Dai So

TRNG I HC BCH KHOA H NI
VIN TON NG DNG & TIN HC

BI XUN DIU
Bi Ging
I S TUYN TNH
(lu hnh ni b)
TP HP - LOGIC - NH X - S PHC, MA TRN - NH THC - H
PHNG TRNH, KHNG GIAN VCT, NH X TUYN TNH, DNG TON
PHNG - KHNG GIAN EUCLIDE
Tm tt l thuyt, Cc v d, Bi tp v li gii
H Ni- 2009
MC LC
Mc lc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chng 1 . Tp hp - Logic - nh x - S phc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1 Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1 Cc php ton logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Cc tnh cht . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Lng t ph bin v lng t tn ti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 Tp hp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1 Cc php ton trn tp hp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Cc tnh cht . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3 nh x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.1 nh ngha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2 Tp nh, tp nghch nh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.3 n nh, ton nh, song nh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4 Cu trc i s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.1 Cu trc nhm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.2 Cu trc vnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.3 Cu trc trng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5 S phc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.1 Dng chnh tc ca s phc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.2 Dng lng gic ca s phc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.3 S phc lin hp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Chng 2 . Ma trn - nh thc - H phng trnh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1 Ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.1 Cc php ton trn ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.2 Cc tnh cht . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2 nh thc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.1 nh ngha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1
2 MC LC
2.2 Cc tnh cht ca nh thc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3 Cc phng php tnh nh thc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4 Ma trn nghch o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3 Hng ca ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.1 nh ngha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2 Phng php tnh hng ca ma trn bng bin i s cp v hng . . 37
4 H phng trnh tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.1 Dng tng qut ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.2 H Cramer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.3 nh l Kronecker-Capelli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.4 Phng php Gauss gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh tng qut . . . 39
Chng 3 . Khng gian vct. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1 Khi nim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.1 nh ngha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.2 Mt s tnh cht ban u ca khng gian vct . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.3 Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2 Khng gian vct con . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.1 nh ngha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.2 iu kin cn v W V l khng gian vct con . . . . . . . . 47
2.3 Khng gian con sinh bi mt h vct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.4 H sinh ca mt khng gian vct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.5 Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3 C s v to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.1 c lp tuyn tnh v ph thuc tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.2 C s v s chiu ca khng gian vct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3 Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4 S chiu v c s ca khng gian con sinh bi h vct - Hng ca h vct . 53
4.1 M u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.2 Hng ca mt h vct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.3 Cch tnh hng ca mt h vct bng bin i s cp . . . . . . . . . 53
4.4 S chiu v c s ca khng gian con sinh bi h vct . . . . . . . . . 53
4.5 Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5 Bi ton i c s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.1 t vn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.2 Ma trn chuyn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.3 Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2
MC LC 3
Chng 4 . nh x tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1 nh x tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1.1 Khi nim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1.2 Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2 Ht nhn v nh ca nh x tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.1 Cc tnh cht ca ht nhn v nh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.2 Hng ca nh x tuyn tnh - nh l v s chiu . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.3 Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3 Ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.1 Khi nim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.2 Ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh thng qua php i c s . . . . . . . 65
3.3 Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4 Tr ring v vct ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.1 Tr ring v vct ring ca ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.2 Tr ring v vct ring ca ton t tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.3 Cho ho ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.4 Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Chng 5 . Dng ton phng, khng gian Euclide . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
1 Khi nim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
1.1 nh ngha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
1.2 Phn loi dng ton phng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
1.3 Dng song tuyn tnh v dng ton phng trn khng gian hu hn chiu. 72
1.4 Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2 Rt gn mt dng ton phng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.1 Phng php Lagrange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.2 Phng php Jacobi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.3 Phng php cho ho trc giao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.4 Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.5 Kt lun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3 Khng gian Euclide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.1 Tch v hng v khng gian c tch v hng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.2 Php trc giao ho Schmidt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.3 Hnh chiu ca mt vect ln mt khng gian vect con . . . . . . . . 80
3.4 Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4 Cho ho trc giao ma trn - Phng php cho ho trc giao . . . . . . . . 87
4.1 Cho ho trc giao ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.2 Phng php cho ho trc giao rt gn mt dng ton phng . 87
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4 MC LC
4.3 Nhn dng ng cong phng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.4 Nhn dng mt bc hai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.5 ng dng ca php bin i trc giao vo bi ton tm cc tr c iu kin 89
4.6 Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4
CHNG 1
TP HP - LOGIC - NH X - S PHC
1. LOGIC
1.1 Cc php ton logic
1. Php ph nh
A A
1 0
0 1
A = 1 A
2. Php hi
A B A B
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
(A B) = minA, B
3. Php tuyn
5
6 Chng 1. Tp hp - Logic - nh x - S phc
A B A B
1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
(A B) = maxA, B
4. Php ko theo
A B A B
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 1
0 0 1
(A B) = max1 A, B
5. Php tng ng
A B A B
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
Ch : n gin v mt k hiu, khi vit A chng ta c th hiu l mnh A hoc gi
tr chn l ca mnh A tu theo hon cnh ph hp. V d nh vit A = 1 A th ta
hiu l gi tr chn l ca mnh A bng 1 tr i gi tr chn l ca A.
1.2 Cc tnh cht
1. Tnh giao hon:
A B B A, A B B A
2. Tnh kt hp
(A B) C A (B C), (A B) C A (B C)
3. Tnh phn phi
A (B C) (A B) (A C), A (B C) (A B) (A C)
6
1. Logic 7
4. Tnh cht ca php ko theo
A B A B
5. Tnh cht ca php tng ng
A B (A B) (B A)
Ch : chng minh cc mnh logic, ta s dng khi nim tng ng logic, thay
cho khi nim bng nhau ca cc mnh . Bi tp ch yu trong bi ny l chng minh
hai mnh tng ng logic hoc chng minh mt mnh logic lun ng. C ba
phng php ch yu lm bi:
1. Lp bng cc gi tr chn l
2. Bin i tng ng cc mnh
3. Chng minh bng phn chng
1.3 Lng t ph bin v lng t tn ti
Ta thng cn phi pht biu nhng mnh c dng "Mi phn t x ca tp hp X
u c tnh cht P(x)". Ngi ta quy c k hiu mnh ny nh sau:
x X, P(x)
K hiu c gi l lng t ph bin, n l cch vit ngc li ca ch ci u tin ca
t "All" trong ting Anh.
Tng t ta cng hay gp mnh c dng " Tn ti mt phn t x ca X c tnh cht
P(x)". Mnh ny c quy c k hiu nh sau:
x X, P(x)
K hiu c gi l lng t tn ti, n l cch vit ngc li ca ch ci u tin ca t
"Exists"trong ting Anh.
Mnh " Tn ti duy nht mt phn t x ca X c tnh cht P(x)" c vit nh sau:
!x X, P(x)
Lng t ph bin v tn ti c mi quan h quan trng sau y:
x X, P(x) x X, P(x)
x X, P(x) x X, P(x)
7
Bi tp 1.1. Chng minh cc mnh sau y l ng :
a)
_
A (A C)
C.
b) [(A B) (B C)] (A C).
c) [A (A B)] B.
d) [(A B) (A C) (B C)] C.
Li gii. a) Cch 1: Lp bng gi tr chn l
A C A A C A (A C) [A (A C)] C
1 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 1
Cch 2: Bin i tng ng cc mnh
[A (A C)] C
[(A A) (A C)] C
[0 (A C)] C
[(A C)] C
A C C
A C C
1
Cch 3: Chng minh bng phn chng.
Gi s mnh cho l sai. V mnh ko theo ch sai khi gi thit ng v
kt lun sai nn: A (A C) = 1 v C = 0. Nhng v C = 0 nn A (A C) =
A (A 0) = A A = 0, mu thun, chng t mnh cho lun ng.
Cc cu b), c), d) chng minh tng t.
Bi tp 1.2. Chng minh rng:
a) A B v (A B)
_
A B
_
l tng ng logic.
b) (A B) C v A (B C) khng tng ng logic.
c) A B v A B l tng ng logic.
8
1. Logic 9
Li gii. Cng ging nh bi ton chng minh mt mnh no lun ng, bi ton
chng minh hai mnh no tng ng logic cng c 3 phng php chng minh
nh trn. Ring vi bi ton chng minh hai mnh khng tng ng logic th ta ch
cn ch ra mt b gi tr chn l no ca cc mnh con m hai mnh cho
c hai gi ch chn l khc nhau.
Bi tp 1.3. Cho A l tp hp con ca tp s thc, cn di ng x
0
ca A k hiu
Inf(A) = x
0
c th xc nh bi mnh sau: Vi mi x trong A c x
0
x v vi x
1
c tnh cht l x
1
x vi mi x trong A th suy ra x
1
x
0
. Hy dng cc k hiu
din t mnh trn v mnh ph nh ca n. T a ra cch chng minh mt s
khng phi l Inf(A).
Li gii.
x
0
= Inf(A) [x A, (x
0
x)] [x
1
, (x
1
x, x A) (x
1
x
0
)]
x
0
= Inf(A) [x A, (x
0
x)] [x
1
, (x
1
x, x A) (x
1
x
0
)]
[x A : (x
0
x)] [x
1
, (x
1
x, x A) (x
1
x
0
)]
[x A, x
0
> x] [x
1
, (x
1
x, x A) (x
1
x
0
)]
[x A, x
0
> x] [x
1
, (x
1
x, x A) (x
1
> x
0
)]
Bi tp 1.4. [ thi S K49] Xt xem cc mnh sau c tng ng logic khng
a) (A B) C v (A C) (B C)
b) A (B C) v (A B) (A C)
Bi tp 1.5. [ thi S K49] Xt xem cc mnh sau y l ng hay sai
a) "Nu cc s thc x v y tho mn x > y v y > x th suy ra x = y.
b) "Nu s t nhin n l v n
2
chn th suy ra n l s nguyn t.
Bi tp 1.6. [ thi S K51] Cho (A B) (A C) v (A B) (A C) l cc mnh
ng. Chng minh B C l mnh ng.
9
2. TP HP
2.1 Cc php ton trn tp hp
1. Php hp
_
_
_
x A B x A hoc x B
x , A B x , A v x , B
2. Php giao
_
_
_
x A B x A v x B
x , A B x , A hoc x , B
3. Php tr
_
_
_
x A B x A v x , B
x , A B x , A hoc x B
4. Php ly phn b
Nu A X th A = X A c gi l phn b ca A trong X.
2.2 Cc tnh cht
1. Tnh giao hon:
A B = B A, A B = B A
2. Tnh kt hp
(A B) C = A (B C), (A B) C = A (B C)
3. Tnh phn phi
A (B C) = (A B) (A C), A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
4. Tnh cht ca php tr
Nu A, B X th A B = A B
5. Cng thc De Moorgan
A B = A B, A
i
= A
i
A B = A B, A
i
= A
i
Bi tp ch yu trong bi ny l chng minh hai tp hp bng nhau hoc chng minh mt
tp hp A l tp con ca tp B. C 3 phng php chng minh ch yu:
10
2. Tp hp 11
1. Phng php phn t
2. Phng php bin i tp hp
3. Phng php chng minh bng phn chng
Bi tp 1.7. Gi s f (x), g(x) l cc hm s xc nh trn R. K hiu
A = x R[ f (x) = 0 , B = x R[g(x) = 0 .
Xc nh tp nghim phng trnh:
a) f (x)g(x) = 0 b) [ f (x)]
2
+ [g(x)]
2
= 0
Li gii. p s:
a) A B b) A B
Bi tp 1.8. Cho 3 tp hp A =
_
x R
x
2
4x + 3 0
_
, B = x R[ [x 1[ 1,
C =
_
x R
x
2
5x + 6 < 0
_
. Xc nh tp hp sau: (A B) C v (A B) C.
Li gii. (A B) C = [0, 3], (A B) C = [1, 3]
Bi tp 1.9. Cho A, B, C l cc tp hp bt k, chng minh:
a) A (B C) = (A B) (A C) b) A (B A) = A B.
Li gii. a) Cch 1: Phng php phn t
Gi s x A (B C), ta c x A v x B C. Suy ra x A, x B, x , C. V
x A v x B nn ta c x A C. Mt khc x , C A C nn x , A C. Vy
x (A B) (A C).
Gi s x (A B) (A C), ta c x A, x B v x , A C. Do x , A C nn
hoc x , A hoc x , C. Nhng v x A nn ta c x , C. V vy ta c x A (B C).
Cch 2: Phng php bin i tp hp
Coi A, B, C X no . Khi
(A B) (A C) = (A B) (A C) = [(A B) A] [A B C] = A (B C)
b)
A (B A) = A (B A) = (A B) (A A) = (A B) X = A B
Bi tp 1.10. [ thi S K51] Cho cc tp hp A, B, C tho mn (A B) (A C) v
(A B) (A C). Chng minh B C.
Bi tp 1.11. [ thi tn ch h 2009] Cho A, B, C l cc tp hp bt k. Chng minh rng
a) (A B) C = A (B C).
b) A (B C) = (A B) (A C).
11
3. NH X
3.1 nh ngha
3.2 Tp nh, tp nghch nh
Cho f : X Y l mt nh x. Gi s A X, B Y.
1. Tp nh
K hiu f (A) = y Y[x A, f (x) = y = f (x)[x A.
2. Tp nghch nh
K hiu f
1
(B) = x X[ f (x) B. V vy ta c
x f
1
(B) f (x) B
3.3 n nh, ton nh, song nh
Cho f : X Y l mt nh x
1. n nh
nh x f c gi l n nh nu
i) Vi mi x
1
,= x
2
X th f (x
1
) ,= f (x
2
) hoc
ii) Nu f (x
1
) = f (x
2
) th x
1
= x
2
.
2. Ton nh
nh x f c gi l ton nh nu f (X) = Y, hay vi mi y Y, tn ti x X sao
cho f (x) = y. Ni cch khc, phng trnh f (x) = y c nghim vi mi y Y.
3. Song nh.
nh x f c gi l song nh nu n va l n nh, va l ton nh. Ni cch
khc, phng trnh f (x) = y c nghim duy nht vi mi y Y.
Bi tp 1.12. Cho hai nh x
f : R 0 R
x
1
x
g : R R
x
2x
1 + x
2
a) nh x no l n nh, ton nh. Tm g(R). b) Xc nh nh x h = g f .
12
3. nh x 13
Li gii. a) f l n nh, khng phi l ton nh, g khng phi n nh, cng khng
phi l ton nh.
b) g(R) = [1, 1]
Bi tp 1.13. Chng minh cc tnh cht sau ca nh v nghch nh ca nh x f : X Y
a) f (A B) = f (A) f (B), A, B X
b) f (A B) f (A) f (B), A, B X. Nu v d chng t iu ngc li khng ng.
c) f
1
(A B) = f
1
(A) f
1
(B), A, B Y
d) f
1
(A B) = f
1
(A) f
1
(B), A, B Y
e) f
1
(A B) = f
1
(A) f
1
(B), A, B Y
f) Chng minh f l n nh khi v ch khi f (A B) = f (A) f (B), A, B X
Li gii. a) Gi s y f (A B),khi tn ti x A B sao cho f (x) = y. V
x A B nn x A hoc x B.
Nu x A th y = f (x) f (A) f (A B) nn y f (A B)
Nu x B th y = f (x) f (B) f (A B) nn y f (A B)
Trong mi trng hp ta u c y f (A B)
Ta c f (A) f (A B), f (B) f (A B) nn f (A) f (B) f (A B).
b) Do A B A nn f (A B) f (A) v A B B nn f (A B) f (B). Vy ta c
f (A B) f (A) f (B).
ch ra phn v d iu ngc li khng ng ta xt nh x f : R R, x [x[ v
A = 1, B = 1. Khi f (A B) = v f (A) f (B) = 1.
c)
x f
1
(A B) f (x) A B
_
f (x) A
f (x) B
_
x f
1
(A)
x f
1
(B)
x f
1
(A) f
1
(B)
d)
x f
1
(A B) f (x) A B
_
_
_
f (x) A
f (x) B
_
_
_
x f
1
(A)
x f
1
(B)
x f
1
(A) f
1
(B)
13
e)
x f
1
(A B) f (x) A B
_
_
_
f (x) A
f (x) , B
_
_
_
x f
1
(A)
x , f
1
(B)
x f
1
(A) f
1
(B)
f) Ta c f (A B) f (A) f (B). Ngc li, nu y f (A) f (B) th y f (A) v
y f (B). Do tn ti x
1
A sao cho f (x
1
) = y v tn ti x
2
B sao cho f (x
2
) = y.
V f l n nh nn x
1
= x
2
A B. Vy y = f (x
1
) f (A B).
Bi tp 1.14. Cho hai nh x f : A C v g : B D. Ta xc nh nh x h : A B
C D bi h(a, b) = ( f (a), g(b)), a A, b B
a) Chng minh f , g n nh th h n nh.
b) Chng minh f , g ton nh th h ton nh.
c) Cc mnh o ca a), b) c ng khng?
Li gii. Da vo nh ngha n nh v ton nh d dng chng minh c cc khng
nh trn. Ch rng cc mnh o ca mnh a) v b) vn ng.
Bi tp 1.15. [ thi S K51] Cho nh x f : R
2
R
2
xc nh bi f (x
1
, x
2
) = (x
1
+
2x
2
+ 1, 2x
1
+ x
2
). Chng minh f l mt song nh.
Bi tp 1.16. [ thi S K51] Cho cc tp hp X, Y, Z v cc nh x f : X Y, g : Y Z.
Gi thit f ton nh, g f n nh. Chng minh g l n nh.
Bi tp 1.17. [ thi S K52] Cho nh x f : R
2
R
2
xc nh bi f (x
1
, x
2
) = (4x
1
, 5x
2
).
Chng minh f l mt song nh. Xc nh f (A) vi A = (x
1
, x
2
) R
2
[x
2
1
+ x
2
2
= 9.
14
4. Cu trc i s 15
4. CU TRC I S
4.1 Cu trc nhm
Gi s G l mt tp hp. Mi nh x
: G G G
c gi l mt php ton hai ngi (hay mt lut hp thnh) trn G. nh ca cp phn t
(x, y) c k hiu l x y.
nh ngha 1.1. Mt nhm l mt tp hp khc rng G c trang b mt php ton hai
ngi tho mn ba iu kin sau y:
(G1) Php ton c tnh cht kt hp:
(x y) z = x (y z), x, y, z G
(G2) C mt phn t e G, c gi l phn t trung lp hay phn t trung ho vi tnh
cht
x e = e x = x, x G
(G3) Vi mi x G tn ti phn t x
/
G c gi l nghch o ca x sao cho
x x
/
= x
/
x = e
Nhm G c gi l nhm giao hon hay abel nu php ton c tnh cht giao hon:
x y = y xx, y G.
4.2 Cu trc vnh
nh ngha 1.2. Mt vnh l mt tp hp R ,= c trang b hai php ton hai ngi,
gm php cng
+ : R R R, (x, y) x +y
v php nhn
. : R R R, (x, y) xy,
tho mn ba iu kin sau:
(R1) R l mt nhm abel vi php cng.
15
(R2) Php nhn c tnh cht kt hp:
(xy)z = x(yz), x, y, z R
(R3) Php nhn phn phi t hai pha i vi php cng:
(x + y)z = xz + yz
z(x + y) = zx + zy, x, y, z R
Vnh R c gi l giao hon hay abel nu php nhn c tnh cht giao hon:
xy = yxx, y R.
Vnh R c gi l c n v nu php nhn c n v, tc tn ti phn t 1 R sao cho
1x = x1 = xx R.
Quy c: thun tin v mt k hiu, phn t trung ho ca php cng s c k hiu
l 0, nu vnh c n v th phn t n v s c k hiu l 1.
4.3 Cu trc trng
nh ngha 1.3. Mt vnh giao hon c n v 1 ,= 0 sao cho mi phn t khc 0 trong
n u kh nghch c gi l mt trng.
Bi tp 1.18. Cho G1, 2, trn G ta nh ngha cc php ton nh sau:
1 + 1 = 1, 1 + 2 = 2, 2 + 1 = 1, 2 + 2 = 1
Chng minh rng (G, +) l mt nhm.
Bi tp 1.19. Cho G = f
1
, f
2
, f
3
, f
4
, f
5
, f
6
l tp cc nh x t R 0, 1 R 0, 1 xc
nh nh sau:
f
1
(x) = x, f
2
(x) =
1
1 x
, f
3
(x) = 1
1
x
, f
4
(x) =
1
x
, f
5
(x) = 1 x, f
6
(x) =
x
x 1
Chng minh G cng vi php ton l php hp thnh tch nh x lp thnh mt nhm
khng abel.
Li gii. G0) kim tra mt tp hp cng vi cc php ton no c phi l mt cu
trc i s hay khng, trc ht phi kim tra xem cc php ton trn tp hp c
phi l php hp thnh khng (c phi l php ton ng khng), ri sau mi i
kim tra cc tin ca cu trc i s . i vi cc tp hp c hu hn phn t
ngi ta thng kim tra tnh ng ca php ton bng phng php lp bng.
16
4. Cu trc i s 17
f
1
f
2
f
3
f
4
f
5
f
6
f
1
f
1
f
2
f
3
f
4
f
5
f
6
f
1
f
1
f
2
f
3
f
4
f
5
f
6
f
2
f
2
f
3
f
1
f
6
f
4
f
5
f
3
f
3
f
1
f
2
f
5
f
6
f
4
f
4
f
4
f
5
f
6
f
1
f
2
f
3
f
5
f
5
f
6
f
4
f
3
f
1
f
2
f
6
f
6
f
4
f
5
f
2
f
3
f
1
Nhn vo bng ta thy php hp thnh nh x l php ton ng trn tp G.
G1) Php hp thnh cc nh x c tnh cht kt hp.
G2) Phn t trung ho: f
1
G3) Phn t i:
f
1
f
2
f
3
f
4
f
5
f
6
Phn t i f
1
f
3
f
2
f
4
f
5
f
6
Hn na f
4
f
2
= f
5
,= f
6
= f
2
f
4
nn G l mt nhm khng abel.
Bi tp 1.20. Cc tp sau vi cc php ton thng thng c lp thnh mt vnh, trng
khng?
a) Tp cc s nguyn l.
b) Tp cc s nguyn chn.
c) Tp cc s hu t.
d) X =
_
a + b
2 [a, b R
_
.
e) Y =
_
a +b
3 [a, b R
_
.
Li gii. a) Tp cc s nguyn l khng ng vi php ton cng nn khng phi l mt
vnh (trng).
b) Tp cc s nguyn chn l mt vnh giao hon nhng khng c n v nn khng
phi l mt trng.
c) Tp cc s hu t l mt trng.
d) X =
_
a + b
2 [a, b R
_
l mt vnh giao hon, c n v 1, nhng khng phi l
mtj trng v

