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LESSON 1
INTRODUCTION
Polygraph is an instrument or device capable of recording changes in blood pressure,
pulse, respiration and skin resistance in the physiological phenomena that may be used as
bases for the application of a reliable technique of diagnosing truth of deception. It was
derived from the two Greek words poly which means many or having several and graph
which means writings. Hence, literally, polygraph means many writings. Polygraphy
(sometimes called scientific truth verification) refers to the scientific method of detecting
deception with the use of the polygraph. It is administered by a trained polygraphist, lie
detector specialist (LDS), forensic psychophysiologist (FP) or polygraph examiner (PE)
by asking questions to the subject relevant to the case under investigation. The polygraph
is commonly called as lie detector; polygraph machine, deceptograph and truth
verifier.
A. THE SEARCH FOR TRUTH
For as long as there are liars and deceitful persons, people will constantly find ways
to detect lies and discover the truth. Various methods have been developed using science
and technology to determine if people are telling the truth. Such fields include physiology,
psychology, psychiatry, chemistry, pharmacology, physics, engineering, electronics, and
computer science. Although scientifically based, most of these methods are not yet fully
recognized by the courts as legal means of proving the truth. In fact, most information
developed using scientific lie detection methods are not admissible evidences in court
despite their expediency in criminal investigation.
Why do people seek truth?
1. In decision making process, success primarily depends on true information
(simply known as the truth). Decision makers must posses the ability to evaluate
the veracity of information that they are using in their decision.
2. The knowledge of truth is the fundamental requirement in administering justice.
3. In crime detection, the task of determining the truth initially lies on the hands of
field investigators.
Sometime in 1893, Dr. Hans Gross, an Austrian magistrate (judge) regarded as the
earliest advocate of criminal investigation as a science, published his book entitled Criminal
Investigation. In his book, Gross defined search for truth as the basis and goal of all
criminal investigations. (Weston and Wells, 1990)
In his earlier book System der Kriminalistiks, Gross emphasized that a large part of
the criminalists work involves battle against lies. The criminalist has to discover the truth
and must fight the opposite , which is lies and deceit. The criminalist encounters the
opposite at every step of his investigation (Trovillo, 1939)
B. METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION
Searching the truth and detecting lies has been a constant effort way back before the
first scientific instrument for lie detection was invented. In attempting to discover lies and
deceit, primitive people developed methods that are founded with magic and mysticism.
Since early people believed that their gods send them messages through fire and water,
they used these things as means to know the truth. This procedure is commonly called as
TRIAL BY ORDEAL. In some situations, faith in mysticism surprisingly let innocent people
go unharmed while guilty ones die or get seriously injured during their ordeal. (Trovillo,
1939).
Some primitive lie detection methods were customs based on physiological principles.
Oriental people, for example, determine who are saying the truth and who are saying lies by
requiring suspected offenders to chew dry rice. While this was a simple task for innocent
suspects, those who were lying had difficulty in chewing. This practice cling into the belief
that fear inhibit the digestive process, including salivation. Thus, deceptive suspects have
difficulty in chewing rice and spitting out crushed wet rice because of fear. Fear that their
lies will be discovered prevents the production of their saliva. (Trovillo, 1939).
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LESSON 2
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
A. DEVELOPMENT OF CARDIO-SPHYMOGRAPH
1. Cesare
Lombroso
(1895)
an
Italian
criminologist
who
used
the
hydrosphymograph in the experiment he had conducted on actual criminal
suspects whose truthfulness or deception he sought to determine on the basis on
the presence or absence of blood pressure-pulse changes when the suspects were
questioned about the offense under investigation. This instrument however, is
generally intended for medical purposes not in the process of detecting lies or
deception or the truthfulness of the subject person. But later he was accorded the
distinction of being the first person to utilize an instrument for the purpose of
detecting lies.
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LESSON 3
EARLY METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION
Ordeal is a term of various meanings closely related to the medieval Latin dei
indicum meaning miraculous decisions for ancient cases were decided through several
tests usually on physical strength. Ancient method of trial in which the accused is exposed
to physical danger which was supposed to be harmless if innocent.
2. Red Hot Iron Ordeal. This is the ordeal that is practiced in the hill tribe of Rajmal in
North Bengal. The accused places his tongue to a hot iron nine times (9) unless burned
sooner. Sometimes the accused also is made to carry the metal in his hands. If burned,
the accused is put to death.
