admi t the deed! - Tear up
the pl anks! Here, here! - I t is the beati ng of hi s hi deous
33
heart!'-
T he End
65
31. Hark: listen
32. dissemble: pretend
33. hideous: hateful
C O M P R E H E N S I O N
1 How did the narrator kill the old man? How did he
di spose of the body?
2 Why did the pol i ce offi cers come to the house?
3 What sound did the narrator hear as he spoke to
the pol i ce? How did he try to bl ock out the sound?
4 Did the narrator bel i eve the pol i ce offi cers coul d
hear the sound as wel l ? Why, in his opi ni on, did they
not react to the sound?
A NA L Y S I S
1 Underl i ne words or phrases in the text whi ch
suggest the narrator's lack of remorse for what he has
done.
2 How woul d you defi ne the narrator's response to
the cri me he has commi tted?
Pride Pl easure
Confusi on Fear
I ndi fference Other:
3 What tone does the narrator use when descri bi ng
the murder and the conceal ment of body?
is Matter of fact Clinical
Passi onate Apol ogeti c
Remorseful Other:
4 Is the narrator's pri mary concern:
to justify his acti ons and win the sympathy of the
reader?
to expl ai n to the reader that he proceeded in a
l ogi cal manner and therefore shoul d not be
consi dered a madman?
5 Tensi on is created in the story through several
techni ques: repetition*, syntax and a crescendo*
effect.
a. Underl i ne exampl es of repeti ti on.
b. Are the sentences in the text primarily:
l ong and fl owi ng?
M short and arhythmi c?
c. Consi der how tensi on is built up through a
crescendo ef f ect. Focus on paragraph 7 and fill in
the tabl e bel ow.
the narrator's behavi our the disturbing sound
1 talked more fluently, and
with a hei ghtened voi ce
1 talked more quickly -
more vehementl y
1 arose and argued about
trifles, in a hi gh key and
with vi ol ent gesti cul ati ons
1paced the fl oor to and
fro wi th heavy strides, as
if exci ted to fury
1 swung the chai r upon
whi ch 1 had been si tti ng,
and grated it upon the
boards
Yet the sound i ncreased -
and what coul d 1do?
d. Whi ch sentence structures are used in the final part
of the story to i ncrease tensi on?
6 Whi ch of the fol l owi ng best descri bes Poe's mai n
i nterest in wri ti ng The Tell-Tale Heart?
The i n-depth analysis of the thwarted rel ati onshi p
between the old man and the narrator.
The haunti ng and di sturbi ng descri pti on of an eeri e
setti ng.
The detai l ed account of what was al most the
perfect murder.
The exposure of the worki ngs of an unstabl e mi nd.
7 By his own definition, Poe's style is based on the
choi ce of 'the curt, the condensed, the poi nted', a style
in whi ch every single word counts towards creati ng
that 'certai n uni que or single effect' around whi ch the
tale revolves. In The Tell-Tale Heart, does Poe dedi cate
his attenti on to traditional el ements of storytelling, i.e.
setting, physical descriptions, characterisation? Does he
succeed in eliminating all that is superfluous to his main
objecti ve in writing this story?
8 The term Gothic* is often used to refer to Poe's
work. The principal aim of Gothi c fiction is to evoke
chilling terror by exploiting mystery, cruelty and
ni ghtmari sh horrors. Can you identify any Gothi c
elements in The Tell-Tale Heart?
WRITERS' WORKSHOP
First-person In a first-person narrative the reader sees events unfold through the eyes of a single
n a r r a t o r character who refers to himself as T'. The reader's vision of the story, or point of view,
is limited to what the first-person narrator hi msel f knows, experiences, infers or can
find out by talking to other characters. The reader cannot see events as they actually
are, but only as they appear to be to the mediating consciousness of the 'I ' narrator.
An author may choose the first-person narrative for very different artistic purposes:
first-person narration may lend authenticity to a fictional work, creating the illusion
that the narrator is relating events that he has personally witnessed or experienced.
The narrator may be presented as likable, perceptive, i ntel l i gent and reliable, and
therefore the reader may be encouraged to accept what he relates and sympathise
with his views;
the reader may be encouraged to question the reliability of the narrator. This occurs
when the narrator's vision of the world or interpretation of events is clearly different
from the reader's. The unreliable narrator may be used to add humour or a satirical
edge to a text ( Swift, p. D58), or the psychological make up of the narrator himself
may be the focus of the writer's attention.
TASK
OVER TO YOU
Analyse the narrative techni que in The Tell-Tale Heart.
a. Is the protagoni st of the story referred to as:
T (first person) or 'He' (third person)?
b. Does he relate events that he has personally experi enced?
c. Is he presented as likable?
d. Is the reader encouraged to sympathi se with his views?
e. Are there unbel i evabl e or unlikely el ements in his storytelling? Is he a reliable narrator?
f. Why did Poe choose the first person narrative techni que?
To lend authenti ci ty to his work.
