Philippines

1
Contents
Contents .............................................................................................................................. 2
Chapter 1: Geography ......................................................................................................... 4
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 4
Area ................................................................................................................................. 4
Climate ............................................................................................................................ 5
Principal Island Groups................................................................................................... 5
Major Cities .................................................................................................................... 9
Bodies of Water ............................................................................................................ 11
Volcanoes ...................................................................................................................... 12
Environmental Issues .................................................................................................... 13
Natural Hazards ............................................................................................................ 15
Geography Assessment ..................................................................................................... 16
Chapter 2 History .............................................................................................................. 17
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 17
The Pre-Spanish Period................................................................................................. 18
The Spanish Period (15211898).................................................................................. 21
The American Period (18981946) .............................................................................. 24
Post-Independence (1946Present) ............................................................................... 28
Recent Events................................................................................................................ 34
History Assessment ........................................................................................................... 36
Chapter 3: Economy ......................................................................................................... 37
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 37
Agriculture .................................................................................................................... 38
Industry ......................................................................................................................... 40
Natural Resources ......................................................................................................... 41
Energy ........................................................................................................................... 42
Service Sector ............................................................................................................... 44
Banking ......................................................................................................................... 45
Tourism ......................................................................................................................... 45
Foreign Investment ....................................................................................................... 47
Trade ............................................................................................................................. 48
3
Standard of Living ........................................................................................................ 50

Transportation and Telecommunication ....................................................................... 52
Looking Forward .......................................................................................................... 53
Economy Assessment ....................................................................................................... 54
Chapter 4 Society .............................................................................................................. 55
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 55
Ethnic Groups ............................................................................................................... 55
Languages ..................................................................................................................... 58
Education ...................................................................................................................... 59
Religion ......................................................................................................................... 60
Traditions: Celebrations and Holidays.......................................................................... 62
Social Customs.............................................................................................................. 63
Gender Issues ................................................................................................................ 63
Cuisine .......................................................................................................................... 65
Traditional Dress ........................................................................................................... 66
The Arts ........................................................................................................................ 67
Sports and Recreation ................................................................................................... 68
Society Assessment ........................................................................................................... 71
Chapter 5 Security............................................................................................................. 72
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 72
U.S.Philippine Relations ............................................................................................. 73
Neighbor State Relations .............................................................................................. 75
Internal Threats ............................................................................................................. 80
Islamic Separatist Groups ............................................................................................. 83
Communist Groups ....................................................................................................... 87
Poverty .......................................................................................................................... 88
Human Trafficking........................................................................................................ 89
Armed Forces ................................................................................................................ 90
Private Militias .............................................................................................................. 91
Security Assessments ........................................................................................................ 93
Final Assessments ............................................................................................................. 94
Further Reading ................................................................................................................ 96
4
Chapter 1: Geography
Introduction
The Philippines is a tropical Southeastern Asian
archipelago located east of Vietnam between the
Philippine Sea and the South China Sea. Shaped
like an irregular polygon, the country consists of
volcanic islands with mostly mountainous
interiors, narrow coastal plains, and numerous
river systems and lakes. The Philippines
landscape is largely the result of its position
between the Pacific and Eurasian tectonic plates
in the Pacific Oceanan area called the Ring of
Fire. This region makes the Philippines vulnerable to volcanic activity, earthquakes,
tsunamis, and recurrent typhoons. The Philippine environment is further impacted by the
mismanagement of natural resources, pollution, and climate change.
Area
The Philippine archipelago comprises 7,107 islands spread over
298,170 sq km (115,124 sq mi) of land and 1,830 sq km (706.5
sq mi) of water. 1 At a total of 300,000 sq km (115,830 sq mi), it
is slightly larger than Arizona. The archipelago stretches nearly
1,850 km (1,149 mi) from YAmi Island in the north to Sibutu
Island in the south. It is approximately 1,000 km (621 mi) wide. 2
The Philippine island group is surrounded by four tropical seas:
the Philippine Sea to the east, the South China Sea to the west
and north, the Sulu Sea to the southwest, and the Celebes Sea to
the south. Neighbor states include Taiwan and China to the
north, Malaysia and Indonesia to the south, and Vietnam to the
west. The Philippines, along with China, Malaysia, Taiwan, and
Vietnam, holds a contested claim over the Spratly Islands (also
known as Kalayaan or Freedom Islands) in the South China
Sea. In addition, the Philippines claims sovereignty over the Scarborough Reef, also in
the South China Sea, and Malaysias Sabah State located in northern Borneo. 3
1
Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. Philippines: Geography. 3 November 2010.
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rp.html
2
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Profile: Philippines: Geography [p. 7]. March
2006. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Philippines.pdf
3
Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. Philippines: Geography. 3 November 2010.
5
The Philippines territorial sea claims extend as far as 100 nautical miles from the closest
coastline. This area includes the Sulu Sea in its entirety, along with the northern section
of the Celebes Sea. President Marcos extended the baseline in 1978 to claim an area in
the South China Sea, including the Spratly Islands, which measure 285 nm wide. 4
Climate
Due to its proximity to the equator, the climate in
the Philippines epitomizes the tropics. 5 There are
three seasons: the (relatively) cool dry season
from November to February, the hot dry season
from March to May, and the wet season from June
to October. In Manila, the temperature usually
hovers around 27C (80F). In other parts of the
country, temperatures may rise to 37C (98F).
Farther up in the mountains, the average
temperature is cooler. Due to the heat and
surrounding bodies of water, humidity is high, ranging from 70% in March to 85% in
September.
The climate is directly affected by the northeast monsoon from December to February
and the southwest monsoon from May to October. 6 Annual rainfall varies but is heaviest
in the highlands where it can rain as much as 500 cm (196 in) per year. While the central
islands of Cebu, Cotabato, and Bohol receive the lowest annual rainfall, the southeast
receives rainfall all year. 7 Typhoons may occur during any season but often from July
through October. Of the 1520 typhoons that occur in a year, 5 or 6 may result in death
and destruction. 8
Principal Island Groups

The Philippine islands are conventionally grouped into three sets: the northern group,
which includes Luzon and the capital, Manila; the central Visayan, Palawan, and
Mindoro islands; and Mindanao along with the southern Sulu Archipelago. Only about
1,000 of these islands are populated. 9 The majority of the landmass, 94%, is made up of
4
5
6
7
Encyclopedia of Earth. Water Profile of Philippines. 3 April 2008.
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Water_profile_of_Philippines
8
9
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Philippines: A Country Study. Ronald E. Dolan, Ed.
Philippines: Geography. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/31.htm
6
11 islands: Luzon, Mindanao, Palawan, Samar, Negros, Panay, Mindoro, Leyte, Cebu,
Bohol, and Masbate. 10 Luzon and Mindanao, compared to half of the islands that measure
less than 2.5 sq km (0.96 sq mi), measure 105,000 sq km (40,541 sq mi) and 95,000 sq
km (36,680 sq km), respectively. 11
The geological partitioning of the present-day Philippines into a series of islands
contributed to the evolution of endemic species of wildlife, or those which are indigenous
to a particular place, due to an isolated habitat. 12 Many species, however, are threatened
due to loss of habitat, introduction of new species, and pollution. 13, 14
Luzon
Luzon, the northernmost island in the Philippines, is also the
largest and most populated. Manila, the capital city and large
metropolitan area, and Quezon City are situated on the south end
of the island. Industries, such as textile and metal manufacturing,
are located around the metropolitan area. The main industry,
agriculture, can be found in the center of Luzon where the
mountainous and jagged coastline leads into a flat, fertile
interior. This plain produces the majority of the countries rice
and much of its sugarcane. 15
Luzons topography is characterized by a ragged coast, two
mountain ranges, and central plains. The ragged coast surrounds
the island and houses numerous tourist resorts. Located on the
southern portion of Luzon are Manila Bay, the Taal Volcano,
Laguna de Bay (the Philippines largest freshwater lake), and
Mayon Volcano. The northern portion of the island is more mountainous and is drained
by the Cagayan River. The Sierra Madre Mountains, located along the eastern side from
the north to the central part of the country, make up the longest mountain range in the
country. Running parallel to it on the west, the Cordillera Central range includes Mount
Pulog, the highest peak in the range at 2,928 m (9,606 ft). 16 The Sierra Madre and the
10
World and Its Peoples: Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei and the Philippines. Chapter 1: Geography and
Climate [p. 1161]. 2008. New York, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corporation.
11
Philippines: Geography. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/31.htm
12
Biodiversity Hotspots. Philippines: Unique Biodiversity. 2007.
http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/philippines/Pages/biodiversity.aspx
13
Animal Info. Philippines. 11 March 2006. http://www.animalinfo.org/country/philippi.htm
14
International Union for Conservation of Nature. The Philippines: State of Amphibians in the
Philippines. 10 March 2009.
http://www.iucn.org/about/union/secretariat/offices/asia/regional_activities/asian_amphibian_crisis/philippi
nes/
15
Highbeam Encyclopedia. The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th Ed. Luzon. 2008.
http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Luzon.html
16
Highbeam Encyclopedia. The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th Ed. Luzon. 2008.
http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Luzon.html
7
Cordillera Central join to form the heavily forested Caraballo Mountains located in
central Luzon. 17 The Zambales Mountains are west of the Central Luzon Valley. Mount
Pinatubo, where one of the Philippines most devastating volcanic eruptions took place
after 600 years of dormancy, is located in this range.
Mindanao
The second largest island, Mindanao, is located at
the southern end of the archipelago. The irregular
shape of Mindanao houses numerous peninsulas
and deep bays, such as Davao Gulf. Forests and
mountains cover much of the island. Mount Apo,
the highest peak in the country and an active
volcano, reaches a height of 2,954 m (9,690 ft). 18
The Agusan and Mindanao rivers form extensive
swamps as well as fertile basins. Narrow plains
run parallel to most of the coast. In addition, the
Diwata Mountains line the east coast.
Due to its proximity to Malaysia and Indonesia, Islam quickly spread to Mindanao
through neighboring Arab traders during the 14th century. 19 Today, Mindanao is home to
much of the Philippines minority Muslim (or Moro, from the Spanish Moors)
population in a predominantly Roman Catholic country. Many Filipinos migrated to
lesser-populated Mindanao after WWII. 20 Some native tribes from the island resisted
what they considered occupation and annexation of their land and demanded their own
state. 21 After nearly 50 years of conflict, the separatists are now engaged in negotiations
17
Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Caraballo Mountains. 2010.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/94429/Caraballo-Mountains
18
Highbeam Encyclopedia. The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th Ed. Mindanao. 2008.
http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Mindanao.aspx
19
Lonely Planet: Philippines, 9th Ed. Rowthorn, et al. Chapter 15: Mindanao and Sulu [p. 368]. 2006.
Oakland, CA: Lonely Planet Publications.
20
Encyclopedia.com. The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th Ed. Mindanao. 2008.
http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Mindanao.aspx#1E1-Mindanao
21
Lonely Planet: Philippines, 9th Ed. Rowthorn, et al. Chapter 15: Mindanao and Sulu [p. 368]. 2006.
Oakland, CA: Lonely Planet Publications.
8
with the government. 22, 23 In the absence of a final peace agreement, however, the island
remains restive. 24
Visayas
The Visayan Islands are situated between Luzon
and Mindanao in the center of the Philippine
archipelago. Visayas consists of several large
islands and several hundred smaller islands in the
Visayan, Camotes, and Samar seas. The islands
are typically divided into three sub-regions:
Western Visayas (major islands Negros and
Panay), Central Visayas (major islands Bohol and
Cebu), and Eastern Visayas (major islands Samar
and Leyte). Eastern Visayas is the least populated
and least developed because its location faces the full brunt of any typhoon. The eastern
islands also act as a weather buffer for the western and central islands, partly explaining
their more developed economies. 25 The Central Visayas are among the most densely
populated in the island archipelago. The major urban areas in the Visayan Islands are
Cebu in Cebu Island and Iloilo City in Panay Island.
Most of the Visayan Islands are mountainous. Samar and Masbate islands are the hilly
exceptions. Panay and Negros have large plains that allow for the cultivation of
sugarcane and rice. Other crops grown in the Visayas are corn, banana, tobacco, and
coconut. 26 Fishing is also an important industry. 27 Intensive agriculture and fishing have
taken a toll on the natural environment, however. This may have contributed to the
deceleration of the Visayan Islands economy from 2007 to 2008, when it dropped by
3.7%. 28
22
Yahoo News. AP News. Teves, Oliver. Philippine Muslim Rebels Drop Independence Demand. 23
September 2010.
http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20100923/ap_on_re_as/as_philippines_muslim_rebels;_ylt=AtzX2R9DILwRl
OXAgh08VyUBxg8F;_ylu=X3oDMTMzNThtdGNpBGFzc2V0A2FwLzIwMTAwOTIzL2FzX3BoaWxpc
HBpbmVzX211c2xpbV9yZWJlbHMEcG9zAzExBHNlYwN5bl9wYWdpbmF0ZV9zdW1tYXJ5X2xpc3Q
Ec2xrA3BoaWxpcHBpbmVtdQ
23
Reuters Alertnet. Mogato, Manny. Philippines Says Rogue Rebel Group Behind Blast. 22 October
2010. http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/SGE69L07T.htm
24
Reuters Alertnet. Mogato, Manny. Rebel Infighting Displaces Thousands in Philippines. 10 August
2010. http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/SGE6790AI.htm
25
Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Visayan Islands. 2006. http://www.bookrags.com/research/visayan-
islands-ema-06/
26
Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Visayas. 2010.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/630313/Visayas
27
Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Visayas. 2010.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/630313/Visayas
28
National Statistical Coordination Board. Northern Mindanaos Economy Records Fastest Growth in
2008. 22 July 2009. http://www.nscb.gov.ph/pressreleases/2009/PR-200907-SnSO-01_GRDP.asp
9
Major Cities
Manila
Manila, on central Luzon Island by Manila Bay,
became the capital of the Philippines under
Spanish colonial rule in 1571. Known as the
Pearl of the Orient, it was a thriving,
multicultural and international trading center from
the late 1800s until WWII. 29 The battles
conducted by the United States and Philippine
forces against the Japanese destroyed the city,
killed approximately one million Filipinos, and
left few examples of colonial architecture. 30
Manila today is again a burgeoning commercial center in one of the worlds populous
metropolitan areas, the Metropolitan Manila network. Metro Manila comprises about 15
cities including Manila City, Pasay, Quezon City, and the Makati financial district.
Manila has a diverse economy served well by its port in a protected harbor and its
English-speaking inhabitants. 31, 32 In addition to commerce and finance, industries such as
textile production, food processing, publishing, printing, and tourism are vital economic
sectors. 33 Filipinos get around by buses called jeepneys (small buses made using jeep
chassis), elevated rail, taxis, and their own private cars. 34 Vehicle emissions are a
significant source of air pollution in Manila. Another major concern is addressing the
needs of millions of Filipinos who live in shantytownsmany of whom are vulnerable to
diseases and natural disasters. 35 (Population: metropolitan area calculated in excess of 20
million36).
29
Lonely Planet: Philippines, 9th Ed. Rowthorn, et al. Chapter 4: History [p. 70]. 2006. Oakland, CA:
Lonely Planet Publications.
30
Philippines: World War II. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/21.htm
31
City Data. Manila: Economy. 2008. http://www.city-data.com/world-cities/Manila-Economy.html
32
World Port Source. Port of Manila. 2010.
http://www.worldportsource.com/ports/PHL_Port_of_Manila_1947.php
33
Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Manila: Industry and Tourism. 2010.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/362270/Manila/12358/Economy
34
Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Manila: Transportation. 2010.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/362270/Manila/12361/Transportation
35
IRIN News. Philippines: Slum Populations Brace for Storm Season. 3 June 2010.
http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=89348
36
World Gazetteer. World Metropolitan Areas. No date. http://world-
gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gcis&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=abcdefghinoq&msz=1500&geo=0
&srt=pnan&pt=a#aggl
10
Davao City
Davao City, on Mindanao Island, is the largest
city in the Philippines in terms of area. It does not
fall under the authority of a provincial
government but has an equivalent status with the
national government. The citys history has made
it a cultural melting pot. After Spanish rule, it was
a Japanese colony until WWII. After its
destruction during the war, the city was rebuilt
with American, Spanish, and Moorish influences.
However, hard times continued with the urban
guerrilla warfare of the 1980s that pitted the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF)
and the New Peoples Army (NPA) against the government.
Today, Davao City is peaceful and thriving. It is the center of commerce and trade for the
island as well as the regional administrative and commercial hub. It has 50 small ports
servicing both passenger traffic and international cargo. Its international ports ship a
natural fiber called abaca, a major crop native to the region. 37 Other industries include
textiles, cement, and plywood. (Population: 1.36 million, 2007 est.38).
Cebu City
Cebu City, on the eastern coast of Cebu Island, is
the oldest city in the country. It developed from a
fishing village into a trading port prior to the
arrival of the Spanish who initially made it their
capital. Its origins as a major urban center lie in its
role as a port that became an important stop in
carrying goods between Spain and Mexico.
Today, it is the commercial, cultural, and
transportation center of the Visayan region. 39
(Population: 0.80 million, 2007 est.) 40
Quezon City
Ten km (6 mi) north of Manila, fast-growing Quezon City has become an extension of
the capital metropolitan area. Named after President Manual Luis Quezon, the city was
capital of the Philippines from 1948 to 1976. Today, it is home to the light industry,
expansive resettlement housing projects, and Philippines premier university, the
37
Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Davao City. 2010.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/152463/Davao-City
38
Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, U.S. Department of State. Background Note: Philippines:
Profile: Geography. 29 October 2010. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2794.htm
39
Lonely Planet: Philippines, 9th Ed. Rowthorn, et al. Chapter 14: The Visayas [p. 227]. 2006. Oakland,
CA: Lonely Planet Publications.
40
Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, U.S. Department of State. Background Note: Philippines:
Profile: Geography. 29 October 2010. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2794.htm
11
University of the Philippines. 41 Architecturally, it is representative of the Spanish colonial

