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Stages of a Crisis and Media
Frames and Functions: U.S.
Television Coverage of the 9/11
Incident During the First 24
Hours
Xigen Li
Published online: 07 Jun 2010.
To cite this article: Xigen Li (2007): Stages of a Crisis and Media Frames and
Functions: U.S. Television Coverage of the 9/11 Incident During the First 24 Hours,
Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 51:4, 670-687
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08838150701626578
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Stagcs of a Crisis and Mcdia Framcs
and Functions: U.S. TcIcvision Covcragc
of thc 9/11 lncidcnt During
thc First 24 Hours
Xigcn ti
Th |ud, cxamncd hov fvc U.S. |ccvon ou|c| framcd |hc 9/11
ncdcn| durng |hc fr| 24 hour and hov |agc of |hc cr affcc|cd
mcda framc and func|on. Thc |ud, found mcda framc vcrc d,-
namc ra|hcr |han |a|c, cpcca, vhcn cvcn| changcd rapd,. Tcc-
von crvcd prmar, |o nform ra|hcr |han provdc gudancc and
conoa|on, and | func|on changcd accordng |o | pror|, n |hc
covcragc durng |hc dffcrcn| |agc of |hc cr. Uc of a vdcr rangc of
ourcc cd |o a dmnhcd roc of govcrnmcn| ourcc n |hc covcragc
of |h rapd, changng cr of na|ona magn|udc.
Much rosourch s dovotod to dotormnng hov novs modu lrumo nlormuton so
thut t ullocts uudoncos' undorstundng und ntorprotuton ol ssuos. Anumbor ol stud-
os uso ook ut modu lunctons undor vurous stuutons. Cn Soptombor ll, 200l,
contnuous toovson covorugo ol tho most uggrossvo torrorst uttuck on Amorcu to
duto bogun vthn soconds ol tho ntu puno crush nto tho \ord 1rudo Contor. 1hs
provdod u unquo opportunty to undorstund hov toovson modu covor u crss ol
unprocodontod mugntudo. 1hs study ooks ut hov toovson outots lrumod 9/ll
durng tho lrst 24 hours, tho lunctons thoy porlormod n tho nutonu crss, und hov
tho stugos ol tho crss ulloctod covorugo lrumos und modu lunctons us unlodng
ovonts brought uttonton to nov ssuos.
titcraturc kcvicw
\hon tho socu ordor s sorousy dsruptod, poopo usuuy vunt moro nlormuton
thun tho modu cun provdo tNou, l998). Durng crsos, tho pubc bocomos umost
totuy dopondont on tho modu lor novs thut muy bo vtu lor survvu und lor mpor-
tunt mossugos lrompubc und prvuto uuthortos. 1hoy ook to tho modu lor nlormu-
ton, oxpunutons, und ntorprotutons tCrubor, l980, p. 228). lor oxumpo, ultor lros-
2007 roudcust Lducuton Assocuton Iourna of roadca|ng & Lcc|ronc \cda S14), 2007, pp. 70-B7
670
Journal o BroaJavting & Flctroni McJia/Dccmhcr 2007
Xigcn Ii (Ph.D., Michigan State University) is an assistant professor in the School of Journalism at Southern Illinois
University Carbondale. His research interests include societal and institutional influence on news content, and news
media and the Internet.
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dont Konnody's ussussnuton, pubc uncortunty ubout tho luturo ol tho L.S.
govornmont rosutod n groutor nood lor ntorprotuton, oxpunuton, und consouton
tSchrumm, l965).
Mcdia Functions in a Crisis
1ho Nutonu kosourch Counc Commttoo on Dsustors und tho Muss Modu
tl980, p. l0) postuutod thut tho pross porlormod sx lunctons durng u crss: l) vurn-
ng ol prodctod or mpondng dsustors, 2) convoyng nlormuton to ollcus, rool
ugoncos, und tho pubc, 3) churtng tho progross ol rool und rocovory, 4) drumutz-
ng ossons ournod lor tho purposo ol luturo propurodnoss, 5) tukng purt n ong-torm
pubc oducuton progrums, und 6) dolnng sov-onsot proboms us crsos or dsus-
tors.
kosourchors suy tho modu huvo muny lunctons dopondng on tho uudonco's
noods. lor oxumpo, n uddton to trunsmttng nlormuton, tho modu porlorm u so-
cu utty luncton tDomnck, l996, p. 47) by provdng compunonshp und omo-
tonu support n tho ubsonco ol othor humun bongs. Cthors tLntmun, l99l, Hortog,
2000, lyongur & Smon, l993, Lngur, l998) lound tho modu porlormod dlloront
lunctons vthn dlloront crss stuutons. 1ho soocton ol ssuos und tho omphuss
thoy rocovo tond to dllor umong modu, but u lorms ol modu ncudo nlormuton
on tho prmury ssuos tLovory & Dolour, l995, p. 34l). \hon doung vth broukng
novs, such us u crss, tho chungo n roportng routnos ullocts tho typo ol nlormuton
thut ournusts dssomnuto. lournusts vho covorod tho broukng novs ol tho 9/ll
torrorst uttucks voro lound to ussumo mutpo roos n dovorng nlormuton. 1ho
contont ol broukng novs roportod vo vus lundumontuy dlloront lrom tho contont
ol novs storos thut voro producod vth moro tmo to chock lor voutons ol ournus-
tc stundurds tkoynods & urnott, 2003).
Crubor's noton thut thoro uro throo stugos ol modu covorugo ol u crss sooms to ro-
ullrm tho modu lunctons stod tl980, p. 229). Durng tho lrst stugo, modu uro tho
prmury nlormuton sourco not ony lor tho gonoru pubc, but uso lor pubc ollcus
nvovod vth tho crss. Modu's koy roos uro to doscrbo vhut hus hupponod und
hop coordnuto tho rool vork. 1hor top prorty s to got uccuruto nlormuton,
vhch roovos uncortunty und cums poopo tpp. 233-234). ln tho socond stugo, mo-
du covorugo locusos on mukng sonso out ol tho stuuton. luns uro lormuutod und
mpomontod to uddross tho noods ol tho vctms und ropur tho dumugo. Crubor suys
tho thrd stugo ovorups vth tho lrst tvo. ln un ollort to provdo contoxt, tho roo ol
modu s to puco tho crss n u urgor, ongor-torm porspoctvo.
Studos lound botvoon-modu dlloronco n L.S. modu covorugo ol vurous ssuos
ncudng prosdontu cumpugns tC. H. Stompo &\ndhuusor, l989) und Cunudun
ooctons tHussoboo & Stompo, l997). Hovovor, studos uso shovod smurty n
soocton ol storos umong novspupors tkllo, Ls, kogors, Vun Cmmoron, & \ood-
mun, l986). Compotng modu v conlorm undor cortun crcumstuncos tgmun,
ti/MFDlA FkAMFS AND FUNCTlONS 671
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l948). 1hoso lndngs suggost botvoon-modu dlloronco n covorugo on ssuos ol so-
cu sgnlcunco. ut to vhut dogroo toovson modu dllor n lunctons thoy porlorm
n u crss stuuton romuns ununsvorod.
