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74


.

. ,
.34 :
, .

, [] ,
. ,

,
.
. ,
. , ,
.

, .
:
, , ,
;
;
:35

. ,
.
, . , ,

.
.
.

. [

34

. , , . 93.

35

. , , . 140.

75

 ,
]. , ,

, ,
. ,
Dijksterhuis :
,
, .
, ,
, ,
:
, , ,
;
, ,
, ; ,
, [ ],
,
. ,
, , ,
. ,
, , .
, ,
,
.
.
,
, ,
. .
, ,

,
2000 Cavalieri.

76


.36

,
.
, Heiberg
, ,

,

.

, ,

.
,
, ,

.
, .37
(262 180
..), , ,
.
.


, ,
, .
:

,
,
.

36

. -. -. , ,

37

. , , . 154.

77

.38

. 3 ..
, , ,
, ,
.
, ,

. , ,

.
, .

Fr. Viete, R. Descartes, P. Fermat 17
,

Jacob Klein (1899 1978): ,

Viete .

39

3.4. 19 .

3.4.1 .
1100 1200 ..
,
.
38

---------//-------- , , . 104.

39

. , , . 108.

78

 , ,
,
,
. ,
, , -
.
,
,
, .
, -
, .
, ,
, ,
. Merton ,
,
, . ,
,
Merton .40
,

,
,
.
,
Nicole Oresme (1320 1382 ..), ,

,
, , .
,
.
,

.
40

E. Grant, .

79

 , Cavalieri,
.
1/2+2/4+3/8++n/2n+,

,
Merton.
, Edwards,41 ,
, 17 ,

.

3.4.2. .
15 ,

,
,
. Francois Vite (1540 1603), 1580,
+ - , 2
,

, .
Simon Stevin (1548 1620),
. he elements of the
Arts of weighing (1586),

, ,

, .

,
, , Stevin
.

41

C.H.Edwards, The Historical Development of the Calculus.

80

 , Johannes Kepler
(1571 1630 .X.). Kepler .

1600, Tycho Brahe,

. Nova Sterometria(1615),

. ..

. ,
,
.42 , ,
, ,
, , ,
.
.
,
.
,
.
. Kepler
, ,
.
,
.

,

10, 1 20. ,

.
,

.43

42
43

. , . , 5 . 19,.123.
V. J. Katz, A History of Mathematics, An introduction, p.469.

81

V
= 0 V ( x) = 0. Kepler
x 0 x

lim

, !! ,
, ,
.44
Kepler
Galileo-Galilei (1564 1642). 1582
, ,

.
. ,
.
,
. 1604
Paulo Sarpi:
,
.44 , S = 1/2gt2,

.
, :

)
.
g S = gt=t t, S
t .

t ,

44

. , . , 5 . 19,.127.

82

 = t,
t .

,
,

.
S = t,
S =

1
1
t t = t 2 ,
2
2

xdx .
0

S=

1 2
t
2

= t,
S.45
, .

.
) .
.

, ,
. ,
,
1,2,3, 1,4,9,..,
45

. , . , 5 . 19,.130.

83


.
.
.
:
,
,
. , ,
, .46

Bonaventura Cavalieri,
,
, Newton Leibniz. O
, ,
,
,
.
. 17
.

.
:
1. ,

.
2. ,

S = S(t),
.
3. .
4. , ,

46

R. Rucker, .

84

 ,
Kepler ,
.
Bonaventura Cavalieri (1598 1647),

,
(1635) (1647).

,
,
, ,
, .
,
. Cavalieri,
Kepler, :47
1. Kepler

, .. ,
,
. Cavalieri
.
,
, .
,
2. Kepler

, Cavalieri,
,
, ,
.
, Cavalieri, Omnes
lineae,

Cavalieri:

47

C.H.Edwards, The Historical Development of the Calculus, p. 104.

85

(i) ,

, ,
, .
(ii)

,
.48

Cavalieri
y = x, 1 9,

[0, ].

x dx =
0

a +1
.
+1

, o , Fermat,
Pascal Roberval. Cavalieri

,
. ,
,
.
Paul Guldin Torricelli.
,
. Torricelli

=
=
, ,


=
, Cavalieri ,

( )
=
=1
()

48

K. Andersen, Cavalieris method of indivisibles.

86

 .
Torricelli
.

, , ,

. , Torricelli
. Opera Geometrica

Cavalieri,
.
Newton Leibniz,
,
. Cavalieri,

.
Cavalieri
, Gregoire de Saint-Vincent (1584 1667),

1200 ,
Gregoire

,
Christiaan Huygens 1651. ,
Gregoire ,

.
,
, ,
.
.
,
.
,
,
. ,

87

 ,
.49

,
,
. Gregoire,
,
. Gregoire
Cavalieri, Fermat , Newton

Leibniz, .

Leibniz

Gregoire :50
,
Gregoire de Saint Vincent

Cavalieri,
Evangelista Torricelli (1608 1647),
, Opera
Geometrika. 1644

.
,
, .

