Εισαγωγη Στη Θεωρια Ανισοτητων

Diapanepisthmiak - Diatmhmatik Prgramma
Metaptuqiakn Spoudn
{Didaktik kai Mejodologa twn Majhmatikn}
Eisagwg sthn
Jewra twn Anisottwn
Kwnstantnoc Giannakc
Ajna, 2007
iii
H parosa Diplwmatik Ergasa ekponjhke sta plasia twn spoudn gia

thn apkthsh tou Metaptuqiako Diplmatoc Eidkeushc pou aponmei to Diapanepisthmiak - Diatmhmatik Prgramma Meptaptuqiakn Spoudn {Didaktik
kai Mejodologa twn Majhmatikn}.
Egkrjhke thn 30n Aprilou 2007 ap Exetastik Epitrop apotelomenh ap touc: Apstolo Giannpoulo (epiblponta), Jeodsio Zaqaridh kai Niklao
Klaoudto.
Perieqmena
Eisagwg
I
vii
Oi jemelideic anisthtec
1 H anisthta tou
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
Cauchy
3
H anisthta Cauchy 3
Epagwgik apdeixh 3
Ap to poiotik sto posotik sumprasma
H axa thc genkeushc 8
H tautthta tou Lagrange 10
H sntomh apdeixh 13
2 H deterh anisthta tou

2.1
2.2
Cauchy
17
H anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou 17
H genik anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou
3 Kurtthta
3.1
3.2
3.3
20
25
H anisthta tou Jensen 25

H qrsh thc kurtthtac se kpoia tupik problmata
Beltinontac thn anisthta tou Jensen 30
29
4 H anisthta tou
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
II
H
older
33
Istorik sqlia 34
Apdeixh thc anisthtac tou Holder 35
Antstrofh thc anisthtac tou H
older 37
Upoprosjetikthta kai hmigrammikopohsh 40
'Ena apotlesma eustjeiac gia thn anisthta tou H
older
Parembol 42
Eidik jmata
5 H anisthta tou
5.1
5.2
45
Carleman
Eisagwg 47
H apdeixh tou Carleman 48
47
41
vi Perieqomena
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
H apdeixh tou P
olya 49
H apdeixh tou Knopp 55
H apdeixh tou Redheffer 56
To suneqc anlogo thc anisthtac tou Carleman
6 Ajrosmata tetragnwn poluwnmwn

6.1
6.2
6.3
H eikasa tou Minkowski 61

H perptwsh thc miac metablhtc
Perissterec metablhtc 64
7 Sunpeiec thc ditaxhc

7.1
7.2
7.3
61
62
67
Antistrof thc anisthtac Cauchy 67

Monotona kai mia {anisthta ditaxhc} tou Chebyshev
Mia anisthta anaditaxhc 70
8 Summetrik ajrosmata
8.1
8.2
57
73
Oi klasikc anisthtec twn Newton kai Maclaurin

H anisthta tou Muirhead 78
73
69
Eisagwg
Oi anisthtec pazoun kentrik rlo sta Majhmatik, idiatera sthn Anlush.
Afethra autc thc ergasac enai h pepojhs mac ti, pra ap th jemelidh
shmasa twn anisottwn kai tic shmantikc efarmogc touc, h enasqlhsh me
autc prosfrei idiaterh euqarsthsh: h diadikasa thc eplushc problhmtwn
enai jemelidhc anjrpinh drasthrithta, mia drasthrithta gemth sugkinseic, dhmiourgikthta kai agph gia th zw.
Ta teleutaa qrnia, oi majhmatikc anisthtec enai paragkwnismnec, ja
lege kanec ti apousizoun ap ta sqolik majhmatik drmena. Pisteoume
ti h tsh aut prpei kai mpore na anatrape. 'Ena keflaio afierwmno stic
jemelideic anisthtec, me thn katllhlh parousash kai me thn prosjkh miac
sullogc problhmtwn, ja mporose na apotelsei th bsh gia na sqolik {seminrio problhmtwn} to opoo ja prosfere poll stouc majhtc pou agapon
ta Majhmatik. Me thn ergasa aut elpzoume na prosfroume kpoiec idec
gia thn pragmatopohsh autc thc idac.
H ergasa qtzetai grw ap thn istora kai tic poiklec apodexeic jemeliwdn anisottwn. Baszetai sto klasik biblo twn Hardy LittlewoodPolya
kai sto exairetik prsfato biblo tou Steele.
Sto prto mroc thc ergasac meletme analutik tic tsseric jemelideic anisthtec: thn anisthta Cauchy-Schwarz, thn anisthta arijmhtiko
gewmetriko msou, thn anisthta tou Jensen kai thn anisthta tou H
older:
Sto prto Keflaio meletme thn anisthta CauchySchwarz: an a1 , . . . , an
kai b1 , . . . , bn enai do n dec pragmatikn arijmn, tte
q
q
|a1 b1 + a2 b2 + + an bn | a21 + a22 + + a2n b21 + b22 + + b2n .
H klasik aut anisthta mac dnei thn eukaira na suzhtsoume kpoiec sugkekrimnec genikc arqc teqnikc pnw stic opoec oikodometai h {jewra
twn anisottwn}. Perigrfoume tsseric apodexeic thc anisthtac: (a) apdeixh me th mjodo thc majhmatikc epagwgc, (b) apdeixh msw thc prosjetikc
anisthtac
n
n
1X 2 1X 2
|a1 b1 + + an bn |
ai +
b ,
2 i=1
2 i=1 i
h opoa odhge sthn anisthta Cauchy an ekmetalleutome swst thn paratrhsh ti h teleutaa enai omogenc, (g) apdeixh msw thc tautthtac tou
viii Perieqomena
Lagrange
n
X
!2
ai bi
i=1
n
X
a2i
i=1
n
X
b2i
i=1
1 XX
(ai bj aj bi )2 .
2 i=1 j=1
(d) apdeixh me to {tqnasma} tou triwnmou: h pol komy kai sntomh aut
apdeixh ofeletai ston Schwarz, o opooc qreisthke to suneqc anlogo thc
anisthtac Cauchy kai thn plrh dierenhsh twn periptsewn isthtac se aut.
Sto detero Keflaio meletme th {deterh anisthta} tou Cauchy, thn
anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou: gia kje akolouja mh arnhtikn
pragmatikn arijmn a1 , a2 , . . . , an isqei h anisthta
(a1 a2 an )1/n
a1 + a2 + + an
.
n
Perigrfoume to epiqerhma tou Cauchy me epagwg {proc ta emprc kai proc

ta psw}: h zhtomenh anisthta apodeiknetai prta gia kje n = 2k kai aut
pou mnei enai na brome kpoion trpo gia na gemsoume ta ken metax twn dunmewn tou 2. H ida tou Cauchy enai, gia dojesa akolouja a1 , a2 , . . . , an , na
thn epektenei se mia makrterh akolouja 1 , 2 , . . . , 2k , pou 2k > n, kai na
efarmsei se autn thn dh apodedeigmnh anisthta. Perigrfoume mia deterh
apdeixh thc anisthtac me thn klasik majhmatik epagwg. Parllhla, diereunome tic periptseic isthtac. Dnoume epshc thn apdeixh thc {genkeushc
thc anisthtac arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou}: An p1 , p2 , . . . , pn enai mh arnhtiko pragmatiko arijmo me jroisma 1 kai an a1 , a2 , . . . , an enai mh arnhtiko
pragmatiko arijmo, tte
ap11 ap22 apnn p1 a1 + p2 a2 + + pn an .

Sthn perptwsh twn rhtn ekjetn, h anisthta aut prokptei sqetik apl
ap thn anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou. Katpin, mporome na qrhsimopoisoume thn teqnik thc {prosggishc pragmatikn ekjetn ap rhtoc}.
H mjodoc aut qei to meionkthma ti den mpore na dieukrinsei tic periptseic
isthtac. Perigrfoume mia llh apdeixh, tou G. Polya, h opoa dnei aut thn
prsjeth plhrofora. Mia trth apdeixh dnetai sto trto Keflaio, msw thc
anisthtac tou Jensen kai thc paratrhshc ti h logarijmik sunrthsh enai
gnhswc kolh.
Thn tetrda sumplhrnei h anisthta tou Holder. Sth sgqronh glssa, h
anisthta isqurzetai ti gia louc touc mh arnhtikoc ak kai bk , k = 1, 2, . . . , n,
isqei h anisthta
n
X
k=1
ak bk
n
X
k=1
!1/p
apk
n
X
!1/q
bqk
k=1
up ton ro ti oi ekjtec p > 1 kai q > 1 ikanopoion thn sqsh p1 + 1q = 1.

H parousash autn twn anisottwn mac dnei thn aform na suzhtsoume
kpoia kentrik jmata thc {jewrac}:
Perieqomena ix
1. Th shmasa thc plrouc perigrafc twn periptsewn stic opoec mia
anisthta isqei san isthta, kai thn nnoia thc eustjeiac miac anisthtac.
2. Thn parllhlh porea twn suneqn anisottwn (gia oloklhrmata sunartsewn) me tic diakritc anisthtec (gia peperasmna ajrosmata ajrosmata
seirn) kai thn anagwg twn men stic de.
3. Th diadikasa genkeushc miac anisthtac se eurtero plasio kai to rlo
pou pazei h {katllhlh apdeixh} thc arqikc anisthtac tso sto na skeftome
so kai sto na ulopoisoume aut th genkeush.
Sto detero mroc thc ergasac parousizoume kpoia eidik jmata: ta perisstera aforon klasikc anisthtec oi opoec apodeiknontai me th bojeia
twn jemeliwdn anisttwn kai twn mejdwn pou anaptqjhkn sto prto mroc.
Sto pmpto Keflaio parousizoume diforec apodexeic thc anisthtac tou
P
Torsten Carleman (1923): An n=1 an enai mia seir mh arnhtikn pragmatikn
arijmn, kai an sumbolsoume me n to gewmetrik mso twn a1 , a2 , . . . , an , tte,
X
n=1
n e
an .
n=1
Metax twn apodexewn pou meletme enai h arqik apdeixh tou Carleman, h
{magik} apdeixh tou P
olya, kai h suneqc kdosh thc anisthtac pou ofeletai
ston Carleson.
Sto kto Keflaio perigrfoume thn arnhtik apnthsh sto exc erthma
tou Minkowski: Enai swst ti kje mh arnhtik polunumo grfetai san
jroisma tetragnwn pragmatikn poluwnmwn? O Minkowski kane thn eikasa
ti h apnthsh enai arnhtik. To 1888, o Hilbert apdeixe ti h apnthsh enai
katafatik mno stic exc periptseic: tan to polunumo enai miac metablhtc
kai o bajmc tou P aujaretoc, tan o bajmc tou P enai 2 kai to pljoc twn
metablhtn aujareto, kai tloc, tan to P enai polunumo me do metablhtc
kai qei bajm 4. H apdeixh tou Hilbert tan makroskelc, polplokh kai
mmesh. Ta prta sugkekrimna paradegmata mh arnhtikn poluwnmwn pou
den grfontai sth morf ajrosmatoc tetragnwn pragmatikn poluwnmwn
djhkan to 1967 ap ton T. S. Motzkin kai to 1969 ap ton R. M. Robinson,
sqedn ogdnta qrnia met thn apdeixh thc parxhc ttoiwn poluwnmwn ap
ton Hilbert. Ta sugkekrimna aut paradegmata qrhsimopoiosan thn {teqnik
thc anisthtac arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou} thn opoa perigrfoume.
Sta do teleutaa Keflaia apodeiknoume klasikc anisthtec anaditaxhc,
tic anisthtec twn Newton kai McLaurin gia tic stoiqeideic summetrikc sunartseic, kai thn anisthta tou Muirhead.
Se la ta Keflaia dnoume istorik stoiqea gia ta apotelsmata pou parousizontai.
Mroc I
Oi jemelideic anisthtec
Keflaio 1
H anisthta tou Cauchy

1.1 H anisthta Cauchy
H anisthta Cauchy mac lei ti an a1 , . . . , an kai b1 , . . . , bn enai do n dec
pragmatikn arijmn, tte
(a1 b1 + a2 b2 + + an bn )2 (a21 + a22 + + a2n )(b21 + b22 + + b2n )

, isodnama,
|a1 b1 + a2 b2 + + an bn |
q
q
a21 + a22 + + a2n b21 + b22 + + b2n .
Afo a |a| gia kje pragmatik arijm a, petai ti

q
q
a1 b1 + a2 b2 + + an bn a21 + a22 + + a2n b21 + b22 + + b2n .
H anisthta Cauchy enai anamfbola ma ap tic eurtera qrhsimopoiomenec
kai endiafrousec anisthtec se la ta majhmatik. 'Enac ap touc basikoc
stqouc autc thc ergasac enai na anakalyoume monoptia gia thn katanhsh
autc thc anisthtac, twn polln epektsewn kai efarmogn thc.
1.2 Epagwgik apdeixh

'Ena basik erthma pou ja mac apasqolsei sthn ergasa enai an uprqoun
kpoiec sugkekrimnec genikc arqc teqnikc pnw stic opoec mporome na
oikodomsoume thn {jewra twn anisottwn}. An kpoioc rxei mia yqraimh
mati sthn anisthta Cauchy, blpei pwc uprqei mia basik arq pou mpore na
fane qrsimh.
Kje for pou blpoume mia prtash pou exarttai ap ton fusik arijm
n, enai arket pijann h majhmatik epagwg na odhgsei sthn apdeix
thc.
Axzei na shmeisoume ti kanna ap ta basik egqeirdia thc lgebrac thc
anlushc den dnei epagwgik apdeixh thc anisthtac Cauchy: o lgoc enai ti
4 H anisothta tou Cauchy

uprqoun llec, idiatera eurhmatikc apodexeic thc anisthtac, oi opoec enai
pol sntomec kai komyc. To erthma loipn enai: uprqei kpoio empdio
sthn efarmog thc gnwstc mejdou thc epagwgc?
Gia n = 1 blpoume ti h anisthta Cauchy enai tetrimmna alhjc. Dhlad
qoume

ab |ab| = |a| |b| = a2 b2 .
Aut mac arke gia na xekinsoume thn epagwg mac, den prosfrei mwc
kama updeixh gia ton trpo me ton opoo ja suneqsoume. An jloume na
elpzoume ti ja anakalyoume kpoia axilogh ida sto prto mac bma,
prpei na exetsoume thn perptwsh n = 2.
Tte, h morf pou parnei h anisthta Cauchy enai h exc:
(1.1)
(a1 b1 + a2 b2 )2 (a21 + a22 )(b21 + b22 ).
Aut h anisthta enai apl, kai me mia mati mporome na dome giat alhjeei.
Gia qrh thc apdeixhc mwc, ac prospoihjome ti h (1.1) den enai profanc.
Pc ja mporosame na doulyoume susthmatik gia na thn apodexoume?

Profanc, den uprqei tpote pio susthmatik ap to na anaptxoume ta do
mlh kai na katalxoume sthn isodnamh anisthta
a21 b21 + 2a1 b1 a2 b2 + a22 b22 a21 b21 + a21 b22 + a22 b21 + a22 b22 .
'Etsi, afo knoume tic fusiologikc apaloifc kai sugkentrsoume louc touc
rouc sto dio mloc, blpoume ti h anisthta (1.1) enai isodnamh me thn
(1.2)
0 (a1 b2 )2 2(a1 b2 )(a2 b1 ) + (a2 b1 )2 .
Aut h isodnamh anisthta pragmatik mac frnei sth lsh tou problmatc
mac. Ap thn gnwst tautthta x2 2xy + y 2 = (x y)2 blpoume ti
(1.3)
(a1 b2 )2 2(a1 b2 )(a2 b1 ) + (a2 b1 )2 = (a1 b2 a2 b1 )2 .
Afo h teleutaa posthta enai mh arnhtik, qoume apodexei ti h (1.2) enai

alhjc. Diamsou twn isodunamin mac, sumperanoume ti h anisthta (1.1)
enai epshc alhjc, kai tsi apodexame thn anisthta tou Cauchy gia n = 2.
Tra pou apodexame mia mh tetrimmnh perptwsh thc anisthtac Cauchy,
emaste toimoi na epiqeirsoume to epagwgik bma.
An onomsoume P (n) thn prtash ti h anisthta tou Cauchy alhjeei

gia ton fusik n, prpei na dexoume ti oi P (2) kai P (n) qoun wc epakloujo thn P (n + 1). Me aut to sqdio sto mual, den argome na
skeftome ti prpei prta na efarmsoume thn upjesh P (n) kai met
na qrhsimopoisoume thn P (2) gia na sundusoume touc do rouc pou ja
prokyoun.
1.3 Apo to poiotiko sto posotiko sumperasma 5

Sugkekrimna, qoume
a1 b1 + a2 b2 + + an bn + an+1 bn+1 = (a1 b1 + a2 b2 + + an bn ) + an+1 bn+1

q
q
a21 + a22 + + a2n b21 + b22 + + b2n + an+1 bn+1
q
q
a21 + a22 + + a2n + a2n+1 b21 + b22 + + b2n + b2n+1 ,
pou sthn prth anisthta qrhsimopoisame thn epagwgik upjesh P (n), kai
sthn deterh anisthta qrhsimopoisame thn P (2) sth morf
q
q
+ an+1 bn+1 2 + a2n+1 2 + b2n+1
me nec metablhtc tic
q
= a21 + a22 + + a2n
q
kai =
b21 + b22 + + b2n .
H mnh duskola pou mpore na sunantsei kanec se autn thn apdeixh emfanzetai sto teleutao bma, pou qreizetai na dome pc na qrhsimopoisoume
thn P (2). Sth sugkekrimnh perptwsh, to tqnasma pou apaitetai tan mllon mtriac duskolac, dnei mwc mia ida gia thn fsh twn proklsewn pou ja
sunantsoume se perisstero polploka problmata.
1.3 Ap to poiotik sto posotik sumprasma

Sqedn kje shmantik posotik apotlesma qei difora mesa poiotik porsmata kai, se pollc periptseic, aut ta porsmata mporon na paraqjon
anexrthta, qwrc prosfug sto apotlesma pou prto ta fere sto fwc. Oi
enallaktikc apodexeic pou parnoume me autn ton trpo mac bohjne na katanosoume bajtera thn fsh twn problhmtwn mac. Se autn thn pargrafo,
ja qrhsimopoisoume thn anisthta Cauchy san pardeigma gia thn arq thc
{katanhshc enc posotiko apotelsmatoc msw thc estashc pnw stic poiotikc sunpeic tou}.
Mia mesh poiotik sunpeia thc anisthtac Cauchy enai to gegonc ti
(1.4)
an
X
k=1
a2k
< kai
b2k
k=1
< , tte
|ak bk | < .
k=1
Ac upojsoume ti jloume na dsoume apdeixh auto tou isqurismo qwrc na

qrhsimopoisoume thn anisthta Cauchy.
Prospajntac na antimetwpsoume aut to prblhma, grgora suneidhtopoiome pwc aut pou qreizetai na apodexoume enai ti to ginmeno ak bk enai
mikr tan ta a2k kai b2k enai mikr. Ja mporosame na bebaiwjome gi aut an
apodeikname thn parxh miac stajerc C ttoiac ste
xy C(x2 + y 2 )
gia kje x, y R.

Eutuqc, mlic gryoume aut thn anisthta, blpoume amswc giat alhjeei.
Arke na jumhjome thn gnwst paragontopohsh
0 (x y)2 = x2 2xy + y 2 ,
kai amswc ja parathrsoume ti
(1.5)
xy
1 2 1 2
x + y
2
2
gia kje x, y R.
Tra, an efarmsoume aut thn anisthta gia x = |ak | kai y = |bk |, kai an
prosjsoume gia la ta k , brskoume thn prosjetik anisthta
(1.6)
|ak bk |
k=1
k=1
k=1
1X 2 1X 2
ak +
bk ,
2
2
h opoa qei wc profan sunpeia thn (1.4).

To erthma enai pso isqur enai h poiotik prosggish thc prohgomenhc
paragrfou.
Kje for pou sunantme mia kainorgia anisthta, enai {kajkon} mac
na elgxoume thn isq thc.
Sth sugkekrimnh perptwsh, aut pou parousizei endiafron enai na sugkrnoume th na prosjetik anisthta me tic posotikc ektimseic pou prokptoun ap thn anisthta Cauchy.
H prosjetik anisthta (1.6) qei do rouc sto dexi thc mloc en h
anisthta tou Cauchy mno nan. Mia prth ida ja tan na sundusoume touc
do rouc thc (1.6), kai nac fusiologikc trpoc gia na ulopoisoume autn
thn ida enai na kanonikopoisoume tic akoloujec {ak } kai {bk } ste kajna
ap ta ajrosmata sto dexi mloc na isotai me 1.
'Etsi, an kama ap tic do akoloujec den enai h mhdenik, mporome na
jewrsoume tic nec metablhtc
1/2
1/2
X
X
kai yk = bk
b2j ,
a2j
xk = ak
j
oi opoec enai kanonikopoihmnec me thn nnoia ti
X
X
X
x2k =
ak /
a2j = 1
k=1
kai
X
k=1
k=1
X
X
yk2 =
bk /
b2j = 1.
k=1
Tra, an efarmsoume thn anisthta (1.6) gia tic akoloujec {xk } kai {yk },
parnoume to {ajo} nw frgma
X
k=1
|xk yk |
k=1
k=1
1X 2 1X 2
xk +
yk = 1.
2
2
1.3 Apo to poiotiko sto posotiko sumperasma 7

An taktopoisoume touc paronomastc, anakalptoume thn anisthta tou Cauchy tra mlista, kalptei kai thn perptwsh pou oi akoloujec mac enai
peirec:
(1.7)
1/2
1/2
X
X
|ak bk |
a2j
b2j .
j=1
k=1
j=1
H prosjetik anisthta (1.6) mac odghse se mia apdeixh thc anisthtac tou
Cauchy h opoa enai sntomh kai apl. Thn dia mwc stigm, mac eisgei se na
pol shmantik jma:
H kanonikopohsh mac prosfrei na susthmatik trpo gia na pernme

ap mia prosjetik se mia pollaplasiastik anisthta, ki aut to prasma
apaitetai suqn gia thn apdeixh shmantikn anisottwn.
Mia llh basik arq pou prokptei ap th melth tou trpou me ton opoo
anaptssontai kai efarmzontai oi anisthtec enai ti
mporome na apokomsoume poll oflh prospajntac na katanosoume

pte mia anisthta isqei san isthta kai kat epktash, pte enai akribc
sqedn akribc.
Sthn perptwsh thc anisthtac Cauchy, aut pou prpei na dome enai h
sqsh pou prpei na uprqei metax twn akoloujin {ak } kai {bk } ste na
isqei h isthta
(1.8)
ak bk =
1/2
a2j
j=1
k=1
1/2
b2j
j=1
An perioristome sthn mh tetrimmnh perptwsh pou kama ap tic do akoloujec den enai tautotik mhdenik kai, tautqrona, ta do ajrosmata tou dexo
mlouc thc (1.8) enai peperasmna, tte blpoume ti la ta bmata pou qrhsimopoisame sthn apdeixh thc (1.7) antistrfontai. 'Etsi, blpoume ti h isthta
sthn (1.8) qei san sunpeia thn
(1.9)
xk yk =
k=1
2
k=1
k=1
1X 2 1X 2
xk +
yk = 1.
2
2
Ap thn anisthta xy (x + y )/2 xroume epshc ti
(1.10)
xk yk
1 2 1 2
x + y
2 k 2 k
gia kje k = 1, 2, . . . ,
kai sunepc, an, stw kai gia ma tim tou k , eqame gnsia anisthta sthn
(1.10), tte den ja mporosame na qoume isthta sthn (1.9). Blpoume loipn
ti isthta sthn (1.8) mpore na isqei mno an xk = yk gia kje k = 1, 2, . . ..
Ap ton trpo orismo twn xk kai yk , aut shmanei ti tte
(1.11)
ak = bk
gia kje k = 1, 2, . . . ,

pou h stajer dnetai ap ton lgo
1/2
1/2
X
=
a2j
b2j .
j=1
j=1
Parathrste ti to epiqerhma pou qrhsimopoisame gia thn dierenhsh thc perptwshc thc isthtac den tan dskolo. Parla aut, to sumprasma perigrfei
na {mikr jama}:
Ma mno isthta h (1.8) enai ikan na epibllei peirec to pljoc

isthtec, ma gia kje tim tou k , sthn (1.11).
1.4 H axa thc genkeushc

Ajrosmata san aut pou emfanzontai sthn anisthta Cauchy den enai idiatera
eqrhsta ap thn poyh tou sumbolismo. Gia to lgo aut, enai pol qrsimh
h eisagwg thc sntmhshc
(1.12)
ha, bi =
n
X
aj bj ,
j=1
pou a = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) kai b = (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ). Aut h sntmhsh mac epitrpei

na gryoume thn anisthta Cauchy, entelc lakwnik, sth morf
(1.13)
ha, bi ha, ai 2 hb, bi 2 .
H suntoma enai pntote wraa, all uprqoun akmh bajtera oflh me autn
ton sumbolism, ta opoa prokptoun an ton efodisoume me mia pio afhrhmnh
ermhnea. Sugkekrimna, an V enai nac pragmatikc dianusmatikc qroc (gia
pardeigma, o Rd ), tte lme ti mia sunrthsh V V R me (a, b) 7 ha, bi
enai eswterik ginmeno kai lme ti o (V, h, i) enai nac pragmatikc qroc me
eswterik ginomno, an to zeugri (V, h, i) qei tic akloujec pnte idithtec :
(i) hv, vi 0 gia kje v V ,
(ii) hv, vi = 0 an kai mno an v = 0,
(iii) hv, wi = hv, wi gia kje R kai gia kje v, w V ,
(iv) hu, v + wi = hu, vi + hu, wi gia kje u, v, w V , kai tloc,
(v) hv, wi = hw, vi gia kje v, w V .
Mporome ekola na elgxoume ti h suntomografa pou eisgetai sthn (1.12)
qei lec autc tic idithtec, all uprqoun poll akma paradegmata qrsimwn
eswterikn ginomnwn. Gia pardeigma, an jewrsoume tuqn snolo {wj :
j = 1, 2, . . . , n} jetikn pragmatikn arijmn, tte mporome pol ekola na
orsoume na eswterik ginmeno ston Rn , jtontac
(1.14)
ha, bi =
n
X
j=1
aj bj wj .
1.4 H axia thc genikeushc 9