legacy. 42
Bodies of Water
The Philippines is replete with rivers and lakes. In
all, the Philippines is home to 421 rivers, about 60
lakes, and over 100,000 ha (247,105 ac) of
freshwater swamps. 43 Luzons major rivers
include the Pasig, which passes through the cities
of Manila, Cagayan, Agno, Pampanga, Chico, and
Bicol. Mindanaos principal rivers include the
Mindanao and the Agusan River. The Philippines
has 18 river basins greater than 1,000 sq km (368
sq mi), most of them in Luzon and Mindanao. The
five largest river basins are the Cagayan, the Agno, Pampanga, the Mindanao, and the
Agusan. 44 The Palawan River on Palawan Island is one of the longest underground rivers
in the world. 45
Because the Philippines is comprised of islands, river travel never developed into a major
mode of transportation. The Mindanao River, which gives the island its name, is the
major exception. It serves as a commercial transportation artery for inland communities
and trading hubs such as Pagalungan, Cotabato City, and Datu Piang.
The largest lake in this country is Laguna de Bay, 13 km (8 mi) southeast of Manila, with
an area of 922 sq km (356 sq mi). 46, 47 This shallow lake, with an average depth of 2.8 m
(9 ft), provides water for agriculture along its banks. 48 In addition, the lake has long been
41
Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Quezon City. 2010.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/487200/Quezon-City
42
City Population. Philippines. 8 June 2008. http://www.citypopulation.de/Philippines-UA50.html
43
Encyclopedia of Earth. Water Profile of Philippines: River Basins and Water Resources. 3 April 2008.
44
Encyclopedia of Earth. Water Profile of Philippines: River Basins and Water Resources. 3 April 2008.
45
Reuters. Longest River Found. 1 March 2007.
http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN0128608620070302
46
Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Laguna de Bay. 2010. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-
9013844/Laguna-de-Bay
47
Department of Tourism, Republic of the Philippines. Philippine History. 2010.
http://www.visitmyphilippines.com/index.php?title=PhilippineHistory&func=all&pid=231&tbl=1
48
International Lake Environment Committee. Laguna de Bay (Lake Bay). No date.
http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/asi/asi-13.html
12
a resource for fisherman. However, intense urbanization and industrialization along the
edges have lead to an increase in water pollution. 49
Lake Taal, in southwestern Luzon, is the Philippines third largest lake after Lake Sultan
Alonto in Mindanao. 50 Taal Lake is situated about 60 km (37 mi) south of Manila. 51 Lake
Taal fills the crater of an extinct volcano. In the middle of the lake is a small volcanic
island, and in the center of the island is yet another crater containing an even smaller lake
called Yellow Lake. Lake Taal is the deepest lake in the Philippines and has a surface
area of 234 sq km (90 sq mi). 52
Manila Bay, one of the finest natural harbors in the world, figured prominently in the
Spanish decision to make Manila the site of their capital. Close to mainland southeast
Asia, it is well protected by the Luzons Cordillera Central range in the east and the
mountainous Bataan peninsula in the west. Almost entirely landlocked, this bay has a
surface area of 2,000 sq km (770 sq mi). 53
Volcanoes
The Philippine Islands are in fact the tops of
volcanic mountains rising from the ocean floor.
Hundreds of volcanoes dot the Philippine
landscape but most are extinct or dormant. 54
Currently, only 22 volcanoes are active. 55 Major
active volcanoes include Mayon (Luzon), Taal
(Luzon), Kanlaon (Visayas), and Bulusan
(Luzon). 56 Mayon has erupted about 50 times
since recorded history. 57 Its most catastrophic
49
Blackwell Synergy. Lakes and Reservoirs: Research and Management, Vol. 6, Issue 3. Oledan, M.T.T
Challenges and Opportunities in Watershed Management for Laguna de Bay (Philippines). September
2001. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1440-1770.2001.00154.x?journalCode=lre
50
History.com. Encyclopdia Britannica Philippines. 19942009.
http://www.history.com/topics/philippines
51
International Lake Environment Committee. Lake Taal. No date. http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/asi/asi-
58.html
52
International Lake Environment Committee. Lake Taal. No date. http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/asi/asi-
58.html
53
Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Manila Bay. 2010. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-
9050545/Manila-Bay
54
Cultures of the World: Philippines. Tope, Lily R. and Detch P. Nonan-Mercado. Chapter 1: Geography
[p. 11]. 2002. New York, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corporation.
55
Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. Volcano Information. 18 October 2010.
http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php/volcano
56
Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. List of Active Volcanoes. 2002.
http://volcano.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/VolActive.htm
57
IRIN News. Philippines: Volcano Evacuees Braced for Eruption. 16 December 2009.
http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?Reportid=87444
13
eruption occurred in 1814, resulting in 1,200 fatalities and the destruction of several
towns. 58 The last eruption was in 2006 but did not approach its earlier level of
destructiveness. It began erupting in December 2009January 2010; the area was put on
high alert but the volcanic activity decreased just before an explosive eruption
occurred. 59, 60 One of the centuries largest volcanic eruptions was Pinatubos in 1991,
with effects that were felt worldwide. 61
Environmental Issues
The Philippines faces a number of environmental
issues including climate change, deforestation,
soil erosion, pollution, improper disposal of solid
and toxic wastes, coral reef degradation,
mismanagement and abuse of coastal resources,
and over-fishing. 62, 63 The Philippine government
has made significant progress in environmental
conservation and protection, particularly in the
area of biodiversity. 64 Nevertheless, existing
threats to the environment continue to undermine
these efforts. Specifically, land conversion and development combined with expanded
farming have taken a toll on the countrys forest cover, marine life and environment. 65, 66
58
59
NowPublic. Wu, Scott. Mount Mayon Volcano: Philippines Volcano Could Erupt Any Time. 22
December 2009. http://www.nowpublic.com/environment/mount-mayon-volcano-philippines-volcano-
could-erupt-any-time
60
61
United States Geological Survey. The Cataclysmic 1991 Eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines. 28
February 2005. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/1997/fs113-97/
62
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Profile: Philippines: Geography [p. 7].
March 2006. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Philippines.pdf
63
Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. Philippines: Geography. 27 October 2010.
64
United Nations Development Programme. The 4th Philippine National Report to the Convention on
Biological Diversity: Assessing Progress Towards the 2010 Biodiversity Target [p. 4]. 2009.
http://www.undp.org.ph/Downloads/knowledge_products/4thReport%20rev8-9-9-
09_FINAL%20VERSION_SEPT09.pdf
65
Biodiversity Hotspots. Philippines: Human Impact. 2007.
http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/philippines/Pages/impacts.aspx
66
World Wildlife Fund. Environmental Problems in the Philippines. 11 July 2007.
http://wwf.panda.org/who_we_are/wwf_offices/philippines/environmental_problems__in_philippines/
14
Mining has contributed to deforestation, soil erosion, toxic waste, and poor quality of air
and water in major urban areas. 67, 68 Vehicles and factories add to the pollution. 69
Deforestation and climate change are perhaps two of the largest environmental concerns.
Prior to 1900, rainforest covered nearly two thirds of the Philippine archipelago. 70 As late
as the 1970s, the Philippines was one of the worlds largest tropical hardwood
exporters. 71 Today only about 3% of the original rainforest is left. 72 Forests are an
important energy source as charcoal and fuel-wood, especially for the growing and
poverty-stricken rural population. 73 The Philippines natural resources are also at risk of
the effects of climate change. According to the UN, impacts of climate change include
change in the timing of biological events, changes in species distribution and behavior,
increased vulnerability of species to extinction, and increased intensity of diseases. 74 In
addition, climate change can negatively impact the productivity of an ecosystem. In the
Philippines, climate change can be observed most prominently during warmer, drier
weather patterns and the increased frequency of extreme weather such as typhoons,
floods, drought, and forest fires. 75 Such changes in weather and climate adversely affect
the Philippines agricultural sector, fresh water, marine and coastal life, and
environment. 76
67
68
Cultures of the World: Philippines. Tope, Lily Rose R. and Detch P. Nonan-Mercado. Chapter 5:
Environment [p. 45]. 2002. New York, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corporation.
69
Environment [p. 41]. 2002. New York, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corporation.
70
Lonely Planet: Philippines, 9th Ed. Rowthorn, et al. Chapter 7: Environment [p. 55]. 2006. Oakland,
CA: Lonely Planet Publications.
71
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Philippines: Forests and the Forestry Sector.
February 2004. http://www.fao.org/forestry/country/57478/en/phl/
72
73
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Philippines: Forests and the Forestry Sector.
February 2004. http://www.fao.org/forestry/country/57478/en/phl/
74
United Nations Development Programme. The 4th Philippine National Report to the Convention on
Biological Diversity: Assessing Progress Towards the 2010 Biodiversity Target [p. 15]. 2009.
http://www.undp.org.ph/Downloads/knowledge_products/4thReport%20rev8-9-9-
09_FINAL%20VERSION_SEPT09.pdf
75
Presidential Task Force on Climate Change, Philippine Department of Energy. Climate Change in the
Philippines. 2007. http://www.doe.gov.ph/cc/ccp.htm
76
Presidential Task Force on Climate Change, Philippine Department of Energy. Climate Change in the
Philippines. 2007. http://www.doe.gov.ph/cc/ccp.htm
15
Natural Hazards
Natural disasters such as volcanoes, earthquakes,
typhoons, and tsunamis are the result of the
Philippines topography and geographic location.
The country is situated between the Pacific and
Eurasian tectonic plates in the Pacific Ocean. Half
of all above-sea level volcanoes in the world lie
within this region. 77 They produce fertile soil and
significant geothermal energy. 78, 79 High magnitude
earthquakes are common in the Philippines. Two
of the most destructive were in August 1976 and
July 1990 measuring magnitudes of 7.9. 80
Volcanoes and typhoons have the potential to create environmental catastrophes when
combined with rapid population growth. Such growth over the past decades has increased
the size of urban areas and led to unsustainable farming practices. 81 In particular, loss of
ground cover due to massive deforestation and desertification increases the likelihood of
flooding. 82
77
Geography [p. 11]. 2002. New York, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corporation.
78
Geography [p. 11]. 2002. New York, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corporation.
79
Chevron. Philippines: Highlights of Operation. March 2010.
http://www.chevron.com/countries/philippines/
80
Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. The July 16 Luzon Earthquake. 2001.
http://earthquake.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/update_SOEPD/Earthquake/1990LuzonEQ_Monograph/foreword.ht
ml
81
Field Museum, The Causes and Effects of Deforestation. Heaney, Lawrence. Negros Island: A Case
Study in Deforestation. 2002. http://www.fieldmuseum.org/vanishing_treasures/Deforestation_2.htm
82
Disaster Mitigation and Management. Srinvas, Hari. Environmental Management and Disaster
ReductionAn Introduction. No date. http://www.gdrc.org/uem/disasters/disenvi/intro.html
16
Geography Assessment
1. The islands of the Philippines are part of the Southeast Asian archipelago.
True
The Philippines is a tropical Southeastern Asian archipelago located east of
Vietnam between the Philippine Sea and the South China Sea.
2. The Philippines has four seasons: two dry seasons and two rainy seasons.
False
There are three seasons: the (relatively) cool dry season from November to
February, the hot dry season from March to May, and the wet season from June to
October.
3. Over 90% of the landmass of the Philippines is made up of just five islands:
Luzon, Mindoro, Visayan, Palawan, and Mindanao.
False
The majority of the landmass, 94%, is made up of eleven islands: Luzon,
Mindanao, Palawan, Samar, Negros, Panay, Mindoro, Leyte, Cebu, Bohol, and
Masbate.
4. Manila, the capital of the Philippines, is located on the island of Luzon.
True
Manila, in central Luzon, became the capital of the Philippines under Spanish
colonial rule. It has an estimated population of 11.29 million with a metropolitan
area in excess of 15 million.
5. Climate change has affected neither the pattern nor the frequency of weather-
related hazards in the Philippines.
False
Due to climate change, the Philippines is experiencing warmer, drier weather
patterns and increased frequency of extreme weather such as typhoons, floods,
drought, and forest fires.
17
Chapter 2 History
Introduction
Situated between the Pacific and Indian Oceans, the Republic of
the Philippines has a long history of migration, trade, and
colonization. The earliest inhabitants migrated from the Asian
mainland and Taiwan and settled in scattered communities
throughout the archipelago, which were ruled by neighboring
kingdoms. Although Filipinos traded extensively with China,
Indonesia, India, and Japan and were influenced by their
religious practices, the Philippines did not become a state until
the Spanish arrived. The Spanish established their first
permanent settlement in 1565, and ruled the Philippines for 333
years, making Catholicism the national religion. Nationalist
movements and American military aid led not only to
independence from Spain but also colonization by the United
States after the Spanish-American War.
Despite resistance, the U.S. played a part in building a democracy in the Philippines.
Japanese occupation during World War II delayed democratization but the Philippines
eventually became a commonwealth in 1935 and an independent state in 1946. The
constitution and political structures in the Philippines are based on U.S. models. The
Philippines have experienced little stability since independence because power has
generally remained within an oligarchy which has been corrupt and abusive. Since 1986,
Filipinos have ousted two presidents through people power and attempted many coups
against other presiding leaders. The current president, Benigno S. Aquino III, faces
endemic corruption, a large deficit, and national security threats from separatist and
communist groups.
18
The Pre-Spanish Period

Earliest Human Habitation
The recent discovery of a foot bone near the
Callao caves north of Manila suggests that human
settlement in the Philippines could date as far
back as 67,000 years ago. 83 The discovery also
suggests that boat building might have been a
developed skill at that time. 84 Experts disagree,
however, as to whether the Callao Man
originated from neighboring islands, mainland
Asia, or some other place. 85 Callao Man shares
features with the Aetas, the dark-skinned, short-
statured Asian group of hunter-gatherers indigenous to the Philippines. Later called
Negritos (small blacks) by the Spanish, the Aeta migrated to the Philippine islands over
a land bridge during the last glacial period some 30,000 years ago. 86
Migration to the archipelago spanned thousands of years. Among the migrants were the
Malayo-Polynesians, a subgroup of the Austronesians, who came by sea from Taiwan. 87
Archaeologists date their movement between 3,000 and 1,500 B.C.E. 88 In the Philippines,
they organized themselves by kinship groups in scattered settlements called barangay,
named after the boats they used for travel. The datus, local chieftains, ruled over the
nobles, freemen, slaves, and workers in the settlements. The communities sustained
themselves through fishing, mining, weaving, rice cultivation, and trading. 89 Over time,
the Austronesians colonized the Southeast Asian archipelago and remained dominant
there until the Spanish arrived in the 16th century. 90
83
Discovery News. Morella, Cecil. Callao Man Could Redraw Filipino History. 3 August 2010.
http://news.discovery.com/archaeology/callao-man-philippines.html
84
The Telegraph. Henderson, Barney. Archeologists Unearth 67,000-Year-Old Human Bone in
Philippines. 3 August 2010.
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/philippines/7924538/Archaeologists-unearth-67000-year-
old-human-bone-in-Philippines.html
85
Discovery News. Morella, Cecil. Callao Man Could Redraw Filipino History. 3 August 2010.
http://news.discovery.com/archaeology/callao-man-philippines.html
86
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. The Philippines: A Country Study. Roland E. Dolan, Ed.
Early History. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/3.htm
87
Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, U.S. Department of State. Background Note: Philippines. 29
October 2010. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2794.htm#history
88
Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. John Stewart Bowman, Ed. Taiwan [p. 226].
2000. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
89
History [p. 19]. 2002. New York, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corporation.
90
19
Hindu and Chinese Influences (200 C.E.16th

Century B.C.E)
While the Austronesians were engaged in a
continuous migration from island to island, a
well-developed civilization, the Land of the
Veda, existed in India. If the Philippine
archipelago represented the far eastern edge of
South Asia, India signified the west. In their
westward odyssey, the Austronesians came into
contact with China and India. At this point, a
countermarch fueled by trade began: the Indians
and the Chinese began to retrace the steps of their Malay visitors, eventually reaching the
Philippine Islands. The Chinese exerted substantial commercial influence by the 15th
century, when they governed a number of islands in the northern Philippines. 91 They
eventually lost their settlements, but many Chinese stayed and worked in the Philippines.
Neither Vedic nor Buddhist culture established deep roots in the archipelago and neither
succeeded in supplanting indigenous animist beliefs. The Devanagri script used for
writing Hindi, and other Sanskrit-based languages, never became the written language of
commerce or literature; Filipinos, however, adopted some Sanskrit words. 92 In contrast,
the imported agricultural model displaced indigenous farming practices that relied on
rain. Irrigated rice cultivation plowed by water buffalo, still a common sight in the
Philippines today, had its origins in continental Asia.
Sri Vijaya Kingdom (7th13th Centuries)
Sri Vijaya, a Buddhist kingdom and center of
learning, was a major maritime kingdom and
commercial empire in Southeast Asia by the 8th
century. 93 Sri Vijaya was centered in
Palembang,in southeastern Sumatra. Over the
centuries, Sri Vijaya became wealthy and
powerful, ruling the important Straits of Sunda
and Malacca. Their power was strengthened when
they quelled raids from the Javanese Sailendra
and the South Indian Chola kings. 94, 95 By the dawn
91
Philippines in Pictures. Sexton, Colleen. Chapter 2: History and Government [p. 22]. 2006.
Minneapolis, MN: Twenty-First Century Books.
92
Philippines in Pictures. Sexton, Colleen. Chapter 2: History and Government [p. 22]. 2006.
Minneapolis, MN: Twenty-First Century Books.
93
Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. John S. Bowman, Ed. Philippines [p. 468].
94
Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. Nalanda and Sriwijaya: rvijaya, An
Introduction. 2010. http://www.iseas.edu.sg/nsc/nalanda_sriwijaya.htm
95
Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. John S. Bowman, Ed. 2000. Indonesia [pp. 439
140]. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
20
of the 12th century C.E., the Malay Kingdom of Sri Vijaya enjoyed significant success in
controlling international trade routes. It extended its influence to the vast archipelago of
tropical islands inhabited by a variety of peoples, including the present-day Philippines. 96
Continued raids, however, reduced Sri Vijiyas power and authority and by the end of the
13th century, Sri Vijaya was vanquished by the rival Javanese kingdom of Singhasari. 97
Majapahit Rules the Straits (13th16th Centuries)
Mongols invaded in 1292 and assisted in founding
a new dynasty in the archipelago: the Majapahit
Kingdom. The son-in-law of the Singhasari king
enlisted the aid of the Mongols to kill the king.
The son-in-law then eliminated the Mongols. 98
This new kingdom followed the Hindu religion. It
commanded the Straits of Malacca and Sunda and
controlled kingdoms in the Malay archipelago,
Borneo, Sumatra, Bali, and the Philippines at its
peak. 99 The Majapahit might have extended its
influence deeper into the islands, however, a new wave of settlers introduced Islam to the
area.
Islam Spreads through the Archipelago
Muslims, followers of Islam, passed through the Philippines as traders in the 10th
century. 100 Before the end of Sri Vijaya, Arab merchants reached Java and Islam began to
take hold. Between the 14th and early 16th centuries, Islam spread throughout the
archipelago, as far north as Luzon. In the northern and central Philippine Islands,
however, Islam never penetrated beyond the coastal towns and villages. Those who
practiced Islam in the Philippines were called Moros. Islam may have made greater
inroads into the country, if Spanish explorers had not opened the door to Christianity.
96
Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. John S. Bowman, Ed. Malaysia [p. 468]. 2000.
New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
97
Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. John S. Bowman, Ed. Malaysia [p. 468]. 2000.
New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
98
The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, 6th Ed. Peter N. Stearns, Ed.
South and Southeast Asia [p. 138]. 2001. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
http://books.google.com/books?id=MziRd4ddZz4C&pg=PA138&dq=Sri+vijaya+philippines+history&hl=
en&ei=Eo7YTP7COIOksQP62pzvBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CFYQ6AEw
Bw#v=onepage&q&f=false
99
Reference.com. A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1300, 2nd Ed. Ricklefs, M.C. 1991. Stanford,
CA: Stanford University Press. http://www.reference.com/browse/Majapahit
100
21
The Spanish Period (15211898)