,
. Torricelli, 1646, tn,
S - t
1 2. 1 = 1 2 = = tn,
,
= 2/1 = 2/1 = . ( )

49
50

. , . , 5 . 19,.157
R. Calinger, A Contextual history of mathematics

88

 ,
.
= tn, ,
Cavalieri S = E = tn+1/n+1, :

t n +1
n
= S =
= t , ,
n +1
t
d n n
x dx = t ,
dt 0

. Torricelli,
, y = xn, n
. ,

.51

.
Cavalieri, Pietro Mengoli, (1625 1685),
(1659),

:
,
quasi-infinite
quasi-nil52

51
52

M. Baron, The origins of the infinitesimal calculus.

. , . , 5 . 19,.164

89

 Ren Descartes (),(1596 1650),

La Geometrie (1637),

,
,
.
,
.

.
,
Pierre de Fermat (1601 1665).
Introductio to plane and Solid loci (1629),
,
, . 1629
Kepler,
() ,

,
. Fermat, , f(A)
. H. Eves53 :
1. +
2. f(A) f(+) f(A) = f(+)
3. (2)
4.
5.
6.

f ( A + E ) f ( A)
f ( x + h) f ( x )
/ =0 = 0 lim
= 0 f ( x) = 0
E
h
h 0

1638.
.
,
. Lagrange, Laplace Fourier,
, .
53

H. Eves, , 2.

90

 Katz Fermat
, :54 Fermat
,



. Fermat .

Gilles Persone de Roberval, (1602 1675),

, .
y = xm, [0, 1 ],
, .
Roberval,

0m + 1m + 2m + ... + (n 1) m
, n ,
n m+1

1
.
m +1

,
. ,
m , ,
.
Roberval ,
,
.

Blaise Pascal (1623 1662). 1654
n

=1

n m+1 n m
+
+ A(n) , (n)
m +1 2

m.
y = xn [0, ], ,
. n, n
,
54

V. J. Katz, A History of Mathematics, An introduction, p.485.

91

n m+1

m +1

 . M. Simon, 55

Pascal,
,
Leibniz, ,
.
y = xm [0, ],
n, h = /n ,

= h + ( 2h ) + ..... + ( nh ) = h

m +1

( nh ) =

m +1

i =1

m +1

m +1

m +1

1659 ,
, , .
,
,
, .
Blaise Pascal
.
John Wallis (1616 1703),
Fermat,
. Arithmetica
infinitorum (1655),

,
. Cavalieri,
, ,
, .
:
,
, ( 1/ ,

).
,
. Wallis
,
55

C.B. Boyer, The history of calculus and its conceptual development.

92


, Newton.56
Arithmetica Infinitorum ,

, ,


.

Cristiaan Huygens (1629 1695),

,
, Fermat
. Fermat
, 0.
, 14
. Leibniz,
,
Leibniz.

Hudde Sluse
. 1657
William Neil, y2 =x3
, ,
,
.57
James Gregory (1638 1675),
17 , ,

,
,
, .
Newton
56
57

(1 + d )

= 1 + xd +

J. Scott, The mathematical work of John Wallis.

D.T. Whiteside, Mathematical thought in the later 17th century.

93

x( x 1) 2
d + .... ,
1 2

 .
,
,
.
: ,
.

,
. ,
,

, Newton
Leibniz.

17 , Isaac Barrow (1630 1677),

,
Arithmetica Infinitorum Wallis,
Fermat.
(1669), ,

, .
R, ( ),
R, .
,
Fermat, 11 ,
19

94

Rf '( x) = R ( f (b) f (a) ) .

Barrow

,
, ,
, . ,

, .58
/e, , y/x ,

Q , Q
. ( )
y/x, x 0. , Barrow,
,
,
, Newton Leibniz.59
Katz,60 Barrow
:
11 19 , .
,

58
59
60

V. J. Katz, A History of Mathematics, An introduction, p.501.

. , . , 5 . 19,.238.
V. J. Katz, A History of Mathematics, An introduction, p.503.

95

 . Newton,
,
Campridge, .

3.4.3 .

1660 ,

,
,
.

.
, ,
. 1660 70,
Isaac Newton Gottfied Leibniz,
:
1. Newton ,
Leibniz

, .
2.
.
3.

.
4. ,

.
,
,
.61
Isaac Newton (1642 1727), 1627
Cambridge,
Isaak Barrow, rithmetica Infinitorum
61

V. J. Katz, A History of Mathematics, An introduction, p.521.

96

Wallis ,

.
, 1666,
.
1687

philosophiae naturalis principia

mathematica

( ). Newton

.62 ,
, Fermat
Barrow. ,

.
(fluxion) (fluent). H

x , .
,
. 1666
, 1666 ,

d
= y ,
dx

y = f(x),
.
,
,

y = f(x), x y.
, y =
f(x), .

x,
.
, ,

. Newton
62

. , . , 5 . 19,.267.

97


.
.
Gottfried Wilhem von
Leibniz (1646 1716), Newton,

. Cr. Huygens
1672, Wallis, Gregoire Pascal,

.
Leibniz, .
(n), nN, (Sn), nN, Sn =

1+2+..+n (n), nN, n=n+1-n.

Sn+1-Sn=n+1 nN
(n) n+1-1, nN.

,
.

,

xk, yk, dx
dy.