Framc AnaIysis and Sourccs' koIc in Framing
lrumo unuyss s tho most common upprouch to oxumnng modu contont. lt s
busod on tho ussumpton thut ournusts ltor nlormuton n vuys thut ulloct un uud-
onco's undorstundng or ntorprotuton ol ssuos, storos, or ovonts tLovory & Dolour,
l995, p. 327). y sooctng cortun lucts lrom u contnuous lov ol nlormuton, om-
phuszng spoclc ssuos or ovonts ovor othors, und prosontng ssuos or ovonts n spo-
clc ordors, ournusts huvo tho ubty to nluonco utttudos, bools, und bohuvor n
u numbor ol vuys.
kosourchors huvo ookod ut modu lrumos lromvurous porspoctvos. 1o lrumo s to
sooct somo uspocts ol u porcovod routy und muko thommoro suont n u commun-
cutng toxt, n such u vuy us to promoto u purtcuur probom dolnton, cuusu ntor-
protuton, moru ovuuuton, und/or troutmont rocommonduton lor tho tom do-
scrbod. tLntmun, l993, p. 52) lrumng, thon, cun bo doscrbod us u story ungo or
hook, t s tho contru orgunzng dou or story no thut provdos mounng to un un-
lodng strp ol ovonts und vouvos u connocton umong thom tCumson &Modgun,
l987, p. l43). Modu uso cortun porspoctvo und lrumos n novs covorugo to hop
poopo orgunzo und undorstund novs nlormuton tKng, l997, p. 29). Novs s olton
prosontod lrom u pont ol vov thut chungos tho vovor's undorstundng or ntorprotu-
ton ol ovonts und ovokos omotons tNmmo & Combs, l985, pp. l7-l8, Norrs,
l995, p. 359).
A numbor ol studos huvo locusod on novs contont und hov t s lrumod tLntmun,
l993, lco & lroodmun, 200l, lyongur, l99l, lyongur & Smon, l993, Lurson, l984,
Nucos, l994, Norrs, l995, lun & Kosck, l993, Somotko & Vukonburg, 2000,
1ovksbury, lonos, losko, kuymond, & Vg, 2000, Lngur, l998). lrumng rosourch
shovs thut lour lrumos uro moro common thun othors: conlct, humun ntorost, ro-
sponsbty, und oconomc consoquoncos tVukonburg &Somotko, l999, p. 55l). 1ho
rosponsbty lrumo s tho most lroquonty usod, loovod by tho conlct lrumo. Lco-
nomc und humun ntorost lrumos voro sgnlcunty ovor n uso tSomotko &
Vukonburg, 2000). Hovovor, n u crss nvovng u urgo numbor ol cusuutos, hu-
mun ntorost coud omorgo us u domnunt lrumo. Modu lunctons suggostod by 1ho
Nutonu kosourch Counc Commttoo on Dsustors tl980, p. l0) und tho socu utty
luncton tDomnck, l996, p. 47) concurrod n pontng to tho uttonton thut modu
pud to humun ntorost n tho covorugo ol dsustors, vhch coud oud to humun ntor-
ost lrumos ovorshudovng othors.
Sourcos puy un mportunt roo n modu lrumng. Studos lound sourco uso s ro-
utod to modu lrumos tLobor & ondx, l996). Cthor studos lound unusuu sourco
soocton n u crss und ts olloct on lrumng tAndsugor & lovors, l999, Coby &
672 )ournaI of 8roadcasting & FIcctronic Mcdia/Dcccmbcr 2007
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Cook, l99l, Lntmun, l99l, Lusorsu & kooso, l990, Nucos, l994). Modu usod u
vdor vuroty ol sourcos vhon covorng un unt-Amorcun torrorst uct thun vhon cov-
orng othor lorogn pocy ssuos tNucos, l994). ln tho covorugo ol AlDS, tho typcu
AlDS story tondod oss to sonsutonuzo thun to roussuro bocuuso govornmont ollcus
und hgh-runkng doctors voro muor sourcos tCoby & Cook, l99l). Lndor tho crss
stuuton ol 9/ll, u vdor rungo ol sourcos vus usod und such sourco rounco s koy
to ulloct modu lrumos.
Framc Dynamics and Stagc of Crisis
1ho studos rovovod horo ndcuto thut vurous luctors ulloct modu lrumos.
\horous tho lndngs ol thoso studos ollor nsght nto tho covorugo puttorn ol mpor-
tunt ssuos n u crss, thoro s st much to bo undorstood. lor oxumpo, n u rupdy
dovoopng nutonu crss, do novs lrumos omorgo vth puttorns smur to thoso n
othor crss stuutons: \hut sourcos puyod tho most mportunt roos n lrumng tho
novs: 1o vhut dogroo do nov ovonts brng ubout chungos n modu lrumos: Cno ol
tho muor luvs n lrumo unuyss ol novs covorugo s thut most ol tho studos oxum-
nod modu lrumos lrom u stutc porspoctvo, thut s, tho modu lrumos voro consd-
orod constunt throughout tho procoss. ln luct, vhon covorng u rupdy chungng cr-
ss, modu uro koy to loov tho chungos und prosont vuryng lrumos us ovonts
unlod. 1hs study sooks to spocly tho chungng constructon ol modu lrumos durng u
rupdy ovovng crss.
Sovoru studos huvo touchod on lrumo dynumcs n modu covorugo ol vurous s-
suos ncudng voluro tCons, l999), tho Cnton houth curo puckugo tlucobs &
Shupro, 2000) und poco brututy tLuvronco, 2000). Modu coud shlt lrumng strut-
ogos lrom prosontng lrghtonng nlormuton to u contunmont or cumng upprouch
vhon droud-nsprng ovonts uro dovoopng n unprodctubo und potontuy throut-
onng vuys tLngur, l998, p. 36). Nono ol thoso studos spoclcuy locusod on lrumo
dynumcs n modu covorugo ol u nutonu crss or ollorod un ouboruto vovon lrumo
dynumcs. Chy und McCombs t2004) proposod lrumo-chungng n thor study ol
tho covorugo ol tho Coumbno schoo shootng, urgung thut durng uny novs ovont's
lo spun, modu olton rolrumo tho ovont by omphuszng dlloront uttrbutos. Muschort
und Curr t2006) oxtondod tho study ol lrumo-chungng ucross smur ovonts und bo-
tvoon moro und oss suont ovonts. Athough both studos oxumnod lrumo dynumcs
und ollorod usolu dous ol soquonco-routod lrumo chungos ussocutod vth tmo, no-
thor ol thom oxumnod lrumo-chungng n novs covorugo us ovonts ovovod through
stugos.