2 X khng c phn t i.
17
e) Y =
_
a +b
3 [a, b R
_
l mt trng. Ch rng
1
a + b
3
=
a
a
2
3b
2
+
b
a
2
3b
2
Y
18
5. S phc 19
5. S PHC
5.1 Dng chnh tc ca s phc
K hiu C = z = a +bi vi a, b R v i
2
= 1 l tp hp cc s phc. z = a +bi c
gi l dng chnh tc ca s phc. a = Re z c gi l phn thc ca s phc v b = Imz
c gi l phn o ca s phc.
Cc php ton trn dng chnh tc ca s phc
1. Php cng, tr
(a +bi) (c + di) = (a c) + (b d)i
2. Php nhn
(a +bi)(c +di) = (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i
3. Php chia
a +bi
c + di
= (a + bi).(c + di)
1
= (a +bi).
_
a
a
2
+ b
2
+
b
a
2
+b
2
i
_
5.2 Dng lng gic ca s phc
Mi s phc z = a +bi c biu din bi mt im M(a, b) trn mt phng Oxy. im
M c gi l nh ca s phc z v (a, b) c gi l to v ca s phc z. Khi t
_
_
_
r = [
OM[
= (Ox,
OM)
Khi z = a + bi = r(cos +i sin ) c gi l dng lng gic ca s phc. r c gi l
di ca s phc z, k hiu l [z[ v c gi l Argument ca s phc, k hiu l Arg z.
Cc php ton trn dng lng gic ca s phc
1. Php nhn
Nu z
1
= r
1
(cos
1
+i sin
1
), z
2
= r
2
(cos
2
+i sin
2
) th
z
1
z
2
= r
1
r
2
.[cos(
1
+
2
) +i sin(
1
+
2
)]
Vy [z
1
z
2
[ = [z
1
[[z
2
[, Arg(z
1
z
2
) = Arg z
1
+ Arg z
2
2. Php chia
Nu z
1
= r
1
(cos
1
+i sin
1
), z
2
= r
2
(cos
2
+i sin
2
) th
19
z
1
z
2
=
r
1
r
2
. (cos(
1

2
) +i sin(
1

2
))
Vy
z
1
z
2
=
[z
1
[
[z
2
[
3. Php lu tha (Cng thc Moirve)
z = r(cos +i sin ) z
n
= r
n
.(cos n +i sin n)
Vy [z
n
[ = [z[
n
4. Php khai cn
Nu z = r(cos + i sin ) ,= 0 th
n
z =
n
r.
_
cos
+2k
n
+i sin
+2k
n
_
, k = 0, n 1
Nhn xt rng mi s phc z ,= 0 u c n s cn bc n khc nhau.
5.3 S phc lin hp
Cho s phc z = a +bi, s phc z = a bi c gi l s phc lin hp ca s phc z.
dng lng gic, s phc lin hp ca s phc z = r(cos +i sin ) l z = r(cos i sin ).
Mt s tnh cht ca s phc lin hp:
1. z = z
2. z + z = 2a = 2 Re z
3. zz = a
2
+ b
2
= [z[
2
4.
1
z
=
z
[z[
2
5. [z[ = [z[
6. z
1
+ z
2
= z
1
+z
2
7. z
1
z
2
= z
1
z
2
8.
_
z
1
z
2
_
=
z
1
z
2
Bi tp 1.21. Vit cc s phc sau di dng chnh tc:
a) (1 +i
3)
9
b)
8
_
1 i
3
c)
(1 +i)
21
(1 i)
13
d) (2 +i
12)
5
(
3 i)
11
Li gii. Thng thng, ta nn chuyn cc s phc v dng lng gic, ri thc hin cc
php ton nhn, chia, lu tha, khai cn, sau mi a kt qu v dng chnh tc.
a)
(1 +i
3)
9
=
_
2
_
cos

3
+i sin

3
__
9
= 2
9
b) Ta c (1 i
3) = 2
_
cos

3
+i sin

3
_
nn
8
_
1 i
3 =
_
z
k
=
8
2
_
cos
_
24
+ k
4
_
+i sin(
_
24
+k
4
__
, k = 0, 7
_
20
5. S phc 21
c) Tng t,
(1+i)
21
(1i)
13
= 2
4
i
d) (2 +i
12)
5
(
3 i)
11
= (2
11
)i.
Bi tp 1.22. Tm nghim phc ca phng trnh sau:
a) z
2
+ z + 1 = 0 b) z
2
+ 2iz 5 = 0 c) z
4
3iz
2
+ 4 = 0
d) z
6
7z
3
8 = 0 e)
(z +i)
4
(z i)
4
= 1 f) z
8
(
3 +i) = 1 i
Bi tp 1.23. Chng minh nu z +
1
z
= 2cos th z
n
+
1
z
n
= 2 cos n, n Z
Li gii. Vi iu kin z ,= 0 th
z +
1
z
= 2 cos z
2
2 cos .z + 1 = 0
_
z = z
1
= cos +i sin
z = z
2
= cos() +i sin()
Hn na z
1
z
2
= 1 nn
z
n
+
1
z
n
= z
n
1
+z
n
2
= (cos +i sin )
n
+ [cos( +i sin()
n
] = 2 cos
Bi tp 1.24. a) Tnh tng cc cn bc n ca 1.
b) Tnh tng cc cn bc n ca s phc z bt k.
c) Cho
k
= cos
2k
n
+i sin
2k
n
, k = 0, 1, ..., (n 1) . Tnh tng S =
n1
k=0
m
k
, (m Z) .
Li gii. a) Gi
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
l cc cn bc n ca 1. Cc cn bc n ca n v s lp thnh
tp nghim ca phng trnh z
n
1 = 0 nn theo nh l Viet
n1
k=0
k
= 0
Ngoi ra
0i<jn1
j
= 0,
n1
k=0
k
= (1)
n1
b) Tng t
n1
k=0
k
= 0
c) S =
_
_
_
0 nu n ,[m
n nu n[m
21
Bi tp 1.25. Cho phng trnh
(x+1)
9
1
x
= 0.
a) Tm cc nghim ca phng trnh trn.
b) Tnh mun ca cc nghim.
c) Tnh tch ca cc nghim t tnh
8
k=1
sin
k
9
.
Li gii.
a) Phng trnh
(x+1)
9
1
x
= 0 c 8 nghim l
x
k
= 1 + cos
_
2k
9
_
+i sin
_
2k
9
_
, k = 1, 2, . . . , 8
Ch rng vi k = 0 th x = 0 , TXD.
b) Ta c [x
k
[ = 2 sin
_
k
9
_
c) Phng trnh
(x+1)
9
1
x
=
9
i=1
C
i
9
x
i1
= 0 c 8 nghim l x
k
, k = 1, 2, . . . , 8 nn p dng
nh l Viet ta c
8
k=1
x
k
= 9
T suy ra
8
k=1
sin
k
9
=
9
2
8
Bi tp 1.26. Tm nghim phc ca phng trnh sau:
a) z
7
=
1
z
3
b) z
4
= z +z.
Li gii. a) z
7
=
1
z
3
z
7
z
3
= 1 [z
7
z
3
[ = 1 [z[
10
= 1 [z[ = 1. Do z =
[z[
2
z
=
1
z
.
T z
7
=
1
z
3
z
4
= 1 z = z
k
= cos
k
2
+i sin
k
2
, k = 1, 2, 3.
b) Gi s z = a + bi vi a, b R. Khi z
4
= z + z (a + bi)
4
= (a + bi) + (a bi). So
snh phn thc v phn o ca hai v ta c h phng trnh
_
_
_
a
4
6a
2
b
2
+ b
4
= 2a
4a
3
b 4ab
3
= 0
Gii h phng trnh trn ta c cc nghim ca phng trnh l
z
1
= 0, z
2
=
3
2, z
3
=
1
3
1
3
2
i, z
4
=
1
3
2
+
1
3
2
i
22
5. S phc 23
Bi tp 1.27. Cho x, y, z l cc s phc c mun bng 1. So snh mun ca cc s phc
x + y +zv xy + yz + zx.
Li gii. Do [z[ = [y[ = [z[ = 1 nn xx = yy = zz = 1. Do
[xy + yz + zx[ = [xyzz +yzxx +zxyy[ = [xyz(x +y + z)[ = [xyz[.[x + y + z[ = [x +y + z[
23
24
CHNG 2
MA TRN - NH THC - H PHNG TRNH
1. MA TRN
1.1 Cc php ton trn ma trn
1. Php cng, tr hai ma trn
2. Php nhn ma trn vi mt s
3. Php nhn hai ma trn
4. Ma trn chuyn v
1.2 Cc tnh cht
1.
_
_
A + B = B + A
A + 0 = 0 + A = A
A + (A) = (A) + A = 0
(A + B) + C = A+ (B + C)
2.
_
_
k(A + B) = kA + kB
(k +h)A = kA +hA = A
k(hA) = (kh)A
1.A = A
0.A = 0
3.
_
_
(A.B).C = A.(B.C)
A.I = I.A = A
Ch rng AB ,= BA
4.
_
_
A.(B + C) = AB + AC)
(A + B)C = AC + BC
(AB)C = A(BC)
k(BC) = (kB)C = B(kC)
25
26 Chng 2. Ma trn - nh thc - H phng trnh
5. (AB)
t
= B
t
A
t
Bi tp 2.1. Tm ma trn X tho mn:
a)
_
1 2
3 4
_ _
3 0
2 1
_
+ 2X =
_
1 2
5 7
_
b)
1
2
X
_
_
1 3 2
3 4 1
2 5 3
_
_
_
_
2 5 6
1 2 5
1 3 2
_
_
=
_
_
0 6 6
2 9 2
4 8 6
_
_
Li gii. a)
_
1 2
3 4
_ _
3 0
2 1
_
+ 2X =
_
1 2
5 7
_
X =
_
3 2
3
3
2
_
b)
1
2
X
_
_
1 3 2
3 4 1
2 5 3
_
_
_
_
2 5 6
1 2 5
1 3 2
_
_
=
_
_
0 6 6
2 9 2
4 8 6
_
_
X =
_
_
0 12 12
4 18 4
8 16 12
_
_
Bi tp 2.2. Cho ma trn A =
_
_
1 2 3
2 4 1
3 5 3
_
_
v a thc f (x) = 3x
2
2x + 5 . Tnh f (A).
Li gii. Ta c
A
2
=
_
_
1 2 3
2 4 1
3 5 3
_
_
_
_
1 2 3
2 4 1
3 5 3
_
_
=
_
_
6 9 10
3 7 5
2 1 13
_
_
26
1. Ma trn 27
f (A) = 3A
2
2A+ 5E = 3
_
_
6 9 10
3 7 5
2 1 13
_
_
2
_
_
1 2 3
2 4 1
3 5 3
_
_
+ 5
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
=
_
_
21 23 24
5 34 13
0 7 38
_
_
Bi tp 2.3. a) Cho A =
_
cos a sin a
sin a cos a
_
. Tnh A
n
.
b) Cho A =
_
_
a 1 0
0 a 1
0 0 a
_
_
. Tnh A
n
.
Li gii. a) Chng minh A
n
=
_
cos na sinna
sin na cos na
_
vi mi n N bng phng php
qui np.
b) Vi n = 1, A
1
=
_
_
a 1 0
0 a 1
0 0 a
_
_
Vi n 2 ta vit A = B + E, vi E l ma trn n v cp 3 v B =
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
_
_
.
Ta c B
2
=
_
_
0 0 1
0 0 0
0 0 0
_
_
, B
3
= 0 nn B
k
= 0 vi mi k 3. p dng cng thc khai
trin Newton:
A
n
= (B + aE
3
)
n
=
n
k=0
C
k
n
B
k
(aE
3
)
nk
= C
0
n
(aE
3
)
n
+ C
1
n
B(aE
3
)
n1
+ C
2
n
B
2
(aE
3
)
n2
= a
n
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
+ na
n1
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
_
_
+
(n 1)n
2
_
_
0 0 1
0 0 0
0 0 0
_
_
=
_
_
a
n
na
n1
(n1)n
2
a
n2
0 a
n
na
n1
0 0 a
n
_
_
Nhn xt: Ta cng c th chng minh cu b) bng quy np nh cu a). Tuy nhin,
mun dng phng php quy np ta cn d on c kt qu ca bi ton. iu
ny khng phi lc no cng d lm.
27
Bi tp 2.4. Tm tt c cc ma trn vung cp 2 tho mn:
a) X
2
=
_
0 0
0 0
_
b) X
2
=
_
1 0
0 1
_
Li gii. a) Gi s X =
_
a b
c d
_
, ta c X
2
=
_
a b
c d
_ _
a b
c d
_
=
_
a
2
+bc ab +bd
ca +dc cb +d
2
_
.
Vy:
_
_
a
2
+bc = 0
ab +bd = 0
ca + dc = 0
cb +d
2
= 0
_
a
2
+ bc = 0
b(a + d) = 0
c(a +d) = 0
cb + d
2
= 0
Gii h phng trnh trn ta c X =
_
0 0
c 0
_
hoc X =
_
a b
a
2
b
a
_
vi a, b, c l cc
s thc ty v b ,= 0
b) Tng t nh cu a), ma trn X c th c cc dng sau:
_
a b
1
a
2
b
a
_
,
_
1 0
c 1
_
,
_
1 0
c 1
_
,
_
1 0
0 1
_
,
_
1 0
0 1
_
2. NH THC
2.1 nh ngha
2.2 Cc tnh cht ca nh thc
1. det A = det A
t
2. Cng thc khai trin mt nh thc theo mt hng hay ct bt k:
det A =
n
j=1
(1)
i+j
a
ij
det M
ij
det A =
n
i=1
(1)
i+j
det M
ij
M
ij
l ma trn thu c t ma trn A bng cch b i hng i v ct j.
28
2. nh thc 29
3. Mt nh thc c hai hng (hay ct) bng nhau th bng khng.
4. Nu i ch hai hng (hay ct) ca mt ma trn th nh thc ca n i du
5. Nu thm vo mt hng (hay ct) mt t hp tuyn tnh ca cc hng (hay ct) khc
th nh thc khng i.
6. Mt nh thc c mt hnh (hay ct) bng 0 th bng 0.
7. Nu nhn cc phn t ca mt hng (hay ct) vi mt s k th c mt nh thc
mi bng nh thc c nhn vi k.
8. nh thc ca mt ma trn tam gic bng tch ca cc phn t trn ng cho.
9. det(AB) = det Adet B
2.3 Cc phng php tnh nh thc
tnh mt nh thc, c th khai trin nh thc theo mt hng hay ct no
a nh thc v nh thc c cp nh hn (tt nhin nn chn hng hay ct no c nhiu
s 0 nht), cng c th tm cch bin i s cp a nh thc v dng n gin hn
(khng nht thit phi a nh thc v dng nh thc ca ma trn tam gic, i khi ch
cn a nh thc v dng n gin ri khai trin nh thc).
2.4 Ma trn nghch o
1. nh ngha
nh ngha 2.4. Cho A l mt ma trn vung cp n, nu tn ti ma trn B vung
cp n sao cho
AB = BA = I
th ta ni ma trn A kh o (kh nghch) v gi B l ma trn nghch o ca ma
trn A.
Ma trn nghch o ca ma trn A c k hiu l A
1
.
2. S duy nht ca ma trn nghch o
nh l 2.1. Ma trn nghch o ca ma trn A nu c th duy nht.
3. S tn ti ca ma trn nghch o
29
nh l 2.2. Cho ma trn A vung cp n, nu det A ,= 0 th ma trn A kh nghch
v ma trn nghch o ca n c tnh theo cng thc:
A
1
=
1
det A
.C
t
,
trong C = [c
ij
] vi c
ij
= (1)
i+j
det M
ij
.
4. Ma trn nghch o ca tch hai ma trn
nh l 2.3. Cho A, B l hai ma trn vung cp n kh nghch. Khi AB cng kh
nghch v
(AB)
1
= B
1
A
1
5. Cc tnh ma trn nghch o bng phng php Gauss-Jordan
(a) Vit ma trn n v I bn cnh ma trn A.
(b) p dng cc php bin i s cp v hng a ma trn A v ma trn n v
I, ng thi tc ng php bin i s cp trn ma trn I.
(c) Khi A bin i thnh I th I tr thnh ma trn nghch o A
1
.
Bi tp 2.5. Tnh cc nh thc sau:
a)
2 1 3
5 3 2
1 4 3
= 40
b)
a b c
b c a
c a b
= acb +bac +bac c

