NDT.net November 1998, Vol.3 No.

11
Chapter One: Basic Wave Physics For Sizing Methods
J. MARK DAVIS, DAVIS NDE, INC.
Email: mkdavis@pop.bham.mindspring.com

The following describes the wave
physics and basic application of
the advanced UT sizing
techniques:
Technique 1 - Inside Diameter
Creeping Wave (IDCR)
Wave Physics
The ID Creeping Wave 1 s
produced by using a high angle
longitudinal wave of
approximately 70 degrees
refraction. With the 70 degrees
refracted longitudinal wave, an
associated shearwave (direct
shearwave) of about 30 degrees is also produced, which is called Collateral Echo
1 (CE-1). In addition, an OD Creeping Wave, at an angle slightly above the 70
degree L-wave, releases another shear wave (indirect shear wave) at
approximately 31.5 degrees. This indirect shearwave strikes the ID surface and
mode converts to a longitudinal wave that moves or "creeps" along the ID surface.
This ID Creeping Wave is called Collateral Echo
2 (CE-2).
The CE-2 signal is a very short lived energy that
travels along the ID surface to detect the base of
an ID connected flaw. CE-2 has a very short
Echo Dynamic (ED) pattern and is extremely
sensitive to very shallow cracks. This is
demonstrated by using a block of carbon steel
material with very shallow notches. In order to
prove this, the author has demonstrated that with a 4 MHz ID Creeping Wave
transducer, a 0.005 inch deep EDM notch in a 1 inch thick carbon steel calibration
block can be detected. The signal to noise ratio, in this case can be as much as 4
or 5 to 1.
The CE-1 signal is commonly called the 30-70-70 signal. The CE-1 signal is
produced when the direct shear wave strikes the ID at a critical angle and mode
ADVANCED ULTRASONIC
FLAW SIZING HANDBOOK
1998 EDITION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface
Biography - J. Mark Davis
Chapter 1: Wave Physics for Sizing
Methods
Technique 1 - Inside Diameter Creeping
Wave (IDCR)
Technique 2 - Tip Diffraction Method
Technique 3 - Bi-Modal Method
Technique 4 - Refracted Longitudinal
Wave Method

Figure 1.1 - IDCR Wave
Physics
converts to a 70 degree longitudinal wave. This mode converted L-wave strikes
the face of a shallow to midwall crack and reflects a 70 degree L-wave. A broad
Echo Dynamic (ED) movement is observed for the CE-1 signal as the flaw gets
deeper.
The 70 degree longitudinal wave reflects from the upper tip of a very deep flaw.
Depending upon the material type, transducer frequency, and manufacturer, the
70 degree L-wave signal is seen when the flaw approaches 40 to 50% or greater
of the through wall thickness.
By observing the absence or presence of the 70 L, CE-1, and CE-2 signals, a
qualitative estimate of the flaw depth can be obtained. Also, the echo dynamics,
the amplitude of the CE-1 signal and the peaked 70 degree L-wave signal
provides an indication of flaw depth for ID connected flaws. (See Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2 shows a sizing low chart that is used to bound the flaw depth and to
show which complimentary sizing technique is used.
Ultrasonic Sizing Flow Chart

Signal
Presentation
Suspect Area Sizing Method
___

___
Suspect
Very Deep
Flaw

___
Refracted
L-Wave
and
Bi-Modal
=>
Outsite
Diameter
______





Outer
1/3T
Zone
___

___
Suspect
Midwall
to
Deep Wall
Flaw
___
Bi-Modal
and
Refracted
L-Wave
=> ______
_
Middle
1/3T
Zone
Calibrated
ID
Creeping
Wave
Method
___