3. Ordeal by Balance. This is practiced in the Institute of Vishnu, India. This ordeal is
makes use of a scale of balance wherein he accused and accuser shall be placed in both
ends of the balance (seesaw like). The person to be adjudged lighter than the other shall
be acquitted. On the other hand, the person to be adjudged guilty is the one heavier.
4. Ordeal by Boiling Water. This ordeal is used to point the thief in modern Africa. The
subjects plunged their right arms into the boiling pot to the elbow and step to the other
side of the fire. All are told to undergo the tests without murmuring. The one by the time
has lost some or showed blisters would prove that he or she is the thief.
5. Ordeal by Rice Chewing. The ordeal is used to determine who is telling the truth or
lying. This is practiced in India. It is formed with the kind of rice called Sathee,
prepared with various incantations. The person on trial eats, with his face to the east
and then spits upon a peaceful leaf. If the saliva is mixed with blood or the corner of his
mouth swells or if he trembles, he is declared to be a liar.
6. Ordeal of the Red Water. This ordeal is used in Eastern Africa. The accused shall be
required to fast for twelve hours. He shall e required to swallow small amount of cooked
rice and be given emetic red water extracted from the Sassy Tree bark. If the accused
emits or cough out the rice, he is adjudged guilty of the charge, otherwise the accused is
innocent.
7. Trial by Combat. This ordeal orders a fight between the accuser and the accused.
Whoever lost the fight will be adjudged guilty. The one who wins the fight at the same
time wins the case.
8. Ordeal by Drinking Decoction. The ordeal that requires the accused to be given a
decoction to drink by a priest. If the accused was harmless after drinking the decoction,
then he is innocent but if he dies, he is guilty. This ordeal was practiced in:
a. Nigeria
b. Brahamic India
c. India
9. Ordeal by Eating Corsnead. This ordeal is practiced in China and Alexandria, Egypt.
The accused is given uncooked dry rice to swallow and afterwhich spit out the same. If
the accused spits out the rice to be still dry, he is considered innocent.
10. Ordeal by the Eucharist. This ordeal is reserved for the clergy and administered with
pomp and ceremony in the European Countries. The accused will be given any liquid
food that may cause death to any person. If the accused is innocent, Angel Gabriel will
descend from heaven and prevent the accused from swallowing the food given to him.
11. Ordeal of the Bier. This ordeal is applied to a mystery death of a person. The corpse
will be brought on a bier of boughs after which the natives will ask the corpse he/she
has been bewitched. If the victim died by witchcraft, the bier is supposed to know more
and if the sorcerer who killed him is present, the corpse will touch him/her. This is
practiced in countries of the continent of Australia and Europe.
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However, in some books authored by well known writers and academicians, The
Hereditary Sieve Method was mentioned by Sir Hans Gross his famous book in
Criminal Investigation in which beans are to be thrown into a sieve (bigao in vernacular)
as the name of each suspect is called. If the bean jumps out of the sieve, the owner of
the name is innocent. If the bean remains in the sieve, the person named is the thief.
The Ayur-Veda is a Hindu book of health and sciences that is believed to be the
earliest reference of the ordeals or methods of detecting deception as adopted by several
countries in the world specially Europe. It is also believed to be the basis in the creation
of a polygraph machine.
LESSON 4
THE FOUNDATION OF POLYGRAPH TECHNIQUES
1. Theory and concept
The polygraph technique uses the principle that the bodily functions of a person are
influenced by his mental state. He physiological changes accompanying deception are
capable of being recorded, measured and interpreted with reasonable certainty.
Telling a lie is usually an emotional experienced. A conscious act of lying causes
conflict in the mind of he examinee, which produces an emotion of fear of anxiety,
manifested by fluctuations in pulse rate, blood pressure, breathing and perspiration. The
physiologic fluctuation that come with the emotion are in nature automatic, self-regulating
and beyond conscious control because they affect the functioning of the internal structures
that prepare the body for emergency. They are mobilized for survival value.
2. Physiological Effector Mechanism/automatic Nervous system
The autonomic nervous system is the main effector mechanism which the polygraph
are concerned. The autonomic nervous system is the one responsible for regulating
mechanism that corrects the slightest deviation of the blood, body temperature, levels of
potassium, sodium, calcium magnesium and all the chemical substances that maintain the
activity of all cell membranes are finely adjusted. This is found at the center of the brain
and its central control is in the hypothalamus a group of nerve cells of the brain that
control the entire endocrine-hormonal system. All of our involuntary reflexes- those that we
cannot control consciously such as our heart beat, pulse rate, increase and decrease in
blood pressure and the expansion and constriction of arteries are governed by the
autonomic nervous system. When one of our senses detects a threat to our well-being, it
sends a signal to the autonomic nervous system, which activates its sympathetic division
regardless whether the threat is physical or psychological.