Lnko provous studos ol modu lrumos n broukng novs, ths study ntroducos
stugo ol crss us u koy luctor ulloctng tho lrumo ol covorugo, und uttompts to rovou
tho lrumo dynumcs through unuyss ol toovson covorugo ol 9/ll. 1hs study pro-
posos thut modu lrumos uro dynumc ruthor thun stutc. lrovous studos buscuy
consdorod lrumos us untury proportos ol novs contont und lov studos oxumnod
ti/MFDlA FkAMFS AND FUNCTlONS 673
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modu lrumos uccordng to thor nuturo und sophstcuton. lrumos uro not dontcu n
thor modos ol lormuton und n thor proportos, ospocuy n stuutons vhoro ovonts
chungo rupdy. 1vo dmonsons ol lrumo proportos voro dontlod: lrumo nuturo und
lrumo sophstcuton, vhch chungo ovor tho stugos ol crss.
lrumo nuturo rolors to tho dogroo to vhch u lrumo probos nto ssuos concornod
vhon cortun lucts und ssuos uro prosontod to lorm tho lrumo. Accordng to koynods
und urnott's t2003) study ol tho lrst 5 hours ol toovson covorugo ol 9/ll, tho our-
nusts vorkod n u stuuton drustcuy dlloront lrom trudtonu roportng routnos.
As tho puco ol covorugo sovod n tho utor stugos, ournusts guthorod moro nlormu-
ton ubout tho ovonts und hud moro tmo to thnk through tho lucts. 1hoy gruduuy ro-
sumod roportng routnos, vhch voud rosut n substuntu modu lrumo chungos.
1horo uro throo typos ol lrumo nuturo ussocutod vth tho stugos n u crss. 1ho do-
scrptvo lrumo corrosponds to tho novs modu's luncton ol nlormng und roovng
uncortunty durng tho lrst stugo ol u crss, muny through oxpunng vhut hus hup-
ponod. 1ho uttrbutvo lrumo corrosponds to tho novs modu's luncton ol mukng
sonso out ol tho stuuton durng tho socond stugo. 1ho ulloctvo lrumo routos to tho
novs modu's luncton ol undorstundng tho ovont lrom u ong-torm vov und tho m-
puct ol tho ncdont durng tho thrd stugo ol crss. Modu lrumos chungo lromdoscrp-
tvo to uttrbutvo to ulloctvo durng dlloront stugos ol crss.
lrumo sophstcuton rolors to tho ovo ol compoxty ol u story ungo or suonco.
lor oxumpo, tho dsustor lrumo n tho covorugo ol u crss s ousy dontlubo,
vhorous lrumos ol humun ntorost und oconomc mpuct uro routvoy moro dllcut
to dontly bocuuso thoy uro on hghor ovos ol lrumo sophstcuton. lnlormod by
koynods und urnott's t2003) lndngs on novs contont producod undor strosslu stu-
utons, ournusts uro koy to roport vhut thoy obsorvo drocty und v produco sto-
ros vth ovor lrumo sophstcuton durng tho ouror stugos ol u crss. As tho covor-
ugo ol u crss oxtonds n scopo und dopth, modu lrumos v go lromroutvoy smpo
to moro sophstcutod. Lxumnuton ol lrumo sophstcuton v rovou lrumo dynum-
cs n uddton to substuntu lrumo chungos through tho stugos ol u crss.
1ho toruturo suggosts thut novs modu uro usod muny us u sourco ol nlormuton
n u crss stuuton. Accordng to tho socu utty luncton, modu uso lul noods
othor thun tho nood lor nlormuton. ln tho oury stugos ol u crss, usdo lromprovdng
nlormuton, modu coud uso sorvo us u sourco ol consouton und gudunco. As tho
ovonts unlod, modu muy porlormthor socu utty luncton dlloronty durng dllor-
ont stugos ol u crss.
Accordng to tho toruturo on tho nluonco ol govornmont sourcos on novs con-
tont, govornmont sourcos puy u muor roo n tho covorugo ol u nutonu crss. Hov-
ovor, vth tho mugntudo ol u dsustor ko 9/ll, vhch nvovod moro purtos und s-
suos thun typcu potcu ovonts, govornmont ollcus voro not ubo to got us much
nlormuton us thoy voud undor oss strosslu stuutons und voro uso sourchng lor
nlormuton n ordor to tuko uppropruto uctons. 1oovson outots hud to roy on u
vdor rungo ol sourcos to covor tho rupdy chungng ovonts. 1hs coud trunsuto to u
dmnshod roo ol govornmont sourcos n tho oury stugo ol u crss stuuton ko 9/ll.
674 )ournaI of 8roadcasting & FIcctronic Mcdia/Dcccmbcr 2007
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lrovous studos shovod botvoon-modu dlloroncos us vo us smurtos n novs
covorugo. Durng u nutonu crss, modu covorugo v vury duo to orgunzutonu
und othor socotu luctors. Modu uso try to got uccuruto nlormuton, roovo uncor-
tunty und cum poopo tCrubor, l980) ruthor thun sonsutonuzo ovonts und scoop
ouch othor. 1ho koy ssuos nvovod n tho crss voro potcs, pubc suloty, und
unttorrorsm. No toovson outot coud ullord to dovuto consdoruby lrom othors ut
such crtcu tmos n nlormng tho pubc. 1ho crss stuuton s koy to put rvus
nto conlormty vth ouch othor tgmun, l948). lt s proposod toovson modu v
vury sghty n covorugo lrumos und modu lunctons porlormod, but not drustcuy.
kupd chungos ol novs ovonts durng tho lrst 24 hours und obsorvubo stugos ol tho
covorugo provdod u unquo opportunty to oxumno hovtoovson modu lrumod tho
novs ovonts, vhut lunctons thoy porlormod n ths unprocodontod stuuton, und to
vhut dogroo stugos ol tho crss ulloctod covorugo lrumos und modu lunctons n u nu-
tonu crss stuuton.
usod on tho toruturo und provous rosourch, tho loovng hypothosos uro pro-
posod:
H
l
: 1oovson modu lrumos chungo lrom doscrptvo to uttrbutvo to ulloctvo durng
dlloront stugos ol u crss.
H
2
. 1oovson modu lrumo sophstcuton rsos us covorugo movos through tho stugos ol
u crss.
H
3
: 1oovson covorugo omphuszos humun ntorost moro thun potcu und oconomc
luctors n u crss stuuton nvovng trugody.
H
4
: 1oovson modu's uso ol u vdor rungo ol sourcos n u crss ouds to u dmnshod
roo ol govornmont sourcos undor rupdy chungng stuutons.
H
5
: 1oovson modu n u crss stuuton sorvo us u sourco ol consouton und gudunco
n uddton to un nlormuton sourco.
H
6
: 1oovson modu vury, but not oxtonsvoy, n covorugo lrumos und modu lunctons
porlormod n u nutonu crss.
Mcthod
1hs study usod contont unuyss to oxumno tho lrst 24 hours ol toovson covorugo
ol tho uttucks on tho \ord 1rudo Contor und tho lontugon on Soptombor ll, 200l.