Me autn ton orism, mpore kpoioc na elgxei pwc prohgomena ti to ha, bi
ikanopoie lec tic idithtec pou apaitontai ap na eswterik ginmeno. Epiplon, aut to pardeigma aplc apokalptei thn koruf enc pagbounou.
Uprqoun poll qrsima eswterik ginmena, kai emfanzontai se difora majhmatik plasia.
'Ena idiatera qrsimo pardeigma eswteriko ginomnou prokptei an jewrsoume to snolo V = C[a, b] twn suneqn pragmatikn sunartsewn me pedo
orismo to kleist kai fragmno disthma [a, b] kai orsoume h, i sto V jtontac
Z
(1.15)
hf, gi =
f (x)g(x)dx.
a
Geniktera, an w : [a, b] R enai mia suneqc sunrthsh ttoia ste w(x) > 0
gia kje x [a, b], tte mporome na orsoume na eswterik ginmeno sto C[a, b]
jtontac
Z b
hf, gi =
f (x)g(x)w(x)dx.
a
Antimetwpzoume tra ma ap tic euqristec stigmc pou nac kalc sumbolismc mac odhge se na kal jerhma. Parousisame thn nnoia tou eswteriko
ginomnou gia na diatupsoume thn anisthta Cauchy me apl trpo, kai tra
blpoume ti o sumbolismc tou mac odhge proc mia endiafrousa eikasa:
Enai aljeia ti se kje qro eswteriko ginmenou isqei h anisthta

1
1
hv, wi hv, vi 2 hw, wi 2 ?
Aut h eikasa enai pragmatik swst, kai ja thn diatupsoume me akrbeia
sto epmeno prblhm mac.
Prblhma 1.4.1. Se kje pragmatik qro me eswterik ginmeno (V, h, i)

isqei ti: gia kje v kai w ston V isqei
(1.16)
hv, wi hv, vi 2 hw, wi 2 .
Epiplon, gia mh mhdenik diansmata v kai w, qoume

1
hv, wi = hv, vi 2 hw, wi 2
an kai mno an v = w
gia kpoion mh mhdenik pragmatik arijm .

Mia ida enai na qrhsimopoisoume kpoia parallag thc prosjetikc mejdou me thn bojeia thc opoac dsame thn deterh apdeixh thc anisthtac
Cauchy.
Eqame parathrsei ti h (x y)2 0 dnei thn xy x2 /2 + y 2 /2. Prospajome loipn na dome an kpoia anlogh ida ja mporose na doulyei
sto afhrhmno plasio.

Ed, fusik, mporome na qrhsimopoisoume mno tic idithtec tou eswteriko ginomnou, kai, an anatrxoume sth lsta (i)(v) koitzontac gia na anlogo thc (x y)2 0, enai arket logik na skeftome na qrhsimopoisoume thn
idithta (i) sth morf
hv w, v wi 0.
Tra, an anaptxoume autn thn anisthta me th bojeia twn upolopwn idiottwn tou eswteriko ginomnou, blpoume ti
(1.17)
hv, wi
1
1
hv, vi + hw, wi.
2
2
Aut enai akribc to anlogo thc prosjetikc anisthtac pou odghse sthn
deter mac apdeixh thc anisthtac Cauchy. Ap d kai pra, {akoloujome
thn pepathmnh}.
Ed emaste uperbolik tuqero, afo qoume dh anakalyei mia teqnik
pou tairizei sthn perptwsh thn mjodo thc kanonikopohshc, pou metatrpei
mia prosjetik anisthta se mia pollaplasiastik anisthta. O roc {kanonikopohsh} den shmanei panto to dio prgma, an mwc proume thn progensterh
anlush san odhg mac, aut pou jloume ed enai na kanonikopoisoume ta v
kai w ste to dexi mloc thc (1.17) na isotai me 1.
Afo h anisthta (1.16) isqei tetrimmna an kpoio ap ta v kai w isotai
me mhdn, mporome na upojsoume, qwrc blbh thc genikthtac, ti ta hv, vi
kai hw, wi enai kai ta do mh mhdenik, opte oi kanonikopoihmnec metablhtc
(1.18)
= v/hv, vi 2
v
= w/hw, wi 2
kai w
enai kal orismnec. An antikatastsoume autc tic timc gia v kai w sthn
1
1
1. Aut mac lgei ti hv, wi hv, vi 2 hw, wi 2 .
(1.17), brskoume h
v, wi
Dhlad, aut akribc pou jlame na dexoume.
Tloc, gia na dome pte isqei isthta, arke na epanalboume to sullogism mac sthn antstrofh katejunsh. An isqei isthta sthn afhrhmnh anisthta Cauchy (1.16) gia kpoia mh mhdenik diansmata v kai w, tte
kai w
enai kal orismnec kai h isthta
oi kanonikopoihmnec metablhtc v
1
1
= 1. Aut me th seir tou shmanei
hv, wi = hv, vi 2 hw, wi 2 mac lei ti h
v, wi
v
wi
= 0 (gia na to dome, aplc anaptssoume to eswterik
ti h
v w,
w
= 0. Me lla lgia,
ginmeno). H teleutaa mwc sqsh shmanei ti v
1
1
v = w pou jsame = hv, vi 2 /hw, wi 2 .
1.5 H tautthta tou Lagrange

Gia thn apdeixh thc anisthtac Cauchy me epagwg qrhsimopoisame thn tautthta
(1.19)
(a21 + a22 )(b21 + b22 ) = (a1 b1 + a2 b2 )2 + (a1 b2 a2 b1 )2 ,
qwrc na thn ekmetalleutome plrwc. Sugkekrimna, agnosame ton ro (a1 b2

a2 b1 )2 , afo to mno pou qreiaztan na parathrsoume tan ti enai mh arnhtikc.
1.5 H tautothta tou Lagrange 11

Fusik, swst enai, ti se kje anisthta gnetai nac sumbibasmc anmesa
sthn akrbeia kai thn aplthta, den jloume mwc aut na qei san sunpeia thn
apleia plhroforac. 'Etsi, antimetwpzoume na fusiologik erthma:
mporome na apospsoume kpoia qrsima sumpersmata ap ton ro pou

petxame?
Den uprqei amfibola ti o roc (a1 b2 a2 b1 )2 periqei kpoia plhrofora.
To ligtero pou mporome na pome enai ti metrei akribc thn diafor anmesa
sta tetrgwna twn do meln thc anisthtac tou Cauchy.
Mac dnei loipn na qrsimo trpo gia na upologsoume to sflma pou

prokptei kje for pou efarmzoume thn anisthta tou Cauchy.
H basik tautthta (1.19) mac lei epshc ti, sthn perptwsh n = 2, qoume
isthta sthn anisthta tou Cauchy akribc tan (a1 b2 a2 b1 )2 = 0. An loipn
upojsoume ti (b1 , b2 ) 6= (0, 0), blpoume ti
qoume isthta an kai mno an ta (a1 , a2 ) kai (b1 , b2 ) enai anloga me thn
nnoia ti
a1 = b1 kai a2 = b2
gia kpoion pragmatik arijm .
Aut h paratrhsh qei shmantikc sunpeiec: to prto mac prblhma zhtei

na apodexoume ton antstoiqo qarakthrism gia thn perptwsh thc isthtac sthn
n distath anisthta tou Cauchy.
Prblhma 1.5.1 (isthta sthn anisthta tou
Cauchy). Dexte ti
an (b1 , . . . , bn ) 6= 0 tte qoume isthta sthn anisthta tou Cauchy an kai mno an
uprqei stajer ste ai = bi gia kje i = 1, 2, . . . , n. An dh gnwrzete mia
apdeixh auto tou isqurismo, prospajste na skeftete kpoia diaforetik.
H tautthta (1.19) mac dnei mia sntomh lsh gia to Prblhma 1.5.1 sthn
perptwsh n = 2. Ja mporosame loipn na prospajsoume na lsoume to genik prblhma epektenontac katllhla thn tautthta (1.19) stic n diastseic.
'Etsi, jewrome to polunumo Qn = Qn (a1 , a2 , . . . , an , b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ) pou prokptei wc diafor twn tetragnwn twn do meln thc anisthtac tou Cauchy,
dhlad
Qn = (a21 + a22 + + a2n )(b21 + b22 + + b2n ) (a1 b1 + a2 b2 + + an bn )2 .

To Qn metrei thn {apklish} thc anisthtac tou Cauchy ap to na enai isthta
stic n diastseic, akribc pwc to Q2 = (a1 b2 a2 b1 )2 metrei thn antstoiqh
apklish stic do diastseic.
'Eqoume dh de ti to Q2 mpore na grafte san tetrgwno enc poluwnmou, kai tra to prblhma enai an uprqei anlogh anaparstash tou Qn
sth morf enc tetragnou enc ajrosmatoc tetragnwn.

Anaptssontac to Qn , blpoume ti grfetai sth morf
(1.20)
Qn =
n X
n
X
a2i b2j
i=1 j=1
n
n X
X
ai bi aj bj .
i=1 j=1
H parstash aut, wc qei, den moizei na exuphrete to skop mac. Mporome

mwc ed na qrhsimopoisoume mia genik arq pou enai suqn qrsimh: thn
arq thc summetrac.
Praktik, h ida enai na prospajsoume na gryoume thn parstash mac
me ttoio trpo pou na fanerwjon lec oi summetrec pou uprqoun se autn.
Ed, h summetra metax i kai j sto detero dipl jroisma enai isqur kai
faner, o summetrikc mwc rloc twn i kai j sto prto dipl jroisma den
enai arket profanc. Uprqei mwc ki ed summetra, kti pou mporome na
dome an xanagryoume to Qn sth morf
n X
n
n
n
X
1 XX 2 2
2 2
ai bi aj bj .
Qn =
(a b + aj bi )
2 i=1 j=1 i j
i=1 j=1
(1.21)
Tra, ta do dipl ajrosmata enai amftera summetrik wc proc i kai j , kai

h na anaparstash {fwnzei} ti prpei na sundusoume ta do ajrosmata se
na kai na knoume thn paragontopohsh
n
Qn =
1 XX
1 XX 2 2
ai bj 2ai bj aj bi + a2j b2i =
(ai bj aj bi )2 .
2 i=1 j=1
2 i=1 j=1
'Ola sa epame sunoyzontai se mia gramm. 'Eqoume apodexei thn tautthta

tou Lagrange:
(1.22)
n
X
i=1
!2
ai bi
n
X
i=1
a2i
n
X
i=1
b2i
1 XX
(ai bj aj bi )2 .
2 i=1 j=1
Odhghjkame se autn thn tautthta ap thn epijuma mac na katanosoume to

mh arnhtik polunumo Qn , ap th stigm mwc pou ja mac dsoun thn (1.22),
enai pol ekolo na thn epalhjesoume me kpoiouc pollaplasiasmoc. Aut
enai na ap ta pardoxa twn poluwnumikn tautottwn.
Axzei na shmeisoume ti h anisthta tou Cauchy enai mesh sunpeia thc

tautthtac tou Lagrange, kai, pragmatik, h apdeixh pou o dioc o Cauchy
eplexe na sumperilbei sto biblo pou exdwse to 1821 tan basismnh se
autn thn paratrhsh.
Emec, katalxame sthn tautthta tou Lagrange (1.22) xekinntac ap
thn epijuma na katanosoume plrwc thn perptwsh thc isthtac sthn
anisthta tou Cauchy. Sthn porea, anakalyame mia anexrthth apdeixh
thc anisthtac tou Cauchy, prpei mwc tra na klesoume ton kklo
dnontac thn apnthsh sto Prblhma 1.5.1.
1.6 H suntomh apodeixh 13

An (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ) 6= 0, tte uprqei kpoioc bk 6= 0, kai an isqei isthta
sthn anisthta tou Cauchy, tte loi oi roi sto dexi mloc thc tautthtac
tou Lagrange (1.22) prpei na enai soi me mhdn. An jewrsoume mno touc
rouc pou periqoun ton bk , tte blpoume ti
ai bk = ak bi
gia kje 1 i n,
kai, an jsoume = ak /bk , tte parnoume
ai = bi
gia kje 1 i n.
Dhlad, h tautthta tou Lagrange mac lei ti, gia mh mhdenikc akoloujec,
mporome na qoume isthta sthn anisthta tou Cauchy an kai mno an oi do
akoloujec enai anlogec. 'Etsi, qoume mia plrh kai akrib apnthsh sto
prto mac prblhma.
Aut h anlush thc perptwshc thc isthtac upogrammzei to gegonc ti h
summetrik morf
n
n
1 XX
(ai bj aj bi )2
Qn =
2 i=1 j=1
epidqetai do qrsimec ermhneec.
Arqik thn qrhsimopoisame san na mtro thc diaforc anmesa sta do

mlh thc anisthtac tou Cauchy.
Blpoume mwc tra ti tautqrona metrei se poi bajm enai anloga
ta diansmata (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) kai (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ).
O Joseph Louis de Lagrange (1736-1813) anakluye kai qrhsimopohse thn
tautthta (1.22) sthn perptwsh n = 3, sth dirkeia miac melthc pou kane
gia th gewmetra twn puramdwn. Aut h melth estiaztan se problmata ston
tridistato qro, kai o Lagrange den anfere to gegonc ti ta antstoiqa
apotelsmata sthn perptwsh n = 2 tan gnwst, akma kai stouc majhmatikoc
thc arqaithtac. Eidiktera, h didistath kdosh thc tautthtac (1.22) tan
gnwst ston Difanto, kti pou mpore kanec na sumpernei ap na prblhma
sta Arijmhtik tou. O Lagrange kai o progensteroc auto Pierre de Fermat
(1601-1665) gnrizan kal ta grapt tou Difantou.
1.6 H sntomh apdeixh

O Augustin-Louis Cauchy (1789-1857) dhmoseuse thn perfhmh anistht tou
to 1821, sthn deterh ap tic do ergasec tou ep thc jewrac twn anisottwn, oi opoec apetlesan to teleutao kommti tou biblou tou Cours dAnalyse
Algebrique, enc biblou pou tan to prto austhr sggramma Apeirostiko
Logismo sthn Istora. O Cauchy den qrhsimopohse thn anisthta sto biblo
tou, me thn exaresh kpoiwn asksewn pou qrhsimopoiontan san paradegmata.
H prth for pou h anisthta tou Cauchy qrhsimopoijhke ousiastik tan
to 1829, tan o Cauchy qrhsimopohse thn anistht tou meletntac th mjodo

tou Newton gia ton upologism twn rizn algebrikn kai uperbatikn exissewn. Aut to ken twn okt etn dnei mia endiafrousa eikna gia ton rujm
anptuxhc thc epistmhc. Smera, kje mna, uprqoun ekatontdec swc qilidec nec episthmonikc dhmosieseic stic opoec h anisthta tou Cauchy
qrhsimopoietai me ton nan ton llon trpo.
Pollc ap autc tic efarmogc baszontai sto oloklhrwtik anlogo thc
anisthtac tou Cauchy, pou ta ajrosmata antikajstantai ap oloklhrmata:
(1.23)
f (x)g(x)dx
a
! 12 Z
! 12
2
g (x)dx
f (x)dx
H anisthta aut emfansthke gia prth for se na Memoire tou Victor Yacovlevich Bunyakovsky to opoo ekdjhke ap thn Akadhma Episthmn thc St.
Petersburg to 1859. O Bunyakovsky (1804-1889) eqe spoudsei sto Parsi me
ton Cauchy, kai gnrize th doulei tou Cauchy stic anisthtec. Thn xere
mlista tso kal, pou anafertan sthn klassik morf thc anisthtac tou
Cauchy gia ta peperasmna ajrosmata qrhsimopointac thn kfrash dishmh.
Epiplon, o Bunyakovsky den dstaze mprost sth diadikasa tou orou: msa
se mia gramm, pernose ap thn anisthta tou Cauchy gia peperasmna ajrosmata sto suneqc thc anlogo (1.23). Entelc sumptwmatik, aut to suneqc
anlogo onomzetai {anisthta (C)} sto Memoire tou Bunyakovsky, san na
eqe sto mual tou ton Cauchy.
To Memoire tou Bunyakovsky tan grammno sta Gallik, fanetai mwc
ti den kuklofrhse eurwc sth Dutik Eurph. Eidiktera, fanetai ti den
eqe gnei gnwst sto G
ottingen to 1885, thn perodo pou o Hermann Amandus Schwarz (1843-1921) oloklrwne th jemelidh melth tou gia tic elqistec
epifneiec.
Sthn porea thc melthc tou, o Schwarz qreisthke na didistato oloklhrwtik anlogo thc anisthtac tou Cauchy. Pio sugkekrimna, qreiaztan na
dexei ti an S R2 kai an f : S R kai g : S R, tte ta dipl oloklhrmata
ZZ
ZZ
f 2 dxdy,
A=
ZZ
B=
f gdxdy,
S
g 2 dxdy
C=
S
ikanopoion thn anisthta
(1.24)
|B|
C,
kai, epshc, o Schwarz qreiaztan na xrei ti h anisthta enai gnsia ektc an

oi sunartseic f kai g enai anlogec.
H qrsh thc anisthtac tou Cauchy gia thn apdeixh auto tou apotelsmatoc enai problhmatik, gia diforouc lgouc. 'Enac ap autoc enai ti
h plhrofora ti mia diakrit anisthta enai gnsia qnetai tan pernme sta
oloklhrmata msw orwn. 'Etsi, o Schwarz prepe na yxei gia mia enallaktik od, kai, antimetwpzontac autn thn angkh, anakluye mia apdeixh pou h
gohtea thc qei antxei sto qrno.
1.6 H suntomh apodeixh 15

O Schwarz bsise thn apdeix tou se mia kplhktik paratrhsh. Sugkekrimna, paratrhse ti to pragmatik polunumo
ZZ
2
p(t) =
(tf (x, y) + g(x, y)) dxdy = At2 + 2Bt + C
S
enai pnta mh arnhtik kai, epiplon, to p(t) enai gnsia jetik ektc an oi f
kai g enai anlogec. Aut deqnei ti h diakrnous tou enai mikrterh sh
tou mhdenc, ra oi suntelestc tou ikanopoion thn B 2 AC , kai an oi f
kai g den enai anlogec, tte qoume thn gnsia anisthta B 2 < AC . 'Etsi,
knontac qrsh mic aplc algebrikc paratrhshc, o Schwarz exasflise la
sa qreiaztan na xrei.
H apdeixh tou Schwarz apaite th sofa na jewrsoume to polunumo p(t),
an mwc prospersoume aut to bma, tte h apdeixh enai ekplhktik sntomh.
Epiplon, to epiqerhma tou Schwarz, qwrc kama apoltwc tropopohsh, dnei mia
apdeixh thc morfc (1.16) thc anisthtac tou Cauchy gia ta eswterik ginmena,
dieukrinzontac ki eke thn perptwsh thc isthtac. Den enai loipn parxeno
to gegonc ti loi oi suggrafec majhmatikn didaktikn biblwn protimon na
apodeiknoun thn anisthta tou Cauchy me to epiqerhma tou Schwarz, parlo
pou jumzei lgo ton taqudaktulourg pou bgzei to lag (ed, to polunumo)
ap to kaplo. Ac dome thn apdeixh sthn perptwsh twn n dwn a1 , . . . , an
kai b1 , . . . , bn : Jewrome to trinumo
(1.25)
f (x) = (a1 x + b1 )2 + (a2 x + b2 )2 + + (an x + bn )2 .
To trinumo aut enai mh arnhtik, wc jroisma tetragnwn, kai grfetai sth

morf
(1.26)
f (x) = (a21 + a22 + + a2n )x2 + 2(a1 b1 + a2 b2 + + an bn )x + (b21 + b22 + + b2n ).
H diakrnousa tou triwnmou isotai me
(1.27) = 4(a1 b1 + a2 b2 + + an bn ) 4(a21 + a22 + + a2n )(b21 + b22 + + b2n ).

To trinumo, wc mh arnhtik, ja prpei na qei diakrnousa 0. Aut mwc
ap thn (1.27) mac dnei akribc ekeno pou jlame na dexoume, dhlad thn
anisthta Cauchy!
An isqei isthta sthn anisthta Cauchy, tte ja enai f (x) = 0 gia kpoion
x. Lgw thc (1.25), sumperanoume tte ti
a1 x + b1 = a2 x + b2 = = an x + bn = 0.
'Epetai ti isqei isthta sthn anisthta Cauchy an kai mno an oi n dec
a1 , . . . , an kai b1 , . . . , bn enai anlogec.
Keflaio 2
H deterh anisthta tou

Cauchy
2.1 H anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou
Gia thn apdeixh thc anisthtac Cauchy basistkame sth stoiqeidh anisthta
(2.1)
xy
y2
x2
+
2
2
gia kje x, y R.
Gia mh arnhtikoc x kai y , h (2.1) apl lei ti to embadn enc orjogwnou

me pleurc x kai y den enai pot megaltero ap ton mso ro twn embadn
twn do tetragnwn me pleurc x kai y .
An antikatastsoume touc x kai y me tic tetragwnikc touc rzec, tte h
anisthta (2.1) mac dnei
(2.2)
4 xy < 2x + 2y
gia louc touc mh arnhtikoc x 6= y,
kai aut h anisthta qei mia pol pi plosia ermhnea. Jewrome to snolo
lwn twn orjogwnwn me embadn A kai mkh pleurn x kai y . Afo A = xy , h
anisthta (2.2) mac lei ti
na tetrgwno me mkoc pleurc s = A prpei na qei th mikrterh dunat

permetro metax lwn twn orjogwnwn me embadn A.
Isodnama, h anisthta mac lei ti
metax lwn twn orjogwnwn me permetro p, to tetrgwno me pleur s =

p/4, kai mnon aut, epitugqnei to mgisto embadn.
'Etsi, h anisthta (2.2) den enai tpote llo par h {orjognia kdosh} thc
fhmismnhc isoperimetrikc anisthtac, pou lei ti
metax lwn twn eppedwn qwrwn me permetro p, o dskoc me perifreia p

qei to mgisto embadn.
18 H deuterh anisothta tou Cauchy

Blpoume tra kajar giat h xy x2 /2 + y 2 /2 mpore na enai tso isqur.
Enai mroc miac meglhc alusdac apotelesmtwn pou sundoun thn summetra
me ta problmata megstou elaqstou.
'Ena pleonkthma thc isoperimetrikc ermhneac thc anisthtac xy (x +

y)/2 enai ti dnei jhsh sth diasjhs mac. Mporome ekola na proqwrsoume
se eikasec gia genikeseic thc anisthtac stic trec perissterec diastseic.
H plon fusiologik ttoia genkeush enai o isqurismc ti o kboc ston R3 qei
ton megaltero gko anmesa metax lwn twn orjogwnwn parallhlepipdwn
pou qoun dosmno embadn epifneiac. O mesoc mwc stqoc mac enai mia llh
genkeush pou qei pollc efarmogc. 'Ena orjognio ston Rn qei 2n korufc, kai kajema ap autc tic korufc ankei se n akmc tou orjogwnou. An
onomsoume a1 , a2 , . . . , an ta mkh autn twn akmn, tte h dia isoperimetrik
diasjhsh pou qrhsimopoisame gia ta tetrgwna kai touc kbouc, upodeiknei ti o n-kboc me akm mkouc S/n ja qei ton megaltero gko metax twn
orjogwnwn gia ta opoa a1 + a2 + + an = S . H anisthta arijmhtiko
gewmetriko msou metafrzei autn thn gewmetrik eikasa sth glssa twn
arijmhtikn kai gewmetrikn mswn.
Jerhma 2.1.1 (anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou).
Dexte ti gia kje akolouja mh arnhtikn pragmatikn arijmn a1 , a2 , . . . , an isqei h anisthta
(2.3)
(a1 a2 an )1/n
a1 + a2 + + an
.
n
Gia n = 2, h anisthta (2.3) prokptei kat eujean ap thn stoiqeidh
anisthta xy (x + y)/2 pou mlic suzhtsame. H paratrhsh tou Cauchy)

tan ti an efarmsoume thn dia anisthta do forc, parnoume
(2.4)
(a1 a2 a3 a4 )1/4
(a1 a2 )1/2 + (a3 a4 )1/2

a1 + a2 + a3 + a4
.
2
4
Aut h anisthta epibebainei thn eikasa (2.3) sthn perptwsh n = 4, kai
efarmzontac th na anisthta (2.4) maz me thn xy (x + y)/2 blpoume ti
(a1 a2 a8 )1/8
(a1 a2 a3 a4 )1/4 + (a5 a6 a7 a8 )1/4

a1 + a2 + + a8
,
2
8
dhlad thn eikasa (2.3) gia n = 8.

