Assg 1 Plant Design

UNIVERSITAS INDONESIA
Assignment 1
PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF
COCOA BUTTER SUBSTITUTE (CBS) PRODUCTION
FROM PALM OIL

GROUP 1
Priscilla Deni (1006686686)
Nurul Aisyah S. (1006775943)
Eka N. Sharfina Irianto (1006661235)
Muhammad Saefuddin (1006761055)
Adi Surya Kusuma (1006686345)

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
BIOPROCESS ENGINEERING
DEPOK
2013
ii Universitas Indonesia
TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................... ii
TABLE OF FIGURES ......................................................................................... iv
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................... vi
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ........................................................................................ 1
1.2 Objective ............................................................................................ 4
1.3 Theory ................................................................................................ 4
1.3.1 Cocoa Butter Substitute ......................................................... 4
1.3.2 Lipids ..................................................................................... 6
1.3.3 Enzymatic Interesterification ................................................. 8
1.4 Analysis ............................................................................................. 9
1.4.1 Market and Capacity Analysis ........................................................... 9
1.4.2 Raw Material Analysis ..................................................................... 17
1.4.3 Plant Location Analysis ................................................................... 21
CHAPTER II PROCESS SELECTION ........................................................... 26
2.1 Alternative Process .......................................................................... 26
2.1.1 Pre-Treatment: Crude Palm Oil (CPO) Refining Process .... 26
2.1.2 Pre-Treatment: Palm Kernel Oil (PKO) Extraction Process 29
2.1.3 Modification of Oil and Fat ................................................. 31
2.1.4 CBS Purification .................................................................. 36
2.2 Process Selection ............................................................................. 37
2.2.1 CPO Refining Process .......................................................... 37
1.2.2 PKO Extraction Process ....................................................... 42
2.2.3 Modification of Oil and Fat ................................................. 43
2.3 Selected Process Description ........................................................... 50
2.3.1 CPO Refining Process: Physical Method ............................. 50
2.3.2 PKO Extraction: Mechanical Extraction .............................. 58
2.3.3 Homogenization ................................................................... 61
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Universitas Indonesia
2.3.4 Enzymatic Interesterification ............................................... 61
2.3.5 Distillation ............................................................................ 64
2.3.6 Solidification and Packaging ............................................... 66
CHAPTER III MASS & ENERGY BALANCE .............................................. 69
3.1 Mass Balance ................................................................................... 69
3.2 Energy Balance ................................................................................ 73

iv Universitas Indonesia
TABLE OF FIGURES

Fig. 1.1 Statistic of Palm Oil Plantation in Indonesia ............................................. 2
Fig. 1.2 Crude Palm Oil (CPO) and Palm Kernel Oil (PKO) ................................. 3
Fig. 1.3 Mass Composition of Fresh Fruit Bunch ................................................... 4
Fig. 1.4 SFAs, MUFAs cis, and MUFAs trans ....................................................... 7
Fig. 1.5 1-palmitoyl 2-oleoyl 3-linolenoyl glycerol ................................................ 7
Fig. 1.6 Phosphotidate ............................................................................................. 8
Fig. 1.7 Enzymatic interesterification ..................................................................... 8
Fig. 1.8 SUS Enzymatic Interesterification ............................................................ 9
Fig. 1.9 Distribution of Oil Palm in Indonesia ...................................................... 19
Fig. 1.10 Plant Location in Cikande...................................................................... 23
Fig. 1.11 Location of PTPN VIII Kertajaya .......................................................... 25
Fig. 2.1 Chemical and Physical Refining Routes .................................................. 27
Fig. 2.2 Mechanical Extraction of Palm Kernel Oil.............................................. 31
Fig. 2.3 Modification of Oils and Fat .................................................................... 32
Fig. 2.4 Hydrogenation Process ............................................................................ 34
Fig. 2.5 Interesterification of Triacylglycerol Molecules ..................................... 35
Fig. 2.6 Flow Diagram of Dry-Degumming Process ............................................ 39
Fig. 2.7 Flow Diagram of Acid-Degumming Process........................................... 40
Fig. 2.8 Flow Diagram of EDTA-Degumming Process ........................................ 41
Fig. 2.9 Simplified Flowsheet of Physical Refining ............................................. 51
Fig. 2.10 Chemical structure of most common phosphatides ............................... 51
Fig. 2.11 Degumming Reaction ............................................................................ 52
Fig. 2.12 Effect of Phosphoric Acid Dosage on Peroxide Value & FFA ............. 53
Fig. 2.13 Effect of Bleaching Period and Temperature ........................................ 54
Fig. 2.14 Adsorption Isotherms ............................................................................. 55
Fig. 2.15 Bleaching Effect of an Oil Dependent on Different Processing
Parameters ............................................................................................... 56
Fig. 2.16 Niagara Filter ......................................................................................... 57
Fig. 2.17 Hammer Mill ......................................................................................... 59
Fig. 2.18 Screw Press ............................................................................................ 60
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Fig. 2.19 Clarifier .................................................................................................. 61
Fig. 2.20 Interesterification Reactor...................................................................... 64
Fig. 2.21 Steam Distillation Process ..................................................................... 66
Fig. 2.22 Solid CBS .............................................................................................. 67
Fig. 2.23 BFD of CBS Production ........................................................................ 67
Fig. 2.24 PFD of CBS Production ......................................................................... 68

vi Universitas Indonesia
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Cocoa Butter Alternative ........................................................................ 1
Table 1.2 Palm Oil Production in Indonesia (ton) .................................................. 3
Table 1.3 Palm Oil Production in Indonesia (Ha) ................................................... 3
Table 1.4 FA Composition of CPO and PKO ......................................................... 5
Table 1.5 Quality Parameter for RBDPO ............................................................... 5
Table 1.6 SUS Component of CBS and CB ............................................................ 6
Table 1.7 Melting Point based on RBDPO : PKO .................................................. 6
Table 1.8. Cocoa Butter Substitute Demand in Indonesia (ICCO, 2012) ............. 12
Table 1.9 Projected demand of CBS until 2046 .................................................... 12
Table 1.10 Market Analysis of CBS ..................................................................... 15
Table 1.11 Calculation of Production Capacity (1) .............................................. 16
Table 1.12 Calculation of Production Capacity (2) .............................................. 16
Table 1.13 Average Analysis of Palm Kernel Oil................................................. 18
Table 1.14 Plantation Production by Plant Type in Indonesia (Tons)** .............. 19
Table 1.15 Analysis of Plant Location .................................................................. 23
Table 1.16 Chocolate Factories in Banten ............................................................ 24
Table 1.17 Chocolate Factories in West Java ....................................................... 24
Table 2.1 Comparison of Chemical and Physical Method for CPO Refining ...... 38
Table 2.2 Comparison of Alternative Degumming Process ................................. 41
Table 2.4 Comparison of Method for PKO Extraction ......................................... 42
Table 2.5 Oil and Fat Modification Method Comparison ..................................... 43
Table 2.6 Interestrification Method Comparison .................................................. 47
Table 2.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Enzyme Immobilization................. 48
Table 2.8 CBS Purificaton Method Comparison .................................................. 50
Table 2.9 Type of Lipases ..................................................................................... 62
Table 3.1 CPO Input ............................................................................................. 69
Table 3.2 Mass Balance of Degumming Process .................................................. 69
Table 3.3 Mass Balance of Bleaching Process...................................................... 69
Table 3.4 Mass Balance of Filtration Process ....................................................... 70
Table 3.5 Mass Balance of Deodorization Process ............................................... 70
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Table 3.6 Palm Kernel Composition ..................................................................... 70
Table 3.7 Milling Process of Palm Kernel ............................................................ 70
Table 3.8 Grinding Process of Palm Kernel.......................................................... 71
Table 3.9 Steam Conditioning Process ................................................................. 71
Table 3.10 Screw Pressing Process ....................................................................... 71
Table 3.11 Clarification Process ........................................................................... 71
Table 3.12 Mixing of RBDPO and PKO Process ................................................. 71
Table 3.13 Mass Balance of Interesterification Process ....................................... 72
Table 3.14 Mass Balance of Distillation Process .................................................. 72
Table 3.15 Mass Balance of Solidification and Packaging ................................... 72
Table 3.16 Packaging Calculation......................................................................... 72
Table 3.17 Cocoa Butter Substitute Composition ................................................. 73

1 Universitas Indonesia
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
Chocolate is a confectionery product made from cocoa beans and other
additives. Chocolate with unique taste, variant price, has nutrition and function to
improving mood cause this product are very popular with children and teenagers.
Based on database from Kementrian Perindustrian RI, in Indonesia can be found
105 chocolate industry to supplying of chocolate demands throughout Indonesia.
Large demands cause requires a lot of raw material for production. The largest
composition for manufacturing chocolate is cocoa that contain cocoa butter.
Therefore, cocoa butter influence percentage of chocolate price. Chocolate
industry needs a alternative material to decrease production cost. Alternative
material that can replace cocoa butter must be suitable from chemical structure
side or physical properties of cocoa butter. There are have 3 types of cocoa butter
alternative including Cocoa Butter Substitute (CBS), Cocoa Butter Replace
(CBR), Cocoa butter Equivalent (CBE).
Table 1.1 Cocoa Butter Alternative
COCOA BUTTER ALTERNATIVE
Lauric Fats Non Lauric Fats
Cocoa Butter Substitute
(CBS)
Cocoa Butter Replacer
(CBR)
Cocoa Butter Equivalent
(CBE)
from vegetable oil from vegetable oil from vegetable oil
lauric acid elaidic acid similar triglyceride with CBA
fully compatible with CBA
source: Hernandez, Edgar. 2005. Smart Blend in Confectionery Fats. Sandiego: Alainza Team
Cocoa butter alternative must contain triglyceride or solid in room
temperature and melting in body temperature. Cocoa butter substitute can
production form vegetable or plantation. It has 54 % lauric acid that can affects
characteristic of chocolate. Likewise cocoa butter replace that has 50% elaidic
acid. The other is cocoa butter equivalent it has similar triglyceride like cocoa
butter and fully compatible to be cocoa butter alternative, but it has highest price
than CBS or CBR.
2

Cocoa butter substitute can be derived from vegetable oil. For examples are
coconut oil, shea oil, palm oil, palm kernel oil. Indonesia as an agricultural
country has a large palm oil plantation. This quantity continues to increase from
2008 to 2012 in productivity ton mass or hectare plantation area.

Fig. 1.1 Statistic of Palm Oil Plantation in Indonesia
source: ekonomi.kompasiana.com
Sumatra is the largest island that production a palm oil in Indonesia about
17.317.295 tons / years with 5.913.585 Ha area plantation. Other islands are Java,
Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Maluku and Papua. Several palm oil plantation in
Indonesia belong to Raja Garuda Mas, Wilmar, Sinar Mas Group, Astra Agro
Lestari, London Sumatra Group, Bakrie Group, Guthrie, Socfindo Group,
Cilandra Perkasa Group and Kurnia Group with their affiliations. Then, only 27%
Palm Oil Plantation belongs to government.

3

Table 1.2 Palm Oil Production in Indonesia (ton)

Source: Direktorat Jendral Perkebunan

Table 1.3 Palm Oil Production in Indonesia (Ha)

Source: Direktorat Jendral Perkebunan
The amount of palm oil production caused Indonesia to be the largest
exporter palm oil in the world around 18 million tons years. This condition not
supported by development of processing palm oil to be a product that more benefit
and profitable than export it. There is only 98 industries in Indonesia that can
produce oil and his derivate from palm oil. Several of derivate palm oil production
are crude palm oil (CPO), palm kernel oil (PKO) and oleochemical palm oil
(OPO). They have some byproduct such as for margarine, cream, ice creams,
confectionary, bakery fats, noodle, soap, detergent, shampoo, and cosmetic
productions.

Fig. 1.2 Crude Palm Oil (CPO) and Palm Kernel Oil (PKO)
source: Hernandez, Edgar. 2005. Smart Blend in Confectionery Fats. Sandiego: Alainza Team
4

Some of that products are still produced in outer Indonesia. So, we must
develop production of palm oil byproduct in Indonesia to get more income than
export it. Researcher note that CPO and PKO are vegetable oil that can be used as
CBS. More over quantity plantation, chemical and physical characteristic, and
lower price of palm oil than cocoa butter can be some reason for using palm oil as
cocoa butter substitute (CBS).
1.2 Objective
Objective of this CBS plant design is:
1. Fulfill demand of cocoa butter alternatives for chocolate production in
Indonesia
2. To increase of benefit and profit from palm oil production
3. Supply good production CBS from palm oil
1.3 Theory
1.3.1 Cocoa Butter Substitute

Fig. 1.3 Mass Composition of Fresh Fruit Bunch
Pardamean, Maruli. 2008. Panduan Lengkap Pengelolaan Kebun dan Pabrik Kelapa Sawit.
Jakarta: Agroedia Pustaka
Portion of palm oil tree that very valuable is palm fruit bunch (PFB). PFB
contains of fresh fruit bunch (FFB) and condensate water. FFB can produce crude
palm oil (CPO), palm kernel oil (PKO), and empty fruit bunch (EFB). They are
have fatty acids that could be the same type or different. The different type of
fatty acid that combine to form of different triglyceride. The short chain fatty
acids are of lower melting point and are more soluble in water. Whereas, the
longer chain fatty acids have higher melting points. The melting point is also
5

dependent on degree of non-saturation. Unsaturated acids will have a lower
melting point compared to saturated fatty acids of similar chain length.
Table 1.4 FA Composition of CPO and PKO
FA Composition CPO PKO
C06:0 0.3 %
C08:0 4.4 %
C10:0 3.7 %
C12:0 Lauric Acid 0.2 % 48.3 %
C14:0 Myristic Acid 1.1 % 15.6 %
C16:0 Palmitic Acid 44.0 % 7.8 %
C18:0 Stearic Acid 4.5 % 2.0 %
C18:1 Oleic Acid 39.2 % 15.1 %
C18:2 Linoleic Acid 10.1 % 2.7 %
C18:3 Linolenic Acid 0.2 %
Others 0.9 %
Source: Yusoff, Suria Affandi. Food Application of Palm Oil. Sime Darby Plantation
Oil has largest percentage in CPO and PKO components. Oil component
such as triglyceride, diglyceride, monoglyceride, and FFA. They are has function
to modify melting point of CBS by interesterification reaction. Specifically,
saturated-unsaturated-saturated (SUS) triglyceride is most important substance to
produce CBS. There are three triglyceride in CBS such as POP, POS, and SOS (P
= palmitic; O = oleic; S = stearic). CPO need to be bleached and deodorized, so it
can be used as CBS. CPO is already bleached and deodorized can be called
RBDPO (Refinined Bleached Deodorized Palm Oil).
Table 1.5 Quality Parameter for RBDPO