Wallis. 63 ,

. 1675
, 1684 .

dy

dy
y
=
,
dx

63

. , . , 5 . 19,.270.

98

dx dy,

x y.
P ,
dx , Q
QR dy, Q
. ( ) :
dy
f ( x + dx) f ( x )
dy
= lim
,
dx, dy,
dx dx0
dx
dx

y
x 0. 1686
x

De Geometria recondite et analysi indivisibilium atque Infinitorum,

Acta Eruditorum.64

y = f(x), xx
yy , x

dx, dy y. d

64

. , . , 5 . 19 ,.276.

99

 (),
= y + dy, ydx < () < (y + dy)dx y < d/dx < y + dy
dx dy , d/dx = y.
= d = ydx
:

d
d
= y
ydx = y
dx
dx

1674 Leibniz Oldenburg,

,
,

.
.
Leibniz :1)
Leibniz
, 2)
Leibniz ,

, , ,
. .
Newton Leibniz .
, , .
,
, .
,

, ,
.

100

 Newton
Leibniz
G. Berkeley. 65

3.4.4 .

O Newton Leibniz,

, ,

, . :
Colin Maclaurin (1698 1746), Newton.
.
D Alempert,
.
,

,
.
Jacob Johan Bernoulli,
, Leibniz,
Jacob (1654 1705), Calculis
integralis.

.
,
1+

1
1
+ 2 + ...., ,
2
2
3

y+f(x)y=g(x)yn. O Johan (1667

1748), 1694,

dx d 2 y
, r =
:
,
dy ds 2

65

. , . , 5 . 19,.286.

101

 66 ,

. ,
19 :

.

Brook Taylor (1685 1731), Newton,

,
.
Marquis Guillance F.A. de l Hpital (1661 1704),
Johann Bernoulli,
.

, Analyse des infiniment petits pour l intelligence des
lignes courbes (

). ,
,
, x + dx = x, (
), , (
) , (
)
0/0 Bernoulli
,
.
x + dx = x ,
Michel Rolle (1652 1719),
, l
Hopital. , dx

0 ,
, . Leibniz, ,
, 2 2 -1702.
66

, , ,

102

 Rolle l Hpital,
,
. , Rolle,
,
, .67
, ,
,

Leonhard Euler (1707 1783), Johann Bernoulli.

, Institutiones calculi differentialis (
)

Institutiones calculi

Integralis

).
.
.
,
. ,
, . 1748
Introductio in analysis infinitorum,

.
, ,
. :

, .

,
n

1
e = lim 1 + , y = lnx, 1734
n +
n

De progressionibus harmonicis observation nes,

n

= log n + c , cn Euler.

=1

0,577218. ,

67

. , . , 5 . 19,.306.

103

= lim 1 + + + ... + log n ,

n+
2 3
n
e,
. Euler
Gauss :
Euler
.68

18 Jean Le Rond
D Alembert (1717 1783), Leibniz

, ,

Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736 1813),

,
,
. 1797 ,

.
f(x) ,
f(x). ,
o Lagrange,
, ,
,
. . Lagrange
,

,
.
1800 ,

,
. Bernhard Bolzano (1781 1848),
1817
: f(x)

68

D. Struik, .

104

 x,
, , x , f(x+)
f(x), ,
.69 f,

f ( x + x ) f ( x )
,
x

x 0

dy
dy
,
,
dx
dx

dy dx, ,
, .

.
Bolzano, 19
, Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777 1855).
,
,
.
1755, Euler :
,
,
.

Augustin Louis Cauchy (1789 1857), o

19 ,

.
Cours d analyse (1821),

: , , , ,

, .

,
.

,
, ,

69

69. I. Grattan-Guinness, Bolzano, Cauchy and the new analysis of the early 19th century.

105

 , ,
,
.

,
, .

, ,
.

, ,
.

f [, ] x,
f(x+h)-f(x) , h .
f(x) x
,
.

(1823), ,

f(x), Lagrange
:
y=f(x) x,
,
,
. x=i,

y f ( x + i ) f ( x )
=
, .
x
i

,
, .
, x,
x. ,

f ( x + i ) f ( x)
,
i

y=f(x).

106

 ,
y f(x).

[, ],

. Cauchy
, ,
.
,
,
. ,

:
f:[x0, X]R, [x0, x] n
[x0, x1], [x1, x2],..,[xn-1, X], Sn=(x1-x0)f(x0) +
(x2-x1)f(x1) ++(X-xn-1)f(xn-1),
0, lim S n .
n

f x0, X
X

f [x0, X]

f (t )dt
x0

, ,
,

, .
Cauchy,
, ,
, ,
.
Cauchy Dirichlet (1805
1859), o ,

,
: y(x), ,
x y,
107

Fourier ( Dirichlet),
,
.
c, x Q
D ( x) =
d c, x Q

( Dirichlet).

,
, D, ,
: f x,
h , f(x+h) f(x), .

,
,
. 1854,
, . D(x)
, ,
.70
Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann (1826 1866),
Cauchy, f,
f(xi-1), f(ti), ti
[xi-1, xi].
, .