In polygraph testing, the receptor is the ear of the subject, which receives the
threatening question or stimulus from the polygraphist. The stimulus is transmitted from
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10
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LESSON 6
THE EXAMINER
Who are Polygraph Examiners?
Today, some polygraph examiners refers to be called Forensic Psychophysiologist
(FP) because only FP and the subject (examinee) are present in the examination room, his
or her behavior greatly influences the results of the PVE. Although, polygraph examiners
are referred to as polygraphists and lie detector specialists. The FP has several tasks in
performing PVE:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
There are many schools around USA that have been set up to train people to conduct
polygraph examinations. One of these schools is the Axciton International Academy, which
was started by Clarence D. Lee. The school is accredited by APA and certified by the
American Association of Police Polygraphists (AAPP).
Following the completion of these requirements, the student becomes a polygraphist
and may obtain a license in his or her state requires one. There is no standardized test that
all polygraph examiners must pass in order to practice.
Basic to all that has been said with regards to the utilization and accuracy of the
polygraph technique is the matter of the examiner qualifications and skills.
An examiner must be an intelligent person, with reasonably good educational
background preferably college degree. He should have an intense interest in the work
itself, a good practical understanding of human nature, and suitable personality traits
which may be evident from his otherwise general ability to get along with people and to be
well liked by his friends and associates. No amount of training or experienced will overcome
the lack of these necessary qualifications.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD EXAMINER/INTERROGATOR
1. Patience- there are times or instances thats subject could be questioned for one day
or more. Never interrogate a subject when you are in a hurry. Never race against time.
2. The interrogator must be master psychologist. He must be good reader of acts of
men.
3. The interrogator must be friendly and avoid arrogance. Try to feel the subject that you
are superior to him. You should be friendly to gain confidence.
4. Never bluff. Never deceive the subject. Never promise the subject anything that you
can never fulfill. Be sincere to the subject.
5. He must be able to talk on all subjects under the sun, this is important in order to
make the subject talk more of the case.
6. The examiner must be courteous and gentle at all times. This is important to gain the
respect of the subject.
7. He must be resourceful.
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LESSON 7
THE SUBJECT
KINDS OF PEOPLE TO BE INTERROGATED
A. Suspect - Offenders of society who are presumed to have committed the crime.
B. Complainants - Are those persons who are offended by the suspects.
C. Witnesses - A person who knows something about the crime.
TYPES OF SUBJECT FOR LIE DETECTION OR INTERROGATION IN CRIMINAL CASES:
I. SUBJECT WHOSE GUILT IS DEFINITE OR REASONABLE
A. Emotional Offenders
1. Person who commit crimes in the heat of passion, anger or revenge [homicide
injuries, etc.]
2. Persons whose offenses are accidental in nature like hit and run motorist. Emotional
offenders have a feeling of remorse, mental anguish as a result of his act. HE is
bothered by his conscience and has difficulty of resting or sleeping.
Techniques for this kind of Subject
a.
b.
c.
d.
LESSON 8
TEST PROCEDURE IN POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION
When a mentally normal person tells a lie, physiological changes occur within
his/her body that could be recorded by polygraph machine and evaluated by a polygraph
examiner.
WHAT TAKES PLACE DURING POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION?
The nervous control of the human body includes the Central Nervous System (CNS)(the brain and the spinal cord) and the automatic or regulating nervous system that has
two complimentary branches: the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous system
acting opposite to each other. When a person is under the influence of physical exertion or
emotional stimuli such as anger, excitement, fear, telling lie, etc. stimuli, the sympathetic
will prevail and override the parasympathetic, therefore, there will be changes in the heart
rate, pulse rate, blood pressure, respiratory tracing, psychogalvanic reflexes, time of
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The subject must have a good night sleep atleast five (5) hours prior to the test.
The subject must refrain from smoking for atleast two (2) hours prior to the test.
The subject should not undergo prolonged interrogation prior to the test.
The subject must not have been subjected to physical abuse or body contact.