Source: Rohani, et al. 2006. Process Design in Degumming and Bleaching of Palm Oil. Research
Vote No: 74198. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
6

Table 1.6 SUS Component of CBS and CB
Composition CBS CB
SUS 80 % 70 %
POP 10 % 13 19 %
POS 25 45 % 36 42 %
SOS 45 70 % 23 29 %
Other Component 20 % 30 %
Source: Kao Corporation. 1986. Cacao Butter Substitute Composition. European Patent
Application
Besides that, RBDPO must be combined with Palm Kernel Oil (PKO) from
palm kernel. Almost the same as CPO, PKO has triglyceride as largest
component. Combination of RBDPO and PKO can produce good melting point.
Although difference comparison of RBDO : PKO can make difference in melting
point.
Table 1.7 Melting Point based on RBDPO : PKO
RBDPO : PKO Melting Point
0:1 26
o
C
3:7 33
o
C
4:6 33
o
C
6:4 34
o
C
7:3 35
o
C
1:0 50
o
C
Source: BR. Tarigan, Juliati. 2005. Pembuatan CBS Melalui Reaksi Interesterifikasi antara
RBDPO dan PKO dengan Menggunkan Katalis Natrium Hidroksida. Medan: Universitas
Sumatera Utara
1.3.2 Lipids
Fatty acids (FA) consist of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
arranged as a carbon chain skeleton with a carboxyl group (-COOH) at one end.
These are three type of fatty acid such as saturated fatty acid (SFAs),
monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs).
They are distinguished by total their double bound. Double bounds are to prevent
rotation of the carbon atoms along the bond axis. This give isomers configuration
(cis or trans) that can only be changed by breaking the bonds with hydrolysis.
7


Fig. 1.4 SFAs, MUFAs cis, and MUFAs trans
Source: Norris, Sonya. 2007. Trans Fats: The Health Burden. Canada

Glycerol is a three hydric alcohol that contai three hydroxyl gorups (-OH)
that can combine with fatty acids to form monoacylglycerol (MAG),
diacylglycerol (DAG), and triacylglycerol (TAG). Triglycerides are the main
constituents of vegetable oils and animal fat. They may be solid or liquid at
normal room temperatures. They are called fats or butters when solid, and called
oils when liquid form. A triglyceride also called traicylglycerol (TAG), is a
formed from one molecule of glycerol and three fatty acids (FA). MAG, DAG,
and TAG ate classified as esters which are compouds created by the reaction
between acids and alcohols that release water (H
2
O) as by-product.

Fig. 1.5 1-palmitoyl 2-oleoyl 3-linolenoyl glycerol
Source: Lipids. www.lipid.org
8


Phosphoglycerides (phospholipids) are polar lipid. It has the glycerol
backbone, 2 fatty acids, and a phosphoryl ester group (phosphoric acid). They are
amphipathic due to the presence of a polar (head) and a nonpolar (tail). The
simplest phosphoglyceride is phosphatidate. It is rare in nature.

Fig. 1.6 Phosphotidate
Source: Lipids. www.chem.latech.edu
1.3.3 Enzymatic Interesterification
Interesterification is one of the process used to modify the physico-chemical
characteristic fats. It is an acyl-rearrangement reaction on the glycerol molecule.
This method as alternatives to hydrogenation can be used for health conscious
people. Enzymatical interesterification uses lipase as catalyst.
In a simple way, enzymatic interesterification reaction is discribe as a
follow,

Fig. 1.7 Enzymatic interesterification
Source: De Greyt, Wim. 2004. Chemical vs Enzymatic Interesterification. Belgium

Enzymatic interesterification reaction of saturated-unsaturated-saturated
(SUS) polyacyltriglyceride has difference with simple enzymatic
interesterification. Unsaturated fatty acid will be usually in Sn2. Although both
saturated fatty acids in Sn1 and Sn3. That is will make four kind tryacylglyceride.
9


Fig. 1.8 SUS Enzymatic Interesterification
Source: De Greyt, Wim. 2004. Chemical vs Enzymatic Interesterification. Belgium
Lipase Enzyme need to be immobilized to avoid enzyme in finished
product. Another function of immobilization is enable re-use of enzyme for better
process economy and stabilizes enzyme kinetic. Except that, enzyme has critical
temperature in 70
o
C. This method usually be used in continuous process with plug
flow reactor.
1.4 Analysis
1.4.1 Market and Capacity Analysis
Cocoa Butter Substitute (CBS) is vegetable oil-derived product that is used
to substitute cocoa bean-derived cocoa butter fatty acid. CBS contains several
fatty acids that have sufficiently identical taste and characteristics to substitute
genuine cocoa butter. In the design planning, we will use palm oil as the main
ingredient to produce CBS.
CBS is used as ingredient for various chocolate products be it food or
beverage. Palm oil-derived CBS has several advantages over genuine cocoa
butter. Palm oil is significantly cheaper that cocoa bean which implies the lower
production cost of palm oil-derived CBS. In fact, palm oil is the cheapest and
most widely available source of vegetable oil available on market surpassing other
sources such as coconut or maize oil. This can create a cheaper product with
similar performance that can surpass and outperform other cocoa product.
CBS has different fatty acid contents from genuine cocoa butter which cause
several distinct physical characteristic, one of them is the higher melting point.
This creates an opportunity to improve the resilience of chocolate products sold in
Indonesia. Cocoa butter based chocolate products are vulnerable to high
temperature typical in tropical countries. The lower melting point of genuine
cocoa butter makes it unsuitable for the products to be sold and transported
10

without proper refrigeration or climate control. The adoption of CBS as
ingredients for chocolate products will remove this major hindrance.
The purpose of the development of the CBS industry is to make good use of
potential market Indonesia has to offer. Indonesia as other typical developing
nations has a low consumption of chocolate per capita relative to more developed
nations. As the progressing trends show, Indonesian population has growing
appetite for chocolate which mean growing demand for chocolate. This presents a
great opportunity for CBS market. The increasing volume is reflected from the
Ministry of Industry which stated that Indonesian demand for chocolate products
will be growing at a rate of approximately 3% per annum. This trend will continue
or possibly accelerate considering that with the growing wealth and disposable
income of the general populations, people tend to spend more of their calories
intake in better not more calories. Thus it is safe to assume that more
luxurious calories intake such as chocolate is gaining market in growing
economy like Indonesia.
Analysis on competitor show that CBS market is mostly filled with coconut
oil based CBS. Coconut oil as source of vegetable oil has proved to be a difficult
source due to the low volume and availability. The production of coconut oil has
been steadily declining as more vegetable oil based product turn to palm oil as a
source. Even without the stagnating growth of coconut oil based CBS, the palm
oil based CBS has already decisive advantage in term of cost and availability.
Coconut oil has the average price twice of palm oil and we expect the gap to
widen taking account on the increasing volume of palm oil production. Thus we
are confident that our palm oil based CBS will be able to gain foothold in the
cocoa butter market, either filling the gap of the growing cocoa butter demand or
substituting current coconut oil based CBS.
The growing market for our proposed CBS is not simply confined to
domestic market but also export market. It is estimated that Indonesia export more
than 60.000 tons of genuine cocoa butter according to International Cocoa
Organization (ICCO). The demand has been fluctuating in traditional export
market, Malaysia and Singapore but has been steadily risen by over 5% annually
in China, India and several emerging markets. Demand for CBS has been growing
11

steadily in these parts of the world due to changing pattern in food habits and also
the better suitability of the CBS to regions with hot climate. India for example had
demand for 30,000 tons of cocoa butter but only produced 16,000 tons on their
own, importing the rest of them especially from Indonesia, this despite tough
import tariff.
We also need to include China into calculation for potential export market.
China has one of the greatest rise in demand for cocoa butter in the world and
China has no indigenous cocoa plantation on their own thus has to import all of
their cocoa butter. Indonesias cocoa butter export to China amounted to 14,000
tons per year in 2012 and is projected to grow about 6% annually according to
data compiled by Ministry of Industry. This presents an market opportunity for
our CBS with volume at least 15,000 tons assuming that our palm oil based CBS
can substitute existing competitor using other source of vegetable oil. We make
the assumption on the basis that the cheaper palm oil CBS will be able to
outcompete other more expensive CBS.
In our assessment of our targeted production capacity, we need to assess
both the potential volume of CBS that can be sold. First, we have to calculate the
domestic market supply and demand of CBS. From the data published by Ministry
of Industry, Indonesia has a maximum potency of 600.000 tons of chocolate food
product per year. However, only 450.000 tons was realized in 2012 due to lack of
cocoa supply in any form. Ministry of Industry predict that 500.000 tons could be
realized by 2013.. This number imply that there are at least 50.000 tons of CBS
demand that has not been fulfilled yet in the market. Data published by ICCO and
FAO have both listed similar number of demand for CBS. We put the rate of 3,5%
growth for CBS demand year to year based on past data and projection from FAO.
We also assume that the number could probably higher due to the fact that palm
oil CBS can compete well on existing genuine cocoa butter and coconut oil CBS.
This assumption is made due to significant differences of the cost (palm oil based
CBS being significantly less expensive than any other source of cocoa
butter/CBS). Thus we set our target capacity production at 50.000 tons per year.
We planned our factory to have operation life of at least 30 years based on
statement on ocoa butter substitute plant patent (EP19810300525 by Unilever Plc.)
12

and our observation on existing vegetable oil processing industries. Assuming that
our plant designs construction will begin immediately at the beginning of 2014
we take account that production could begin in early 2016 based on assumption
that plant construction will take 3 years to complete. By the time the plant has
been finished (2016), we assume market demand will have been about 56,000 tons
based on 2013 market demand and projected growth not including export market.
Thus our 50,000 tons per year capacity will take at most 91% of available
domestic market gap for CBS excluding export market which imply lower share
in the market. This share calculation also does not take into account the possibility
of our product discharging more expensive competing product. With projected
growth in CBS demand up to 30 years of our plan life, we calculated that
approximately 150,000 tons will be needed by market by 2046. Then our market
share will be at most 33%, which we set at that number due to various factors such
as uncertainty over our competitors capability to expand. Thus at proposed target
capacity, we are confident that our production capacity will not exceed potential
demand, reducing the difficulty of selling our product.
Table 1.8. Cocoa Butter Substitute Demand in Indonesia (ICCO, 2012)
Year Demand of CBS (ton/years)
2005 38254
2006 40166,7
2007 42697,2
2008 45387,1
2009 46476,42
2010 46941,2
2011 47786,1
2012 48837,4
*2013 50351,4
*Projection
Table 1.9 Projected demand of CBS until 2046 (based on estimated 3,5% growth rate)
Year Projected demand (ton/year)
*2013 50351,4
13

2014 52113,7
2015 53937,7
2016 55825,5
2017 57779,4
2018 59801,6
2019 61894,7
2020 64061
2021 66303,2
2022 68623,8
2023 71025,6
2024 73511,5
2025 76084,4
2026 78747,3
2027 81503,5
2028 84356,1
2029 87308,6
2030 90364,4
2031 93527,1
2032 96800,6
2033 100188,6
2034 103695,2
2035 107324,5
2036 111080,9
2037 114968,7
2038 118992,6
2039 123157,4
2040 127467,9
2041 131929,3
2042 136546,8
2043 141325,9
2044 146272,3
14

2045 151391,9
2046 156690,6

Up to the making of this market reports, there are no CBS producer
specifically using palm oil as their only source for vegetable oil. Almost all CBS
producers in Indonesia use coconut oil as the source for vegetable oil. Therefore,
even with possibility of theses CBS producers expanding their capacity, we
assume that we still have the edge on the price differences that will keep us on
market. We have no concrete plan yet to enter export market in our planning
design due to the lack of knowledge over exact figure of potential market country.
We are also still considering any increasing cost from the shipment, tariff or any
related fee that may be deducted from our projected margin. Due to the lack of
knowledge from potential export market, we decide not to give yet exact figure
for the appropriated share of our product capacity for export market and even the
possibility of entering the export market itself.
In our research, we find several potential buyers for our planned product. These
companies are chocolate factories which we assume that will need CBS and will
not be strictly adhered to genuine cocoa butter. These are :
1. PT. Cargill Indonesia Gresik, Jawa Timur
Cargill is a multinational company that sells and manufacture food
products mostly related to chocolate and sweets. Being one of the largest
chocolate related company in Indonesia, the company has capitalized on
Indonesian growing economy and growing appetite on chocolate products
and sweets. In recent years, Cargill has been expanding aggressively in
Indonesian market and been actively looking for new source of cocoa
butter.
2. PT. Ceres Bandung, Jawa Barat
Ceres is one of the oldest and largest producer of chocolate food products
in the Indonesia. Ceres is owned by Petra Food, Ltd that is based on
Singapore and among other companies that are listed on Singaporean
Stock Exchange. Ceres owns over 27 brands of food products and has firm
market foothold in Southeast Asia.
15

3. PT. Orang Tua Group Jakarta
Orang Tua Group is one of the largest manufacturer of consumer goods in
Indonesia. Their products varies from food, beverages, toiletries, hygiene,
etc. We designate them as potential buyers of our CBS products as a basic
ingredients for their food products that ranges from chocolate, biscuits,
wafers, sweets and other cocoa related food products that they make.
4. PT Food Specialities Indonesia Jakarta
PT Food Specialities Indonesia or better known as Nestle Indonesia is one
of the largest food company in the world. Nestle food products has many
varieties and brands, mostly of milk based products. However they also
produces some varieties of chocolate based products that are prominent in
the market such as Kit Kat, Milo, Coco Crunch, several types of chocolate
flavored milk, and many more.
Table 1.10 Market Analysis of CBS
Parameter Kuantitas Satuan Sumber
Kebutuhan CBS
Indonesia tahun
2013

~50000

Ton/tahun
Kalkulasi data dari BPS,
ICCO, dan Kementrian
Perindustrian
Pertumbuhan
kebutuhan CBS