Epanalambnontac to dio epiqerhma k forc ( qrhsimopointac epagwg)
deqnoume ti
(2.5)
(a1 a2 a2k )1/2 (a1 + a2 + + a2k )/2k
gia kje k 1.
Me lla lgia, qoume apodexei th zhtomenh anisthta gia kje n = 2k . Aut

pou mnei enai na brome kpoion trpo gia na gemsoume ta ken metax twn
dunmewn tou 2.
To fusiologik sqdio enai na proume kpoion n < 2k kai na brome kpoion
trpo ste qrhsimopointac n dojntec arijmoc a1 , a2 , . . . , an na orsoume mia
2.1 H anisothta arijmhtikou gewmetrikou mesou 19

makrterh akolouja 1 , 2 , . . . , 2k gia thn opoa ja mporome na efarmsoume
thn anisthta (2.5). H apotelesmatik epilog twn rwn thc nac akoloujac
apaite mpneush: mia ida pou telik douleei enai na jsoume i = ai gia
1 i n kai
i =
a1 + a2 + + an
A
n
gia n < i 2k .
Me lla lgia, aplc epektenoume thn dojesa akolouja {ai : 1 i n}

me arket antgrafa tou arijmhtiko msou A ste na proume mia akolouja
{i : 1 i 2k } pou qei mkoc so me 2k .
O arijmhtikc msoc A qrhsimopoietai 2k n forc sthn dieurumnh akolouja {i }, an loipn efarmsoume thn anisthta (2.5) gia thn {i }, prokptei
h
n
o1/2k
k
a1 + a2 + + an + (2k n)A
2k A
a1 a2 an A2 n
=
= A.
2k
2k
Tra, an froume lec tic dunmeic tou A sto dexi mloc, blpoume ti
k
(a1 a2 an )1/2 An/2 ,

kai, an uysoume ta do mlh sth dnamh 2k /n, petuqanoume akribc ton stqo
mac, thn anisthta
(2.6)
(a1 a2 an )1/n
a1 + a2 + + an
.
n
Mia deterh apdeixh me epagwg

Dnoume tra mia deterh apdeixh thc (2.3) me epagwg {ap to n sto n + 1}.
Bohjhtik prtash:
Gia kje n N kai a, b > 0 isqei
(2.7)
bn+1 (n + 1)an b nan+1 .
Gia thn apdeixh ja qrhsimopoisoume thn arq thc majhmatikc epagwgc.

Gia n = 1 zhtme
b2 2ab a2 ,
pou isqei lgw thc (a b)2 0.
Upojtoume ti h (2.7) isqei gia ton fusik n kai ja dexoume ti isqei kai
gia ton fusik n + 1, dhlad ti isqei
(2.8)
bn+2 (n + 2)an+1 b (n + 1)an+2 .
Epeid bn+2 = b bn+1 , pollaplasizoume me b thn (2.7) kai qoume
(2.9)
bn+2 (n + 1)an b2 nban+1 .
Ap tic (2.8) kai (2.9) katalabanoume ti gia na isqei h (2.9) arke na isqei h
(2.10)
(n + 1)an b2 nban+1 (n + 2)an+1 b (n + 1)an+2 .

H sqsh aut
an apaleyoume ton an > 0
isodnama grfetai
(n + 1)b2 nab (n + 2)ab (n + 1)a2 ,
(2.11)
, allic,
(2.12)
(n + 1)(a2 + b2 ) 2(n + 1)ab,
pou isqei. 'Ara, smfwna me thn arq thc majhmatikc epagwgc h bohjhtik
mac prtash (2.7) isqei gia la ta n N.
Deterh apdeixh thc anisthtac arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou. 'Eqoume de
ti h anisthta (2.3) gia n = 2. Upojtoume ti h anisthta isqei gia ton
fusik n, dhlad isqei
(2.13)
a1 + a2 + + an n(a1 a2 an )1/n ,
kai ja dexoume ti isqei gia ton fusik n + 1. H bohjhtik mac prtash (2.7)
gia b = (an+1 )1/(n+1) kai a = (a1 a2 an )1/n(n+1) gnetai
(2.14)
an+1 (n + 1)(a1 a2 an )1/(n+1) (an+1 )1/(n+1) n(a1 a2 an )1/n ,
dhlad
(2.15)
an+1 (n + 1)(a1 a2 an+1 )1/(n+1) n(a1 a2 an )1/n .
Prosjtontac kat mlh tic (2.13) kai (2.15) qoume
(2.16)
a1 + a2 + + an+1 (n + 1)(a1 a2 an+1 )1/(n+1) ,
dhlad h (2.3) isqei kai gia ton fusik n + 1. Smfwna me thn arq thc
majhmatikc epagwgc, h anisthta isqei gia kje n N.
2.2 H genik anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou

H anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou (2.6) qei to prosn thc autogenkeushc. Upodeiknei sqedn autmata na no apotlesma, to opoo kalptei
periptseic pou h dia fhne jiktec.
Jerhma 2.2.1 (anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou me

rht brh). 'Estw p1 , p2 , . . . , pn mh arnhtiko rhto arijmo me jroisma 1.
An a1 , a2 , . . . , an enai mh arnhtiko pragmatiko arijmo, tte
(2.17)
a1p1 ap22 apnn p1 a1 + p2 a2 + + pn an .
Ap th stigm pou ja anarwthjome poin rlo pazei h upjesh ti oi pj

enai rhto, briskmaste dh pol kont sth lsh tou problmatoc. An jewrsoume nan fusik arijm M ste gia kje j na mporome na gryoume
pj = kj /M gia kpoion fusik arijm kj , tte blpoume ti h fainomenik pol
2.2 H genikh anisothta arijmhtikou gewmetrikou mesou 21

pi genik kdosh (2.17) thc anisthtac arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou prokptei ap thn arqik kdosh (2.3) an thn efarmsoume gia mia akolouja pou qei
mkoc M kai emfanzei pollc epanalyeic. Jewrome thn akolouja pou periqei kj antgrafa tou aj gia kje 1 j n kai met efarmzoume thn klasik
anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou (2.3).
Uprqei mwc akma ma paratrhsh pou mporome na knoume. Ap th stigm pou h (2.17) qei apodeiqte gia rht pj , h dia anisthta prokptei gia genikc
timc twn pj , {parnontac ria}. Gia na dsoume leptomer apdeixh, prta epilgoume mia akolouja rhtn arijmn pj (t), j = 1, 2, . . . , n kai t = 1, 2, . . . gia
thn opoa qoume
pj (t) 0,
n
X
pj (t) = 1,
j=1
kai
lim pj (t) = pj .
Katpin, efarmzoume thn (2.7) gia tic n-dec (p1 (t), p2 (t), . . . , pn (t)), kai, tloc,
afnoume to n na pei sto peiro kai parnoume to zhtomeno.
H teqnik thc apdeixhc miac anisthtac prta gia rhtoc kai met gia
pragmatikoc me {prasma sto rio} enai pol suqn qrsimh, qei mwc
kpoia meionektmata. Gia pardeigma, to gnsio miac anisthtac mpore na
qaje tan pernme sto rio, qrhsimopointac loipn autn thn teqnik
den qoume plrh katanhsh gia tic periptseic isthtac. Merikc forc
aut h apleia den enai shmantik, gia na ergaleo mwc tso shmantik
so h anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou, oi sunjkec ktw ap
tic opoec gnetai isthta enai shmantikc. Ja protimosame mia apdeixh
h opoa na antimetwpzei louc touc rouc thc anisthtac me eniao trpo,
kti pou h mjodoc thc prosggishc me rhtoc den mpore na epitqei.
To neiro tou
P
olya
Uprqoun pollc apodexeic thc anisthtac arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou. Mia

idiatera gohteutik apdeixh enai aut tou George Polya, pou anfere kpote
pwc h apdeixh ton episkfthke se kpoio neiro. Pragmatik, tan rwtjhke
gi autn thn apdeixh, qrnia argtera, o Polya apnthse ti
{tan ta kaltera Majhmatik pou eqe pot oneireute}.
'Opwc o Cauchy, o Polya arqzei thn apdeix tou me mia apl paratrhsh gia
mia mh arnhtik sunrthsh, mno pou o P
olya jewre thn sunrthsh x 7 ex ant
gia thn sunrthsh x 7 x2 . H grafik parstash thc y = ex deqnei thn idithta
thc y = ex pou enai to kleid thc apdeixhc tou Polya. Sugkekrimna, deqnei
ti h efaptmenh eujea y = 1 + x brsketai ktw ap thn kamplh y = ex . Me
lla lgia, qoume thn anisthta
(2.18)
1 + x ex
gia kje x R.
Jerhma 2.2.2 (h genik anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko

msou). An p1 , p2 , . . . , pn enai mh arnhtiko pragmatiko arijmo me jroisma
1 kai an a1 , a2 , . . . , an enai mh arnhtiko pragmatiko arijmo, tte

(2.19)
ap11 ap22 anpn p1 a1 + p2 a2 + + pn an .
Sthn anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou (2.19), to arister mloc

periqei na ginmeno rwn, kai h analutik anisthta 1+x ex frssei amswc
na ttoio ginmeno ap to ekjetik enc ajrosmatoc. Epiplon, uprqoun
do trpoi gia na ekmetalleutome autn thn dunatthta. Ja mporosame na
gryoume touc ak sth morf 1 + xk kai met na efarmsoume thn (2.18), ja
mporosame na tropopoisoume thn (2.18) ste na efarmzetai apeujeac gia
touc ak . Sthn prxh, ja mporosame na diereunsoume kai touc do trpouc,
gia thn ra mwc ja epikentrwjome sto detero sqdio.
An knoume thn allag metablhtc x 7 x1, tte h anisthta (2.18) parnei
th morf
(2.20)
x ex1
gia kje x R,
kai an efarmsoume autn thn anisthta gia touc ak , k = 1, 2, . . . , n, parnoume
ak eak 1
kai apkk epk ak pk .
Pollaplasizontac, blpoume ti o gewmetrikc msoc G = ap11 ap22 apnn frssetai ap thn posthta
( n
)
!
X
pk ak 1 .
(2.21)
R(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) = exp
k=1
H anisthta G R enai endiafrousa, aut mwc pou ja jlame na dome enai

pc sugkrnetai h posthta R me ton arijmhtik mso
A = p1 a1 + p2 a2 + + pn an .
Aut enai to shmeo sto opoo to prblhma gnetai endiafron.
To prto prgma pou parathrome enai ti, ap thn anisthta A eA1 ,
o R enai nw frgma kai gia ton arijmhtik mso A. Dhlad, qoume th dipl
anisthta
( n
)
!
X
p1
(2.22)
max{a1 apnn , p1 a1 + + pn an } exp
pk ak 1 .
k=1
Odhgomaste tsi se na ek prthc yewc pardoxo erthma:
Pc mporome na sugkrnoume do posthtec tan to mno pou gnwrzoume

enai na koin nw frgma touc?
Ja mporosame na apojarrunjome se aut to shmeo, parathrome mwc
to exc. H anisthta (2.22) dnei mia sqsh anmesa sta A kai G sthn eidik
perptwsh pou nac ap autoc touc do arijmoc isotai me R! Parathrste
ti an max{A, G} = R kai R = A, tte G A.
2.2 H genikh anisothta arijmhtikou gewmetrikou mesou 23

An knoume autn thn paratrhsh, tte h gnwst plon teqnik thc kanonikopohshc mac rqetai sto no. An jewrsoume tic nec metablhtc k ,
k = 1, 2, . . . , n, pou orzontai ap touc lgouc
k =
ak
A
pou A = p1 a1 + p2 a2 + + pn an ,
kai an efarmsoume thn anisthta (2.21) gi autc tic nec metablhtc, tte
parnoume
)
!
( n
n a p1 a p2
a pn o
X ak
1
2
n
max 1,
1 = 1,
exp
pk
A
A
A
A
k=1
kai sunepc,
a p 1 a p 2
2
a pn
n
1.
A
A
A
Frnontac sto dexi mloc tic dunmeic tou A kai qrhsimopointac thn upjesh
ti p1 + p2 + + pn = 1, katalgoume sthn genik anisthta arijmhtiko
gewmetriko msou (2.19).
Koitzontac psw sta bmata autc thc apdeixhc thc anisthtac (2.19),
blpoume ti mporome ekola na prosdiorsoume tic propojseic ktw ap tic
opoec isqei san isthta. Exetzontac to prto bma blpoume ti qoume
ak
< e(ak /A)1
A
(2.23)
kai qoume pnta
ektc an
ak
= 1,
A
ak
e(ak /A)1 ,
A
ra
(2.24)
a p1 a p2
1
a p n
n
(
< exp
n
X
k=1
ak
pk
A
!
1
= 1,
ektc an ak = A gia kje k = 1, 2, . . . , n. Me lla lgia, blpoume ti isqei

isthta sthn anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou (2.19) an kai mno an
a1 = a2 = = an .
Poic tan o
George P
olya
O George Polya (1887-1985) tan nac ap touc pi shmantikoc Majhmatikoc

tou 20ou aina, o opooc eqe idiaterh epirro ston trpo me ton opoo blpoume
smera tic diadikasec thc didaskalac kai thc mjhshc. O Polya jewrose ti h
diadikasa thc eplushc problhmtwn enai jemelidhc anjrpinh drasthrithta
mia drasthrithta gemth sugkinseic, dhmiourgikthta kai agph gia th zw.
Eqe epshc skefte pol pnw ston trpo me ton opoo ja mporose kanec na
gnei pi ikanc lthc majhmatikn problhmtwn kai ston trpo me ton opoo ja
mporose kanec na didxei llouc na knoun to dio.
O P
olya sunyise tic skyeic tou se rket bibla, me pi gnwst to {Pc
na to lseic}. To kentrik shmeo sta grapt tou Polya enai ti suqn

mporome na knoume bmata gia thn eplush enc majhmatiko problmatoc
rwtntac merikc genikc erwtseic koinc logikc. Pollc ap tic erwtseic
tou Polya fanontai profanec se nan {gennhmno lth problhmtwn}, mwc, o
qrnoc deqnei ti periqoun arket sofa.
Mporec na lseic to prblhm sou se mia eidik perptwsh?

Mporec na susqetseic to prblhm sou me kpoio parmoio sto opoo h
apnthsh enai dh gnwst?
Mporec na upologseic kti pou na sqetzetai me aut pou jleic pragmatik na upologseic?
Keflaio 3
Kurtthta
3.1 H anisthta tou Jensen
Mia sunrthsh f : [a, b] R lgetai kurt an gia kje x, y [a, b] kai gia kje
0 p 1 qoume
(3.1)
f (px + (1 p)y) pf (x) + (1 p)f (y).
H anisthta tou Jensen sundei kat jemelidh trpo thn nnoia thc kurtthtac
me thn jewra twn anisottwn.
Jerhma 3.1.1 (anisthta tou Jensen). Upojtoume ti h f : [a, b]

R enai kurt sunrthsh kai ti oi mh arnhtiko arijmo pj , j = 1, 2, . . . , n
ikanopoion thn sqsh
p1 + p2 + + pn = 1.
Tte, gia kje xj [a, b], j = 1, 2, . . . , n qoume
(3.2)
n
X
j=1
pj xj
n
X
pj f (xj ).
j=1
Sthn perptwsh n = 2 h anisthta tou Jensen (3.2) enai o orismc thc kurtc
sunrthshc, to nstikt mac loipn upodeiknei na yxoume gia mia apdeixh me
epagwg. Aut h prosggish apaite na susqetsoume msouc rouc mkouc n1
me msouc rouc mkouc n, kai aut mpore na gnei me diforouc trpouc.
Mia fusiologik ida enai na apomonsoume ton teleutao prosjeto kai
na kanonikopoisoume ti apomnei. Pio sugkekrimna, parathrome prta ti
den qnoume se genikthta an upojsoume ti 0 < pn < 1 kai, se autn thn
perptwsh, mporome na gryoume
n
X
j=1
pj xj = pn xn + (1 pn )
n1
X
j=1
pj
xj .
1 pn
26 Kurtothta
Tra, ap ton orism thc kurtc sunrthshc kai ap thn epagwgik upjesh
me aut th seir blpoume ti
n
n
X
X
p
j
f
pj xj pn f (xn ) + (1 pn )f
xj
1
pn
j=1
j=1
pn f (xn ) + (1 pn )
n1
X
j=1
n
X
pj
f (xj )
1 pn
pj f (xj ).
j=1
Aut h anisthta oloklhrnei to epagwgik bma.

Uprqoun pollc efarmogc thc anisthtac tou Jensen, kai kpoiec ap autc
baszontai sthn katanhsh twn sunjhkn ktw ap tic opoec qoume isthta.
Ed, ja mac fane qrsimo na perioristome se ekenec tic sunartseic f : [a, b]
R me thn idithta: gia kje x 6= y [a, b] kai gia kje 0 < p < 1 isqei h gnsia
anisthta
(3.3)
f (px + (1 p)y) < pf (x) + (1 p)f (y).
Autc oi sunartseic onomzontai gnhswc kurtc.
Jerhma 3.1.2 (h perptwsh thc isthtac sthn anisthta tou

Jensen). 'Estw f : [a, b] R mia gnhswc kurt sunrthsh kai ac upojsoume
ti
(3.4)
n
n
X
X
f
pj xj =
pj f (xj )
j=1
j=1
pou oi jetiko arijmo pj , j = 1, 2, . . . , n qoun jroisma p1 + p2 + + pn = 1.

Tte, prpei na isqei
(3.5)
x1 = x2 = = xn .
H apdeixh enai pli apl, pwc kai h apdeixh thc anisthtac tou Jensen,
h shmasa mwc tou apotelsmatoc enai meglh.
Gia pollc anisthtec, anakalptoume pte isqei isthta parnontac thn

apdeixh thc anisthtac kai akoloujntac thn ap to tloc proc thn arq.
Aut h prosggish douleei tleia sthn perptwsh thc anisthtac tou
Jensen, h logik mwc tou epiqeirmatoc pou ja qrhsimopoisoume enai
kpwc diaforetik.
An to sumprasma (3.5) den isqei, tte to snolo
S = {j : xj 6= max xk }
1kn
3.1 H anisothta tou Jensen 27

enai gnsio uposnolo tou {1, 2, . . . , n}, kai ap autn thn upjesh ja odhghjome se antfash. Gia to skop aut, jtoume
p=
pj ,
x=
jS
X pj
jS
xj ,
kai y =
X pj
xj ,
1p
j S
/
kai, qrhsimopointac thn gnsia kurtthta thc f , sumperanoume ti
n
X
(3.6)
f
pj xj = f (px + (1 p)y) < pf (x) + (1 p)f (y).
j=1
Epiplon, efarmzontac thn kurtthta thc f qwrist gia ta x kai y , parnoume

thn anisthta
pf (x) + (1 p)f (y)
X pj
jS
n
X
f (xj ) + (1 p)
X pj
f (xj )
1p
j S
/
pj f (xj ).
j=1
Tloc, ap autn thn anisthta kai ap thn gnsia anisthta (3.6), blpoume
ti
n
n
X
X
f
pj xj <
pj f (xj ),
j=1
j=1
kai aut antifskei proc thn upjesh (3.4). 'Etsi, qoume to zhtomeno.
Kritrio thc paraggou gia thn kurtthta

'Ena basik pleonkthma thc anisthtac tou Jensen enai h geniktht thc, prin
mwc qrhsimopoisoume thn anisthta tou Jensen se kpoio prblhma, prpei
prta na exasfalsoume thn kurtthta kpoiac (katllhlhc gia to prblhma)
sunrthshc. Se merikc periptseic aut epitugqnetai me epaljeush tou orismo (3.1), sunjwc mwc, epalhjeoume thn kurtthta qrhsimopointac to
akloujo kritrio paraggou.
Jerhma 3.1.3 (kritrio paraggou gia thn kurtthta).
An h
f : (a, b) R enai do forc paragwgsimh kai f 00 (x) 0 gia kje x (a, b),
tte h f enai kurt sto (a, b). An f 00 (x) > 0 gia kje x (a, b), tte h f enai
gnhswc kurt sto (a, b).
Gia thn apdeixh, afo jloume na susqetsoume th sunrthsh f me tic paraggouc thc, enai pol fusik na xekinsoume me thn anaparstash thc f pou
mac dnei to jemelidec jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo. Sugkekrimna, an
stajeropoisoume mia tim x0 [a, b], qoume thn anaparstash
Z x
(3.7)
f (x) = f (x0 ) +
f 0 (u) du gia kje x [a, b],
x0
28 Kurtothta
kai aut mac dnei thn ida na qrhsimopoisoume to gegonc ti, afo f 00 0, h
sunrthsh f 0 enai axousa. Gia thn akrbeia, h upjes mac den periqei kama
llh plhrofora, prpei loipn h anaparstash (3.7), h monotona thc f 0 kai
kpoia arijmhtik na mac odhgsoun sto sumprasma.
Gia na proqwrsoume, jewrome a x < y b kai 0 < p < 1. Jtontac
q = 1 p kai efarmzontac thn anaparstash (3.7) gia ta x, y kai x0 = px + qy ,
blpoume ti h posthta
= pf (x) + qf (y) f (px + qy)

grfetai sth morf
Z
(3.8)
=q
px+qy
f (u) du p
px+qy
f 0 (u) du.
Gia kje u [x, px + qy] qoume f 0 (u) f 0 (px + qy), opte isqei h anisthta
Z px+qy
(3.9)
p
f 0 (u) du qp(y x)f 0 (px + qy),
x
en gia kje u [px+qy, y] qoume f 0 (u) f 0 (px+qy), opte isqei h anisthta

Z y
(3.10)
q
f 0 (u) du qp(y x)f 0 (px + qy).
px+qy
Sunepc, ap thn oloklhrwtik anaparstash (3.8) gia thn kai ap tic anisthtec (3.9) kai (3.10), blpoume ti 0.
Gia ton detero isqurism tou problmatoc, arke na parathrsoume ti an
f 00 (x) > 0 gia kje x (a, b), tte oi anisthtec (3.9) kai (3.10) enai gnsiec.
'Etsi, h anaparstash (3.8) gia thn dnei > 0, to opoo apodeiknei thn
gnsia kurtthta thc f .
H anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou msw thc ekjetikc sunrthshc

To kritrio thc paraggou mac exasfalzei ti h sunrthsh x 7 ex enai kurt,
opte h anisthta tou Jensen mac lei ti gia kje n-da pragmatikn arijmn
y1 , y2 , . . . , yn kai gia kje epilog jetikn arijmn pj , j = 1, . . . , n me p1 + p2 +
+ pn = 1, isqei h anisthta
n
n
X
X
exp
pj yj
pj eyj .
j=1
j=1
Jtontac xj = eyj , xanabrskoume th gnwst anisthta

n
Y
j=1
xj j
n
X
pj xj .
j=1
Blpoume loipn ti, me ekplhktik sntomo kai kajar trpo, h anisthta tou
Jensen mac odhge sth genikeumnh anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou.
3.2 H qrhsh thc kurtothtac se kapoia tupika problhmata 29
Aut h optik gia thn anisthta arijmhtiko-gewmetriko msou enai apokaluptik gia thn fsh kai th shmasa thc. H kentrik jsh pou katqei
h anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou sth jewra twn anisottwn
antanakl to jemelidh rlo thc ekjetikc sunrthshc, h opoa dr san
isomorfismc anmesa stic do pi shmantikc omdec: thn prosjetik omda twn pragmatikn arijmn kai thn pollaplasiastik omda twn jetikn
pragmatikn arijmn.
3.2 H qrsh thc kurtthtac se kpoia tupik problmata

Pollc ap tic gnwstc sunartseic pou sunantme sthn trigwnometra kai thn
gewmetra enai kurtc, kai, pol suqn, aut touc h idithta qei pol qrsimec
sunpeiec. 'Ena pardeigma mac dnei to exc prblhma:
Prblhma 3.2.1 (to mgisto ginmeno do akmn). Se na ispleuro
trgwno embado A, to ginmeno opoiwndpote do pleurn isotai me (4/ 3)A.