Magellan: First Contact
The first European to land in the Philippines was Ferdinand
Magellan, a Portuguese-born navigator and explorer for the
Spanish crown during the 16th century. At that time, Spain,
among other European nations, was searching for a shorter
westerly route to the Asian spice markets. Magellan,
commissioned by King Charles I to circumnavigate the globe,
reached Southeast Asia after three years in the spring of 1521. 101
Upon his arrival in Cebu in March, he promptly claimed the
archipelago for Spain. 102 His stay in the Philippines however,
was short-lived as he was killed by a local chief from Mactan
Island a month later. Only one of Magellans ships, the Victoria,
returned to Spain, bringing back spices from the Moluccas, the
original reason for Magellans journey. Out of the approximately
250 men who left on 5 ships from Spain 3 years earlier, only 18
survived. 103
A Colony of Spain
King Felipe II of Spain, Charles son, dispatched more ships to
the archipelago, which was eventually renamed Felipinas in
his honor in 1542. 104 Spains colonization of the Philippines was
facilitated by the decentralized nature of the barangay social
structure spread over a fragmented archipelago. 105 The first
permanent settlement was established in 1565 with Miguel
Lpez de Legazpi from New Spain (Mexico) as the first Spanish
governor. 106 Legazpi established a foothold in the region by
defeating the Muslims in Manila and making it the Spanish
colonys capital in 1571. Manila, with its harbor, large
population, and proximity to the central Luzon rice lands, would
101
Geography. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/4.htm
102
103
Reference.com. Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. Ferdinand Magellan. 2004.
http://www.reference.com/browse/Ferdinand+Magellan
104
BBC News. Timeline: The Philippines. 7 May 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-
pacific/country_profiles/1264117.stm
105
106
The Early Spanish Period. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/4.htm
22
remain headquarters of Spanish religious, commercial, civil, and military missions for
over 300 years.
Spain had three main objectives in administering their sole Asian colony: to profit from
the spice trade, to further their missionary efforts by developing contacts with China and
Japan, and to convert Filipinos to Christianity. 107 Of these objectives, the Spanish were
partially successful in achieving the last. The Philippines had neither spices nor precious
metals to trade. Furthermore, efforts to build rapport with the Chinese and Japanese were
fruitless, and, with the Chinese in Manila, violent. 108, 109
The Spanish did convert most Filipinos to Catholicism through a new colonial social
system. 110, 111 The Spanish created new ecclesiastical establishments and administered
them through the state. In rural areas, the Spanish co-opted local leaders and ruled
Filipinos indirectly. Local governments had strong clerical influence over their
communities. 112 They protected the interests of those who converted to Christianity and
conferred land titles to members of a new social class, the principalia. Conversion in the
Philippines was a relatively easy task due to the lack of strong resistance from the natives
and the lack of other organized religions besides Islam. Through the work of several
religious orders and Jesuits, most of the Luzon, central Philippines, and the coastal cities
of Mindanao were converted to Christianity. In the process, however, the Spanish
destroyed the traditional ways of communal use and ownership of land, forced different
tribes to live together, and broke up territorial boundaries. A new cultural community
developed in the lowlands from which the Muslims and the upland tribes felt alienated.
The Moros and the lowland tribes were not the only discontented population in the
colonial Philippines. Disturbances during this period included the general populations
open resentment toward the Spanish, a revolt by priests seeking inclusion in the religious
orders, and warfare against the British during the Seven Years War (17561763) when
the British East India Company briefly captured Manila. 113 Resistance against the British
marked the beginning of a nationalist spirit that Spain could not subdue, despite
107
108
109
Chinese and Chinese Mestizos. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/7.htm
110
111
112
Friarocracy. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/8.htm
113
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Profile: Philippines: History [p. 2]. March
23
significant economic reforms (such as free trade) and economic developments (such as
the cultivation of major exports including tobacco, abaca, and sugar). 114, 115, 116
Nationalist Rebellion
Nationalism in late 19th century Philippines was a
largely urban development. 117 Filipino students
and exiles, returning from abroad with modern
ideas of freedom and independence, joined the
native elite class (ilustrados) and the rural people
in revolt against Spanish colonialism. 118 The
resistance movement fell into two different
camps: reform-minded and independence-driven.
One of the earliest nationalist leaders was the
Chinese Filipino reformer Jose Rizal. A member
of a group of intellectual reformers called the Propaganda Movement, he established the
Philippine League (Liga Filipa) in 1892, a national non-violent political organization, but
was arrested and exiled in Mindanao. 119 After his arrest, the groups split and some
members joined Katipunan, an underground secret society.
Katipunan was founded by Andres Bonifacio, another Chinese Filipino, with the intent of
overthrowing the Spanish colonial regime. 120 They were a highly organized, 30,000-
member-strong group with their own initiation rituals and a lower- and lower-middle
class membership. In 1896, the Katipunan revolted against Spain but the Spanish caught
and executed many members of this and other groups, including Jose Rizal, who had
returned, for an alleged role in the revolt. 121
In 1897, Emilio Aguinaldo emerged as the head of the newly formed revolutionary
government. He ordered the execution of Bonifacio, who he saw as a rival, and started
114
Trade with Europe and America. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/6.htm
115
Decline of Spanish Rule. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/5.htm
116
117
118
Development of a National Consciousness. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/9.htm
119
Jose Rizal and the Propaganda Movement. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/10.htm
120
The Katipunan. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/11.htm
121
24
organizing his government and the fight against the Spanish. 122 Once again, the Spanish
defeated the Filipino resistance fighters and Aguinaldo and government officials were
sent into exile in Hong Kong through a USD 800,000 Spanish-Filipino peace pact in
December 1897. 123 Within a year, however, Spanish rule came to an abrupt end.
The American Period (18981946)

The SpanishAmerican War
Spanish rule in the Philippines came to an end, in part, due to
U.S. involvement in Cubaanother Spanish colony seeking
independence. The United States declared war on Spain on 25
April 1898 after the USS Maine mysteriously exploded on 15
February 1898 in Havanas harbor. The U.S. decided to take the
war to Manila. Commodore George Dewey, the commander of
the Asiatic Squadron, defeated the Spanish fleet on 1 May.
Aguinaldo, asked to return to the Philippines as a partner in the
war, reinforced U.S. victory by providing intelligence and
military assistance. Dewey may have promised American
recognition of a free and independent Philippines in exchange for
Aguinaldo and his movements cooperation in defeating Spain. If
that promise was made, it was kept only after 48 years of
American rule.
Fighting broke out between Aquinaldo and the Americans immediately after the Spanish
were defeated. Aguinaldo declared Filipino independence on 12 June 1898 separately
from the Americans. Geopolitical forces, however, delayed independence for almost half
a century: with the departure of Spain from the archipelago, other European powers saw
their chance to fill the vacuum. Britain, France, Germany, and Japan sent warships to
Manila Bay. The U.S. was neither to relinquish its newly attained strategic advantage nor
the trade interests its position in the Philippines furthered. On 10 December 1898, the
U.S. and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris. In this agreement, Spain granted Cuba
independence and sold the Philippines to the U.S. for USD 20 million.
The FilipinoAmerican War
This sellout enraged Filipino nationalists. For the next two years, Aguinaldos guerrillas
battled U.S. forces and attempted to create a new government. A revolutionary congress
was held near Manila in January, installing Aguinaldo as president of a new republic. 124
Greatly outnumbered and outgunned in the battlefield, however, the Filipinos lost 16,000
122
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Philippines: A Country Study. Ronald, E. Dolan, Ed.
The 1896 Uprising and Rizals Execution. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/12.htm
123
The 1896 Uprising and Rizals Execution. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/12.htm
124
25
fighters, and at least 200,000 civilians to famine and disease. 125 The U.S. lost 4,234
soldiers. Aguinaldo was captured on 23 March 1901 and finally admitted defeat. Most of
the guerillas laid down their arms, though pockets of resistance continued until 1913,
particularly among the Moros (Muslims) in Mindanao and Sulu. 126
The American Colony
The United States mission in the Philippines was
intended to be temporary and to develop free and
democratic institutions in their only colony. 127 The
first Philippine Commission, appointed by U.S.
President McKinley in January 1899, recognized
Filipino aspirations for independence but also
noted that the country was not ready for it. The
Taft Commission, appointed a year later, was
given legislative and some limited executive
powers in establishing the practical supports
necessary for a democratic government. 128
During U.S. colonization, a new judicial system was created which included a Supreme
Court and new legal codes to replace Spanish ordinances. A civil service was also
established with new municipal codes and boards. A free, public elementary school
system was developed, and strong public education remains today. 129 In addition, the U.S.
disestablished Catholicism as the state religion. Negotiating with the Vatican, the U.S.
bought USD 7.2 million (166,000 hectares) worth of friar land holdings and redistributed
them, mainly to estate owners. Part of the agreement, however, was that the religious
orders would nevertheless remain in the country.
Political organizations were also created and developed quickly. 130 Filipinos held their
first elections for the legislative assembly in July 1907, which convened three months
later. The Philippine Assembly (lower house) and the Philippine Commission (upper
house appointed by the president of the United States) comprised the bicameral
legislature. As a result of the Jones Act of 1916, the Assemblys name was changed to the
125
Global Security. Philippines. 27 April 2005.
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/philippines.htm
126
127
128
United States Rule. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/16.htm
129
130
United States Rule. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/16.htm
26
House of Representatives; the Commission became the Senate, whose members were
elected by the people, not appointed. 131, 132
Filipinos also organized their own political parties, some of whom collaborated with U.S.
leadership. 133 The ilustrado (the countrys native elite) had strong political influence at
that time. Among them, Trinidad H. Pardo de Tavera and Benito Legarda established the
Federalista Party, with an agenda to make the Philippines a state of the United States. The
party appointed their members to political positions in the Supreme Court, governorships,
and the civil service. However, their statehood platform had limited appeal, and they
changed their name to the National Progressive Party, with an independence platform. In
1907, another party emerged and gained political ascendancy that lasted beyond 1945.
From the start, the Nacionalistas, who represented the wealthy elite of Filipino society,
publicly called for Filipino independence; but in fact, they actively supported American
authorities, in a manner called the policy of attraction. 134 Filipinos also formed the
Communist Party of the Philippines and the Socialist Party during this period. Both
parties were sympathetic to the tenant farmers resistance to elite land control. 135
Commonwealth
The Philippines became a self-governing commonwealth in 1935. A new government,
presided over by Nacionalista Party member Manual Quezon, was designed to transition
the country to independence over a period of 10 years.
Most Filipinos welcomed the commonwealth. The Muslims, a small but important
minority, however, viewed this Filipinization ominously. They correctly anticipated
that the Catholic majority would dominate politics and the economy in the Philippines,
and threaten the Muslim way of life. Indeed, this is precisely what happened. Catholics
from Luzon and the Visayan islands flooded into the island of Mindanao, crowding the
Moros out of their own homeland. This Catholic encroachment would sow the seeds of
animosity and hostility, and later bear the fruit of Muslim separatist movements,
including the Moro National Liberation Front and Abu Sayyaf.
131
Senate of the Philippines. History of the Senate. 2001. http://www.senate.gov.ph/about/history.asp
132
The Jones Act. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/18.htm
133
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Philippines: A Country Study. Ronald E. Dolan, Ed. A
Collaborate Philippine Leadership. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/17.htm
134
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Philippines: A Country Study. Ronald E. Dolan, Ed. A
Collaborate Philippine Leadership. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/17.htm
135
27
World War II and Japanese Occupation