The subject must refrain from drinking alcoholic beverages or any drugs 12 hours before
the test.
6. The subject must not be suffering from any temporary illnesses like headache,
toothache, menstruation (female), colds, etc.
7. The subject should be physically fed.
8. The subject should not be engaged in sexual activities few hours before the test.
Undergoing a lie detector test can be an intimidating experience that can challenge
the nerves of even the most enduring person. You are sitting there with wires and tubes
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Unpublished facts of the offense known only by the victim, suspects and the
investigator of the case.
The type of test that the examiner will conduct is based on the pre-test interview. It
also serves to condition the subject physiologically for the test upon meeting the subject for
the first time. The polygraph examiner identifies himself and shakes hands with the
subject. He then guides the subject to sit on the chair. The examiner will also pulls out a
chair and set himself infront of the subject. The examiner then informs the subject of his
constitutional rights and proceed to secure the subjects consent to undergo polygraph
examination. Should the subject given his consent, he is told to sign a statement of
consent in duplicate, then the examiner will ask the subject whether he was already
examined by other polygraph examiner for the same case or other separate case.
If the answer of the subject is positive, the examiner will about inquire details of the
test as to where it was conducted, who conducted the test, the examiner will also ask
whether or not the subject was informed of the result of the past test that was conducted if
any. (As a matter of professional ethics, a polygraph examiner should not continue the test
if the subject was previously examined by any polygraphist for the same case, except, for a
worthy cause or reason). After this, the examiner will then obtain information regarding the
subjects biodata for file or reference.
Any person who shall be subjected to undergo polygraph examination should be
informed of the following rights:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
of
Types:
a. Sacrifice or DYAT designed to uncover the subjects attitude, cooperation
towards the test. DYAT Do you intend to answer the question truthfully?
b. Knowledge or DYK designed to probe whether the subjects possess information
regarding the identity of the offender, the location of the evidence or other
necessary elements of the case facts, DYK Do You Know?
c. Evidence Connecting questions are questions about some specific piece of
evidence found at the scene of the crime, to focus the subjects attention on the
probability of incriminating proof that would establish his guilt.
d. LTQ Questions are questions used for protection against loss of psychological
control as approaching the end of the question series.
LTQ Lied to any Questions.
3. Control Questions are questions regarding a wrongdoing, unrelated but is of similar
and less serious nature to the investigation, and to which the subject will lie or if he
does not really lie he will think about it at the time it is asked or be unsure of the
complete truthfulness of his answer.
Purpose: To produce greater stress than offense (relevant) questions in the subjects
responding truthfully to queries about the offense.
To evoke less stress than the offense (relevant) questions in deceitful subjects.
4. Guilt Complex Questions are questions about the fictitious crime which is almost
similar in nature and equal in weight to the offense under investigation.
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LESSON 10
TEST TECHNIQUES WITH SOME SAMPLES
OF SET OF QUESTIONS
TEST I. THE GENERAL QUESTION TEST (GQT) is the test about the case under
investigation. These are sequence of relevant, irrelevant and control questions asked in a
designed order. The questions are arranged in order to contrast the subjects responses
between relevant questions and control questions. The answer to the questions is restricted
to yes or no only.
Given below is a sample of GQT. The subject Jerry was suspected to have stolen the
P50, 000.00 cash money of Juan Dela Cruz in the office of the latter. The investigators then
of the case have requested polygraph examination of said suspect. Applying the several
techniques are shown in the preceding pages.
Q#
1Q
2Q
3Q
TYPE
QUESTION
IQ
Is your first name Jerry?
IQ
Do you know that today is Thursday?
WRQ Between 1-5 PM of June 10, 2006 did you open the table
drawer of Juan Dela Cruz?
4Q
IQ
Are you married?
5Q
SRQ Were you the one who actually stole the missing P50,
000.00 cash money of Juan Dela Cruz?
6Q
IQ
Before attaining the age of 25 have you ever stolen
anything?
7Q
SRQ Do you know how to read?
8Q
CQ
Were the bunch of keys recovered under the table of Dela
Cruz yours?
9Q
KQ
Do you know who stole the P50, 000.00 cash money of
Juan Dela Cruz?
10Q SCQ Have you ever stolen anything from your current
employment?
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TYPE
QUESTION
IQ
Is your first name Jerry?
WRQ Between 1-5 PM of June 10, 2006, did you open the table
drawer of Juan Dela Cruz?