___
Suspect
Shallow
to Midwall
> 15-20% Flaw

___

Tip Diffraction
and Bi-Modal

=> ______
___

___
Suspect
Shallow Flaw
<10-15%

___

Tip Diffraction


=>
Inner
1/3T
Zone


______
Inside
Diameter
Figure 1.2 - ID Creeping Wave Flow Chart
Transducers
Generally, any 70 degree refracted longitudinal wave transducer may be used.
However, special transducers are designed to provide specific signal sound wave
patterns unique to the creeping wave technique. These transducers are generally 2
and 4 MHz, and may be of integral or non-integral wedge design. Other refracted
longitudinal waves at angles of 60 degrees refraction and higher produce similar
wave physics for the CE-1 and CE-2 signals.
Calibration
See Technique 1 in Chapter 2.
Technique 2 - Tip Diffraction Method
Wave Physics
The Tip Diffraction Method employs the effect of sound energy striking the base
of a crack or planar reflector which causes the tip of the crack to radiate sound
energy. This sound energy radiates at the tip of the crack as a spherical wave or a
cylindrical wave along the length of the crack.
(Note: These are not new sound modes, just
specific sound patterns).
Tip Diffraction uses diffracted or reflected
sound energy radiating from the tip of the
crack to accurately size the depth of the crack
from the ID or the OD. Diffraction is the
phenomenon whereby sound bends around
the edge of the flaw. (See Figure 2.1).
Two techniques are used. One measures the time-of-flight (TOF) or sound path of
the diffracted energy as it travels back to the transducer and is sometimes called
the Pulse Arrival Time Technique (PATT), or Absolute Arrival Time Technique
(AATT). The other technique measures the relative time travel or Delta (A)
(TOF) or sound path difference between the tip diffracted signal and the corner
trap or base signal and is sometimes called Satellite Pulse Observation Time
Technique (SPOT) or Relative Arrival Time Technique (RATT). The technique
acronyms were changed due to a new author of the technique, e.g., PATT/AATT,
and SPOT/RATT are the same techniques. (See Figure 2.2).
The tip diffracted signal is generally a low amplitude signal. The signal-to-noise
(S/N) ratios can be very low (2 to 1 S/N ratio) which makes it difficult to properly

Figure 2.1 Tip Diffraction
identify the tip signal. Typically, tip diffracted signals precede the base or corner
trap signal. However, tip diffracted signals may be seen trailing the base signal.
This is due to the spherical wave radiating from the tip of the flaw and reflecting
off the ID surface and returning at a later time beyond the corner trap signal.
With low amplitude tip signals, radio frequency (RF) signal display may be
helpful in identifying the tip signals. There is some consideration that a phase
reversal is noted between the base and the tip signal. For example, the tip signal
may have a positive excursion and the base may have a negative excursion. (See
Figure 2.3).

Figure 2.2 Time of Flight (TOF) Technique

Figure 2.2 A (Delta) Time of Flight (TOF)
Technique

Figure 2.3 RF Signal Display
Other considerations include:
1. - Multiple faceted cracks like
stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
and thermal fatigue, cracks, may
produce multiple tip diffracted
signals.
2. - For OD connected cracks, the
tip diffracted technique can size
flaws using the full vee-path
technique.
3. - Midwall cracks (not connected
at the ID or OD) may be sized with
the Tip Diffraction method. Special
calibration blocks are necessary
Transducers
Generally, 45 degree 5 MHz transducers are used for Tip Diffraction Methods.
Frequency selection is determined by the type of material (e.g., carbon steel or
stainless steel), thickness of component, and grain structure of the material.
Some important considerations for transducer selection include: refracted angle,
wavelength, beam spread, mode of sound propagation, detectability, sensitivity,
and resolution. These parameters are controlled by incidence angle, refracted
angle, diameter, frequency, and damping.
For thin materials (less than 0.500 inches) and very shallow cracks (generally less
than 5 to 10%), highly dampened (1 and 1/2 cycles, pulse length) search units
with high frequencies (greater than 5 MHz) may be required to improve resolution
and sensitivity.
Calibration
See Technique 2 in Chapter 3.
Technique 3 - Bi-Modal Method
Wave Physics
The Bi-Modal Method is defined as follows: three main signals (or pulse train)
are observed: Pulse 1 is the reflected longitudinal wave from the flaw tip, Pulse 2
is the direct shear wave which mode converts to a longitudinal wave and then
reflects a longitudinal wave from the face of the flaw (similar to CE-1 with the ID
creeping wave technique), Pulse 3 is an indirect shear wave which mode converts
to an ID creeping wave at the ID surface of the component (similar to the CE-2
signal with the ID Creeping wave technique). (See Figures 3.1 A and 3.1 B).
Note: A fourth signal is sometimes seen between Pulses 1 and 2. It is called Pulse
1*. Generally, the 1* signal is observed during calibration on notches. (See
Figure 3.1B).

Figure 3.1A Figure 3.1B
Pulse 1 - Direct L-Wave
from tip.
L
t
meeting L
r
at the crack
tip.
Pulse 2 - Mode
converted.
S
t
meeting mode-
converted L
r
at the crack
base.
Pulse 3 - ID Creeping
Wave.
S
t
meeting S
r
at the crack
base.