1oovson vus choson bocuuso t hud boon tho domnunt modum lor nlormng
Amorcuns ubout tho torrorst uttucks und tho vur on torrorsm thut loovod tC.
Stompo & Hurgrovo, 2002). 1ho novs covorugo ol lvo toovson outots, AC, CS,
NC, CNN, und lCX Novs, vus sooctod lor contont unuyss. 1hoso outots voro so-
octod bocuuso ol thor domnunt stutus n toovson novs covorugo n tho Lntod
Stutos. 1hoy uso ncudo throo dlloront typos ol toovson outots: tho ostubshod
broudcust notvorks, u routvoy ostubshod cubo chunno tCNN), und u routvoy
nov cubo chunno tlCX). 1ho lrst 24 hours voro choson bocuuso tho tmo porod
ti/MFDlA FkAMFS AND FUNCTlONS 67S
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contunod tho most crtcu stugos und tho most ntonsvo covorugo ol tho ncdont, und
roloctod chungos n modu covorugo duo to rupd dovoopmont.
1ho novs contont ol tho lvo toovson outots durng tho lrst 24 hours vus uc-
qurod through Vundorbt Lnvorsty's vdoo brury. A totu ol 2,647 storos voro
dontlod lrom tho lrst 24 hours ol covorugo, ncudng 745 storos lrom AC, 6l2
lrom CS, 427 lrom NC, 657 lrom CNN, und 206 lrom lCX Novs.
1ho study unt vus u novs story, dolnod us u group ol studo und lod shots thut
spoclcuy uddross ono topc or ssuo und run consocutvoy. 1ho storos voro dont-
lod uccordng to tho busc budng bocks: unchor roudor, voco-ovors, voco-ovors
vth sound btos und puckugos. Duo to tho unusuu stuuton, novs covorugo somo-
tmos run vthout cour budng bocks. 1ho loovng cuos voro thon usod to dontly
u story: vhon tho unchor or roportor chungod tho topc und sturtod roportng on u dl-
loront uspoct ol tho ovont nstoud ol moroy montonng somothng broly, und tho
covorugo ol tho topc run lor u sgnlcunt umount ol tmo tut oust 30 soconds). 1ho
storos dontlod run lrom 30 soconds to l2 mnutos.
1ho loovng koy vurubos voro codod:
S|agc of Covcragc. 1ho lrst 24 hours ol toovson covorugo voro dvdod nto
throo stugos: tho lrst stugo, 8:48 u.m. to ll u.m., vhon tho dsustor struck, tho socond
stugo, ll u.m. to 3 p.m., vhon tho modu trod to muko sonso out ol tho stuuton, und
tho thrd stugo, 3 p.m. to 7 p.m., vhon tho modu sturtod to obsorvo tho ovont lrom u
ong-torm porspoctvo. 1ho throo stugos voro consstont vth Crubor's tl980) doln-
ton ol tho stugos ol crss covorugo. 1ho utor throo porods, 7 p.m. to l2 u.m., l2 u.m.
to 6 u.m., und 6 u.m. to 9 u.m. voro un oxtonson ol tho thrd stugo. 1ho unoquu
ongths ol tho utor throo porods conlorm to tho ntorvus ol normu 1V progrummng.
Accordng to Crubor tl980), lovor chungos n covorugo v occur durng tho ust
throo porods. 1ho ncuson ol tho utor throo porods oxtonds undorstundng ol tho
lrumo dynumcs und modu lunctons durng tho utor stugo ol ths crss ol unproco-
dontod mugntudo.
Covcragc framc. loovng Lntmun's tl993) dolnton, tho covorugo lrumo s do-
lnod us tho uspocts ol u porcovod routy dontlod through u story thut mukos thoso
uspocts moro suont n tho novs covorugo. Cno lrumo vus sooctod lrom u story
through tho story ungo or locus dontlod n tho oud. ll tho story ungo or locus coud
not bo dontlod lromtho oud, tho rost ol tho story vus consutod unt tho suonco ol
tho story vus dontlod. Covorugo lrumo contunod u totu ol nno cutogoros. 1ho cod-
ng docsons voro mudo busod on vhothor tho story ungo or locus dontlod lo nto
tho dolnng roum ol ono ol tho nno cutogoros, vhch ncudod l) lotcu: nutonu
socurty, govornmont pocy, or ntornutonu routons, 2) Lconomc: oconomc m-
puct brought by 9/ll, 3) Crmnu: crmnu ucts und nvostguton, 4) Lnvronmont:
onvronmontu huzurd, throut to pubc houth, 5) Suloty: pubc und porsonu suloty,
und tho vuys to survvo, 6) Humun ntorost: humun vo-bong, humun loong, lumy,
und ovo, 7) kogon: rogous luth und uct, lsum, Musm, und othor rogons, 8) D-
676 )ournaI of 8roadcasting & FIcctronic Mcdia/Dcccmbcr 2007
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sustor: dumugo und cusuuty, und 9) Cthor: u othor lrumng uspocts thut do not lt nto
ubovo cutogoros.
framc ^a|urc. 1ho lrumos voro cutogorzod nto throo typos uccordng to tho do-
groo to vhch u lrumo probod nto ssuos concornod vhon cortun lucts und ssuos
voro prosontod to lorm tho lrumo: l) doscrptvo, 2) uttrbutvo, und 3) ulloctvo. 1ho
doscrptvo lrumo corrosponds to novs modu's luncton ol nlormng und roovng
uncortunty durng tho lrst stugo ol u crss, muny oxpunng vhut hus hupponod. D-
sustor s u doscrptvo lrumo. 1ho uttrbutvo lrumo corrosponds to novs modu's lunc-
ton ol mukng sonso out ol tho stuuton durng tho socond stugo. lotcu, crmnu,
und rogous uro uttrbutvo lrumos. 1ho ulloctvo lrumo routos to novs modu's lunc-
ton ol undorstundng tho ovont lrom u ong-torm vov und tho mpuct ol tho ncdont
durng tho thrd stugo ol crss. Lconomc, onvronmont, suloty, und humun ntorost uro
ulloctvo lrumos.
framc Soph|ca|on. 1ho lrumos voro cutogorzod uccordng to thor ovo ol
compoxty vhon cortun lucts und ssuos voro sooctod und prosontod to lorm u
lrumo. 1hroo ovos voro dontlod. Dsustor us u ov-ovo lrumo doos not roquro
much vork n porcovng tho lucts nvovod und sooctng cortun lucts und ssuos. lo-
tcu und crmnu us modum-ovo lrumos nvovo moro nvostgutons und luct-
ltorng procossos. Humun ntorost, oconomc und onvronmont lrumos, u hgh-ovo
lrumos, go boyond tho obsorvubo lucts und ssuos und ontu moro thought-provokng
procossos.