2Q
IQ
Do you know that today is Thursday?
5Q
SRQ
Were you the one who actually stole the missing P50,
000.00 cash money of Juan Dela Cruz?
4Q
IQ
Are you married?
6Q
CQ
Before attaining the age of 25 have you ever stolen
anything?
7Q
IQ
Do you know how to read?
8Q
ECQ Were the bunch of keys recovered under the table of Dela
Cruz yours?
9Q
KQ
Do you know who stole the P50, 000.00 cash money of
Dela Cruz?
10Q SCQ
Have you ever stolen anything from your current
employment?
TEST IV. MIXED QUESTION TEST
This test is the same with test III but questions of GQT is again mixed and the
sentences of the questions are as follows:
Q#
4Q
1Q
9Q
TYPE
QUESTION
IQ
Are you married?
IQ
Is your first name Jerry?
KQ
Do you know who stole the cash money of Juan Dela
Cruz?
6Q
CQ
Before attaining the age of 20 have you stolen anything?
2Q
IQ
Do you know that today is Thursday?
3Q
WRQ Between 1-5 PM of June 10, 2006 did you open the table
drawer of Juan Dela Cruz?
10Q SCQ
Have you ever stolen anything from your current
employment?
5Q
SRQ
Were you the one who actually stole the missing P50,
000.00 cash money of Juan Dela Cruz?
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CQ
8Q
ECQ
10Q CQ
The two irrelevant questions are designed to condition the subject to have
standard tracing and establish truth-telling pattern for the primary part of the
record.
TEST II
TEST III
TEST V
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1Q
-Introductory phrase plus padding question Do you know
whether the stolen watch of Jenny is a Citizen?
2Q - Padding Is it a Seiko?
3Q - Padding Is it a Rolex?
4Q - Padding Is it a Guess?
5Q - Padding Is it a Gucci?
6Q - Padding Is it a Timex?
7Q - Padding Is it a Bulova?
Chart marking is the process of writing standard and customized signs on the
polygraph chart to denote the subjects reactions and other circumstances that occur
during the actual polygraph test. Marking the paper chart while the polygraph pens are
writing on it will facilitate the evaluation and interpretation of the subjects reactions.
Chart marking is a procedure that plays a vital role. Neglecting the appropriate chart
marking procedure for a couple of seconds may cause misinterpretations later on that
further result to tragic consequences. Simply failing to punctually write the stimulus marks
on the paper chart that will cause misinterpretation of the polygram.
Stimulus marks are short vertical lines (normally about 1/8 of an inch) placed below
the descending stroke of the cardio tracing denoting exactly the beginning and at the end of
the stimulus question.
Polygram refers to the compete record of the pneumograph, cardiograph and
galvanograph tracings from the moment the actual questioning of the subject starts until it
ends. It contains the tracings (norm and deviation from norm), stimulus marks and
symbols skillfully written by the polygraph examiner while asking questions to a subject.
It was Cleve Backster who developed and introduced uniform chart marking. In
1959, he completed a 4-page article entitle Uniform Chart Marking which was published
by CH Stoelting Company. Standardized chart markings used by the PE/FP in conducting a
29
CT
OSN
S
USE/ DESCRIPTION
Beginning point of the test
Ending point of the test
(Stimulus mark) beginning
and ending point of a
stimulus question
indicates YES or affirmative
answer of the subject
indicates NO or negative
answer of the subject
Talking made by the subject
other than the normal Yes or
No
Talking instruction is given by
the PE
Coughing made by the
subject
Movement of the subject limb
or body
Movement instruction given
by the PE
Increasing mechanical
adjustment
Decreasing mechanical
adjustment
Subject cleared his throat
Outside noise penetrated the
polygraph examination room
The subject made a sigh
SN
SZ
L
Y
VC
IM
ARM
BI
R
PJ
WHERE IT IS PLACED
Below the c/tracing
-do
-do
-do
-do
-do
-do
Below p/tracing where break
is present
Exactly above/ below break in
the tracing
Below the c/tracing
Adjacent to pattern where
adjustment is made
-do
Usually placed below the
p/tracing
Below g or p/tracing where
deviation is present
At the break point of
p/tracing
Below the p/tracing where
sniff was noted
Below p/tracing at the point
where it happened
Below the p/tracing where it
coccured
Below break point of
p/tracing
Below pneumo tracing
At the break point of the
cardio tracing
-do
Below the cardio tracing
Below the cardio tracing
Below the cardio tracing
Below the cardio tracing
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LESSON 12
LEGAL AND JUDICIAL VALUE OF
THE POLYGRAPH RESULTS
IN GENERAL
Although perfection in the test is not a pre-requisite to the admissibility of evidence
obtainable by the use of scientific instrument or techniques, the standard practice has been
to grant judicial recognition only after the proponents of the unprecedented evidence have
shown that the instrument of technique has a reasonable measure of precision in its
indications, and that it is an accepted one in particular profession or field of science to
which it belongs. A more modern view will accord judicial recognition upon the general
acceptance by specialist within a profession or field of science, even though the group as a
whole may be completely unfamiliar with the instrument or technique.