To add humour and satirical bi te.
To exami ne the psychological make-up of the narrator.
In The Tell-Tale Heart, Edgar Allan Poe expl ores the mind of a psychopathi c murderer.
Al though there is no direct reference to the narrator's state of mi nd in the text, numerous
clues warn the percepti ve reader of the storyteller's mental instability. Discuss with your
cl assmates the el ements in the story that help the reader realise that the narrator is i nsane.
The Tell-TaleHeart - Edgar Allan Poe 381OHM
r'vstrr; %
103
LINK
-[ to the world of music
In 1977 New York-based rock band Talking Heads wrote the song Psycho Killer, in response to a seri es of murders
carri ed out by the serial killer David Berkowi tz (al so known as 'Son of Sam').
Read the lyrics. Underl i ne the sentences in whi ch the psycho killer descri bes his state of mi nd. Does he share any
characteri sti cs wi th Poe's narrator in The Tell-Tale Heart?
What is the source of the psycho killer's frustrati on? Woul d the average person find these 'defects' seri ous or
trivial? Do you find any similarity wi th Poe's narrator's fi xati on on the ol d man's eye?
Psycho Killer
I can't seem to face up to
1
the facts
I 'm tense and nervous and
I can't relax
I can't sleep 'cause my bed's on fire
Don't touch me I 'm a real live wire
2
Psycho Killer
Qu'est-ce que c'est?
3
Fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa far better
Run run run run run run run away (2)
You start a conversation, you can't even finish it.
You're talkin' a lot, but you're not sayin' anything.
When I have nothi ng to say, my lips are sealed
4
.
Say something once, why say it again?
Psycho Killer
Ce que j'ai fait, ce soir la
Ce qu'elle a dit, ce soir la
Realisant mon espoir
J e me lance, vers la gl oi re
5
... OK
We are vain and we are blind
I hate people when they're not polite
Psycho Killer
GLOSSARY
1. faceup to: beableto deal with
2. livewire: wirecharged with
electricity
3. Qu'est-cequec'est?: (French) What is it?
4. sealed: tightly closed
5. Ceque ... gloire: (French) What I did,
that evening, what shesaid, that
evening, seeingmy hopeI throw
myself towards glory
Can you thi nk of any psychopathi c characters in fi l ms you have seen or books you have read? Why are peopl e
fasci nated by these characters, in your opi ni on?
m
WB& ft
EDGAR ALLAN POE
(1809-1849)
WRI TERS' GALLERY
A foster family Edgar
Poe was bor n i n Bost
1809. Whi l e he was still a young chi l d, he l ost both hi s p
hi s father, who was an al cohol i c, abandoned the fami l y a
mother di ed of consumpti on. He was pl aced i n a foster fa
Ri chmond, Vi rgi ni a; he l ater adopted thei r f ami l y name, .
as hi s mi ddl e name. He was, however, never offi ci al l y ad
and hi s l i fe was marked by bi tter confl i cts wi th hi s foster fa
Studies and military career Between the ages of si x and e
Poe spent ti me wi th the Al l ans i n Engl and, where he atten
boardi ng school . When he returned to Ri chmond he com
hi s secondary educati on and entered the Uni versi ty of Vi r
He ran up heavy gambl i ng debts whi ch hi s foster father re
' to pay, so he qui t hi s studi es and travel l ed to Boston to pu
l i ter ar y car eer . I n 1827 he publ i shed hi s f i rst book, Tamerlane and other Poems, whi ch
unnoti ced. Total l y penni l ess, Poe enl i sted i n the Army, wher e hi s good record persuaded hi
pursue a mi l i tary career. I n 1829 he entered the academy of West Poi nt, but after onl y si x mont
deci ded to l eave.
Poverty Li ttl e is known of what happened i n the next few years. He l i ved i n New York for a
of ti me i n extreme poverty, before deci di ng to go and stay wi th an aunt and her daughter, Virj
i n Bal ti more. Ther e he publ i shed a second col l ecti on of poems and made a meagre l i vi ng wri
and sel l i ng tal es to magazi nes. I n 1836 he marri ed hi s cousi n Vi rgi ni a, whose pal e, fragi l e, chi l
beauty is of ten f ound i n the heroi nes of hi s poems. He was twenty-seven, she was thi rteen.
Nervous disorders and alcohol addiction Thi s peri od of rel ati ve stabi l i ty di d not l ast. He began
show si gns of ner vous di sorders and began to dri nk heavi l y. He l ost hi s j ob as edi tor and cri
However, he conti nued wri ti ng. I n 1839 he publ i shed a col l ecti on of short stori es, the Tales of
Grotesque and Arabesque, whi ch brought hi m very l i ttl e f ame or money. His next book of cri me
detecti ve stori es, The Murders in the Rue Morgue (1841), was mor e successful .