B(kx )
, (x) = x [x], x k/2, 0, x = k/2,
k2
k =1

f ( x ) =

x = p/2n, (p,2n) = 1, p. f
x

g(x) =

f (t )dt ,
0

, f,
. Bolzano
70

., . , 5 . 19,.373

108

 1834
Functionenlehre, f:[, b] R,

, , .
, Weierstrass
, .71
,
, Cauchy
.
:72

0/0

,
.

, , Dedekind Weierstrass,
.
, Wilhelm
Richard Dedekind (1831 1916)
-

.
. ,
, .
, ,
.
.
. Dedekind

71

72

. , . , 5 . 19,.378.
F. Cajori, Grafting of the theory of limits on the calculus of Leibniz.

109

.73 Q :
Q L R, xL yR,
x<y. (L, R) :
(L, R),
( ). (L, R), :
i)

L, R Q.

ii)

L, R .

iii)

xL yR, x<y

iv)

To L .

v)

(L1, R1) (L2, R2) , L1 L2 L2 L1

vi)

x=(L1, R1) y=(L2, R2), x<y L1 L2.

Cauchy, ..

.
,
, Carl Weierstrass (1815 1897),
. 1865
,
, 1867
1869 ,
. 1872
.

, ,
,

. f(x) =

b (
n

n= 0

x ) , b

0<b<1 b>1+ 3/2. Weierstrass,

,
. ,

73

. , . , 5 . 19,.383.

110


. 74 Dedekind

Weierstrass ,
,

74

. , . , 5 . 19,.387

111

 4
.

4.1.

4.2.

4.3.

0,1 sec.

4.4.

4.5.

4.6.

4.7.

112

4.1.

,
.


. ,
;
Newton
() , ,

.
.
f,
, F,
.
Newton;
,
, .

,
, ,
, Thompson, (1994).

,

,
d(t). ,

.
, . 2
, 3 4
.

113

 2
2.1 :

,
; ;

2.2 : d(t) = 5t2 ( ).

2.3 :

t;

2.4 : t [0, 5].

2.5 :

d t;

2.6 : t ,
, d(t)
d(t) y .
2.7

.
;

2.8 : t, d(t).
d(t) .
2.9 :

. ;

2.10 :

,
t, d(t).

2.11 :

2.12 :

2.13 :

;
;

2.14 :
, x..
2.15 :

t .

2.16 :

t , ,
d,
d(t) t.

2.17 :

; (

).

2.18 :

; (
).

2.19 :

, . .

,
; ;

2.20 : ( ,

114

 x y).
2.21 :

; ..
;

2.22

: .

2.23 :

, .

, .
,

. ,(2.6).
,
:
t, d(t).(2.14, 2.16)

d t,
,

.
,
,

. ,
, .
,
t

d(t), (2.10)

.
,
, ,
.
(2.18)
, (2.9, 2.17).
,
,
,

115

 (2.22).

(2.20).

,

. , ,
,

.

3
3.1 :

;
d(t) ; ;

3.2 :

5t2 (
d(t) = 5t2, t [0, 5] ).

3.3 :

.. .

3.4 : .
3.5 :

. .
;
;
;

3.6 /:

,
,
.

3.7 :

3.8 /:
.

, ,
,
,
.

116

 (3.6, 3.8).
x y, t d(t),
. ,

,
.

4
4.1 :

; .

4.2 : ,
, ..
4.3 :

.

, ;

4.4 : .
4.5 :

4.6 :

4.7 :

( ,
), x,
(

).. .

4.8 :

, ;

4.9 :

4.10 :

,
. ,
.
,
117

 ,
(4.5, 4.7).
,
.

, ()
(),
,
.
Leibniz, 17 , functio,

y,
x. y = f(x), . ,

(x, f(x)), .

,

G = {(x, y) AxB, x A y B}
x A y B, (x, y) G.

. Sierpinska (1992), ( Tall
1997),

,
.
,
.
,

, ,
.

concept definition, ,
concept image

.
Vinner (1983, 1991 Tall, 1997),
118

 ,

.

. ,
.
.
,
.
, ,
,
. , ,
.
. , ,
.
,
. ,
, ,
,
.
, y=f(x),

,
y=x2 y=x.
,
. ,
.
.
,
,

.
.
.
,
119

 ,
, , Tall, (1997)

4.2.

2 1
.

.
, d(3,2)
d(3,1)

d (3, 2) d (3,1)
,
3, 2 3,1

5 6 .

5
5.1 :

;
_

d (3, 2) d (3,1)
. ..
3, 2 3,1

5.2 :

5.3 :

, d(3,2).

5.4 A/:
(
).
5.5 :

,
3,2 sec;

5.6 A/: 3,2 sec.

5.7 :

d(3,1);

5.8 A/: 3,1 sec.

5.9 .

, ;

5.10 A/:
5.11 :

d(3,1) d(3,2),
;

5.12 A/:
.
5.13 :

, 0,1 sec, ;

5.14 A/: [3,1, 3,2].

120

 6
6.1 :

6.2 : m/sec.
6.3 :

.
;

3,1 3,2 sec, 31,5 m/sec;

6.4 : 3,1 3,2 sec,

31,5 m/sec.
6.5 :

31,5 m/sec
1/10 sec;
(.).

6.6 :

6.7 :

.

.