3
b
3
a
3
= a
3
+ b
3
+ c
3
3abc
c)
1 1
1 1
2
2
1
,
_
= cos
2
3
+i sin
2
3
_
Do l cn bc 3 ca n v nn
_

3
= 1
1 + +
2
= 0
.
Do
1 1
1 1
2
2
1
= 1 +
4
+
2
3
1
3
= 3
Bi tp 2.6. Khng khai trin nh thc m dng cc tnh cht ca nh thc chng
minh:
a)
a
1
+ b
1
x a
1
b
1
x c
1
a
2
+ b
2
x a
2
b
2
x c
2
a
3
+ b
3
x a
3
b
3
x c
3
= 2x
a
1
b
1
c
1
a
2
b
2
c
2
a
3
b
3
c
3
30
2. nh thc 31
b)
1 a bc
1 b ac
1 c ab
1 a a
2
1 b b
2
1 c c
2
c)
1 a a
3
1 b b
3
1 c c
3
= (a +b + c)
1 a a
2
1 b b
2
1 c c
2
Li gii. a)
a
1
+ b
1
x a
1
b
1
x c
1
a
2
+ b
2
x a
2
b
2
x c
2
a
3
+ b
3
x a
3
b
3
x c
3
2a
1
a
1
b
1
x c
1
2a
2
a
1
b
1
x c
2
2a
3
a
1
b
1
x c
3
(C
2
+C
1
C
1
)
=2
a
1
a
1
b
1
x c
1
a
2
a
1
b
1
x c
2
a
3
a
1
b
1
x c
3
(C
1
1
2
)
=2
a
1
b
1
x c
1
a
2
b
2
x c
2
a
3
b
3
x c
3
((1)C
1
+C
2
C
2
)
=2x
a
1
b
1
c
1
a
2
b
2
c
2
a
3
b
3
c
3
b)
1 a bc
1 b ac
1 c ab
1 a a
2
+ ab +bc + ca
1 b b
2
+ ab +bc + ca
1 c c
2
+ ab + bc +ca
(C
2
(a + b + c) +C
3
C
3
)
=
1 a a
2
1 b b
2
1 c c
2
(C
1
(ab bc ca) + C
3
C
3
)
31
Ch : Nu a, b, c ,= 0 th ta c th chng minh nh sau:
1 a bc
1 b ac
1 c ab
=
1
abc
a a
2
abc
b b
2
abc
c c
2
abc
=
1
abc
abc
a a
2
1
b b
2
1
c c
2
1
1 a a
2
1 b b
2
1 c c
2
c)
1 a a
3
1 b b
3
1 c c
3
1 a a
3
+ a
2
b + a
2
c
1 b b
3
+ b
2
a + b
2
c
1 c c
3
+ c
2
a +c
2
b
(C
1
(abc) + C
2
(ab + bc +ca) +C
3
C
3
)
=
1 a a
2
(a +b + c)
1 b b
2
(a + b +c)
1 c c
2
(a + b +c)
=(a +b + c)
1 a a
2
1 b b
2
1 c c
2
Bi tp 2.7. Tnh cc nh thc sau:

a) A =
a + b ab a
2
+ b
2
b + c bc b
2
+ c
2
c + a ca a
2
+ c
2
b) B =
a b c d
b a d c
c d a b
d c b a
c) C =
1 1 2 3
1 2 x
2
2 3
2 3 1 5
2 3 1 9 x
2
d) D =
1 + x 1 1 1
1 1 x 1 1
1 1 1 + z 1
1 1 1 1 z
Li gii. a) A =
a + b ab a
2
+ b
2
b + c bc b
2
+ c
2
c + a ca a
2
+ c
2
= a
3
(c
2
b
2
) + b
3
(a
2
c
2
) +c
3
(b
2
a
2
)
32
2. nh thc 33
b)
a b c d
b a d c
c d a b
d c b a
a + b +c +d b + a +c +d c +d + a + b d + c + b + a
b a d c
c d a b
d c b a
(R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
+ R
4
)
=(a + b +c +d)
1 1 1 1
b a d c
c d a b
d c b a
=(a + b +c +d)
1 0 0 0
b a b d b c b
c d c a c b c
d c d b d a d
(C
2
C
1
, C
3
C
1
, C
4
C
1
)
=(a + b +c +d)
a b d b c b
d c a c b c
c d b d a d
=(a + b +c +d)
a +d c b a +d c b 0
d c a c b c
c d b d a d
(R
2
+ R
1
)
=(a + b +c +d)
a +d c b 0 0
d c a d b c
c d b c a d
(C
2
C
1
)
=(a + b +c +d)(a +d c b)
a d b c
b c a d
=(a + b +c +d)(a +d b c)(a + b d c)(a + c b d)

33
c)
1 1 2 3
1 2 x
2
2 3
2 3 1 5
2 3 1 9 x
2
1 2 1 3
1 2 2 x
2
3
2 1 3 5
2 1 3 9 x
2
(C
2
C
3
)
=
1 2 1 3
2 1 3 5
1 2 2 x
2
3
2 1 3 9 x
2
(R
2
R
3
)
=
1 2 1 3
0 3 1 1
0 0 1 x
2
0
0 3 1 3 x
2
(R
2
2R
1
, R
3
R
1
, R
4
2R
1
)
=
1 2 1 3
0 3 1 1
0 0 1 x
2
0
0 0 0 4 x
2
=3.(1 x
2
)(4 x
2
)
d)
1 + x 1 1 1
1 1 x 1 1
1 1 1 +z 1
1 1 1 1 z
x x 0 0
1 1 x 1 1
0 0 z z
1 1 1 1 z
(H
1
H
2
, H
3
H
4
)
=
x 0 0 0
1 x 1 0
0 0 z 0
1 0 1 z
(C
1
C
2
, C
3
C
4
)
=x
2
z
2
34
2. nh thc 35
Bi tp 2.8. Chng minh nu A l ma trn phn xng cp n l th det(A) = 0.
Li gii. Do A
t
= A nn det A = det A
t
= det(A) = (1)
n
det A = det A. Vy
det A = 0.
Bi tp 2.9. Cho A = [a
ij
]
nn
l ma trn phc sao cho a
ij
= a
ji
. Chng minh det(A) l
mt s thc.
Li gii. Theo bi ra, A
t
=

A, v nh thc ca mt ma trn l tng cc s hng trong
mi s hng l tch cc phn t ca ma trn , nn t tnh cht ca s phc lin hp, ta
c det

A = det A. T ta c
det A = det

A = det A
t
= det Adet A R
Bi tp 2.10. Tm ma trn nghch o ca cc ma trn sau:
a) A =
_
3 4
5 7
_
, b) B =
_
_
3 4 5
2 3 1
3 5 1
_
_
, c) C =
_
_
1 a 0 0
0 1 a 0
0 0 1 a
0 0 0 1
_
_
Hng dn: Tm ma trn nghch o ca ma trn A c det A ,= 0 thng tin hnh theo
hai cch:
Cch 1: Dng ma trn ph hp.
Tnh c
ij
= (1)
i+j
det M
ij
trong M
ij
l ma trn c c t A bng cch b i hng i ct
j. Xy dng ma trn ph hp C = [c
ij
]. Khi A
1
=
1
det A
.C
t
.
Cch 2: Phng php Gauss-Jordan. Vit vo sau ma trn A ma trn n v E c
ma trn [A[E], sau s dng cc php bin i s cp theo hng a ma trn trn v ma
trn [E[B]. Khi , B l ma trn nghch o A
1
.
Li gii. a) A
1
=
_
7 4
5 3
_
.Tng qut, A =
_
a b
c d
_
A
1
=
1
det A
_
d b
c a
_
.
b) B
1
=
1
3
_
_
2 7 11
1 12 7
1 3 1
_
_
c) C
1
=
_
_
1 a a
2
a
3
0 1 a a
2
0 0 1 a
0 0 0 1
_
_
35
Bi tp 2.11. Gii cc phng trnh ma trn sau:
a)
_
2 1 1
1 1 2
_
_
_
2 1 1
1 3 2
3 2 2
_
_
+ X
_
_
1 2 3
3 1 4
1 1 3
_
_
=
_
2 1 1
2 3 1
_
b)
_
_
2 1 1
1 3 2
3 2 2
_
_
_
_
1 2
2 1
3 1
_
_
+
_
_
1 1 2
2 1 3
1 1 1
_
_
X =
_
_
2 3
1 2
1 1
_
_
Hng dn: Vic gii cc phng trnh ma trn cng ging nh vic gii cc phng
trnh i s, nhng cn lu php nhn ma trn khng c tnh cht giao hon nn
_
_
_
AX = B X = A
1
B
XA = B X = BA
1
Bi tp 2.12. a) Chng minh rng ma trn A =
_
a b
c d
_
tho mn phng trnh sau:
x
2
(a +d)x + ad bc = 0.
b) Chng minh vi A l ma trn vung cp 2 th A
k
= 0, (k > 2) A
2
= 0.
Li gii. b) Nhn xt rng ta ch cn chng minh nu A
k
= 0(k > 2) th A
2
= 0. Tht
vy,
(det A)
k
= det A
k
= 0 det A = 0 ac bd = 0.
Do t cu a) ta c A
2
+ (a +d)A = 0 (1).
Nu a + d = 0 th (1) A = 0.
Nu a +d ,= 0 th (1) A
k2
[A
2
+ (a +d)A] = 0 (a +d)A
k1
= 0A
k1
= 0. Tip
tc qu trnh nh vy ta c A
k
= A
k1
= ... = A
2
= 0.
Bi tp 2.13. Chng minh rng ma trn A vung cp n tho mn a
k
A
k
+a
k1
A
k1
+ +
a
1
A + a
0
E = 0, (a
0
,= 0) th A l ma trn kh nghch.
Li gii.
a
k
A
k
+ a
k1
A
k1
+ + a
1
A + a
0
E = 0
a
k
A
k
+ a
k1
A
k1
+ + a
1
A = a
0
E
A(
a
k
a
0
A
k
a
k1
a
0
A
k1

a
1
a
0
E) = E
Do A l ma trn kh nghch v ma trn nghch o ca n l
A
1
=
a
k
a
0
A
k
a
k1
a
0
A
k1

a
1
a
0
E
36
3. Hng ca ma trn 37
3. HNG CA MA TRN
3.1 nh ngha
nh ngha 2.5. Hng ca ma trn A l cp cao nht ca cc nh thc con khc khng
ca A, k hiu r(A) hay (A).
3.2 Phng php tnh hng ca ma trn bng bin i
s cp v hng
nh ngha 2.6. Ma trn bc thang l ma trn c hai tnh cht:
1. Cc hng khc khng lun trn cc hng bng khng
2. Trn hai hng khc khng th phn t u tin khc khng hng di bao gi cng
bn phi ct cha phn t khc khng u tin hng trn.
nh l 2.4. Hng ca mt ma trn bc thang bng s hng khc khng ca n
Vi nh l 2.4 cho, mun tm hng ca ma trn A ch cn p dng cc phng php
bin i s cp trn hng a A v ma trn bc thang v m s hng khc khng ca
n.
Bi tp 2.14. Tm hng ca cc ma trn sau:
a) A =
_
_
1 3 5 1
2 1 1 4
5 1 1 7
7 7 9 1
_
_
. Bin i A . . .
_
_
1 3 5 1
0 7 11 6
0 0 4 0
0 0 0 4
_
_
nn r(A) = 4.
b) B =
_
_
4 3 5 2 3
8 6 7 4 2
4 3 8 2 7
4 3 1 2 5
8 6 1 4 6
_
_
. Bin i B . . .
_
_
4 3 5 2 3
0 0 1 0 5
0 0 0 0 11
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
_
_
nn r(B) = 3.
37
4. H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH
4.1 Dng tng qut ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh
l h m phng trnh i s bc nht i vi n n s
_
_
a
11
x
1
+ a
12
x
2
+ + a
1n
x
n
= b
1
a
21
x
1
+ a
22
x
2
+ + a
2n
x
n
= b
2

a
m1
x
1
+ a
m2
x
2
+ + a
mn
x
n
= b
m
(2.1)
Nu t A = [a
ij
] l ma trn h s ca h v b = [b
1
b
2
. . . b
m
]
t
l ma trn ct v phi,
x = [x
1
x
2
. . . x
n
]
t
l ma trn n th ta c dng ma trn ca h c vit n gin nh sau
Ax = b
4.2 H Cramer
nh ngha 2.7. H 2.1 gi l h Cramer nu m = n v det A ,= 0
nh l 2.5 (nh l Cramer). H Cramer c nghim duy nht c tnh bng cng
thc x = A
1
b, tc l
x
j
=
det A
j
det A
,
trong A
j
l ma trn suy t A bng cch thay ct th j bi ct v phi b.
4.3 nh l Kronecker-Capelli
nh l 2.6 (nh l Kronecker-Capelli). H 2.1 c nghim khi v ch khi
r
_
A
_
= r(A),
trong A l ma trn b sung tc l ma trn A thm ct b, A = [Ab].
Corollary 2.1. 1. Nu r
_
A
_
,= r(A) th h 2.1 v nghim
2. Nu r
_
A
_
= r(A) = n th h 2.1 c nghim duy nht
3. Nu r
_
A
_
= r(A) < n th h 2.1 c v s nghim
38
4. H phng trnh tuyn tnh 39
4.4 Phng php Gauss gii h phng trnh tuyn
tnh tng qut
B1. Vit ma trn A cnh vct ct b ta c ma trn b sung A.
B2. p dng cc php bin i s cp trn hng a ma trn A v ma trn bc thang.
B3. Bin lun theo kt qu thu c.
Bi tp 2.15. Gii cc h phng trnh sau:
a)
_
_
x
1
2x
2
+ x
3
= 4
2x
1
+ x
2
x
3
= 0
x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
= 1
b)
_
_
3x
1
5x
2
7x
3
= 1
x
1
+ 2x
2
+ 3x
3
= 2
2x
1
+ x
2
+ 5x
3
= 2
c)
_
_
3x
1
5x
2
+ 2x
3
+ 4x
4
= 2
7x
1
4x
2
+ x
3
+ 3x
4
= 5
5x
1
+ 7x
2
4x
3
6x
4
= 3
d)
_
_
3x
1
x
2
+ 3x
3
= 1
4x
1
+ 2x
2
+ x
3
= 3
2x
1
+ x
2
+ 4x
3
= 4
10x
1
5x
2
6x
3
= 10
e)
_
_
2x
1
+ 3x
2
+ 4x
3
= 1
3x
1
x
2
+ x
3
= 2
5x
1
+ 2x
2
+ 5x
3
= 3
x
1
4x
2
3x
3
= 1
Li gii. a) Ta c D = 7, D
x
= 7, D
y
= 7, D
z
= 7 nn h phng trnh cho l h
Cramer nn nghim (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (1, 1, 1)
b) Tng t nh cu a) vi D = 41, D
x
1
= 41, D
x
2
= 41, D
x
3
= 41 v nghim ca h l
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (1, 1, 1).
c) r(A) = 2 ,= r(A) = 3. H v nghim.
d) H c nghim duy nht (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) =
_
0,
8
7
,
5
7
_
.
e) H c v s nghim (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) =
_
7t +
7
11
, 10t
1
11
, 11t
_
vi t l tham s.
Bi tp 2.16. Gii cc h phng trnh sau bng phng php Gauss.
a)
_
_
2x
1
+ 3x
2
x
3
+ x
4
+ 3 = 0
3x
1
x
2
+ 2x
3
+ 4x
4
8 = 0
x
1
+ x
2
+ 3x
3
2x
4
6 = 0
x
1
+ 2x
2
+ 3x
3
+ 5x
4
3 = 0
39
b)
_
_
3x
1
2x
2
+ x
3
x
4
= 0
3x
1
2x
2
x
3
+ x
4
= 0
x
1
x
2
+ 2x
3
+ 5x
4
= 0
c)
_
_
2x
1
2x
2
+ x
3
x
4
+ x
5
= 1
x
1
+ 2x
2
x
3
+ x
4
2x
5
= 1
4x
1
10x
2
+ 5x
3
5x
4
+ 7x
5
= 1
2x
1
14x
2
+ 7x
3
7x
4
+ 11x
5
= 1
Hng dn: Cc php bin i tng ng trn cc phng trnh ca h tuyn tnh
tng ng vi cc php bin i s cp theo hng trn ma trn

A . Hn na, vic xc nh
tnh c nghim hay v nghim ca mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh theo nh l Kronecker-
Capelli, i hi phi tm hng ca ma trn

A. Ni dung chnh ca phng php Gauss
chnh l vic s dng cc php bin i s cp theo hng bin i ma trn

A v dng
bc thang, sau dng nh l Kronecker-Capelli xc nh vic c nghim v m t cc
nghim ca h phng trnh.
Li gii. a) A =
_
_
2 3 1 1
3 1 2 4
1 1 3 2
1 2 3 5
3
8
6
3
_
_
. . .
_
_
1 1 3 2
0 1 7 5
0 0 7 6
0 0 0
26
7
6
15
14
0
_
_
Vy r(A) = r(A) = 4. Do , h c nghim duy nht (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) = (1, 1, 2, 0).
b) A =
_
_
3 2 1 1
3 2 1 1
1 1 2 5
_
_
. . .
_
_
1 1 2 5
0 1 7 14
0 0 2 2
_
_
Vy r(A) = 3 < 4, h c v s nghim ph thuc mt tham s
_
_
x
1
= 14
x
2
= 7
x
3
=
x
4
=
c) A =
_
_
2 2 1 1 1
1 2 1 1 2
4 10 5 5 7
2 14 7 7 11
1
1
1
1
_
_
. . .
_
_
1 2 1 1 2
0 6 3 3 5
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
1
1
0
0
_
_
.
Suy ra r(A) = r(A) = 2, nn h c v s nghim ph thuc 3 tham s
_
_
x
1
=
2
3
+ 2m4n
x
2
=
1
6
+ 5mn +t
x
3
= 2t, x
4
= 2n, x
5
= 6m
40
Bi tp 2.17. Gii v bin lun cc h phng trnh:
a)
_
_
ax
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
= 1
x
1
+ ax
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
= a
x
1
+ x
2
+ ax
3
+ x
4
= a
2
b)
_
_
(2 a)x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
= 0
x
1
+ (2 a)x
2
+ x
3
= 0
x
1
+ x
2
+ (2 a)x
3
= 0
c)
_
_
x
1
ax
2
+ a
2
x
3
= a
ax
1
a
2
x
2
+ ax
3
= 1
ax
1
+ x
2
a
3
x
3
= 1
d)
_
_
ax
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
= 1
x
1
+ ax
2
+ x
3
= a
x
1
+ x
2
+ ax
3
= a
2
Li gii. a)
Ta c
A =
_
_
a 1 1 1
1 a 1 1
1 1 a 1
1
a
a
2
_
_
. . .
_
_
1 1 a
0 a 1 1 a
0 0 (1 a)(a + 2)
1
0
1 a
a
2
a a
2
(1 a)(a + 1)
2
_
_
1. Nu a ,= 1, ta c r(A) = r(A) = 3 < 4, h c v s nghim ph thuc mt tham
s
_
_
x
1
= t a 1
x
2
= t a
x
3
= t
x
4
= (1 + a)
2
(a + 2)t
2. Nu a = 1 th A =
_
_
1 1 1
0 0 0
0 0 0
1
0
0
1
0
0
_
_
Ta c r(A) = r(A) = 1 < 4 nn h c v s nghim ph thuc 3 tham s
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) = (1 , , , )
b) Ta c A =
_
_
2 a 1 1
1 2 a 1
1 1 2 a
_
_
, det A = (4 a)(1 a)
2
.
1. Nu (4 a)(1 a)
2
,= 0 th h c nghim duy nht (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (0, 0, 0).
2. Nu a = 4 th A =
_
_
2 1 1
1 2 1
1 1 2
_
_
. . .
_
_
1 1 2
0 3 3
0 0 0
_
_
.
V r(A) = 2 < 3 nn h c v s nghim ph thuc vo 1 tham s (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) =
(, , )
41
3. Nu a = 1 th A =
_
_
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
_
_