Dexte ti aut h perptwsh enai akraa: kje trgwno embado Aqei do
pleurc me mkh pou to ginmen touc enai megaltero so ap (4/ 3)A.
Gia na xekinsoume qreiazmaste tpouc oi opooi na sundoun to embadn
A enc trignou me ta mkh a, b, c twn pleurn tou kai tic antstoiqec gwnec
, , . Gnwrzoume ti
1
1
1
ab sin = ac sin = bc sin .
2
2
2
An proume ton mso ro twn trin isottwn, mporome na gryoume
1
2A
1
1
1
(3.11)
(ab + ac + bc) =
+
+
.
3
3
sin sin
sin
A=
Aut h sqsh mac parakine na exetsoume thn kurtthta thc sunrthshc 1/ sin x.
H grafik parstash thc x 7 1/ sin x gia x (0, ) thn upodeiknei, kai aut
epibebainetai ap to kritrio thc paraggou: qoume
00
1
1
cos2 x
(3.12)
=
+ 2 3 > 0 gia kje x (0, ).
sin x
sin x
sin x
Sunepc, afo ( + + )/3 = /3, ap thn anisthta tou Jensen blpoume ti
1
1
1
1
1
2
+
+
= ,
3 sin sin
sin
sin(/3)
3
kai, ap thn (3.11), parnoume th zhtomenh anisthta
(3.13)
max{ab, ac, bc}
1
4
(ab + ac + bc) A.
3
3
To prblhma pou suzhtsame sundetai sten me mia gnwst anisthta tou

Weitzenb
ock, h opoa isqurzetai ti se kje trgwno qoume
(3.14)
4
a2 + b2 + c2 A.
3
30 Kurtothta
Prgmati, gia na persoume ap thn (3.13) sthn anisthta tou Weitzenb
ock,
arke na jumhjome ti
ab + ac + bc a2 + b2 + c2 ,
kti pou mporome na apodexoume me do toulqiston trpouc: h anisthta tou
Cauchy kai h anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou douleoun exsou kal
se autn thn perptwsh.
3.3 Beltinontac thn anisthta tou Jensen

Uprqoun kpoiec majhmatikc mjodoi pou, me hmiautmato trpo, genikeoun
mia tautthta, isquropoion mia anisthta, beltinoun kpoio gnwst apotlesma. To epmeno apotlesma mac dnei na pardeigma miac ttoiac mejdou.
Deqnei pc ja mporosame na prospajsoume na isquropoisoume kje anisthta pou prokptei me efarmog thc anisthtac tou Jensen.
Jerhma 3.3.1 (o tpoc sflmatoc tou Holder). 'Estw f : [a, b] R

do forc paragwgsimh sunrthsh me thn idithta
0 m f 00 (x) M
(3.15)
gia kje x [a, b].
An a x1 x2 xn b kai an pk , k = 1, 2, . . . , n enai mh arnhtiko

arijmo me p1 + p2 + + pn = 1, uprqei pragmatikc arijmc [m, M ] gia
ton opoo isqei h isthta
n
!
n
n
n
X
X
1 XX
pk xk =
(3.16)
pk f (xk ) f
pj pk (xj xk )2 .
4 j=1
k=1
k=1
k=1
Aut to apotlesma periqetai sto fhmismno rjro (pou dhmosiethke to

1885) tou Otto Ludwig Holder (1859-1937) sto opoo apodeiknetai kai h perfhmh anisthta pou meine gnwst wc {anisthta tou H
older}. H anisthta tou
sflmatoc enai ligtero gnwst all pol shmantik. Dnei nan pol fusiologik trpo gia na metrsoume th diafor anmesa sta do mlh thc anisthtac
tou Jensen, kai mac lei pc na petqoume kaltera apotelsmata ap aut pou
dnei h apl efarmog thc anisthtac tou Jensen stic periptseic pou qoume
mh tetrimmnec ektimseic sthn (3.15). Pol suqn, h megalterh akrbeia twn
ektimsewn pou petuqanoume den dikaiologe ton prsjeto kpo pou apaitetai,
merik mwc lept problmata apaiton autn akribc th megalterh akrbeia.
H anisthta sflmatoc tou H
older (3.16) mac bohjei epshc na katalboume
kaltera th sqsh twn kurtn sunartsewn me tic aplosterec grammikc
tetragwnikc sunartseic. Gia pardeigma, an h diafor M m enai mikr, tte
h anisthta (3.16) mac lei ti h f sumperifretai peristero san tetragwnik
sunrthsh sto [a, b]. Epiplon, sthn akraa perptwsh pou m = M , blpoume
ti h f enai akribc tetragwnik, dhlad f (x) = + x + x2 me m = M = 2 ,
kai h (3.16) parnei th morf miac aplc tetragwnikc tautthtac.
'Omoia, an to M enai mikr, ac pome 0 M , tte h anisthta (3.16) mac
lei ti h f sumperifretai peristero san mia grammik sunrthsh f (x) = +x.
3.3 Beltiwnontac thn anisothta tou Jensen 31

Gia mia grammik sunrthsh, to arister mloc thc (3.16) isotai me mhdn, genik
mwc h (3.16) mac lei ti to arister mloc enai na mikr pollaplsio enc
mtrou tou bajmo diqushc twn xj , j = 1, 2, . . . , n sto [a, b].
H diatpwsh tou jewrmatoc mac odhge amswc sto exc erthma: pc mporome na qrhsimopoisoume to gegonc ti 0 m f 00 (x) M ? Parathrome
tte ti oi sunartseic
1
1
M x2 f (x) kai h(x) = f (x) mx2
2
2
g(x) =
oi opoec sundontai sten me aut to erthma, enai epshc kurtc. Fusiologik

tte, koitme th morf pou parnei h anisthta tou Jensen an efarmoste gi
autc tic sunartseic.
Sthn perptwsh thc g , h anisthta tou Jensen dnei thn
n
X
1
M x2 f (x)
pk
2
k=1
1
M x2k f (xk )
2
pou qoume jsei x = p1 x1 + p2 x2 + + pn xn , kai anadiatssontac touc rouc

se autn thn anisthta, parnoume thn
)
( n
!
)
( n
X
X
1
2
2
pk f (xk ) f (x)
pk xk x
M
2
k=1
k=1
1
M
2
n
X
pk (xk x)2 .
k=1
Knontac entelc anlogo upologism gia thn h, blpoume ti

)
( n
n
X
1 X
pk f (xk ) f (x) m
pk (xk x)2 .
2
k=1
k=1
Oi do autc anisthtec oloklhrnoun thn apdeixh thc (3.16). To mno pou

lepei enai na parathrsoume ti isqei h tautthta
n
X
k=1
pk (xk x)2 =
1 XX
pj pk (xj xk )2 ,
2 j=1
k=1
kti pou elgqetai ekola an anaptxoume ta do mlh kai qrhsimopoisoume ton

orism tou x.
Keflaio 4
H anisthta tou Holder

'Eqoume de wc tra tra ap ta tssera kentrik apotelsmata thc klasikc jewrac twn anisottwn: thn anisthta CauchySchwarz, thn anisthta
arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou, kai thn anisthta tou Jensen. Thn tetrda
sumplhrnei na apotlesma pou apodeqjhke prta ap ton L. C. Rogers to
1888 kai, me diaforetik trpo, nan qrno argtera ap ton Otto Holder. Sth
sgqronh glssa, h anisthta isqurzetai ti gia louc touc mh arnhtikoc ak
kai bk , k = 1, 2, . . . , n, isqei h anisthta
(4.1)
n
X
k=1
ak bk
n
X
!1/p
apk
k=1
n
X
!1/q
bqk
k=1
up ton ro ti oi ekjtec p > 1 kai q > 1 ikanopoion thn sqsh
(4.2)
1 1
+ = 1.
p q
Axzei na shmeiwje ti ta rjra twn Rogers kai H

older dnoun thn entpwsh
ti oi suggrafec endiafrontan kurwc gia tic pijanc epektseic kai efarmogc thc anisthtac arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou. Eidiktera, den moiazan na
jewron thn anisthta (4.1) sth morf pou o kajnac thn apdeixe kti to
idiatera shmantik, parlo pou o Rogers thn ektimose arket ste na parousisei do apodexeic thc. Autc pou prtoc diatpwse thn anisthta sth morf
(4.1) kai anagnrise ton jemelidh rlo thc, tan o Frigyes Riesz. Mporome
loipn na isquristome ti h anisthta (4.1) ja prepe na onomzetai {anisthta
tou Rogers} {anisthta RogersHolderRiesz}. 'Opwc mwc sumbanei suqn,
se kpoia arqik qronik stigm epibljhke to noma {anisthta tou Holder},
kai pol dskola ja mporose kanec na epimenei sth qrsh llou onmatoc.
lder
34 H anisothta tou Ho
4.1 Istorik sqlia

H anisthta pou apdeixe o Rogers to 1888, isqurzetai ti gia kje 0 < r < s <
t < kai gia kje mh arnhtikoc arijmoc ak , bk , k = 1, 2, . . . , n, qoume
(4.3)
n
X
!tr
ak bsk
k=1
n
X
!ts
ak brk
k=1
n
X
!sr
ak btk
k=1
pou gia suntoma grfetai sth morf
(4.4)
(Ss )tr (Sr )ts (St )sr ,
pou Sp =
n
X
ak bpk , p > 0.
k=1
O Rogers dwse do apodexeic gi autn thn anisthta: sthn prth qrhsimopoose thn {tautthta twn tessrwn grammtwn}, en sthn deterh qrhsimopoiose thn anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou, thn opoa grafe sth
morf
(4.5)
1 w2
xw
1 x2
n
xw
n
w1 x1 + w2 x2 + + wn xn
w1 + w2 + + wn
w1 +w2 ++wn
.
Qrhsimopointac tic antikatastseic wk = ak bsk kai xk = bts

k , o Rogers katlhge sthn
a bs a bs2
b1 1 1 b2 2
(4.6)
a bsn
bnn
ts
(St /Ss )Ss ,
kai qrhsimopointac tic antikatastseic wk = ak bsk kai xk = brs

k , katlhge
sthn
a bs a bs2
b1 1 1 b2 2
(4.7)
a bsn
bnn
rs
(Sr /Ss )Ss .
Sunduzontac thn (4.6) me thn antistrof thc (4.7), parnoume
(4.8)
a bs a bs2
(Ss /Sr )Ss /(sr) b1 1 1 b2 2
a bsn
bnn
(St /Ss )Ss /(ts) .
'Epetai ti
(Ss /Sr )1/(sr) (St /Ss )1/(ts) ,
(4.9)
dhlad,
Sstr Srts Stsr .
(4.10)
H akribc anisthta pou apdeixe o Holder to 1889, lege ti gia kje wk 0,

yk 0 kai p > 0 isqei
(4.11)
n
X
k=1
wk yk
n
X
k=1
!(p1)/p
wk
n
X
k=1
!1/p
wk ykp
lder 35
4.2 Apodeixh thc anisothtac tou Ho
O Holder xekinose ap thn anisthta tou Jensen: an : [0, +) R enai
mia kurt sunrthsh, tte gia kje y1 , . . . , yn 0 kai gia kje w1 , . . . , wn > 0
qoume
(4.12)
w1 (y1 ) + w2 (y2 ) + + wn (yn )

w1 y1 + w2 x2 + + wn yn
.
w1 + w2 + + wn
w1 + w2 + + wn
Efarmzontac autn thn anisthta gia thn kurt sunrthsh (x) = xp , parnoume
(4.13)
w1 y1 + w2 x2 + + wn yn
w1 + w2 + + wn
w1 y1p + w2 y2p + + wn ynp

.
w1 + w2 + + wn
Me lla lgia,
(4.14)
n
X
!p
wk yk
k=1
n
X
k=1
!p1
wk
n
X
!
wk ykp
k=1
ap pou prokptei h (4.11).

Mporome tra na persoume ap thn (4.11) sthn (4.1) jtontac wk = bpk
kai yk = ak /bp1
.
k
Gia thn antstrofh katejunsh an jloume dhlad na xekinsoume ap thn
(4.1) kai na katalxoume sthn (4.11) efarmzoume thn (4.1) me
(4.15)
1/p
ak = wk yk
1/q
kai bk = wk .
4.2 Apdeixh thc anisthtac tou Holder

Dnoume tra thn apdeixh thc anisthtac (4.1) tou Riesz kai prosdiorzoume tic
propojseic ktw ap tic opoec isqei san isthta: gia dosmnh mh mhdenik
akolouja a1 , a2 , . . . , an isqei isthta sthn (4.1) an kai mno an uprqei stajer
R ste
(4.16)
1/p
ak
= b1/q
gia kje 1 k n.
H prth skyh pou mac rqetai sto mual enai asfalc na prospajsoume
na prosarmsoume kpoia ap tic apodexeic thc anisthtac tou Cauchy: enai
mlista arket qrsimo na dome giat kpoiec ap autc den mporon na mac
bohjsoun. Gia pardeigma, an p 6= 2, to epiqerhma tou Schwarz den mpore na
doulyei afo den uprqei kpoio trinumo pou na sqetzetai fusiologik me to
prblhma. 'Omoia, h apousa enc ttoiou triwnmou shmanei ti enai apjano
na brome kpoia tautthta tpou Lagrange pou na odhge sthn anisthta.
Erqmaste tsi sthn pi isqur apdeixh thc anisthtac tou Cauchy, autn
pou xekinei me thn {tapein anisthta}
(4.17)
xy
1 2 1 2
x + y
2
2
gia kje x, y R.
lder
Aut h anisthta mac jumzei ti, ap thn genik anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko
msou (2.9) petai ti
x y
(4.18)
x+ +
y +
+
+
gia kje x 0, y 0, > 0 kai > 0. An loipn jsoume u = x , v = y ,

p = ( + )/ kai q = ( + )/ , tte blpoume ti gia kje p > 1 isqei h
sunepagwg
(4.19)
1 1
+ =1
p q
uv
1 p 1 q
u + v
p
q
gia kje u, v R+ .
Aut idanik genkeush thc (4.17) enai gnwst wc {anisthta tou Young}.
H sunqeia thc apdeixhc thc anisthtac tou Holder enai h sunhjismnh. An
knoume tic antikatastseic u 7 ak kai y 7 bk sthn (4.19) kai an ajrosoume
wc proc 1 k n, parnoume thn
(4.20)
n
X
ak bk
k=1
k=1
k=1
1X p 1X q
ak +
bk ,
p
q
kai, gia na persoume ap autn thn prosjetik anisthta se mia pollaplasiastik anisthta, mporome na efarmsoume to tqnasma thc kanonikopohshc to
opoo qoume dh qrhsimopoisei. Qwrc periorism thc genikthtac mporome na
upojsoume ti kama ap tic do akoloujec den enai tautotik mhdenik, opte
mporome na orsoume tic kanonikopoihmnec metablhtc
!1/q
!1/p
X
X
n
n
q
p
b
.
a
kai
bk = bk
a
k = ak
k
k=1
k=1
Tra, an antikatastsoume autoc tic timc sthn prosjetik anisthta (4.20)

parnoume to zhtomeno me apl arijmhtik.
To epiqerhma tou Riesz enai meso, mwc o trpoc diatpwshc thc anisthtac
ap ton Riesz tan autc pou aplosteuse pol thn apdeix thc: eqe thn
sofa na antilhfje ton rlo twn zeugarin ekjetn p kai q pou ikanopoion
thn 1/p + 1/q = 1. H isorropa twn suzugn ekjetn fanetai dh sthn p q
genkeush (4.19) thc (4.17), kai pazei pol shmantik rlo sthn Anlush.
Gia na oloklhrsoume th lsh tou problmatoc prpei na prosdiorsoume tic
periptseic stic opoec isqei isthta. Parathrste prta ti isqei tetrimmna
isthta an bk = 0 gia kje 1 k n, mwc se autn thn perptwsh h isthta
(4.16) ikanopoietai me = 0. 'Etsi, qwrc periorism thc genikthtac upojtoume
ti kai oi do akoloujec enai mh mhdenikc.
Sth sunqeia, parathrome ti isqei isthta sthn anisthta tou Holder
(4.1) an kai mno an isqei isthta sthn prosjetik anisthta (4.20) tan aut
efarmzetai gia tic kanonikopoihmnec metablhtc a
k kai bk . Ap thn kat shmeo
anisthta (4.19) blpoume tra ti isqei isthta sthn prosjetik anisthta
(4.20) an kai mno an qoume
1 p
a
k bk = a
+
p k
1 q
b
q k
gia kje k = 1, 2, . . . , n.
lder 37
4.3 Antistrofh thc anisothtac tou Ho
Tte, ap ton qarakthrism thc isthtac sthn anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko
msou (4.18), blppoume ti gia kje 1 k n prpei na isqei a
pk = bqk . Tloc,
epistrfontac stic arqikc metablhtc ak kai bk , blpoume ti apk = bqk gia kje
1 k n, pou h stajer isotai me
n
!1/q n
!1/p
X q
X p
=
bk
ak
.
k=1
k=1
'Eqoume tsi dsei qarakthrism gia tic periptseic isthtac sthn anisthta
tou H
older.
4.3 Antstrofh thc anisthtac tou Holder

To epmeno apotlesma ja mporose na idwje wc h antstrofh thc anisthtac
tou H
older.
Jerhma 4.3.1 (h antstrofh thc Holder h nnoia tou dusmo). An 1 < p < kai an C enai mia stajer me thn idithta
n
X
(4.21)
(
ak xk C
k=1
n
X
)1/p
|xk |p
k=1
gia kje xk , 1 k n, tte, an jsoume q = p/(p 1), isqei h anisthta

)1/q
( n
X
q
|ak |
C.
(4.22)
k=1
Aut to apotlesma mac bohjei na exhgsoume giat h emfnish twn suzugn ekjetn (p, q) tou Riesz enai anapfeukth. Oi mh grammiko periorismo
enai pntote dsqrhstoi, kai ed blpoume ti oi x metablhtc emfanzontai kai
sta do mlh thc upjeshc (4.21). Gia na tic apaleyoume qreiazmaste na
tqnasma.
Mia ida pou douleei arket suqn tan qoume elejerec metablhtc kai
sta do mlh miac sqshc enai na {sunwmotsoume} ste na knoume ta do
mlh na moizoun so gnetai perisstero. Aut h {arq thc exswshc twn do
meln} den enai telewc safc, sthn perptws mac mwc upodeiknei ti gia kje
1 k n ja prepe na epilxoume to xk tsi ste na isqei h ak xk = |xk |p .
Me lla lgia, jtoume xk = sign(ak )|ak |p/(p1) , pou sign(ak ) = 1 an ak 0
kai sign(ak ) = 1 an ak < 0. Me autn thn epilog, h sunjkh (4.21) parnei
th morf
( n
)1/p
n
X
X
p/(p1)
p/(p1)
|ak |
C
|ak |
.
(4.23)
k=1
k=1
Qwrc periorism thc genikthtac mporome na upojsoume ti to jroisma sto

dexi mloc enai mh mhdenik, opte mporome na diairsoume me aut to jroisma.
Qrhsimopointac th sqsh 1/p+1/q = 1 parathrome ti prokptei h zhtomenh
anisthta (4.22).
lder
H anisthta tou
Minkowski
H anisthta tou Holder kai h anisthta dusmo (4.22) mporon na epanadiatupwjon me polloc trpouc, o pi morfoc mwc ap louc apaite thn eisagwg
kpoiou nou sumbolismo. An a = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) enai mia n da pragmatikn
arijmn, gia kje 1 p < grfoume
(4.24)
kakp =
n
X
!1/p
|ak |
k=1
en gia p = jtoume kak = max1kn |ak |. Me autn ton sumbolism, h

anisthta tou H
older (4.1) gia 1 p < parnei thn apl morf
n
ak bk kakp kbkq ,
k=1
pou gia 1 < p < to zeugri (p, q) enai oi sunjeic suzugec ekjtec pou
prosdiorzontai ap thn sqsh
1 1
+ =1
p q
tan 1 < p < ,
en gia p = 1 jtoume q = .
H posthta kakp onomzetai p nrma, `p nrma, thc n dac, gia na dikaiologsoume mwc autn thn onomasa, prpei na elgxoume ti ntwc ikanopoie
lec tic idithtec pou apaitontai ap ton orism thc nrmac. Pio sugkekrimna,
prpei na epalhjesoume tic exc treic idithtec:
(i) kakp 0, me isthta an kai mno an a = 0.
(ii) kakp = || kakp gia kje R.
(iii) ka + bkp kakp + kbkp gia lec tic n dec a kai b.
Oi prtec do idithtec prokptoun mesa ap ton orism (4.24), h trth
mwc idithta enai bajterh. Enai gnwst wc {anisthta tou Minkowski} kai,
parlo pou den enai dskolo na apodeiqje, enai jemelidhc.
Jerhma 4.3.2 (h anisthta tou Minkowski). Gia kje a = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an )

kai b = (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ) isqei h anisthta
(4.25)
ka + bkp kakp + kbkp ,
, isodnama, gia kje p 1 isqei h anisthta
(4.26)
n
X
k=1
!1/p
|ak + bk |p
n
X
k=1
!1/p
|ak |p
n
X
!1/p
|bk |p
k=1
Epiplon, an kakp 6= 0 kai an p > 1, tte isqei isthta sthn anisthta (4.25) an
kai mno an (1) uprqei stajer R ste |bk | = |ak | gia kje k = 1, 2, . . . , n,
kai (2) oi ak kai bk qoun to dio prshmo gia kje k = 1, 2, . . . , n.
lder 39
4.3 Antistrofh thc anisothtac tou Ho
Uprqoun pollc diaforetikc apodexeic thc anisthtac tou Minkowski, h
mjodoc mwc pou qrhsimopoijhke ap ton F. Riesz enai h pi gohteutik
idiatera an kpoioc jlei na parousisei thn anisthta tou Minkowski amswc
met ap thn parousash thc anisthtac tou H
older. To erthma enai: {ja
mporose na mac bohjsei h H
older}? Amswc met, h lgebra rqetai na mac
bohjsei.
Afo to nw frgma pou zhtme enai to jroisma do rwn, enai logik na
spsoume to arister mloc se do mrh:
n
X
(4.27)
|ak + bk |p
k=1
n
X
|ak | |ak + bk |p1 +
k=1
n
X
|bk | |ak + bk |p1 .
k=1
Aut h dispash dnei dh thn anisthta tou Minkowski (4.26) gia p = 1, opte
mporome plon na upojsoume ti p > 1. Efarmzontac thn anisthta tou
Holder qwrist se kajna ap ta ajrosmata thc (4.27), blpoume ti
n
!1/p n
!(p1)/p
n
X
X
X
|ak | |ak + bk |p1
|ak |p
|ak + bk |p
k=1
kai
n
X
k=1
k=1
p1
|bk | |ak + bk |
n
X
k=1
!1/p
p
|bk |
k=1
n
X
!(p1)/p
p
|ak + bk |
k=1
'Etsi, me ton sumbolism thc (4.24) parnoume
(4.28)
ka + bkpp kakp ka + bkpp1 + kbkp ka + bkp1

.
p
Afo h anisthta tou Minkowski isqei tetrimmna sthn perptwsh pou ka +

bkp = 0, mporome na upojsoume ti ka + bkp 6= 0. Diairntac ta do mlh thc
(4.28) me ka + bkp1
oloklhrnoume thn apdeixh.
p
'Ena pleonkthma thc apdeixhc tou Riesz gia thn anisthta tou Minkowski
enai ti exetzontac prosektik to epiqerhm tou mporome na prosdiorsoume
tic periptseic thc isthtac.
Kat arqn, parathrome ti an isqei isthta sthn anisthta (4.25) tte
prpei na qoume isthta sto prto mac bma, thn (4.27), kai epshc na isqei
h |ak + bk | = |ak | + |bk | gia kje 1 k n. 'Etsi, mporome na upojsoume
ti oi ak kai bk enai omshmoi gia kje 1 k n, kai qwrc periorism thc
genikthtac upojtoume ti ak 0 kai bk 0 gia kje 1 k n.
Ap thn isthta sthn (4.25) sumperanoume epshc ti qoume isthta stic
do periptseic pou efarmsame thn anisthta tou Holder, opte, upojtontac
ti ka + bkp 6= 0, sumperanoume ti uprqei 1 ttoioc ste
|ak |p = {|ak + bk |p1 }q = |ak + bk |p

kai ti uprqei 0 1 ttoioc ste
0 |bk |p = {|ak + bk |p1 }q = |ak + bk |p .