6.8 :

, .. 1/100
, 1/100 sec,
, ;

6.9 : .
6.10 :

6.11 : .
6.12 :

1/100
..

6.13 : ;
1/100
,
.
6.14 :

, .
1/1000 .
.

1/1000 ;

6.15 : .
.

121


, ,
.
5 , (5.4, 5.10),
d(3,2) d(3,1), , ,

,

.

d (3, 2) d (3,1)
, ,
3, 2 3,1
.
6,
31,2 m/sec(6.4).

. Thompson,

.. ,

.. ,
.
,

. ,

. , ,


, ,

. ,
.

,
.
122

,
, ,
. ,

.
, 1/100
1/1000 sec .

(6.9, 6.11, 6.13).

,
. , ,

(6.15).
,
,
,
,
, ,
, (2005).
,
, t1 t2,

(t1 ) + (t2 )
2

o .
,

. , ,
.

123

4.3.

0,1sec

,
,
0,1 sec,
h.
0,1

t ,
t
h
. ( 2.4)

.
:
7
7.1 :
0,1, .. ; ..
7.2 :

( ).
. [3,1, 3,2]
. [3,15, 3,25] .
..

7.3 : .
7.4 :

,
0,1sec;

7.5 : .
7.6 :

; .
.

7.7 :

7.8 :

7.9 :

7.10 :

;
[0, 5];

7.11 : ( ) t
7.12 :

t,
0,1 ;

124

7.13 : ( t) t .
7.14 :

t;

7.15 : t .
7.16 :

0,1..

, ,
0,1sec
t,
.
7.17 :

. 3,2,
;

7.18 :

[3,2, 3,3].

7.19 :

3,28, ;

7.20 :

[3,28, 3,38].

7.21 :

7.22 :

0,1.

7.23 :

t.

7.24 :

[t, t+0,1].

0,1sec, , (7.1, 7.7, 7.9, 7.13, 7.15, 7.16).
, (7.17, 7.19, 7.21) , (7.22, 7.24).

,
.
Sfard,
.
,
-, ,
. .
,
. ,
,
.
. ,

125


( Sfard, 1991).
,
,
,

.
:

8
8.1 :

,
.

8.2 :

d (t + 0,1) d (t ) d (t + 0,1) d (t )
=
(t + 0,1) t
0,1

8.3 :

(t ) ;
8.4 :

,
.

8.5 :

8.6 :

8.7 :

,
;

8.9 :

d(t).. t

8.10 :

. ;
;

8.11 : ,
(0,1)2.
8.12 :

8.13 : .
8.14 :

. ;

8.15 :

8.16 :

! . (t ) .

8.17 : ;
8.18 :

126

 0,1 sec,
d(t). ,
.
,

(t ) ;
8.19 :

. (
t ).

8.20 :

;
.

8.21 :

, .

.(8.4)

Thompson,

,

,
, ,

f ( x + 0,1) f ( x)
.
( x + 0,1) x

,

. (8.15) ,
,

(t ) , , ,
,
. (8.18 8.21)

(t ) , (t ) = 10t +

0,5. (2, 5)

:
: t = 2,5m/s. (Y
t = 2,5s.)

127



d(t),
. ,
.
:
2,55m 0,1sec. [ 2,55m d(2,5+0,1) d(2,5) ]

.
,
- .
; 55km/h
,
55km/h, , .

,
, ,

.
, ,

[, ],
.
,

(2, 5) =25,5m/s,
, .

.

9.1 :

. (t ) .

9.2 /:

(t ) =

d (t + 0,1) d (t ) 5(t + 0,1) 2 5t 2

=
= ..... = 10t + 0,5
0,1
0,1

128

(t ) ;

9.3 :
9.4 :

[0, 5]. [ d(t+0,1) ,

t [0, 5], , (t + 0,1) [o,5] ].

9.5 :

[0, 4,9]

9.6 :

(2, 5) ;

9.7 :

(2, 5) =10 2,5+0,5=25,5m/sec

9.8 :

9.9 /:

[2,5, 2,5+,1], [2,5, 2,6].

.
,
t h. ,

h (t ) =

d (t + h) d (t )
= ....... = 10t + 5h , .
h

()
h,
.
,
,
().
,

f ( x + h) f ( x)
. , ,
h

(), , x
f '( x) = lim
h0

f ( x + h) f ( x )
, h.
h

D. Tall, x ,
h, Tall, (1986), Tall et al., (1988).
.
h, f h ( x) =

f ( x + h) f ( x )
,
h

f(x), h,

129

 f.
f h ( x) =

f ( x + h) f ( x )
,
h

(x, f(x)) (x+h, f(x+h)).

, ,
h, f, .

, h
0,
f(x), x
, .
, ,
.
,
,
. ,
, ,

.

4.4.

,
, 1600 1870
. H Judith
Grabiner, , Grabiner, (1983b, p 195):
, ,

, .
,

, Cornu, (1981), Sierpinska, (1987), Tall, (1981,1982), Tall & Vinner,
130

(1981). ,

,

, Orton, (1983), Tall, (1992).
, ,
.

.
:
h 0 , x x0,

f ( x) f ( x0 )

x x0

m ... ,
, ,

.
D. Tall, ,
,
.