Bi-Modal Method
Additional Pulse

Figure 3.2 A Technique 1, (TOF)
The two basic sizing techniques
for the Bi-Modal Method are:
1. Time of Flight
(TOF) of the
peaked Pulse 1
signal set to
specific screen ranges. (See Figure 3.2A). Also called Tau or M-
AATT
2. Delta ( ) Time of Flight (TOF) of the screen division separation of
the Pulse 1 and Pulse 2 signals. (See Figure 3.2B). Also, called
Sigma, or M-RATT.
The Technique 1 is Time-of-Flight (TOF) measurement of reflected longitudinal
wave from the tip of the crack. Depth measurements are recorded directly from
the CRT screen.
Technique 2 is the measurement of the separation of the Pulse 1 and Pulse 2
signals. This measurement is read directly from the screen in divisions.
Transducers
The Bi-Modal Method uses a special dual element search unit, either side-by-side
or tandem orientation, which produce shear and longitudinal waves. Tandem
designs tend to be more predominant.
It is the opinion of the author that the tandem (transmit in front, receive in back)
design is more effective for sizing the midwall flaws since the reflected sound
energy is directed more to the trailing crystal. However, this is greatly affected by
flaw depth, material type, component thickness, and refracted angles, etc. When
sizing on pipe components the tandem designs are less affected by pipe curvature
thin the side-by-side designs.
These search units are very specific to the manufacturer's recommendations.
Generally, the frequency is approximately 3 MHz. Refracted angles for the
transmit and receive crystals vary with manufacturer and depth of focus.
Typically, the refracted angles are between 50 degrees and 70 degrees for the L-
wave, which is dependent upon whether the transmitter is in the front or the back.
Calibration
See Technique 3 Chapter 4
Technique 4 - Refracted Longitudinal Wave Method
Wave Physics
The Refracted Longitudinal (RL) Wave Method uses a dual element, high angle
refracted longitudinal wave search unit to detect the reflected sound path travel or
Time of Flight (TOF), from the tip of a deep crack. Shear waves may be used if

Figure 3.2 B Technique 2, ( ) (TOF)
the coarse grain structure of the base material or the weld metal does not impede
the transmission of the sound
energy.
Using side drilled holes at
specific known depths, a depth
calibration is established on the
CRT (See Figure 4.1). As an
alternative, a sound path
calibration may be used.
In this way, the RL method
effectively measures the
remaining ligament of good
material between the SDH and
the scanning surface. The true
crack depth is derived from
subtracting the total thickness
from the measured remaining
ligament.
A limitation of this method is
the associated shear wave that is
observed during calibration and examination. This shearwave, if not properly
identified, may cause confusion from mode conversion which may produce false
signals.
The Refracted L-Wave Method produces essentially the same wave physics as the
ID Creeping Wave Method. The refracted angles and mode conversion angles
change, but basically produce a high angle Longitudinal wave, a mode converted
S-Wave signal (CE-1), and an ID Creeping Wave (CE-2) signal.
Refracted L-wave signals are displayed for each SDH at specific screen divisions.
Also, during the calibration, the CE-1 and CE-2 signals are delayed to the right of
the CRT out of the area of interest. (See Figure 4.2).
Transducers
The RL Method uses various refracted angles of longitudinal waves to examine
the outer portion of the material. Refracted angles of 45 degrees, 60 degrees, 70
degrees, and OD Creeping Waves of about 80 to 85 degrees refraction are used.
Frequency selection, element size, and depth of focus determine the zone or depth
of examination.

Figure 4.1 - 1/10 inch depth increments Side
Drilled Holes (SDH)


Figure 4.2
Generally, 2 MHz and 4 MHz transducers are used. For coarse grain stainless
steels, the 4 MHz may reflect sound energies from the weld interface or at grain
boundaries, thus producing misleading flaw depth estimates.
Refracted shear waves may be used in some applications. This is greatly
controlled by the weld or base material grain structure and is acceptable for
carbon steel base materials.
Calibration
See Technique 4 in Chapter 5.
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Ultrasonic Sizing Flow Chart

Signal
Presentation
Suspect Area Sizing Method
___

___
Suspect
Very Deep
Flaw

___
Refracted
L-Wave
and
Bi-Modal
=>
Outsite
Diameter
______





Outer
1/3T
Zone
___

___
Suspect
Midwall
to
Deep Wall
Flaw
___
Bi-Modal
and
Refracted
L-Wave
=> ______
_
Middle
1/3T
Zone
Calibrated
ID
Creeping
Wave
Method
___

___
Suspect
Shallow
to Midwall
> 15-20% Flaw

___

Tip Diffraction
and Bi-Modal

=> ______
___

___
Suspect
Shallow Flaw
<10-15%

___

Tip Diffraction


=>
Inner
1/3T
Zone


______
Inside
Diameter
Figure 1.2 - ID Creeping Wave Flow Chart