_
_
1 1 1
0 0 0
0 0 0
_
_
Suy ra r(A) = 1 < 3 nn h c v s nghim ph thuc vo 2 tham s:
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = ( , , ).
c) Ta c A =
_
_
1 a a
2
a a
2
a
a 1 a
3
a
1
1
_
_
. . .
_
_
1 a a
2
0 1 + a
2
2a
3
0 0 a(1 a
2
)
a
1 a
2
1 a
2
_
_
1. Nu a ,= 0, 1 th r(A) = r(A) = 3 nn h c nghim duy nht
_
_
x
1
= a
x
2
= 1
x
3
=
1
a
2. Nu a = 0 th B =
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
0
1
1
_
_
nn r(A) = 2 ,= r(A) = 3, do h cho v
nghim.
3. Nu a = 1 th B =
_
_
1 1 1
0 2 2
0 0 0
1
0
0
_
_
nn r(A) = r(A) = 2 < 3, h cho c v s nghim ph thuc 1 tham s
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (1, , )
4. Nu a = 1 th B =
_
_
1 1 1
0 2 2
0 0 0
1
0
0
_
_
nn r(A) = r(A) = 2 < 3, h cho c v s nghim ph thuc 1 tham s
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (1, , )
d) Ta c
A =
_
_
a 1 1
1 a 1
1 1 a
1
a
a
2
_
_
. . .
_
_
1 1 a
0 a 1 1 a
0 0 (1 a)(a + 2)
a
2
a a
2
(1 a)(a + 1)
2
_
_
= B
1. Nu a ,= 1, 2 th r(A) = r(A) = 3, h c nghim duy nht
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) =
_
1 a
a + 2
,
1
a + 2
,
(1 + a)
2
a + 2
_
2. Nu a = 2 th B =
_
_
1 1 2
0 3 3
0 0 0
4
6
3
_
_
, r(A) = 2 < 3 = r(A), h cho v
nghim.
42
3. Nu a = 1 th B =
_
_
1 1 1
0 0 0
0 0 0
1
0
0
_
_
, r(A) = r(A) = 1 < 3, h c v s nghim
ph thuc 2 tham s (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (1 , , )
Bi tp 2.18. Tm a thc bc 3 : p(x) = ax
3
+ bx
2
+ cx + d tho mn p(1) = 0, p(1) =
4, p(2) = 5, p(2) = 15.
Li gii. p s: a =
7
3
, b =
7
3
, c =
13
3
, d =
13
3
.
Bi tp 2.19. Cho phng trnh ma trn
_
_
1 2 a
2 7 2a + 1
3 9 4a
_
_
X =
_
_
1
2
1
_
_
a) Gii phng trnh khi a = 0.
b) Tm a phng trnh c v s nghim.
Li gii. a) X =
_
_
1 2 0
2 7 1
3 9 0
_
_
1
_
_
1
2
1
_
_
=
_
_
3 0
2
3
1 0
1
3
1 1 1
_
_
=
_
11
3
4
3
0
_
_
b) A =
_
_
1 2 a
2 7 2a + 1
3 9 4a
1
2
1
_
_
. . .
_
_
1 2 a
0 3 1
0 0 a 1
1
4
0
_
_
H c v s nghim khi v ch khi r(A) = r(A) < 3 a 1 = 0 a = 1
43
44
CHNG 3
KHNG GIAN VCT.
1. KHI NIM
1.1 nh ngha
nh ngha 3.8. Tp hp V ,= c gi l mt khng gian vct trn R nu n c
trang b hai php ton gm:
a) Php cng vct
+ : V V V
(, ) +
b) Php nhn vct vi v hng
+ : RV V
(a, ) a
tho mn cc tin sau:
(V1) ( + ) + = + ( + )
(V2) 0 V : 0 + = + 0 = V
(V3) V,
/
V :
/
+ = +
/
= 0
(V4) + = +, V
(V5) (a + b) = a + ba, b R, V
45
46 Chng 3. Khng gian vct.
(V6) a( + ) = a + aa R, , V
(V7) a(b) = (ab)a, b R, V
(V8) 1 = V
Cc phn t ca V c gi l cc vct, cc phn t ca R c gi l cc v hng. Bn
tin u ni rng (V, +) l mt nhm abel. Tin (V5, 6) ni rng php nhn c tnh
phn phi i vi php cng vct v cng v hng. Tin (V8) ni rng php nhn
c chun ho.
1.2 Mt s tnh cht ban u ca khng gian vct
1.3 Bi tp
Bi tp 3.1. Tp V vi cc php ton km theo c phi l khng gian vct khng?
a) V = (x, y, z) [x, y, z R vi cc php ton xc nh nh sau
(x, y, z) + (x
/
, y
/
, z
/
) = (x + x
/
, y +y
/
, z +z
/
)
k(x, y, z) = ([k[ x, [k[ y, [k[ z)
b) V = x = (x
1
, x
2
) [x
1
> 0, x
2
> 0 R
2
vi cc php ton xc nh nh sau:
(x
1
, x
2
) + (y
1
, y
2
) = (x
1
y
1
, x
2
y
2
)
k(x
1
, x
2
) = (x
k
1
, x
k
2
)
trong k l s thc bt k
Li gii. a) V khng phi l mt khng gian vct v cc php ton cng v nhn vi v
hng ca V vi phm tin s 5.
(1 + (1))(x, y, z) = 0 ,= 1(x, y, z) + (1)(x, y, z) = 2(x, y, z)
b) Tp V cho l mt khng gian vct.
46
2. Khng gian vct con 47
2. KHNG GIAN VCT CON
2.1 nh ngha
nh ngha 3.9. Cho V l mt khng gian vct, W l mt tp con ca V. Nu W cng
vi hai php ton tha hng t V cng l mt khng gian vct th W c gi l khng
gian vct con ca V.
2.2 iu kin cn v W V l khng gian vct
con
nh l 3.7. Tp con khc rng W V l khng gian vct con ca V nu v ch nu W
khp kn vi hai php ton trn V, ngha l
_
_
_
+ W, , W
a W, a R, W
2.3 Khng gian con sinh bi mt h vct
nh ngha 3.10. Cho V l mt khng gian vct. S = v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
n
l mt h cc vct
ca V. Tp hp tt c cc t hp tuyn tnh ca cc vct ca S c gi l bao tuyn tnh
ca S, k hiu span(S).
span(S) = c
1
v
1
+c
2
v
2
+ . . . c
n
v
n
[c
1
, . . . , c
n
R
nh l 3.8. W = span(V) l mt khng gian vct con ca V.
2.4 H sinh ca mt khng gian vct
nh ngha 3.11. Cho V l mt khng gian vct.S = v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
n
l mt h cc vct
ca V. Nu span(S) = V thi ta ni h S sinh ra V hay khng gian V sinh bi h S.
2.5 Bi tp
Bi tp 3.2. Chng minh cc tp hp con ca cc khng gian vc t quen thuc sau l cc
khng gian vc t con ca chng:
a) Tp E =
_
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) R
3
[2x
1
5x
2
+ 3x
3
= 0
_
.
b) Tp cc a thc c h s bc nht bng 0 (h s ca x )ca KGVT P
n
[x].
47
c) Tp cc ma trn tam gic trn ca tp cc ma trn vung cp n.
d) Tp cc ma trn i xng ca tp cc ma trn vung cp n.
e) Tp cc ma trn phn xng ca tp cc ma trn vung cp n.
f) Tp cc hm kh vi trong khng gian cc hm s xc nh trn [a, b].
Bi tp 3.3. Cho V
1
, V
2
l hai khng gian vc t con ca KGVT V. Chng minh:
a) V
1
V
2
l KGVT con ca V.
b) Cho V
1
+V
2
:= x
1
+ x
2
[x
1
V
1
, x
2
V
2
. Chng minh V
1
+V
2
l KGVT con ca V.
Li gii.
a) 1. Gi s x, y V
1
V
2
. Khi x, y V
1
v x, y V
2
. V V
1
v V
2
l cc khng gian
vct con ca V nn x +y V
1
, v x + y V
2
. Vy x + y V
1
V
2
.
2. Tng t nu x V
1
V
2
th kx V
1
V
2
.
b) 1. Gi s x, y V
1
+ V
2
. Khi x = x
1
+ x
2
, y = y
1
+ y
2
vi x
1
, y
1
V
1
, x
2
, y
2
V
2
.
Khi x + y = (x
1
+ x
2
) + (y
1
+y
2
) = (x
1
+ y
1
) + (x
2
+y
2
) V
1
+V
2
.
2. Tng t, nu x V
1
+V
2
th kx V
1
+V
2
.
Bi tp 3.4. Cho V
1
, V
2
l hai khng gian vc t con ca KGVT V. Ta ni V
1
, V
2
l b nhau
nu V
1
+V
2
= V, V
1
V
2
= 0. Chng minh rng V
1
, V
2
b nhau khi v ch khi mi vc t
x ca V c biu din duy nht di dng x = x
1
+ x
2
, (x
1
V
1
, x
2
V
2
).
Li gii. V V = V
1
+ V
2
cho nn mi vct x V c biu din x = x
1
+ x
2
(x
1

V
1
, x
2
V
2
). Ta ch cn chng minh biu din ny l duy nht, tht vy, gi s
x = x
1
+ x
2
= x
/
1
+ x
/
2
vi x
1
, x
/
1
V
1
, x
2
, x
/
2
V
2
. Khi ta c x
1
x
/
1
= x
/
2
x
2
.
Nhng v V
1
, V
2
l cc khng gian vct con ca V nn x
1
x
/
1
V
1
, x
/
2
x
2
V
2
. Do
x
1
x
/
1
= x
/
2
x
2
V
1
V
2
= 0 Vy x
1
= x
/
1
, x
2
= x
/
2
v ta c biu din cho l
duy nht.
Nu mi vc t x ca V c biu din duy nht di dng x = x
1
+x
2
, (x
1
V
1
, x
2
V
2
)
th ng nhin V = V
1
+V
2
. Ta ch cn chng minh V
1
V
2
= 0. Tht vy, gi s
x V
1
V
2
, khi
x = 0
..
V
1
+ x
..
V
2
= x
..
V
1
+ 0
..
V
2
V tnh duy nht ca biu din nn x = 0, hay V
1
V
2
= 0.
48
2. Khng gian vct con 49
Bi tp 3.5. Cho V l KGVT cc hm s xc nh trn [a, b] . t
V
1
= f (x) V [ f (x) = f (x), x [a, b] , V
2
= f (x) V [ f (x) = f (x), x [a, b]
Chng minh V
1
, V
2
l b nhau.
Li gii. ng nhin V
1
V
2
= 0 (ch rng vct 0 y l hm s ng nht bng
0 trn [a, b]). Mt khc vi mi hm s f (x) xc nh trn [a, b] bt k, t
g(x) =
f (x) + f (x)
2
, h(x) =
f (x) f (x)
2
th g(x) V
1
, h(x) V
2
v f (x) = g(x) +h(x), ngha l V = V
1
+V
2
. Ta c iu phi chng
minh.
49
3. C S V TO
3.1 c lp tuyn tnh v ph thuc tuyn tnh
nh ngha 3.12 (c lp tuyn tnh v ph thuc tuyn tnh).
a) H (
1
, . . . ,
n
) c gi l c lp tuyn tnh nu h thc
a
1
1
+ a
2
2
+ . . . a
n
n
= 0
ch xy ra khi a
1
= a
2
= . . . = a
n
= 0.
b) H (
1
, . . . ,
n
) c gi l ph thuc tuyn tnh nu n khng c lp tuyn tnh.
3.2 C s v s chiu ca khng gian vct
nh ngha 3.13. Mt h vct ca V c gi l mt c s ca V nu mi vct ca V
u biu th duy nht qua h ny.
Nh vy mi c s u l mt h sinh.
nh l 3.9. Cho h vct S = v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
n
ca V. Khi S l mt c s ca V khi v
ch khi n l mt h sinh c lp tuyn tnh.
nh ngha 3.14. Khng gian vct V c gi l hu hn sinh nu n c mt h sinh
gm hu hn phn t.
nh l 3.10. Gi s V ,= l mt khng gian vct hu hn sinh. Khi V c mt c s
gm hu hn phn t. Hn na mi c s ca V u c s phn t bng nhau.
Trn c s nh l trn, ta i n nh ngha sau
nh ngha 3.15. a) S phn t ca mi c s ca khng gian vct hu hn sinh
V ,= 0 c gi l s chiu hay th nguyn ca khng gian vct V, k hiu l
dimV. Nu V = 0 th dimV = 0.
b) Nu V khng c mt c s no gm hu hn phn t th n c gi l mt khng
gian vct v hn chiu.
nh ngha 3.16 (To ). B v hng (a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
) xc nh bi iu kin =
i
a
i
i
c gi l to ca vct trong c s (
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
)
50
3. C s v to 51
3.3 Bi tp
Bi tp 3.6. Cho V
1
, V
2
l hai khng gian vc t con ca KGVT V, v
1
, v
2
, , v
m
l h
sinh ca V
1
, u
1
, u
2
, , u
n
l h sinh ca V
2
. Chng minh v
1
, , v
m
, u
1
, u
2
, , u
n
l
h sinh ca V
1
+V
2
.
Li gii. Mi x V
1
+ V
2
ta c x = x
1
+ x
2
(x
1
V
1
, x
2
V
2
). V v
1
, v
2
, , v
m
l h
sinh ca V
1
, nn x
1
=
1
v
1
+
2
v
2
+ . . . +
m
v
m
, u
1
, u
2
, , u
n
l h sinh ca V
2
nn
x
2
=
1
u
1
+
2
u
2
+ . . . +
n
u
n
. Vy
x =
1
v
1
+
2
v
2
+ . . . +
m
v
m
+
1
u
1
+
2
u
2
+ . . . +
n
u
n
Vy v
1
, , v
m
, u
1
, u
2
, , u
n
l h sinh ca V
1
+V
2
.
Bi tp 3.7. Trong KGVT V, cho h vct u
1
, u
2
, , u
n
, u
n+1
l ph thuc tuyn tnh
v u
1
, u
2
, , u
n
l h c lp tuyn tnh. Chng minh u
n+1
l t hp tuyn tnh ca cc
vct u
1
, u
2
, , u
n
.
Li gii. V h u
1
, u
2
, , u
n
, u
n+1
ph thuc tuyn tnh nn tn ti rng buc tuyn
tnh khng tm thng
1
u
1
+
2
u
2
+ . . . +
n+1
u
n+1
= 0
1. Nu
n+1
= 0 th
1
u
1
+
2
u
2
+ . . . +
n
u
n
= 0. V u
1
, u
2
, , u
n
l h c lp tuyn
tnh nn t rng buc tyn tnh trn ta suy ra
1
=
2
= . . . =
n
= 0. iu ny mu
thun vi
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n+1
khng ng thi bng 0.
2. Vy
n+1
,= 0. Khi
u
n+1
=
1
n+1
(
1
u
1
+
2
u
2
+ . . . +
n
u
n
)
Bi tp 3.8. Trong R
3
xt xem cc h vc t sau c lp tuyn tnh hay ph thuc tuyn
tnh:
a) v
1
= (1, 2, 3), v
2
= (3, 6, 7).
b) v
1
= (4, 2, 6) , v
2
= (6, 3, 9).
c) v
1
= (2, 3, 1), v
2
= (3, 1, 5), v
3
= (1, 3, 4).
Li gii. a) Xt rng buc tuyn tnh
1
v
1
+
2
v
2
= 0
_
1
+ 3
2
= 0
2
1
+ 6
2
= 0
3
1
+ 7
2
= 0
_
_
_
1
= 0
2
= 0
Vy h v
1
, v
2
c lp tuyn tnh.
51
b) Tng t, h cho c lp tuyn tnh.
c) Xt rng buc tuyn tnh
1
v
1
+
2
v
2
+
3
v
3
= 0
_
_
2
1
+ 3
2
3
= 0
3
1
2
+ 3
3
= 0
1
+ 5
2
4
3
= 0
1
= 0
2
= 0
3
= 0
Vy h cho c lp tuyn tnh.
Bi tp 3.9. Trong R
3
, chng minh v
1
= (1, 1, 1), v
2
= (1, 1, 2), v
3
= (1, 2, 3) lp thnh mt
c s. Cho x = (6, 9, 14), tm to ca x i vi c s trn.
Li gii. Ta bit dimR
3
= 3 nn mun chng minh h v
1
, v
2
, v
3
l mt c s ca R
3
ta ch cn chng minh n c lp tuyn tnh hoc l h sinh ca R
3
.
52
4. S chiu v c s ca khng gian con sinh bi h vct - Hng ca h vct 53
4. S CHIU V C S CA KHNG GIAN CON SINH BI
H VCT - HNG CA H VCT
4.1 M u
Gi s V l mt khng gian vct v
S = u
1
, u
2
, . . . , u
p
V
Theo nh l 3.8 th spanS l mt khng gian con ca V. Hy tm s chiu v c s ca
spanS.
4.2 Hng ca mt h vct
nh ngha 3.17. Xt h S = u
1
, u
2
, . . . , u
p
V. S vct c lp tuyn tnh ti a c
th rt ra t h S c gi l hng ca h S v k hiu l r(S) hay (S).
4.3 Cch tnh hng ca mt h vct bng bin i s
cp
Lemma 3.1. Hng ca h vct S bng hng ca ma trn to ca n trong bt k c s
no ca khng gian V.
Theo b 3.1 trn, mun tm hng ca h vct S, ch cn tm ma trn to ca n
trong mt c s bt k ca V (thng thng ta chn c s chnh tc). Sau p dng cc
php bin i s cp trn hng a ma trn cho v ma trn bc thang.
4.4 S chiu v c s ca khng gian con sinh bi h
vct
nh l 3.11. Cho V l mt khng gian vct
S = u
1
, u
2
, . . . , u
p
Khi W = span(S) l mt khng gian vct con c s chiu bng hng r ca S v mi h