3,5

%
Food and Agriculture
Organization dan ICCO
Prediksi kebutuhan
CBS tahun
2046

156690,6

Ton/tahun

Kalkulasi
Target pangsa pasar
pada 2046

~33

%

Kalkulasi
Kapasitas produksi
pabrik

~50400

Ton/tahun
Kalkulasi (dengan
pembulatan)
Kapasitas produksi
pabrik per hari

140

Ton/hari
Kalkulasi dengan asumsi
360 hari kerja per tahun

Supply and demand analysis is made to get estimation about the number of
production capacity will be based on market analysis. Along with that, we will use
16

four way of consideration to determine the production capacity: the number of
export value, import value, consumption in Indonesia, and the number of
production.
Table 1.11 Calculation of Production Capacity (1)
Year Export (kg) Import (kg) Production (kg) Consumption (kg)
2008 63983.59 15.7976 12000000 9111164
2009 45090.98 6.468 18000000 9225308
2010 46414.39 9.702 36000000 9339096
2011 59697.84 45.9816 48000000 9453252
2012 61142.53 30.347856 80000000 9566972
2013 62622.2 20.02924 100000000 9685402

Table 1.12 Calculation of Production Capacity (2)
Demand Supply
9111179.798 12063983.59
9225314.468 18045090.98
9339105.702 36046414.39
9453297.982 48059697.84
9567002.348 80061142.53
9685421.685 100062622.2
Source: Badan Pusat Statistik, 2010
The number of supply is obtained by summing value of export and
production. Moreover, demand is obtained by summing import and consumption.
Demand for cocoa butter substitute in Indonesia relatively small compared to
supply value. In Indonesia, Cocoa butter substitute needs have been fulfilled by
producers in Indonesia. However, due to the need to be more and more in the
future then it will be even greater production capacity. However, cocoa butter
substitute product is an alternative replacement for cocoa butter which has
properties similar with cocoa butter and has a cheaper price. In addition, cocoa
butter substitute is processed from palm oil which has a higher selling price
compared to only process into palm oil. Because CBS has a cheaper price, this
makes the opportunity for the CBS product to reach the cocoa butter market.
No. Factory
Capacity
(Ton)
1 PT. General Food Industry 100000
2
PT. Bumitangerang
Mesindotama
120000
3 PT. Cocoa Ventures Indonesia 14000
17

4 PT. Teja Sekawan 24500
5 PT. Kakao Mas Gemilang 450
6 PT. Gandum Mas Kencana 15000
7 PT. Freyabadi Indotama 25000
8 PT. Sekawan Karsa Mulia 7000
9 PT. Nestle 65000
10 PT. Poleco Industry 6000
11 PT. Budidaya Kakao Lestari 8000
12 PT Mas Ganda 10000
13 PT. Asia Cocoa Indonesia 120000
Total 514950

Above data shows demand of production capacity from several factories.
We decided to take 9,7% of total capacity. So, 49950,15 ton/year (50.000
ton/year) will produces from our plant.
Moreover, cocoa butter substitute market will export to other countries like
Malaysia, India, and China because these countries still needs import of cocoa
butter.
1.4.2 Raw Material Analysis
Main raw material for cocoa butter substitute plant is palm oil and palm
kernel. We know that Indonesia is biggest exporter of palm oil for plantation
commodity. In Indonesia, totals area of oil palm is 54.069.000 ha.
A. Characteristic of Palm Oil and Palm Kernel
Palm oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from the mesocarp (reddish pulp)
of the fruit of the oil palms, primarily the African oil palm Elaeis guineensis and
to a lesser extent from the American oil palm Elaeis oleifera and the maripa
palm Attalea maripa. It is naturally reddish in color because of a high beta-
carotene content. Palm oil, along with coconut oil is one of the few highly
saturated vegetable fats. It is semi-solid at room temperatures and contains several
saturated and unsaturated fats.
Like all vegetable oils, palm oil does not contain cholesterol, although
saturated fat intake increases both LDL and HDL cholesterol. Palm oil is GMO-
free, i.e., it is not derived from genetically modified organisms. CPO will be
18

processed into Refined Bleached Deodorized Palm Oil (RBDPO) and react with
Palm Kernel Oil.
Palm kernel is a by-product of processing fresh fruit bunch (FFB) into
CPO. In this plant, we will process the kernel into palm kernel oil or commonly
called PKO. If the kernel has been changed to the PKO will be able to react with
RBDPO through interesterification process to form CBS.
Table 1.13 Average Analysis of Palm Kernel Oil
Density (40
o
C) 0,898 0,914
Refractive index (40
o
C) 1,448 - 1,452
Acid Value max. 0,5
Iodine Value 13 23
Saponification Value 230 254
Melting point 25 30
o
C
Solidification Point 20 24
o
C

Applications:
a. Used in the industry, particularly in the margarine production and bakery
productions.
b. It is also valued by the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industry because of its
short-chained fatty acids, its high stability and its high melting point.
B. Reasons to Choose Oil Palm as The Raw Material
1. Availability of Oil Palm in Indonesia
Indonesia has many plantations of oil palm which distributed from
Sumatera, Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua. Biggest production of oil palm
is Sumatera Island and Kalimantan for the second place. Now, results in the
production of palm oil exports to foreign countries that generate revenue for the
country and farmers. For the development of palm oil export commodities, shows
that the average rate of growth of oil palm totals area during 2007 - 2012 of
6.96%, while the palm oil production increased by an average 6.02% per year.
Increase in the area due to the relatively stable price of CPO in the international
market and provide revenue producers, especially farmers, are quite profitable.
19

Target development of palm oil in the year 2013 is estimated to reach 9.15 million
ha with a production of 24.43 million tons.

Fig. 1.9 Distribution of Oil Palm in Indonesia
Source: regionalinvestment.bkpm.go.id
Oil palm produce palm fruits are collected in one bunch called fresh fruit
bunches (FFB). Palm trees can generate fresh fruit bunches weighing between 15-
30 kg / bunch. Bunch then transported to the plant for further processing produce
palm oil. In producing palm oil, each tonne of fresh fruit bunches processed can
produce 140-200 kg CPO.
Table 1.14 Plantation Production by Plant Type in Indonesia (Tons)**
Year Dry rubber Palm Oil Palm Kernel Chocolate
1995 341 2,476,400 605,3 46,4
1996 334,6 2,569,500 626,6 46,8
1997 330,5 4,165,685 838,708 65,889
1998 332,57 4,585,846 917,169 60,925
1999 293,663 4,907,779 981,556 58,914
2000 375,819 5,094,855 1,018,971 57,725
2001 397,72 5,598,440 1,117,759 57,86
2002 403,712 6,195,605 1,209,723 48,245
2003 396,104 6,923,510 1,529,249 56,632
2004 403,8 8,479,262 1,861,965 54,921
2005 432,221 10,119,061 2,139,652 55,127
2006 554,634 10,961,756 2,363,147 67,2
2007 578,486 11,437,986 2,593,198 68,6
2008 586,081 12,477,752 2,829,201 62,913
2009 522,312 13,872,602 3,145,549 67,602
2010 541,491 14,038,148 3,183,066 65,147
2011* 602,404 14,632,406 3,317,813 44,821
2012** 612,12 14,788,270 3,352,851 66,39
Noted: *temporary; ** Very temporary
20

From the above data indicate that the availability of raw materials in
Indonesia is very large, so that it will facilitate the production of CBS.
2. Production Price of Palm Oil is Cheaper than Coconut Oil
After the development of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis), coconut prestige as
vegetable oil began to downs. Because crude palm oil (CPO = Crude Palm Oil)
are vegetable fats which can be produced with the lowest cost in the world. Due to
the processing of palm oil is the lowest cost, then the selling price of CPO will
cheaper than coconut oil. In the market, the selling price of CPO less than 10000
rupiahs while the coconut oil more than 10000 rupiahs.
As we know, coconut oil processing can be made from two ways: the
traditional processing and use simple machines. If the processed by traditionally,
will requires a lot of energy, both kerosene / diesel or firewood as a heating for
coconut milk.
However, when using the machine this Agro-industry model is also less
developed because the engine has high prices for oil-producing farmers (above Rp
100.000.000, -). Because of the high price of the machine due to the volume of
production that only one or two, not a mass product.
3. Reach the Melting Point Like Cocoa Butter
Cocoa butter has a melting point which is a good 32-35
o
C. If we use a
mixture of palm oil (converted into RBDPO) that reacted with PKO with a certain
composition ratio will reach the desired melting point.
4. Palm Oil has Triglyceride Content like Cocoa Butter
The main content in cocoa butter is palmitic-oleic-palmitic, palmitic-oleic-
stearic, and stearic-oleic-stearic. By looking at the composition of RBDPO and
PKO mixture, CBS that formed will be in accordance with cocoa butter.
5. Increase The Added Value of Palm Oil
Total production of palm oil in Indonesia, 80% will be exported to foreign
countries, while 200% is used to fulfilled national needs. As we know that the
value of CPO will increase if CPO is processed. CPO from Indonesia changed
into another product by another country and then exported back to Indonesia with
a more expensive price. So, Indonesia must create CPO product individually that
21

can increase the added value of palm oil by developing the use of palm oil in the
market today. So, do the processing of palm oil as raw material for the
manufacture of chocolate (Cocoa butter). Availability of this is due to declining
world cocoa butter due to low production. Therefore, it is necessary fats like
cocoa butter alternatives.
6. Suitable with Tropical Country
Cocoa butter, which is made from palm oil and palm kernel oil will
generally melt relatively long compared to cocoa butter so that it fits tropical
countryhe main content in cocoa butter is palmitic-oleic-palmitic-oleic-stearic
palmitic, and stearic-oleic-stearic. By looking at the composition of RBDPO and
PKO, CBS that formed will be in accordance with cocoa butter.
1.4.3 Plant Location Analysis
Plant location is very important in the design of a plant, because it relates
directly to the economic value of the plant to be established. Selection of the most
ideal location of the plant is located in a place that is able to provide a low total
cost of production and maximum profit. The best location of a plant is the location
where the unit cost of production and distribution process will be low, while the
price and volume of sales of products will be able to generate maximum profits
for the company. Plant site selection is one of the main factors that determine the
success and survival of a plant. Determining the location of the plant must meet
one of the two main principles in determining the location of the plant, which is
close to the raw material (raw material oriented), and / or close to the market
(market oriented) or both. In addition, the availability of utilities in the area also
became an important aspect to consider.
The following considerations should be analyzed in order to determine plant
location.
A. Primary Factor
Distance from Source Material
Plant location should be close to the source of raw material. This
contributes to effective and efficient process, especially in terms of time and
operating costs. When the source of raw materials to be away from the plant
22

location takes more time in the production process as well as the cost to transport
raw materials are more expensive due to longer distance.
Distance from Market
This is an important aspect in determining the location of the plant. Cocoa
Butter Substitute (CBS) plant is categorized as new in Indonesia since there are
only few manufacturers of CBS in Indonesia. Therefore, response and feedback
are important. By choosing a location close to the marketing target, then the
constraint on the product at the time of release can be minimized or reduced.
Transportation
Adequate transportation facilities greatly assist the process of marketing
products of glucosamine and transport of raw materials from the source. In
addition, the presence of adequate transportation facilities both transportation by
land, sea, and air will be easier to meet the needs of the domestic industries.
Availability of Utilities
The utility of a plant is also an important factor in selecting the location of a
plant. The main things here are the power generation, water, and communication.
Selected plant location should have at least the above utilities so that the
production process can run optimally.
B. Secunder Factor
Government Policies
Policies government that makes Tangerang, Jakarta, Bekasi, Cilegon and
surrounding areas as the industrial area will facilitate the licensing and
development of plant.
Soil and Climate
The determination of an industrial area certainly related to land issues,
which are not prone to the danger of landslides, earthquakes, and floods.
Therefore, the selection of plant location of in Cikande industrial area is right.
Climatic conditions such as climate Cikande in Indonesia in general and the
climate conditions do not bring great impact on the course of the process
production.

23

Table 1.15 Analysis of Plant Location
Criteria Cilegon Tangerang Cikande
Source of raw
material
Raw Material
(CPO & Kernel)
PTPN VIII
Kertajaya
PTPN VIII Kertajaya PTPN VIII Kertajaya
Distance 111 km 103 km 67,3 km
Natural
Conditions
Industrial area yes yes Yes
Market -
industrial area of
tangerang, banten, and
west java
industrial area of
tangerang, banten, and
west java
Availability of Area yes yes Yes
Price middle the most expensive
cheaper than tangerang
and cilegon
Competitor - Bumitangerang -
Infrastucture good good Good
Utility good good Good

From data above, we choose Cikande area for Cocoa Butter Sustitue plant.
This location was chosen because it is close to the raw materials as well as easy
and close to distribution. Moreover, due to an industrial area then Cikande utility
supply will be easier. Utilities include water, electricity, and etc. Transportation
needed to support the operation of a plant, especially for supply of raw materials,
transport of the product, and marketing. In addition, for the region as a regional
industry Cikande had been equipped with a communications network to support
facilities for the production and marketing activities.

Fig. 1.10 Plant Location in Cikande
Source: wikimapia.org
As we know, CBS will be produced which will be reserved for the
chocolate factory. According to data from the BPS department of industry, cocoa
24

processing company located in Banten and West Java. So that the distribution
process will be easier and could open a new supplier to the confectionary plant
that uses CBS. Moreover, in Banten there is a biggest chocolate factory in Asia
named Uniflora Prima.
Table 1.16 Chocolate Factories in Banten
FACTORY PRODUCTION
Bumitangerang Mesindotama Chocolate
Dolphin Super Ice Cream Manufacture Chocolate
Pt. Davomas Abadi Tbk Chocolate
Uniflora Prima Chocolate

Table 1.17 Chocolate Factories in West Java
FACTORY PRODUCTION
Freyabadi Indotama Chocolate
Gajahmada Buana Perkasa Chocolate
Garudafood Putra Putri Jaya Chocolate
Lotte Indonesia Chocolate
Pilarmas Kencana Chocolate
Pt. Gajahmada Buana Perkasa Chocolate
Pt. Pilarmas Kencana Chocolate
Ultra Prima Abadi Chocolate

Moreover, in Banten there is PTPN VIII Kertajaya that produces oil palm,
cocoa, tea, etc. PTPN VIII Kertajaya has an area of 12.810,35 ha that produces oil
palm. In addition to planting the commodity on its own area + core, PTPN VIII
also manages Plasma area farmers has an area of 6033.28 ha. Additionally, PTPN
VIII Kertajaya also has its own processing unit for producing palm oil and
kernels. PTPN VIII Kertajaya produced Fresh Fruit Bunch between 800 to 1,200
tons/day, with the average CPO production reached 900 tons per day.
25


Fig. 1.11 Location of PTPN VIII Kertajaya
Source: wikimapia.org
CPO of PTPN VIII Kertajaya supply only to fulfill national food needs and
is not to be exported abroad. Moreover, CPO of PTPN VIII Kertajaya production
has high quality compared to other regions. For increase the production of CPO,
PTPN VIII Kertajaya working with 7000 farmers in Lebak, Banten. Government
plan will be the expansion of oil palm plantations in an effort to increase the
production capacity of Banten.