Con|cn| Crcn|a|on. Contont orontuton s usod to dontly mun lunctons thut
novs modu porlorm vhon covorng u crss. lt contuns lour cutogoros, l) luct, 2)
unuyss, 3) consouton, und 4) gudunco. Contont orontuton vus dontlod through
tho oud ol u story. ll t coud not bo dontlod lrom tho oud, tho vhoo story vus con-
sutod. 1ho codng docsons voro mudo by dontlyng vhothor u story prmury lo-
cusod on l) doscrbng lucts ubout vhut vus hupponng, 2) unuyzng nlormuton,
lucts, or ovonts, 3) consong or comlortng tho uudonco to muko thom loo sulo und
socuro, or 4) provdng gudunco to tho uudonco on vhut to do. Astory coud porlorm
moro thun ono luncton. ut ony tho mun locus vus consdorod us contont orontu-
ton.
Sourcc. A sourco vus dolnod us u numo ol u porson or un orgunzuton ussoc-
utod vth droct or ndroct quotos n u story. 1ho typos ol sourcos codod ncudo gov-
ornmont ollcus, tho lrosdont, oxports, vtnossos, busnoss, urno ollcus, ntornu-
tonu, routvos ol vctms, und othor sourcos such us toursts.
Sovon codors voro trunod usng u codng protoco und by loovng tho proco-
duros lor codng novs contont proscrbod by kllo, Lucy, und lco t2005). 1on porcont
ol tho codng contont ol AC und CNN, vhch contunod ubout l hour ol tho novs
covorugo lrom tho tvo outots, vus usod lor un ntorcodor roubty chock. Athough
ti/MFDlA FkAMFS AND FUNCTlONS 677
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u rundom sumpo lrom ouch ol tho lvo outots lor tho ntorcodor roubty tost coud
gonoruto moro roubo rosuts, AC und CNN, ono broudcust notvork und ono cubo
chunno, voro lound to bo sullcont lor tho loovng rousons: l) Apromnury chock
shovod tho nuturo ol 9/ll producod homogonoty ol covorugo ucross u outots, 2)
Codng cutogoros voro constructod by oxtonsvo rovov ol tho novs contont ol u
lvo outots, 3) Codor trunng usod novs storos lromu lvo outots. \orkng vth tho
sumpo lromtho tvo outots uso mudo ths prooct moro munugoubo us t producod u
hugo numbor ol toovson storos. Scott's l vus usod to tost tho ntorcodor roubty
lor nomnu vurubos. 1ho ntorcodor roubty tost rosuts voro: l) Stugo ol covorugo
.96, 2) Covorugo lrumo .80, 3) lrumo nuturo .80, 4) lrumo sophstcuton .80, 5) Con-
tont orontuton .94, und 6) Sourco .84.
kcsuIts
H
l
, thut toovson modu lrumos chungo lrom doscrptvo to uttrbutvo to ulloctvo
durng dlloront stugos ol u crss, vus supportod. Durng tho lrst stugo, lrom8:45 u.m.
to ll u.m., tho covorugo vus lrumod prmury vth tho doscrptvo lrumo dsustor
t56.8%). Cthor typos ol lrumo, potcu tl4.8%), crmnu tl2.5%), und suloty con-
corns t8.95%) voro oss notcoubo. Durng tho socond stugo ol tho covorugo, lrom ll
u.m. to 3 p.m., tho doscrptvo lrumo dsustor t37.5%) docnod drumutcuy vhorous
tho uttrbutvo lrumos roso sgnlcunty. 1ho potcu lrumo ncrousod lrom l4.8% ut
ll u.m. to 28.5% ut 3 p.m., uthough tho crmnu lrumo romunod constunt tll.6%).
1ho ulloctvo lrumo omorgod n tho utor hours ol tho covorugo. 1ho oconomc lrumo
roso lrom 0.9% ut ll u.m. to 4.l% ultor mdnght. 1ho suloty lrumo ncrousod sgnl-
cunty lrom 8.9% n tho ouror stugos to l9% tho noxt mornng. 1ho humun ntorost
lrumo roso lrom l.3% durng tho lrst stugo to 8.8% by mdnght. tlguro l).
lovor strkng ovonts occurrod ut nght uthough tho covorugo ol 9/ll contnuod
throughout tho nght, vhch rosutod n oss systomutc dlloroncos n covorugo
lrumos. Covorugo ultor 7 p.m. vurod oss but prosontod ts ovn unquo puttorn. 1ho ut-
trbutvo potcu lrumo docrousod contnuousy tlrom l7% to l2.2%). 1ho ulloctvo
oconomc lrumo bocumo ovdont tlrom 2.9% to 4.l%). 1ho othor tvo ulloctvo
lrumos, suloty und humun ntorost, roso rospoctvoy lrom ll.3% to l9% und lrom
8.8% to l2.9% tho noxt mornng.
H
2
, thut toovson modu lrumo sophstcuton rsos us covorugo movos through
stugos ol u crss, vus supportod. 1ho lrumos dontlod durng tho lrst 24 hours voro
lound to bo dlloront n thor ovos ol sophstcuton. lrumos ussocutod vth stugos ol
u crss n tho covorugo ol 9/ll vont lromroutvoy smpo to moro sophstcutod. Dur-
ng tho lrst stugo, dsustor storos domnutod, vhch nvovod moro unlod vork n so-
octng lucts und lrumng tho storos, vhorous storos vth potcu und crmnu
lrumos voro st ovovng. As tho covorugo procoodod, tho dsustor lrumo docnod
und potcu und crmnu lrumos ncrousod, und moro sophstcutod vork vus ro-
qurod n lrumng tho storos. Durng tho thrd stugo, storos lrumod us humun ntorost
678 )ournaI of 8roadcasting & FIcctronic Mcdia/Dcccmbcr 2007
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ncrousod sgnlcunty, und ssuos concornng tho onvronmont und oconomy uso bo-
gun to surluco. 1hoso hgh-ovo lrumos nvovod moro thought-provokng procossos
lrom ournusts.