Ap autc tic isthtec blpoume ti an jsoume 00 = /0 tte qoume 00 |ak |p =
|bk |p gia kje k = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Autc enai akribc o qarakthrismc pou elpzame na apodexoume.
lder
4.4 Upoprosjetikthta kai hmigrammikopohsh

H anisthta tou Minkowski mac lei ti h sunrthsh h : Rn R me h(a) = kakp
enai upoprosjetik me thn nnoia ti ikanopoie thn anisthta
gia kje a, b Rn .
h(a + b) h(a) + h(b)
H apdeixh thc upoprosjetikthtac miac sunrthshc enai sunjwc apl, kai

aut mac knei na anarwthjome an uprqei kpoioc mesoc trpoc apdeixhc
thc anisthtac tou Minkowski. To epmeno jerhma epibebainei autn thn
upoya kai tautqrona dnei prsjetec plhroforec.
Jerhma 4.4.1 (hmigrammikopohsh thc
p isqei h tautthta
(4.29)
kakp = max
n
X
`p
nrmac).
Gia kje 1
)
ak xk : kxkq = 1 ,
k=1
pou a = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) kai oi p kai q enai suzugec ekjtec: q = p/(p 1) an

p > 1 kai q = an p = 1, q = 1 an p = . Tloc, aut h isthta qei san
mesh sunpeia thn anisthta tou Minkowski.
Prin apodexoume to jerhma, enai qrsimo na dome thn hmigrammikopohsh
se na eurtero plasio. An V enai nac grammikc qroc (gia pardeigma, o
Rn ) kai an L : V W R enai mia sunrthsh prosjetik wc proc thn prth
thc metablht, dhlad an ikanopoie thn L(a + b, w) = L(a, w) + L(b, w), tte
h sunrthsh h : V R pou orzetai ap thn
(4.30)
h(a) = max L(a, w),

wW
enai pnta upoprosjetik, afo
h(a + b)
max L(a + b, w) = max L(a, w) + L(b, w)
wW
wW
max L(a, w0 ) + max L(b, w1 ) = h(a) + h(b).
w0 W
w1 W
H anaparstash (4.30) lgetai hmigrammikopohsh thc h, kai pollc ap tic

jemelideic posthtec sthn jewra twn anisthtwn epidqontai anaparastseic
auto tou tpou.
H parxh thc hmigrammikc anaparstashc (4.29) gia thn sunrthsh h(a) =
kakp enai apl sunpeia thc anisthtac tou Holder kai thc antstrofc thc.
Jewrome to snolo
( n
)
n
X
X
q
S=
ak xk :
|xk | 1 ,
k=1
k=1
kai parathrome ti ap thn anisthta tou H

older qoume s kakp gia kje
s S . Aut apodeiknei ti max{s S} kakp . Tra, ap ton orism tou S ,
knontac kanonikopohsh blpoume ti
(4.31)
n
X
k=1
ak yk kykq max{s S}
gia kje y Rn .
lder 41
4.5 Ena apotelesma eustajeiac gia thn anisothta tou Ho
'Etsi, ap thn antstrofh anisthta Holder gia to zeugri suzugn ekjetn
(q, p) prosxte thn enallag twn rlwn twn p kai q parnoume thn deterh
anisthta kakp max{s S}. Sunduzontac tic do anisthtec parnoume thn
hmigrammik anaparstash (4.29) gia thn h(a) = kakp .
4.5 'Ena apotlesma eustjeiac gia thn anisthta

tou Holder
Se pollc perioqc twn Majhmatikn sunantme apotelsmata qarakthrismo
kai apotelsmata eustjeiac. Sunjwc, na apotlesma qarakthrismo dnei plrh perigraf twn lsewn kpoiac exswshc, en to antstoiqo apotlesma ejstjeiac isqurzetai ti an h exswsh {sqedn isqei} tte o qarakthrismc
{sqedn ikanopoietai}. Se autn thn pargrafo exetzoume an uprqei kpoio
apotlesma eustjeiac sqetik me thn anisthta tou Holder.
Gia na gnoume pio sugkekrimnoi, ac parathrsoume prta ti to {tqnasma
thc eisagwgc mondwn} kai h anisthta tou H
older deqnoun ti gia kje p > 1
kai gia kje akolouja mh arnhtikn pragmatikn arijmn a1 , a2 , . . . , an isqei
h anisthta
1/p
n
n
X
X
p
aj .
aj n(p1)/p
j=1
j=1
An loipn orsoume ton suntelest apklishc (a) jtontac
p
n
n
X
X
(4.32)
(a) :=
apj n1p
aj ,
j=1
j=1
tte qoume (a) 0 kai, gia na persoume sto endiafron shmeo auto tou
orismo, to kritrio thc isthtac sthn anisthta tou H
older mac lei ti (a) = 0
an kai mno an uprqei kpoia stajer ttoia ste aj = gia kje j =
1, 2, . . . , n. Dhlad, h sunjkh (a) = 0 ikanopoietai an kai mno an lec oi
suntetagmnec tou a enai sec.
Autc o qarakthrismc odhge me th seir tou se mia seir apotelesmtwn
eustjeiac:
Jerhma 4.5.1 (na apotlesma eustjeiac gia thn anisthta

tou Holder). An p 2 kai an aj 0 gia kje 1 j n, tte uprqei stajer
= (a, p) ttoia ste
(4.33)
)2/p aj ( +
)2/p
gia kje j = 1, 2, . . . , n. Me lla lgia, an o suntelestc apklishc = (a)

enai mikrc, tte h akolouja a1 , a2 , . . . , an enai sqedn stajer.
O trpoc me ton opoo to dio to jerhma mac zhtei na ekfrsoume to gegonc ti h akolouja a1 , a2 , . . . , an enai sqedn stajer, mac dnei mia updeixh
gia to pc na xekinsoume. H sqsh (4.33) mpore na grafte isodnama sth
lder
p/2
morf (aj )2 (a), kai mporome na apodexoume lec (tic n) zhtomenec

anisthtec tautqrona an dexoume thn isqurterh eikasa ti uprqei stajer
ttoia ste na isqei h anisthta
n
X
p/2
(aj )2 (a).
(4.34)
j=1
Ja mporose kpoioc na pe ti me autn thn eikasa zhtme poll, axzei mwc

ton kpo na thn diereunsoume.
Ti to idiatero qei h (4.34)? Prta ap la, an p = 2, me apeujeac upologism blpoume ap ton orism tou (a) ti h (4.34) isqei sthn pragmatikthta
san tautthta, arke na epilxoume = (a1 + a2 + + an )/n. Aut enai fusik
pol kal shmdi.
'Ena ligtero profanc prosn thc eikasac (4.34) enai ti emmswc mac
rwtei an kpoio sugkekrimno trinumo qei pragmatikc rzec. An h anisthta
(4.34) isqei gia kpoion pragmatik arijm , tte lgw sunqeiac ja uprqei
epshc pragmatikc arijmc o opooc ja ikanopoie thn exswsh
p
n
n
n
X
X
X
p/2
aj .
(aj )2 = (a) :=
apj n1p
j=1
j=1
j=1
Met ap kpoiec algebrikc prxeic kai aplopoiseic blpoume loipn ti h

eikasa (4.34) isqei an kai mno an uprqei pragmatik rza thc exswshc
p
n
n
X
X
p/2
aj = 0.
(4.35)
n2 2
aj + n1p
j=1
j=1
Afo mia deuterobjmia exswsh a2 + 2B + C = 0 qei pragmatikc rzec

an kai mno an AC B 2 , blpoume ti h lsh tou problmatc mac ja qei
oloklhrwje an mporsoume na dexoume ti
p
2
n
n
X
X
p/2
(4.36)
n2p
aj
aj .
j=1
j=1
Eutuqc, enai ekolo na diapistsoume ti h teleutaa anisthta isqei. Gia thn

akrbeia, enai na apl prisma thc anisthtac tou Holder kai tou {teqnsmatoc
thc eisagwgc mondwn}. Arke na efarmsoume thn anisthta tou Holder me
p0 = p/2 kai q 0 = p/(p 2) sto jroisma a1 1 + a2 1 + + an 1.
4.6 Parembol
H `1 nrma kai h ` nrma enai oi do akraec metax twn `p normn, kai se
arketc periptseic mporome sunduzontac mia `1 anisthta me mia ` anisthta
na proume antstoiqh anisthta gia thn `p nrma, pou 1 < p < .
To teleutao mac jerhma dnei na shmantik pardeigma efarmogc autc
thc dunatthtac. 'Eqei epshc skop na dsei mia ida gia na ap ta plon
diadedomna jmata pou sunantme sthn jewra twn anisottwn thn parembol.
4.6 Parembolh 43
Jerhma 4.6.1 (na pardeigma
`1 ` parembolc). 'Estw cjk ,

1 j m, 1 k n nac pnakac mh arnhtikn pragmatikn arijmn oi opooi
ikanopoion tic
n
n
n
m X
X
X
X
cjk xk A
|xk | kai
max
cjk xk B max |xk |
1jm
1kn
j=1 k=1
k=1
k=1
gia kje xk , 1 k n. An 1 < p < kai q = p/(p1), tte isqei h anisthta

parembolc
(4.37)
p 1/p
n
n
!1/p
m X
X
X
1/p
1/q
p
A B
cjk xk
|xk |
j=1 k=1
k=1
gia kje xk , 1 k n.
To pio enoqlhtik stoiqeo thc anisthtac (4.37) enai h parousa twn p
rizn. Ja jlame loipn na brome nan trpo gia na tic exafansoume. H
rza sto dexi mloc den dhmiourge problmata giat kanonikopointac to x
mporome, qwrc periorism thc genikthtac, na upojsoume ti kxkp 1. Ti ja
mporosame mwc na knoume gia thn p rza sto arister mloc?
Eutuqc, diajtoume na ergaleo pou enai apoltwc katllhlo gia thn perstash. H antstrofh thc anisthtac tou Holder mac lei ti, gia na apodexoume
thn anisthta (4.37), arke na apodexoume ti, gia la ta diansmata x kai y
pou ikanopoion tic kxkp 1 kai kykq 1, isqei h anisthta
m X
n
X
(4.38)
cjk xk yj A1/p B 1/q .
j=1 k=1
Epiplon, afo upojtoume ti cjk 0 gia kje j kai k , arke na apodexoume

thn anisthta gia kxkp 1 kai kykq 1 me xk 0 kai yj 0 gia kje j kai k .
Diatupnontac to prblhma sth morf thc (4.38) qoume knei pragmatik
prodo. Tra antimetwpzoume nan tpo problmatoc pou qoume xanasunantsei: jloume na ektimsoume na jroisma ktw ap kpoiouc mh grammikoc
periorismoc.
Ed, enai logik na qrhsimopoisoume to tqnasma thc dispashc, ekmetalleumenoi th sqsh 1/p + 1/q = 1. Knontac dispash kai qrhsimopointac thn
anisthta tou Holder, blpoume ti
m X
n
X
j=1 k=1
cjk xk yj
m X
n
X
(cjk xpk )1/p (cjk yjq )1/q
j=1 k=1
m X
n
X
j=1 k=1
1/p
cjk xpk
m X
n
X
1/q
cjk yjq
j=1 k=1
kai tra qreizetai na ektimsoume touc teleutaouc do rouc.
lder
O prtoc roc enai ekoloc, afo h prth mac upjesh kai h kxkp 1 mac
dnoun to frgma
m X
n
X
(4.39)
cjk xpk A
j=1 k=1
n
X
xpk A.
k=1
H ektmhsh tou deterou rou den enai pol duskolterh. Arke na qrhsimopoisoume thn deterh upjesh kai thn kykq 1, se sunduasm me na qondroeidc
frgma:
(
)
m X
n
m
n
m
X
X
X
X
q
q
(4.40)
cjk yj
yj max
cjk B
yjq B.
j=1 k=1
j=1
1kn
k=1
j=1
Tloc, qrhsimopointac tic (4.39) kai (4.40) gia na ektimsoume to ginmeno

P
1/p P
1/q
m Pn
m Pn
p
q
c
x
c
y
, parnoume thn (4.38). Aut ojk
jk
j
j=1
k=1
j=1
k=1
k
loklhrnei thn apdeixh.
Mroc II
Eidik jmata
Keflaio 5
H anisthta tou Carleman

5.1 Eisagwg
P
To 1923, o Torsten Carleman apdeixe thn exc anisthta: An n=1 an enai
mia seir mh arnhtikn pragmatikn arijmn, kai an sumbolsoume me n ton
gewmetrik mso twn a1 , a2 , . . . , an , dhlad an jsoume
(5.1)
n = (a1 a2 an )1/n ,
tte,
(5.2)
X
n=1
n e
an .
n=1
O Carleman qrhsimopohse autn thn anisthta gia na dsei mia na apdeixh

enc jewrmatoc tou Denjoy gia quasi analutikc sunartseic. Skopc mac
se aut to Keflaio enai na dome arketc diaforetikc apodexeic autc thc
anisthtac.
Uprqoun poll gnwst apotelsmata gia thn sgklish thn apklish seirn pou qoun san rouc kpoiouc grammikoc sunduasmoc twn rwn miac akoloujac {an } me mh arnhtikoc rouc. Gia pardeigma, an n enai o arijmhtikc
P
msoc twn a1 , a2 , . . . , an , tte h n=1 n apoklnei pntote, ektc an h {an }
enai h mhdenik akolouja: parathrste ti an ak > 0 gia kpoion k , tte
1
1
(5.3)
1 + 2 + + k + + n+k ak
+ +
,
k
n+k
kai h teleutaa posthta tenei sto peiro tan n , diti h armonik seir
apoklnei. Ap thn anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou qoume n n ,
me isthta (gia kje n) an kai mno an h akolouja enai stajer. An loipn
P
h seir
enai mh mhdenik, h anisthta tou Carleman
n=1 an sugklnei kai
P
exasfalzei thn sgklish thc n=1 n kai ap autn sumperanoume ti prpei na
qoume isqur gnsia anisthta sthn anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou
n n .
48 H anisothta tou Carleman

H duskola thc anisthtac tou Carleman gkeitai sto gegonc ti o metasqhmatismc n = (a1 a2 an )1/n enai isqur mh grammikc. Enai pntwc omogenc:
gia kje t > 0, h {tan } metasqhmatzetai sthn {tn }. Shmantik rlo se lec
tic apodexeic pou ja parousisoume pazei h stoiqeidhc anisthta
n
1
(5.4)
1+
< e.
n
5.2 H apdeixh tou Carleman

To epiqerhma tou Carleman xekinei me mia klasik mjodo pou qrhsimopoietai
se poll parmoia problmata metasqhmatismn sugklinousn seirn. Jewrome to antstoiqo prblhma gia peperasmna ajrosmata kai qrhsimopoiome
th mjodo twn pollaplasiastn Lagrange. Prospajome dhlad na upologsoume to mgisto n thc posthtac 1 + 2 + + n up ton periorism
a1 + a2 + + an = 1. Epeid to prblhm mac enai omogenc, petai ti
(5.5)
1 + 2 + + n n (a1 + a2 + + an )
gia kje {an } kai kje n, opte to prblhma angetai sto erthma an h {n }
enai nw fragmnh. Pio sugkekrimna, prpei na dexoume ti n e gia kje
n.
Smfwna me th mjodo twn pollaplasiastn Lagrange, prpei na lsoume
thn exswsh F = 0, pou
(5.6) F = a1 + (a1 a2 )1/2 + + (a1 a2 an )1/n (a1 + a2 + + an 1).

'Etsi, parnoume to ssthma exissewn
1
1
2 + +
n
2a1
na1
1
1
2 + +
n
2a2
na2
1
n
nan
(a1 + a2 + + an 1).
1+
Pollaplasizontac thn k -ost exswsh me ak kai prosjtontac tic prtec n

exisseic, parnoume
(5.7)
1 + 2 + + n = (a1 + a2 + + an ) = .
Sunduzontac tic diadoqikc exisseic an do mporome na gryoume to ssthma

sthn isodnamh morf
(5.8)
1 = n (a1 a2 ),
1
2 = n (a2 a3 ), ,
2
1
n = n a n .
n
An tra jsoume
(5.9)
ak+1
tk = k 1
ak
(k = 1, 2, . . . , n 1),
lya 49
5.3 H apodeixh tou Po
oi exisseic Lagrange grfontai
(5.10)
n tk ak = k
(k = 1, 2, . . . , n 1),
n nan = n .
k+1
Gia k = 1, 2, . . . , n 2, qrhsimopointac thn (5.10) kai thn k+1
= kk ak+1
elgqoume ekola ti
k+1
k
k
k+1
1 k
1 k
ak
tk
k+1
(5.11)
tk+1 =
=
=
.
t
t 1
n ak+1
n k ak+1
n k
k
To jma enai me poin trpo mpore kanec na qrhsimopoisei autc tic anadromikc sqseic gia na katalxei sthn n e. O Carleman orzei mia akolouja
sunartsewn Tk () me T1 () = 1/ kai
k
Tk ()
1
(5.12)
Tk+1 ()k+1 = Tk ()k 1
(k = 1, 2, . . .).
k
Ap thn anadromik sqsh (5.11) gia ta tk blpoume ti Tk (n ) = tk gia k =
1, 2, . . . , n 1. Epshc,
n1
(n1)
1
n1
an
1 n
(5.13)
Tn (n )n =
= n nn = nn ,
n n an1
an1
n an
ra, Tn (n ) = n. Tra, deqnoume me epagwg ti
(5.14)
Tk () <
k
k+1
(k = 1, 2, . . .)
gia kje e. Afo Tn (n ) = n, prpei anagkastik na isqei n < e, pwc

isquristkame.
Enai faner ti T1 () < 1/2 an e. Upojtoume ti h anisthta isqei
gia thn Tk . Tte,
!k
k+1
k
1
1
1
k+1
k+1
k+1
(5.15)
Tk+1 ()
<
= <
.
k
1 k(k+1)
e
k+2
Sunepc,
(5.16)
Tk+1 () <
k+1
k+2
kai qoume plon oloklhrsei thn apdeixh.

Shmewsh: O deBruijn, analontac plrwc tic exisseic Lagrange, deixe ti h
bltisth stajer n ikanopoie thn
2 2 e
1
(5.17)
n = e
+
O
.
(log n)2
(log n)3
5.3 H apdeixh tou Polya

To 1926, o George Polya dwse mia komy apdeixh thc anisthtac tou Carleman
qrhsimopointac thn anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou kai (ousiastik)
tpote llo.
H {apdeixh}
H apdeixh tou Polya enai pol sntomh all musthridhc: orzoume c1 , c2 , c3 , . . .
epagwgik, tsi ste na ikanopoietai h sqsh
c1 c2 cn = (n + 1)n
(5.18)
gia kje n. Me lla lgia,
(5.19)
ck =
(k + 1)k
.
k k1
Tte, mporome na gryoume
(a1 a2 an )1/n
X
(a1 c1 a2 c2 an cn )1/n
n+1
n=1
X
a1 c1 + a2 c2 + + an cn
n(n + 1)
n=1
n=1
1
n(n + 1)
k=1
n=k
X
X 1
1
=
ak ck
n n+1
=
k=1
ak ck
k=n
ak
k=1
(k + 1)k 1
k k1 k
ak .
k=1
To prblhma thc parousashc

Arket qrnia argtera, o P
olya eplexe autn akribc thn apdeixh gia na
jemelisei thn poy tou sqetik me th dom thc {idanikc majhmatikc dilexhc}. An kpoio akroatrio parakoloujsei thn apdeixh thc prohgomenhc
paragrfou, loi ja sumfwnsoun ti to krsimo shmeo enai o trpoc orismo
twn c1 , c2 , c3 , . . .. Oi suntelestc auto dnontai kateujean sto xeknhma tou
epiqeirmatoc, qwrc kama proetoimasa aitiolghsh. O Polya anafrei tic
pijanc antidrseic twn akroatn:
{Moizei me to lag pou bganei ap to kaplo}.

{Xepetgontai ap to poujen. Moizoun tso aujaretoi. Poi enai to
knhtro gia thn epilog touc?}
{Den mou arsei na badzw sto skotdi. Den mou arsei na knw bmata
pou den blpw giat ja me froun pio kont sto stqo}.
{Es mpore na gnwrzeic giat kneic aut to bma, eg mwc qi, kai
sunepc den mpor na se parakoloujsw}.
lya 51
{Kotaxe, den brskomai ed mno kai mno gia na se jaumzw. Jlw na
mjw pc na lnw ki eg problmata. 'Omwc, den mpor na d pc enai
anjrwpnwc dunatn na mou rjei h ida tou orismo sou. Ti me majaneic
me aut pou mou deixec?}
{Aut to bma den enai tetrimmno. Moizei to pio shmantik. An mporosa na peist ti qei kpoiec pijanthtec epituqac an mou dinec kpoia
aitiolghsh gia thn epilog sou, ja mporosa swc na fantast pc to
skfthkec kai na parakoloujsw thn sunqeia me megalterh autopepojhsh kai endiafron}.
Oi prtec antidrseic enai aplc jumwmnec, oi epmenec mpanoun kpwc
perisstero sthn ousa, h de teleutaa enai h kalterh: fanernei nan skeptmeno akroat pou zhtei do basik prgmata: na de ti to sugkekrimno bma
thc apdeixhc enai swst all kai na de ti aut to bma enai to endedeigmno.
Kat ton Polya, na bma miac majhmatikc apdeixhc enai katllhlo an
sundetai ousiastik me ton telik skop kai mac frnei pio kont s autn.
Den arke mwc na enai katllhlo: ja prpei kai na fanetai katllhlo ston
akroat. An to bma enai apl, na stoiqeidec bma routnac, o akroatc
mpore ekola na fantaste pc aut sundetai me ton stqo thc apdeixhc. An
pli h parousash enai pol prosektik proetoimasmnh, tte mpore h sndesh
tou bmatoc me ton stqo na upodeiknetai eparkc. An mwc, parlo pou to
bma fanetai shmantik, h sqsh tou me ton stqo den enai kajlou orat, tte
o akroatc qei kje dikawma na aisjnetai apogohteumnoc.
Sto pardeigma tou P
olya, oi suntelestc cn emfanzontai san {ap mhqanc
jec}. To epiqerhma pou apodeiknei thn anisthta baszetai akribc sthn
epilog autn twn suntelestn, kai apodeiknei thn anisthta pentakjara kai
grgora. To prblhma mwc enai ti to bma dikainetai sto tloc, en sthn
arq moizei akatanhto.
Pc loipn ja mporose o omilhtc na to exhgsei ap thn arq? H plrhc
aitiolghsh apaite arket qrno kai qro: ja doje stic epmenec paragrfouc. Kat ton P
olya, aut pou qreizetai enai mia merik aitiolghsh, kpoiec
peistikc nxeic gia touc lgouc pou odghsan fusiologik sto sugkekrimno
bma.
H apdeixh
To mustik psw ap thn apdeixh tou P
olya tan h psth tou sth genik arq
ti prpei kanec na qrhsimopoie mia anisthta stic periptseic pou enai pi
akribc. Jumhjete ti jloume na dexoume ti gia kje akolouja jetikn
pragmatikn arijmn a1 , a2 , . . . isqei h anisthta
(5.20)
X
k=1
(a1 a2 ak )1/k e
ak .
k=1
H empeira mac ap thn anisthta tou Cauchy gia seirc upodeiknei ti nac
qrsimoc trpoc na proseggsoume na posotik apotlesma pwc h anisthta (5.20) enai na meletsoume prta na aplostero poiotik apotlesma: gia

pardeigma, na dexoume ti
(5.21)
ak <
k=1
k=1
(a1 a2 ak )1/k < .
upjesh enai ti ta merik ajrosmata thc
P
k=1
ak enai fragmna, dhlad
ta ajrosmata a1 + a2 + + an den enai megla.

To
sumprasma enai ti h seir
k=1 (a1 a2
ak )1/k sugklnei, dhlad
oi roi (a1 a2 an )1/n enai mikro.