CHAPTER II
PROCESS SELECTION

2.1 Alternative Process
2.1.1 Pre-Treatment: Crude Palm Oil (CPO) Refining Process
Refining process is a necessary step for the production of edible oils and fats
products. In industry perspective, the main aim of refining is to convert the crude
oil to a quality edible oil by removing objectionable impurities to the desired
levels in the most efficient manner. This also means that, where possible, losses in
the desirable components are kept minimal and cost effective.
CPO that extracted from FFB (Fresh Fruit Bunch), though in small quantity,
will be consist of some unwanted impurities, such as insoluble compounds,
mesocarp fiber, free fatty acid (FFA), phospholipids, trace metals, oxidation
products, odor compounds, etc. Thus, CPO needs refining process before being
used in the next process (Basiron, 2005).
Refining process is done to convert the crude oil into a desired product by
removing the non-triglyceride components in the oil with the least possible
damage to triglycerides and minimal loss of desirable constituents. Refining
process will remove some compounds including phospholipids, free acids, mono-
and di-acylglycerol, colour, trace metals, oxidation products and enviromental
contaminants (OBrien, 2009).
Refining CPO can be done in 2 methods, physical method and chemical
method. The differences between these 2 types are basically based on the type of
chemicals used and mode of removing the FFA. The processing routes for
chemical and physical refining are as per illustrated in figure below.
27


Fig. 2.1 Chemical and Physical Refining Routes
A. Chemical Refining
Chemical refining is preferred for oils that contains high phospholipid levels
that conveniently removed by alkali treatment. Its normally involves:
Gum Conditioning and Neutralization
In this process stage, the phosphatide portion of oil is either removed or
conditioned during this stage by addition of some additives/agents under specific
condition. The most common additives for this purpose are phosphoric acid and
citric acid. A specified quantity of that agents is mixed in the oil charge for a
specific period and process parameters. This causes a separation of phosphatides
from oil and they are removed after certain settling time. Sometimes these
28

separated gums are not directly removed but with soap stock formed during
neutralisation. The reaction involves alkali solutions combine with free fatty acids
present to form soaps (saponification), while the phosphatides and gums absorb
alkali and are coagulated through hydration or degradation which lead to color
degradation as a result of absorption by gums or made water soluble by the alkali
and the insoluble matter is entrained with other coagulable material. This soap
stock is removed from oil mass by gravity separation method. For removal of
alkali traces, oil is washed with hot water. The chemical reaction involved in this
operation is as follows:
R-COOH + NaOH RCOONa + H
2
O
With heat and time, the excess caustic soda will bring the saponification of a
portion of the neutral oil. So, some considerations regarding the NaOH used
should be carefully chosen to obtain an effective chemical refining process. There
are several type of chemical refining process including short mix caustic, miscella,
batch caustic (dry and wet method batch refining) and silica refining (OBrien,
2009).
Bleaching and Filtration
The neutralised washed oil is then taken to the second step in refining, which is
bleaching. In this operation, the moisture from oil is thus evaporated and oil
becomes dry. The dried oil is treated with bleaching earth (fuller's earth) and
carbon. These bleaching agents will adsorb most of the residual colour of the
remaining oil after neutralisation. The mixture of oil and bleaching agent is
filtered through a standard plate and frame press for separation. The clear oil
obtained is bleached oil and is very much lighter in colour than the neutralised oil.
The oil charge is dehydrated under vacuum to avoid any further deterioration due
to oxygen. In this operation, the coloured pigments in oil are adsorbed by certain
bleaching agents under specific conditions.
Deodorisation
The oil after bleaching is practically pure, but contains minute quantities of
original odoriferous matter and also the chemicals used during neutralisation
process. This bleached oil are then sent to a cylindrical vessel called `Deodoriser'.
29

Deodorizing mechanism is follows distillation process, the volatile materials are
evaporated off with some carrier (commonly direct steam). This oil is then cooled
and clarified through a filter press to get sparkling oil. The purpose of
deodorisation is to make oil blend and tasteless. In this process, the peroxide
value of oil is brought down as minimum as possible.
B. Physical Refining
Palm oil which contain high free fatty acids and low gum contents usually
uses physical refining to remove free fatty acids content. The steps involve
pretreatment including degumming and earth bleaching step to remove non-
volatile impurities by filtration (OBrien, 2009). Physical refining is a modern
alternative for processing CPO where the removal of free fatty acid is by
distillation at higher temperature and low vacuum. This replaces chemical reaction
mode using an alkali in chemical refining. Physical refining is also known as
deacidification (deodorisation) by steam distillation in which free fatty acids and
other volatile components are distilled off from the oil using effective stripping
agent, which is usually steam, under suitable processing conditions. (Meirelles
and Ceriani, 2005).
2.1.2 Pre-Treatment: Palm Kernel Oil (PKO) Extraction Process
It is generally believed that no part of the oil palm tree is useless. After the
processing of the fresh fruit bunch to yield palm oil, the product that is left is the
shelled palm nut which can be cracked to yield the palm kernel nut and the shell.
While the shells can be used as fuels and road construction, though the market is
not well developed in the country, the palm kernel nut can be crushed and
processed to yield palm kernel oil and cake (Ikechukwu, et al; 2012).
At present, there are three major types of extraction methods used in the
extraction of palm kernel oil from palm kernels, these methods are: (a) Traditional
extraction method, (b) Direct solvent extraction, (c) Mechanical extraction using
high pressure screw pressing.
A. Traditional method of palm kernel extraction
The traditional method of palm oil processing starts with the shelling of the
palm nut. The shelling is performed by using two stones to crack each nut and
30

separating the kernel and shell simultaneously. This manual operation has been
largely superseded by the use of nut cracking stations. The mechanical nut
crackers deliver a mixture of kernel and shell that must be separated. The
kernel/shell separation is usually performed in a clay bath which is a concentrated
viscous mixture of clay and water. The density of the clay is such that the shells
sink while the lighter kernels float to the top of the mixture. The floating kernel
are scooped in the basket, washed with clean water and dried. Periodically the
shell are scooped out from the bath and discarded.
The traditional oil extraction method is to fry palm kernels or simply heat
the dried kernel. The fried kernels are pounded or ground to a paste in a motorized
grinder. The paste is mixed with a small quantity of water and heated to release
palm kernel oil. The released oil is periodically skimmed from the top
(Ikechukwu, et al; 2012).
B. Solvent extraction
A solvent extraction plant is designed to extract the oil either from oil seed
or from the pre-pressed expeller cake. This solvent extraction method can be
divided into three main unit processes thus; kernel pre treatment, oil extraction
and solvent recovery from the oil and mill. For the purposes of small scale
operations, it is sufficient to mention that the solvent extraction is an alternative
for high capacity mills. Solvent extraction method gives a high yield of palm
kernel oil when compared with the mechanical extraction method. However the
process is not recommended for small enterprises.
C. Mechanical Extraction
The mechanical extraction method uses screw press as the principal means
of extracting vegetable oil. However, use of the screw press for full extraction has
been increased over the years in the less developed countries. Today even larger
and more efficient machines are being developed for full extraction and pre-
pressing of palm kernel oil. Mechanical extraction processes are suitable for both
small and large scale operations. The three basic steps in this process are (a)
kernel pre-treatment, (b) screw-pressing, and (c) oil clarification.
31


Fig. 2.2 Mechanical Extraction of Palm Kernel Oil
Line (A) is for direct screw-pressing without kernel pre-treatment; Line (B) is for partial kernel
pre-treatment followed by screw-pressing; and Line C is for complete pre-treatment followed by
screw-pressing.
Source: www.fao.org/
2.1.3 Modification of Oil and Fat
Most native oils and fats have limited applications in their unmodified
forms, imposed by their triacylglycerol (TAG) and fatty acid (FA) compositions.
It is widely known that the physical and chemical properties of oils are a strong
function of the TAG and FA composition. By changing the natural physical and
chemical characteristics of a fat or oil, it offers greater functionality for a large
number of product formulations. Fats and oils applications can be widened by
modifying them through blending, fractionation, interesterification,
hydrogenation, or combinations of these processes (Petrauskaite et al., 1998).
Cocoa butter substitutes also as widened application of oils and fats can be
produced through modification of fats and oils.
32


Fig. 2.3 Modification of Oils and Fat
A. Blending
Blending is a method of modifying oils or fats which is easy and
economically friendly because it can be done only by physical mixing of two or
more kinds of oils. The objective of blending is to increase melting point of oil
obtained from this process in meeting the melting point which is required. This
can be done by adding high melting point oil to the oil mixture. Change on the
value of the melting point caused by blending happens because the fatty acid
content from oil which is blend with has fatty acid composition with higher
melting point (Willis, et. Al., 1998).
The characteristic of fat obtained from this blending process is varied, based
on the ratio of saturated and unsaturated fatty acid. Blending is done to avoid
formation of fatty acid trans, because trans fatty acid can cause coronary heart
disease. This process does not required heating as required in hydrogenation and
trans esterification process so the transition from cis fatty acid to trans fatty acid
can be avoided. With high speed stirring, dispersion phase can be mixed well and
to sustain this condition, emulsifier such as lecithin can be added. (Hauman,
1994). Though, blending usually takes longer time compared to other pathways
(O Brien, 1998).
B. Fractionation
Fractionation is a technology whereby a fat is separated into different parts
or fractions. Parts are separated off on the basis of different melting points of the
different fractions, to produce products that have the desired functional properties
or the desired fatty acid composition. Fractionation is usually used in order to
separate the high melting point solid phase and the low melting point liquid phase
33

of a basic raw material from each other. In this process an oil is cooled until
crystals are formed. These crystals, that consist of triglycerides that will no longer
dissolve in the rest of the oil, can then be removed from the oil using a filter. In
this way two product fractions will always be formed, namely the high melting
crystal phase, called the stearin, and the low melting oil phase, the olein.
Fractionation is often used with palm oil in order to produce palm olein
(liquid) and palm stearin (solid). Palm olein contains a relatively large amount of
unsaturated fatty acids and is used a great deal for frying. Palm stearin is used a
great deal in margarines to give them the right consistency (spread ability).
The fractionation process consists on the removal of solids by controlled
crystallization and separation techniques involving the use of solvents or dry
processing. Dry fractionation encompasses both winterization and pressing
techniques and is the most widely practiced form of fractionation. It relies upon
the differences in melting points and triglyceride solubility to separate the oil
fractions.
Pressing is a fractionation process sometimes used to separate liquid oils
from solid fat. This process presses the liquid oil from the solid fraction by
hydraulic pressure or vacuum filtration. This process is used commercially to
produce hard butters and specialty fats from oils such as palm and palm kernel.
Solvent fractionation is the term used to describe a process for the
crystallization of a desired fraction from a mixture of triglycerides dissolved in a
suitable solvent. Fractions may be selectively crystallized at different
temperatures after which the fractions are separated and the solvent removed.
Solvent fractionation is practiced commercially to produce hard butters.
C. Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation is a process to saturate the double bond of fatty acid carbon
chain in oils or fats (Ketaren, 1986). Hydrogenation can reduce double bond into
single bond in order to increase the melting point of fats. This reaction uses
chemical catalyst such as Ni, Pt, or Cu, though the commonly used catalyst is Ni
(Silalahi, 1999). Number of double bonds in oils and fats aects physical property
such as melting point, crystallinity. Generally, double bonds reduce the oils
34

melting point. Therefore, oils rich in unsaturated fatty acids are liquid, while ones
with small amount of unsaturated fatty acids are solid or semi-solid.
Hydrogenation is a process to add hydrogen atoms into double bonds of
unsaturated fatty acids. As the result of hydrogenation, liquid oil becomes solid or
semi-solid. A typical example of hydrogenation is in the process of margarine and
shortening production. Vegetable oil is hydrogenated with gaseous H
2
in the
presence of a metal catalyst (usually nickel catalyst). If the hydrogenation is
completely performed, all the double bounds are converted to the saturated ones
with the same carbon number.

Fig. 2.4 Hydrogenation Process
Vegetable oil is too soft for margarine or shortening because it is liquid. Saturated
fat obtained by complete hydrogenation is too hard. Margarine requires something
in the middle, i.e. not too hard but not too soft. Margarine and shortening makers
partially hydrogenate their product. They only add hydrogen atoms until the oil
is at the desired consistency. During the hydrogenation process, hydrogen atoms
are inserted in no particular order. When they stop the incomplete hydrogenation
process, unsaturated fatty acids are in varying stages of hydrogenation. Some
molecules are mostly hydrogenated, while others are not. And the double bonds
have often shifted to unnatural positions, resulting in the generation of trans fatty
acids or trans fat, which is thought to increase risk of coronary heart disease. In
2003, Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in USA issued a regulation requiring
manufacturers to list trans fat, on the Nutrition Facts panel of foods and some
dietary supplements.
35

D. Interesterification
Inter esterification is a reaction where triglyceride ester or fatty acid ester is
transformed into other kind of ester by reaction with alcohol (alcoholysis), fatty
acid (acidolysis) and trans esterification (Rozal and Naf, 1996). Inter esterification
include rearrangement or randomization native residue in trialcylglycerol and
obtain oil and fat with new characteristic (Belitz and Grosch, 1987).