r vct c lp tuyn tnh rt t S l mt c s ca W.
Nhn xt: Mi h r vct c lp tuyn tnh rt t S l mt c s ca W. V vy trong thc
t, mun tm r vct c lp tuyn tnh t W th nn vit to ca h S theo hng. Khi
mt c s ca W chnh l cc vct c to l cc hng khc khng ca ma trn bc
thang thu c sau cc php bin i s cp.
53
4.5 Bi tp
Bi tp 3.10. Tm c s v s chiu ca KGVT sinh bi h vc t sau:
a) v
1
= (2, 1, 3, 4), v
2
= (1, 2, 0, 1), v
3
= (1, 1, 3, 0) trong R
4
.
b) v
1
= (2, 0, 1, 3, 1), v
2
= (1, 1, 0, 1, 1), v
3
= (0, 2, 1, 5, 3), v
4
= (1, 3, 2, 9, 5) trong
R
5
.
Li gii. a) Ta c
A =
_
_
_
2 1 3 4
1 2 0 1
1 1 3 0
_
_
_
2H
2
H
1
2H
3
+ H
1
_
_
_
2 1 3 4
0 3 3 2
0 3 3 4
_
_
_
H
3
H
2
_
_
_
2 1 3 4
0 3 3 2
0 0 0 6
_
_
_
Vy r (v
1
, v
2
, v
3
) = 3 nn s chiu ca khng gian vct sinh bi h vct cho l
3, v mt c s ca n chnh l v
1
, v
2
, v
3
hoc (2, 1, 3, 4), (0, 3, 3, 2), (0, 0, 0, 6).
b) Tng t
A =
_
_
_
_
_
2 0 1 3 1
1 1 0 1 1
0 2 1 5 3
1 3 2 9 5
_
_
_
_
_
. . .
_
_
_
_
_
2 0 1 3 1
0 2 1 5 3
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
_
Vy s chiu ca khng gian vct sinh bi h vct cho l 2 v mt c s ca n
l (2, 0, 1, 3, 1), (0, 2, 1, 5, 3).
Bi tp 3.11. Trong R
4
cho cc vc t:
v
1
= (1, 0, 1, 0), v
2
= (0, 1, 1, 1), v
3
= (1, 1, 1, 2), v
4
= (0, 0, 1, 1)
. t V
1
= span(v
1
, v
2
), V
2
= span(v
3
, v
4
). Tm c s v s chiu ca cc KGVT V
1
+V
2
, V
1
V
2
.
Li gii. Ch rng nu V
1
= span(v
1
, v
2
), V
2
= span(v
3
, v
4
) th
V
1
+V
2
= span(v
1
, v
2
, v
3
, v
4
).
_
_
_
_
_
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1
1 1 1 2
0 0 1 1
_
_
_
_
_
. . .
_
_
_
_
_
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
_
54
4. S chiu v c s ca khng gian con sinh bi h vct - Hng ca h vct 55
Vy dim(V
1
+V
2
) = 3 v mt c s ca n l (1, 0, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1, 1), (0, 0, 1, 1).
Gi s x V
1
V
2
th x = x
1
v
1
+x
2
v
2
= x
3
v
3
+x
4
v
4
. T ng thc x
1
v
1
+x
2
v
2
= x
3
v
3
+x
4
v
4
dn chng ta ti h phng trnh sau:
_
_
x
1
x
3
= 0
x
2
x
3
= 0
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
= 0
x
2
2x
3
x
4
= 0
Gii h phng trnh trn bng phng php Gauss ta thy h phng trnh trn c v
s nghim (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) = (t, t, t, t), t R. Vy x = x
1
v
1
+ x
2
v
2
= t(v
1
+v
2
) = t(1, 1, 0, 1).
Vy dim(V
1
V
2
) = 1 v mt c s ca n l (1, 1, 0, 1).
Ch :
dim(V
1
+V
2
) = dimV
1
+ dimV
2
dim(V
1
V
2
)
Bi tp 3.12. Cho KGVT P
3
[x] tm hng ca h vc t sau: v
1
= 1 +x
2
+x
3
, v
2
= x x
2
+
2x
3
, v
3
= 2 + x + 3x
3
, v
4
= 1 + x x
2
+ 2x
3
.
Li gii. Nhn xt rng hng ca h vct bng hng ca ma trn to ca n trong bt
k c s no ca khng gian V nn
A =
_
_
_
_
_
1 0 1 1
0 1 1 2
2 1 0 3
1 1 1 2
_
_
_
_
_
. . .
_
_
_
_
_
1 0 1 1
0 1 1 2
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
_
Vy hng ca h vct trn bng 3 v mt c s ca khng gian vct sinh bi n l
1 + x
2
+ x
3
, x x
2
+ 2x
3
, x
2
x
3
.
Bi tp 3.13. Xt tnh cht c lp tuyn tnh, ph thuc tuyn tnh, tm hng ca cc
h vc t sau trong khng gian cc hm s lin tc trn R:
a) 1, 2 sin
2
x, 3 cos
2
x.
b) 1, sin2x, sin3x.
c) 1 + x
2
, (1 + x)
2
, (2 + x)
2
.
d) e
x
, e
x
, 1 +e
x
, 2 +e
x
.
Li gii. a) H vct cho ph thuc tuyn tnh v c mt rng buc khng tmthng
1
1
2
.
_
2 sin
2
x
_
1
3
.
_
3 cos
2
x
_
= 0
55
b) Gi s c rng buc tuyn tnh
1
.1 +
2
. sin2x +
3
. sin3x = 0. Ch rng vct
khng ca khng gian C(R) cc hm s lin tc trn R l hm s ng nht bng 0
nn:
1. Cho x = 0 th
1
= 0. Vy ta c
2
. sin2x +
3
. sin3x = 0.
2. Cho x =

6
th
2
= 0. Vy ta c
3
. sin3x = 0.
3. Cho x =

2
th
3
= 0.
Vy h vct cho c lp tuyn tnh.
c) H vct cho c lp tuyn tnh
d) H vct cho c lp tuyn tnh
Bi tp 3.14. Tm c s v s chiu ca khng gian nghim ca h phng trnh thun
nht sau:
_
_
x
1
x
2
+ 2x
3
+ 2x
4
x
5
= 0
x
1
2x
2
+ 3x
3
x
4
+ 5x
5
= 0
2x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
+ 3x
5
= 0
3x
1
x
2
2x
3
x
4
+ x
5
= 0
nh l 3.12. Nu A l mt ma trn c mn th s chiu ca khng gian nghim ca h
phng trnh thun nht Ax = 0 bng n tr i hng ca A.
56
5. Bi ton i c s 57
5. BI TON I C S
5.1 t vn
Trong khng gian vct n chiu V gi s c hai c s
B = (e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
n
) v B
/
=
_
e
/
1
, e
/
2
, . . . , e
/
n
_
K hiu [v]
B
= [v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
n
]
t
l to ct ca vct v V trong c s B. Hy tm mi lin
h gia [v]
B
v [v]
B
/
5.2 Ma trn chuyn
nh ngha 3.18. Nu tn ti ma trn P tho mn
[v]
B
= P[v]
B
/ vi mi v V
th ma trn P c gi l ma trn chuyn c s t B sang B
/
.
Lemma 3.2. Vi mi cp c s B v B
/
ca V th ma trn chuyn c s t B sang B
/
tn
ti duy nht v c xc nh theo cng thc
P =
_
[e
/
1
]
B
[e
/
2
]
B
. . . [e
/
n
]
B
nh l 3.13. Nu P l ma trn chuyn c s t c s B sang c s B

/
th
(a) P kh o (tc l P khng suy bin, det P ,= 0)
(b) P
1
l ma trn chuyn c s t B
/
sang c s B
5.3 Bi tp
Bi tp 3.15. Trong P
3
[x] cho cc vc t v
1
= 1, v
2
= 1 + x, v
3
= x + x
2
, v
4
= x
2
+ x
3
.
a) Chng minh B = v
1
, v
2
, v
3
, v
4
l mt c s ca P
3
[x].
b) Tm to ca vc t v = 2 + 3x x
2
+ 2x
3
i vi c s trn.
c) Tm to ca vc t v = a
0
+ a
1
x + a
2
x
2
+ a
3
x
3
i vi c s trn.
Bi tp 3.16. Cho KGVT P
3
[x] vi c s chnh tc E =
_
1, x, x
2
, x
3
_
v c s khc B =
1, a + x, (a + x)
2
, (a + x)
3
. Tm ma trn chuyn c s t E sang B v ngc li t B sang
E. T tm ta ca vc t v = 2 + 2x x
2
+ 3x
3
i vi c s B.
57
58
CHNG 4
NH X TUYN TNH
1. NH X TUYN TNH
1.1 Khi nim
nh ngha 4.19. nh x T : V W t khng gian vct V ti khng gian vct W c
gi l nh x tuyn tnh nu
(i) T(u +v) = T(u) + T(v), u, v V
(ii) T(ku) = kT(u), k R, u V
Mt s tnh cht ban u ca nh x tuyn tnh:
nh l 4.14. Cho T : V W l nh x tuyn tnh t khng gian vct V ti khng gian
vct W. Khi
a) T(0) = 0.
b) T(v) = T(v), v V.
c) T(u v) = T(u) T(v), u, v V.
1.2 Bi tp
Bi tp 4.1. Cho V l KGVT, V
= Hom(V, R) = f : V R, f l nh x tuyn tnh.

Gi s V c c s e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
. Xt tp hp f
1
, f
2
, ..., f
n
trong f
i
(e
j
) =
_
_
_
1 nu i = j
0 nu i ,= j
.
Chng minh f
1
, f
2
, ..., f
n
l c s ca V
, c gi l c s i ngu ng vi e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
.
59
60 Chng 4. nh x tuyn tnh
Li gii. Mun chng minh f
1
, f
2
, ..., f
n
l mt c s ca V
, ta s chng minh n l mt
h sinh ca V
v c lp tuyn tnh.
1. Chng minh f
1
, f
2
, ..., f
n
l mt h vct c lp tuyn tnh.
Gi s c rng buc tuyn tnh
1
f
1
+
2
f
2
+ . . . +
n
f
n
= 0 (1)
Tc ng hai v ln vct e
1
ta c
1
f
1
(e
1
) +
2
f
2
(e
1
) + . . . +
n
f
n
(e
1
) = 0 (2)
Theo nh ngha th f
1
(e
1
) = 1, f
2
(e
1
) = 0, . . . , f
n
(e
1
) = 0 nn t (2) suy ra
1
= 0.
Tng t nh vy, nu tc ng hai v ca (1) ln e
2
ta c
2
= 0, . . ., tc ng hai
v ca (1) ln e
n
ta c
n
= 0. Vy
1
=
2
= . . . =
n
= 0, h vct cho c lp
tuyn tnh.
2. Chng minh f
1
, f
2
, ..., f
n
l h sinh ca V
.
Gi s f V
, khi f (e
1
), f (e
2
), . . . , f (e
n
) l cc s thc xc nh. Ta s chng minh
f = f (e
1
) f
1
+ f (e
2
) f
2
+ . . . + f (e
n
) f
n
Tht vy, vi mi x V, x =
1
e
1
+
2
e
2
+ . . . +
n
e
n
th
f (x) =
1
f (e
1
) +
2
f (e
2
) + . . . +
n
f (e
n
)
Mt khc
[ f (e
1
) f
1
+ f (e
2
) f
2
+ . . . + f (e
n
) f
n
] (x)
= [ f (e
1
) f
1
+ f (e
2
) f
2
+ . . . + f (e
n
) f
n
] (
1
e
1
+
2
e
2
+ . . . +
n
e
n
)
=
n
i,j=1
i
f (e
j
) f
j
(e
i
)
=
n
i=j=1
i
f (e
i
)
=f (x)
60
2. Ht nhn v nh ca nh x tuyn tnh 61
2. HT NHN V NH CA NH X TUYN TNH
nh ngha 4.20. Cho T : V W l nh x tuyn tnh t khng gian vct V ti khng
gian vct W. Khi
Ker(T) := x[x V, T(x) = 0
c gi l ht nhn ca T.
Im(T) := y[y W, x V, T(x) = y = T(x)[x V
c gi l nh ca T.
2.1 Cc tnh cht ca ht nhn v nh
nh l 4.15. Cho T : V W l mt nh x tuyn tnh. Khi
(i) Ker(T) l mt khng gian vct con ca V.
(ii) Im(T) l mt khng gian vct con ca W.
2.2 Hng ca nh x tuyn tnh - nh l v s chiu
nh ngha 4.21. Nu T : V W l mt nh x tuyn tnh th s chiu ca khng gian
Im(T) c gi l hng ca T, k hiu l rank(T):
rank(T) = dimIm(T)
nh l 4.16 (nh l v s chiu). Nu T : V W l mt nh x tuyn tnh t khng
gian vct n chiu V ti khng gian W th
n = dimV = dimIm(T) + dimKer(T)
hay
n = dimV = dimrank(T) + dimKer(T)
2.3 Bi tp
Bi tp 4.2. Cho nh x f : R
3
R
3
xc nh bi cng thc f (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (3x
1
+ x
2
x
3
, 2x
1
+ x
3
).
a) Chng minh f l nh x tuyn tnh.
b) Tm ma trn ca f i vi cp c s chnh tc.
61
c) Tm mt c s ca Ker f .
Li gii. a) D kim tra.
c) Theo nh ngha Ker f = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) R
3
[ f (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = 0 nn Ker f chnh l khng
gian nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht
_
_
_
3x
1
+ x
2
x
3
= 0
2x
1
+ x
3
= 0
(4.1)
H phng trnh trn c v s nghim vi
_
_
x
1
bt k
x
3
= 2x
1
x
2
= 5x
1
. Vy dimKer f = 1 v mt
c s ca n l (1, 5, 2).
Bi tp 4.3. Cho f : V W l mt nh x tuyn tnh. Chng minh rng
a) f l n nh khi v ch khi Ker f = 0.
b) f l ton nh khi v ch khi Im f = W.
Li gii.
Gi thit f l n nh. Nu x Ker f th f (x) = 0 = f (0). Do f n nh nn x = 0
hay Ker f = 0.
Gi s c f (x
1
) = f (x
2
), khi f (x
1
x
2
) = 0 nn x
1
x
2
Ker f hay x
1
x
2
= 0.
Vy x
1
= x
2
v theo nh ngha f l n nh.
a) b) Mt h qu trc tip ca khi nim ton nh.
Bi tp 4.4. Cho V, V
/
l 2 KGVT n chiu v f : V V
/
l nh x tuyn tnh. Chng
minh cc khng nh sau tng ng:
a) f l n nh.
b) f l ton nh.
c) f l song nh.
62
2. Ht nhn v nh ca nh x tuyn tnh 63
Li gii. Thc cht ch cn chng minh a) b) v b) a).
a) b) Theo nh l v s chiu 4.16
n = dimIm f + dimKer f (1)
Do f l n nh nn theo bi tp 4.3 ta c Ker f = 0, hay dimKer f = 0 dimIm f = n.
Mt khc Im f l mt khng gian vct con ca V
/
v dimV
/
= n nn Im f = V
/
hay f l
ton nh.
b) a) Ngc li, nu f l ton nh th Im f = V
/
dimIm f = n. T (1) ta suy ra
dimKer f = 0 hay Ker f = 0, tc f l n nh.
63
3. MA TRN CA NH X TUYN TNH
3.1 Khi nim
Cho T : V W l mt nh x tuyn tnh t khng gian vct n chiu V ti khng gian
vct m chiu W. Gi s B l mt c s ca V v B
/
l mt c s ca W vi
B = u
1
, u
2
, . . . , u
n
, B
/
= v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
m
Hy tm mi lin h gia [T(x)]

B
/ (to ct ca vct T(x) trong c s B
/
) vi [x]
B
(to
ca vct x trong c s B).
nh ngha 4.22. Ma trn A c mn tho mn tnh cht
[T(x)]
B
/ = A.[x]
B
, x V
nu tn ti, c gi l ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh T : V W i vi cp c s B trong
V v B
/
trong W.
nh l 4.17. i vi mi cp c s B ca V v B
/
ca W, ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh
T : V W tn ti duy nht v c xc nh theo cng thc:
A = [[T(u
1
)]
B
/ , [T(u
2
)]
B
/ , . . . , [T(u
n
)]
B
/ , ]
ngha ca ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh:
x
Tnh trc tip
T(x)
(1)
(3)
[x]
B
Nhn A[x]
B
Tnh gin tip (2)

[T(x)]
B
/
Theo s ny, khi bit x V, mun tnh T(x) c hai cch: cch th nht l tnh trc
tip, cch th hai l tnh gin tip qua 3 bc:
1. Tm ma trn to [x]
B
.
2. Tnh [T(x)]
B
/ = [T(x)]
B
/ .
3. T [T(x)]
B
/ ta suy ra T(x).
C hai l do thy tm quan trng ca cch tnh gin tip. Th nht l n cung cp mt
phng tin tnh ton cc nh x tuyn tnh trn my tnh in t. Th hai l chng
ta c th chn cc c s B v B
/
sao cho ma trn A cng n gin cng tt. Khi c th
cung cp nhng thng tin quan trng v nh x tuyn tnh.
64
3. Ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh 65
3.2 Ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh thng qua php i
c s
nh ngha 4.23 (Ma trn ng dng). Gi s A v B l hai ma trn vung cng cp
n. Ta ni B ng dng vi A, k hiu B A nu tn ti mt ma trn khng suy bin P sao
cho
B = P
1
AP
nh l 4.18. Gi s T : V V l mt ton t tuyn tnh trong khng gian hu hn
chiu V. Nu A l ma trn ca T trong c s B v A
/
l ma trn ca T i vi c s B
/
th
A
/
= P
1
BP
trong P l ma trn chuyn c s t B sang B
/
.
3.3 Bi tp
3
R
4
xc nh bi cng thc f (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (x
1
+ x
2
, x
2
+
x
3
, x
3
+ x
1
, x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
)
b) Tm ma trn ca f i vi cp c s chnh tc.
Bi tp 4.6. Cho nh x o hm D : P
n
[x] P
n
[x] xc nh bi
D(a
0
+ a
1
x + a
2
x
2
+ + a
n
x
n
) = a
1
+ 2a
2
x + + na
n
x
n1
a) Chng minh D l nh x tuyn tnh.
b) Tm ma trn ca D i vi c s chnh tc E =
_
1, x, x
2
, , x
n
_
.
c) Xc nh Ker f v Im f
Bi tp 4.7. Cho nh x f : P
2
[x] P
4
[x] xc nh nh sau: f (p) = p + x
2
p, p P
2.
b) Tm ma trn ca f i vi cp c s chnh tc E
1
=
_
1, x, x
2
_
ca P
2
[x] v E
2
=
_
1, x, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
_
ca P
4
[x].
c) Tm ma trn ca f i vi cp c s E
/
1
=
_
1 + x, 2x, 1 + x
2
_
ca P
2
[x] P
2
[x] v E
2
=
_
1, x, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
_
ca P
4
[x].
65
Bi tp 4.8. Xt R
2
ging nh tp cc vct thng thng trong mt phng c gc gc
ta . Cho f l php quay mt gc .Tm ma trn ca f i vi c s chnh tc ca R
2
.
Bi tp 4.9. Cho nh x f : M
2
M
2
xc nh nh sau:
f
__
a b
c d
__
=
_
a +b b + c
c + d d + a
_
.
b) Tm ma trn ca f i vi c s chnh tc ca M
2
:
e
1
=
_
1 0
0 0
_
, e
2
=
_
0 1
0 0
_
, e
3
=
_
0 0
1 0
_
, e
4
=
_
0 0
0 1
_
Bi tp 4.10. Cho A =
_
_
1 3 1
2 0 5
6 2 4
_
_ l ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh f : P