Japan attacked the unsuspecting Philippines 10
hours after they attacked Pearl Harbor, Hawaii on
7 December 1941. 136 The combined U.S. and
Philippine military units were forced to retreat to
the Bataan Peninsula and Corregidor at the mouth
of Manila Bay. The Japanese occupied Manila on
2 January 1942, but American and Philippine
forces kept up their defense until the spring. They
finally surrendered Bataan in April and
Corregidor in May. The Japanese captured 80,000
prisoners of war and forced them to march to a prison camp 105 km (65 mi) to the north.
During this infamous Bataan Death March, some 10,000 men died as a result of harsh
treatment, starvation, and disease.
After occupation, Japan promised independence to the Philippines but began organizing a
new government structure by which they could direct civil affairs. Most of the Philippine
elite collaborated with the Japanese in this new political process for a number reasons: to
pass information to the Allies, to protect Filipinos from the harsh Japanese rule, to protect
family and personal interests, and the belief that collaboration was the best policy.
While the Philippine elite collaborated with the Japanese, the general population, for the
most part, did not. 137 In fact, anti-Japanese underground and guerrilla activity continued.
Some 260,000 were involved in guerrilla organizations alone, limiting Japanese control
to 12 of the 48 provinces by the end of the war. One of the largest and most effective
anti-Japanese militias, the Huks, had 30,000 members. Led by communist party member
Luis Taruc, it was formed in 1942 as the Hukbalahaps (short for Hukbo ng Bayan Laban
sa Hapon, or Peoples Anti-Japanese Party). The Huks recruited heavily among tenant
farmers in central and southern Luzon. 138 Some of the heaviest fighting took place in
Luzon, where the Japanese had retreated. Together with the Allied forces, however, they
were able to defeat the Japanese who surrendered on 2 September 1945. Manila
experienced fierce fighting and the city, along with the rest of the country, suffered
extensive damage. In terms of human loss, an estimated one million Filipinos died in the
war.
After the allied victory, the Huks and other resistance groups fully expected recognition
and the opportunity to participate in the governance of their own country. This did not
happen. Instead, the U.S. government restored the former commonwealth leaders to
power.
136
World War II. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/21.htm
137
World War II. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/21.htm
138
Rand Corporation. Mitchell, Edward John. The Huk Rebellion in the Philippines: An Econometric
Study [pp. 7, 11]. January 1969. http://www.rand.org/pubs/research_memoranda/2007/RM5757.pdf
28
Independence
The Philippines became a sovereign and independent republic on 4 July 1946, with
Manual Roxas as president. The plan to move ahead with independence resumed amid
complete breakdown during the war, concerns about Japanese collaborationists, rampant
inflation, and shortages of food and other goods. 139 Furthermore, the Philippine economy
was dependent on U.S. markets. The U.S. not only maintained 23 military installations in
the country but also provided military aid and training. 140
Post-Independence (1946Present)
Early Independence Period
Such military support was helpful and timely due to the ongoing
strife between the Huks and the government. 141 The Huk
Rebellion (19451953) marred the first eight years of
independence and complicated reconstruction and recovery after
the war. 142 Many of the elite and landowners had sided with the
Japanese during the war, while tenant farmers had fought the
Japanese in battle. The war, in effect, widened the gap between
the poor and the rich and increased animosity between them.
When landowners returned from urban areas where they had fled
to avoid the fighting, they demanded back rent from the
peasants; they used both their own security and the military
police to enforce these monetary demands. The Huks did not
readily comply. 143 The Huks, then known as the Peoples
Liberation Party (Hukbong Mapagpalaya ng Bayan), wanted to
participate in the government and to disband both the military police and the general
assembly. 144 The communist-led insurgency eventually weakened and fell into criminal
activity by 1951. They were suppressed by improved Philippine armed forces and
government reforms that appeased some peasants. 145, 146
139
140
Security Agreements. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/24.htm
141
142
143
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Philippines: A Country Study. Roland E. Dolan, Ed.
The Huk Rebellion. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/25.htm
144
145
The Magsaysay, Garcia, and Macapagal Administrations. 1991.
http://countrystudies.us/philippines/26.htm
29
The reforms were undertaken by the next elected president, Populist Ramon Magsaysay
(19531957) of the Nacionalista Party. While reforms assisted and benefitted tenant
farmers in the Christian north, they did not improve the situation in the Muslim south.147
Upon Magsaysays sudden death in 1957, Carlos Garcia became president. Both his
administration and that of his successor, Liberal President Diosdado Macapagal (1961
1965), focused on domestic and economic reforms and developing deeper ties with Asian
neighbors. 148
Issues with the United States over the rights to operate military bases caused significant
anti-American demonstrations and sentiments during Macapagals administration. 149, 150 At
that time, the U.S. still controlled large areas of land they did not need for military
operations. In 1962, the President proclaimed 12 June as the national day of
independence, commemorating General Emilio Aguinaldos declaration of independence
on 12 June 1898, in addition to 4 July 1946 as the day of independence from the United
States.
Marcos 20-Year Rule
Nacionalista Party leader Ferdinand Marcos defeated Macapagal
in 1965 and continued to dominate Philippine politics for the
next two decades. He stayed in power through a successful re-
election in 1969 (the first in the countrys history) and thereafter
through dictatorship after declaring martial law in 1972.
Over the course of his first term, Marcos implemented a vast
array of public works programs and infrastructure improvements
while providing generous pork barrel benefits for his allies and
friends. 151 He also lobbied the United States for military and
economic aid and contributed 2,000 members of the Philippine
Civic Action Group to the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam)
during the Second Indochina War (19451975) between 1966
and 1969. In 1967, the Philippines became a founding member
of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).
146
147
148
149
150
The Magsaysay, Garcia, and Macapagal Administrations. 1991.
151
Marcos and the Road to Martial Law, 19651972. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/27.htm
30
During Marcos second term, economic growth slowed and his administration was faced
with two ongoing insurrections. Optimism faded as the quality of life deteriorated
through increased crime rates and random acts of violence. In addition, the socialist New
Peoples Army and the Muslim southern secessionists threatened national security.
Muslims were divided into two camps, the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) and
its splinter group, the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF). Violence between Muslims
and Christians was on the rise in Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago, where many
Christians from the north had migrated as part of a government-sponsored migration
program. 152
The government may also have been involved in the political violence that led to Marcos
suspending habeas corpus in 1971. 153 Martial law followed on 21 September 1972 and
lasted until 17 January 1981. 154 Marcos cited the communist threat, and lawlessness as
justification for martial law, but investigations showed that government agent
provocateurs may have planted the random bombings in Manila and other large urban
areas. Nevertheless, Marcos governed from a new constitution in 1973 that gave him
absolute power. 155 He restricted civil liberties, suspended parliament, imposed censorship,
arrested opposition parties, and placed his allies in the armed forces. At the same time,
rampant corruption and cronyism in his administration contributed to a significant decline
in the countrys economic growth and development. 156
152
153
154
155
BBC. Timeline: The Philippines. 7 May 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-
156
31
People Power!
Among Marcos critics and opposition members to be arrested
was his rival Senator Benigno Aquino. As a member of the
landowning class, Aquino hailed from an equally dynastic
background as Marcos, but Aquino was a committed pro-
democracy member of the opposition party during the Marcos
era. 157 Thus, Marcos, viewing Aquinos popularity as a threat to
his power, had him imprisoned. In 1980, after Aquino had spent
seven years behind bars, the Marcos government granted its most
famous dissident permission to travel to the U.S. for medical
treatment. Fully aware of the risks, Aquino decided to return
home three years later. As he stepped off the plane in Manila on
21 August 1983, he was gunned down by soldiers.
Aquinos assassination was the beginning of the end of the
Marcos regime. 158 Aquinos widow, Corazon, stepped in to lead
the opposition to Marcos. The People Power movement gained backers over the next
three years, winning the support of many traditional politicians and business leaders,
along with the Catholic Church. Meanwhile, a parallel movement was growing in the
military, consisting of young officers who, disgusted with the corruption of the Marcos
government, sought to restore professionalism to the armed forces.
On 7 February 1986, President Marcos won another term in office in a snap election he
called to appease U.S. demands for political, economic, and military reform and to garner
a popular mandate. 159, 160 The elections were universally dismissed as fraudulent. 161 Two
weeks later, Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile, along with General Fidel Ramos,
Commander of the Philippine Constabulary, demanded Marcos resignation. An
increasing number of military personnel turned against Marcos and joined the opposition.
Marcos ordered the army to put down the insurrection, but hundreds of thousands of
Filipinos flooded the streets and joined forces with rebel troops. This non-violent
sequence of events, which forced the president from power on 22 February, came to be
known as the People Power revolution. 162
157
From Aquinos Assassination to Peoples Power. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/29.htm
158
159
160
The Wall Street Journal. Wolfowitz, Paul. The Aquino Legacy is Peaceful Regime Change. 4 August
2009. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970204313604574328502857058922.html
161
162
From Aquinos Assassination to Peoples Power. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/29.htm
32
An ailing Marcos and his high-profile wife, Imelda, along with other relatives, were
granted refuge in Hawaii where he died in 1989. Filipino history from colonization to the
end of the Marcos era has been summed up by Filipinos in the following way: Three
hundred years in a Spanish convent, 50 years of Hollywood, and 20 years of his and
hers. 163 The joke encapsulated the hope that the People Power revolution, which toppled
Marcos, represented a distinct break with the countrys past.
Presidency of Corazon Aquino
Corazon Aquino came to power amid great hopes for reform. 164
This was buoyed by her release of hundreds of political
prisoners, endorsement of a new constitution limiting the
president to a single six-year term, and revival of an independent
judiciary and a freely elected parliament. 165, 166 To close the
Marcos era, she lifted the censorship restrictions instituted during
martial law and initiated efforts to recover the hundreds of
millions of dollars of ill-gotten gains that had disappeared into
his family coffers. What Aquino failed to do, however, was
address the contentious issue of land reform that remains the
primary source of income inequality in the Philippines. 167
The lack of progress on land reform is reflected in how people
referred to the Philippines first female president. 168 Initially
Aquino was considered a revolutionary. As hopes for change
faded, she became known as a reformer. Finally, at the end of her term, she was
dismissed as a restorationist who had delivered little of the change her ascendance to
power initially heralded. 169
Thus, Aquinos legacy was mixed. She oversaw the complicated process of restoring
democracy after the Marcos era and presided over the creation of a new constitution
163
The New York Times. Gibney, Frank. Everybodys Colony: Review of Dusk by Sionel Jose. 2 August
1998. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A06E2D61339F931A3575BC0A96E958260
164
Time Magazine. Iyer, Pico. Person of the Year 1986: Corazon Aquino. 5 January 1987.
http://www.time.com/time/subscriber/personoftheyear/archive/stories/1986.html
165
The New York Times. Mydams, Seth. The World: For Aquino, A Growing Threat from Extremists.
27 December 1987.
http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40716FA3A580C748EDDAB0994DF484D81&scp=28&s
q=Corazon%20%20Aquino%20prisoner%20release&st=cse
166
The New York Times. Mydans, Seth. Corazon Aquino, Ex-Leader of Philippines, Is Dead. 31 July
2009. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/01/world/asia/01aquino.html?pagewanted=1
167
The Christian Science Monitor. Murphy, Dan. Corazon Aquino Leaves Philippines Legacy of
Democracy. 1 August 2009. http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Global-News/2009/0801/corazon-aquino-
who-stared-down-a-dictator-leaves-philippines-a-legacy-of-democracy
168
Corazon Aquino. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/84.htm
169
The Rise of Corazon Aquino. 1991. http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-10486.html
33
designed to prevent takeover by a future dictator. 170 However, her administration was
both weak and fractious, and the country did not reach full political and economic
stability during her tenure. 171 Over the course of her six-year term, she survived more
than five coup attempts staged by the military. At the end of her rule, she endorsed Fidel
Ramos, her defense secretary and a graduate of West Point, for the presidential election.
Post-Aquino Politics
Fidel Ramos won the presidential election in 1992 with Vice
President Joseph Estrada on a national reconciliation
platform. 172 He created the National Unification Commission in
preparation for talks with military rebels, communist insurgents,
and Muslim separatists. He also granted amnesty to these groups
and legalized the Communist party. In October 1995, he signed
an agreement with the military insurgency, which then ceased its
armed activities. In addition, he made peace with the Muslim
insurgent group, the Moro National Liberation Front in 1996.
Ramos also dedicated himself to rebuilding the Philippine
economy, just as Aquino had rebuilt a democratic system of
governance. He was considered successful in restoring investor
confidence in the Philippines. Nicknamed Steady Eddy, he
implemented several deregulation and anti-monopoly measures
that Aquino had been unable to get through the legislature.
In 1998, movie star Joseph Estrada, with Vice President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, won
the presidential elections in a landslide. His party promised to reduce poverty and
crime. 173 However, charges of corruption dogged Estrada from his first day in office. He
became the first Philippine president to face impeachment proceedings. Ultimately he
was forced from office in early 2001 by a combination of insider political maneuvering
and massive street protests organized via text messaging. 174 His short-lived presidency
underscored how weak the Philippine political institutions remained, making it easy for
elected officials to succumb to favors those in the private sector are in a position to
dispense. 175 Nine days later, Estradas vice president was sworn in as president.
170
Government Structure. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/79.htm
171
172
173
174
Christian Science Monitor. Farrell, Michael B. Whos Taping Whom? 15 September 2004.
http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0915/p16s01-usju.html
175
The New York Times. Bowring, Philip. A Return of Corrupt Habits Could Hold Back the Philippines.
21 July 1999. http://www.nytimes.com/1999/07/21/opinion/21iht-
34
President Arroyo, a Ph.D. economist and daughter of former President Macapagal (1961
1965), confronted an ailing economy in which a wealthy minority continued to own most
of the land while the majority, who hovered near the poverty line, remained trapped in a
subsistence livelihood. 176, 177, 178
Recent Events
On 30 December 2002, Arroyo announced that after completing
the term vacated by Estrada, she would step down from the
presidency and not seek office in her own right. She did not,
however, stand down. She was reelected president in the 2004
election, though charges of rigging the election dogged her. 179
While Arroyo enjoyed some success in generating greater tax
revenues, her husbands questionable business dealings created a
storm of protest leading to calls for her resignation a year after
reelection. 180 Further controversy ensued when she pardoned
Estrada, who had been sentenced to a life term after his
conviction for corruption on a massive scale in September
2007. 181 More significantly, both insurgent activity and extra-
judicial murders by government forces increased during her
watch. 182, 183
Arroyo also faced continuing challenges from within the military. In July 2003, Arroyo
declared a month-long state of rebellion across the country due to an armed mutiny in
Manila in which over 1,000 people were charged. The most recent coup attempt against
her government occurred on November 2007. It was led by a group of renegade soldiers
edbow.t.html?scp=1&sq=Bowring,%20Philip.%20%E2%80%9CA%20Return%20of%20Corrupt%20Habit
s%20Could%20Hold%20Back%20the%20Philippines&st=cse
176
The New York Times. Mydans, Seth. Corazon Aquino, Ex-Leader of Philippines, Is Dead. 31 July
2009. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/01/world/asia/01aquino.html?pagewanted=1
177
New York Times. Karnow, Stanley. Cory Aquinos Downhill Slide. 19 August 1990.
http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE4DB133AF93AA2575BC0A966958260&sec=&sp
on=&scp=1&sq=Corazon%20Aquino%20oligarchy&st=cse&pagewanted=3
178
Corazon Aquino. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/84.htm
179
180
New York Times. Conde, Carlos H. Filipinos Step Up Pressure on Arroyo. 1 July 2005.
http://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/30/world/asia/30iht-phils.html
181
New York Times. Conde, Carlos H. Philippine Ex-President Pardoned. 26 October 2007.
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/26/world/asia/26filip.html
182
Asian Godfathers: Money and Power in Hong Kong and Southeast Asia. Studwell, Joe. Index: Cast of
Characters [p. 286]. 2007. New York, NY: Atlantic Monthly Press.
183
New York Times. Conde, Carlos H. Arroyo Legacy Tour Troubles Her Critics. 7 May 2010.
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/07/world/asia/07iht-legacy.html?pagewanted=2
35
being tried for a 2003 mutiny. 184 While the coup was suppressed, it reflected the uneven
support for Arroyo within the armed forces. This was problematic given the militarys
role in combating terrorist and other groups that advocate violence as a means to address
economic grievances. 185
In the 2010 elections, Liberal Party Senator Benigno S. Aquino III, the son of Benigno
and Corazon Aquino, won the presidential election. Despite the violence and some
setbacks with a new automated voting system, Aquino won by a landslide with a strong
turnout. 186, 187 Among other domestic issues, he has made health care, education, creating
jobs, and strengthening the judicial system his priorities. 188, 189
Issues facing President Aquino include corruption, a large deficit, and national
security. 190, 191 He will need to reduce the endemic corruption in the government and
strengthen anti-corruption enforcement and vigilance. The deficit, while not large, is a
record in pesos (the Philippine currency) and a small tax base coupled with corruption
and chronic evasion could hinder spending on social services and infrastructure.
Security issues involve threats on three fronts: the Muslim separatists, the Maoists, and
the Abu Sayyaf (Bearer of the Sword in Arabic). Formal peace talks with the Moro
Islamic Liberation Front, begun in December 2009 after a cease-fire, are still ongoing due
to disagreements concerning power-sharing, territory, and wealth. 192 The Maoist
insurgency continues but they have said they will talk with Aquino. The Abu Sayyaf,
formed in 1991 as another splinter group of the Moro National Liberation Front, will not
negotiate.
184
BBC News. Philippines: Timeline. No date. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-
185
Export Development Canada. Philippines: Economics. 2008.
http://www.edc.ca/english/docs/gphilippines_e.pdf
186
The Guardian UK. Associated Press. Philippines Election Shows Benigno Aquino III on Way to
Presidency. 10 May 2010. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/may/10/philippines-election-aquino-
ahead
187
The New York Times. Philippines. 10 May 2010.
http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/international/countriesandterritories/philippines/index.html?scp=1&sq=
Gloria%20Arroyo%202010%20election&st=cse
188
189
The New York Times. Benigno S. Aquino. 30 June 2010.
http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/a/benigno_s_aquino_iii/index.html?scp=2&sq=
Arroyo%202010%20election&st=cse
190
Reuters. Factbox: Major Policy Challenges Facing Philippines' Aquino. 30 June 2010.
http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE65T15V20100630?pageNumber=2
191
The New York Times. Conde, Carlos H. Aquino to be Philippine President. 9 June 2010.
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/10/world/asia/10phils.html?ref=benigno_s_aquino_iii
192
Reuters. Philippines, Rebels Push for Peace Deal by April 2010. 9 December 2009.
http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKLR8002720091209
36
History Assessment
1. The first people to populate the islands of the Philippines were the Austronesians.
False
The first settlers, the Aeta, or Negritos in Spanish, came to the Philippines
during the last Ice Age. A second group, the Austronesians, arrived much later by
sea from Taiwan.
2. Ferdinand Magellan arrived in the Philippines in 1565 and became the first
Spanish governor the same year.
False
The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in 1521 was a prelude to colonization, but he
was killed soon after by the Mactan Islanders. Miguel Lpez de Legazpi became
the first Spanish governor in 1565.
3. The U.S. purchased the Philippines from Spain for USD 20 million in 1898.
True
At the end of the SpanishAmerican War of 1898, the U.S. and Spain signed the
Treaty of Paris that allowed the U.S. to purchase the Philippines for USD 20
million.
4. Ferdinand Marcos was the President of the Philippines for over 20 years.
True
Ferdinand Marcos became President of the Philippines in 1965, and did not leave
office until he was forced from power in early 1986.
5. President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo was the first woman elected as the leader of
the Philippines.
False
The Philippines first female president was Corazon Aquino who came to power
after Marcos was forced from power. Macapagal.
37
Chapter 3: Economy
Introduction
Although the Philippine economy is growing rapidly, it still lags
behind other Asia-Pacific countries such as Singapore or Taiwan.
After World War II, the Republic of the Philippines was the
second-wealthiest country in Asia, after Japan. 193 It is now one of
the poorestdespite its ample human and natural resources
due to recurring economic and political crises, economic
mismanagement, and a lack of sustained robust economic
growth. 194, 195
Nevertheless, the newly industrialized country is transforming
itself from an agriculture-based economy to a service and
manufacturing economy with 31 years of growth (7.3% in
2007). 196, 197 The global recession of 20082009 slowed the
Philippine economy, but only slightly compared to other
countries in the region. 198 The archipelago rebounded through its
limited exposure to troubled institutions abroad, election spending, easing of fiscal
policy, growth in the outsourcing industry, and continued domestic consumption. 199, 200
Much of the domestic spending is reinforced by remittances sent from Filipino workers
abroad. Remittances have helped the country avoid recession, support investment growth
and consumption, and bolster the balance of payments while the country handles a 57%
GDP (Gross Domestic Product) debt ratio. 201, 202, 203
193
November 2010. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2794.htm#econ
194
Global Security. Philippines: Economy. 3 July 2009.
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/phillipines/economy.htm
195
196
Foreign and Commonwealth Office, United Kingdom. Philippines Country Information: Economy. 17
December 2009. http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/country-
profile/asia-oceania/philippines?profile=economy
197
Economy Watch. Philippines Economic Structure. No date.
http://www.economywatch.com/world_economy/philippines/structure-of-economy.html
198
Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. Philippines: Economy. 24 November 2010.
199
The World Bank. Philippines: Stepping Up Reforms to Sustain Growth. September 2010.
http://go.worldbank.org/PB3SLAIK30
200
201
38
Agriculture
The agricultural sector, which includes forestry
and fisheries, has historically been the backbone
of the nations economy. Over 40% of the
countrys total land area is arable farmland. The
volcanic soil is rich and fertile, supporting a
variety of crops throughout the year. 204 The main
agricultural products include rice, coconut, corn,
bananas, pineapples, sugarcane, cassavas,
mangoes, eggs, pork, beef, and fish. 205 Rice,
coconut, and corn are the staple crops. Rice is
grown in north-central Luzon, south-central Mindanao, and the western Visayas. 206
Coconut is grown extensively in the coastal areas. The Philippines is one of the worlds
largest producers of coconut products. 207
The agricultural sector employs about one third of the population and is the second
largest employer in the Philippines. 208 Agriculturalists work on either small plots of
rented land or on large plantations they own. 209 Much of the land, however, is owned by a
small group of wealthy landowners, a legacy of 19th century economic development. 210, 211
202
203
Foreign and Commonwealth Office, United Kingdom. Philippines Country Information: Economy. 17
December 2009. http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/country-
profile/asia-oceania/philippines?profile=economy
204
Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Philippines: Economy. 2010.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456399/Philippines
205
206
207
International Trade Center. Trade Map Trade Competitiveness Map. 2010.
http://www.trademap.org/countrymap/Country_SelProduct_TS.aspx
208
209
Philippines in Pictures. Sexton, Colleen. Chapter 5: The Economy [p.60]. 2006. Minneapolis, MN:
Twenty-First Century Books.
210
The Christian Science Monitor. Murphy, Dan. Corazon Aquino Leaves Philippines Legacy of
Democracy. 1 August 2009. http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Global-News/2009/0801/corazon-aquino-
who-stared-down-a-dictator-leaves-philippines-a-legacy-of-democracy
211
Political Economy of Development. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/56.htm
39
Over the past decades, agriculture has become a shrinking percentage of the GDP. 212
Continued rural to urban migration, natural disasters (drought and storms), and the
economic crisis of the mid 1980s are all factors in the sectors decline. 213, 214 Between 1988
and 1998, the agricultural GDP fell by 6%. 215 Similarly, between 1991 and 2002, the
number of farms and total farmland gradually decreased. 216 In 2009 estimates were at
14% of GDP, where it has stayed fairly consistent for the past few years. 217
This sector faces a number of challenges. 218 Inadequate government policies, poor
infrastructure, and insufficient financing have slowed agricultural production, including
fishing. 219 In addition, land conversion and development, combined with expanded
farming, have taken a toll on the countrys forest cover, marine life, and
environment. 220, 221 Slash and burn farming, uncontrolled logging, and inadequate
reforestation have dramatically reduced hardwood and pine. 222, 223 Destructive fishing
methods, such as cyanide fishing, kill not only the fish but also the coral reef, and
damage the fishing areas. 224, 225
212
World Bank. Philippines at a Glance [p.1]. 9 December 2009.
http://devdata.worldbank.org/AAG/phl_aag.pdf
213
Agricultural Production and Government Policy. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/61.htm
214
Rice and the Green Revolution. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/62.htm
215
World Bank. Philippines at a Glance [p.1]. 9 December 2009.
http://devdata.worldbank.org/AAG/phl_aag.pdf
216
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Profile: Philippines: Geography [p.12].
217
218
Rice and the Green Revolution. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/62.htm
219
220
Biodiversity Hotspots. Philippines: Human Impact. 2007.
http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/philippines/Pages/impacts.aspx
221
222
223
224
225
Encyclopedia of Earth. Coral Degradation and Destructive Fishing Practices. 20 September 2010.
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Coral_degradation_through_destructive_fishing_practices?topic=49513
40
Industry
Industry is largely concentrated in urban areas and
around metropolitan Manila, where infrastructure
allows for a smooth production flow of raw
materials to finished products. 226 The most
important industries are electronics assembly,
textiles, food processing, finished wood products,
petroleum refining, footwear, and fishing. 227 Other
industrial production includes the processing and
assembly of tobacco, leather products, printing,
publishing, and semi-conductors. 228 Many
factories in the Philippines are subcontractors or licensees of foreign firms. They make
finished products out of unfinished imported goods for export. 229
Industrial growth has fluctuated since rising significantly during the 1950s, but has
stabilized in past decades, particularly in manufacturing. 230, 231 Industry accounts for 30%
of the countrys GDP but employs only 15% of its workforce. 232 The government has
encouraged domestic and foreign investment in industry through tax credits and favorable
credit terms. 233 Challenges in the industry sector include poor infrastructure,
transportation, and communication. 234
226
227
228
229
230
231
Industry. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/69.htm
232
233
234
41
Natural Resources
The Philippines is rich in mineral resources. Its untapped mineral
wealth is estimated at over USD 840 billion worth of gold,
copper, and chromate deposits. 235 The archipelago also has
significant deposits of silver, nickel, coal, sulfur, gypsum,
marble, limestone, silica, clay, and phosphate. Most of the
minerals (including gold, copper, and chromite) are located in
Luzon and Mindanao. 236, 237 The Visayas has deposits of
nonmetallic minerals such as marble, salt, sulfur, cement,
phosphate, and silica. 238 In addition, natural gas and petroleum
was discovered in the northwest coast of Palawan. 239
During the 1970s, the Philippines was a top 10 world producer of
gold and copper. 240 In the decades following, high operational
costs, decreased demand, labor disputes, high interest rates,
natural disasters, and power shortages reduced industry
growth. 241 Even today, high production costs, low metal prices, and insufficient
infrastructure investment pose challenges to the industry. Red tape, disputes over
landownership, and the Muslim and communist insurgencies have been additional
concerns for developers. 242 One positive sign for the industry was a 2004 Supreme Court
decision to allow 100% foreign-owned firms to invest in mining, oil, and gas. 243
235
236
237
U.S. Geological Survey. 2008 Minerals Yearbook: Philippines [p.23.5]. July 2010.
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2008/myb3-2008-rp.pdf
238
239
Energy. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/71.htm
240
241
Mining. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/70.htm
242
The New York Times. Crimmins, Carmel. Skepticism Greets Philippine Mining Industry Revival. 3
April 2008. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/03/business/worldbusiness/03iht-
mine.1.11643523.html?_r=1
243
42
Energy
The Philippines has significant potential for
energy production, particularly with geothermal
energy. In terms of oil, exploration began in the
1950s and peaked during the 1970s but yields
were small, and there was no production between
1996 and 2000. 244, 245 In 2001, oil production
increased with the development of the Malampaya
Oil Rim, the biggest oil-production site today. 246
Production is still low, however, at 25,290 bbl
(barrels per day). The Philippines must still
import petroleum for its own consumption needs. 247, 248 The Philippine oil reserves were
estimated to be 138.5 million bbl in January 2010. 249
The Oil Rim project, located underneath the Malampaya natural gas field, led to
significant production of natural gas. Prior to 2001 there were discoveries of reserves but
no production. 250, 251 Almost all natural gas production today is derived from the
Malampaya natural gas field. 252 Natural gas in the Philippines is used to generate
electricity. The Shell, Chevron, and Philippine National Oil Company (PNOC)
Deepwater Gas-to-Power Project is not only the countrys largest natural gas
development project but also one of the biggest sources of foreign investment. 253 Natural
gas reserves were estimated at 98.54 billion cu m (3.48 trillion cu ft) in January 2010. 254
244
U.S. Energy Information Administration. Philippines Energy Profile. 14 July 2010.
http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=RP
245
246
Encyclopedia of Earth. Energy Profile of Philippines. 23 September 2008.
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Energy_profile_of_Philippines
247
248
249
250
251
Philippine Department of Energy. Natural Gas. 2005. http://www.doe.gov.ph/ER/Natgas.htm
252
253
254
43
The Philippines offshore hydrocarbon sources add to its substantial geothermal, coal,
and hydro reserves. 255 Geothermal and coal resources in the Philippines are so vast they
have reduced some of the countries dependence on oil. 256 The Philippines continues to be
the worlds second largest producer of geothermal energy after the United States. 257, 258
Power plants in Luzon, Negros, Leyte, and Mindanao create nearly 20% of the electricity
in the Philippines.259 In terms of coal, demand is too high, and the country must continue
to import coal for power generation and industry use. 260, 261 Lastly, while the Philippines
generates enough electricity to meet its own consumption needs, inequalities of
distribution and a low rate of access in rural areas are problems. 262, 263 In the past,
Filipinos used solar, agri-waste, animal waste, and other methods to produce small
amounts of energy in rural areas. 264
255
256
257
258
Geothermal Energy Association. Holm, Alison, et al. Geothermal Energy: International Market Update
[p.56]. May 2010. http://www.geo-
energy.org/pdf/reports/GEA_International_Market_Report_Final_May_2010.pdf
259
Geothermal Energy Association. Holm, Alison, et al. Geothermal Energy: International Market Update
[p.56]. May 2010. http://www.geo-
energy.org/pdf/reports/GEA_International_Market_Report_Final_May_2010.pdf
260
261
Philippine Department of Energy. Coal. 2005. http://www.doe.gov.ph/ER/Coal.htm
262
263
The World Bank. Philippines and Energy. 2010. http://go.worldbank.org/JIOIC65ET0
264
44
Service Sector
The Philippine service sector is large in
comparison to other Asian countries. 265,266 It
comprises over 50% of the nations GDP and
employs about half of the labor force. 267 The IT
industry in particular is promising, and expected
to outperform other countries. 268 The Philippines
has become a leading provider of business process
outsourcing (BPO) services, alongside India and
Canada. 269 Aside from IT, the archipelago also
offers BPO services in medical transcription,
engineering, and finance. 270 Given the worldwide recession, global BPO companies are
increasingly using the Philippines as a backup to India for a number of reasons including
low costs, a large English speaking population, adequate telecommunication
infrastructure, and a technically savvy workforce. 271,272,273 Approximately 65% of their
services are provided to North America, a quarter is exported to ASEAN (Association of
Southeast Asian Nations) countries, and 10% to Europe. 274 Other countries the
265
Australian Government. Philippines. 6 July 2010.
http://www.ausaid.gov.au/country/country.cfm?CountryID=31
266
USDA Foreign Agricultural Service, USDA. Philippines Becomes Top Growth Market for U.S. Foods
and Beverages [p.4]. 30 November 2010.
http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Philippines%20Becomes%20Top%20Growth%
20Market%20for%20U.S.%20Foods%20and%20Beverages_Manila_Philippines_11-30-2010.pdf
267
268
Business Wire. Research and Markets: Philippines Information Technology Report Q4 2010 Forecasts
Philippine Computer Hardware Spending to Rise to US $2.7 bn by 2014. 8 December 2010.
http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20101208005156/en/Research-Markets-Philippines-Information-
Technology-Report-Q4
269
Congressional Planning and Budget Department, House of Representatives. Facts in Figures:
Philippine Business Process Outsourcing Industry [p.1]. November 2009.
http://www.congress.gov.ph/download/cpbd/fnf_022009_philbiz.pdf
270
271
The World Bank. Philippine Quarterly Update: Towards an Inclusive Recovery [p.26]. November
2009. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/PHILIPPINESEXTN/Resources/PQU_NOV_2009.pdf
272
The World Bank. Philippine Quarterly Update: Towards an Inclusive Recovery [p.26]. November
2009. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/PHILIPPINESEXTN/Resources/PQU_NOV_2009.pdf
273
274
45
Philippines exports BPO services to include the United Arab Emirates, Japan, and Saudi
Arabia. Canada, Australia, and New Zealand are emerging markets.
Banking
Financial services contribute a substantial amount
to the services industry and the countrys overall
economic growth. 275 The banking sector
weathered the global financial meltdown well, due
to its limited exposure to troubled institutions
abroad. 276 The banking sector now comprises
about 80% of the entire financial systems
resources and about 90% of all financial
activity. 277, 278 The Central Bank issues the national
currency, the piso, and conducts banking
operations, along with other private and government-owned banks. 279
Tourism
Tourism is a big business in the Philippines.
Metro Manila is replete with 16th century Spanish
cathedrals, churches, shrines, museums, galleries,
parks, shops, restaurants, and nightclubs.
Numerous tropical islands with vast stretches of
white sand and blue sea offer surfers, scuba
divers, and vacationers a worldly paradise. To
make these features part of a world-class travel
destination and a potential source of investment,
the Philippine government passed the Tourism
Act of 2009. This law makes tourism vital to the national economy and an important tool
for socio-economic growth. 280 It also creates incentives, such as tax breaks, for newly
established Tourism Enterprise Zones. 281
275
276
277
Asia News. Philippine C.Bank Says No Urgency to Raise Rates. 17 December 2010.
http://asia.news.yahoo.com/rtrs/20101205/tbs-philippines-economy-cenbank-8bedc88.html
278
The Heritage Foundation. 2010 Index of Economic Freedom. 2010.
http://www.heritage.org/index/country/philippines
279
280
Department of Philippines, Republic of Philippines. Maria Victoria Domini M. Comia. Tourism Act of
2009: Come to the Philippines. 15 October 2009.
http://tourism.gov.ph/Pages/20091015TourismActof2009.aspx
46
Not surprisingly, the Philippines tourism sector has grown over the past several years. 282
In the past, economic and political instability, terrorism threats in the southern islands,
and a belief that neighboring countries offered better attractions, kept tourists from
visiting the archipelago. 283, 284 Since the 2005 record high of 2.5 million visitors, however,
the number of visits has increased steadily. 285 A major market for tourism in the
Philippines is east Asia, including China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Korea, and Japan. 286
Metropolitan Manila and Cebu Island are the most popular travel destinations.
The Philippines is also known for sex tourism. 287 Child sex tourism, in particular, is a
serious problem, with the majority of the clientele coming from Northeast Asia, Europe,
and North America. 288 The Department of Tourism in the Philippines instituted the
ASEAN Regional Education campaign in 2007 in an effort to raise awareness and to
protect children in tourist areas.
281
282
283
284
BBC News. Why is the Philippines Tourism Sector in Crisis? 10 January 2003.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/2638423.stm
285
286
287
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. 2009 Human Rights Report: Philippines. 11 March
2010. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2009/eap/136006.htm
288
47
Foreign Investment
Developing countries such as the Philippines are dependent on
foreign capital to improve productive capacity. Since the 1980s,
the Philippines has implemented certain reforms to encourage
foreign investment. It became a member of the World Trade
Organization, created competition in telecommunication and air
transport sectors, and has allowed foreign investment in the
power generation sector. 289 Strengths the country now offers are
free trade zones, a large English-speaking population, and a well-
educated working class. The tourism, mining, and BPO sectors
offer opportunities for investment. 290
Foreign investors are looking for evidence of societal stability to
safeguard their investments.The Philippines has not been rated as
safe historically, and foreign participation in the economy
remains controversial. 291 Widespread corruption, lack of
transparency, inadequate infrastructure, regulatory inconsistency, a slow and complex
judicial system, and constitutionally mandated restrictions on certain sectors hinder
investment in the Philippine economy. 292, 293, 294 Foreign ownership is restricted or limited
in some areas due to reasons of defense, national security, safety, public health, and
morals. These sectors include retail trade, firearms, explosives, military hardware,
gambling, and massage clinics. In addition, civil unrest instigated by terrorist
organizations such as the New Peoples Army (the communist partys military wing)
creates an unstable investment environment.
The United States has been a major investor in its former colony. The two nations have a
bilateral Trade and Investment Framework agreement. 295
289
November 2010. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2794.htm#foreign
290
291
Foreign Investment. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/76.htm
292
293
Bureau of Economic, Energy, and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State. 2010 Investment
Climate Statement The Philippines. March 2010.
http://www.state.gov/e/eeb/rls/othr/ics/2010/138129.htm
294
295
48
Trade
The Philippine archipelago had an estimated trade
deficit of USD 8.88 billion in 2009 but is seeking
economic independence as it develops its
economy. 296, 297 Major Philippines exports are:
electronic products, semi-conductors, transport
equipment, copper products, petroleum products,
garments, fruits, and coconut oil. 298 Their leading
export partner in 2009 was the United States, at
17%. The European Union nations standing
together totaled 20%. 299 Major products the
Philippines imports include electronic products, machinery, transport equipment, mineral
fuels, iron, steel, chemicals, plastic, and grains. 300 The leading import partner was Japan
at 12.5%. 301
Manufacturing exports for the country totaled the largest share in 2009 at 85%. 302
Manufacturing leads in commodity imports as well, but is followed by fuel and mining
products at 20%, and agricultural products at 12%. Transportation was the countrys
biggest service import.
Merchandise trade between the U.S. and the Philippines totaled USD 12.6 billion in
2009. 303 The Philippines also benefits greatly from a program that allows duty-free access
to U.S. markets for developing countries. 304 In 2006, the Philippines made its first
bilateral trade agreement with Japan. Recently, new markets have opened, such as East
296
297
Pricewaterhouse Coopers. Customs and Trade Updates. November 2009.
http://www.pwc.com/sg/en/tax/tax-issue200911.jhtml
298
299
World Trade Organization. Country Profile: Philippines. October 2010.
http://stat.wto.org/CountryProfile/WSDBCountryPFView.aspx?Language=E&Country=PH
300
301
302
303
304
49
and Southeast Asia, including China and Singapore. 305, 306 The Philippines has preferential
trade rates under ASEAN-Korea, ASEAN-China, and ASEAN-Australia New Zealand
Free Trade Areas. 307, 308
Trade and the International Division of Labor
The Philippine economy has been based on international trade.
During the Spanish era, Manila became a transit hub for the
exchange of merchandise between China and Mexico.
Throughout the American colonial era, the main exports were
textiles and sugar. More recently, the archipelago nation became
part of the international division of labormaterials used in
consumer goods destined for store shelves in North America and
Europe are imported into the Philippines duty-free and then
assembled for re-export. 309
The Philippine Economic Zone Authority (PEZA) manages five
government-owned ecozones in Baguio, Bataan, Cavite, Mactan,
and Pampanga. 310 PEZA also oversees a number of free trade
areas, export processing zones, and other industrial
buildings. 311, 312 The ecozones attract new investors with on-site
recruitment centers and financial incentives. At the end of November 2009, over 600,000
Filipinos worked in ecozones. 313 Profits, however, sometimes come at the expense of the
workers. The Philippines has signed the International Labor Organization (ILO)s
standards protecting the rights of workers. In addition, all labor laws apply to the
305
306
307
308
Pricewaterhouse Coopers. Customs and Trade Updates. November 2009.
http://www.pwc.com/sg/en/tax/tax-issue200911.jhtml
309
UC Davis. Feenstra, Robert. Integration of Trade and Disintegration of Production in the Global
Economy [p.7]. April 1998. http://www.econ.ucdavis.edu/faculty/fzfeens/pdf/jep2.pdf
310
311
312
Philippine Economic Zone Authority. Economic Zones. March 2010.
http://www.peza.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=77&Itemid=89
313
50
ecozones. Nevertheless, due to the illegal practices of companies and/or officials, it is