Fig. 2.5 Interesterification of Triacylglycerol Molecules
Interesterification (IE) is the process of re-arranging the fatty esters within
and between triglycerides resulting in most cases, a change in the physical
properties of the oil/fat. It is a useful modification method to give the oil/fat the
functionality required for a finished product. Erhan and Asadauskas (2000)
reported that modification (interesterification) route can be applied to improve the
pour point of vegetable oils. Interesterification is the intra and intermolecular
exchange of fatty acids on the glycerol backbone of triacyglycerols, although the
term is used loosely to include acidolysis and other ester exchange reactions. It is
applied to either an individual oil or blend of oils, to produce triacylglycerol with
different properties. The molecular species of natural triacylglcerols is not a
random mixture of all possible isomers, but it shows greater or lesser selectively
in the distribution of fatty acids (Gunstone, 1999). This as well as the overall fatty
acid cis mixture, determines many of the technically important properties of the
oil or fat, for example, solid fat content and the melting point. Once subjected to
interesterification with a chemical catalyst, the triacyglycerol become a random
mixture of molecular species (Scrimgeour, 2005).
36

Inter esterification reaction is exchange reaction of alkyl group between
ester. This method is an alternative process that can be used to avoid formation of
trans isomer (Petrauskaite, 1998). With triglyceride, inter esterification can be
done through two processes, intra molecular exchange and inter molecular
exchange. Different position of fatty acid in the same molecule of triglyceride is
called intra esterification. Random transfer and exchange of fatty acid between
triglyceride molecules until achieving equilibrium with every possible
combination is called inter esterification (Silalahi, 2000). Inter esterification can
be done with chemical catalyst (chemical inter esterification) or enzyme
biocatalyst (enzymatic inter esterification).
As well as achieving suitable melting properties, interesterification also
optimises crystallisation behaviour to generate more stable crystalline forms.
Saturated triacylglycerols can exist in more than one crystalline form
(polymorphs), which results in different patterns of molecular packing in the
crystals and multiple melting points. The three basic polymorphs are referred to
as , and . The a form is the least stable with the lowest melting point,
and b the most stable with the highest melting point. For example, the melting
point of the , and polymorphic forms of the species stearic/oleic/stearic
(SOS) are 22.4, 36.5 and 41.7 C, respectively. During interesterification, the
form is commonly generated, thus improving the stability and granularity of the
fat. For example, the proportion of solid fat at body temperature (37 C) in the
native cocoa butter and randomly interesterified cocoa butter is 1 and 37%
respectively (Berry SEE, Nutr Res Rev. 2009, 22,3).
2.1.4 CBS Purification
A. Solvent Extraction
Liquidliquid extraction also known as solvent extraction and partitioning,
is a method to separate compounds based on their relative solubilities in two
different immiscible liquids, usually water and an organic solvent. It is an
extraction of a substance from one liquid into another liquid phase. The
term partitioning is commonly used to refer to the underlying chemical and
physical processes involved in liquidliquid extraction but may be fully
synonymous. The term solvent extractioncan also refer to the separation of a
37

substance from a mixture by preferentially dissolving that substance in a suitable
solvent. In that case, a soluble compound is separated from an insoluble
compound or a complex matrix.
Solvent extraction is used in nuclear reprocessing, ore processing, the
production of fine organic compounds, the processing of perfumes, the production
of vegetable oils and biodiesel, and other industries.
Selective liquid-liquid extraction has become a widely accepted means of
separating chemicals and should be adaptable to mono-, di-, and triglyceride
mixtures which differ in molecular weight and number of polar groups. Selective
extraction of monoglycerides by ethanol-hexane mixtures and fractional
crystallization from mixed solvents have been done.
B. Steam Distillation
Steam distillation enables a compound or mixture of compounds to be
distilled (and subsequently recovered) at a temperature substantially below that of
the boiling point(s) of the individual constituent(s). Steam distillation is a special
type of distillation for temperature sensitive materials . Many organic
compounds tend to decompose at high sustained temperatures. Separation by
normal distillation would then not be an option, so water or steam is introduced
into the distillation apparatus. By adding water or steam, the boiling points of the
compounds are depressed, allowing them to evaporate at lower temperatures,
preferably below the temperatures at which the deterioration of the material
becomes appreciable. If the substances to be distilled are very sensitive to heat,
steam distillation can also be combined with vacuum distillation. After distillation
the vapors are condensed as usual, usually yielding a two-phase system of water
and the organic compounds, allowing for decantation.
2.2 Process Selection
2.2.1 CPO Refining Process
From the brief explaination above, we can make a comparison between
refining methods.

38

Table 2.1 Comparison of Chemical and Physical Method for CPO Refining
Parameter Physical method Point Chemical method Point
Technical
factors
The operation is more simple
and easy handling
4 The operation is more complex 3
Needs more energy for
processing
2
Needs less energy for
processing
3
Produce higher yield, purity,
and stability of the oil
5
Produce lower yield , purity
and stability of the oil
3
Waste
Produce less waste
4 Produce more waste 3
Released waste is more safe 5
Released waste is less safe
(chemical compound)
3
Equipments less equipments required 5
more equipment required due
to chemical treatment
4
Costs
more economic due to less
equipments and chemical
compound needed
5
more expensive due to
equipments and chemical
compound needed
4
Total Score: 30 21

So, by the table above, physical refining method is preferred due to the
economical process that require less chemicals, produce less waste and give
highter oil yields. The advantages are particularly apparent with oils such as palm
oil that have high levels of free acid and low level of phospholipids.
Fats and oils contain complex organo-phosphorus compounds referred to as
phospholipids (phosphatides) or more usually, as gums. Phospholipids should be
removed because of their strong emulsifying action and if they are not removed,
the oil will went through undue darkening during deodorization at high
temperature (Kim et al.,2002). In physical refining method, the phospholipids
(phosphatides) are removed during processing by a variety of treatments
collectively referred to as degumming. The treatment usually involves hydration
with water,orthophosphoric acid, and polybasic organic acids either singly or in
combination, followed by centrifuging the precipitated material or by its
adsorption on bleaching earth or filter. Degumming process is crucial for physical
refining that consists of treatment of crude oils with water, salt solutions,
enzymes, caustic soda, dilute acids such as phosphoric, citric or maleic to remove
phosphatides, waxes, prooxidants and other impurities. There are 6 types of
degumming process in vegetable oil industry. The differences between all these
39

types are based on methods of processing, chemicals used and the content of
phosphatides in the crude vegetable oil. For processing palm oil, alternative
degumming process that can be used are:
1. Dry Acid Degumming
Dry degumming process involved removal of gums through precipitation by
acid conditioning and via filtration during the bleaching process, not via
centrifugal separation. This process is used for low-phosphatides oil such as
palm oil, lauric oils, edible tallow and suitable to be used for preparing oils
for subsequent physical refining. This type of process eliminates bleaching, as
separate processing step thus, it is cost-advantage and it is a well-proven
process. Figure below shows the flow diagram of dry-degumming process.

Fig. 2.6 Flow Diagram of Dry-Degumming Process
Source: Rohani, et al. 2006. Process Design in Degumming and Bleaching of Palm Oil.
Research Vote No: 74198. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

2. Wet Acid degumming
In organic refining process, dilute organic (citric) acid is normally used and
the removal of residual phosphatides is by bleaching using silica hydrogel.
Initially oils with higher gum contents (e.g. corn oil) are similarly processed
as in dry acid degumming. However, to achieve gum hydration water is added
following acid apportioning. The gums are removed by a separator prior to
bleaching. This process is beneficial as centrifuges enable easy separation of
gums in oil types with higher non-hydratable gums contents (e.g. rape oil and
40

soybean oil). Gums are precipitated by some form of acid conditioning
process and subsequently removed by centrifugal separation. In this process
method, the gums can be hydrated at temperature higher than 40
o
C and the
process may lead to some dewaxing which usually associated with processing
of sunflower and rice bran oils.

Fig. 2.7 Flow Diagram of Acid-Degumming Process
3. Enzymatic degumming
Enzymatic degumming is a special degumming that enhanced by using some
food-grade enzymes. Types of oil that uses this process method are soybean
oil and rapeseed oil. The enzyme solution (Aqueous solution of citric acid,
caustic soda and enzymes) is dispersed into filtered oil at mild temperature, a
high speed rotating mixer used for effective mixing of enzyme and oil. The
conversion of non-hydratable phospholipids (NHPs) into hydratable
phospholipase (HPs) is attained by the effect of enzyme, the enzyme treated
oil is sent to mechanical separation and the degummed oil received is dried
under vacuum and suitable for further process. The advantage of enzymatic
degumming is no soapstock is produced so no oil losses due to soapstock
separation.
4. EDTA- degumming
EDTA degumming is a physico-chemical degumming process. It involves a
complete elimination of phospholipids by a chelating agent, Ethylene
41

Diamine Tetraacetic Acid (EDTA), in the presence of an emulsifying
additive.

Fig. 2.8 Flow Diagram of EDTA-Degumming Process
Table 2.2 Comparison of Alternative Degumming Process
Parameter
Dry Acid
Degumming
Points
Wet Acid
Degumming
Points
Enzymatic
Degumming
Points
EDTA
Degumming
Points
Technical
factors
particularly
suitable for
processing oils
with low gum
contents (e.g.
palm oil, coconut
oil, palm kernel oil
or animal fats)
5
particularly
suitable for
processing oils
with higher
non-
hydratable
gums contents
(e.g. rape oil
and soybean
oil)
2
has complex
process
3
has a simple
process
4
Higher energy
consumption
3
Efficiency as a
result of low
energy
consumption
5
Efficiency as a
result of low
energy
consumption
5
Efficiency as
a result of
low energy
consumption
4
long service life
(the components
are acid proof)
5
long service
life (the
components
are acid proof)
5
short service
life (the
components
are not acid
proof)
3
long service
life (the
components
are acid
proof)
5
HSE
environmental-
friendly as no
waste water or
soap stock occur
5
waste water
occur
4
environmental-
friendly as no
waste water or
soap stock
occur
5
chemical
waste occur
3
42

Costs
low investment
cost and also
operation and
maintenance
costs (sturdy and
reliable control
system)
5
the
consumption
of bleaching
earth is
reduced
because the oil
has already
been
extensively
degummed
4
high operation
and
maintenance
costs (for
enzyme
treatment)
2
high
operation
and
maintenance
costs (for
EDTA)
3
Total Score: 23

20

18

19

Based on table above we choose dry acid degumming process which has
been widely used as palm oil degumming process.
The next process is to remove colour producing substances or further
refining process called bleaching. Bleaching principle is adsorption of the colour
producing substances on an adsorbent material. There a lot of adsorbent materials
are being used in vegetable oil industry for examples; acid activated bleaching
earth, natural bleaching earth, activated carbon and synthetic silicates.
1.2.2 PKO Extraction Process
From the brief explaination above, we can make a comparison between
PKO extraction method
Table 2.3 Comparison of Method for PKO Extraction
Parameter Traditional method Points Solvent extraction Points Mechanical extraction Points
Technical
factors
The most simple
process
4 Has complex process 2
Has easy-handling
process
4
Needs more labour 2 Needs less labour 5 Needs less labour 5
Need less energy 4 Needs less energy 5
Needs more energy for
process equipments
3
Produce lower
purity and yield of
products
2
Produce lower purity
of products
3
Produce higher purity
and yield of products
4
HSE
Produce less waste 4
Produce more waste
(include chemical
waste)
3 Produce less waste 4
Released waste is
safe
5
Released waste is less
safe (chemical
compound)
3 Released waste is safe 5
43

Equipments
Less equipments
required
5
More equipments are
required for solvent
treatment
2
Less equipments
required
4
Costs
Lowest cost for
equipments but
high cost in labours
4
High cost in solvent,
low cost in labours
3
Low cost both in
equipments, material,
and labours
5
Total score: 30

26

34

Based on table above we choose mechanical extraction method which has
been widely used as extraction method for PKO at plant scale.

2.2.3 Modification of Oil and Fat
Based on the previous part, cocoa butter substitute as widened applications
of fats and oils can be produced by modification through blending, fractionation,
interesterification, hydrogenation, or combinations of these processes palm oil
degumming process (Petrauskaite et al., 1998). The comparison between
modification techniques can be seen below.
Table 2.4 Oil and Fat Modification Method Comparison
Parameter
Blending Fractionation Interesterification Hydrogenation
Explanation Score Explanation Score Explanation Score Explanation Score
Technical
Factors
Does not
need
catalyst
5
Does not
need
catalyst
5 Need catalyst 2
Need
Catalyst
2
Does not
need high
temperature
5
Does not
need high
temperature
5
Need high
temperature
for chemical
method, but
there is
possibility to
be performed
in mild
condition by
enzymatic
method
4
Need high
temperature
1
HSE
Avoid
formation of
trans fatty
acid
2
Possibility to
form trans
fatty acid
1
Avoid
formation of
trans fatty
acid; maintain
taste, texture
and flavor
5
Possibility to
form trans
fatty acid
1
44

Equipment
Blending
tanks,
mechanical
agitators,
heating coils
4
Membrane
Press Filter
or
Centrifuge
3
Reactor Tank
with
Mechanical
Agitators
5
Reactor
Tank with
Mechanical
Agitators
and heating
coils
4
Cost Cheap 5 Average 4 Expensive 2 Expensive 3
Time
Factor
Takes longer
time
1
Takes longer
time
1
Takes shorter
time
5
Takes
shorter time
5
Total 22 19 23 16

Based on the Table above, interesterification is more preferable technique
to modify oil compared to other techniques. Like blending technique,
interesterification which perform in lower temperature than hydrogenation can
avoid the formation of trans fatty acid which can lead to coronary heart disease.
The formation of trans fatty acid has attract the attention of consumers for
healthier product that only contain less trans fatty acid. Besides, there will be
needed stricter labeling and legalization for our product, if our product contain
high concentration of trans fatty acid. Unlike blending technique,
interesterification technique can perform faster with the help from catalyst though
this technique needs more cost than blending technique. This technique also can
maintain the taste, texture and flavor of products because there is a chance that
inter esterification can be done in mild condition if we use biocatalyst.
Inter esterification can be done with chemical catalyst (chemical inter
esterification) or enzyme biocatalyst (enzymatic inter esterification). A chemical,
such as sodium methoxide, is used as a catalyst in chemical interesterification
which produces complete positional randomization of the acyl groups in the
triacylglycerols. On the other hand, enzymatic interesterification uses microbial
lipases as the catalyst. Each type of interesterification has its advantages and
disadvantages. The advantages of chemicalinteresterification over the enzymatic
reaction include cost recovery and low initial investment as the catalysts are much
cheaper than lipases. The process has been around for a long time, with the
industrial procedures and equipment available. Enzymatic interesterification is
more specific, requires less severe reaction conditions and produces less waste
45

than chemical interesterification. The comparison between enzymatic and
chemical inter esterification can be shown below.
1. Chemical Inter Esterification
Chemical inter esterification results in randomization of alkyl groups in
triglyceride. Inter esterification can be done without catalyst, though, this process
needs high temperature and long time to achieve equilibrium condition.
Triglyceride will decompose and polymerize results in free fatty acids (Silalahi,
1999).
According to Sreenivasan (1978), temperature needed to do inter
esterification without catalyst is 300
0
C even higher. To decrease the temperature
needed for reaction, catalyst is used. There are several catalysts can be used to
perform inter esterification and the commonly is 0.1%. If it is used in excess
concentration, it will lost neutral lipid that can form methyl ester which gives soap
flavor.
Interesterification effect on oils and fats depends strongly on composition
and distribution of fatty acid. Several vegetable oils such as peanut oil, cottonseed
oil and cocoa butter have equal distribution of fatty acid which results in
differences between their glyceride molecules. High melting point of fat depend
on glyceride tri saturated content which result in random rearrangement that
affect melting point. A mixture of fat with high saturated fatty acid content and
liquid oils through random rearrangement because of fatty acids from saturated
fatty acid can be distribute broadly (Silalahi, 1999).
Chemical inter esterification is mainly applied to produce margarine and
spread without hydrogenation process to avoid formation of trans fatty acid. The
objectives is to increase specific fatty acid proportion on specific position in
glycerol chain to repair bioavability. Randomization of fatty acid and butter shows
reduce of serum trialcylglycerol and reduce collision between saturated fatty acid
in cholesterol concentration. Chemical inter esterification is also used to
randomize fatty acids between trialcylglycerol from various source to change
nutritional characteristics (Willis, et. al., 1998).