H
3
, thut toovson covorugo omphuszos humun ntorost moro thun potcu und
oconomc luctors n crss stuutons nvovng trugody, vus not supportod. About
6.6% ol tho storos voro lrumod us humun ntorost. 1ho throo muor lrumos ol covor-
ugo voro potcu tl7.9%), crmnu tll.9%), und suloty tll.8%). Approxmutoy 40%
ol tho storos voro lrumod us storos ol u dsustor. Athough thoso storos mght bo usso-
cutod vth tho vo-bong ol poopo, humun ntorost vus not lound us u muor lrumo
ol storos durng tho lrst 24-hour covorugo. Cvoru, tho potcu lrumo vus moro ov-
dont thun humun ntorost n tho covorugo ol tho lrst 24 hours. Hovovor, us tho ovont
unlodod und tho covorugo movod to utor stugos, humun ntorost lrumos ncrousod
drumutcuy lrom tho ouror stugos to bocomo us provuont us potcu lrumos. A-
though tho oconomc lrumo uso roso n tho utor stugos ol tho covorugo, humun ntor-
ost vus omphuszod moro thun tho oconomcs lrumo through tho covorugo ol tho lrst
24 hours. tlguro l)
H
4
, thut toovson modu's uso ol u vdor rungo ol sourcos n u crss ouds to u d-
mnshod roo ol govornmont sourcos undor rupdy chungng stuutons, vus sup-
portod. 1ho lour most lroquonty usod sourcos voro govornmont ollcus tl9.3%),
ti/MFDlA FkAMFS AND FUNCTlONS 679
Figurc 1
Fcrccntagc of Framcs During Diffcrcnt Stagcs in TcIcvision OutIcts'
First 24 Hours of Covcragc (N = 2647)
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vtnossos tl0.8%), tho lrosdont t6.7%), und oxports t5.8%). Covornmont ollcus
voro tho domnunt sourcos umong u sourcos usod. Hovovor, thor routvoy smu
porcontugo tl9.3%) shovod thut govornmont ollcus voro not us povorlu us n tho
covorugo ol othor crsos or potcu ovonts. \hon oxumnng tho routonshp bo-
tvoon spoclc sourcos usod n tho covorugo ol 9/ll und modu lrumos, tho dmnshod
roo ol govornmont sourcos vus ovon couror. Covornmont ollcus t33.7%) voro us-
socutod most vth tho potcu lrumo. 1ho storos lrumod us dsustor usod vtnossos
t22.4%) us tho muor sourco, vth govornmont ollcus tl6.8%) tho socond. Crmnu
lrumos usod moro oxports t25.7%) thun govornmont ollcus t2l.3%) us tho muor
sourcos. 1ho storos lrumod us oconomc ctod moro busnoss sourcos tll.9%) thun
govornmont ollcus t4.5%). 1ho storos lrumod us humun ntorost voro domnutod by
vtnossos tl3.2%) und vctms' routvos tl8.4%) compurod to govornmont sourcos
t5.2%). t1ubo l)
H
5
, thut toovson modu n u crss stuuton sorvo us u sourco ol consouton und
gudunco n uddton to un nlormuton sourco, vus not supportod. 1ho toovson out-
ots sorvod prmury us un nlormuton sourco ruthor thun u consong und gudng
sourco durng thor covorugo ol tho lrst 24 hours. Moro thun 80% ol tho storos voro
dontlod us prmury prosontng lucts, vhorous ony l4.8% ol tho storos ollorod
unuyss. ln torms ol covorugo tmo, 68% vus dovotod to prosontuton ol lucts,
vhorous l7% vus dovotod to unuyss. 1ho covorugo dovotod to consong or ousng
stross und unxoty ol tho uudonco t2.0%) und to gudng tho uudonco n u crss stuu-
ton tl.2%) vus noggbo. \hon ookng ut tho chungos ol modu lunctons by stugos
ol crss, no chungos voro lound n tho storos prmury prosontng lucts. An uvorugo
ol 8l% ol tho storos vus dovotod to prosontng lucts ucross tho throo stugos ol tho cr-
ss. Anuyss novs toms docrousod gruduuy. Dlloroncos voro lound n tho covorugo
dovotod to consouton, thoro voro umost no storos dovotod to consouton durng
tho lrst stugo ol tho crss. As tho covorugo contnuod, storos ol consouton ncrousod
lrom 2.8% n tho socond stugo to 3.5% n tho thrd stugo. Consouton docrousod ultor
l2 u.m. tho noxt duy t1ubo 2).
H
6
, thut toovson modu vury, but not oxtonsvoy, n covorugo lrumos und modu
lunctons porlormod n u nutonu crss, vus supportod. 1horo vus u dlloronco n
covorugo lrumos umong tho toovson outots tX
2
= 72.04, df = 32, p < .0l). ut tho ro-
utonshp botvoon covorugo lrumo und toovson outots s routvoy vouk tCrumor's
V = .08, p < .0l), vhch mouns covorugo lrumos dd not vury substuntuy ucross tho
outots. As lor tho lour muor covorugo lrumos dontlod, dsustor, potcu, crmnu,
und suloty, somo outots dovutod lrom othor outots n ono or tvo ol tho lrumos. CNN
und lCX hud moro storos lrumod us potcu thun AC, CS, und NC. \horous
throo notvorks tAC, CNN, und lCX) hud u smur numbor ol storos lrumod us crm-
nu, CS hud tho most storos tl3.6%) vth tho crmnu lrumo, und NC hud tho lov-
ost t9.6%). AC, CS, und NC dovotod moro uttonton to tho suloty lrumo thun CNN
und lCX dd. \horous storos vth tho humun ntorost lrumo dd not rocovo much
spuco lrom u tho outots, AC t7.5%) und CS t7.8%) hud moro storos vth tho hu-
mun ntorost lrumo thun tho othor throo outots t1ubo 3).
680 )ournaI of 8roadcasting & FIcctronic Mcdia/Dcccmbcr 2007
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TabIc 1
Ncws Sourcc Associatcd With Covcragc Framc (N = 2647)
Sourco lotcu Lconomc Crmnu Lnvron. Suloty Humnlnt kogon Dsustor Cthor 1otu
Arno 0.4 0.0 l.6 0.0 9.3 l.2 0.0 l.0 3.0 2.l
Arub Croup 0.2 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.l
usnoss 0.0 ll.9 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.6 0.0 0.2 0.9 0.5
Lxport 5.5 9.0 25.7 0.0 3.5 2.3 5.0 l.4 4.4 5.8
Cov. ollcu 33.8 4.5 2l.3 23.l l9.5 5.2 5.0 l6.8 l3.5 l9.3
lntornutonu 9.l 4.5 5.7 0.0 0.6 l.7 30.0 0.6 3.0 3.3
lrosdont l5.0 4.5 3.5 0.0 2.9 l.2 0.0 7.4 2.2 6.7
koutvo 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 l.3 l8.4 0.0 0.8 l.7 l.9
\tnoss 0.6 0.0 3.2 7.7 l.6 l3.2 0.0 22.4 5.2 l0.8
Cthor 8.0 ll.9 l7.5 7.7 23.3 27.0 35.0 l2.6 l3.9 l4.8
^o|c: *lorcontugos roloct hovouch sourco vus usod n tho storos vhoro spoclc lrumos voro dontlod. Sourcos voro not dontlod n somo ol tho sto-
ros und thus totu lroquoncy doos not udd up to l00%.
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1horo vus u sght dlloronco n modu lunctons porlormod umong tho toovson
outots n tho crss stuuton. 1ho toovson outots voro smur n porlormng tho pr-
mury luncton, prosontng lucts n thor novs covorugo turound 82% on uvorugo),
vhorous lCX dovutod lrom othor outots n prosontng lovor lucts n ts covorugo
t65.4%). lCX provdod much moro unuyss t25.7%) n ts covorugo thun othor outots
turound l4%). lCX uso od tho toovson outots n provdng consouton t3.9%) und
gudunco t2.9%) vhorous othor outots provdod much oss consouton und nogg-
bo gudunco n thor covorugo t1ubo 4).