difficult for unions to organize in ecozones and for the government to enforce labor laws
there. 314
Standard of Living
The rate of poverty315 has increased in the
Philippines despite the countrys economic
growth. 316 The poverty rate hovered around 45%
since the 1990s. 317 Poverty continued to increase
even during the period of rapid growth from 2004
to 2008. 318 The causes of poverty are
unemployment, governance concerns (basic
services, land reform, etc.), macroeconomic
issues, armed conflict, rapid population growth,
agriculture sector problems, and disability. 319,320, 321
External shocks such as natural disasters and elevated global food and fuel prices also
contribute to increased poverty levels. 322 Reports indicate that of the 99 million total
population, 45% lives in poverty (2006 estimate) and 7.1% are unemployed (2010
estimate). 323,324 Underemployment stands at about 20%. 325 The Economic Planning
Secretary foresees further increases in the unemployment rate countrywide. 326
314
315
The poverty line covers the population living on less than $2.00 a day.
316
317
The World Bank. Poverty Headcount Ratio at $2 a Day (PPP) (% of population). 2010.
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.2DAY
318
319
Asian Development Bank. Poverty in the Philippines: Income, Assets, and Access. Chapter 6: Causes
of Poverty [p.85]. January 2005. http://www.adb.org/documents/books/poverty-in-the-
philippines/chap6.pdf
320
321
322
323
Manila Bulletin Publishing Corporation. Unemployment Rate Steady at 7.1% in Oct. 15 December
2010. http://www.mb.com.ph/articles/293091/unemployment-rate-steady-71-oct
324
The World Bank. Poverty Headcount Ratio at $2 a Day (PPP) (% of population). 2010.
51
Over half of the population in the Philippines is urban. 327 Urban businesses drive the
growth of the national economy and urban areas. 328,329 Rural areas lag behind in both
development and poverty reduction. The poverty gap between regions and provinces, and
between urban and rural areas in particular, are widening. 330 Poverty has been pervasive
and most severe in the countryside, where most of the poor population lives. 331, 332 In rural
areas, subsistence farming and fishing communities are prevalent and rely on agriculture
as the main source of income. However, a decline in production, limited access to
microfinance, productive assets, affordable credit, business opportunities, and
unsustainable practices limit profitability. 333 In addition, limited access to basic services,
lower education levels, and larger families lead to acute income inequality in the
country. 334, 335
Many middle- and high-income Filipinos rely on remittances from family and friends
who work overseas to supplement their income. 336 Remittances account for as much as
10% of the GDP. 337 An estimated 911 million Filipinos are currently working abroad,
325
Gulf News. Philippine Unemployment Rising Despite Strong Growth. 16 December 2010.
http://gulfnews.com/news/world/philippines/philippine-unemployment-rising-despite-strong-growth-
1.730897
326
AFP. Jobless Misery in Philippines Despite Economic Growth. 15 December 2010.
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5iLKagK6eDi7TYAMvtjHIYf29nxGw?docId=CN
G.a6a63e1c21d8141da33e6d95ce511830.6d1
327
Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. Philippines: People. 24 November 2010.
328
The World Bank. Improved Sanitation Facilities, Urban (% of urban population with access). No date.
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ACSN.UR/countries/PH?display=graph
329
The World Bank. Urban Development and the Philippines. No date.
http://go.worldbank.org/7BRH2R0P80
330
Rural Poverty Portal. Rural Poverty in the Philippines. No date.
http://www.ruralpovertyportal.org/web/guest/country/home/tags/philippines
331
332
Poverty and Welfare. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/74.htm
333
334
335
336
337
52
some because they cannot find jobs in the Philippines. 338 The USD 17.3 billion sent home
in 2009 boosted loans and benefited many sectors. 339 The Central Bank expects
remittances to increase 8% in 2010. 340
Transportation and Telecommunication