46

2. Enzymatic Interesterification
Lipase is an enzyme that can catalyze inter esterification reaction. This
enzyme, mainly produced by bacteria, yeast and fungus, catalyze hydrolysis
trialcylglycerol, dialcylglycerol and free fatty acid. Lipase, or triacylglycerol
(TAG) acylhydrolases (E.C. 3.1.1.3) is a kind of carboxy esterase. Under
physiological conditions, this enzyme catalyzes hydrolysis of oils and fats, so the
biological role of lipase is metabolism of lipids. Hydrolysis product accumulation
continues until an equilibrium condition is achieved (Willis et al., 1998). In
addition of lipase, several variation of reactions are used including acid
esterification with alcohol, this reaction is always used in synthesis to produce
ester on sugar or amide fat.
Characteristic of enzyme can work effectively if procedure and reaction
condition are kept well. Based on specific characteristic, lipase can be classified
to: lipase which is selective to substrate, lipase which is selective to position,
lipase which is unselective, lipase which is un selective to fatty acid. The
advantages of utilization of lipase compared to chemical catalyst: enzyme can
decompose naturally so it is environmentally friendly, enzyme can function in
mild condition so it can avoid occurrence of side reaction, reaction is efficient and
can be easily controlled, and specificity of lipase on its substrate.
EIE involves three key steps: pretreatment of oil, introduction of the
reaction catalyst and deodorization of the oils. The EIE process can be executed in
two methods: batch or continuous (single bed or fixed bed). In the batch process,
the enzyme activity decreases over time, so flow must be carefully monitored and
adjusted over time to maintain conversion. This process cannot be operated
continuously because of the frequent need to remove and replace the enzyme. In
fixed bed continuous production, the enzyme levels vary in each reactor. The first
reactor has the lowest enzyme activity and absorbs most of the impurities and
harmful compounds. This sequencing protects the most active enzymes, which are
in the last reactors.
A fixed bed system is the most common commercial process used for
enzymatic interesterification. In a fixed bed process, the blended liquid oil and
solid (hard fat) oil flow through a system consisting of an oil purification bed and
47

an enzyme bed. The oil purification bed removes impurities from the oil blend so
that the enzyme activity can be maintained at its highest performance. The
enzyme bed allows for the enzymatic interesterification of the oil blend as the
blend passes through the bed.
Table 2.5 Interestrification Method Comparison
Parameter
Chemical interesterification Enzymatic Interesterification
Explanation Score Explanation Score
Technical
Factors
Fully proven 5
New and still rather
unknown
3
Less specific 2 High Specificity 5
HSE
Produce dangerous
waste
2
Produce less
dangerous waste
5
Risky operation 2 Less severe reaction 5
Equipment
Needs reactor with
mechanical agitators
and heating
equipments
2
Needs reactor with
mechanical agitators
3
Cost
Less operating cost 5 More operating cost 3
More investment cost 3 Less investment cost 5
Time Factor Shorter time 5 Longer time 3
Total 26 32

Based on comparison above, we choose enzymatic inter esterification
technique because of lots of its advantages. The major advantage is enzymatic
inter esterification technique leads to much safer and environmentally friendly
process, which has been a focus nowadays. First, the lipase-catalyzed reactions
can proceed under milder conditions than the chemical reactions. In one aspect,
this is advantageous, because undesired side reactions such as heat degradation of
the substrates can be avoided. But in another aspect, it may be a drawback
because lipases can work only under mild conditions, i.e. lipase is much weaker
than the chemical catalysts. Second, (and more importantly), the lipase-catalyzed
reactions are specic (or selective) for particular acyl groups, particular positions
of the substrates, or particular stereoisomers. This specicity enables the
modication of oils and fats in more sophisticated way.
Lipase enzyme that is used can be immobilized or use freely in solution.
The choice whether we will use immobilized enzyme or free enzyme in solution
48

will affect the type of reactor we shall use for interesterification reaction. These
are the advantages and disadvantages of enzyme immobilization.
Table 2.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Enzyme Immobilization
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Increasing stability 1. Higher investment cost
2. Enzyme can be reused
2. Less active as they do not mixed
freely with the substrate
3. Avoid product contamination
4. Easy separation of enzyme from the
product

5. Reduces effluent disposal problem
6. Possibility of conducting continuous
reaction

Based on the Table above, we can see that enzyme immobilization has more
advantages than disadvantages. The major advantages are enzyme can be reused
which can decrease our operational cost and it also can increase the purity of our
product because the ease of separation process. Based on the production capacity
calculation, our plant should be perform continuous mode of operation, which can
be possibly obtained by immobilization of enzyme.
There are several methods for lipase immobilization. The most simple
method for immobilization is the precipitation of the lipases with acetone. An
enzyme solution is added to the support material and acetone is added slowly.
Afterwards the precipitate is recovered by filtration and residual water is removed
by the addition of acetone. The particles obtained are dried under vacuum and
reactivation of the enzymes is initiated by the addition of water. Since usually
only the inner core of the enzyme is hydrophobic, the surface hydrophobicity of
the molecule has to increase for immobilization to a hydrophobic support
material. Recently such a method of immobilization has been introduced by Basri
et al. The lipase from Candida rugosa was modified by introduction of different
hydrophobic groups, such as monomethoxypolyethylene glycol, acetaldehyde, and
methyl-4-phenylbutyrimidate. Afterwards, the modified lipases were attached to
the polymer beads. The hydrolysis and esterification reactions were carried out in
solvents. The immobilized enzymes showed higher activity compared to purified
lipase.
49

Entrapment of lipases involves the capture of the enzyme in a matrix of
crosslinkable resins or photo-cross-linkable prepolymers. In the latter process,
resin prepolymers are mixed with photosensitizers, melted and mixed with the
lipase solution. Gel formation is initiated by exposure to ultraviolet radiation. To
maintain good reaction activities, the resins need to be hydrophobic. The major
disadvantage is the reduction in mass transfer due to the gel formed around the
enzymes.
Another method is microencapsulation. The microcapsules obtained by this
method correspond to a dispersed solid phase in an oil phase. An example of such
a process is silicone dioxide and a binder solution of ethylene maleic copolymer,
which are dissolved together with the lipase in a solution of ethanol and acetone.
This solution is atomized in hot air and particles of 10 to 20 m are formed. The
major disadvantage of this immobilization method is that the lipase cannot attack
large substrates because of limited permeability of the capsule wall. For covalent
attachment of lipases to an insoluble support, the carrier needs to be derivatized in
order to be able to react with the functional groups of the lipases. Recently,
magnetic beads have also been used which facilitates the recovery of the lipases.
A last method involves immobilization of cell-associated lipases by simple drying
of mycelia. The advatage of such a method is the elimination of the isolation step
in the recovery of the enzymes. A drying procedure can be the storage of the cell
culture suspension in a vacuum chamber at room temperature. To obtain a good
activation of the enzyme as well as to stimulate the desired enzymatic reaction
(hydrolysis versus esterification or interesterification), the appropriate amount of
water added to the immobilized enzymes is decisive. Fully dried catalyst particles
will show a low activity for interesterification. Small amounts of water (up to 10%
of the mass of the particles) are required to reach an acceptable rate of
interesterification.

2.2.2 CBS Purification
50

The other process that needs to be selected is the purification or separation
step of cocoa butter substitute. Interesterification reaction in the previous step
does not perform completely. This results in free fatty acids, monoglycerides and
diglycerides beside triglycerides. We should remove free fatty acids,
monoglycerides and diglycerides that gives bad odour for cocoa butter substitutes.
There are two steps to remove those compounds, which are distillation and
extraction.
Table 2.7 CBS Purificaton Method Comparison
Parameter
Physical Refining (Steam
Distillation)
Chemical Refining (Extraction)
Explanation Score Explanation Score
Technical
Factors

Fully Proven 5
New and still rather
unknown
3
Less oil losses 5 High oil losses 2
HSE

Less waste 3
Produce more waste
(solvent)
4
Deteroriate product
quality
5
Maintain product
quality
2
Equipment
Complex equipment
(Distillation column,
boiler, condenser)
3
Simple equipment
(extraction column)
5
Cost
Do not need expense
for waste treatment
and disposal
5
Need expense for
waste treatment and
disposal
3
Time Factor Shorter time 5 Longer time 3
Total 31 22

2.3 Selected Process Description
2.3.1 CPO Refining Process: Physical Method
To be suitable as material used for cocoa butter substitute (table 1.5), CPO
need to be refine to RBDPO. Based on assessment above, we choose physical
method to refine our CPO. Fig. 2.8 shows the simplified flowsheet of physical
refining which consists of pre-treatment stage (degumming and bleaching) and
deodorization stage.
51


Fig. 2.9 Simplified Flowsheet of Physical Refining
A. Degumming
The main objective of this degumming is to remove the unwanted gums,
which will interfere the stability of the oil products in later stage. The main
component of contained in the gums, which has to be removed, is phosphatide. It
is vital to remove the phosphatides content in the crude oil because the presence
of this component will impart undesirable flavor and color, and shorten the shelf
life of oil. The phosphatides emulsifying action is the main culprit that causes the
oxidative instability of the crude palm oil (CPO).

Fig. 2.10 Chemical structure of most common phosphatides
52

The objective is achieved by treating the crude palm oil (CPO) with the
specified quantity of food grade acid. There are 2 kinds of phospholipids exists,
those that hydratable and those that cannot be hydrated (non-hydratable
phosphatides -NHP). Hydratable phospholipids can be removed easily by the
addition of water where the process can be conducted rapidly at elevated
temperature or slowly at low temperature. By taking up water, phospholipids lose
their lipophilic character and become lipophobic and thus precipitate from oil
(Bockish, 1998). Whereas, for non-hydratable phospholipids, its have to be
converted to hydratables ones. The conversion of non-hydratable phospholipids to
hydratable is done usually through acidulation followed by neutralisation.
Traditionally, acids that are being used are usually sufficiently strong to hydrate
phospholipids without hydrolyzing the triglycerides. At present, citric or
phosphoric acid is normally being used for any type of vegetable oil (Thiagarajan
and Tang., 1991).
Degumming palm oil uses dry degumming process due to low phosphatide
content. This process is done by treating oil with H
3
PO
4,
as degumming agent, to
decompose the metal ion or phosphatides complexes and mixed with bleaching
earth.

Fig. 2.11 Degumming Reaction
source: Deffense, Etienne. 2009. From Organic Chemistry To Fat And Oil Chemistry*
For physical refining, phosphorous must be reduced to less than 30 ppm
with degumming, so that bleaching or dry degumming can reduce until less than 5
ppm and remove all traces of iron and copper to meet a good RBDPO quality.
Hydratable insoluble metal ions could also dispersed by phospholipids through
miscellar action. Since phospholipids and glycolipids cause reverse micelle,
vesicle or emulsion droplet formation, phospholipids can remove metal ions and
their hydrophilic salts from the lipid phase to reduce oxidation.
53

In this unit operation, the incoming CPO is first heated up to a temperature
of about 90
o
C - 110
o
C where this temperature is an optimal temperature for CPO
to react with phosphoric acid. Then the heated CPO is mixed with phosphoric acid
in stirred tank reactor and further drawn into degumming reactor with retention
time of 20 minutes. The degummed oil with temperature of 95
o
C will then be fed
to the bleacher for the bleaching step.
The dosage of phosphoric acid used in this process is within the range of
0.05 0.1 % of oil weight with acid concentration approximately about 80 - 85 %.
It is meant to decompose the non-hydratable phosphatides as well as to coagulate
the phosphatides making them insoluble and thus easily removed during
bleaching. Excessive amount of phosphoric acid are need to be avoided as it may
cause rise in phosphorus acid and this excessiveness may be difficult to be
removed and contribute to further refining problems.

Fig. 2.12 Effect of Phosphoric Acid Dosage on Peroxide Value and Free Fatty Acid
B. Bleaching
The term bleaching refers to the treatment that is given to remove colour
producing substances and to further purify the fat or oil. This process refers to the
54

art of removing not only the colour pigments but also dirt, trace metals and
various organic impurities that promote oxidation. Effective adsorption requires a
large surface and practically high specific surface area (m2/g) of a very porous
adsorbent is should be used. The channels by which molecules reach this surface
must be negotiable by the molecules concerned. The nature of the process must
allow acceptably firm bonds, chemical or physical, between it and the adsorbate
(Patterson, 1992).
Therefore, in order have maximum attainment of bleaching performance, an
efficient bleaching earth is produced which having surfaces of the correct
chemical composition and pore distribution selectively attractive to the
detrimental components present in crude triglyceride oils. The use of bleaching
earth

as bleaching agent is to (1) adsorb the unwanted impurities such as metal,
water, insoluble materials, the majority of carotene and other pigments, (2)
reduces the oxidation products, (3) absorb phospholipids precipitated by
phosphoric acid, and (4) separating the excess phosphoric acid after degumming
process. Perfect separation of the phosphoric acid is very important, because the
presence of phosphoric acid may cause increased free fatty acid oil produced
(Basiron 2005).