2
[x]
P
2
[x] i vi c s B = v
1
, v
2
, v
3
trong : v
1
= 3x + 3x
2
, v
2
= 1 + 3x + 2x
2
, v
3
=
3 + 7x + 2x
2
.
a) Tm f (v
1
), f (v
2
), f (v
3
).
b) Tm f (1 + x
2
).
3
R
3
xc nh bi
f (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (x
1
+ x
2
x
3
, x
1
x
2
+ x
3
, x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
).
Tm ma trn ca f i vi c s B = v
1
= (1, 0, 0), v
2
= (1, 1, 0), v
3
= (1, 1, 1) .
Bi tp 4.12. Cho A l ma trn vung cp n. Ta xc nh nh x f
A
: M
n
M
n
nh sau
f
A
(X) = AX.
a) Chng minh f
A
l bin i tuyn tnh.
b) Gi s det A ,= 0. Chng minh f
A
l ng cu tuyn tnh.
c) Cho A =
_
a b
c d
_
. Tm ma trn ca f
A
i vi c s chnh tc ca M
2
l
E
1
=
_
1 0
0 0
_
, E
2
=
_
0 1
0 0
_
, E
3
=
_
0 0
1 0
_
, E
3
=
_
0 0
0 1
_
Bi tp 4.13. Cho A l ma trn kch thc mn, B l ma trn kch thc n p. Chng
minh rank(AB) minrank A, rank B, vi rank(A) = hng ca ma trn A.
66
4. Tr ring v vct ring 67
4. TR RING V VCT RING
4.1 Tr ring v vct ring ca ma trn
nh ngha 4.24. Gi s A l mt ma trn vung cp n. S thc gi l tr ring ca A
nu phng trnh
Ax = x, x R
n
c nghim x = (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) ,= (0, 0, . . . , 0).
tm tr ring ca ma trn vung A cp n, ta vit Ax = x di dng phng trnh
(A I)x = 0 (4.2)
y l mt h phng trnh thun nht, mun cho l tr ring ca A, iu kin cn v
l h trn c khng tm thng, tc
det(A I) = 0 (4.3)
nh ngha 4.25. Phng trnh 4.3 c gi l phng trnh c trng ca ma trn
vung A, cn a thc det(A I) c gi l a thc c trng ca A..
Nh vy mun tm tr ring ca ma trn A ta ch cn lp phng trnh c trng v gii
phng trnh phng trnh c trng cho. Cn cc vct ring ng vi tr ring chnh
l cc vct khc khng trong khng gian nghim ca h phng trnh 4.2. Khng gian
nghim ca h phng trnh 4.2 c gi l khng gian ring ng vi tr ring .
4.2 Tr ring v vct ring ca ton t tuyn tnh
nh ngha 4.26. Gi s V l mt khng gian vct. S gi l tr ring ca ca ton t
tuyn tnh T : V V nu tn ti vct x ,= 0 sao cho T(x) = x.
nh l 4.19. Gi s T l mt ton t tuyn tnh trong khng gian vct hu hn chiu
V v A l ma trn ca T i vi mt c s no B ca V. Th th
1. Nhng tr ring ca T l nhng tr ring ca A.
2. Vct x l vct ring ca T ng vi tr ring khi v ch khi vct ct [x]
B
l vct
ring ca A ng vi tr ring .
67
4.3 Cho ho ma trn
t bi ton:
Bi ton 1: Cho V l mt khng gian vct hu hn chiu, T : V V l mt ton t
tuyn tnh. Ta bit rng ma trn ca T ph thuc vo c s chn trong V. Hi
c tn ti mt c s trong V trong V sao cho ma trn ca T i vi c s l ma trn
cho.
Bi ton 2: (Dng ma trn). Cho A l mt ma trn vung. Hi c tn ti hay khng mt
ma trn P kh o sao cho P
1
AP l mt ma trn cho.
nh ngha 4.27 (Ma trn cho ho c). Cho ma trn vung A. Nu tn ti ma trn
kh o P sao cho P
1
AP l mt ma trn cho th ta ni ma trn A cho ho c v ma
trn P lm cho ho ma trn A.
nh l 4.20. Gi s A l mt ma trn vung cp n. iu kin cn v A cho ho
c l n c n vct ring c lp tuyn tnh.
Corollary 4.2. Nu ma trn A vung cp n c n tr ring khc nhau th A cho ho c.
Quy trnh cho ho mt ma trn
1. Tm n vct ring c lp ca A:
p
1
, p
2
, . . . , p
n
2. Lp ma trn P c p
1
, p
2
, . . . , p
n
l cc ct.
3. Khi ma trn P s lm cho ho ma trn A, hn na
P
1
AP = diag[
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
]
trong
i
(i = 1, 2, . . . , n) l cc tr ring ng vi vct ring p
i
.
4.4 Bi tp
Bi tp 4.14. Tm cc gi tr ring v c s khng gian ring ca cc ma trn:
a) A =
_
3 0
8 1
_
b) B =
_
10 9
4 2
_
c) C =
_
_
2 1 0
5 3 3
1 0 2
_
_
d) D =
_
_
0 1 0
4 4 0
2 1 2
_
_
e) E =
_
_
4 5 2
5 7 3
6 9 4
_
_
f )F =
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
_
_
68
4. Tr ring v vct ring 69
Bi tp 4.15. Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : P
2
[x] P
2
[x] xc nh nh sau:
f (a
0
+ a
1
x + a
2
x
2
) = (5a
0
+ 6a
1
+ 2a
2
) (a
1
+ 8a
2
)x + (a
0
2a
2
)x
2
a) Tm gi tr ring ca f .
b) Tm cc vct ring ng vi cc gi tr ring tm c.
Bi tp 4.16. Tm ma trn P lm cho ha A v xc nh P
1
AP khi vi:
a) A =
_
14 12
20 17
_
b) B =
_
1 0
6 1
_
c) C =
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 1
0 1 1
_
_
d) D =
_
_
2 1 2
0 3 1
0 0 3
_
_
.
Bi tp 4.17. Ma trn A c ng dng vi ma trn cho khng? Nu c , tm ma trn cho
:
a) A =
_
_
1 4 2
3 4 0
3 1 3
_
_
b) B =
_
_
5 0 0
1 5 0
0 1 5
_
_
c) C =
_
_
0 0 0
0 0 0
3 0 1
_
_
.
Bi tp 4.18. Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : R
3
R
3
xc nh nh sau: f (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) =
(2x
1
x
2
x
3
, x
1
x
2
, x
1
+ x
2
+ 2x
3
). Hy tm c s f c dng cho.
Bi tp 4.19. Tm c s ca R
3
ma trn ca f : R
3
R
3
c dng cho trong
f (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (2x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
, x
1
+ 2x
2
+ x
3
, x
1
+ x
2
+ 2x
3
)
Bi tp 4.20. Cho f : V V l bin i tuyn tnh. Gi s f
2
= f f : V V c gi tr
ring
2
. Chng minh mt trong 2 gi tr hoc l gi tr ring ca f .
Bi tp 4.21. Cho D : P
n
[x] P
n
[x] l nh x o hm, cn g : P
n
[x] P
n
[x] xc nh
bi g(a
0
+ a
1
x + a
2
x
2
+ + a
n
x
n
) = (2x + 3)(a
1
+ 2a
2
x + + na
n
x
n1
). Tm cc gi tr
ring ca D v g.
69
70
CHNG 5
DNG TON PHNG, KHNG GIAN
EUCLIDE
1. KHI NIM
1.1 nh ngha
nh ngha 5.28. Cho V l mt khng gian vect trn R. nh x : V V R c gi
l mt dng song tuyn tnh trn V nu n tuyn tnh vi mi bin khi c nh bin cn
li, tc l:
_
(hx
1
+kx
2
, y) = h (x
1
, y) +k (x
2
, y) x
1
, x
2
, y V, h, k R
(x, hy
1
+ky
2
) = h (x, y
1
) + k (x, y
2
) x, y
2
, y
2
V, h, k R
Dng song tuyn tnh c gi l i xng nu
(x, y) = (y, x) vi mi x, y V
(bng cch tng t chng ta c th nh ngha c mt dng a tuyn tnh trn V).
nh ngha 5.29. Gi s l mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng trn V. Khi nh x
H : V R xc nh bi
H(x) = (x, x)
c gi l mt dng ton phng trn V ng vi dng song tuyn tnh i xng .
1.2 Phn loi dng ton phng
Ta ni dng ton phng (x, x) l
71
72 Chng 5. Dng ton phng, khng gian Euclide
1. Xc nh dng nu (x, x) > 0 vi mi x V, x ,= 0.
2. Na xc nh dng (hay xc nh khng m) nu (x, x) 0 vi mi x V, x ,= 0.
3. Xc nh m nu (x, x) < 0 vi mi x V, x ,= 0.
4. Na xc nh m (hay xc nh khng dng) nu (x, x) 0 vi mi x V, x ,= 0.
5. Khng xc nh du nu tn ti x, y V sao cho (x, x) < 0, (y, y) > 0.
1.3 Dng song tuyn tnh v dng ton phng trn
khng gian hu hn chiu.
Cho : V
n
V
n
R l mt dng song tuyn tnh, trong V
n
l mt KGVT c s chiu
l n.S = e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
l mt c s ca V
n
. Khi ta c:
(x, y) =
_
n
i=1
x
i
e
i
,
n
j=1
y
j
e
j
,
_
=
n
i,j=1
_
e
i
, e
j
_
x
i
y
j
=
n
i,j=1
a
ij
x
i
y
j
= [x]
t
S
A[y]
S
= [y]
t
S
A[x]
S
Nh vy hon ton xc nh bi b cc gi tr
_
(e
i
, e
j
)
_
n
i,j=1
. Xt ma trn A =
_
a
ij
=
_
_
e
i
, e
j
_
. Dng song tuyn tnh i xng khi v ch khi A l mt ma trn i xng.
nh ngha 5.30. Ma trn A =
_
a
ij
=
_
_
e
i
, e
j
_
c gi l ma trn ca dng song
tuyn tnh (hay ma trn ca dng ton phng H) trong c s S, biu thc (x, y) =
[x]
t
S
A[y]
S
= [y]
t
S
A[x]
S
c gi l dng ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh trong c s
S.Tng t nh vy H(x, x) = [x]
t
S
A[x]
S
c gi l dng ma trn ca dng ton phng
H trong c s S.
1.4 Bi tp
Bi tp 5.1. Cho f l dng song tuyn tnh trn khng gian vc t 3 chiu V c ma trn
i vi c s B l A =
_
_
1 1 0
2 0 2
3 4 5
_
_
. Cho h : V V l nh x tuyn tnh c ma trn
i vi c s B l B =
_
_
1 1 1
3 4 2
1 2 3
_
_
. Chng minh nh x g(x, y) = f (x, h(y)) l dng
song tuyn tnh trn V. Tm ma trn ca n i vi c s B.
72
1. Khi nim 73
Li gii. chng minh g l dng song tuyn tnh ta cn chng mnh:
_
g (hx
1
+ kx
2
, y) = hg (x
1
, y) +kg (x
2
, y)
g (x, hy
1
+ ky
2
) = hg (x, y
1
) + kg (x, y
2
)
, d kim tra. Do f l dng song tuyn tnh trn V nn ta c f (x, h (y)) = [x]
t
B
A[h (y)]
B
vi mi x, y V. Hn na h : V V l nh x tuyn tnh c ma trn i vi c s B l B
nn ta c [h (y)]
B
= B. [y]
B
. Tm li ta c:
g(x, y) = f (x, h(y)) = [x]
t
B
A[h (y)]
B
= [x]
t
B
A.B. [y]
B
vi mi x, y V nn ma trn ca n i vi c s B l ma trn AB.
73
2. RT GN MT DNG TON PHNG
nh ngha 5.31 (Dng chnh tc ca dng ton phng trn KG n chiu). Biu thc
ca dng ton phng trong c s S ch cha cc s hng bnh phng
1
x
2
1
+
2
x
2
2
+ . . . +
n
x
2
n
c gi l dng chnh tc ca n trong c s S. Ma trn ca dng chnh tc ny l ma
trn cho A = diag[
1
, . . . ,
n
].
2.1 Phng php Lagrange
Xt dng ton phng Q(x, x) =
n
i,j=1
a
ij
x
i
x
j
, a
ij
= a
ji
. Gi s a
11
,= 0, ta nhm cc s
hng c cha x
1
:
Q =
_
a
11
x
2
1
+ 2a
12
x
1
x
2
+ ... + 2a
1n
x
1
x
n
_
+ ... + a
nn
x
2
n
=
1
a
11
(a
11
x
1
+ a
12
x
2
+ ... + a
1n
x
n
)
2
+ Q
1
,
trong Q
1
khng cha x
1
na. t y
1
= a
11
x
1
+ a
12
x
2
+ ... + a
1n
x
n
, y
i
= x
i
, i = 2, 3, ..., n,
th Q =
1
a
11
y
2
1
+ Q
1
, trong Q
1
khng cha y
1
. Tip tc thc hin qu trnh trn vi Q
1
ch cn cha cc bin y
2
, y
3
, ..., y
n
nh vi Q trc. C th, cho n khi thu c biu thc
khng cha s hng cho na.
Nu
11
= 0 , ta tm trong cc s hng a
22
, a
33
, ..., a
nn
xem c s no khc 0, chng hn nu
a
kk
,= 0 th ta i vai tr ca a
kk
cho a
11
.
Nu tt c cc a
ii
= 0 th tn ti t nht mt s hng 2a
ij
x
i
x
j
vi a
ij
,= 0. Lc ta t:
x
i
= y
i
+ y
j
, x
j
= y
i
y
j
, x
k
= y
k
, k ,= i, j
th 2a
ij
x
i
x
j
= 2a
ij
_
y
2
i
y
2
j
_
ngha l trong biu thc ca dng ton phng xut hin
s hng bnh phng, tip tc lm li t u.
2.2 Phng php Jacobi
nh l 5.21 (Jacobi). Dng ton phng (x, x) c ma trn trong c s no ca
khng gian n chiu V l ma trn i xng A. xc nh dng khi v ch khi tt c cc
nh thc con chnh ca A u dng.
74
2. Rt gn mt dng ton phng 75
2.3 Phng php cho ho trc giao
Phng php cho ho trc giao s c hc bi sau, sau khi nghin cu khng
gian Euclide. Tuy vy, mt h qu ca n s c nu ra ngay sau y gip sinh vin
c thm mt tiu chun kim tra du ca mt dng ton phng (tt nhin l khng
cn n kin thc v khng gian Euclide).
nh l 5.22. Dng ton phng (x, x) : R
n
R c ma trn trong c s chnh tc l ma
trn i xng A. Khi xc nh dng khi v ch khi tt c cc gi tr ring ca A u
dng
2.4 Bi tp
Bi tp 5.2. Trn R
3
cho cc dng ton phng c biu thc ta :
1
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) =
x
2
1
+ 5x
2
2
4x
2
3
+ 2x
1
x
2
4x
1
x
3

2
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = x
1
x
2
+ 4x
1
x
3
+ x
2
x
3

3
= 5x
2
+ 2y
2
+ z
2
6xy + 2xz 2yz

a) Bng phng php Lagrange, a dng ton phng v dng chnh tc.
b) Xt xem cc dng ton phng xc nh dng , m khng?
Li gii.
1
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = x
2
1
+ 5x
2
2
4x
2
3
+ 2x
1
x
2
4x
1
x
3
= x
2
1
+ 2x
1
(x
2
2x
3
) + (x
2
2x
3
)
2
+ 4x
2
2
+ 4x
2
x
3
8x
2
3
= (x
1
+ x
2
2x
3
)
2
+ (2x
2
+ x
3
)
2
9x
2
3
= y
2
1
+ y
2
2
9y
2
3
Suy ra
1
khng xc nh du.
i vi
2
, t
_
_
x
1
= y
1
y
2
x
2
= y
1
+y
2
x
3
= y
3
ta c:
2
= y
2
1
y
2
2
+ 5y
1
y
3
3y
2
y
3
=
_
y
1
+
5
2
y
3
_
2
_
y
2
+
3
2
y
3
_
2
4y
2
3
= Z
2
1
Z
2
2
4Z
2
3
75
Suy ra
2
khng xc nh du.
3
= 5x
2
+ 2y
2
+ z
2
6xy + 2xz 2yz
= 5
_
x
2
+ 2x
_
3
5
y +
6
15
z
_
+
_
3
5
y +
6
15
z
_
2
_
+
1
5
_
y
2
+ 2yz + z
2
_
= 5
_
x
3
5
y +
6
15
z
_
2
+
1
5
(y +z)
2
hoc
3
= 5x
2
+ 2y
2
+z
2
6xy + 2xz 2yz
= z
2
+ 2z (x y) + (x y)
2
+ 4x
2
4xy + y
2
= (z + x y)
2
+ (2x y)
2
Suy ra
3
na xc nh dng.
Bi tp 5.3. Xc nh a cc dng ton phng xc nh dng:
a) 5x
2
1
+ x
2
2
+ ax
2
3
+ 4x
1
x
2
2x
1
x
3
2x
2
x
3
.
b) 2x
2
1
+ x
2
2
+ 3x
2
3
+ 2ax
1
x
2
+ 2x
1
x
3
.
c) x
2
1
+ x
2
2
+ 5x
2
3
+ 2ax
1
x
2
2x
1
x
3
+ 4x
2
x
3
.
Li gii. Cch 1: S dng phng php Lagrange
= 5x
2
1
+ x
2
2
+ ax
2
3
+ 4x
1
x
2
2x
1
x
3
2x
2
x
3
= 5
_
x
2
1
+ 2.
1
5
x
1
(2x
2
x
3
) +
1
25
(2x
2
x
3
)
2
_
+
1
5
x
2
2
6
5
x
2
x
3
+
_
a
1
5
_
x
2
3
= 5
_
x
1
+
1
5
x
2
2
5
x
3
_
2
+
1
5
_
x
2
2
2x
2
.3x
3
+ 9x
2
3
_
+ (a 2) x
2
3
= 5
_
x
1
+
1
5
x
2
2
5
x
3
_
2
+
1
5
(x
2
3x
3
)
2
+ (a 2) x
2
3
Vy xc nh dng khi v ch khi a > 2.
Cch 2: S dng nh l Jacobi 5.21
A =
_
_
5 2 1
2 1 1
1 1 a
_
_
nn
1
= [5[ = 5,
2
=
5 2
2 1
= 1,
3
=
5 2 1
2 1 1
1 1 a
= a 2
Vy xc nh dng khi v ch khi a > 2.
Cch 3: S dng nh l 5.22
76
2. Rt gn mt dng ton phng 77
2.5 Kt lun
1. Phng php Lagrange rt gn mt dng ton phng l phng php kh n
gin v mt k thut bin i.
2. Phng php Jacobi ch p dng c trong trng hp ma trn A ca dng ton
phng c tt c cc nh thc con chnh u khc 0. Tuy nhin trong cc bi ton
bin lun, tm cc tham s mt dng ton phng xc nh dng th phng
php Jacobi li kh hiu qu (bi tp 5.3).
3. C nhiu cch khc nhau a mt dng ton phng v dng chnh tc, iu
c ngha mt dng ton phng c th c nhiu dng chnh tc khc nhau (trong
nhng c s khc nhau). Tuy nhin chng ta c nh lut qun tnh sau: Khi mt
dng ton phng c a v dng chnh tc bng hai cch khc nhau (tc l trong
nhng c s mi khc nhau) th s cc h s dng v s cc h s m bng nhau, v
chng ln lt c gi l ch s qun tnh dng v ch s qun tnh m ca dng
ton phng cho.
77
3. KHNG GIAN EUCLIDE
3.1 Tch v hng v khng gian c tch v hng
nh ngha 5.32. Cho V l mt khng gian vect, mt tch v hng trn V l mt nh
x < ., . >: V V R tho mn cc tin sau:
TVH1: < u, v > xc nh vi mi u, v V
TVH2: < u, v >=< v, u >
TVH3: =< u, w > + < v, w >
TVH4: < ku, v >= k < u, v >
TVH5: < u, u > 0, < u, u >= 0 khi v ch khi u = 0.
Nhn xt: Tch v hng l mt dng song tuyn tnh, i xng, v dng ton phng
sinh bi n xc nh dng.
nh ngha 5.33 ( di ca vect). Cho V l mt khng gian c tch v hng. Khi
di (hay chun) ca vect V l s thc khng m || =

