Learning

AP Psych
Learning
Behaviorists define learning as a relatively
permanent change in behavior that arises
from experience
Cognitive psychologists view learning as a
mental change that we may or may not be
displayed in terms of behavior
Learning
In most lower organisms, behavior is
instinctual or unlearned.
For the most part, behavior patterns in
humans are learned through experience
We are going to focus on three types of
learning:
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Observational Learning

Classical Conditioning
Involves some of the ways we learn to
associate events with other events
It is a simple form of associative learning
The Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov,
discovered during his research with dogs that
they came to salivate at undesired times
Such as when a lab assistant accidently clanged a food
tray
So he investigates
Classical Conditioning
Vocabulary
Neutral Stimulus: is a stimulus which initially produces no specific response
other than focusing attention
In our example, it would be the Tone
Unconditioned Stimulus: One that naturally, unlearned and automatically
triggers a response.
For example, Food automatically triggers the response of salivation
Unconditioned Response: The unlearned response that occurs naturally in
response to the unconditioned stimulus
If food is the UCS, then salivation is the UCR
Conditioned Stimulus: Previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming
associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a
conditioned response.
The tone is the Conditioned Stimulus
Conditioned Response: The learned response to the previously neutral
stimulus
The salivation at the sound of the tone
Classical Conditioning
Acquisition:
The initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase
associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned
stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a
conditioned response.
Initial learning
Example:
UCS (Food) UCR (Salivation); then if you pair
NS (Tone) + UCS (Food) CR (Salivation), eventually
CS (Tone) CR (Salivation)
The neutral stimulus (NS) always becomes the
conditioned stimulus (CS) when learning occurs
Classical Conditioning
Acquisition continued
Rarely does conditioning occur when the CS
follows the US
Conditioning serves a function: it helps an animal
find food, avoid dangers, defeat rivals, locate
mates, and produce offspring.

Classical Conditioning
Extinction
The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs
in classical conditioning when an unconditioned
stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned
stimulus (CS)
Example: CS (Tone) CR (Salivation) initially, but
eventually the dogs would salivate less and less
This is called extinction
The association can never be fully
extinguished


Classical Conditioning
Spontaneous Recovery: the reappearance,
after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned
response
All of a sudden, CS (Tone) CR (Salivation) again
Extinction suppresses the CR, rather than
eliminating it

Classical Conditioning
Generalization:
The tendency, once a response has been conditioned for a
stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar
responses
Tones of different pitches, bells, chimes, etc would elicit a similar response
Examples
Pavlovs Experiment
Conditioned salivation to the stimulation of the thigh on his dogs
Stimulated other areas of the body; the closer to the thigh, the
stronger the conditioned response
Stimuli that are similar to naturally disgusting or appealing
objects will, by association, evoke some disgust or liking

Classical Conditioning
Discrimination:
Learned ability to distinguish between a
conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not
signal an unconditioned stimulus
Has survival value
Slightly different stimuli are at times followed by
vastly different consequences
Pit bull v Golden Retriever

Everyday Classical Conditioning
Go to K-Mart and watch what happens when the blue
light turns on.
Cost conscious shoppers will make a beeline to that table
because they associate a good sale with the blue light.
Classical conditioning works with advertising.
For example, many beer ads prominently feature attractive
young women wearing bikinis.
The young women (Unconditioned Stimulus) naturally elicit a
favorable, mildly aroused feeling (Unconditioned Response) in
most men.
The beer is simply associated with this effect.
The same thing applies with the jingles and music that
accompany many advertisements.

Everyday Classical Conditioning
The strongest application of classical
conditioning involves emotion.
Common experience and careful research
both confirm that human emotion conditions
very rapidly and easily.
Particularly when the emotion is intensely felt or
negative in direction, it will condition quickly.
Fears, phobias, etc.
Operant Conditioning
A type of learning in which behavior is
strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or
diminished if followed by a punisher.
Organisms associate their own actions with
consequences.
Behaviors followed by reinforcers increase; those
followed by punishers decrease.

Operant Conditioning
Operant Behavior
Behavior that operates on the environment,
producing consequences (rewarding or punishing)
How to distinguish between the two:
Is the organism learning associations between events
that it doesnt control (Classical)
Is it learning associations between its behavior and
resulting events (operant conditioning)
Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner is considered to be the founding
father of operant conditioning
He argued that in order to understand behavior
we need to examine the external causes of an
action and its consequences
Thorndikes Law of Effect:
Rewarded behavior is likely to recur.
Converse is also true.
Operant Conditioning
Shaping
Operant conditioning procedure in which
reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and
closer approximations of the desired behavior
Successive approximations
Reward behaviors that are ever-closer to the final desired
behavior

Operant Conditioning
Reinforcers
Reinforcer
Any event that strengthens/increases the behavior it
follows
Positive Reinforcement:
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive
stimuli. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that,
when presented after a response, strengthens the
response.
Receiving attention, gaining approval, receiving money

Operant Conditioning
Negative Reinforcement:
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing
negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus
that, when removed after a response, strengthens the
response.
Reducing/Removing something aversive (BAD/NEGATIVE)
Negative Reinforcement is NOT punishment.
Ex: Taking aspirin removes a headache; pushing the snooze
button silences an annoying alarm; putting on a jacket
when cold; wearing a condom to avoid STDs; dragging a
cigarette to relieve anxiety
Performing an act to stop nagging/whining
Operant Conditioning
Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcing
stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological
need.
Ex. Food when hungry; Water when thirsty; Being relieved of
a shock
Innate; unlearned
Conditioned Reinforcer (Secondary): A stimulus
that gains its reinforcing power through its
association with a primary reinforcer
Learned
Money, approval, attention, etc