Fig. 2.13 Effect of Bleaching Period and Temperature
55


Mathematically, bleaching or purification process follows the Freundlich
adsorption isotherm. Adsorption isotherm is the equilibrium relationships between
the concentration in the fluid phase and the concentration in the adsorbent
particles at a given temperature. For the cases involving liquids, the concentration
is often expressed in mass units such as part per million (ppm). The concentration
of adsorbate on the solid is given as mass adsorbed per unit mass of original
adsorbent. Figure below shows arithmetic graphs of some typical isotherm shapes
(McCabe, 1993).

Fig. 2.14 Adsorption Isotherms
Source: McCabe, 1993
Linear isotherm indicates the amount of adsorbed is proportional to the
concentration in fluid, this relation only works well for gases that a weakly
adsorbed (McCabe, 1993). For adsorption from liquids, Freundlich isotherm is
applicable. This isotherm is of the strongly favourable type. Bleaching of palm oil
falls under this type of isotherms as the bleaching process are involving liquids
(oils). The equation for Freundlich isotherm for bleaching process can be
illustrated as per below (Rossi et al., 2003)

Where x = quantity of substance adsorbed
m = quantity of adsorbent
c = quantity of residual substance dissolved
K and n= constants unrelated to the amounts of solute and adsorbent
56

This Freundlich equation relates the specific adsorption (x/m), i.e the amount of
substance adsorbed per unit of adsorbent weight, to residual solute concentration
(c), at the equilibrium for a given temperature (Rossi et al., 2003). When graph of
(x/m) vs. c is plotted, a straight-line graph is obtained with a slope equal to n and
an intercept equal to K. The value of K determines the adsorption capacity of the
adsorbent for specific solute whereas the value of n determines the ranges of
bleaching in which adsorbent show its greatest effect. According to Rossi et al., if
the n is high, the adsorbent will be effective for removing the first portions of
colour but less efficient for reaching highest bleaching degree and if n is low it is
vice versa. The value of K and n depend on the kinds of adsorbent and oil and also
the operating conditions of bleaching process.

Fig. 2.15 Bleaching Effect of an Oil Dependent on Different Processing Parameters
Source: Patterson, 1992
Prior to bleaching step, the degummed oil is mixed with bleaching earth in
the jacketed stirred tank reactor. The bleaching earth is proportioned by an
automatic feeding system. The degummed oil mixed with bleaching earth is then
drawn into bleacher where the bleaching process takes place for about 30 - 50
minutes at 95
o
C 100
o
C. During bleaching or purification, the oil is brought into
contact with a surfaceactive adsorbent, and then the undesired particles or other
components are selectively retained on the pore surface and triglycerides escapes.
Gradually, the concentration of undesired particles on the available surface-active
of the adsorbent and the concentration remaining in the oil come into balance, so
further exchange is negligible.

57

C. Filtration
For quality purposes, the earth containing degumming acid, phosphatides,
pigments and other impurities must be removed by filtration. This process is very
important considering that the spent earth will decreasing oxidaton stability of
resulted RBDPO (Basiron 2005). The output from the bleacher known as
Bleached Palm Oil (BPO) is passed through the Niagara Filter in order to separate
the spent bleaching earth and other impurities from the oil. BPO from the Niagara
Filter is then pumped into filtered oil tank as a temporary storage before further
processing to the deodorizer.

Fig. 2.16 Niagara Filter
Source: http://www.andritz.com
D. Deodorization
The filtered oil (DBPO) received from the post bleacher filter press is
then channeled into the deodorizer for the deacidification and deodorisation
treatment. Deodorization is the most crucial step in refining process. It is a steam
distillation process that utilises a combination of high temperature heating and
direct steam injection to completely remove the smell, free fatty acids, color
pigments and other impurities. During this deodorization process, free fatty acid
(FFA) in the form of palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) is removed as refining
waste, at the upper section of deodorizer. Apart from FFA, carotenoids
pigments, primary and secondary oxidation products are also being removed as it
may contribute to off-flavours.
58

BPO from the polishing filter is heated up to 240
o
C under vacuum. Steam
and water are adjusted in order to maintain a vacuum of approximately 5 torr
(0.066 atm). Direct steam functions to readily remove the free fatty acids,
aldehydes and ketones residuals that cause the undesirable odors and flavours.
The use of temperatures above 270
o
C should be avoided to minimize the loss of
oil, tocopherol, tocotrienol, and the possibility of isomerization and
thermochemical reaction undesirable.
The fatty acid vapour is pulled out from the column by the vacuum system
and trapped in the fatty acid condenser and then further cooled in the fatty acid
cooler and discharged to the fatty acid storage tank as palm fatty acid distillate
(PFAD). The bottom product of deodorizer is Refined Bleached Deodorized Palm
Oil (RBDPO) with temperature approximately 240
o
C.
The RBDPO is pumped through plate heat exchanger to exchange the heat
with feed CPO before it undergoes final cooling and pumped to the storage tank
with temperature 50 - 80
o
C. The bottom product of the pre-stripper and deodorizer
is refined bleached deodorized Palm Oil (RBDPO).
2.3.2 PKO Extraction: Mechanical Extraction
A. Kernel pre-treatment
A swinging hammer grinder, breaker rolls or a combination of both then
breaks the kernels into small fragments. This process increases the surface area of
the kernels, thus facilitating flaking. The kernel fragments subsequently are
subjected to flaking in a roller mill. The thickness of kernel cakes is progressively
reduced as it travels from the top roller to the bottom. This progressive rolling
initiates rupturing of cell walls. The flakes that leave the bottom nip are from 0.25
to 0.4 mm thick.
59


Fig. 2.17 Hammer Mill
Source: http://www.rictec.com.sg
Hammermills work on the principle that most materials will crush or
pulverize upon impact using a simple three step operation:
1. Material is fed into the mill's chamber typically by gravity.
2. The material is struck by ganged hammers (rectangular pieces of hardened
steel) which are attached to a shaft which rotates at high speed inside the
chamber. The material is crushed or shattered by the repeated hammer
impacts, collisions with the walls of the grinding chamber, as well as particle
on particle impacts.
3. Perforated metal screens, or bar grates covering the discharge opening of the
mill retains coarse materials for further grinding while allowing the properly
sized materials to pass as finished product.
The kernel flakes are then conveyed to a stack cooker for steam
conditioning, the purpose of which is to:
coagulate the protein in the meal to facilitate separation of the oil from
protein materials
adjust the moisture content of the meal to an optimum level;
reduce viscosity of oil
rupture cell walls (initiated by rolling)
The meal flows from the top compartment down to the fifth compartment in
series. At each stage a mechanical stirrer agitates the meal, and steam trays heat
the cookers. The important variables are temperature, retention time and moisture
60

content. In the palm kernel, the meals are cooked to a moisture content of 3
percent at 110C.
B. Screw-pressing
The properly cooked meal is then fed to the screw-press, which consists of
an interrupted helical thread (worm) which revolves within a stationary perforated
cylinder called the cage or barrel. The meal is forced through the barrel by the
action of the revolving worms. The volume axially displaced by the worm
diminishes from the feeding end to the discharge end, thus compressing the meal
as it passes through the barrel.
The expelled oil drains through the perforation of the lining bars of the
barrel, while the de-oiled cake is discharged through an annular orifice. In order to
prevent extreme temperatures that could damage the oil and cake quality, the
worm-shaft is always cooled with circulating water while the barrel is cooled
externally by recycling some cooled oil.

Fig. 2.18 Screw Press
Source: 2012. Cara Kerja Screw Press. http://intisawit.blogspot.com
C. Oil clarification
The expelled oil invariably contains a certain quantity of impurities that
need to be removed. The oil from the presses is pumped to a filter press to remove
the remaining solids and fines in order to produce clear oil prior to storage. The
cakes discharged from the presses are conveyed for bagging or bulk storage.
61


Fig. 2.19 Clarifier
Source: Separator, http://www.flottweg.de/
2.3.3 Homogenization
To obtain cocoa butter substitute, we use two kinds of oils as raw materials,
which are CPO (Crude Palm Oil) and PKO (Palm Kernel Oil). The CPO has been
refined, bleached and deodorized to obtain RBDPO. Before performing
interesterification reaction between these two kinds of oils, because we will use
fixed bed reactor to perform the reaction, these oils, RBDPO and PKO should be
mixed first to obtain homogenized mixture so the reaction can be performed
effectively. The ratio of RBDPO and PKO which are mixed in this step refers to
Tarigan, Juliati, 2005. The ratio of RBDPO:PKO is 7:3 to obtain melting point at
35
0
C which is expected for cocoa butter substitute. The equipment used in this
step is a mixing tank.
2.3.4 Enzymatic Interesterification
Interesterification or rearrangement is a reaction of fats and oils in which
fatty acid esters react with other esters or fatty acids to produce new esters by an
interchange of fatty acid groups (OBrien, 2009).Enzymatic interesterification
uses lipase instead of using chemical catalyst. If the interesterification is
chemically catalysed, the fatty acids groups are rearranged randomly along the 3
positions of the glycerol backbone according to the law of probability. If the
interesterification is enzyme catalysed, selectivity in the rearrangement of the fatty
62

acids groups along the 3 positions of the glycerol backbone can be achieved. So,
a selective interesterification reaction can be carried out.
The lipase may be a non-specific lipase capable of releasing or binding any
fatty acid group from or to any glyceride position. Such lipases have been
obtained from Candida cylindracae, Corynebacterium acnes and Staphylococcus
aureus (Macrae,J.A.O.C.S., 1983, 60:243A-246A; U.S. Pat. No. 5,128,251). The
lipase may also be of the type that only adds or removes specific fatty acid groups
to or from specific glycerides. Such lipases are useful in producing or modifying
specific glycerides. Such lipases have been obtained from Geotrichum
candidium and Rhizopus, Aspergillus, and Mucor genera (Macrae, 1983; U.S. Pat.
No. 5,128,251). The lipase may also be a 1,3 specific lipase. Such lipases have
been obtained from Thermomyces lanuginosa, Rhizomucor miehei, Aspergillus
niger, Mucor javanicus, Rhizopus delemar, and Rhizopus arrhizus (Macrae,
1983).
Table 2.8 Type of Lipases

a
I: Immobilized; E: Emulsion; F: Free
b
H:Hydrolysis; C:Conversion; E: Esterification; I: Interesterification
63

According to US Patent 4268527, the lower alcohol ester of stearic acid
and/or palmitic acid is admixed with the above fats and oils of glycerides in an
amount of 0.2 to 5 times of the weight of the fats and oils. When using both lower
alcohol esters of stearic acid and palmitic acid, the mixing ratio of a lower alcohol
ester of stearic acid to that of palmitic acid is determined according to the
particular composition of fatty acid residues at 1,3-position of fats and oils to be
used.
Although the lipase may directly be added to the reaction mixture as it is,
lipases in solid form, such as immobilized lipases. Various ways of immobilizing
lipases are well known in the art. A review of lipase immobilization is found in
Journal of American Oil Chemist's Society, Vol. 67, pp. 890-910 (1990), where
examples of representative lipase immobilizing carriers are illustrated, including
inorganic carriers such as diatomaceous earth, silica, porous glass, etc.; various
synthetic resins and synthetic resin ion exchangers; and natural polysaccharide
carriers such as cellulose and cross-linked dextrin introduced with ion exchange
groups. It is preferable to use lipase in the form absorbed onto a carrier since
water in the reaction mixture is also adsorbed onto the carrier, whereby it
contributes primarily to activate the lipase and formation of by products is
controlled.
Several factors play a role in the choice of immobilization, including
mechanical strength, thermostability, hydrophobic/hydrophilic character, costs,
remaining functionality and regeneration. Two different types of immobilization
procedures considered: chemical methods, involving covalent bonds, and physical
methods, involving weaker interactions or mechanical occlusion (entrapment) of
the lipase.
When a commercially available lipase is used, the lipase is usually added to
the reaction mixture in an amount of 0.1 to 10 % by weight based on the total
weight of the reaction mixture. The reaction is carried out at 20 to 60
0
C at which
the lipase is active and relatively stable. Reaction time is not critical but is usually
in the range of 10 to 240 hours. The reaction can be performed not only by a
batch system but also by continuous system.
64

A fixed bed system is the most common commercial process used for
enzymatic interesterification. In a fixed bed process, the blended liquid oil and
solid (hard fat) oil flow through a system consisting of an oil purification bed and
an enzyme bed. The oil purification bed removes impurities from the oil blend so
that the enzyme activity can be maintained at its highest performance. The
enzyme bed allows for the enzymatic interesterification of the oil blend as the
blend passes through the bed.

Fig. 2.20 Interesterification Reactor

2.3.5 Distillation
All of the crude fats suitable as cocoa butter normally have a more or less
high content of free fatty acids and other volatile components which unfavorably
influence aroma and taste; this content has to be removed by special refining
processes prior to the use as chocolate fat. One way to remove those components
are by steam distillation method. Steam distillation is a separation technique that
takes advantage of the fact that a mixture of immiscible liquids will boil at lower
temperature then the boiling temperature of the individual components. This
65

process essentially involves the removal of these volatile components by steam at
about 240-260 0C under a vacuum of 2-5 mbars. This process is carried out under
vacuum to facilitate the removal of the volatile substances, to avoid undue
hydrolysis of the fat and to make the most efficient use of the steam. This process
is based on the lower boiling point of the free fatty acid, diglycerides and
monoglycerides compare to triglycerides.
Refinery process of cocoa butter substitute obtained from previous step
refers to US Patent 4601790. A process for removing lower boiling components
from at least one member selected from the group of cocoa butter, cocoa butter
substitutes, or mixtures thereof; employing continuous countercurrent falling film
stripping steam distillation in an externally imposed temperature field, which
comprises heating said at least one member, causing said member, when heated in
a liquid state, to flow down as a thin film having a film thickness of less than 1.0
mm along the walls of substantially vertically disposed surfaces forming trickle
passages, maintaining at least a part of said passages at a higher temperature than
that of the downflowing liquid, and passing steam counter currently to said liquid
through said trickle passages; which comprises providing at least two serially
operating countercurrent falling film stripping steam distillation zones being in
vapor and liquid communication with each other and providing an unrestricted
vapor flow connection; and wherein the hydraulic equivalent diameters of the
trickle passages in a final distillation zone downstream in the direction of the
down flowing liquid are smaller than the hydraulic equivalent diameters to the
trickle passages of the initial zone(s) located upstream of said final distillation
zone; charging said at least one member to the top of the initial zone at a
temperature ranging from 150 product in the bottom of the final distillation zone
at a maximum of 10 maintaining the inlet temperatures of the heating medium
which is passed in countercurrent flow to the down flowing liquid film below 250
and a maximum of 10 product; maintaining the working pressure in the top of the
initial zone below 2.0 mbar and maintaining the working pressure in the bottom of
the final distillation zone no more than 1.6 mbar in excess of that in the initial
zone; providing liquid accumulators in the serially operating zones; and avoiding
in the liquid accumulators of the serially operating zones, the formation of any
66

significant liquid level; and supplying the stripping steam exclusively to the
bottom of said final distillation zone in an amount of 2 kg to 10 kg of steam per
100 kg of charged liquid.