In the Philippines, transportation methods include
airplanes, boats, railways, buses, and personal
vehicles. 341, 342 The roads handle approximately
half of all freight transport. 343 Even so, as of 2008,
only 11% of the 201,910 km (125,461 mi) of
roadways are paved. 344 Most of the paved roads
and highways are in Luzons Metro Manila
region, Visayas, Mindoro, Palawan, and
Mindanao. 345 In Luzon, paved expressways extend
from the densely populated southern and western
provinces to Laoag in the north, Baguio in the west, and Sorogon in the south. 346 The
Maharlika Highway (Pan-Philippine Highway) is a system of hard-surface roads, bridges,
and ferries that link Luzon, Leyte, Samar, and Mindanoa. 347 More infrastructure work is
needed to improve connectivity and road conditions. The road network is often crowded
with undisciplined drivers. 348 Inevitably, as the World Bank points out, inadequate
338
339
Bloomberg. Philippine Remittances Climb on Rising Overseas Jobs. 15 December 2010.
http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-12-15/philippine-remittances-climb-on-rising-overseas-jobs-
update1-.html
340
Bloomberg. Philippine Remittances Climb on Rising Overseas Jobs. 15 December 2010.
http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-12-15/philippine-remittances-climb-on-rising-overseas-jobs-
update1-.html
341
Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Philippines: Transport and Telecommunication. 2010.
342
Bureau of Consular Affairs, U.S. Department of State. Philippines: Country Specific Information. 20
December 2010. http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_999.html
343
The World Bank. Transport in the Philippines. No date. http://go.worldbank.org/7T9R5GE2Q0
344
Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. Philippines: Transport. 24 November 2010.
345
346
347
348
Bureau of Consular Affairs, U.S. Department of State. Philippines: Country Specific Information. 20
December 2010. http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_999.html
53
connectivity and the lack of a sustainable road safety strategy [] reduce the efficiency
of the road network in promoting growth and providing safe access. 349
In terms of telecommunications, the Philippines has a good system in place. There are 80
telephones (fixed-line and mobile cellular) per 100 persons. 350 While fixed-line
subscription has increased only slightly since about a hundred years ago, mobile cellular
use has increased sharply. 351 By contrast, the internet has spread slowly due to its high
cost. In 2008, approximately 5.6 million people had internet access, only a small fraction
of the 99 million total population. 352
Looking Forward
The Philippines growth outlook is moderate
compared to other East Asian countries. 353 The
Philippine economy is expected to grow 3.5% in
2010. 354 Second quarter growth stood at 7.9%, the
fastest growth rate in three years. 355 Growth in
BPO/IT outsourcing, tourism, and energy; natural
resources; infrastructure development; and
increased public-private partnerships may bring
the country to the 2010 estimated growth rate.
However, the archipelago faces a number of long-
term challenges that prevent it from reaching its potential. In addition, while the country
is generating wealth, its wealth and growth is not inclusive. A large informal sector, high
rates of poverty, and unemployment continue to be problematic for the nation. 356 Foreign
investors are looking for structural reforms to improve public and private sector
governance, to remove the bottlenecks that impede growth, and to reduce the costs of
doing business in the Philippines.
349
The World Bank. Transport in the Philippines. No date. http://go.worldbank.org/7T9R5GE2Q0
350
351
352
353
354
The World Bank. Laying Out the Exit Strategies: Philippines Quarterly Update (February 2010). 23
March 2010. http://go.worldbank.org/QL4SJK0EE0
355
Bloomberg. Philippine Banking Shares Will Extend Longest Rally in 3 Years, CLSA Says. 31 August
2010. http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-09-01/philippine-banks-shares-to-extend-longest-rally-in-
three-years-clsa-says.html
356
54
Economy Assessment
1. The Philippine economy relies heavily on remittances from expatriate Filipino

workers abroad.
True
Remittances, which account for as much as 10% of the countrys GDP, have
helped the country avoid recession, support investment growth and consumption,
and bolster the balance of payments.
2. Industry accounts for the single largest portion of the Philippines GDP.
False
Industry accounts for 30% of the countrys GDP. The service sector comprises the
largest portion of the GDP at over 50%.
3. The Philippines is able to produce enough petroleum to meet its needs.
False
Though the country does produce oil, its production is low (25,290 bbl). Thus, it
must still import petroleum for its own consumption needs.
4. The Philippines has historically been viewed as safe for foreign investment.
False
Widespread corruption, lack of transparency, inadequate infrastructure, regulatory
inconsistency, a slow and complex judicial system, and constitutionally mandated
restrictions on certain sectors hinder foreign participation in the economy.
5. The Philippines tourism sector has declined in the past several years.
False
Although instability, threats of terrorism, and other countries offering better
attractions have kept tourists away in the past, the number of visits has continued
to increase since a record high of 2.5 million in 2005.
55
Chapter 4 Society
Introduction
The Philippines population of 99 million people is
a true mix of ethnic, linguistic, and religious
groups. 357 Its cultural diversity arises both from its
geographic location and centuries of colonization
by the Spanish and the Americans. Malay,
Chinese, Arab, Spanish, and American influences
can be seen in the language Filipinos speak, the
religion they practice, they way they dress, and in
the sports they play. Filipinos, family-oriented
and spiritual people, have developed their own
unique way of life, adapting these influences in their own native culture. English and
Filipino are the official languages while indigenous languages are spoken at home,
Christianity is practiced with animist beliefs, and native foods are consumed alongside
American fast food. Such customs create a unique blend of diversity and homogeneity in
the Philippines. 358
Ethnic Groups
The majority of Filipinos are descendents of
Malays who migrated to the archipelago by boat
some 30,000 years ago. Only the oldest residents,
the Negritos, who are distinguished by their
shorter stature, darker skin, and curly hair, are
believed to be descendants of people who crossed
land bridges from mainland Asia. In addition to
these settlers, Chinese, Arab, and Indian peoples
also migrated to the archipelago over the
centuries. Many Filipinos trace their ancestry to
these as well as Spanish and American peoples, who colonized the Philippines between
the 16th and 20th centuries. 359 Mestizo is the name for someone with Malay and Spanish
or Chinese blood, specifically. 360 Filipino refers to the inhabitants of the country in
general.
357
Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. Philippines. 9 November 2010.
358
Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Philippines: People. 2010.
359
October 2010. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2794.htm#people
360
Philippines in Pictures. Sexton, Colleen. Chapter 3: The People [p. 39]. 2006. Minneapolis, MN:
56
Spread across 7,107 islands, Philippine residents had little contact with those living on
other islands. Hence, culture and traditions, along with language, diverged widely.
Today, Filipino society comprises nearly 100 distinct ethnic groups, based on language
and culture. 361 According to the 2000 census, the major ethnic groups are: Tagalog
28.1%, Cebuano 13.1%, Ilocano 9%, Bisaya/Binisaya 7.6%, Hiligaynon Ilonggo 7.5%,
Bikol 6%, Waray 3.4%, and other 25.3%. 362 Ethnicity is usually associated with a
region; 363 ethnic groups can be generally divided into three main categories: lowland
Christians, southern Muslims, and indigenous highlanders.
The Tagalogs, the largest ethnic group, are lowland Christians who live mostly in central
and southern Luzon and in Mindoro. 364, 365 Many of them live in Manila, the capital city.
Thus, they are highly visible in politics and in business. The Tagalogs, along with the
Visayans, also make up the migrant Christian population in Mindanao. 366 The term
Visayan refers to people who trace their roots back to the sugar-rich central islands of the
Visayan region. The Cebuano, Hiligaynon Ilongo, and Waray-Waray are subgroups
within the Visayan population. High population density as well as official encouragement
prompted some to migrate to Mindanao where they continue to identify themselves as
Visayan. 367 The Ilocanos, the third largest ethnic group, live mainly in northern Luzon
and have a history of emigration and achieving success overseas. Some of their success is
due to President Marcos who was also an Ilocano and gave his people government jobs
during his tenure (19651986). 368
Muslim Filipinos, also referred to as Moros, have historically lived mainly on the
southern island of Mindanao and the Sulu archipelago, where separate sultanates ruled
after the advent of the Islamic religion. 369 The Moros represent the most culturally
autonomous group of Filipinos, set apart by their own legal system, language, and
361
362
363
The Philippine History Site. Ethnicity and the Creation of National Identity. No date.
http://opmanong.ssc.hawaii.edu/filipino/ethnicity.html
364
The Philippines: Enchantment of the World. Olesky, Walter. Chapter 7: The Friendly Filipinos [p. 81].
2000. New York, NY: Childrens Press.
365
366
Filipinos [p. 49]. 2002. Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corporation.
367
University of Hawaii at Manoa, Center for Philippine Studies. Colmenares, Serafin. The Visayans in
Hawaii. August 2003. http://www.hawaii.edu/cps/visayans.html
368
369
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Ronald E. Dolan, Ed. Philippines: A Country Study.
War of Resistance. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/15.htm
57
religion. 370 They were a dominant force of resistance against Spanish and American
colonial rule. 371, 372 Three main Muslim groups emerge as the most important in the area:
the Tausug, Maranaw, and Maguindanao. The Tausungs, along with the Samals, live by
the sea while the Maranao and the Maguindanao inhabit the hills and mountains of
central and western Mindano. 373, 374
Most of the Philippines ethnic groups live as indigenous
populations in remote areas of Luzon, Mindoro, and Mindanao.
They include the Negrito, Bontoc, Kalinga, Ifugao, Tingguian,
Badogo, Mandaya, Mangyan, and the Benguet. The Philippines
mountain dwellers are known collectively as Igorot, meaning
mountaineer. The Ifugao, for example, are ancestors of the
Igorots who built the rice terraces on the mountains of northern
Luzon. 375376 The area is now a UNESCO World Heritage site. 377
370
Muslim Filipinos. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/38.htm
371
372
Ethnicity, Regionalism, and Language. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/35.htm
373
374
375
Hogeschool Utrecht. The Philippines: Luzon and the Rice Terraces. No date.
http://www.philippines.hvu.nl/Luzon2.htm
376
377
UNESCO. Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras. 2010. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/722
58
Languages
While estimates vary, some studies suggest that over a hundred
languages are spoken in the Philippines. 378 Most of them belong
to the Malayo-Polynesian family of languages and are thus
related. The eight major languages in the country are: Tagalog,
Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon (Ilonggo), Bicol, Waray
(Samarnon), Pampango, and Pangasinan. 379 Approximately 85%
of the Filipino population speak one of these languages as their
mother tongue. Filipino and English are the official languages
and medium of instruction, acting as a unifying force in the
culturally diverse nation. 380
Filipino is based on Tagalog and other Philippine languages.
Tagalog itself is one of the four principal languages, the others
being Cebuano, Ilocano, and Maranao. 381 It is spoken mainly in
Manila, south-central and central Luzon, and Marinduque and
Mindoro islands. 382 Cebuano is spoken by various ethnic groups in the Visayas. Tribes in
northern Luzon speak Ilocano while those in Mindanao speak Maranao. Many Filipinos
speak Filipino as their second language after English or their mother tongue. 383
378
379
380
Ethnicity, Regionalism, and Language. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/35.htm
381
382
383
59
Education
Education is valued highly in the Philippines as a
means of achieving economic and social
mobility. 384 Thus, it is not surprising that the
Philippines has one of the highest literacy rates in
Asia at 92% for ages 15 and over. 385, 386 The
American colonial government laid the foundation
for an educational system that was open to
everyone. Today, public and private institutions
provide education in both Filipino and English.
Due to the use of English in schools, the
Philippines has one of the largest English-speaking populations in the world. 387
Primary and Secondary Schools
Both primary and secondary education is free in the Philippines. 388 Primary education is
compulsory, begins at age seven, and lasts for six years. Secondary education, for
students age 1316, is not compulsory. College preparatory instruction typically covers
all four years of secondary education, although students may choose vocational training
in their last one or two years. 389
In the past decade, the Philippines has made significant progress in expanding access to
primary and pre-primary education. 390 Nevertheless, less than half of three- to five-year-
olds have access to preschool, with rural children and boys among the most
disadvantaged. 391 Although the transition rate from primary to secondary education is
high at 99% (for 2007), drop out rates are significant in secondary schools. 392 Net primary
school enrollment rates for 20072008 was 85% compared to 62% in secondary schools.
384
Education. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/53.htm
385
386
Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Philippines: Introduction. 2010.
387
388
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Profile: Philippines: Society [p. 9]. March
389
Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Philippines: Education. 2010.
390
UNICEF. The Philippines: Focusing on Monitoring and Evaluating Child-Friendly Schools. 13 March
2010. http://www.unicef.org/devpro/46000_53005.html
391
UNICEF. Philippines Education: Issue. No date. http://www.unicef.org/philippines/8900.html
392
UNESCO. UIS Statistics in Brief. No date.
http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=121&IF_Language=eng&BR_Co
untry=6080&BR_Region=40515
60
The drop out rates are high among boys in particular. 393 Quality of instruction and an
insufficient number of secondary schools are other challenges the Philippines faces. 394 In
addition, natural disasters and poverty limit access to quality education. 395
College and University
Numerous private, state-run, and religious colleges and universities operate in the
Philippines. Enrollment is a significant problem, however, at approximately 30%. 396
Prominent universities include University of the Philippines, Ateneo de Manila, and
Philippine Womens University. 397 Ateneo de Manila University appeared in the 2010 top
50 Worlds Best Universities: Asian and Middle Eastern list. 398 The oldest university in
Asia is the University of Santo Tomas, located in Manila and founded some 350 years
ago.
Religion
The Philippines lays claim to being the only
Christian nation in Asia. Spanish colonial rule
starting in the 16th century converted the majority
of Filipinos to Catholicism, the faith now
practiced by 80% of the population. 399 Protestant
missionaries during American colonization made
some converts beginning in the early 20th
century. 400 Today, Protestants, Evangelicals, and
other Christian sects (including the Aglipaya and
the Iglesia ni Kristo 401) make up approximately
393
394
UNICEF. Philippines Education: Issue. No date. http://www.unicef.org/philippines/8900.html
395
396
UNESCO. UIS Statistics in Brief. No date.
http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=121&IF_Language=eng&BR_Co
untry=6080&BR_Region=40515
397
Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Philippines: Education. 2010.
398
U.S. News and World Report. Worlds Best Universities: Asian and Middle Eastern. 2010.
http://www.usnews.com/articles/education/worlds-best-universities/2010/09/21/worlds-best-universities-
asian-and-middle-eastern-.html
399
400
Protestanism. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/49.htm
401
Indigenous Christian Churches. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/48.htm
61
10% of the population. 402, 403

The Filipinos are a deeply religious people. Despite the constitutional separation of
church and state, the strength and influence of the church, and Roman Catholicism in
particular, has increased over the centuries in both the political and social arenas. 404, 405
Nevertheless, in addition to their Christian faith, many Filipinos also practice their
traditional pre-Christian animist beliefs and rituals. As part of their personalistic
religion point of view, many Filipinos worship the Virgin Mary alongside spirits and
believe in superstition. 406
Islam was introduced to the islands by Arab traders beginning in the 10th century. 407 By
the early 16th century, Islam was practiced throughout the archipelagos coastal regions.
The arrival of the Spanish opened the door to the spread of Christianity and Islam was
reduced to mainly the southern islands. Today, the Sunni Muslims of Mindanao and the
Sulu archipelago comprise some 5% of the population. 408 Their practice includes five
daily prayers at different times of the day, fasting during the month of Ramadan
(occurring at different times of the year due to the Islamic observance of the lunar
calendar), yearly donation to the poor, and at least one pilgrimage to the holy city of
Mecca in Saudi Arabia, if possible.
Followers of other organized and non-organized religions, such as Buddhism and
Taosim, make up 2.5% of the population. 409
402
403
404
405
Religion. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/45.htm
406
Religion. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/45.htm
407
Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. John S. Bowman, Ed. 2000. Philippines [p.
490]. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
408
409
62
Traditions: Celebrations and Holidays