Operant Conditioning
Immediate and Delayed Reinforcers
Immediate reinforcement (within 30 seconds) of a
behavior is necessary for a rat to learn
If delayed, other incidental behaviors will be reinforced
Delayed reinforcement: Humans respond to
reinforcers that are greatly delayed
Paycheck at end of pay period, good grades at the end of
marking periods, gold medal at the end of athletic season,
etc.
A big step towards maturity
Delay impulses in order to achieve more valued rewards

Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing the desired
response every time it occurs
Unfortunately, real life does not provide continuous
reinforcement
But, we persist because our efforts are occasionally rewarded
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: Reinforcing a
response only part of the time
Results in slower acquisition of a response
BUT, a much greater resistance to extinction than does
continuous reinforcement.
Hope springs eternal

Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed-Ratio Schedule:
A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a
response only after a specified number of
responses
Example:
People paid by piecework every 30 pieces one reinforcer
for every 30 responses
Getting paid at the end of a set period of time


Schedules of Reinforcement
Variable Ratio Schedules:
A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a
response after an unpredictable number of
responses
Example:
This is what slot-machine players and fishermen experience
Gambling and fishing are very hard to extinguish
Provides high rates of responding because reinforcers
increase as the number of responses increase

Operant Conditioning
Fixed Interval Schedules:
A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a
response only after a specified time has elapsed.
Example:
Checking more frequently for the mail as delivery time
approaches
Checking to see if the cake is done as the maximum bake time
draws near
Provides a choppy start/stop pattern, instead of a
steady rate of response.

Schedules of Reinforcement
Variable Interval Schedules:
A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a
response at unpredictable time intervals
Example:
Checking your email; pop quizzes; waiting for the perfect wave
to surf
Rewards persistence
Slow-steadying responses
No knowing when the waiting will be over

Operant Conditioning
Punishment:
An event that decreases the behavior that it follows
Swift and sure punishers are most powerful
Positive Punishment:
Administering an aversive stimulus
Example:
Spanking
Parking Ticket
Pain
Negative Punishment:
Withdrawal of a desirable stimulus
Example:
Revoking a drivers license
Removal of privileges
The Wall during recess

Operant Conditioning
Punishment usually works in the short run,
however it often fails to achieve the goals of
the parents, teacher, etc
One reason is the punishment itself does not
present an acceptable alternative for the
undesired behavior
Another reason is punishment suppresses the
undesired behavior only when punishment is
guaranteed
When the cat is away, the mice will play
Observational Learning
Humans learn about 70% of our behaviors by
observing and modeling the behaviors of others
Albert Bandura is one of the most prominent
psychologists on this topic
Ex. Bobo doll study (children who viewed aggression,
acted aggressively; those who viewed passive
behavior, acted passively)
Two common types of behaviors that children
model by observational learning are prosocial
behaviors and aggression
Observational Learning
We tend to model the behaviors of people we
find:
To be similar to us (Parents, siblings, relatives,
peers)
To be respected by peers/community
To be desirable (popular, well-liked, famous)
To have an expertise in something


Observational Learning
Prosocial behaviors are actions that benefit
others
Has been shown that by 18 months, children can
recognize distress in others and show concern and
attempt to offer comfort; show Empathy
Adults can increase the likelihood of prosocial
behaviors by:
Explaining the rights and needs of others to children
By modeling prosocial behaviors
By praising children for prosocial behaviors
Observational Learning
Aggression is a behavior that is meant to harm
others
Hostile Aggression is a harmful behavior done to
establish dominance; such as bullying
This type of aggression is typically unprovoked and its
goal is to intimidate, harass, or humiliate
Instrumental Aggression is a hurtful behavior that
is done to achieve a goal; such as hitting another
to get a desired toy
Observational Learning
Relational Aggression is a behavior that hurts
others by undermining social relationships; such
as insults, rumors, or gossip
Children who use physical aggression often come
from environments that use physical punishment
or threat of physical punishment to reduce
aggressive behaviors
Children who are physically punished for their
aggression learn to internalize that aggression and
learn to view physical force as a way to control
others
Parenting Styles
Authoritarian
Demanding, but unresponsive to childrens needs
and wishes; harsh, firm; controlling
Expect children to obey the rules, no questions
asked
Little real communication, as parents do not
respect childs point of view
Punishment tends to be physical
Do it because I said so, If you are under my
roof, you go by my rules! attitudes
Parenting Styles
Permissive Indulgent
Parents are responsive, warm and accepting of
their children, but impose few rules and rarely
punish the child
Require little responsible behavior from child
Children have few responsibilities, but have rights
similar to adults
Parent avoids conflicts by not setting limits
Parenting Styles
Permissive Indifferent
Unresponsive and uncontrolling adults establish
few firm rules and do not consistently enforce
them
Parents lives are more important
Child often given complete autonomy
(freedom/independence)

Parenting Styles
Authoritative
Warm; responsive and involved with their children
Set clear standard for mature-age appropriate
behavior
Good communication with child; considers childs
responsible demands and points of view
Sets firm rules and consistently enforces them,
but the reasons for rules are discussed
Encourage independence and sense of
responsibility by providing guidance and support