Gnwrzoume kpoio jerhma pou ja mporose na fane qrsimo? H fusiologik
epilog ja tan na efarmsoume thn anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou
stouc prosjetouc tou dexio mlouc thc (5.21), na knoume touc apaitomenouc
upologismoc, kai na elpzoume ti ja emaste tuqero. Me aut to sqdio,
odhgomaste sthn anisthta
(5.22)
n
X
(a1 a2 ak )1/k
k=1
k
n
n
n
X
X
X
1
1X
aj =
aj
,
k j=1
k
j=1
k=1
k=j
kai, pwc swc ja perimname, blpoume ti to sqdio den douleei. 'Otan to

n , to nw frgma apoklnei, kai blpoume ti h aplok efarmog thc
anisthtac arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou den enai arket.
Gia na ftsoume sthn ousa, ja prpei na anarwthjome giat aptuqe h
anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou kai ti ja mporosame na knoume gia
na xepersoume autn thn apotuqa.
Majanontac ap thn apotuqa

Ap thn upjesh gia to arister mloc thc anisthtac (5.21), h seir a1 +a2 +
sugklnei, kai aut to gegonc mpore na mac dexei thn aita thc apotuqac mac.
H sgklish thc seirc qei san sunpeia to ti se kje makr arqik tmma
a1 , a2 , . . . , an uprqoun roi oi opooi enai {entelc nisoi}, kai gnwrzoume ti
se autc tic periptseic h anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou den enai
idiatera apotelesmatik. Mporome na brome kpoion trpo gia na efarmsoume thn anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou pnw se arijmoc oi opooi na
enai {sqedn soi}?
Afo gnwrzoume pol lga prgmata gia touc arijmoc ak , den xroume akribc ti prpei na knoume, mia ida mwc pou rqetai sto mual enai h exc:
na pollaplsisoume kje arijm ak me kpoion pargonta ck , ton opoo ja
prospajsoume na epilxoume tan ja katalboume kaltera ti sumbanei, ste
h akolouja twn ginomnwn c1 a1 , c2 a2 , . . . na qei rouc {sqedn souc}, toulqiston pi isorrophmnouc ap ti h arqik mac akolouja. Fusik, o mnoc
trpoc gia na knoume autn thn ida pi sugkekrimnh enai na proqwrsoume
se upologismoc.
lya 53
Fusiologikc dokimc
Ja mporosame na dokimsoume touc arijmoc
1 a1 , 2a2 , 3a3 , . . . , nan , . . .

, gia na qoume megalterh eleujera, touc
1s a1 , 2s a2 , 3s a3 , . . . , ns an , . . . ,
pou s mia parmetroc thn opoa ja epilxoume me ton bltisto trpo. Akoloujntac ta bmata tou arqiko upologismo mac, grfoume
1/k
(a1 a2 ak )
k=1
X
(a1 1s a2 2s ak k s )1/k
(1 2 k)s/k
k=1
a1 1s + a2 2s + + ak k s
k(k!)s/k
k=1
ak k s
k=1
1
.
j(j!)s/j
j=k
Se aut to shmeo arqzoun oi duskolec: den mporome na upologsoume akribc

to teleutao jroisma. Anagkazmaste loipn na anatrxoume sthn ektmhsh
(n!)1/n ' n/e,
(5.23)
ap pou prokptei ti
X
n=k
1
n(n!)s/n
'
Z
(s+1)
x(s+1) dx
n=k
'e
es s1 k s .
Eisgontac autn thn ektmhsh sto prohgomeno frgma mac, blpoume ti briskmaste pol kont sto na dexoume ti
(5.24)
(a1 a2 ak )1/k C
k=1
ak ,
k=1
pou C enai mia stajer perpou sh me es s1 . Aut enai fusik akribc h

anisthta tou Carleman.
Koitzontac xan ton upologism pou kname, parathrome ti h bltisth
epilog thc paramtrou s enai swc ekenh gia thn opoa elaqistopoietai h posthta es s1 . Me apl melth autc thc sunrthshc tou s, blpoume ti h
bltisth tim enai h s = 1. Aut shmanei ti h bltisth epilog tou ck enai
ck = k kpoia posthta pou sumperifretai perpou san to k tan to k enai meglo. Me mia ttoia epilog moizei efikt na apodexoume thn (5.24) me
C = e.
H arq thc mgisthc apotelesmatikthtac

H suzthsh thc prohgomenhc paragrfou mac dnei perissterh autopepojhsh.
Jewrome metablhtc ck kai epanalambnoume ton upologism pou kname gia thn
(eidik) epilog ck = k s :
(a1 a2 ak )1/k
k=1
X
(a1 c1 a2 c2 ak ck )1/k
(c1 c2 ck )1/k
k=1
a1 c1 + a2 c2 + + ak ck
k(c1 c2 ck )1/k
k=1
ak ck
k=1
X
j=k
1
.
j(c1 c2 cj )1/j
'Ed, prpei fusik na stajome kai na skeftome. Ap thn sqsh sthn opoa
katalxame, blpoume ti gia thn apdeixh thc anisthtac tou Carleman arke
na epilxoume touc pargontec ck , k = 1, 2, . . . tsi ste ta ajrosmata
(5.25)
sk = ck
j=k
1
,
j(c1 c2 cj )1/j
k = 1, 2, . . .
na ikanopoioun thn sk e.
'Opoion drmo ki an akoloujsoume gia thn epilog twn ck , telik ja qreiaste na ektimsoume to jroisma sk . Kal enai loipn na knoume aut th
doulei so gnetai eukolterh. H empeira deqnei ti uprqoun pol lgec seirc me ourc pou na upologzontai akribc me ekolo trpo. Gia thn akrbeia,
lec qoun sqsh me thn thleskopik tautthta

X
1
(5.26)
j=k
bj
1
bj+1
1
.
bk
H aplosterh swc epilog pou mac parqei aut h tautthta enai h
(5.27)
X
j=k
X
1
=
j(j + 1)
j=k
1
1
j
j+1
1
k
kai, sugkrnontac ta ajrosmata (5.25) kai (5.26), blpoume ti to sk parnei thn

aplosterh dunat morf an orsoume touc suntelestc ck msw thc peplegmnhc anadromikc sqshc
(5.28)
(c1 c2 cj )1/j = j + 1,
j = 1, 2, . . . .
Aut h epilog mac dnei nan sntomo tpo gia to sk :
(5.29)
sk = ck
X
j=k
X
1
ck
1
=
c
= ,
k
j(j + 1)
k
j(c1 c2 cj )1/j
j=k
kai to mno pou qreizetai tra enai na ektimsoume to mgejoc twn ck .
5.4 H apodeixh tou Knopp 55

Eutuqc, aut h ektmhsh gnetai ekola. Qrhsimopointac do forc thn
peplegmnh anadromik sqsh (5.28) gia touc cj , blpoume ti
c1 c2 cj1 = j j1
kai c1 c2 cj = (j + 1)j .
Diairntac, parnoume
(5.30)
cj =
j
(j + 1)j
1
.
=
j
1
+
j j1
j
Ap autn ton tpo kai ap thn arqik anisthta (5.25), sumperanoume ti
(5.31)
1/k
(a1 a2 ak )
k=1
k

X
1
1+
ak ,
k
k=1
kai aut h anisthta mac frnei sthn anisthta tou Carleman. Gia thn akrbeia,
h (5.31) enai isqurterh ap thn anisthta tou Carleman: an jsoume x = 1/k
sthn gnwst anisthta 1 + x ex , blpoume ti
k
1
1+
<e
k
gia kje k = 1, 2, . . . .
To epiqerhma tou Polya pou perigryame parapnw, pra ap thn komythta

pou suqn sunantme sta Majhmatik, periqei mia pol baji ida pou axzei
ton kpo na prosxoume. H ida pou prpei na sugkratsoume enai ti mporome na beltisoume shmantik thn apotelesmatikthta miac anisthtac an aplc
anadiatupsoume to prblhma ste h anisthta na efarmoste ktw ap propojseic pou exasfalzoun ti isqei {perpou} san isthta. H apdeixh tou
Polya gia thn anisthta tou Carleman dnei na exairetik komy pardeigma efarmogc autc thc idac, uprqoun mwc pollc llec periptseic stic opoec
h dia ida mpore na axiopoihje me exsou jaumsia apotelsmata.
5.4 H apdeixh tou Knopp

H apdeixh tou Knopp (1928) enai swc h suntomterh. Ousiastik, axiopoie
ki aut tic idec thc apdeixhc tou P
olya. Orzoume
(5.32)
cn =
a1 + 2a2 + + nan
.
n(n + 1)
Analontac se apl klsmata kai ajrozontac kat mrh parnoume
(5.33)
N
X
n=1
cn =
N
X
n=1
a n N cN <
N
X
an .
n=1
Efarmzontac tra thn anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou gia touc arijmoc
(5.34)
a1
2a2
nan
,
,...,
,
n+1 n+1
n+1

blpoume ti
(5.35)
n!a1 a2 an
cn
(n + 1)n
1/n
=
(n!)1/n
n .
n+1
Gia na oloklhrsoume thn apdeixh qrhsimopoiome thn gnwst anisthta (n +

1)n en n!. 'Epetai ti n ecn , kai ap thn (5.33) prokptei h zhtomenh
anisthta.
5.5 H apdeixh tou Redheffer

H apdeixh tou Redheffer (1967) moizei akma pio aprosdkhth, deqnei mwc
pso qrsimh enai h eisagwg prsjetwn metablhtn gia th melth enc problmatoc. Gia kje epilog jetikn pragmatikn arijmn an kai gia kje epilog
mh arnhtikn pragmatikn arijmn bn isqei (!) h anisthta
(5.36) (b1 1)1 +2(b2 1)2 + +n(bn 1)n +nn a1 b1 +a2 b22 + +an bnn .
Gia thn apdeixh autc thc anisthtac, apomonnoume prta thn metablht bn kai
prospajome na brome ekenhn thn epilog thc gia thn opoa enai duskoltero
na isqei h anisthta. Me lla lgia, zhtme thn tim tou x pou megistopoie
thn sunrthsh (x) = nn x an xn pnw ap louc touc mh arnhtikoc x. Me
stoiqeidh apeirostik logism blpoume ti to mgisto sumbanei tan nn =
nan xn1 , dhlad tan xn1 = n /an . Gi autn thn tim tou x parathrome ti
(5.37)
(x) = x(n 1)n = (n 1)[nn /an ]1/(n1) = (n 1)n1 .
'Etsi, h arqik mac anisthta ja isqei gia kje bn 0 an isqei sthn perptwsh
pou, epiplon, ikanopoietai h
(5.38)
nbn n an bnn = (n 1)n1 .
Me autn thn antikatstash, h anisthta metasqhmatzetai sthn
(b1 1)1 + 2(b2 1)2 + + (n 1)(bn1 1)n1 + (n 1)n1

a1 b1 + a2 b22 + + an1 bn1
n1 .
Aut mwc enai akribc h dia anisthta me thn arqik, me n 1 rouc ant
gia n. 'Eqoume tsi na sqma anadromikc anisthtac (me thn orologa tou
Redheffer), sto opoo to pljoc twn paramtrwn meinetai diadoqik me ttoion
trpo pou h arqik anisthta ja qei apodeiqje gia kje n an katafroume na
apodexoume ti isqei gia n = 1. 'Omwc, sthn perptwsh n = 1, h anisthta
isqurzetai aplc ti a1 b1 a1 b1 . 'Etsi, qoume apodexei thn anisthta (5.36).
Sthn prohgomenh apdeixh den qrhsimopoisame thn anisthta arijmhtiko
gewmetriko msou se kanna shmeo. Parathrste mwc ti an epilxoume bk =
1 gia kje k , tte h anisthta tou Redheffer parnei th morf
(5.39)
nn a1 + a2 + + an .
5.6 To suneqec analogo thc anisothtac tou Carleman 57

Dhlad, h (5.36) qei san eidik perptwsh thn anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko
msou.
Gia thn anisthta tou Carleman, epilgoume bk = 1 + k1 sthn (5.36). Tte,
qoume
2
1
1
1
a2 + + 1 +
an .
(5.40) 1 +2 + +n +nn (1+1) a1 + 1 +
2
n
Gia thn akrbeia, h anisthta aut apodeqjhke me thn epiplon upjesh ti ak >
0 gia kje k , lgw sunqeiac mwc exakolouje na isqei an aplc upojsoume
ti ak 0. Petntac ton ro nn ap to arister mloc, qrhsimopointac thn
k
1 + k1 < e kai afnontac to n , parnoume thn anisthta tou Carleman.
Shmewsh: Mia prosektik angnwsh thc apdeixhc tou Redheffer deqnei ti
isthta isqei sthn (5.40) an kai mno an

k k1
1
(5.41)
ak = 2a1
=
O
.
(k + 1)k
k
5.6 To suneqc anlogo thc anisthtac tou Carleman

Klenoume aut to Keflaio me do oloklhrwtikc anisthtec pou mporon na
jewrhjon wc suneq anloga thc anisthtac tou Carleman. 'Opwc ja dome mlista, mporome na persoume ap autc sthn {diakrit} anisthta tou
Carleman.
Mia anisthta tou
Knopp
Oi Hardy, Littlewood kai Polya apoddoun ston Knopp thn anisthta

Z x
Z
Z
1
(5.42)
exp
log f (t) dt dx < e
f (x) dx,
x 0
0
0
pou f enai tuqosa mh arnhtik oloklhrsimh sunrthsh sto (0, ).
Gia thn apdeixh qreizetai na jumhjome ta exc: (a) An orsoume mia sunrthsh g msw thc
Z x
1
(5.43)
g(x) = 2
yf (y) dy,
x 0
tte
(5.44)
f (x) dx =
0
g(x) dx.
0
Aut h isthta enai mesh sunpeia tou jewrmatoc tou Fubini, afo
Z x
Z
Z
1
yf (y) dy dx
g(x) dx =
x2 0
0
Z0
Z
1
=
yf (y)
dx dy
2
x
0
y
Z
=
f (y) dy.
0

(b) Qreiazmaste epshc thn exc morf thc anisthtac tou Jensen: an enai
mia kurt sunrthsh, enai mia oloklhrsimh sunrthsh, kai enai na mtro
pijanthtac, tte
Z
Z
(5.45)
d () d.
Ja qreiastome autn thn anisthta mno sthn perptwsh pou = exp kai
d = dx/(b a) sto disthma [a, b].
Parathrome ti h x log x x enai antipargwgoc thc log x. Xekinntac ap
thn log f (y) = log(yf (y)) log y , grfoume
Z x
Z x
Z
1
1 x
1
exp
log f (y) dy
= exp
log(yf (y)) dy
log y dy
x 0
x 0
x 0
Z x
1
= e1log x exp
log(yf (y)) dy
x 0
Z x
e 1
exp(log(yf (y))) dy
x x 0
Z x
e
=
yf (y) dy,
x2 0
pou sto proteleutao bma qrhsimopoisame thn anisthta tou Jensen.
Oloklhrnontac autn thn anisthta sto (0, ) kai efarmzontac thn tautthta
(5.44), parnoume thn anisthta (5.42).
Mia anisthta tou
Carleson
O Carleson apodeiknei thn exc anisthta: an m(x) enai mia kurt sunrthsh
sto [0, ) me m(0) = 0, tte gia kje p > 1 isqei h anisthta
Z
Z
0
(5.46)
I1 :=
xp em(x)/x dx ep+1
xp em (x) dx := ep+1 I2 .
0
Gia thn apdeixh, parathrome ti

isqei
lgw thc kurtthtac thc m
gia kje k > 1
m(kx) m(x) + (k 1)m0 (x),
(5.47)
kai sunepc,
Z
k p1
Z
xp em(x)/x dx =
A/k
xp e
m(kx)
kx
dx
xp e
m(kx)
kx
xp e
m(x)
k1
0
kx k m (x)
dx
!1/k Z
p m(x)/x
x e
0
dx
A
dx
!(k1)/k
p m0 (x)
x e
0
dx
5.6 To suneqec analogo thc anisothtac tou Carleman 59

gia kje A > 0. Afnontac to A sumperanoume ti
(5.48)
I1 k
(p+1)k
k1
I2 .
Parathrntac ti
lim k k/(k1) = e,
(5.49)
k1
parnoume to zhtomeno.
H sqsh me thn anisthta tou
Carleman
An jsoume p = 0 sthn anisthta tou Carleson, parnoume thn anisthta

Z
Z
0
em(x)/x dx e
em (x) dx,
(5.50)
0
h opoa sumpptei me thn anisthta tou Knopp an knoume thn epiplon upjesh
ti h f enai fjnousa: arke na jsoume f (x) = em(x) .
Ap thn (5.50) mporome na apodexoume thn {diakrit} anisthta tou Carleman, epilgontac katllhlh sunrthsh m. Kat arqn, o Carleson parathre
ti prokeimnou na apodexoume thn anisthta tou Carleman, mporome na upojsoume ti h akolouja {an } enai fjnousa: aut enai swst diti, ap lec tic
anadiatxeic thc {an }, ekenh pou dnei th megalterh seir gewmetrikn mswn
n enai aut gia thn opoa h {an } enai fjnousa.
An mac dsoun mia ttoia fjnousa akolouja {an }, jewrome thn sunrthsh
m pou enai kat tmmata grammik kai ennei ta shmea
1
1
1
(0, 0), 1, log
, 2, log
+ log
,....
a1
a1
a2
Tte, mporome na elgxoume ti
(5.51)
m0 (x)
dx =
an
n=1
kai
n+1
(5.52)
Z
em(x)/x dx
n+1
em(x)/n dx = n ,
pou sto teleutao bma qrhsimopoiome to gegonc ti h m enai kurt me

m(0) = 0, opte oi klseic twn qordn pou pernon ap to (0, 0) auxnoun me to
x. 'Epetai ti
(5.53)
X
n=1
n e
X
n=1
an .
Keflaio 6
Ajrosmata tetragnwn
poluwnmwn
6.1 H eikasa tou Minkowski
Gia thn apdeixh thc tautthtac tou Lagrange xekinsame me na polunumo
pou gnwrzame ti enai mh arnhtik, kai, qrhsimopointac stoiqeidh lgebra,
dexame ti mporose na grafte san jroisma tetragnwn. H tautthta pou
prokuye mac dwse mia anexrthth apdeixh thc anisthtac tou Cauchy kai,
tautqrona, mia difanh ermhnea gia tic ikanc kai anagkaec sunjkec ste na
isqei isthta. Se aut to Keflaio ja suzhtsoume to exc prblhma:
Prblhma. Enai swst ti kje mh arnhtik polunumo grfetai san jroisma tetragnwn? Dhlad, an to pragmatik polunumo P (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
ikanopoie thn
P (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) 0 gia kje (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) Rn ,
mporome na brome s N kai pragmatik polunuma Qk (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ), 1
k s, ste
P (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = Q21 + Q22 + + Q2s ?
To erthma aut tjhke ap ton Minkowski, o opooc kane thn eikasa ti h apnthsh enai arnhtik. Aut pou odghse ton Minkowski sto prblhma
den enai entelc kajar: kat psa pijanthta, endiafertan gia kpoia arijmojewrhtik apotelsmata pwc to klassik jerhma tou Lagrange to opoo
isqurzetai ti kje fusikc arijmc enai to jroisma tessrwn ligterwn
tleiwn tetragnwn. 'Opwc kai na enai, o Minkowski anakonwse thn eikasa
tou ston David Hilbert, kai to 1888, o Hilbert dhmoseuse mia apdeixh gia thn
parxh mh arnhtikn poluwnmwn ta opoa den grfontai san jroisma tetragnwn pragmatikn poluwnmwn. Pio sugkekrimna, o Hilbert apdeixe ti h
apnthsh enai katafatik mno stic exc periptseic: tan to polunumo enai
62 Ajroismata tetragwnwn poluwnumwn

miac metablhtc kai o bajmc tou P aujaretoc, tan o bajmc tou P enai 2
kai to pljoc twn metablhtn aujareto, kai tloc, tan to P enai polunumo
me do metablhtc kai qei bajm 4. H apdeixh tou Hilbert tan makroskelc,
polplokh kai mmesh.
Ta prta sugkekrimna paradegmata mh arnhtikn poluwnmwn pou den grfontai sth morf ajrosmatoc tetragnwn pragmatikn poluwnmwn djhkan
to 1967 ap ton T. S. Motzkin kai to 1969 ap ton R. M. Robinson, sqedn ogdnta qrnia met thn apdeixh thc parxhc ttoiwn poluwnmwn ap ton Hilbert.
Ta sugkekrimna aut paradegmata qrhsimopoiosan thn {teqnik thc anisthtac arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou} thn opoa ja perigryoume sthn teleutaa
pargrafo.
To 1900, o David Hilbert dwse mia omila sto Parsi, sto Detero Diejnc
Sundrio twn Majhmatikn, pou perigraye 23 problmata ta opoa psteue
ti xizan thc prosoqc twn majhmatikn lou tou ksmou sthn aug tou 20ou
aina. Ta problmata tan dialegmna me sofa, kai skhsan meglh epirro
sthn exlixh twn Majhmatikn ton teleutao aina.
To 17o prblhma sth lsta tou Hilbert tan nac mesoc apgonoc thc eikasac tou Minkowski, kai se aut to prblhma o Hilbert rwtose an kje mh
arnhtik polunumo n metablhtn anaparstatai san to jroisma twn tetragnwn kpoiwn phlkwn poluwnmwn. Aut h tropopohsh tou problmatoc tou
Minkowski to kajist telewc diaforetik: to erthma tou Hilbert apantjhke
katafatik to 1927, ap ton Emil Artin. H lsh tou 17ou problmatoc tou Hilbert ap ton Artin jewretai stic mrec mac na ap ta pio morfa kai shmantik
apotelsmata thc sgqronhc 'Algebrac.
6.2 H perptwsh thc miac metablhtc

H prth perptwsh pou den enai entelc tetrimmnh emfanzetai tan n = 1 kai
to polunumo P (x) enai thc morfc ax2 + bx + c me a 6= 0. Sumplhrnontac
se tleio tetrgwno, pwc sth melth tou triwnmou, blpoume ti to P (x)
grfetai sth morf
2
b
4ac b2
(6.1)
P (x) = ax2 + bx + c = a x +
+
,
2a
4a
kai aut h anaparstash sqedn apantei sto erthm mac. Arke na elgxoume ti oi teleutaoi do prosjetoi grfontai san tetrgwna pragmatikn
poluwnmwn.
An jewrsoume meglec timc tou x, blpoume ti h P (x) 0 qei san
sunpeia thn a > 0, kai an jsoume x0 = b/2a, tte ap to jroisma (6.1)
blpoume ti h P (x0 ) 0 qei san sunpeia thn 4ac b2 0. To sumprasma
enai ti oi do prosjetoi sto dexi mloc thc tautthtac (6.1) enai mh arnhtiko,
ra to P (x) grfetai sth morf Q21 + Q22 , pou Q1 kai Q2 enai ta pragmatik
polunuma pou orzontai ap tic
b
4ac b2
(6.2)
Q1 (x) = a x +
kai Q2 (x) =
.
2a
2 a
6.2 H periptwsh thc miac metablhthc 63

'Etsi, qoume lsei to prblhma gia deuterobjmia polunuma miac metablhtc,
h de lsh, an kai apl, den enai tetrimmnh. Gia pardeigma, deqnei ti to P (x)
elaqistopoietai tan x = b/2a kai ti h elqisth tim tou P (x) isotai me
(4ac b2 )/4a.
Qrhsimopointac aut pou gnwrzoume

H aplosterh mh tetrimmnh perptwsh thc tautthtac tou Lagrange enai h
(a21 + a22 )(b21 + b22 ) = (a1 b1 + a2 b2 )2 + (a1 b2 a2 b1 )2 ,

kai afo mporome na antikatastsoume me polunuma touc arijmoc se aut th
sqsh, odhgomaste se na pol isqur sumprasma: to snolo twn poluwnmwn
pou grfontai san jroisma tetragnwn do poluwnmwn enai kleist wc proc
ton pollaplasiasm. Dhlad, an P (x) = Q(x)R(x) kai ta Q(x) kai R(x) qoun
tic anaparastseic
Q(x) = Q21 (x) + Q22 (x) kai R(x) = R12 (x) + R22 (x),
tte to P (x) anaparstatai ki aut san jroisma do tetragnwn. Pio sugkekrimna, an qoume
(6.3)
P (x) = Q(x)R(x) = (Q21 (x) + Q22 (x))(R12 (x) + R22 (x)),
tte to P (x) grfetai epshc sth morf
(6.4)
{Q1 (x)R1 (x) + Q2 (x)R2 (x)}2 + {Q1 (x)R2 (x) Q2 (x)R1 (x)}2 .
Aut h tautthta upodeiknei ti h epagwg ja mporose na fane qrsimh.