< , >.
nh ngha 5.34 (Khong cch). Cho V l mt khng gian c tch v hng. Khi
khong cch gia hai vect u v v l s thc khng m d(u, v) = |u v|.
nh ngha 5.35 (S vung gc). Hai vect u v v c gi l vung gc hay trc giao
vi nhau v c k hiu l u v nu
< u, v >= 0
nh ngha 5.36 (H vect trc giao, trc chun).
a) H vect (e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
k
) ca khng gian vect Euclide E c gi l mt h trc giao
nu cc vect ca h i mt vung gc vi nhau, tc l
< e
i
, e
j
>= 0 nu i ,= j
b) H vect (e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
k
) ca khng gian vect Euclide E c gi l mt h trc chun
nu n l mt h trc giao v mi vect ca h u c di bng 1, tc l
< e
i
, e
j
>=
ij
=
_
_
_
0 nu i ,= j
1 nu i = j
78
3. Khng gian Euclide 79
Mnh 1.
(i) Mi h trc giao khng cha vect 0 u c lp tuyn tnh.
(ii) Nu h vect (e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
k
) l trc giao v khng cha vect 0 th h vect
_
e
1
|e
1
|
,
e
2
|e
2
|
, . . . ,
e
k
|e
k
|
_
l mt h trc chun.
3.2 Php trc giao ho Schmidt
nh l 5.23. Cho V l mt khng gian vect c tch v hng, S = u
1
, u
2
, ..., u
n
l mt
h vect c lp tuyn tnh ca V. Ta c th thay S bi h trc chun S
/
= v
1
, v
2
, ..., v
n
,
sao cho span u
1
, u
2
, ..., u
k
= spanv
1
, v
2
, ..., v
k
vi mi k = 1, 2, ..., n.
Bc 1: t v
1
=
u
1
|u
1
|
Bc 2: t v
2
= u
2
+tv
1
sao cho < v
2
, v
1
>= 0 tc l t = . Sau chn v
2
=
v
2
|v
2
|
Gi s sau k 1 bc ta xy dng c h trc chun S
/
k1
= v
1
, v
2
, ..., v
k1
sao cho spanu

1
, u
2
, ..., u
k1
= span v
1
, v
2
, ..., v
k1
. Ta thc hin n bc th k
sau:
Bc k: t v
k
= u
k
+t
1
v
1
+ ... +t
k1
v
k1
sao cho < v
k
, v
j
>= 0, j = 1, 2, ..., k 1 Tc l ta
c t
j
= , j = 1, 2, ..., k 1. Sau chn v
k
=
v
k
|v
k
|
. Tip tc thc hin n
khi k = n ta thu c h trc chun S
/
= v
1
, v
2
, ..., v
n
Nhn xt: V mt l thuyt, chng ta va chun ho, va trc giao cc vect nh trn,
tuy nhin trong thc hnh nu gp phi cc php ton phc tp khi sau mi bc phi
chun ho vct v
k
=
v
k
|v
k
|
, ngi ta thng chia lm hai phn: trc giao h vect S trc
ri chun ho cc vect sau.
Bc 1: t v
1
= u
1
Bc 2: t v
2
= u
2
+ tv
1
sao cho < v
2
, v
1
>= 0 , tc l t =

<v
1
,v
1
>
.
Gi s sau k 1 bc ta xy dng c h trc giao S
/
k1
= v
1
, v
2
, ..., v
k1
sao
cho span u
1
, u
2
, ..., u
k1
= span v
1
, v
2
, ..., v
k1
. Ta thc hin n bc th k sau:
Bc k: t v
k
= u
k
+ t
1
v
1
+ ... + t
k1
v
k1
sao cho < v
k
, v
j
>= 0, j = 1, 2, ..., k 1 Tc l
ta c t
j
=

<v
j
,v
j
>
, j = 1, 2, ..., k 1. Tip tc thc hin n khi k = n ta thu c h
trc giao S
/
= v
1
, v
2
, ..., v
n
.
Bc n+1: Chun ho cc vect trong h trc giao S
/
= v
1
, v
2
, ..., v
n
ta thu c h trc
chun cn tm.
79
3.3 Hnh chiu ca mt vect ln mt khng gian vect
con
nh ngha 5.37. Gi s U, V l cc khng gian vect con ca khng gian Euclide E.
(a) Ta ni vect E vung gc (hay trc giao ) vi U v vit U, nu u vi mi
u U.
(b) Ta ni U vung gc (hay trc giao ) vi V v vit U V, nu u v vi mi u
U, v V.
nh ngha 5.38. Gi s U l mt khng gian vect con ca khng gian Euclide E. Khi
= E[ U
c gi l phn b trc giao ca U trong E.
D thy rng U
cng l mt khng gian vect con ca E.

nh l 5.24. Gi s U l mt khng gian vect con ca khng gian Euclide E. Khi vi
mi vect x E u tha nhn s phn tch duy nht
x = u +u
trong u U v u
.
nh ngha 5.39. Vi cc gi thit nh trong nh l 5.24 trn, u c gi l hnh chiu
ca x ln khng gian vect U v u
c gi l thnh phn ca x trc giao vi U.

nh l 5.25. Gi s U l mt khng gian vect con ca khng gian Euclide E v U c
mt c s trc chun l S = v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
n
. Khi hnh chiu ca vect x E bt k c
xc nh theo cng thc
u =< x, v
1
> .v
1
+ < x, v
2
> .v
2
+ . . . < x, v
n
> .v
n
3.4 Bi tp
Bi tp 5.4. Cho V l khng gian Euclide. Chng minh:
a) |u +v|
2
+|u v|
2
= 2
_
|u|
2
+|v|
2
_
.
b) uv |u +v|
2
= |u|
2
+|v|
2
, u, v V.
80
Li gii. a) Ta c
_
_
_
|u +v|
2
== |u|
2
+ 2 < u, v > +|v|
2
|u v|
2
== |u|
2
2 < u, v > +|v|
2
nn
|u + v|
2
+|u v|
2
= 2
_
|u|
2
+|v|
2
_
ngha hnh hc: ng thc hnh bnh hnh
A
B
C
D
AC
2
+
DB
2
= 2
_
AB
2
+
AD
2
_
b)
|u + v|
2
= |u|
2
+|v|
2
|u|
2
+ 2 < u, v > +|v|
2
= |u|
2
+|v|
2
< u, v >= 0 uv
ngha hnh hc: nh l Pitago.
u
v
u + v
Bi tp 5.5. Gi s V l KGVT n chiu vi c s B = e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
. Vi u, v l cc vc
t ca V ta c u = a
1
e
1
+ a
2
e
2
+ + a
n
e
n
, v = b
1
e
1
+ b
2
e
2
+ + b
n
e
n
. t < u, v >=
a
1
b
1
+ a
2
b
2
+ + a
n
b
n
81
a) Chng minh < u, v > l mt tch v hng trn V.
b) p dng cho trng hp V = R
3
, vi e
1
= (1, 0, 1) , e
2
= (1, 1, 1) , e
3
= (0, 1, 1) , u =
(2, 1, 2) , v = (2, 0, 5). Tnh < u, v >.
c) p dng cho trng hp V = P
2
[x], vi B =
_
1, x, x
2
_
, u = 2 + 3x
2
, v = 6 3x 3x
2
.
Tnh < u, v >.
d) p dng cho trng hp V = P
2
[x], vi B =
_
1 + x, 2x, x x
2
_
, u = 2 + 3x
2
, v =
6 3x 3x
2
. Tnh < u, v >.
Bi tp 5.6. Xt khng gian P
3
[x]. Kim tra cc dng < p, q > sau c phi l tch v
hng hay khng?
a) < p, q >= p(0)q(0) + p(1)q(1) + p(2)q(2)
b) < p, q >= p(0)q(0) + p(1)q(1) + p(2)q(2) + p(3)q(3)
c) < p, q >=
1
_
1
p(x)q(x)dx Trong trng hp l tch v hng tnh < p, q > vi p =
2 3x + 5x
2
x
3
, q = 4 + x 3x
2
+ 2x
3
Li gii. a) D dng kim tra cc tin TVH 1,2,3,4. Ring i vi tin TVH 5, tn
ti vect p = x (x 1) (x 2) ,= 0 m:
< p, p >= p
2
(0) + p
2
(1) + p
2
(2) = 0
Do biu thc cho khng phi l mt tch v hng.
b) < p, q > cho l mt tch v hng, d dng kim tra cc tin TVH1,2,3,4. Ring
tin TVH5, ta c:
< p, p >= p
2
(0) + p
2
(1) + p
2
(2) + p
2
(3) 0
v
< p, p >= 0 p (0) = p (1) = p (2) = p (3) = 0.
Gi s p = a + bx + cx
2
+ dx
3
, gii h phng trnh t cc iu kin p (0) = p (1) =
p (2) = p (3) = 0 , ta c a = b = c = d = 0, ngha l p = 0.
c) Biu thc cho l mt TVH
Bi tp 5.7. Dng phng php trc chun ha Gram - Smidt xy dng h trc chun t
h vct u
1
, u
2
, u
3
, u
4
vi u
1
= (1, 1, 1, 1) , u
2
= (0, 1, 1, 1) , u
3
= (0, 0, 1, 1) , u
4
= (0, 0, 0, 1)
trong R
4
vi tch v hng chnh tc
82
Bi tp 5.8. Trong P
2
[x] nh ngha tch v hng < p, q >=
1
_
1
p(x)q(x)dx vi p, q
P
2
[x].
a) Trc chun ho Gram Smit c s B =
_
1, x, x
2
_
nhn c c s trc chun A.
b) Xc nh ma trn chuyn c s t B sang A
c) Tm [r]
A
bit r = 2 3x + 3x
2
Li gii. t u
1
= 1, u
2
= x, u
3
= x
2
Bc 1: t v
1
=
u
1
|u
1
|
, trong |u
1
|
2
=
1
_
1
1dx = 2 , nn v
1
=
1
2
.
Bc 2: t v
2
= u
2
+tv
1
, trong t = =
1
_
1
x.
1
2
dx = 0 , vy v
2
= u
2
= x.
Chn v
2
=
v
2
|v
2
|
, trong |v
2
|
2
=
1
_
1
x
2
dx =
2
3
, vy v
2
=
2
x.
Bc 3: t v
3
= u
3
+ t
1
v
1
+ t
2
v
2
, trong
_
_
t
1
= =
1
_
1
x
2
.
1
2
dx =
2
3
2
t
2
= =
1
_
1
x
2
.
2
xdx = 0
Vy v
3
= x
2
2
3
2
.
1
2
= x
2
1
3
. Chn v
3
=
v
3
|v
3
|
trong |v
3
|
2
=
1
_
1
_
x
2
1
3
_
2
dx =
8
45
, vy v
3
=
3
5
2
2
_
x
2
1
3
_
. Tm li ta nhn c c s trc chun
A =
_
1
2
,
2
x,
3
5
2
2
_
x
2
1
3
_
_
Bi tp 5.9. Cho khng gian Euclide V hu hn chiu, W l khng gian con ca V v u
l mt vct ca V. Chng minh:
a) Tn ti vc t u
/
ca W sao cho (u u
/
) W
b) Khi |u u
/
| |u w| , w W
83
Li gii. a) Cch 1: Do W l khng gian con ca V hu hn chiu nn W c mt c s
trc chun l S = v
1
, v
2
, ..., v
m
. Khi vi mi u V, ta t u
/
=< u, v
1
>
v
1
+ < u, v
2
> v
2
+ ...+ < u, v
m
> v
m
. Ta s chng minh (u u
/
) W. Tht vy,
v h S = v
1
, v
2
, ..., v
m
trc chun nn:
 =< u, v
i
> 
=< u, v
i
> < u, v
1
> v
1
+ < u, v
2
> v
2
+ ...+ < u, v
m
> v
m
, v
i
=< u, v
i
> < u, v
i
>
= 0
Suy ra (u u
/
) v
i
vi mi i = 1, 2, . . . , m nn (u u
/
) W
Cch 2: Do W l khng gian con ca V hu hn chiu nn W c mt c s l S
/
=
v
/
1
, v
/
2
, ..., v
/
m
, v chng ta c th b sung thm cc vct c c s ca
khng gian V l S
//
=
_
v
/
1
, v
/
2
, ..., v
/
m
, v
/
m+1
, ..., v
/
n
_
. Thc hin qu trnh trc giao
ho Gram-Smidt vo h S ta thu c c s trc chun S = v
1
, v
2
, ..., v
m
ca
W v v
1
, v
2
, ..., v
m
, v
m+1
, ..., v
n
ca V. Khi :
u V, u = a
1
v
1
+ a
2
v
2
+ ... + a
m
v
m
. .
u
/
+a
m+1
v
m+1
+ ...a
n
v
n
. .
uu
/
R rng u
/
W v (u u
/
) W.
b) Ta c
|u w|
2
=
_
_
_
u u
/
_
+
_
u
/
w
__
_
2
=
_
_
u u
/
_
_
2
+
_
_
u
/
w
_
_
2
_
_
u u
/
_
_
2
do (u u
/
) W nn (u u
/
) (u
/
w) W
ngha hnh hc: Nu gi u l mt vct trong khng gian R
3
v W l mt phng
bt k th u
/
chnh l hnh chiu ca vct u ln mt phng W, cn khng nh ca
cu b) ca bi ton ni ln rng di ca ng vung gc bao gi cng ngn hn
di ca ng xin bt k (xem hnh v).
84
W
u w
w
u
/
u u
/
u
|u u
/
| |u w|
Bi tp 5.10. Tm hnh chiu ca vc t ny ln vc t kia
a) u = (1, 3, 2, 4) , v = (2, 2, 4, 5)
b) u = (4, 1, 2, 3, 3) , v = (1, 2, 5, 1, 4)
Li gii. Yu cu bi ton tng ng vi tm hnh chiu ca u ln W = span (v).
a) Cch 1: W c mt c s trc chun l S =
_
v
1
=
v
|v|
=
1
7
(2, 2, 4, 5)
_
. Do :
w
1
=< u, v
1
> v
1
=
_
(1, 3, 2, 4) ,
1
7
(2, 2, 4, 5)
_
.
1
7
(2, 2, 4, 5) =
8
49
(2, 2, 4, 5)
l hnh chiu ca u ln v.
Cch 2: Phn tch u = w
1
+w
2
, trong w
1
W, w
2
W . V w
1
W nn w
1
= x.v =
(2x, 2x, 4x, 5x) , khi w
2
= u w
1
= (1 2x, 3 + 2x, 2 4x, 4 5x) . Do w
2
W
nn w
2
v , ta c phng trnh 2 (1 2x) 2 (3 + 2x) + 4 (2 4x) + 5 (4 5x) = 0.
Suy ra x =
8
49
v w
1
=
8
49
(2, 2, 4, 5) .
Nhn xt: Hnh chiu ca vct u ln vct v c xc nh theo cng thc:
w
1
=
1
|v|
2
< u, v >
Bi tp 5.11. Cho R
4
vi tch v hng chnh tc. Cho u
1
= (6, 3, 3, 6) , u
2
= (5, 1, 3, 1).
Tm c s trc chun ca khng gian W sinh bi u
1
, u
2
. Tm hnh chiu ca v = (1, 2, 3, 4)
ln W.
85
Li gii. Cch 1: Trc ht ta i trc giao ho Gram-Smidt h u
1
, u
2
thu c c s
trc chun ca W. v
1
=
u
1
|u
1
|
=
1
3
10
u
1
t v
2
= u
2
+ tv
1
trong ,
t = =
_
u
2
,
1
3
10
u
1
_
=
1
3
10
=
16
10
Suy ra
v
2
= u
2
16
10
.
1
3
10
u
1
= (5, 1, 3, 1)
8
15
(6, 3, 3, 6) =
_
9
5
,
3
5
,
7
5
,
11
5
_
v
2
=
v
2
|v
2
|
=
1
260
(9, 3, 7, 11) =
1
260
v
/
Cui cng ta c
w
1
= < v, v
1
> v
1
+ < v, v
2
> v
2
=
_
v,
1
3
10
u
1
_
1
3
10
u
1
+
_
v,
1
260
v
/
_
1
260
v
/
=
1
90
(1, 2, 3, 4) , (6, 3, 3, 6) (6, 3, 3, 6)
+
1
260
(1, 2, 3, 4) , (9, 3, 7, 11) (9, 3, 7, 11)
=
3
10
(6, 3, 3, 6)
31
130
(9, 3, 7, 11)
=
_
9
26
,
21
13
,
10
13
,
115
26
_
Cch 2: Phn tch v = w
1
+ w
2
trong w
1
W, w
2
W.
V w
1
W nn w
1
= x.u
1
+ y.u
2
= (6x + 5y, 3x + y, 3x 3y, 6x + y) ,
khi w
2
= v w
1
= (1 6x 5y, 2 3x y, 3 + 3x + 3y, 4 6x y) . Do w
2
W nn
w
2
u
1
, w
2
u
2
, ta c h phng trnh
_
6 (1 6x 5y) + 3 (2 3x y) 3 (3 + 3x + 3y) + 6 (4 6x y) = 0
5 (1 6x 5y) + (2 3x y) 3 (3 + 3x + 3y) + (4 6x y) = 0
Suy ra x =
73
78
, y =
31
26
v w
1
=
_
9
26
,
21
13
,
10
13
,
115
26
_
.
86
4. Cho ho trc giao ma trn - Phng php cho ho trc giao 87
4. CHO HO TRC GIAO MA TRN - PHNG PHP
CHO HO TRC GIAO
4.1 Cho ho trc giao ma trn
nh ngha 5.40. Ma trn vung P c gi l ma trn trc giao nu PP
t
= I.
nh ngha 5.41. Cho ma trn vung A, nu tn ti ma trn trc giao P sao cho P
1
AP
l ma trn cho th ta ni ma trn A cho ho trc giao c v P l ma trn lm cho
ho ma trn trc giao A.
nh l 5.26 (iu kin cn v mt ma trn cho ho trc giao c). iu
kin cn v ma trn vung A cho ho trc giao c l A i xng.
Quy trnh cho ho trc giao cc ma trn i xng:
Bc 1: Tm mt c s cho mi khng gian ring ca ma trn i xng A
Bc 2: p dng qu trnh trc giao ho Gram-Smidt vo mi c s c c s trc
chun cho mi khng gian ring, ta thu c n vect ring trc chun f
1
, f
2
, ..., f
n
ng vi cc gi tr ring
1
,
2
, ...,
n
Bc 3: Lp ma trn P m cc ct l cc vect xy dng bc 2, ma trn P ny s lm
cho ho ma trn A, tc
A
/
= P
1
AP = P
t
AP =
_
1
...
n
_
_
4.2 Phng php cho ho trc giao rt gn mt
dng ton phng
Gi s dng ton phng Q c ma trn l ma trn i xng A trong mt c s trc
chun S ca n.
Bc 1: Cho ho trc giao ma trn A bi ma trn trc giao P, trong P l ma trn
chuyn c s t c s trc chun S sang c s trc chun S
/
mi.
Bc 2: Thc hin php i bin
_
_
x
1
x
2
...
x
n
_
_
= P
_
2
...
n
_
_
87
khi Q c dng chnh tc
Q =
1
2
1
+
2
2
2
+ ... +
n
2
n
trong c s S
/
mi.
4.3 Nhn dng ng cong phng
Xt phng trnh mt ng cong bc 2 tng qut sau:
ax
2
1
+ 2bx
1
+cx
2
2
+ 2gx
1
+ 2hx
2
+ d = 0
V tri ca phng trnh l tng ca hai hm, mt hm bc nht p v mt dng ton
phng q vi q = ax
2
1
+ 2bx
1
+cx
2
2
, p = 2gx
1
+ 2hx
2
+d . Mun nhn dng c ng cong
trn thuc dng ng cong no chng ta thc hin php i bin trc giao a dng
ton phng q v dng chnh tc ri bin lun theo kt qu thu c. Ch rng bt buc
phi dng phng php trc giao nhn dng mt ng cong bc hai, v ch c php
bin i trc giao mi l php bin i bo ton khong cch. Php bin i Lagrange v
Jacobi khng c tnh cht ny, v vy nu s dng cc php bin i Lagrange v Jacobi
th c th dn n vic nhn nhm mt ng trn vi mt ellipse chng hn.
4.4 Nhn dng mt bc hai
Xt phng trnh mt mt bc hai tng qut:
ax
2
1
+bx
2
2
+cx
2
3
+ 2rx
1
x
2
+ 2sx
1
x
3
+ 2tx
2
x
3
+ 2ex
1
+ 2gx
2
+ 2hx
3
+ d = 0
V tri l tng ca hai hm, mt dng ton phng q v mt hm bc nht p vi:
_
q = ax
2
1
+ bx
2
2
+ cx
2
3
+ 2rx
1
x
2
+ 2sx
1
x
3
+ 2tx
2
x
3
p = 2ex
1
+ 2gx
2
+ 2hx
3
+ d
Mun nhn dng c mt cong trn thuc dng mt bc hai no chng ta thc hin php
i bin trc giao a dng ton phng q v dng chnh tc ri bin lun theo kt qu
thu c. Cng tng t nh nhn dng ng cong, bt buc phi s dng php bin i
trc giao khi nhn dng mt bc hai. Nu s dng php bin i Lagrange hoc Jacobi
th c th dn n vic nhn nhm mt hnh cu v ellipsoid chng hn.
88
4.5 ng dng ca php bin i trc giao vo bi ton
tm cc tr c iu kin
Cho dng ton phng Q =
n
i,j=1
a
ij
x
i
x
j
c ma trn l A =
_
a
ij
nn
i xng trong mt
c s trc chun ca V. Hy tm cc tr ca Q vi iu kin x
t
x = x
2
1
+ x
2
2
+ ... + x
2
n
= 1.
Bng php bin i trc giao x = P ta a Q v dng chnh tc:
Q =
1
2
1
+
2
2
2
+ ... +
n
2
n
Gi s
1