Fig. 2.21 Steam Distillation Process
2.3.6 Solidification and Packaging
Cocoa butter can be distributed in liquid form in tankers or in solidified
form in carboard boxes. Packaging must meet the requirements imposed by the
particular stability of unrefined cocoa butter. It should provide protection against
water and water vapors from the atmosphere; must keep volatile substances
involved in the formation of aroma and protect the future products made of cocoa
butter against environmental volatile substances, or odors. The product packaging
must form a harmonious whole, to encourage buyers to purchase. Technical lines
for unrefined cocoa butter packing use automatic or mechanical packing, in bulk
or pill form. Unrefined cocoa butter is most usually packed in bulks having the
form of block. The maintaining of the quality of unrefined cocoa butter and the
period it lasts depends largely on how packaging is made.
67


Fig. 2.22 Solid CBS
To obtain cocoa butter in the form of solid, after purification using steam
distillation, cocoa butter substitute in the form of solid should be cooled until
achieve room temperature about 24
0
C. The cocoa butter in the form of liquid is
poured to cast (mold), then it is cooled to room temperature. After the cocoa
butter substitute is solidified, we remove it from the cast and pack the cocoa
butter.

Fig. 2.23 BFD of CBS Production

68


Fig. 2.24 PFD of CBS Production
CHAPTER III
MASS & ENERGY BALANCE

3.1 Mass Balance
Table 3.1 CPO Input
Input CPO 40750 kg
Crude Palm Oil Composition
Triglycerides 95 %
Free Fatty Acids 2,75 %
Diglycerides 1 %
Phosphatide (Phospholipid) 1 %
Moisture and Other Impurities 0,25 %
Total 100 %

Table 3.2 Mass Balance of Degumming Process
Degumming
Input
(kg/day)
Reaction
(kg/day)
Output
(kg/day)
Triglycerides 129,2 0 129,2
Free Fatty Acids 3,74 3,74
Diglycerides 1,36 0 1,36
Phosphatide (Phospholipid) 1,36 -1,36 0
Moisture and Other
Impurities 0,34 0 0,34
Phosphoric Acid Solution
(80%) 0,136 -0,136 0
Hydratable Phosphatide 0 1,496 1,496
Total 136,136 0 136,136
* The dosage of phosphoric acid normally used is within the range of 0.05 0.1 % of oil weight
with acid concentration approximately about 80 - 85 %. We use 0.1% of oil weight with
phosphoric acid concentration 80%.

Table 3.3 Mass Balance of Bleaching Process
Bleaching Input (kg/day) Reaction (kg/day) Output (kg/day)
Free Fatty Acids 3,74 0 3,74
Diglycerides 1,36 0 1,36
Phosphatide (Phospholipid) 0 0 0
Moisture and Other Impurities 0,34 0 0,34
70

Phosphoric Acid Solution (80%) 0 0 0
Hydratable Phosphatide 1,496 0 1,496
Bleaching Earth 1,36 0 1,36
Total 137,496 0 137,496
* The dosage of bleaching earth used is typically within the range of 0.5 2.0 % by weight of oil
Table 3.4 Mass Balance of Filtration Process
Filtration
Input
(kg/day)
Filtrate
(kg/day)
Filter Cake
(kg/day)
Triglycerides 129,2 129,2 0
Free Fatty Acids 3,74 3,74 0
Diglycerides 1,36 1,36 0
Moisture and Other
Impurities 0,34 0 0,34
Phosphoric Acid Solution
(80%) 0 0 0
Hydratable Phosphatide 1,496 0 1,496
Bleaching Earth 1,36 0 1,36
Total 137,496 137,496

Table 3.5 Mass Balance of Deodorization Process
Deodorization
Input
(kg/day)
Distillate
(kg/day)
Bottom
(kg/day)
Free Fatty Acids 3,74 3,74 0
Diglycerides 1,36 1,36 0

Table 3.6 Palm Kernel Composition
Kernel 47900 Kg
Palm Kernel Composition
Oil 48 %
Other Components 52 %
Total 100 %

Table 3.7 Milling Process of Palm Kernel
Milling
Input
(kg/day)
Output
(kg/day)
Oil 76,64 76,64
Other Components 83,02666667 83,026667
71


Table 3.8 Grinding Process of Palm Kernel
Grinding
Input
(kg/day)
Output
(kg/day)
Oil 76,64 76,64

Table 3.9 Steam Conditioning Process
Steam Conditioning
Input
(kg/day)
Output
(kg/day)
Oil 76,64 76,64

Table 3.10 Screw Pressing Process
Screw Pressing
Input
(kg/day)
Output
(kg/day)
Recycle
(kg/day)
Removal
(kg/day)
Oil 22992 16094,4 6897,6 0
Other Components 24908 249,08 9963,2 14695,72
Total 47900 47900

Table 3.11 Clarification Process
Clarification
Input
(kg/day)
Output 1
(kg/day)
Output 2
(kg/day)
Oil 53,648 53,648 0
Other Components 0,830266667 0 0,83026667
Total 54,47826667 54,47826667

Table 3.12 Mixing of RBDPO and PKO Process
Mixing
Input
(kg/day) Output (kg/day)
RBDPO
Triglycerides 129,2 0
Free Fatty Acids 0 0
Diglycerides 0 0
Phosphatide (Phospholipid) 0 0
PKO
Triglycerides (98%) 53,38870133 0
Free Fatty Acids (2%) 1,089565333 0
Mixture of RBDPO PKO
Triglycerides 0 182,588701
Free Fatty Acids 0 1,08956533
72

Diglycerides 0 0
Phosphatide (Phospholipid) 0 0
*Composition of RBDPO:PKO=7:3 refers to Tarigan, Juliati, 2005

Table 3.13 Mass Balance of Interesterification Process
Interesterification Input (kg/day) Reaction (kg/day) Output (kg/day)
Mixture RBDPO PKO
Triglycerides 182,5887013 -182,588701 0
Free Fatty Acids 1,089565333 -1,08956533 0
Cocoa Butter Substitute 0 167,981605 167,9816052
By-Products
Free Fatty Acids 0 11,3145326 11,31453261
Diglycerides 0 4,38212883 4,382128832
Total 183,6782667 183,6782667

Table 3.14 Mass Balance of Distillation Process
Distillation (Redeodorization) Input (kg/day) Distillate (kg/day) Bottom (kg/day)
Cocoa Butter Substitute 167,9816052 0 167,9816052
Diglycerides 4,382128832 4,38212883 0
Free Fatty Acids 11,31453261 11,3145326 0

Table 3.15 Mass Balance of Solidification and Packaging
Solidification and Packaging Input (kg/day) Output (kg/day)
Cocoa Butter Substitute 167,9816052 0
Aluminium Foil as Packaging Material 1,996786943 0
Cocoa Butter Substitute in Package 0 169,978392

Table 3.16 Packaging Calculation
CBS mass per Package 25 kg
CBS density 0,9 gr/cm3
Packaging Volume
27777,78 cm3
0,027778 m3
r 0,302853 m
Thickness 0,2 mm
Packaging area 0,550321 m2
Volume aluminium foil 0,00011 m3
Density of aluminum foil 2,7 gr/cm3
Mass per packaging
297,1735 gr
0,297173 kg
Number of packages 600 packages
73

Mass per package 25,29717 kg

Table 3.17 Cocoa Butter Substitute Composition
POP 10%
POS 30%
SOS 50%
Other Triglycerides 10%
Total 100%

3.2 Energy Balance
Heating
m in
(kg/batch)
m out
(kg/batch)
T in (K) T out (K) Cp (kJ/kg K) Hin (kJ) Hout (kJ) H (kJ)
CPO 136 136 298 373 6,24 252894,72 316542,7 63648

Degumming
m in
(kg/batch)
m out
(kg/batch)
T in (K) T out (K)
H form
(kJ/mol)
MW
(gr/mol)
H (kJ)
Triglycerides 129,2 129,2 373 373

Free Fatty Acids 3,74 3,74 373 373

Diglycerides 1,36 1,36 373 373

Phosphatide (Phospholipid) 1,36 0 373 373

Moisture and Other Impurities 0,34 0,34 373 373

Phosphoric Acid Solution (80%) 0,136 0 373 373

Hydratable Phosphatide 0 1,496 373 373 42 867 72,47059

Bleaching
m in
(kg/batch)
m out
(kg/batch)
T in (K)
T out
(K)
Cp
(kJ/kg K)
H (kJ)
Triglycerides 1,36 1,36 373 373

0
Free Fatty Acids 0 0 373 373

0

0
Phosphatide (Phospholipid) 0 0 373 373

0
Moisture and Other Impurities 1,496 1,496 373 373

0
Phosphoric Acid Solution (80%) 1,36 1,36 373 373

0
Hydratable Phosphatide 137,496 137,496 373 373

0
Bleaching Earth 0 0 373 373

0

74

Filtration
m in
(kg/batch)
m out
(kg/batch)
T in
(K)
T out
(K)
Cp
(kJ/kg K)
H
(kJ)
Triglycerides 1,36 1,36 373 373

0
Free Fatty Acids 0 0 373 373

0

0
Phosphatide
(Phospholipid) 0 0 373 373

0
Moisture and Other
Impurities 1,496 1,496 373 373

0
Phosphoric Acid
Solution (80%) 1,36 1,36 373 373

0
Hydratable
Phosphatide 137,496 137,496 373 373

0
Bleaching Earth 0 0 373 373

0

Deodorization
m in
(kg/batch)
m out
(kg/batch)
Triglycerides 129,2 129,2 373 493 1,8 86744,88 114652,1 27907,2
Free Fatty Acids 3,74 3,74 373 493 2,73 3808,4046 5033,629 1225,224
Diglycerides 1,36 1,36 373 493 2,51 1273,2728 1682,905 409,632

Cooling
m in
(kg/batch)
m out
(kg/batch)
Triglycerides 129,2 129,2 493 298 1,8 114652,08 69302,88 -45349,2

Mixing
m in
(kg/batch)
m out
(kg/batch)
T in
(K)
T out
(K)
Cp (kJ/kg
K)
H
(kJ)
Triglycerides 204,3072 204,3072 298 298 1,8 0
Free Fatty
Acids
1,5328 1,5328 298 298 2,73 0

Interesterification
m in
(kg/batch)
m out
(kg/batch)
T in (K) T out (K) H form (kJ/mol) MW (gr/mol) H (kJ)
Triglycerides 204,3072 0 298 298

0
Free Fatty Acids 1,5328 11,31453261 298 298 948 270 34,34475
Cocoa Butter
Substitute
0 167,9816052 298 298 1231 861,4 240,0573
Diglycerides 0 4,382128832 298 298 1041 435 10,48689

Distillation
(Redeodorization)
m in
(kg/batch)
m out
(kg/batch)
T in (K) T out (K)
Cp
(kJ/kg K)
Hin (kJ) Hout (kJ) H (kJ)
Free Fatty Acids 11,314 11,314 298 493 2,73 9204,82 15228,12 6023,291
Cocoa Butter
Substitute
167,98 167,981 298 493 1,8 90105,33 149066,9 58961,54
Diglycerides 4,382128832 4,382128832 298 493 2,51 3277,744724 5422,578 2144,833
75


Solidification
m in
(kg/batch)
m out
(kg/batch)
T in (K) T out (K)
Cp
(kJ/kg K)
Hin (kJ) Hout (kJ) H (kJ)
Cocoa Butter
Substitute
167,9816052 167,9816052 493 298 1,8 149066,8765 90105,33 -58961,5
REFERENCES

Anaekwe E. N. 2011. Business Development Consultant http://farriconsultingng.
blogspot.com/2010/04/buying-and-sellingof-palm-kernel-nuts.html.
Anonim. 2012. Cara Kerja Screw Press. http://intisawit.blogspot.com
Basiron Y. 2005. Baileys Industrial Oil and Fat Products (6
th
edition, 2
nd
volume)
Edible Oil and Fat Products: Edible Oil. Hoboken. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Borhan, Roz-Haniza, Mamot Said, and Miskandar Mat Sahri. 2011. Enzymatic
Interesterification of Palm Products for Producing Low Caloric Cocoa
Butter Substitutes. Malaysia: Universitas Kebangsaan Malaysia
Maulina, Julia. 2001. Pembuatan Pengganti Mentega Coklat (Cocoa Butter
Substitutes) Melalui Reaksi Interesterifikasi Antara Minyak Kelapa,
Stearin Kelapa Sawit dengan Menggunakan Katalis Natrium Etoksida.
Medan: Universitas Sumatera Utara
McCabe. 1993. Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering. McGraw Hill.
OBrien, Richard D. 2009..Fats and Oils: Formulating and Processing for
Applications. 3
rd
ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press
Ristianingsih, Yuli., Sutijan, Arief Budiman. 2011. Studi Kinetika Proses Kimia
dan Fisika penghilangan Getah Crude Palm Oil (CPO) dengan Asam
Fosfat. Yogyakarta: Universitas Gadjah Mada
Seider, Warren D., et al. 2003. Product Process Design Principles Synthesis
Analysis Evaluation, 2
nd
Edition. John Wiley, Inc
Tarigan, Juliati Br. 2005. Pembuatan Pengganti Mentega Coklat (Cocoa Butter
Substitutes) Melalui Reaksi Interesterifikasi Antara Refined Bleached
Deodorized Palm Oil (RBDPO) dan Palm Kernel Oil (PKO) dengan
Menggunakan Katalis Natrium Methoksida. Medan: Universitas
Sumatera Utara

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