Irrespective of the guidelines of admissibility, the prevailing judicial attitude, as of
January 1977, was one of a general unwillingness on the part of the Appellate Courts to
approve the admissibility of Polygraph Test Result as trial court evidence. Exceptions
however, have been made by a number of State Appellate Courts whereby the test results
may be used pursuant to a pre-test agreement and stipulation between the opposing
parties. Moreover, One State Supreme Court has held the results to be admissible where
subject to certain condition, the defendant request a polygraph examination and agrees to
permit the results to be used even though they may be unfavorable to him; an another
Supreme Court has held that a defendant is entitled, as a matter of constitutional Due
Process, to have the test results admitted as evidence, provided proof is forthcoming as to
test reliability and the examiner competency.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA (USA)
In 1972, in the case of Reid vs. State, the Indiana Supreme Court sustained the
admissibility of Polygraph Test Results for the purpose of rebutting the defendants
testimony, but it did so upon the basis of a waiver concept, because the defendants
testimony had filed a pre-trial petition for an order permitting him to submit to a polygraph
examination. Judge Charles W. Jeiner of the District Court of Michigan admits or
sustained the admissibility of the Polygraph Results as evidence in the case on the United
States vs. Ridling. He also stated that in order that the Polygraph Results may be
admitted as an evidence, it must passed thereof the two essential requisites/grounds; a. if
a subject agrees to take a Polygraph Test after being aware of his privilege to refuse
(following the Miranda warnings, where required), he waives his privilege. B. There can be
no coercion at the time the Test is taken if it is to be a valid test.
In USA, they have specific laws that provide sanctions regarding the use of polygraph
method. The most significant law is the Employee Polygraph Protection Act (EPPA) of
1988. This law prohibits most private employers from using polygraph testing to screen
applicants for employment. It does not however affect public employees such as police
agencies or other governmental institutions.
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Asides from this case, there are several cases I our country both civil and criminal
cases where the results of the Polygraph Test were taken into accounts or considerations.
The Basic law that provides legal sanctions covering criminal confessin is found in
the 1987 Constitutional provision was further emphasized in other subsequent sections.
RA No. 7438, otherwise known as the law that defines the rights of the accuse under
custodial investigation must have to be observed during criminal interrogation as part f the
Miranda Doctrine/Warning.
REFERENCES
Dalilis, H.T., Pagnas, D.P. & Curugan, M.B., (2003) Handbook on Polygraphy: The Basics.
Baguio City: J.C. Palabay Enterprises, Inc.
King-eo, Chester (2006). Introduction to Specific Lie Detection. Unpublished notes from the
University of the Cordilleras: Baguio City
Tradio, C.M. (1997) A Compendium on Criminalistics. Manila: Central Law Bookstore Co.,
Inc.
Curugan, Rosemarie, et al., (2002). Handout on Polygraphy. Unpublished notes of
University of Baguio: Baguio City.
Solis, Pedro P., (1987) Legal Medicine. Quezon City:Garcia Publishing Corporation
Mitchell, M.P., (2002). Notes on Lie Detection. Unpublished notes of PLT College:
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya.
Valdez, Gaudencio., (1998) Notes in Lie Detection. Unpublished notes of University of
Baguio, Baguio City.
Llamas (2002) How to catch a Liar. Manila. Rex Books Store
Trovillo (1939) The Truth Verifier. Quezon City: ABC Publishing Company.
http:www.pinn.net/-sunshine/main html
http://www.truthverifier.com.html
http://wwwpolytest.org/polyfaq.htm
http://www.polygraphplace.com/docs/information.shtml?results
Microsoft Encarta Reference Library 2002. 1993-2001 Microsoft Corporation
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