Fame Unabl e to fi nd empl oyment, he became a freel ance wri ter, edi tor and cri ti c. Hi s l ong-awai
f ame came wi th the publ i cati on of a poem, The Raven (1845) whi ch, however, di d not produce m
money due to l ack of adequate copyri ght protecti on i n those days. Duri ng the wi nter of 1846- 1
hi s wi fe Vi rgi ni a di ed. Poe began to l ose hi s struggl e wi th dri nki ng, and attempted sui ci de.
Mysterious death I n September 1849 he l eft Ri chmond for Bal ti more, but he never compl eted
j our ney. He went mi ssi ng and, after fi ve days, was f ound unconsci ous outsi de a tavern wea
cl othes whi ch were not hi s own. He was taken to hospi tal where he di ed a few days l ater, aged thf
ni ne, of unknown causes. I n a certai n sense, hi s l onel y death, shrouded i n myster y and sufferi
had i mi tated hi s art.
5
WORKS
Tales of ratiocination Poe is wi del y regarded as the f ather
the moder n detecti ve stor y. M ur der stor i es wer e al r eady
exi st ence at the ti me he wr ote. H owever , he shi f ted t he emphasi s f r om t he acti on to t
i nvesti gati on and sol uti on of the cr i me. He created a detecti ve, Monsi eur Dupi n, who, thr ou
Writers' Gallery - Edgar Allan Poe 105
/> mm- \ ^mmmm - .WMmmm--' mmm^mmmm
i ntui ti on, observati on of detai l , reason and psychol ogi cal anal ysi s coul d sol ve extremel y compl i cated
cases. He cal l ed hi s stori es 'tal es of rati oci nati on'. The Murders in the Rue Morgue (1841) is one of the
fi nest exampl es. I n creati ng thi s genre he paved the way for detecti ve story wri ters l i ke Si r A rthur
Conan Doyl e and A gatha Chri sti e.
Arabesque He al so wrote tal es of terror, whi ch he cal l ed 'arabesques'. Gothi c fi cti on was popul ar at
the ti me and provi ded such basi c el ements as castl es, ani mated portrai ts, physi cal decay, stor my
weather and howl i ng wol ves. His characters are of ten i nvol ved i n a l i fe-threateni ng si tuati on, about
to be executed or to have a fatal acci dent. I n The Premature Burial (1844) he expl ores the terror of a
man who regai ns consci ousness onl y to di scover he has been buri ed al i ve. Other outstandi ng tal es of
terror are The Fall of the House of Usher (1839), The Black Cat (1843) and The Pit and the Pendulum
(1843), i n whi ch Poe uses hi s great tal ent to make i magi ned horror become total l y physi cal .
Psychological thrillers Poe was al so a master of the psychol ogi cal thri l l er. M any of hi s characters
show symptoms of paranoi a and have to deal wi th obsessi ons, ni ghtmar es and nervous di sorders.
Hi s anal ysi s i n William Wilson is an i ntri gui ng expl or ati on of a spl i t personal i ty l ong before Freud
studi ed the subject.
Poetry He was al so an i nfl uenti al poet and l i terary cri ti c. I n hi s works of l i terary theory he outl i ned
a seri es of pri nci pl es and techni ques whi ch he bel i eved had to be appl i ed i n the wri ti ng of poetry. He
bel i eved that poetry shoul d be devoi d of any message or moral teachi ng, i ts onl y purpose bei ng to
gi ve pl easure. He i denti fi ed the need for a 'condensed' styl e, and pai d parti cul ar attenti on to i magery
and sound. He al so underl i ned the i mpor tance of the musi cal el ements i n poetry when he defi ned i t
as 'the r hythmi c creati on of beauty'. The best exampl es of thi s appr oach are The Raven (1845) and
Annabel Lee (1849), a poem dedi cated to hi s wi fe and i nspi red by one of hi s favouri te themes, the
death of a beauti ful woman. His poetry and l i terary theor y paved the way for symbol i st poetry and
i nspi red such French poets as Ri mbaud and Baudel ai re.
Reputation Poe's r eputati on i n A mer i ca duri ng hi s l i f eti me was under mi ned by accusati ons of
paedophi l i a, sadi sm, al cohol i sm and drug addi cti on. I t was the French poet Baudel ai re, through hi s
excel l ent transl ati ons, who encouraged appreci ati on of hi s work i n Europe. Si nce that ti me, Poe has
been gi ven bot h the publ i c and cr i ti cal r ecogni ti on he deser ves. Wr i ter s such as Oscar Wi l de
( Modul e F) and W.B. Yeats ( Modul e G) have i denti fi ed hi m as an i mpor tant i nfl uence, hi s work
has been i nter pr eted by the composer s Rachni ani nov and Debussy, and several f i l ms have been
based on hi s stori es. Hi s work conti nues to i nspi re arti sts i n every fi el d of expressi on.
TASK
What events in Edgar Allan Poe's life most affected him as a writer?
How did he contri bute to the devel opment of a new literary genre?

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passage through it, I the less resisted

E Humid Seal of Soft Affections

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