2
...
n
, khi
t
=
1
n
i=1
2
i
Q
n
n
i=1
2
i
=
n
V x = P nn x
t
x = (P)
t
(P) =
t
P
t
P =
t
= 1 nn ta c
1
Q
n
Vy Q t gi tr ln nht l
n
ti
M
= (0, 0, ..., 1) tc l ti x = P
M
. Q t gi tr nh
nht l
1
ti
m
= (1, 0, ..., 0) tc l ti x = P
m
4.6 Bi tp
Bi tp 5.12. Cho ho trc giao cc ma trn sau
a) A =
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 1
0 1 1
_
_
b) B =
_
7 24
24 7
_
c) C =
_
_
1 1 0
1 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
d) D =
_
_
7 2 0
2 6 2
0 2 5
_
_
Bi tp 5.13. a dng ton phng v dng chnh tc bng phng php trc giao
a) x
2
1
+ x
2
2
+ x
2
3
+ 2x
1
x
2
b) 7x
2
1
7x
2
2
+ 48x
1
x
2
c) 2x
2
1
+ 2x
2
2
+ 3x
2
3
2x
1
x
2
+ 2x
2
x
3
d) 5x
2
1
+ x
2
2
+ x
2
3
6x
1
x
2
+ 2x
1
x
3
2x
2
x
3
89
Li gii. Ta c A =
_
_
1 1 0
1 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
, ma trn A c 3 tr ring l
1
= 0,
2
= 1,
3
= 2, ng vi
n ta tm c 3 vect trc chun l
v
1
=
1
2
_
_
1
1
0
_
_
, v
2
=
_
_
0
0
1
_
_
, v
3
=
1
2
_
_
1
1
0
_
_
Vy thc hin php i bin
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
=
1
2
_
_
1 0 1
1 0 1
0
2 0
_
_
_
3
_
_
ta c
q =
2
2
+ 2
2
3
Bi tp 5.14. Nhn dng ng cong phng sau:
a) 2x
2
4xy y
2
+ 8 = 0 b) x
2
+ 2xy + y
2
+ 8x +y = 0
c) 11x
2
+ 24xy + 4y
2
15 = 0 d) 2x
2
+ 4xy + 5y
2
= 24
e) x
2
+ xy y
2
= 18 f) x
2
8xy + 10y
2
= 10
Li gii. b) Dng phng php trc giao rt gn dng ton phng. Vi ma trn A =
_
1 1
1 1
_
ta c phng trnh c trng l
1 1
1 1
= 0 = 0, = 2
ng vi 2 tr ring va tm c ta tm c 2 vect ring trc chun tng ng l f
1
=
1
2
_
1
1
_
, f
2
=
1
2
_
1
1
_
.
Thc hin php i bin
_
x
y
_
=
1
2
_
1 1
1 1
_ _

1
2
_
ta thu c
Q = 0
2
1
+ 2
2
2
+
1
2
[8 (
1
+
2
) + (
1
+
2
)]
ng cong cho l mt parabol.
Bi tp 5.15. Nhn dng cc mt bc 2 sau:
90
a) x
2
1
+ x
2
2
+ x
2
3
+ 2x
1
x
2
= 4
b) 5x
2
+ 2y
2
+ z
2
6xy + 2xz 2yz = 1
c) 2x
2
1
+ 2x
2
2
+ 3x
2
3
2x
1
x
2
2x
2
x
3
= 16
d) 7x
2
7y
2
+ 24xy + 50x 100y 175 = 0
e) 7x
2
+ 7y
2
+ 10z
2
2xy 4xz + 4yz 12x + 12y + 60z = 24
f) 2xy + 2yz + 2xz 6x 6y 4z = 0
Li gii. a) Dng phng php trc giao rt gn dng ton phng q = x
2
1
+x
2
2
+x
2
3
.
A =
_
_
1 1 0
1 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
1
= 0,
2
= 1,
3
= 2 , ng vi n ta
tm c 3 vect trc chun l
v
1
=
1
2
_
_
1
1
0
_
_
, v
2
=
_
_
0
0
1
_
_
, v
3
=
1
2
_
_
1
1
0
_
_
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_ =
1
2
_
_
1 0 1
1 0 1
0
2 0
_
_
_
3
_
_ , ta c q =
2
2
+
2
2
3
. Ta c x
2
1
+ x
2
2
+ x
2
3
+ 2x
1
x
2
= 4
2
2
+ 2
2
3
= 4 , vy mt cong cho l mt mt
tr.
b) Dng phng php trc giao rt gn dng ton phng q = 5x
2
+ 2y
2
+ z
2
6xy + 2xz 2yz. A =

_
_
5 3 1
3 2 1
1 1 1
_
_
1
= 0,
2
=
4 +
10,
3
= 4
10, gi s ng vi n ta tm c 3 vect trc chun l

v
1
=
_
_
f
11
f
12
f
13
_
_
, v
2
=
_
_
f
21
f
22
f
23
_
_
, v
3
=
_
_
f
31
f
32
f
33
_
_
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
=
_
_
f
11
f
21
f
31
f
12
f
22
f
32
f
13
f
23
f
33
_
_
_
3
_
_
91
ta c q =
_
4 +
10
_
2
2
+
_
4
10
_
2
3
. Ta c
x
2
1
+ x
2
2
+ x
2
3
+ 2x
1
x
2
= 4
_
4 +
10
_
2
2
+
_
4
10
_
2
3
Vy mt cong cho l mt mt tr.
Bi tp 5.16. Cho Q(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = 9x
2
1
+ 7x
2
2
+ 11x
2
3
8x
1
x
2
+ 8x
1
x
3
.
a) Tm Max
x
2
1
+x
2
2
+x
2
3
=1
Q(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) , Min
x
2
1
+x
2
2
+x
2
3
=1
Q(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
). Vi gi tr no th Q(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
)
t max, min.
b) Tm Max
x
2
1
+x
2
2
+x
2
3
=16
Q(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) , Min
x
2
1
+x
2
2
+x
2
3
=16
Q(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
)
Li gii. a) A =
_
_
9 4 4
4 7 0
4 0 11
_
_
, PTT
3
+ 27
2
207 + 405 = 0, A c 3 tr ring
l
1
= 3,
2
= 9,
3
= 15 , v 3 vect ring trc chun tng ng l:
v
1
=
1
3
_
_
2
2
1
_
_
, v
2
=
1
3
_
_
1
2
2
_
_
, v
3
=
1
3
_
_
2
1
2
_
_
Thc hin php i bin
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
=
1
3
_
_
2 1 2
2 2 1
1 2 2
_
_
_
3
_
_
ta c
Q = 3
2
1
+ 9
2
2
+ 15
2
3
vi iu kin x
t
x = (P)
t
(P) =
t
P
t
P =
t
= 1 , nn ta c 3 Q 15 Vy Q t
gi tr ln nht l 15 ti
M
=
_
_
0
0
1
_
_
tc l ti x = P
M
=
1
3
_
_
2
1
2
_
_
Q t gi tr nh nht l 3 ti
m
=
_
_
1
0
0
_
_
tc l ti x = P
m
=
1
3
_
_
2
2
1
_
_
92
b) Theo cu a) ta c Q = 3
2
1
+ 9
2
2
+ 15
2
3
, vi iu kin x
t
x = (P)
t
(P) =
t
P
t
P =
t
= 16, nn ta c 48 Q 240. Vy Q t gi tr ln nht l 240 ti
M
=
_
_
0
0
4
_
_
tc l ti x = P
M
=
4
3
_
_
2
1
2
_
_
. Q t gi tr nh nht l 48 ti
m
=
_
_
4
0
0
_
_
tc l ti
x = P
m
=
4
3
_
_
2
2
1
_
_
Ch : Xt bi ton: cho dng ton phng Q =
n
i,j=1
a
ij
x
i
x
j
c ma trn l A =
_
a
ij
nn
i
xng trong mt c s trc chun ca V. Hy tm cc tr ca Q vi iu kin
x
2
1
a
2
1
+
x
2
2
a
2
2
+ ... +
x
2
n
a
2
n
= 1. Khi t y
i
=
x
i
a
i
th Q =
n
i,j=1
b
ij
y
i
y
j
, v iu kin tr thnh xy
2
1
+y
2
2
+... +y
2
n
= 1,
chng ta quy v bi ton tm cc tr xt trn.
Bi tp 5.17. Cho A, B l cc ma trn vung i xng cp n c cc tr ring u dng.
Chng minh A + B cng c cc tr ring dng
Li gii. Gi s A, B l ma trn ca cc dng ton phng , trong mt c s trc chun
no ca R
n
, tc l
_
(x, x) = x
t
Ax
(x, x) = x
t
Bx
Khi ( + ) (x, x) = x
t
(A + B) x vi mi x R
n
, tc l A+ B l ma trn ca dng ton
phng + trong c s trc chun . Do cc tr ring ca A, B u dng nn , l
cc dng ton phng xc nh dng. Tng ca hai dng ton phng xc nh dng l
mt dng ton phng xc nh dng nn + xc nh dng, v do A + B cng c
cc tr ring dng.
Bi tp 5.18. Trong khng gian clit n chiu V , vi c s trc chun B = e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
,
cho f l bin i tuyn tnh c ma trn A trc giao. Chng minh < f (x), f (y) >=< x, y >
vi mi x, y ca V.
Li gii. Li gii: Gi s x = x
1
e
1
+ x
2
e
2
+ ... + x
n
e
n
, y = y
1
e
1
+ y
2
e
2
+ ... + y
n
e
n
. Khi ta
c biu thc to ca tch v hng trong c s trc chun B ca khng gian Euclide V
nh sau:
< x, y >=
n
i=1
x
i
y
i
= [x]
t
B
[y]
B
93
Vy
< f (x), f (y) > = [ f (x)]
t
B
[ f (y)]
B
= (A[x]
B
)
t
(A[y]
B
)
= [x]
t
B
A
t
A[y]
B
= [x]
t
B
[y]
B
=< x, y >
Bi tp 5.19. Trong khng gian clit n chiu V , vi c s trc chun B = e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
,
cho f l bin i tuyn tnh trn V c tnh cht |f (x)| = |x| vi mi vc t x ca V. Chng
minh < f (x), f (y) >=< x, y >.
Li gii. Trc ht ta chng minh:
< f (e
i
) , f
_
e
j
_
>=< e
i
, e
j
>=
_
1 nu i = j
0 nu i ,= j
Tht vy. Nu i = j th < f (e
i
) , f (e
i
) >= |f (e
i
)|
2
= |e
i
|
2
= 1.
Nu i ,= j th
_
_
f (e
i
) + f
_
e
j
__
_
2
=
_
_
f
_
e
i
+ e
j
__
_
2
=
_
_
e
i
+e
j
_
_
2
= |e
i
|
2
+
_
_
e
j
_
_
2
= |f (e
i
)|
2
+
_
_
f
_
e
j
__
_
2
nn < f (e
i
) , f
_
e
j
_
>= 0.
n y chng ta c 2 cch lp lun:
Cch 1: Gi A = [[ f (e
1
)]
B
, [ f (e
2
)]
B
, ..., [ f (e
n
)]
B
] l ma trn ca nh x f trong c s B. V
< f (e
i
) , f
_
e
j
_
>=< e
i
, e
j
>=
_
1 nu i = j
0 nu i ,= j
nn A
1
= A
t
. Theo bi 18 ta c iu
phi chng minh.
Cch 2: Gi s x = x
1
e
1
+ x
2
e
2
+ ... + x
n
e
n
, y = y
1
e
1
+y
2
e
2
+ ... + y
n
e
n
th
< x, y >= x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
+ ... + x
n
y
n
< f (x), f (y) >
=< x
1
f (e
1
) + x
2
f (e
2
) + ... + x
n
f (e
n
) , y
1
f (e
1
) + y
2
f (e
1
) + ... + y
n
f (e
n
) >
= x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
+ ... + x
n
y
n
=< x, y >
Bi tp 5.20. Cho V l khng gian clit n chiu, V
1
l khng gian con m chiu ca V. Gi
V
2
= x V[ xv, v V
1
.
a) Chng minh V
2
l khng gian vct con ca V.
94
b) Chng minh V
1
v V
2
b nhau.
c) Tm dimV
2
Li gii. a) Ta cn chng minh:
_
_
_
x, y V
2
th x + y V
2
k R, x V th kx V
2
D kim tra.
b) Ta cn chng minh:
_
V
1
+V
2
= V
V
1
V
2
= 0
. Tht vy: Vi mi u V, gi u
1
l hnh chiu
trc giao ca u ln V
1
, u
2
l thnh phn ca u trc giao vi V
1
. Khi ta c u =
u
1
+u
2
, v do V V
1
+V
2
. Mt khc V
1
, V
2
l cc khng gian vect con ca V nn
V
1
+V
2
V. Suy ra V
1
+V
2
= V.
Hn na nu u V
1
V
2
th < u, u >= 0, do u = 0. Vy V
1
V
2
= 0.
c) Ta gi f : V V
1
, f (u) = u
1
, trong u
1
l hnh chiu trc giao ca u ln V
1
, l nh
x chiu trc giao. D dng chng minh f l nh x tuyn tnh. Do f l ton nh
nn Im f = V
1
, hn na u Ker f f (u) = 0 u V
2
nn Ker f = V
2
. Khi
n = dimV = dimIm f + dimKer f = dimV
1
+ dimV
2
Suy ra dimV
2
= n m.
Bi tp 5.21. Cho V l khng gian clit n chiu, chng minh iu kin cn v nh
x f : V R tuyn tnh l tn ti vct a c nh ca V f (x) =< a, x >, x V
Li gii. iu kin : D dng chng minh nh x f (x) =< a, x >, x V l nh
x tuyn tnh vi mi vect a c nh c chn trc.
iu kin cn: Gi s f : V V l mt nh x tuyn tnh bt k.
(a) Nu f 0 th ta chn vect a = 0 tho mn yu cu bi ton.
(b) Nu f , 0. Ta s chng minh dimKer f = n 1. Tht vy, v f , 0 nn tn
ti t nht mt vect y V, y , Ker f . C nh mt vect y nh vy, khi vi
mi x V, t =
f (x)
f (y)
, z = x y = x
f (x)
f (y)
y th f (z) = 0 z Ker f .
Ta c x = z + y , tc l mi vect x V tha nhn phn tch thnh tng ca
2 vect, mt vect thuc Ker f v mt vect thuc spany. iu c ngha l
V = Ker f + spany v suy ra dimKer f = n 1.
By gi gi s V c phn tch thnh tng trc giao V = Ker f + (Ker f )
th
95
dim(Ker f )
= 1 , tc (Ker f )
= span(y
0
) , trong |y
0
| = 1 . t a =
f (y
0
) y
0
(Ker f )
, ta s chng minh vect a tho mn yu cu bi ra, tc

l f (x) =< a, x >, x V. Tht vy: Vi mi x V, do V = Ker f + (Ker f )
=
Ker f + span (y
0
) nn x = y
0
+y, y Ker f . Khi :
f (x) = f (y
0
) + f (y)
= f (y
0
)
= < f (y
0
) y
0
, y
0
>
= < a, y
0
>
=< a, y
0
>
=< a, y
0
+y >
_
< a, y >= 0 do a (Ker f )
, y (Ker f )
_
=< a, x >
Bi tp 5.22. Trong R
5
vi tch v hng chnh tc cho cc vc t v
1
= (1, 1, 0, 0, 0) , v
2
=
(0, 1, 1, 2, 1) , v
3
= (2, 3, 1, 2, 1) .Gi V =
_
x R
5
xv
i
, i = 1, 2, 3
_
a) Chng minh V l khng gian vct con ca R
5
.
b) Tm dimV.
Li gii. Cch 1. t W = span v
1
, v
2
, v
3
, theo bi tp 5.20 ta chng minh V = W
l mt khng gian vect con ca R

5
, v
dimV = 5 dimW = 5 rank v
1
, v
2
, v
3
= 5 2 = 3
Cch 2. Nhn xt rng v V =
_
x R
5
xv
i
, i = 1, 2, 3
_
nn V chnh l khng gian
nghim ca h phng trnh:
_
_
x
1
+ x
2
= 0
x
2
x
3
+ 2x
4
+ x
5
= 0
2x
1
+ 3x
2
x
3
+ 2x
4
+ x
5
= 0
Gii h phng trnh trn bng phng php Gauss ta c dimV = 3 v mt c s
ca V l (1, 1, 1, 0, 0) , (2, 2, 0, 1, 0) , (1, 1, 0, 0, 1).
96

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TRNG I HC BCH KHOA H NI

VIN TON NG DNG & TIN HC

= acb +bac +bac c

Bi tp 2.7. Tnh cc nh thc sau:

=(a + b +c +d)(a +d b c)(a + b d c)(a + c b d)

Khi W = span(S) l mt khng gian vct con c s chiu bng hng r ca S v mi h

nh l 3.13. Nu P l ma trn chuyn c s t c s B sang c s B

= Hom(V, R) = f : V R, f l nh x tuyn tnh.

Hy tm mi lin h gia [T(x)]

Tnh gin tip (2)

_ l ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh f : P

6xy + 2xz 2yz

sao cho spanu

cng l mt khng gian vect con ca E.

c gi l thnh phn ca x trc giao vi U.

6xy + 2xz 2yz. A =

10, gi s ng vi n ta tm c 3 vect trc chun l

, ta s chng minh vect a tho mn yu cu bi ra, tc

l mt khng gian vect con ca R

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