,
.

Cornu, ( Parameswaran, 2007),

,
.

, (t ) = 10t + 5h ,
h,
.
,
.

, h.

,
[t, t+h]

, .

131

h , (t )
(0,0), 0 .

h ,

(t )

(0,0). h 0 0.

10 11 12
13 .

10
10.1 :

;
h;

10.2 /:

0;

10.3 :

0 h;

10.4 /:

10.5 :

10.6 /:

0,1 , .

10.7 :

h;

10.8 :

0+.

10.9 :

0+
h;

10.10 :

0, .
.
0, 0.

10.11 : h ,
[t, t+h], [t, t] .
10.12 :

. h ;

10.13 : 0, .

,
h
0.
;
, : ) , )

, Cottrill, et al, (1996). (10.2)

132

 h 0. ,
,
.
. ,
, (10.4).

. ,
(10.8, 10.10), h 0

(10.11),
0
.
t
h
(10.13), ,
t h,
t t+h, h
, .
h x
f ( x ) = lim
h0

f ( x + h) f ( x )
.
h

4 2008,
.

11
11.1 :

t, t+h. h
;

11.2 : .
11.3 :

(
t+h, )
. h;

11.4 /: .
.

. .
( h).

133

11.5 :

h .

11.6 : 0 .
11.7 :

0
.

.

;

h , ;

11.8 :

h , .

11.9 :

h ;

11.10 : t+h
t t+h.
h ,
.
t.
11.11 :

h,
[t, t+h] .

11.12 : , .
11.13 :

h 0;

11.14 : h 0,
[t, t+h],
.
( ).
11.15 :

0.

11.16 :

h 0, 0.
.

11.17 :

11.18 :

( [t, t+h],
) ;

11.19 : 10t.
11.20 :

10t ..

,
(11.4)

134

 [t, t+h]
.
,
, (11.8) . (11.10,
11.12, 11.14) t t+h,

,
t t+h
t. (11.17)
,
. (11.19)
,

.

12
12.1 :

t, h;

12.2 :

12.3 :

, 0.

12.4 :

;
h
[t, t+h];

12.5 :

12.6 :

, .

12.7 :

h,
; h
.

12.8 :

h 0;

12.9 :

12.10 :

:
h 0;

12.11 :

0 h,

135


,
, ,
.
12.12 :

12.13 :

, h
;

12.14 :

t.

12.15 :

h ;

12.16 :

,
.

12.17 :

h ;

12.18 :

12.19 :

h;

12.20 :

0.

(12.6)
, .


,
. (12.8)
, (12.11)
(12.12) ,

. , h 0,
h=0,
, t.

. , ,
: h=0,
!! (12.14, 12.16) ,
,
.

136

 , ,
,
, , .
13
13.1 :

13.2 : h ;
13.3 :

13.4 :
.
13.5 :

h,
, ;

13.6 : ;
13.7 :

,
, h
0,
,

,

, , .

13.8

, .

13.9

h;

13.10 :

13.11 :

,
h, ,
,
,
h,
.

(13.8, 13.10) h
0,
. (13.11)

, .
137


,
,

. Cornu
(1981) , ,

.


, Cottrill, et al, (1996).

.
5

, .
,

.
,
t=0
. ,
.
5 :

,
( ),
.

, h
0 . h,
, .

:
0 ,
.

138

,
, .
, .
, .

, !
, - (,
0).

,
x=0 t=0.
, ,
.

, ,
, .

,

:

14
14.1 :

,
.

14.2 :

14.3 :

, !!

14.4 :
,
.
14.5 : t,

, t=0,
,
0,
14.6 :

x(t ) x(0)
.
t0

[0, t].
t.

14.7 :

,
, ,
0 dt !

139


.
.
14.8 :

,
,
.
.
.

14.9 :

. ().

14.10 :

.
.
,

, dt,
0.

.

,
.

.

. (14.10)

. :
, .

, . Newton
h , 0.
, Leibniz ,
.
, ,
, Leibniz

140


.
18 ,
Leibniz .

.
Leibniz , -
Newton
0,

.

Newton

, Leibniz
. ,
0 1,
1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, ...

,
r,
r.
r, 1/2
r. r
.
1/2.

.

, ,
.
, Newton Leibniz,
Newton .
Newton
19 .

Newton, Leibniz..
,
141


Abraham Robinson, 1960, S.
Monk, (2007)

4.5.

, :
f [,] ,
x

G(x)= f (t )dt , () f

I)

[,]
II)

[,],

f ( x)dx = F ( ) F (a)

(I) .

Thompson, :
t [,] f(t), t,

( ),

, f(t),
. , =t =(t),
.
()
(t)t,
.

, S (t ) = (u )du , ,...S (t ) = (u )du = (t )

a
a

=t [,], f(t), t [,], .

Cf, xx t=
t=x, () f(t)t,
[,].

142

( x ) =
a

f (t )dt , , ( x) = f (t )dt = f ( x) .
a

,

,
. Newton o Leibniz
,
, , , .
,
.
,

. H

, .

.
,
17
. ,
, Torricelli,
Gregory Barrow, Newton

. ewton

, .
.
Thompson,
,
.
.
.
.