Most of the holidays in the Philippines revolve around religion.
The main religious events in Christianity are: Holy Thursday,
Good Friday, and Easter, occurring in March or April; All
Saints Day (1 Nov.), and Christmas (25 Dec.). Easter is perhaps
the most devout and joyful expression of Filipino piety. 410 During
Holy Week (the week before Easter), Catholics take palm leaves
to church to have them blessed by priests, attend passion plays
on Holy Thursday, and go to reenactments of the death of Jesus
on Good Friday. On the morning of Easter Sunday, villagers
celebrate the encounter between Mary and Jesus in a procession
called Salubong. They carry statues of Mary and Jesus and bring
them together at one church amid singing and the sounds of
bells.
Christmas is another festive holiday among Christians.
Christmas lights and trees, nativity scenes, firecrackers, processions, and a meal of
traditional roast pig are all part of the spirit. 411 In addition to these holidays, every town
and village will hold a fiesta in honor of its patron saint. These festivals celebrate a
particular saint and community life; family members from afar often return to their
hometown for the yearly fiesta.
Among Muslims in the Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago, Ramadan, Eid al-Fitr, Eid
al-Adha, and the Shariff Kabungsuan Festival are the main holy days. Ramadan is the 30-
day holy period in which adult Muslims do not eat, drink, or smoke from dawn until
dusk. Eid al-Fitr is a celebration of the end of fasting. Eid al-Adha takes place during the
last month of the Islamic calendar. It marks the completion of the Islamic pilgrimage
(hajj) to Mecca in Saudi Arabia. The Shariff Kabungsuan Festival commemorates the
arrival of Islam in the Philippines. 412
Many of the secular holidays celebrate the history of the Philippines and its heroes:
Bataan Day (9 April), honoring those who died in the WWII Bataan Death march; Labor
Day (1 May); National Heroes Day (last Sunday of August); Independence Day (12
June), in commemoration of the 1898 declaration of independence from Spain; Bonifacio
Day (30 November), celebrating Andres Bonifacio as leader of the 1896 fight against
Spain; and Rizal Day (30 December) in honor of Jose Rizal, a national hero.
410
Philippines in Pictures. Sexton, Colleen. Chapter 4: Cultural Life [p. 46]. 2006. Minneapolis, MN:
411
Philippines in Pictures. Sexton, Colleen. Chapter 4: Cultural Life [p.46]. 2006. Minneapolis, MN:
412
63
Social Customs
Social customs not only vary between groups, but also between
urban and rural residents. Rural social customs are more
traditional. In rural areas for example, pre-marital courtship is
common, but only under the supervision of a chaperone. In big
cities such as Manila, unmarried couples may date without a
chaperone. Pre-marital cohabitation is unthinkable regardless of
locale. In both villages and cities, marriage is based on the
mutual consent of the young man and woman, not on parental
pre-arrangements. The couple will seek their parents approval,
but the choice is still the couples. While some wealthy families
steer their children toward seeking partners among the offspring
of other wealthy Filipino families, marriage with foreigners is
common.
Most Filipinos are church-going Roman Catholics who tend
toward religious conservatism. As a result, the government is reluctant to push family
planning initiatives for fear of antagonizing the Catholic Church, which opposes all
artificial forms of birth control. 413
Likewise, public displays of affection between men and women are confined to holding
hands or a brief embrace. The exception to this rule is between parents and small
children. Philippine society extols the virtues of malefemale equality and the statistics
for high school and university attendance differ little by gender.
Gender Issues
Equality for both men and women is granted by
the Philippine constitution. However, despite the
high level of civil liberties, gender imbalances are
still a part of Filipina life. 414 Some of the
imbalance is due to vague regulation and
budgetary constraints in implementing protection
afforded to women by rights. 415
In terms of employment, Filipinas have long been
part of the work force and continue to work in
413
BBC News. Country Profile: Philippines. 25 October 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-
414
Social Institutions and Gender Index. Gender Equality and Social Institutions in Philippines. No date.
http://genderindex.org/country/philippines
415
64
diverse fields. 416 Since being granted suffrage in 1937, Filipinas have become important
leaders in government, including president (Corazon Aquino in 1986 and Gloria
Macapagal-Arroy in 2001). Approximately half of the corporate executives, supervisors,
managers, and government officials in the country are women. 417
At home, however, the man of the house usually has ultimate authority. As daughters,
Filipinas generally marry young but polygamy is illegal and women are free to choose
who they want to marry. 418 Women also have equal rights to inheritance as well as access
to land and other assets. However, men are perceived as the proper owners of land and
other property. Thus, despite legislation granting equality, women still face difficulty in
achieving financial independence because they may need a male co-signer or lack proper
credit. Moreover, womeneven those who work outside the homestill bear most of the
burden for household responsibilities.
Domestic violence, rape, and prostitution are all serious problem in the Philippines. 419
Although such crimes are illegal, enforcement has been ineffective. Sex tourism, another
serious social issue, is also a source of sexual exploitation and forced labor. In addition,
sexual harassment is widespread in the workplace. Cases of violence against women are
often unreported due to embarrassment, lack of information about how to report the
incident, and a belief that it is either unimportant or nothing can be done about it. 420
416
Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Philippines: Resources and Power. 2010.
417
418
419
420
65
Cuisine
Philippine cuisine is as diverse as the many
different groups that inhabit the various regions of
the archipelago. 421 It shows traces of Malay,
Spanish, and Chinese influence in both indigenous
dishes and foods of foreign origin. 422 The staple
foods in the Filipino diet are rice and seafood, two
of the countrys major agricultural products. 423
Most dishes are made with steamed or boiled rice
or rice noodles complemented by fishand
chicken, beef, or pork (for non-Muslims) if
available. 424
Filipinos enjoy a variety of foods, ranging from regional dishes to American and local
fast food. 425 Typical dishes include the Spanish-inherited morcon (beef prepared with
pork fat inside it), pochero (beef, chicken, or pork stew with green beans and cabbage),
and paella (a rice, seafood, and meat combo). Local Chinese noodle dishes called pancit,
rice porridge, and spring rolls are also popular. 426 During festivals, holidays, or large get-
togethers, families will prepare lechon (whole roasted pig), cooked over coals for several
hours. During meals, food is usually brought to the table and eaten at one time in buffet
style. 427
Coconut and sugar, another set of abundant crops, make up the ingredients of many
dishes. 428 Coconut milk, for example, is used for cooking meat, fish, or vegetables and as
sweeteners in candies and fruit salad. It is also used in the distilled lambanog alcoholic
beverage and in coconut wine called tuba. Some ingredients allow cooked foods to last
several meals in the absence of refrigeration. Specifically, adobo (chicken or pork stew
prepared in vinegar, soy sauce, and garlic) or sinigang-style foods (fish soup boiled with
421
Food in Every Country. Philippines. 2010. http://www.foodbycountry.com/Kazakhstan-to-South-
Africa/Philippines.html
422
Food [p. 118]. 2002. Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corporation.
423
Food in Every Country. Food in the Philippines. 2010. http://www.foodbycountry.com/Kazakhstan-
to-South-Africa/Philippines.html
424
Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Philippines: Cultural Life. 2010.
425
426
427
Food in Every Country. Philippines. 2010. http://www.foodbycountry.com/Kazakhstan-to-South-
Africa/Philippines.html
428
66
vegetables or tamarind, a sour fruit) are a means to preserve leftovers in a tropical

climate. 429, 430
For dessert, Filipinos enjoy cakes, pudding, flan, and fruits, among others. 431 Most fruits
grown in the Philippines are tropical, including banana, papaya, pineapple, watermelon,
and guava. Halo-halo (mix-mix) is a favorite cool and creamy summer drink made
with fruit, shaved ice, and other sweet flavorings.
Traditional Dress
The different groups in the Philippines wear a great variety of
indigenous-style clothing. For the most part, however, Filipino
men and women wear casual western attire such as jeans and T-
shirts. The quintessential male formal attire is the pocketless
barong tagalog shirt. 432 This elegantly stitched garment evolved
from those worn by Tagalog men before the arrival of the
Spanish. Contact with Europeans extended the laced part of the
shirt. During the American colonial era, men quickly donned
suits although the barong tagalog made a comeback after
independence. For public functions, women who opt for a
traditional style are usually attired in the terno, a long dress
identifiable by its butterfly sleeves that came to be associated
with former First Lady Imelda Marcos. 433
429
Lonely Planet: The Philippines, 9th Ed. Chris Rowthorn et al. Chapter 6: Food and Drink [p. 45]. 2006.
Melbourne, AU: Lonely Planet Publications.
430
Asia Recipe. Alejandro, Reynaldo. The Basics of Philippine Cooking. No date.
http://asiarecipe.com/phifood1.html
431
432
Northern Illinois University, Center for Southeast Asian Studies. Barong Tagalog. No date.
http://www.seasite.niu.edu/tagalog/Cynthia/costumes/barong_tagalog.htm
433
Solidarity Philippines Australia Network. Kasama, Vol. 19, No. 1. Roces, Mina. Women, Citizenship
and the Politics of Dress in Twentieth-Century Philippines. JanuaryFebruaryMarch 2005.
http://cpcabrisbane.org/Kasama/2005/V19n1/PoliticsOfDress.htm
67
The Arts
Literature
Philippine literature has its roots in traditional folktales, songs,
and poems. They were passed down orally through succeeding
generations and still are in some parts of the country. 434 During
pre-colonial times (prior to the 16th century), Filipinos used
Baybayin, which is similar to, Sanskrit, to write their oral
literature. 435 Most oral literature, however, was transcribed into
the Roman alphabet after Spanish colonization. Running themes
in these early forms of literature were nature, life events, and
history. One epic known in the northern Luzon region is Biag ni
Lam-ang (Life of Lam-ang), depicting the adventures of a folk
hero. 436
The pre-colonial songs, lullabies, folk narratives, epic stories,
and the connected rituals under Spanish colonialism gave way to
religious prose and poetry. Filipino pasyon(the verse narrative of
the sufferings of Jesus according to the Christian tradition) dates back to the early 18th
century, but the 19th century brought dramatic changes. Filipino intellectuals who
travelled to Europe for educationthe ilustradosbrought back the seeds of the uprising
against the Spanish colonialists. Rizals novels contributed greatly to the Philippine
nationalist movement. The American era brought the English language and free verse to
the Philippines through the words of Jose Garcia Villa. Contemporary Philippine
literature features poetry, short stories, novels, and essays, all of which flourish and are
supported by a host of literary awards. 437
434
435
National Commission for Culture and Arts. Quindoza-Santiago, Lilia. Early Philippine Literature.
2008. http://www.ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/articles-on-c-n-a/article.php?igm=1&i=132
436
437
Northern Illinois University, Center for Southeast Asian Studies. Godinez-Ortega, Christine. The
Literary Forms in Philippine Literature. No date.
http://www.seasite.niu.edu/Tagalog/Literature/literary_forms_in_philippine_lit.htm
68
Music and Dance

The Philippines has a heritage of music and dance, which play a
significant part in daily life. Both western and traditional styles
are popular. A new genre of Filipino music emerging from the
1950s called pinoy (or OPM, Original Pinoy Music) is a mix of
the two. Although pinoy was initially just western songs
translated into regional Philippine languages, Filipino composers
eventually created their own songs and sound. Later, pinoy was
mixed with other genres such as punk rock or reggae. 438
Traditional music varies by region. Filipino musical instruments
include bamboo flutes, gongs, drums, violin, bamboo zither, and
lutes. 439 Music is often part of rights of passage (marriage, etc.)
and seasonal celebrations. 440 The kulintang ensembles of the
southern islands feature single-headed drum and a set of
gongs. 441 It is part of Muslim cultural heritage, traditionally
played by female musicians at wedding celebrations and fiestas. 442
Ethnic dance in the Philippines draws mainly on nature as part of its theme. The national
folk dance is tinikling. It features dancers who dance and hop between bamboo poles as a
tikling (heron) might. The Moro version of this dance is called singkil. Dancers jump
between two sets of two crisscrossed poles, each of which are struck together at fast
speeds.
Sports and Recreation

The sports and recreational that Filipinos enjoy varies by region, from mountain climbing
to boxing and bowling. 443 Basketball is a national obsession while chess and golf are two
other popular pastimes. 444 Other hobbies Filipinos engage in include sipa, eskrima, and
cockfighting.
438
Philippines in Pictures. Sexton, Colleen. Chapter 4: Cultural Life [p.49]. 2006. Minneapolis, MN:
439
440
441
442
Citizen and Immigration Canada. Philippines: Arts and Literature. No date. http://www.cp-
pc.ca/english/philippines/index.html
443
Leisure [p. 99]. 2002. Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corporation.
444
69
Sipa
Although it goes by different names, sipa, played
throughout Southeast Asia, is a cross between
soccer and volleyball and a fiesta favorite in the
Philippines. Instead of a ball, a shuttle made of
various materials is used in play. 445 Players cannot
touch the shuttle with their hands; instead they hit
it with their feet, legs, head, shoulders or
elbows. 446 The goal is to keep it from landing on
the ground as it is volleyed back and forth across
a net. 447
Eskrima
Eskrima, along with kali and arnis, is a form of martial arts practiced in the Philippines.
The sport, whose name is adapted from the Spanish word for fencing, draws on fighting
styles influenced by Indonesian and Chinese martial arts. 448 In contrast to other forms of
martial arts, each strike can be used in three different ways: as a hand gesture, with a
wooden dagger, or a rattan baton. 449
Cockfighting
Cockfighting (sabong) has been described as a national pastime in the Philippines. Tens
of thousands of legal and unregistered cockpits are scattered throughout the islands. The
matches, usually on Sundays and holidays, are particularly bloody because razor-sharp
spurs are tied to the roosters legs as they battle until one dies. 450 Male spectators bet
through intricate hand signals from the pentagon-shaped arena. 451 Birds bred for their
kamikaze-like courage and formidable wingspan are imported from the United States
445
Tagalog Lang. SIPA, Filipino National Sport. No date. http://tagaloglang.com/Filipino-
Culture/Filipino-Games/sipa-filipino-national-sport.html
446
Shuttlecock Federation of Europe. History of Shuttlecock Sport. 2004. http://www.shuttlecock-
europe.org/sport_history.php
447
Website of the Chinese Olympic Committee. Sepak Takraw. 5 November 2008.
http://en.olympic.cn/sports/events/2008-11-05/1666502.html
448
Complete Martial Arts. History of Eskrima. 2010.
http://www.completemartialarts.com/information/styles/filipino/eskrimahistory.htm
449
New York Times. Physical Culture; Kali, Arnis and Eskrima: A Filipino Solution. 16 April 2009.
http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B06E6DD103BF935A25757C0A96F9C8B63
450
451
Leisure [p. 99]. 2002. Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corporation.
70
to fight. 452 Gamblers can win or lose thousands of pesos on each bet during a single days
event. 453
452
Straits Times. Cockfighting is King of Sports in Philippines. 15 March 1994.
http://webhome.idirect.com/~boweevil/kingsports.html
453
The Philippines: Enchantment of the World. Olesky, Walter. Chapter 9: A Cultural Mix [p. 111]. 2000.
New York, NY: Childrens Press.
71
Society Assessment
1. The majority of Filipinos are Muslim.

False
Spanish colonial rule converted the majority of Filipinos to Catholicism, the faith
now practiced by 80% of the population. Muslims, based predominantly in
Mindanao and the Sulu archipelago, comprise roughly 5% of the population.
2. Most marriages in the Philippines are arranged by the parents.
False
In both villages and cities, marriage is based on the mutual consent of the young
man and woman, not on parental pre-arrangement.
3. Outside the home, women compete equally with men at work; however, within
the home, men are still considered the heads of the families.
True
Filipinas have long been part of the work force. Nevertheless, in family matters,
the man of the house usually has the last word.
4. The Philippines has one of the largest English-speaking populations in the world.
True
The American legacy is reflected in the fact that the archipelago nation has one of
the largest English speaking populations in the world.
5. The Philippines has high primary and secondary enrollment rates but not
everyone can benefit from the educational system.
True
Enrollment in the educational system is free and open to everyone but access to a
quality education is limited, particularly for rural children and boys due to natural
disasters and poverty can limit access to quality education.
72
Chapter 5 Security
Introduction
The Republic of the Philippines, a former Spanish and American
colony, became independent in 1946. Since then, the archipelago
has been plagued by political instability, economic
mismanagement, and pervasive corruption. The rule of law is
generally weak due to a weak law enforcement agency and
judiciary. 454, 455
In addition, the mostly Catholic nation has battled Muslim (or
Moro, what the Spanish called the Philippine Muslims)
separatists in the form of the Moro National Liberation Front
(MNLF), the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), and the
Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) as well as the communist partys
armed wing, the New Peoples Army (NPA). The communists
and Islamic insurgencies have resulted in nearly 160,000 deaths
and the displacement of over 2 million Filipinos. 456 Much of the
violence over the decades is rooted in poverty due to a history of government
underinvestment. 457 Poverty has worsened in conflict areas and invited Muslim
extremists, including Indonesia-based Jemaah Islamiyah (JI). 458 Other internal threats in
the country are armed private militias and human trafficking. 459
The United States has historically been the Philippines most important strategic ally, and
recently the two nations have cooperated in joint counterterrorism efforts. A 60-member
International Monitoring Team (IMT) oversees the peace process on the southern island
of Mindanao between the government of the Philippines and the MILF. Malaysia makes
up the majority of the team, along with contingents from Japan, Brunei, and Libya. 460,461
454
Freedom House. Country Report: Philippines (2010). 2010.
http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2010&country=7899
455
Human Rights Watch. Philippines: Events of 2009. 2010. http://www.hrw.org/en/node/87400
456
Reuters AlertNet. Philippines-Mindanao Conflict: At a Glance. 16 November 2010.
http://www.trust.org/alertnet/crisis-centre/crisis/philippines-mindanao-conflict?v=timeline
457
458
Council on Foreign Relations. Jemaah Islamiyah (a.k.a Jemaah Islamiah.) 19 June 2009.
http://www.cfr.org/publication/8948/jemaah_islamiyah_aka_jemaah_islamiah.html
459
Bureau of Democracy Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State. 2009 Human Rights
Report: Philippines. 11 March 2010. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2009/eap/136006.htm
460
The Manila Times. Llanesca T. Panti, Philippines, MILF Peace Pact on Fast Track. 10 December
2009. http://www.manilatimes.net/index.php/news/nation/7529-philippines-milf-peace-pact-on-fast-track
461
Voice of America. Philippine Muslim Rebels Warn Cease-Fire Could Falter if Malaysian Peacekeepers
Leave. 28 April 2008. http://www.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2008-04-28-voa25.html
73
U.S.Philippine Relations
American and Philippine relations highlight a
shared history based on U.S. colonization of the
archipelago from 18891946. Today, the two
countries continue to be linked by their security
alliance, democratic principles, economic ties, and
more recently, counterterrorism cooperation. 462, 463
From Independence to 9/11
Formal U.S.-Philippine military relations are built
on two agreements: the 1947 Military Bases
Agreement and the 1951 Mutual Defense Treaty. The Military Bases Agreement (MBA)
allowed the U.S. to retain 23 military facilities in the Philippines. 464 However, the
agreement was steeped in controversy from the beginning due to differences of opinion
on military and economic issues. 465 Filipinos felt the agreement infringed upon their
sovereignty, unfairly protected U.S. military personnel from Philippine law, and did not
adequately compensate the Philippines. 466 Consequent amendments to the agreements in
1979, 1983, and 1988 failed to appease the opposition. 467 In December 1991, the
Philippine government asked the United States to withdraw its forces within one year. 468
The MBA was, thus, abolished. 469 Subic Bay Naval Base was one of the last bases, and
closed in November 1992. 470 In all, approximately 40,000 people withdrew from the
bases, turning over more than USD 1.3 billion in assets to the Philippines.471,472
462
November 2010. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2794.htm#relations
463
Congressional Research Service. Lum, Thomas and Larry A. Niksch. The Republic of the Philippines:
Background and U.S. Relations [p. 1]. 15 January 2009. http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33233.pdf
464
Security Agreements. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/24.htm
465
Relations with the United States. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/92.htm
466
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Philippines A Country Study. June 1991.
http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-10526.html
467
Relations with the United States. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/92.htm
468
469
Army War College, USAWC Strategy Project. Felix, Victor. Philippine-US Security Relations:
Challenges and Opportunities after 9/11. March 2005.
http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/ksil18.pdf
470
New York Times. Sanger, David. Philippines Orders U.S. to Leave Strategic Navy Base at Subic Bay.
28 December 1991. http://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/28/world/philippines-orders-us-to-leave-strategic-
navy-base-at-subic-bay.html?pagewanted=2&src=pm
471
74
The 1951 Mutual Defense Treaty (MDT) strengthened the security relationship between
the U.S. and the Philippines. It decreed that "an armed attack in the Pacific Area on either
of the Parties would be dangerous to its own peace and safety." 473 While the treaty
guarantees U.S. defense of the Philippines against external aggressors, the treaty does not
extend to internal threats nor to territories in dispute (such as the Spratly Islands). 474, 475
The military cooperation established under the MDT also served as the basis for annual
joint military exercises. In June 1999, the Visiting Forces Agreement went into effect,
allowing U.S. ships to visit the Philippines and conduct combined military exercises. 476
The Post-9/11 Security Alliance
Philippine-U.S. security and economic ties were strengthened
after al-Qaedas September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade
Center in New York and the Pentagon in Virginia. In October
2003, the U.S. designated the Philippines a major non-North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) ally because the
Philippines ratified all 12 United Nations counterterrorism
conventions that month. 477 In addition, the U.S. increased
military aid to the Philippines from USD 76 million in 2001 to
USD 114 million in 2003. 478 Since then, the U.S. has continued
to provide the Philippines the largest increase in foreign
assistance in Sotheast Asia. 479
The purpose of U.S. assistance in the Philippines is to help the
Philippine army combat terrorism, support peace and security in
Mindanao, foster good governance, promote education and
472
New York Times. Sanger, David. Philippines Orders U.S. to Leave Strategic Navy Base at Subic Bay.
28 December 1991. http://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/28/world/philippines-orders-us-to-leave-strategic-
navy-base-at-subic-bay.html?pagewanted=2&src=pm
473
474
475
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Profile: Philippines: Philippines: Government
and Politics [p. 24]. March 2006. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Philippines.pdf
476
477
478
479
75
health programs, promote law enforcement cooperation, and advance competition in the
private sector. 480, 481 In 2010, the U.S. gave the Philippines USD 144 million in grants. 482
Much of the economic assistance was allocated for promoting economic growth, peace
and security in the southern island of Mindanao. 483 Since 2002, as many as 600 U.S.
troops have been stationed in the southern Philippines to provide training and intelligence
to the Philippine military. 484 Most of the troops are counterinsurgency specialists who
train elite Filipino forces to fight militant and separatist groups. 485 U.S. troops are not
allowed to participate in offensive operations. 486 The International Military Education and
Training program in the Philippines is now the worlds third largest program. Annual
joint military exercises also facilitate Philippine counterterrorism efforts and
development projects, particularly in the southern Philippines.487
Neighbor State Relations