'Eqoume dh de ti kje deuterobjmio polunumo grfetai san jroisma tetragnwn, mporome loipn na xekinsoume mia epagwgik apdeixh. Ap th
stigm pou ja katalboume pc na paragontopoiome mh arnhtik polunuma,
mporome na qrhsimopoisoume thn anaparstash (6.3) gia na oloklhrsoume
to epagwgik bma.
Paragontopohsh mh arnhtikn poluwnmwn

Prospajntac na paragontopoisoume to P (x), fusiologik diakrnoume do
periptseic: to P (x) qei pragmatik rza qi. An to P (x) qei mia pragmatik
rza r me pollaplthta m, mporome na gryoume
P (x) = (x r)m R(x),
pou R(r) 6= 0,
epomnwc, an jsoume x = r + , tte qoume P (r + ) = m R(r + ). Epshc,

ap thn sunqeia thc R, uprqei ste to R(r + ) na qei to dio prshmo gia
kje me || . Afo to P (x) enai pnta mh arnhtik, blpoume ti to m qei
to dio prshmo gia kje || , ra o m prpei na enai rtioc. An jsoume
m = 2k , blpoume ti
(6.5)
P (x) = Q2 (x)R(x) pou Q(x) = (x r)k ,

kai ap autn thn anaparstash, blpoume ti to R(x) enai epshc mh arnhtik
polunumo. 'Etsi, qoume bre mia qrsimh paragontopohsh sthn perptwsh pou
to P (x) qei pragmatik rza.
Ac upojsoume tra ti to P (x) den qei pragmatikc rzec. Ap to jemelidec jerhma thc lgebrac, uprqei mia migadik rza r, kai afo
(6.6)
0 = P (r)
0 = P (r) = P (r),
blpoume ti o migadikc suzugc r tou r enai epshc rza tou P . 'Etsi, to P

qei thn paragontopohsh
(6.7)
P (x) = (x r)(x r)R(x) = Q(x)R(x).
To pragmatik polunumo Q(x) = (x r)(x r) enai jetik gia megla x,

kai den qei pragmatikc rzec, ra prpei na enai jetik gia kje pragmatik
x. Ap thn upjesh, to P (x) enai mh arnhtik, sunepc to R(x) enai epshc
mh arnhtik. 'Etsi, blpoume kai pli ti kje mh arnhtik polunumo P (x) me
bajm megaltero ap do grfetai san ginmeno do mh stajern, mh arnhtikn
poluwnmwn.
Qrhsimopointac tra epagwg pou baszetai sthn anaparstash (6.3), blpoume ti kje mh arnhtik polunumo miac metablhtc enai to jroisma twn
tetragnwn do pragmatikn poluwnmwn.
6.3 Perissterec metablhtc

Met thn epituqa mac sthn perptwsh twn poluwnmwn miac metablhtc, prospajome na exetsoume mh arnhtik polunuma do perissotrwn metablhtn.
Dustuqc, h diafor duskolac anmesa se na prblhma miac metablhtc kai
na prblhma do metablhtn enai suqn pol meglh. Gia polunuma do metablhtn, to snolo {(x, y) : P (x, y) = 0} twn rizn den enai pi na apl diakrit
snolo shmewn. Tra, mporome na qoume mia meglh poikila sunlwn rizn,
ta opoa den enai ekolo na taxinomhjon.
Uprqei mno ma perptwsh sthn opoa h apnthsh enai apl kai katafatik:
tan to polunumo qei bajm 2. H apdeixh ed qrhsimopoie to gegonc ti
kje summetrik tetragwnik morf diagwnopoietai. An to P qei bajm 2 kai
P (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) 0 gia kje xi , mporome na brome grammik metasqhmatism
twn metablhtn pou frnei to P sth morf
(6.8)
P (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = c +
n
X
i x2i ,
i=1
me i 0 gia kje i, kai c 0.
To pleonkthma twn periorismnwn dunatottwn

Met ap kpoia skyh, tenoume na pistyoume, pwc o Minkowski, ti uprqoun mh arnhtik polunuma do metablhtn ta opoa den mporon na grafton
sth morf ajrosmatoc tetragnwn pragmatikn poluwnmwn.
6.3 Perissoterec metablhtec 65

Gia na kataskeusoume na antipardeigma prpei mwc prta na mporome
me susthmatik trpo na kataskeuzoume mh arnhtik polunuma polln metablhtn. Ta polunuma pou ekfrzontai san ajrosmata tetragnwn pragmatikn poluwnmwn enai pnta mh arnhtik, mwc aut ta polunuma den mporon
na mac prosfroun kti se sqsh me thn eikasa tou Minkowski. Ja mporosame
epshc na jewrsoume ta mh arnhtik polunuma pou brskoume uynontac sto
tetrgwno ta do mlh thc anisthtac tou Cauchy kai parnontac th diafor
touc, mwc h tautthta tou Lagrange mac lei ti ki aut h kataskeu enai katadikasmnh na apotqei. Tloc, mporome na jewrsoume ekena ta polunuma
pou enai mh arnhtik lgw thc anisthtac arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou. Aut enai mia apl (h mnh swc) ida pou den qoume exantlsei, axzei loipn ton
kpo na thn dokimsoume.
Qrhsimopointac thn anisthta arijmhtiko-gewmetriko msou

Edame ti gia kje epilog mh arnhtikn arijmn a1 , a2 , . . . , an ikanopoietai h
anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou
(a1 a2 an )1/n
a1 + a2 + + an
,
n
kai mporome na qrhsimopoisoume autn thn anisthta gia na kataskeusoume

mia meglh klsh mh arnhtikn poluwnmwn. An bbaia den jloume na emplakome se na pljoc polplokwn paradeigmtwn, ja prpei na periorsoume thn
prosoq mac stic aplosterec periptseic. H aplosterh epilog mh arnhtikn
a1 kai a2 enai na proume a1 = x2 kai a2 = y 2 . 'Etsi, an jloume na knoume
to ginmeno a1 a2 a3 so pio apl gnetai, mporome na proume a3 = 1/(x2 y 2 ),
opte to a1 a2 a3 ja isotai me 1. Tte, h anisthta arijmhtiko-gewmetriko
msou mac lei ti
1
1 (x2 + y 2 + 1/(x2 y 2 ))
3
kai, met ap tic fusiologikc aplopoiseic, blpoume ti to polunumo
P (x, y) = x4 y 2 + x2 y 4 3x2 y 2 + 1
enai mh arnhtik gia kje epilog twn metablhtn x kai y . Ja prospajsoume
na apodexoume ti gi aut to polunumo h anaparstash
(6.9)
P (x, y) = Q21 (x, y) + Q22 (x, y) + + Q2s (x, y)
gia kpoion fusik s, enai ntwc adnath. Ta ergalea pou qoume sta qria
mac enai stoiqeidh, enai mwc arket. Mia mikr dierenhsh deqnei ti h
anaparstash (6.9) enai pol perioristik.
Gia pardeigma, parathrste prta ti o bajmc tou poluwnmou P (x, y)
enai soc me 6, ra, kanna ap ta polunuma Qk den mpore na qei bajm
megaltero ap 3. Epiplon, an jsoume y = 0, blpoume ti
1 = P (x, 0) = Q21 (x, 0) + Q22 (x, 0) + + Q2s (x, 0),

kai an jsoume x = 0, blpoume ti
1 = P (0, y) = Q21 (0, y) + Q22 (0, y) + + Q2s (0, y),

ra, kajna ap ta polunuma Q2k (x, 0) kai Q2k (0, y) prpei na enai fragmno.
Ap autn thn paratrhsh kai ap to gegonc ti kje polunumo Qk (x, y) qei
bajm to pol so me 3, blpoume ti prpei na enai thc morfc
(6.10)
Qk (x, y) = ak + bk xy + ck x2 y + dk xy 2
gia kpoiec stajerc ak , bk , ck kai dk .

An epistryoume sto polunumo P (x, y), parathrome ti qei thn exc qarakthristik idithta: loi oi suntelestc tou enai mh arnhtiko, ektc ap ton
suntelest tou x2 y 2 o opooc isotai me 3. Me bsh autn thn paratrhsh,
prospajome na dome ti mporome na pome gia ton suntelest tou x2 y 2 sto
jroisma Q21 (x, y) + Q22 (x, y) + + Q2s (x, y).
Se aut to shmeo ja stajome tuqero. Ap th morf (6.10) pou qoun
oi roi Qk (x, y), 1 k s, mporome na elgxoume ekola ti o suntelestc tou x2 y 2 sto polunumo Q21 (x, y) + Q22 (x, y) + + Q2s (x, y) enai soc me
b21 +b22 + +b2s . Afo aut to jroisma enai mh arnhtik, den mpore na enai so
me 3. Sunepc, to mh arnhtik polunumo P (x, y) den grfetai san jroisma
tetragnwn pragmatikn poluwnmwn. Mllon anapnteqa ki aut dikaiologe thn apstash twn ogdnta qrnwn ap ton Hilbert wc ton Motzkin h
anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou mac odghse epituqc sthn apdeixh
thc eikasac tou Minkowski.
Keflaio 7
Sunpeiec thc ditaxhc

7.1 Antistrof thc anisthtac Cauchy
'Ena ap ta fusiologik erwtmata pou sunodeoun kje anisthta enai h dunatthta antistrofc thc up propojseic. Ja meletsoume aut to erthma
gia thn anisthta tou Cauchy. H melth auto tou problmatoc odhge se ma
ap tic pi jemelideic arqc sth jewra twn anisottwn thn susthmatik
ekmetlleush endeqmenwn sqsewn ditaxhc.
Prblhma.
'Estw 1. Ktw ap poic propojseic oi mh arnhtiko arijmo

ak , bk , k = 1, 2, . . . , n ikanopoion mia anisthta thc morfc
!1/2
!1/2 n
n
n
X
X
X
b2k
ak bk ?
a2k
(7.1)
k=1
k=1
k=1
Mroc thc duskolac ed enai ti to prblhma den enai plrwc diatupwmno

oi propojseic kai oi sunjkec ktw ap tic opoec isqei h (7.1) prpei na
prosdioriston.
Se autc tic periptseic, sqedn pnta xekinme me kpoiouc peiramatismoc,
kai afo h perptwsh n = 1 enai tetrimmnh, h aplosterh perptwsh pou axzei
ton kpo na meletsoume enai na jewrsoume ta diansmata (1, a) kai (1, b) me
a > 0 kai b > 0. Tte, ta do mlh thc (7.1) sqetzontai me tic posthtec
(1 + a2 )1/2 (1 + b2 )1/2
kai 1 + ab.
Parathrome ti an ta a kai b epilegon tsi ste to ginmeno ab na paramnei

stajer tan to a , tte blpoume ti to dexi mloc mnei fragmno, all
to arister mloc den enai fragmno. Aut h paratrhsh ousiastik deqnei
ti, gia mia dedomnh stajer tim tou 1, h (7.1) den mpore na isqei ektc
an epiblloume th sunjkh oi lgoi ak /bk na enai fragmnoi ap pnw kai ap
ktw.
To kaltero loipn pou mporome na elpzoume enai ti mia anisthta san
thn (7.1) ja isqei an oi prosjetoi ikanopoion kpoion periorism thc morfc
ak
(7.2)
m
M gia kje k = 1, 2, . . . , n,
bk
68 Sunepeiec thc diataxhc

gia kpoiec stajerc 0 < m < M < . Epshc, h stajer anagkastik ja
exarttai ap tic timc twn m kai M , kai aut pou elpzoume na dexoume enai
ti to mpore na epilege ste na mhn qei kama peraitrw exrthsh ap th
sugkekrimmnh epilog twn ak kai bk . Tra, to prblhma enai na brome nan
trpo gia na ekmetalleutome thn upjesh (7.2).
Koitzontac thn zhtomenh anisthta (7.1) kai thn dedomnh anisthta (7.2),
ja mporose kanec na skefte ti oi gnwstc apodexeic thc anisthtac tou
Cauchy mporon na bohjsoun. Pio sugkekrimna, an jumhjome thn apdeixh
pou xekinose ap thn (ab)2 0, arqzoume na upoyiazmaste ti mia parmoia
ida mpore na qrhsimopoihje ed. Yqnoume loipn gia kpoia {tetragwnik
anisthta} h opoa na prokptei ap thn (7.2).
An skeftome lgo, parathrome ti h dipl anisthta (7.2) dnei ekola thn
tetragwnik anisthta
ak
ak
(7.3)
M
m 0.
bk
bk
Ektelntac touc aparathtouc pollaplasiasmoc, ap thn (7.3) katalgoume
sthn isodnamh anisthta
(7.4)
a2k + (mM )b2k (m + M )ak bk
gia kje k = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Ajrozontac tic anisthtec (7.4) pnw ap la ta 1 k n, katalgoume sthn

prosjetik anisthta
(7.5)
n
X
a2k + (mM )
k=1
n
X
b2k (m + M )
k=1
n
X
ak bk .
k=1
Aut pou mnei enai na thn metatryoume se mia pollaplasiastik anisthta.

An jumhjome ti qoume knei se anlogec periptseic, ja prpei tra na
orsoume kanonikopoihmnec metablhtc a
k kai bk , autn mwc th for, h kanonikopohsh parousizei duskolec. To prblhma enai ti h anisthta (7.5)
efarmzetai gia touc a
k kai bk mno an ikanopoion tic m a
k /bk M . Auto oi periorismo den ikanopoiontai ap touc profanec upoyhfouc a
k kai bk .
Qreiazmaste loipn mia kainorgia ida gia na persoume se ginmeno.
Sto shmeo aut, mpore kpoioc na kollsei. Met ap lgh skyh mwc,
blpoume ti h anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou mpore na mac odhgsei
sto ginmeno pou zhtme: efarmzontc thn sthn (7.5) blpoume ti
n
!1/2
!1/2
( n
)
n
n
X
X
X
1 X 2
2
2
2
ak
mM
bk
ak + (mM )
bk
2
k=1
k=1
k=1
k=1
)
(
n
X
1
ak bk .
(m + M )
2
k=1
Tra, frnontac lec tic stajerc sto dexi mloc, erqmaste se mia anisthta
pou ikanopoie tic apaitseic mac. An jsoume
(7.6)
A=
m+M
2
kai G =
mM ,
7.2 Monotonia kai mia {anisothta diataxhc} tou Chebyshev 69

tte, gia kje epilog mh arnhtikn ak , bk , k = 1, 2, . . . , n me
0 < m ak /bk M < ,

qoume apodexei thn anisthta
(7.7)
n
X
k=1
!1/2
a2k
n
X
k=1
!1/2
b2k
AX
ak bk .
G
k=1
Aut enai mia ikanopoihtik antistrof thc anisthtac Cauchy.
7.2 Monotona kai mia {anisthta ditaxhc} tou Chebyshev

'Enac trpoc gia na ekmetalleutome tic sqseic ditaxhc enai na periorsoume
thn prosoq mac se montonec akoloujec kai montonec sunartseic. Aut h
epilog odhge se na shmantik apotlesma pou qei pollc efarmogc, idiatera
sth jewra pijanottwn kai thn statistik.
To apotlesma pou ja perigryoume apodeqjhke ap ton Pafnuty Lvovich
Chebyshev (1821-1894), o opooc kat psa pijanthta eisqjh sth jewra
pijanottwn ap ton Victor Yacovlevich Bunyakovsky. H jewra pijanottwn
tan nac ap touc montrnouc kldouc twn majhmatikn pou o Bunyakovsky
fere maz tou sthn St. Petersburg epistrfontac ap to Parsi kai th majhtea
tou kont ston Cauchy.
Jerhma 7.2.1 (h anisthta ditaxhc tou Chebyshev). 'Estw f :

R R kai g : R R do axousec sunartseic kai stw pj 0, j = 1, 2, . . . , n,
oi opooi ikanopoion thn p1 + p2 + + pn = 1. Gia kje axousa akolouja
x1 x2 xn isqei h anisthta
( n
)( n
)
n
X
X
X
f (xk )pk
g(xk )pk
f (xk )g(xk )pk .
(7.8)
k=1
k=1
k=1
Mporome ekola na katanosoume thn anisthta (7.8) qwrc na basistome sth diasndes thc me th jewra pijanottwn. Oi efarmogc thc se llec
perioqc twn Majhmatikn enai otwc llwc pollc. H pijanojewrhtik
mwc ermhnea thc anisthtac (7.8) enai exairetik endiafrousa. Sth glssa twn pijanottwn, lei ti an X enai mia tuqaa metablht me thn idithta
P (X = xk ) = pk gia k = 1, 2, . . . , n, tte
(7.9)
E [f (X)] E [g(X)] E [f (X)g(X)],
pou, wc sunjwc, me P sumbolzoume thn pijanthta kai me E th msh tim. Me

lla lgia, an oi tuqaec metablhtc Y kai Z mporon na grafton san axousec
sunartseic thc diac tuqaac metablhtc X , tte oi Y kai Z qoun mh arnhtik
sundiakmansh. Qwrc thn anisthta tou Chebyshev, h diasjhsh pou qoume
gia thn statistik nnoia thc sundiakmanshc ja tan asjenc.

Shmewsh. Uprqei mia llh anisthta tou Chebyshev, h opoa enai akma pio
shmantik gia th jewra pijanottwn. Mac lei ti gia kje tuqaa metablht
X me peperasmnh msh tim = E(X), h anisthta
(7.10)
P (|X | )
1
E (|X |2 )
2
isqei gia kje > 0. H apdeixh autc thc anisthtac enai pol apl, enai
mwc tso shmantik gia th jewra pijanottwn pou h anisthta ditaxhc tou
Chebyshev (7.8) suqn apokaletai h llh anisthta tou Chebyshev.
H anisthta tou Chebyshev (7.8) enai tetragwnik, kai oi upojseic mac frnoun sto no thn teqnik thc metatropc thc ditaxhc se tetragwnik anisthta.
Ed, h monotona twn f kai g qei san sunpeia thn tetragwnik anisthta
0 {f (xk ) f (xj )}{g(xk ) g(xj )},

kai anaptssontac thn teleutaa, parnoume
(7.11)
f (xk )g(xj ) + f (xj )g(xk ) f (xj )g(xj ) + f (xk )g(xk ).
An qoume ftsei se aut to shmeo, arke na eisgoume ta pj kai na knoume tic

aparathtec arijmhtikc prxeic.
'Etsi, pollaplasizontac thn anisthta (7.11) me pj pk kai ajrozontac pnw
ap la ta 1 j n kai 1 k n, blpoume ti to arister mloc mac dnei
( n
)( n
)
n
X
X
X
f (xk )pk
g(xk )pk ,
{f (xk )g(xj ) + f (xj )g(xk )}pj pk = 2
k=1
j,k=1
en to dexi mloc mac dnei

n
X
k=1
{f (xj )g(xj ) + f (xk )g(xk )}pj pk = 2
j,k=1
n
X
)
f (xk )g(xk )pk
k=1
'Etsi, h anisthta (7.11) mac dnei mia apdeixh thc anisthtac tou Chebyshev.
7.3 Mia anisthta anaditaxhc

H apdeixh thc anisthtac tou Chebyshev mac odhge se mia pol shmantik anisthta anaditaxhc. Sth sunqeia, ja grfoume [n] gia to snolo {1, 2, . . . , n}.
Jumhjete ti me ton ro metjesh tou [n] ennoome aplc mia na-proc-na kai
ep apeiknish ap to [n] sto [n].
Jerhma 7.3.1 (anisthta anaditaxhc).
Gia kje zeugri diatetagm-
nwn pragmatikn akoloujin
< a1 a2 an < kai
< b1 b2 bn < ,
kai gia kje metjesh : [n] [n], isqei h anisthta
(7.12)
n
X
k=1
ak bnk+1
n
X
k=1
ak b(k)
n
X
k=1
ak bk .
7.3 Mia anisothta anadiataxhc 71

Oi upojseic tou problmatoc dnoun kpoiec sqseic ditaxhc, kai to sumprasma enai mia tetragwnik anisthta. Amswc mac rqetai sto no na qrhsimopoisoume th mjodo twn prohgomenwn paragrfwn, gia na proume mwc
mia ida gia thn fsh tou problmatoc, xekinme ap thn aplosterh perptwsh
n = 2.
Se autn thn perptwsh, jummaste prta ti ap tic a1 a2 kai b1 b2
petai h
0 (a2 a1 )(b2 b1 ),
kai, ektelntac tic prxeic, sumperanoume ti
a1 b2 + a2 b1 a1 b1 + a2 b2 .
Aut ebai akribc h morf pou parnei h (7.12) sthn perptwsh n = 2. To
prblhma tra enai na dome an h dia ida mpore na mac bohjsei na qeiristome
to pio genik jroisma
n
X
S() =
ak b(k) .
k=1
Antistrofc kai h anares touc

An h den enai h tautotik metjesh, tte prpei na uprqei kpoio zeugri
deiktn j < k ste (k) < (j). 'Ena ttoio zeugri onomzetai antistrof, kai
aut pou parathrome ap th melth thc perptwshc n = 2 enai ti an enallxoume tic timc twn (k) kai (j), tte h tim tou ajrosmatoc pou meletme ja
auxhje , toulqiston, den ja meiwje. Gia na metatryoume autn thn ida
se austhr epiqerhma, eisgoume prta mia na metjesh , jtontac
(i) (i) = (i) an i 6= j kai i 6= k ,
(ii) (i) = (j) an i = k ,
(iii) (i) = (k) an i = j .
Ap ton orism thc , knontac katllhlh paragontopohsh, blpoume ti
S( ) S()
= aj b (j) + ak b (k) aj b(j) ak b(k)

= aj b (j) + ak b (k) aj b (k) ak b (j)
= (ak aj )(b (k) b (j) ) 0.
'Etsi, me ton metasqhmatism 7 petuqanoume do stqouc. Prton, megalnoume thn posthta S : qoume S() S( ). Deteron, to pljoc twn
antistrofn sthn enai gnhswc mikrtero ap to pljoc twn antistrofn
sthn .
Epanlhyh thc diadikasac

Mia metjesh tou [n] emfanzei to pol n(n 1)/2 antistrofc kai h mnh metjesh pou den qei antistrofc enai h tautotik. Uprqei loipn mia peperasmnh

akolouja metasqhmatismn tou edouc pou perigryame pio pnw, h opoa mac
odhge ap thn sthn tautotik metjesh. An sumbolsoume autc tic diadoqikc metajseic me = 0 , 1 , . . . , m , pou m enai h tautotik metjesh
kai m n(n 1)/2, tte, efarmzontac thn anisthta S(j1 ) S(j ) gia
j = 1, 2, . . . , m, sumperanoume ti
S()
n
X
ak bk .
k=1
'Etsi, oloklhrnetai h apdeixh tou nw frgmatoc sthn anisthta anaditaxhc

(7.12).
O ekoloc trpoc gia na proume to ktw frgma enai na parathrsoume
ti enai mesh sunpeia tou nw frgmatoc. An orsoume b01 = bn , b02 =
bn1 , . . . , b0n = b1 , blpoume ti
b01 b02 b0n ,

kai, efarmzontac to nw frgma thc anisthtac anaditaxhc (7.12) gia thn
akolouja b01 , b02 , . . . , b0n , parnoume to ktw frgma thc anisthtac (7.12) gia
thn akolouja b1 , b2 , . . . , bn .
Keflaio 8
Summetrik ajrosmata
8.1 Oi klasikc anisthtec twn Newton kai Maclaurin
H k -ost stoiqeidhc summetrik sunrthsh twn n metablhtn x1 , x2 , . . . , xn
enai to polunumo
X
ek (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) =
xi1 xi2 xik .
1i1 <i2 <<ik n
Ta prta tra summetrik polunuma enai ta
e0 (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = 1,
e1 (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = x1 + x2 + + xn
kai
e2 (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) =
xj xk ,
1j<kn
en h n-ost stoiqeidhc summetrik sunrthsh enai to plrec ginmeno
en (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = x1 x2 xn .
Oi sunartseic autc emfanzontai se louc kuriolektik touc kldouc twn Majhmatikn. Mia pol shmantik iditht touc enai ti sundoun touc suntelestc enc poluwnmou me kpoiec sunartseic twn rizn tou: an to polunumo
P (t) grfetai sth morf P (t) = (t x1 )(t x2 ) (t xn ), tte qei kai thn
anaparstash
(8.1)
P (t) = tn e1 (x)tn1 + + (1)k ek (x) + + (1)n en (x),
pou, gia suntoma, grfoume ek (x) ant gia ek (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ).