682 )ournaI of 8roadcasting & FIcctronic Mcdia/Dcccmbcr 2007
TabIc 2
Fcrccntagc of Story Frimary Oricntation by Stagcs of Crisis (N = 2647)
Crontuton 8-llum ll-3 pm 3-7 pm 7-l2 um l2-6 um 6-9 um 1otu
Anuyss l7.2 2l.3 l4.3 l2.9 ll.8 l0.9 l4.8
Consouton 0.9 2.8 3.5 2.9 0.8 l.4 2.0
luct 79.2 73.6 8l.3 79.2 85.7 85.8 8l.4
Cudo 2.2 l.6 0.9 l.0 0.6 0.7 l.2
Cthor 0.9 0.5 0.0 0.2 l.3 l.4 0.7
1otu l00 l00 l00 l00 l00 l00 l00
TabIc 3
Fcrccntagc of Framc in TcIcvision OutIcts' First 24 Hours
of Covcragc (N = 2647)
lrumo AC CS NC CNN lCX 1otu
lotcu l5.6 l7.2 l5.9 20.2 25.2 l7.9
Lconomc 2.3 3.6 2.8 l.8 l.9 2.5
Crmnu ll.9 l3.6 9.6 ll.7 l2.l ll.9
Lnvronmont l.l 0.3 0.0 0.2 l.0 0.5
Suloty l4.2 l2.3 l3.6 9.l 6.8 ll.8
Humun lntorost 7.5 7.8 4.7 6.2 4.4 6.6
kogous 0.7 0.5 0.9 l.l 0.5 0.8
Dsustor 35.6 36.3 46.l 40.9 42.7 39.3
Cthor ll.l 8.5 6.3 8.7 5.3 8.7
1otu l00 l00 l00 l00 l00 l00
^o|c: X
2
= 72.04, df = 32, ^ = 2647, p < .0l
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Discussion and ConcIusions
1ho lndngs lrom tho lvo toovson outots' covorugo ol 9/ll ollor lrosh nsghts
ubout hov L.S. modu covorod u rupdy chungng nutonu crss. 1ho lndngs con-
lrmtho lunctons ol toovson modu durng u crss tCrubor, l980, Nutonu kosourch
Counc Commttoo on Dsustors und tho Muss Modu, l980), und suggost thut modu
lrumos ol crss n toovson covorugo uro dynumc ruthor thun stutc, ospocuy undor
stuutons vhoro ovonts chungo rupdy. 1ho rosuts uso suggost tho stugo ol crss hus
un olloct on modu luncton. 1ho toovson covorugo shltod locus us ovonts brought
uttonton to ssuos thut hud not boon ut stuko durng tho ouror stugos.
Support ol H
l
und H
2
s tho most mportunt lndng ol ths study, vhch rovous hov
lrumo nuturo und lrumo sophstcuton chungod durng tho stugos ol u crss. 1ho stugo
ol tho crss vus lound to bo un mportunt luctor ussocutod vth lrumo nuturo und
lrumo sophstcuton. 1ho lndngs conlrm Crubor's tl980) thoory ol throo stugos ol
crss covorod by novs modu und go boyond Crubor's obsorvuton by rovoung tho
dynumc nuturo ol modu lrumos.
Cno notcoubo lndng vus thut tho oss systomutc dlloronco n covorugo lrumo
occurrod ut mdnght compurod to ouror stugos ol tho crss. Structuru luctors n
novsrooms coud bo rosponsbo lor tho dlloroncos. 1horo voro moro ournusts
vorkng durng tho duy thun n tho mddo ol tho nght, und ovonts voro thus loovod
cosoy und prompty. Modu shltod thor locus ol covorugo duo to oss broukng novs
und oss uccoss to sourcos ut mdnght, vhch coud oud to covorugo topcs bong
contunod n u routvoy nurrov rungo vth oss vuruton.
1ho lndngs rogurdng lrumo dynumcs n tho covorugo ol u crss coud udvunco
undorstundng ol lrumng n tho loovng uspocts. lrst, thoy ollor omprcu ovdonco
ol tho ollocts ol tho stugo ol u nutonu crss on modu lrumos n covorng tho crss.
Covorugo ol rupdy dovoopng ovonts s koy to bo lrumod dlloronty us tho ovonts
unlod. Luvronco t2000, p. 9) dscussod tho dlloronco botvoon tho covorugo ol rou-
tno novs und ovont-drvon novs. lrumng dynumcs uro moro koy to bo ussoc-
ti/MFDlA FkAMFS AND FUNCTlONS 683
TabIc 4
Fcrccntagc of Story Frimary Oricntation by TcIcvision OutIcts (N = 2647)
Crontuton AC CS NC CNN lCX 1otu
Anuyss l4.2 l4.l l6.4 ll.6 25.7 l4.8
Consouton l.9 2.5 0.7 2.l 3.9 2.0
luct 82.2 82.4 82.2 84.0 65.4 8l.4
Cudo 0.7 0.8 0.5 2.0 2.9 l.2
Cthor l.2 0.3 0.7 0.0 l.9 0.7
1otu l00 l00 l00 l00 l00 l00
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utod vth ovont-drvon novs. 1ho covorugo ol 9/ll vont through u soros ol ovonts
vth nov ssuos brought up contnuousy. lournusts hud to muko constunt docsons
ubout vhut to sooct und hov to prosont tho lucts tMogonson, Lndsuy, L, lorkns, &
ourdsoy, 2002). \hon un ovont goos through rupd dovoopmont, modu covorugo
lrumos uro koy to loov vth u soros ol lrumos tukng turns n domnunco.
Socond, tho lndngs shod ght on mportunt dmonsons ol modu lrumng. 1ho
covorugo ol u crss vth dontlubo stugos cus lor vurubo covorugo lrumos corro-
spondng to spoclc modu lunctons ut ouch stugo. lrumo nuturo chungos rovouod
thut modu lrumos corrospond to modu lunctons durng tho dlloront stugos ol u crss.
1ho lrumo chungos lrom doscrptvo to uttrbutvo to ulloctvo through dlloront stugos
ol tho crss durng tho lrst 24 hours voro consstont vth modu luncton ut ouch stugo
ol tho crss tCrubor, l980).
1hrd, lrumo chungos ussocutod vth stugos ol u crss n tho covorugo ol 9/ll un-
dorvont u puttorn lrom routvoy smpo to moro compcutod lrumos. 1ho lndngs
suggost thut, n tho covorugo ol u nutonu crss, covorugo lrumos not ony chungo
substuntuy n thor nuturo ovor tho stugos ol tho crss, but uso procood tovurd u
hghor ovo ol sophstcuton us ournusts ourn moro ubout tho ovonts und sooct
lucts vth moro doboruton.