Newton. Newton

143

 ,
,

Pascal.
. ,
,
, Newton

, .

, . ,
,
. (Boyer, 1959, p. 191). , Newton
,
,
.
.
,
. Newton

.

.
Thompson,
:
,
,
. , x km
0,0001sec 93 km/h, 0,0001
sec () , 93
km/h, . ,

,
0,0001sec,

( x + x ) x
x
km
=
= 93
, x,
0, 0001
0, 0001
h
144

 0,0001sec.
,
,
.
,

, :
, ,
. V(h)
h,
. h,
;

,
.

V ( .. , ) ( )
=
= .. ( ) .
h

, V(h)
0,50<h 0,75.

,
.
V(h),
A h

145

A(u )du = (h) . ,

0

,
t .. ,

.
,

. (u )du = (t ) .
0

,
,
.

,

.

f (t )dt = f ( x ) .

, ,
, .

,
.
, ,
, .

x

, f (t )dt = f ( x ) , :
a

146

x+h

F(x)= f (t )dt , , F(x+h)-F(x)=

f (t )dt = f(x)h,

h>0. h>0, h, : ( )
F ( x + h) F ( x )
F ( x + h) F ( x)
f ( x ) , F ( x) = lim
f ( x) .
h 0
h
h

Thompson,

1 ,

.
,
.

,
.

15
15.1 :

().

15.2 :

15.3 :

15.4 :

15.5 :

, ;

15.6 :

,
, ..
.

, (15.6)
,
,
147

 V
x .

x

V ( x) = (t )dt .
0

,
,

!

,
.


.

,
, Riemann.
,
y=f(x), x [0,8], xx,
x=0 x=5,
, ,
, ( x ) =

i =1

16 :

16
16.1 :

, y=f(x);

16.2 :

16.3 :

16.4 :

.
.

16.5 :

148

f (i ), x [0,8] .

16.6 :

16.7 :

16.8 :

16.9 :

, ;

16.10 :

,
(

),
.
.

16.11 :

.
, ;

16.12 :

,
( ),
,
, .

16.13 :

16.14 :

, .

16.15 :

16.16 :

16.17 :

16.18 :

, .

16.19 :

,

,
, ;

, (16.6, 16.8, 16.12),
.
.
,
.
(16.14, 16.16)
. , ,
149

 ,
, (16.18).
,
.
(16.19),

.
.

4.6.

Riemann ,
,
,
x . Riemann,


. , ()
,
, , x
.
V ( x ) =

E (i ), x [0,8] .

i =1

h, [0,8].
-
,
,
: dV ( x ) =

V ( x + h) V ( x )
.
h

,
,

150

 h,
y=f(x), .
,
.

( x ) =

9 2
x , x [0,8] ,
64

x. ,
dV(x),
(x).
:
V(x+h)-V(x),

V ( x + h) V ( x )
( x ) .
h

V(x+h)-V(x),

(x) h.
(x)h

.
:

17
17.1 :

( ). V(x+h)-V(x);

17.2 :

17.3 :

( 30)
.

17.4 :

, .

17.5 :

17.6 :

17.7 :

, .

17.8 :

V(x+h), ;

17.9 /:

x+h.

17.10 :

, V(x);

17.11 /:

x.

151

17.12 :

17.13 :

h x.

17.14 :

( ).
.

V ( x + h) V ( x )
( x ) .
h

17.15 :

, .

17.16 :

,

,

,

. h .

17.17 :

.. .
.

17.18 :

, ;

17.19 :

17.20 :

h.

17.21 :

h ;

17.22 :

17.23 :

17.24 :

(x+h)-x.

17.25 :

17.26 :

V(h).

17.27 :

V!

17.28 :

17.29 : E(x)h(!).
17.30 :

;;

17.31 :

( )x(),
;
(x),
; h .
(

V ( x + h) V ( x )
( x) ).
h

152

V(x+h)-V(x) (x)h


(17.9, 17.11)
V(x+h)-V(x).

.
,
. (17.16)
h 0,
,
.
x,
, h,
, (17.20, 17.24, 17.26),
V.
, .

. ,
(x), (),
(17.29), (x)h.
(17.31),
.
,

dV ( x ) =

V ( x + h) V ( x )
,
h

. ,
h ,
(x+h)-x x .
,

.
,
. ,

153

 ,
.
V(x)
E(x) V(x).

, .

V ( x + h) V ( x )
( x)
h

(x),

V ( x + h) V ( x)
.
h

18
18.1 :

h 0.

18.2 :

18.3 :

h,
, (
h ),

.

18.4 :

h, ;

18.5 :

18.6 :

18.7 :

18.8 :

h,
, ,
.

18.9 :

(x). ,
h, ;
h, ;

18.10 :

. 0

18.11 /:

, h=0.

18.12 :

; h=0;.
(

V ( x + h) V ( x)
) (x) ;
h
18.13 /:

, h 0.

18.14 :

. ;

18.15 /:

h 0.

154

18.16 :

h=0 h 0 , .

18.17 /:

. h
0 ,

.

, .

V ( x + h) V ( x )
( x)
h

,
.
.