Oi stoiqeideic summetrikc sunartseic pazoun shmantik rlo sthn jewra
twn anisottwn. Do ap tic pi dishmec anisthtec gi autc mac odhgon psw
ston Isaak Newton (1542-1727) kai ton Colin Maclaurin (1696-1746). Mporome
na tic diatupsoume pi komy msw twn kanonikopoihmnwn sunartsewn
Ek (x) = Ek (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) =
ek (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
n
,
k
74 Summetrika ajroismata
wc exc:
Oi anisthtec twn
Newton
anisthtec tou Newton
(8.2)
kai
Maclaurin: Gia kje x Rn isqoun oi
Ek1 (x) Ek+1 (x) Ek2 (x) gia 0 < k < n,
kai pontai oi anisthtec tou Maclaurin:
(8.3)
1/(n1)
En1/n (x) En1
1/2
(x) E2 (x) E1 (x)
gia kje x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) me xk 0 gia kje 1 k n.

An proume n = 3 kai gryoume x = (x, y, z), tte oi anisthtec tou Maclaurin mac lne ti, an x, y, z 0 tte
(xyz)1/3
xy + xz + yz
3
1/2
x+y+z
,
3
dhlad mac dnoun mia eklptunsh thc anisthtac arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou. Sthn genik perptwsh, oi anisthtec tou Maclaurin dnoun mia olklhrh
axousa akolouja parastsewn anmesa ston gewmetrik mso (x1 x2 xn )1/n
kai ton arijmhtik mso (x1 + x2 + + xn )/n.
Ap ton
Newton
ston
Maclaurin
msw gewmetrac
Gia na dinusma x Rn me jetikc suntetagmnec, oi timc {Ek (x) : 0 k n}

enai epshc jetikc, kai mporome na proume logarjmouc stic anisthtec tou
Newton: dhlad,
(8.4)
log Ek1 (x) + log Ek+1 (x)

log Ek (x)
2
gia kje 1 k n. Eidiktera, an x [0, )n oi anisthtec tou Newton mac

lne ti h kat tmmata grammik sunrthsh pou prosdiorzetai ap to snolo
shmewn {(k, log Ek (x)) : 0 k n} enai kolh.
An onomsoume Lk thn eujea pou prosdiorzetai ap ta shmea (0, 0) =
(0, log E0 (x)) kai (k, log Ek (x)), tte h klsh thc eujeac Lk+1 enai mikrterh
sh ap thn klsh thc eujeac Lk gia kje k = 1, 2, . . . , n 1. Afo h klsh thc
Lk enai sh me log Ek (x)/k , sumperanoume ti
log Ek (x)
log Ek+1 (x)
,
k
k+1
kai aut h anisthta enai akribc h k -ost ap tic anisthtec tou Maclaurin.
To pragmatik prblhma enai na apodexoume tic anisthtec tou Newton.
'Opwc ja permene kanec gia na jemelidec kai palai apotlesma, uprqoun
pollc diaforetikc proseggseic. Oi perissterec ap autc knoun kpoia
stigm qrsh Apeirostiko Logismo, mwc o Newton den dhmoseuse pot kpoia apdeixh twn anisottwn tou, opte den gnwrzoume poi akribc tan h
mjodoc pou qrhsimopohse.
8.1 Oi klasikec anisothtec twn Newton kai Maclaurin 75
Polunuma kai oi pargwgo touc

Akma ki an o Newton akolojhse diaforetik drmo, qei nhma na exetsoume
an h pargwgoc P 0 (t) mpore na mac dsei kpoiec plhroforec gia ta polunuma
Ek (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ), 1 k n. An gryoume thn tautthta (8.1) sth morf

n
X
k n
(8.5)
P (t) =
(1)
Ek (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )tnk ,
k
k=0
tte h pargwgoc P 0 (t) parnei mia pol endiafrousa morf. Sugkekrimna,

qoume
Q(t) =

n nk
Ek (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )tnk1
k
n
k=0
n1
X n 1
=
Ek (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )tnk1 ,
k
1 0
P (t) =
n
n1
X
(1)k
k=0
pou, sthn deterh gramm, qrhsimopoisame thn gnwst tautthta

n nk
n!
nk
(n 1)!
n1
=
=
=
.
k
n
k!(n k)! n
k!(n k 1)!
k
An oi xk , k = 1, 2, . . . , n ankoun sto disthma [a, b], tte to polunumo P (t) qei
n pragmatikc rzec sto [a, b], kai to jerhma tou Rolle mac lei ti h pargwgoc
P 0 (t) prpei na qei n 1 pragmatikc rzec sto [a, b]. An sumbolsoume autc
tic rzec me y1 , y2 , . . . , yn1 , tte prokptei h tautthta
Q(t) =
1 0
P (t)
n
(t y1 )(t y2 ) (t yn1 )
n1
X
n1
=
(1)k
Ek (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn1 )tnk1 .
k
k=0
An tra exissoume touc suntelestc twn do poluwnumikn ekfrsewn pou

brkame gia to Q(t), katalgoume sthn axioshmewth tautthta
(8.6)
Ek (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = Ek (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn1 )
(0 k n 1).
To arister mloc thc tautthtac (8.6) enai mia sunrthsh tou n distatou
diansmatoc x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) en to dexi mloc enai mia sunrthsh tou
(n 1) distatou diansmatoc y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn1 ). An loipn apodexoume
mia anisthta thc morfc
0 F (E0 (y), E1 (y), . . . , En1 (y)) gia kje y [a, b]n1 ,

tte qoume kai thn anisthta
0 F (E0 (x), E1 (x), . . . , En1 (x)) gia kje x [a, b]n .

Me lla lgia, kje anisthta
tautthta
pou dnei mia sqsh anmesa stic (n 1) posthtec E0 (y), E1 (y), . . . , En1 (y) kai isqei gia kje y
[a, b]n1 , exasfalzei autmata ti h antstoiqh sqsh gia tic (n 1) posthtec

E0 (x), E1 (x), . . . , En1 (x) isqei gia kje x [a, b]n .
Antimetwpzoume loipn na prblhma thc exc morfc: jloume na apodexoume mia sqsh gia sunartseic n metablhtn kai arke na apodexoume mia
anlogh sqsh gia sunartseic n 1 (mnon!) metablhtn. Aut h paratrhsh
mpore na qrhsimopoihje gia thn {paragwg} polurijmwn eidikn tautottwn
oi opoec fanontai arket entupwsiakc. Mpore epshc na qrhsimopoihje gia
thn {orgnwsh} epagwgikn (wc proc to pljoc twn metablhtn) apodexewn
gia apotelsmata pwc oi anisthtec tou Newton.
Epagwg wc proc to pljoc twn metablhtn

Onomzoume Hn thn prtash h opoa isqurzetai ti
(8.7)
Ej1 (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )Ej+1 (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) Ej2 (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
gia kje x Rn kai gia kje 1 j < n. Gia n = 1 h prtash den qei nhma,
opte to epagwgik mac epiqerhma xekinei me thn H2 . Se autn thn perptwsh,
arke na elgxoume ma mno anisthta, thn
E0 (x1 , x2 )E2 (x1 , x2 ) E12 (x1 , x2 ),
(8.8)
2
2
, isodnama, thn gnwst anisthta x1 x2 x1 +x
.
2
Logik, ja mporosame tra na epiqeirsoume to epagwgik bma, prokeimnou mwc na katalboume kaltera th logik twn pragmtwn, jewrome prta
thn H3 , h opoa perigrfetai ap do isqurismoc:
(8.9)
E0 (x1 , x2 , x3 )E2 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) E12 (x1 , x2 , x3 ),
(8.10)
E1 (x1 , x2 , x3 )E3 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) E22 (x1 , x2 , x3 ).
Se aut to shmeo arqzoume na qrhsimopoiome pragmatik thn {axioshmewth

tautthta} (8.6). O isqurismc (8.9) mac lei gia trec metablhtc aut pou h
anisthta (8.8) mac lei gia do, ra h (8.6) mac lei ti h prth anisthta (8.9)
isqei. 'Eqoume oloklhrsei th mis apdeixh qwrc na knoume tpota.
Gia na sumplhrsoume thn apdeixh thc H3 prpei tra na apodexoume thn
deterh anisthta (8.10). Gia na dome poic akribc enai o stqoc mac, xanagrfoume thn (8.10) sthn plrh morf thc:
(8.11)
x1 + x2 + x3
3
(x1 x2 x3 )
x1 x2 + x1 x3 + x2 x3
3
2
.
Aut h anisthta isqei tetrimmna an x1 x2 x3 = 0, upojtoume loipn ti

x1 x2 x3 6= 0. Mporome tte na diairsoume ta do mlh me (x1 x2 x3 )2 kai na
anaqjome sthn
1
3
1
1
1
+
+
x1 x2
x1 x3
x2 x3
1
1
1
+
+
x1
x2
x3
2
,
8.1 Oi klasikec anisothtec twn Newton kai Maclaurin 77

h opoa, an anaptxoume to tetrgwno kai knoume aplopoiseic, grfetai isodnama sth morf
1
1
1
1
1
1
+
+
2 + 2 + 2.
x1 x2
x1 x3
x2 x3
x1
x2
x3
Me sa qoume de wc tra, enai pol ekolo na apodexoume autn thn anisthta. Mporome na efarmsoume thn anisthta tou Cauchy sta diansmata
(1/x1 , 1/x3 , 1/x2 ) kai (1/x2 , 1/x1 , 1/x3 ), na ajrosoume tic trec anisthtec
(
)
1
1 1
1
1 j < k 3.
+ 2 ,
xj xk
2 x2j
xk
'Etsi, qoume apodexei thn H3 kai qoume prei mia ida gia ton trpo me ton
opoo ja doulyoume sto epagwgik bma.
To epagwgik bma
H Hn apoteletai ap n 1 anisthtec oi opoec qwrzontai se do omdec.
Prton, gia to x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) qoume tic n 2 anisthtec stic opoec
emfanzontai oi posthtec Ej (x), 0 j < n,
(8.12)
Ek1 (x)Ek+1 (x) Ek2 (x) gia 1 k < n 1,
kai, deteron, qoume ma mno anisthta sthn opoa emfanzetai h posthta

En (x), thn
2
En2 (x)En (x) En1
(x).
(8.13)
'Opwc edame kai sth suzthsh gia thn H3 , lec oi anisthtec thc prthc omdac
(8.12) prokptoun ap thn epagwgik upjesh Hn1 kai ap thn tautthta (8.6).
An tra anaptxoume thn (8.13) kai an me to smbolo x
j ennoome ti o xj
paralepetai, tte blpoume ti h anisthta pou mnei na apodeiqte enai h
X
2
(8.14)
x1 x
j x
k xn x1 x2 xn
n(n 1)
1j<kn
n
1 X
n
x1 x2 x
j xn
j=1
'Opwc kai sthn prohgomenh pargrafo, mporome na upojsoume ti x1 x2 xn 6=

0. Diairntac me (x1 x2 xn )2 kai knontac kpoiec aplopoiseic, blpoume ti
h anisthta (8.14) enai isodnamh me thn
2
n
X
X
1
1
1
1
n
(8.15)
.
n
xj xk
xj
2
1j<kn
j=1
Mporome tra na epanalboume to epiqerhma pou qrhsimopoisame gia thn

H3 , ja protimsoume mwc nan diaforetik trpo, o opooc rqetai sqedn
amswc sto no. An uiojetsoume th glssa twn summetrikn sunartsewn, h
anisthta (8.15) mpore na grafte sth morf
E0 (1/x1 , 1/x2 , . . . , 1/xn )E2 (1/x1 , 1/x2 , . . . , 1/xn )

E12 (1/x1 , 1/x2 , . . . , 1/xn ),
kai aut h anisthta isqei, afo kalptetai ap thn prth omda (8.12). 'Etsi,
h apdeixh twn anisottwn tou Newton enai plrhc.
8.2 H anisthta tou Muirhead

O David Hilbert epe kpote ti {h tqnh tou na kneic majhmatik enai to na
brskeic ekenh thn eidik perptwsh pou ja sou dsei th dunatthta na genikeseic}. Efarmzontac aut th filosofa, ja xekinsoume ap mia stoiqeidh
anisthta, ap pou ja odhghjome sthn pol genikterh anisthta tou Muirhead.
An x, y kai z enai mh arnhtiko pragmatiko arijmo, tte
x2 y 3 + x2 z 3 + y 2 x3 + y 2 z 3 + z 2 x3 + z 2 y 3
(8.16)
xy 4 + xz 4 + yx4 + yz 4 + zx4 + zy 4 .
'Eqoume dh sunantsei arket problmata pou h anisthta arijmhtiko

gewmetriko msou mac bojhse na katalboume th sqsh anmesa se do omogen polunuma, kai elpzoume ti h dia ida ja mac bohjsei na dexoume ti kje
prosjetoc sto arister mloc mpore na grafte san gewmetrikc msoc twn
prosjetwn tou dexio mlouc. Met ap kpoiouc peiramatismoc, ja parathr2
1
sete ti an a kai b enai do mh arnhtiko arijmo, tte a2 b3 = (ab4 ) 3 (a4 b) 3 , kai,
tte, h anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou (2.9) mac dnei thn anisthta
(8.17)
a2 b3 = (ab4 ) 3 (a4 b) 3
2 4 1 4
ab + a b.
3
3
Mnei na dome me poin trpo ja thn qrhsimopoisoume. An sth jsh tou (a, b)
proume diadoqik ta diatetagmna zegh (x, y) kai (y, x), tte to jroisma twn
do anisottwn pou ja prokyoun mac dnei thn
x2 y 3 + y 2 x3 xy 4 + x4 y.
Me ton dio akribc trpo, parnoume anlogec anisthtec prosjtontac thn
(8.17) gia ta zegh (x, z), (z, x) kai ta zegh (y, z), (z, y). Tloc, prosjtontac
tic trec anisthtec pou ja prokyoun, katalgoume sthn zhtomenh anisthta
(8.16).
To epiqerhma pou perigryame efarmzetai, sqedn qwrc tropopoiseic, se
kje summetrik jroisma rwn thc morfc xa y b , an mwc epiqeirsoume na
qeiristome ajrosmata pou periqoun rouc thc morfc xa y b z c , blpoume ti
8.2 H anisothta tou Muirhead 79

h poluploktht touc auxnetai tso pou mpore na gnei apagoreutik an den
anaptxoume mia susthmatik prosggish sto prblhma.
Eutuqc, h gewmetra rqetai na mac dexei to drmo. 'Ena apl sqma deqnei ti (2, 3) = 23 (1, 4) + 31 (4, 1), kai, me dokimc, blpoume ti aut odhge sthn
2
1
dispash a2 b3 = (ab4 ) 3 (a4 b) 3 . Me th gewmetra mporome ekola na qeiristome rouc thc morfc xa y b , to pragmatik mwc pleonkthma thc gewmetrikc
optikc gwnac enai ti mac upodeiknei qrsimec anaparastseic gia ginmena
trin perissterwn metablhtn. To kleid gi aut enai na brome thn swst
gewmetrik genkeush.
Milntac afhrhmna, gia na lsoume to prto mac prblhma qreisthke na
parathrsoume ti to (2, 3) ankei sthn kurt jkh tou (1, 4) kai thc metjesc tou (4, 1). Pi genik, an mac dsoun do n-distata diansmata =
(1 , 2 , . . . , n ) kai = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ), mporome na jewrsoume thn anlogh
katstash pou to ankei sthn kurt jkh H() tou sunlou twn shmewn
( (1) , (2) , . . . , (n) ) ta opoa prosdiorzontai an afsoume thn na diatrqei
to snolo Sn lwn twn n! metajsewn tou {1, 2, . . . , n}.
Aut h ida odhge sthn anisthta tou Robert Franklin Muirhead (18601941). Apodeqthke to 1903, kai swc fanetai polplokh arqik. 'Eqontac mwc
apoktsei kpoia empeira, mporome na ektimsoume tso thn aplthta so kai
thn komytht thc.
Jerhma 8.2.1 (h anisthta tou Muirhead).
An = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ),
= (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) kai H(), tte gia kje n-da x1 , x2 , . . . , xn jetikn
arijmn isqei h anisthta
X
X
2
2
n
1
n
1
(8.18)
x
x(1)
x(2)
x(n)
.
(1) x(2) x(n)
Sn
Sn
Gia na exoikeiwjome me to sumbolism, elgqoume prta ti h anisthta tou

prtou mac problmatoc enai eidik perptwsh thc anisthtac tou Muirhead.
Se autn thn perptwsh, S3 enai to snolo twn xi metajsewn tou sunlou
{1, 2, 3}, kai qoume (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x, y, z). Epshc, qoume
(1 , 2 , 3 ) = (2, 3, 0) kai (1 , 2 , 3 ) = (1, 4, 0).

Afo (2, 3, 0) = 23 (1, 4, 0) + 13 (4, 1, 0), blpoume ti H(). Tloc, qoume to
-jroisma
X
2
3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
1
x
(1) x(2) x(3) = x y + x z + y x + y z + z x + z y ,
Sn
en to -jroisma isotai me
X
1
2
3
x(1)
x(2)
x(3)
= xy 4 + xz 4 + yx4 + yz 4 + zx4 + zy 4 .
Sn
Sunepc, h anisthta tou Muirhead (8.18) ntwc genikeei thn anisthta (8.16).
Tloc, prin proqwrsoume sthn apdeixh, ja prepe na parathrsoume ti den
uprqei periorismc sqetik me to prshmo twn suntetagmnwn twn kai sthn
anisthta tou Muirhead. 'Etsi, gia pardeigma, an proume = (1/2, 1/2, 0) kai
= (1, 2, 0), tte h anisthta tou Muirhead mac lei ti, gia kje trida
jetikn pragmatikn arijmn x, y kai z , isqei h anisthta
x2
x2
y2
y2
z2
z2
2( xy + xz + yz)
+
+
+
+
+ .
y
z
x
z
x
y
(8.19)
Aut h anisthta mpore na apodeiqte me polloc trpouc: gia pardeigma,

ja mporosame na bassoume thn apdeixh sthn anisthta tou Cauchy sthn
anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou. 'Omwc, h anisthta tou Muirhead
dnei mia mesh ermhnea thc anisthtac kai thn entssei sto eurtero dunat
plasio.
Apdeixh thc anisthtac tou
Muirhead
H upjesh ti H() enai isodnamh me ton isqurism ti uprqoun p 0

P
me Sn p = 1, ste
(1 , 2 , . . . , n ) =
p ( (1) , (2) , . . . , (n) ).
Sn
Tra, an qrhsimopoisoume thn j -ost suntetagmnh autc thc isthtac gia na

j
ekfrsoume ton x(j)
san ginmeno, mporome na pollaplasisoume wc proc j
kai na katalxoume sthn isthta
Y (1) (2)
(n) p
2
n
1
x
x
x
=
x
x
x
.
(1) (2)
(n)
(1) (2)
(n)
Sn
Ap ed kai pra, h anisthta arijmhtiko gewmetriko msou kai kpoia arijmhtik ja doulyoun gia mc. Pi sugkekrimna, qoume
X
X Y (1) (2)
(n) p
2
n
1
x
x(1) x(2) x(n)

(1) x(2) x(n)
Sn
Sn Sn
X X
(1)
(2)
(n)
p x(1)
x(2)
x(n)
Sn Sn
Sn
Sn
Sn
dhlad, thn anisthta tou Muirhead.
(1)
(2)
(n)
x(1)
x(2)
x(n)
Sn
1
2
n
x(1)
x(2)
x(n)
Sn
1
2
x(1)
x(2)
n
x(n)
,
Bibliografa
[1] L. Carleson, A proof of an inequality of Carleman, Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 5
(1954), 932933.
[2] A. Cauchy, Cours dAnalyse (1821).
[3] J. Duncan and M. A. McGregor, Carlemans inequality, Amer. Math. Monthly
101 (2003), 424431.
[4] G. H. Hardy, J. E. Littlewood and G. Polya, Inequalities, Cambridge University
Press (1952).
[5] G. Polya, Proof of an inequality, Proc. London Math. Soc. 24 (1926), 57.
[6] G. Polya, With, or without, motivation, Amer. Math. Monthly 57 (1949), 684
691.
[7] S. Rosset, Normalized symmetric functions, Newtons inequalities, and a new
set of stronger inequalities, Amer. Math. Monthly 96 (1989), 815819.
[8] J. M. Steele, The CauchySchwarz Master Class, Cambridge University Press
(2004).

Εισαγωγη Στη Θεωρια Ανισοτητων

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Εισαγωγη Στη Θεωρια Ανισοτητων

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Diapanepisthmiak - Diatmhmatik Prgramma

H parosa Diplwmatik Ergasa ekponjhke sta plasia twn spoudn gia

2 H deterh anisthta tou

H anisthta tou Jensen 25

6 Ajrosmata tetragnwn poluwnmwn

H eikasa tou Minkowski 61

7 Sunpeiec thc ditaxhc

Antistrof thc anisthtac Cauchy 67

Oi klasikc anisthtec twn Newton kai Maclaurin

Perigrfoume to epiqerhma tou Cauchy me epagwg {proc ta emprc kai proc

ap11 ap22 apnn p1 a1 + p2 a2 + + pn an .

up ton ro ti oi ekjtec p > 1 kai q > 1 ikanopoion thn sqsh p1 + 1q = 1.

H anisthta tou Cauchy

(a1 b1 + a2 b2 + + an bn )2 (a21 + a22 + + a2n )(b21 + b22 + + b2n )

Afo a |a| gia kje pragmatik arijm a, petai ti

1.2 Epagwgik apdeixh

4 H anisothta tou Cauchy

(a1 b1 + a2 b2 )2 (a21 + a22 )(b21 + b22 ).

Pc ja mporosame na doulyoume susthmatik gia na thn apodexoume?

0 (a1 b2 )2 2(a1 b2 )(a2 b1 ) + (a2 b1 )2 .

(a1 b2 )2 2(a1 b2 )(a2 b1 ) + (a2 b1 )2 = (a1 b2 a2 b1 )2 .

Afo h teleutaa posthta enai mh arnhtik, qoume apodexei ti h (1.2) enai

An onomsoume P (n) thn prtash ti h anisthta tou Cauchy alhjeei

1.3 Apo to poiotiko sto posotiko sumperasma 5

a1 b1 + a2 b2 + + an bn + an+1 bn+1 = (a1 b1 + a2 b2 + + an bn ) + an+1 bn+1

b21 + b22 + + b2n .

1.3 Ap to poiotik sto posotik sumprasma

Ac upojsoume ti jloume na dsoume apdeixh auto tou isqurismo qwrc na

6 H anisothta tou Cauchy

h opoa qei wc profan sunpeia thn (1.4).

oi opoec enai kanonikopoihmnec me thn nnoia ti

1.3 Apo to poiotiko sto posotiko sumperasma 7

H kanonikopohsh mac prosfrei na susthmatik trpo gia na pernme

mporome na apokomsoume poll oflh prospajntac na katanosoume

Ap thn anisthta xy (x + y )/2 xroume epshc ti

8 H anisothta tou Cauchy

Ma mno isthta h (1.8) enai ikan na epibllei peirec to pljoc

1.4 H axa thc genkeushc

pou a = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) kai b = (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ). Aut h sntmhsh mac epitrpei

ha, bi ha, ai 2 hb, bi 2 .

1.4 H axia thc genikeushc 9

Enai aljeia ti se kje qro eswteriko ginmenou isqei h anisthta

Prblhma 1.4.1. Se kje pragmatik qro me eswterik ginmeno (V, h, i)

hv, wi hv, vi 2 hw, wi 2 .

Epiplon, gia mh mhdenik diansmata v kai w, qoume

hv, wi = hv, vi 2 hw, wi 2

gia kpoion mh mhdenik pragmatik arijm .

10 H anisothta tou Cauchy

1.5 H tautthta tou Lagrange

(a21 + a22 )(b21 + b22 ) = (a1 b1 + a2 b2 )2 + (a1 b2 a2 b1 )2 ,

qwrc na thn ekmetalleutome plrwc. Sugkekrimna, agnosame ton ro (a1 b2

1.5 H tautothta tou Lagrange 11

mporome na apospsoume kpoia qrsima sumpersmata ap ton ro pou

Mac dnei loipn na qrsimo trpo gia na upologsoume to sflma pou

gia kpoion pragmatik arijm .

Aut h paratrhsh qei shmantikc sunpeiec: to prto mac prblhma zhtei

Prblhma 1.5.1 (isthta sthn anisthta tou

Qn = (a21 + a22 + + a2n )(b21 + b22 + + b2n ) (a1 b1 + a2 b2 + + an bn )2 .

12 H anisothta tou Cauchy

H parstash aut, wc qei, den moizei na exuphrete to skop mac. Mporome

Tra, ta do dipl ajrosmata enai amftera summetrik wc proc i kai j , kai

'Ola sa epame sunoyzontai se mia gramm. 'Eqoume apodexei thn tautthta

Odhghjkame se autn thn tautthta ap thn epijuma mac na katanosoume to

Axzei na shmeisoume ti h anisthta tou Cauchy enai mesh sunpeia thc

Gia n = 2, h anisthta (2.3) prokptei kat eujean ap thn stoiqeidh