1ho lndngs on ollocts ol stugos ol crss huvo mportunt mpcutons lor lrumo
unuyss ol modu contont. Athough lrumo unuyss dous mosty vth ssuos thut uro
not chungng rupdy, u dynumc vovol lrumo chungos ovor tmo uovs lrumo unuy-
ss to roloct tho covorugo moro thoroughy. 1hoso lrumo dynumcs uppy not ony to
toovson modu, us n tho cuso ol 9/ll vth rupdy chungng ovonts, but uso to uny
othor novs modu thut covor ongong ovonts or ssuos. Stugos ol crss coud turn nto
stugos ol dovoopmont us ongong ovonts und ssuos uro covorod by uny novs modu.
lt s mportunt to tuko nto uccount tho olloct ol tmo porods on modu lrumos. Lvon lor
routno novs, vhon covorugo ol un ssuo usts ovor u porod ol tmo, covorugo
lrumos uro koy to vury. Adynumc vovn lrumo unuyss muy rovou moro nsght on
hovmodu lrumo novs ovonts und provdo u bottor undorstundng ol hovsuch lrumos
muy ovontuuy nluonco tho uudonco.
\hon u trugody nvovos humun cusuutos, humun ntorost s koy to bo u contru
ssuo. 1ho luuro to lnd support lor H
3
ndcutos unothor prorty n tho covorugo ol u
nutonu crss. Humun ntorost muy gvo vuy to ssuos bourng moro voght. ln tho
covorugo ol 9/ll, tho humun ntorost lrumo bocumo ovdont durng tho utor stugos,
vhon tho locus ol tho covorugo shltod und ovonts brought modu uttonton to ssuos
thut hud boon oss notcoubo durng tho ouror stugos. 1ho chungos n tho lrumng ol
humun ntorost durng dlloront stugos uso suggost u shlt n ovo ol humun ntorost n
u trugody ol nutonu mugntudo. Humun ntorost normuy rolors to humun loongs,
vo-bong, und lumy, or ovo. As tho ovonts ol nutonu mugntudo unlodod, tho mo-
du voro not ubo to locus thor uttonton on ndvduus durng tho oury stugos ol tho
crss. \hon humun ntorost surlucod us u notcoubo lrumo, humun vo-bong vus
not uttuchod to ony u smu numbor ol poopo or soon through storos ubout ndvdu-
us. lnstoud, humun ntorost vus prosontod lrom u nutonu porspoctvo und uttuchod
684 )ournaI of 8roadcasting & FIcctronic Mcdia/Dcccmbcr 2007
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to tho vo-bong ol u poopo bong ulloctod by tho crss. 1ho mugntudo ol tho crss
dolnod tho humun ntorost lrumo on u nutonu ruthor thun ndvduu ovo us soon n
tho covorugo ol othor humun trugodos.
Support ol H
4
rovouod tho roo ol govornmont sourcos n u crss stuuton nvovng
nutonu ntorost. Covornmont ollcus voro ono ol tho tvo muor sourcos usod n tho
covorugo ol 9/ll. Hovovor, tho luct thut l9.3% ol tho storos usod govornmont oll-
cus suggosts thut durng un unprocodontod crss tho cupucty ol govornmont ollcus
us sourcos s mtod n cortun uspocts. Covornmont ollcus uso nood to sort nlor-
muton lrom u possbo sourcos und muy bo unubo to ollor uccuruto nlormuton ut
cortun ponts. Modu nood to roy on u vuroty ol sourcos to provdo uccuruto und uso-
lu nlormuton. 1ho lndngs suggost u dmnshod roo ol govornmont sourcos durng
vurous stugos ol u nutonu crss. 1ho lndngs uro uso consstont vth Nucos' tl994)
urgumont thut modu uso dlloront mothods vhon covorng un unt-Amorcun torrorst
uct thun vhon covorng othor lorogn pocy ssuos. 1ho vurutons n sourco uso dur-
ng dlloront stugos ol tho crss ndcuto thut vhothor u vdor rungo ol sourco v bo
usod n tho covorugo doponds not ony on tho nuturo ol tho ncdont but uso tho lunc-
tons modu porlorm durng dlloront stugos ol tho covorugo.
Crubor tl980) notod thut modu provdod gudonos lor vhut to do n u crss stuu-
ton. 1holndngs lor H
5
suggost thut nucrss ol unprocodontodmugntudo, modu's so-
cu utty luncton s contngont upon tho prmury nood ol tho uudonco. 1ho covorugo
ol 9/llshovoducour ordor nprortos ol modulunctons, undthut thonoodlor conso-
uton und gudunco muy bo ovorrddon by tho nood lor uccuruto und nlormutvo lucts.
1hus, provdnglucts muybotholundumontu tuskol modunucrss ol nutonu mugn-
tudo, ospocuydurngthoourystugos. 1holndngrogurdngncrousngnumbor ol sto-
ros ol consoutondurngthoutor stugos conlrms modu's socu uttylunctonundtho
olloct ol stugos ol crss onmodulunctons. \horous moduprmurysorvodus usourco
ol nlormuton durng tho oury stugos ol tho crss, tho modu luncton ol consong tho
pubc bocumo moro ovdont us ovonts unlodod. 1ho lndng suggosts thut modu lunc-
tons n u crss uso shlt durng dlloront stugos ol u crss. As tho nood lor crtcu nlor-
muton s lulod durng tho ntu stugo ol u crss, tho modu socu utty luncton
voud rosumo through tho covorugo durng tho utor stugos ol tho crss.
1ho lndngs ol H
6
conlrmod tho botvoon-modu dlloronco n novs covorugo.
1hoy uso shod ght on rvus n conlormty und to vhut dogroo modu covorugo mght
bo smur n u crss ol nutonu mugntudo. Durng tho oury hours ol thor covorugo ol
9/ll, tho throo toovson notvorks AC, CS, und NC uctuuy shurod novs lootugo.
1ho ssuos ut stuko und tho prmury lunctons mporutvo lor modu to porlorm durng
tho oury stugos hopod roduco dlloronco n covorugo lrumos und lunctons modu
porlormod und homogonzod thom to somo dogroo.
1hs study oxumnod u totu ol 2,647 storos. Athough u ollorts voro mudo to on-
suro thut tho mousuros ol tho vurubos voro undorstood und tho contont vus codod
consstonty, oxtru cuuton noods to bo tukon vth tho lndngs und concusons bo-
cuuso ntorcodor roubty ony usod contont lrom tvo ol tho lvo toovson outots.
lurthor studos coud ook nto u ongor porod ol tho covorugo und tho mpuct ol othor
ti/MFDlA FkAMFS AND FUNCTlONS 68S
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mportunt vurubos on tho covorugo, such us hov roportor-sourco routonshps und
dlloront roportng modos ulloct covorugo lrumos. Socu utty s ono ol tho muor mo-
du lunctons n u crss. luturo studos coud oxumno hov modu porlorm tho socu
utty luncton undor vurous crss stuutons. Humun ntorost s consdorod u muor
uspoct ol novs vuuo und u koy lrumo ol novs covorugo nvovng humun uctvty. lur-
thor oxumnuton ol tho luctors lrumng humun ntorost und tho routonshp botvoon
humun ntorost und othor lrumos n tho covorugo muy provdo moro nsghts on hov
modu porlorm thor lunctons n u nutonu crss.
kcfcrcnccs
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