.
h 0,
(18.3, 18.8, 18.10),

,
. ,
, (18.11, 18.13)
h ,
h
. ,

. (18.15, 18.17) ,
.

.
,
h ,

.

.
,

155

. ,
.
(18.3, 18.8) ,

lim(V ( x + h) V ( x)) = E ( x ) , h ,
h 0

.
(x+h)-x,
.
Thompson,

V ( x + h) V ( x)
h

,
[x, x+h],
Riemann.
(x),
x,
[x, x+h],
(x).
, .
:
, , ,
( ) , ,
,
,
.
.
,
,
,
, .

,

156


.

. 19
.

19
19.1 :

,


x. x.

19.2 /:

, (

),
(
,
, ).

19.3 :

19.4 :

;
,
.
,

.

19.5 :

, ;

19.6 :

19.7 :

19.8 :

m3/sec

19.9 :

x .

19.10 :

m2

19.11 :

19.12 :

m3/m.

19.13 :

,
.
,
;

157

 m3/m,
;
19.14 :

,
m3.

19.15 :

,
m3 . .
() ,
,
V(5)
. .

..( 5)
19.16 :

,
.

19.17 :

V(5), .

19.18 :

(x),
; (x) x, ;

19.19 :

.

.
,
,
.

..( 3)
19.20 :

0 5
; ;

19.21 :

V(5)
.

19.22 :

; ().
:
,
, (
Riemann ),
.
,

[0,5] .
,

158

 ; ;
19.23 :

19.24 :

; ;

19.25 :

19.26 :

, .
,
. ,

.
.
x=5;

19.27 :

E (i )) .

V (5) = lim (

i =1

19.28 :

, ;

19.29 :

19.30 :

,
(x) x;

19.31 :

, ,
5

E ( x)dx ,
0

E(x) .
;
19.32 :

19.33 :

,
, (19.2)
, .
,
.

.
,

, , (19.4, 19.6).

159


, ,
, (19.12, 19.14).

x, x.
V ( x + h) V ( x )
( x) ,
h

Orton,

. Orton

,
,

. , ,

. Orton
,
y=x2 ,

.
,

.
.

.
,
, ,
, , Orton, (1983).

160

 , (19.18), ,
(19.21)
,
. (19.22)
.
(19.23, 19.25)
,
(19.26) (19.27)
x=5
.

(19.28, 19.30)

,

!!

4.7. .

, :

,

,
.

.
.

161

 5
.

5.1.

5.2.

5.2.1. .
5.2.2. .

162

5.1. .

,
.

.
,
,
, ,
.
, ,
.
,
,
, .

.
,
.

. Mamona-Downs (1990),
.
,
-
,
,
.

,
.

163


.


.

,
.


.
,

d (3, 2) d (3,1)
,
0,1

t, o
h

d (t + h) d (t )
.
h

V x ,

V ( x + h) V ( x)
,
h

. ,

.

, Thompson,

.
stick , ,

.


.

164

 , ,
, ,
,
, .

,
.
, .. ,
,


.
, ,


.


,
. Orton (1983),

. ,
Orton,
,
. ,
, ,
.
,
,
.

.

,
.
165

 ,


.
,

.
,
.


.

.

, -
,

h, x0
m,
,

.

, .
Parameswaran (2007),
,
, .

.
,
.
,
166

 ,
.
, ,
,
.

,
.
,
15.
, .

,
.
V ( x + h ) V ( x ) ( x ) h
=
( x ) , h.
h
h

h
Riemann. ,
h ,
.
Thompson,

,
.


1
[,], f =

f ( x)dx .

:
f [,].
x

F(x) =

f (t )dt , x . F (x) =

167

x+h

lim

f (t )dt f (t )dt

h 0

= lim
h 0

x+h

f (t )dt +

x+h

f (t )dt f (t )dt
a

= lim
h 0

f (t )dt

= lim
h 0

f ( )h
h

[x, x+h],
. h 0 x
: lim f ( ) = f ( x)
x

f .

F(x) = f(x).
Thompson,
.
. F (x)
.
,
, .
,
,
,
.
,

.
,
.
(Calculus sense)
, ,

, .

,
.

,

.

168

5.2.
5.2.1. .

, .: , ,
,1985.

, ., , ., , ., , ., ,
., , .: .., ...., , 1999.
, .: 2006, :
, 23
, ..., , 2006.

, .: ,
.. , , , 2007.
Grant, E.: , ..., , 1994.

, .: - Vygotsky, ,
, 2002.

, .: ,
... ,
, ...., , 2005.

, .:
, ...
, , ...., , 2005.

, .:
, ... ,
, ...., , 2005.

, .: 2004,

,
...
. ....

, .: 2003, .

169

 , ...
,
....

: , ...
,
...., , 2006.

, .- .- .: ,
, . , , 1999.
, .: 2006, ,

... ,
....
Rucker, R.: , ..., , 1999.

, .: 2007, :
, . .,
, ,

, .: , , ...., ,1953.
Struik, D.: , ,

, 1982.
Tall, D.: 1990, :

, ,
University of Warwick U.K. ().

, .: 2008,
:
,
, ...., .

, .: , ..., 2003.
Van der Waerden, B.: , . ,

..., , 2000.

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