The Philippines cooperates with neighboring countries, such as Indonesia and Malaysia,
to combat common regional threats. 488 The archipelago nation is also linked to
neighboring states through membership in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN), the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), of which the U.S. is also a member, and
the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum. The purpose of these
organizations is to support and promote regional peace and stability, economic growth
and prosperity, and regional dialogue and diplomacy. 489, 490, 491
480
481
482
483
484
BBC News. Clinton Vows Philippines Support. 12 November 2009.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8356092.stm
485
The Economist. American Forces in the Philippines: Front-Line Vets. 28 January 2010.
http://www.economist.com/node/15393857?story_id=15393857
486
Reuters. Philippines Rejects Calls to End U.S. Military Pact. 27 August 2009.
http://in.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-42015820090827
487
488
489
Association of South Asian Nations. Overview. 2009. http://www.aseansec.org/64.htm
490
ASEAN Regional Forum. About Us. 2005.
http://www.aseanregionalforum.org/AboutUs/tabid/57/Default.aspx
491
Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation. About APEC. 2011. http://www.apec.org/en/About-Us/About-
APEC/Mission-Statement.aspx
76
The key issue between the Philippines and China, Malaysia, Taiwan, Vietnam, and
Brunei concerns the Spratly Islands, also known as the Kalayaan (Freedom) Islands, in
the South China Sea. 492, 493 Many of these 200-plus islands are little more than submerged
islets, rocks, and reefs that pose a hazard in one of the worlds busiest locations for
seafaring traffic. 494 Yet, they have strategic importance due to suspected oil and gas
deposits beneath them. This is a winner-take-all dispute. International maritime law
confers exclusive ownership to all resources within a 200-nautical-mile radius of a given
point to the country whose claims of sovereignty are internationally recognized,
regardless of whether the area is a rock formation or suitable for human habitation. 495
Control would be especially beneficial to the Philippines since it is wholly dependent on
imported oil.
Manila has periodically tried to extract a commitment from Washington to defend the
Philippines claim to the Kalayaans as part of the bilateral Mutual Defense Treaty. 496 Yet,
the U.S. has steadfastly refused. 497, 498
In 2002, the Philippines, ASEAN members, and China signed a non-binding Declaration
on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea to ease tensions in the region. 499 The
agreement, which urges involved parties to exercise restraint and avoid provocative
activities such as war games, is not yet a formal code of conduct. 500 Meanwhile, most of
the countries are promoting and developing tourism on some of the islands.
492
Global Security. Spratly Islands. 2 May 2010.
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/spratly.htm
493
Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. Philippines: Geography. 22 December 2010.
494
Reuters. Factbox: South China Seas Disputed Maritime Borders. 27 July 2010.
http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE66Q2HB20100727
495
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Ronald E. Dolan, Ed. Philippines A Country Study.
Relations with Asian Neighbors. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/93.htm
496
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Philippines A Country Study. Relations with Asian
Neighbors. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/93.htm
497
http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE66Q2HB20100727?pageNumber=2
498
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Philippines A Country Study. Relations with Asian
Neighbors. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/93.htm
499
500
77
China
The dispute over the Spratly Islands dominated relations between mainland China and the
Philippines for several decades. China claims all of the islands and has used both a charm
offensive and direct military involvement to solidify its claims. 501, 502 Since the mid 1990s,
both China and the Philippines have stationed troops on military outposts built on several
islands. 503 The Philippines viewed Chinas decision to station troops on the islands as an
indicator of their regional ambitions. 504 The 2002 Declaration on the Conduct of Parties
in the South China Sea and 2005 joint accord on conducting seismic studies in the area
eased some of the tensions. More recently, bilateral relations have improved, driven by
Chinese investment in the Philippines, particularly in energy, mining, agriculture, and
infrastructure. 505 China has become one of the leading trade partners in the Philippines,
ranking slightly lower than the U.S. 506 Investment, economic aid, and military assistance
have allayed some Filipino fears of Chinas growing military and economic might. 507, 508
In addition, Manila has accepted the One China policy, which prohibits any
government recognizing the PRC from engaging in diplomatic activity with Taiwan. 509
China remains concerned about the archipelago nations close economic and military ties
to the United States, and about U.S. interference in the Spratly Islands dispute over the
issue of free shipping lanes. 510,511, 512 China claims that the dispute must be resolved
without outside parties. 513, 514
501
502
Council on Foreign Affairs. Kurlantzick, Joshua. Avoiding a Tempest in the South China Sea. 2
September 2010. http://www.cfr.org/publication/22858/avoiding_a_tempest_in_the_south_china_sea.html
503
BBC News. World: Asia-Pacific Tension Rises Over Spratly Islands. 13 February 1999.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/278359.stm
504
The Jamestown Foundation, China Brief. Storey, Ian. China and the Philippines: Moving Beyond the
South China Sea Dispute. 16 August 2006.
http://www.jamestown.org/programs/chinabrief/single/?tx_ttnews[tt_news]=3972&tx_ttnews[backPid]=19
6&no_cache=1
505
506
Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. Philippines: Economy. 22 December 2010.
507
508
509
Peoples Daily Online. No Taiwan Official Allowed to Visit Philippines: Foreign Minister. 9
September 2005. http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200509/09/eng20050909_207459.html
510
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Profile: Philippines: Government and Politics
[p. 22]. March 2006. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Philippines.pdf
511
New York Times. Lander, Mark. Offering to Aid Talks, U.S. Challenges China on Disputed Islands.
23 July 2010. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/24/world/asia/24diplo.html
78
Japan
Economic ties and security dominate PhilippineJapanese
relations. Although Japanese wartime occupation of the
Philippines left bitter memories of cruelty and hardship in the
WWII generation that fought with the United States against
Japan, negativity toward Japan in the post-war generation is non-
existent. 515 The Treaty of Peace with Japan and the
Reparations Agreement Between Japan and the Republic of the
Philippines, signed in July 1956, cemented diplomatic relations
between the two nations. 516
Japan has since become a major investor and trading partner in
the Philippines. 517 In late 2010, Japanese companies pledged to
invest USD 2.85 billion in the Philippines, mostly for the
expansion of power capacity and manufacturing operations. 518 In
2009, Japan was the Philippines leading import partner and
second leading export partner after the U.S. 519
Japan is also part of the International Monitoring Team for the Mindanao peace process
between the Government of the Philippines and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front. 520
512
The Economist. Asian Security Cooperation: Lost Horizon. 10 June 2010.
http://www.economist.com/node/16321702
513
The Seattle Times. Gomez, Jim. US: China, ASEAN Should Strengthen Spratlys Pact. 3 October
2010.
http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2013067506_apasphilippinesusdisputedislands.html?sy
ndication=rss
514
Manila Bulletin Publishing Corporation. Mabasa, Roy C. China Envoy to PH Airs Views on Spratlys.
23 December 2010. http://www.mb.com.ph/articles/294519/china-envoy-ph-airs-view-spratlys
515
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Ronald E. Dolan, Ed. Philippines A Country Study.
Relations with Asian Neighbors. 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/93.htm
516
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Japan-Philippines Relations. April 2010.
http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/philippine/index.html
517
518
Reuters. Philippines Says Japan Firms to Invest $2.85 Bln. 15 November 2010.
http://in.reuters.com/article/idINSGE6AE0PT20101115?loomia_ow=t0:s0:a54:g12:r3:c0.305037:b4014355
6:z3
519
Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. Philippines: Economy. 22 December 2010.
520
Relief Web. Philippines: Malaysian International Monitoring Team Arriving in Cotabato City Sunday.
25 February 2010. http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900sid/MYAI-82Z7PX?OpenDocument
79
Japanese development experts on the team are involved in assessing, monitoring, and
planning reconstruction and development projects in former conflict-stricken areas. 521
Malaysia
PhilippineMalaysia relations are mostly tied to security and claims to the Malaysian
State of Sabah. Malaysia has facilitated ongoing negotiations between the Republic of the
Philippines and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front since 2001. 522 In addition, the
Malaysian-led International Monitoring Team has monitored the 2001 cease-fire as well
as the development, humanitarian, and rehabilitation aspects of the peace process since
2004. 523, 524 Their presence has decreased violence in areas affected by conflict. 525
Indonesia
PhilippineIndonesian relations have improved since establishing diplomatic relations in
1947. 526 In the early 1960s, both the Philippines and Indonesia opposed the formation of
Malaysia. 527, 528 Yet, bilateral relations between Jakarta and Manila were not close
throughout the Cold War period. 529 Indonesia played a prominent role in the Non-Aligned
Movement (a developing nations movement to be neutral in the Cold War), while the
Philippines maintained a close relationship with the United States. 530 Relations with
Indonesia improved after Indonesian President Suharto was removed from office in 1998.
521
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Resumption of Dispatch of Development Experts to the
International Monitoring Team in the Philippines. 26 February 2010.
http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/announce/2010/2/0226_01.html
522
Reuters. Malaysia-Led Peace Monitors Start Work in Philippines. 1 March 2010.
http://af.reuters.com/article/libyaNews/idAFSGE62004520100301
523
Relief Web. Philippines: Malaysian International Monitoring Team Arriving in Cotabato City Sunday.
25 February 2010. http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900sid/MYAI-82Z7PX?OpenDocument
524
VOA News. Philippine Muslim Rebels Warn Cease-Fire Could Falter if Malaysian Peacekeepers
Leave. 28 April 2008. http://www.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2008-04-28-voa25.html
525
Relief Web. Pullout of Malaysian Peacekepers Spells Trouble for Philippines. 22 April 2008.
http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/MUMA-7DXA6D?OpenDocument
526
Philippine Information Agency. RP, Indonesia Ties Mark 60th Year. 11 November 2009.
http://www.pia.gov.ph/?m=12&r=&y=&mo=&fi=p091111.htm&no=07
527
Middle Power Statecraft: Indonesia, Malaysia and the Asia-Pacific. International Statecraft [p. 194].
Ping, Jonathan. 2005. London: Ashgate Publishing.
528
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. William H. Frederick and Robert L. Worden, Eds.
Indonesia: A Country Study. ASEAN. 1993. http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/98.htm
529
Indonesia: A Country Study. The Philippines. 1993. http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/103.htm
530
Indonesia: A Country Study. Foreign Policy Under Suharto. 1993.
http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/26.htm
80
A military dictator, his removal resembled the ouster of President Marcos in the
Philippines in 1986.531
More recently, bilateral relations have grown stronger and are dominated by the war on
terror. 532 Indonesia and the Philippines work together in counterterrorism measures
against the Indonesia-based Islamist terrorist group Jemaah Islamiyah, or Islamiah, which
also operates in the Philippines. 533, 534 Jemaah Islamiyah is responsible for numerous
attacks against hotels and tourist destinations in Bali and Jakarta. 535 Filipino and
Indonesian leaders continue to meet as part of the Joint Area Intelligence Meeting
(JAIM) to combat regional threats and terrorism. 536 Indonesia, as a regional interfaith
dialogue partner, also participates in the peace process with Mindanaos Moro Islamic
Liberation Front. 537
Internal Threats
The Philippines faces a number of internal threats,
which can be split into two major groups: Islamic
and communist. Islamic groups operating in the
country include the Moro National Liberation
Front (MNLF), the Moro Islamic Liberation Front
(MILF), an Islamic separatist group not
considered a terrorist organization, and Abu
Sayyaf, Jemaah Islamiyah. The communist New
Peoples Army is another of the countrys long-
running insurgencies. 538, 539 Most of these
531
532
New York Times. Schmitt, Eric. Experts See Gains Against Asian Terror Networks. 9 June 2008.
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/09/world/asia/09terror.html?_r=1&scp=1&sq=indonesia%20philippines
%20terror&st=cse&oref=slogin
533
534
Council on Foreign Relations. Backgrounder: Terrorism Havens: Philippines. 1 June 2009.
http://www.cfr.org/publication/9365/terrorism_havens.html
535
National Counterterrorism Center. Jemaah Islamiyah (JI). No date.
http://www.nctc.gov/site/groups/ji.html
536
The Gulf Today. Jara, Manolo B. Philippines, Indonesia Discuss Terrorism. 9 November 2010.
http://gulftoday.ae/portal/1d79844f-0154-4ab3-89c9-621d45b2ebaf.aspx
537
Asia News Network. Philippines, Indonesia, Pakistan to Work vs. Terrorism. 19 March 2010.
http://www.asianewsnet.net/home/news.php?id=10827
538
Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, U.S. Department of State. Country Reports on
Terrorism 2009. Chapter 2: Country Reports: East Asia and Pacific Overview. 5 August 2010.
http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2009/140884.htm
539
Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, U.S. Department of State. Individuals and Entities
Designated by the State Department under E.0. 13224. 7 December 2010.
http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/other/des/143210.htm
81
organizations operate in southern Philippines, which the United States considers a

terrorist safe haven. 540, 541 Safe haven areas include the Sulu/Sulawesi Seas littoral, the
Sulu Archipelago, and the island of Mindanao. Abu Sayyaf and al Qaeda-linked Jemaah
Islamiyah have sought safe havens in the Sulu/Sulawesi Seas coastal region, which
includes the maritime boundaries of the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia. 542
Terrorists use these areas to organize, raise funds, train, and avoid capture. Government
control and the rule of law are weak there, the terrain is rugged, and monitoring is a
challenge across thousands of islands that also host legitimate activities like tourism and
trade. 543, 544 Terrorists exploit root causes, namely the local Muslim minoritys wrath and
resentment against government policies and widespread poverty, to promote their
ideology. 545, 546
Both Abu Sayyaf and MILF have received financial assistance from al Qaeda in the past,
and both were involved in the SovietAfghan war after the Russians invaded Afghanistan
540
According to the State Department: Terrorist safe havens are defined in this report as ungoverned,
under-governed, or ill-governed areas of a country and non-physical areas where terrorists that constitute a
threat to U.S. national security interests are able to organize, plan, raise funds, communicate, recruit, train,
and operate in relative security because of inadequate governance capacity, political will, or both. Physical
safe havens provide security for terrorist leaders, allowing them to plan acts of terrorism around the world.
Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, U.S. Department of State. Chapter 5: Terrorist Safe
Havens and Tactics and Tools for Disrupting or Eliminating Safe Havens. 5 August 2010.
541
542
Terrorism 2009. Chapter 5: Terrorist Safe Havens and Tactics and Tools for Disrupting or Eliminating
Safe Havens. 5 August 2010. http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2009/140891.htm
543
Terrorism. Chapter 5 5.1: Terrorist Safe Havens and Tactics and Tools for Disrupting or Eliminating
Safe Havens. 30 April 2008. http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2007/104103.htm
544
545
546
82
in 1979. 547 Some reports suggest MILF links to Abu Sayyaf and Jemaah Islamiyah; MILF
denies such links. 548, 549
Although there have sometimes been differences in strategy between civilian and
military authorities, the Philippine government has made some progress in tackling the
countrys internal threats. 550 Pairing development with security operations has led
Philippine forces to better success in isolating and killing insurgents. 551, 552 Philippine
President Benigno Aquino recognizes that peace and security is needed to foster
economic growth and investment, particularly in resource-rich Mindanao. 553 His
government has expressed interest in reviving stalled negotiations both with the MILF
and with communist rebels. 554, 555
547
Reuters. Tarrant, Bill. Q + A: Southeast Asia Insurgency Links Weakened Over Years. 25 September
2009. http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE58N24X20090925?pageNumber=2
548
Background and U.S. Relations [p. 1314]. 15 January 2009.
http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33233.pdf
549
Institute of Peace and Conflict. Terrorism in Philippines: Combine Hard and Soft Options. 19 August
2010. http://www.ipcs.org/article/terrorism/terrorism-in-philippines-combine-hard-and-soft-options-
3221.html
550
551
552
553
Reuters. Mogato, Manny. Factbox: Key Political Risks to Watch in the Philippines. 2 August 2010.
http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSRISKPH20100802?pageNumber=2
554
New York Times. Conde, Carlos H. Negotiator Chosen to Meet Philippine Separatists. 15 July 2010.
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/16/world/asia/16phils.html
555
BBC News. McGeown, Kate. Negotiating Peace with the Philippine MILF. 6 December 2010.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-11925641
83
Islamic Separatist Groups

The Philippines has a long history of Islamic separatism, going
back to the Spanish colonial period. Moros, descendents of
Muslim settlers who arrived between the 10th and 13th centuries,
are independent and proud of their cultural heritage. 556, 557 They
resisted Spanish colonization alongside the general population as
the Spanish destroyed traditional land-use practices and
territorial boundaries. 558 The Spanish created a new cultural
community in the lowlands from which the Muslims and the
upland tribes felt alienated. 559
After the United States won the SpanishAmerican War in 1898,
the Moros fought against American colonialism alongside other
rebel groups until 1913. 560 After independence, the Catholic
majority dominated politics and the economy, and threatened the
Muslim way of life. Manila encouraged the large-scale migration
of Christians from densely populated areas to sparsely inhabited, predominantly Muslim
Mindanao, which was viewed as an agricultural frontier. 561 Christian settlers received
official assistance, while Muslim farmers had to make do with far fewer government
services. Moreover, the Muslims found themselves outnumbered in their ancestral land. 562
Calling their homeland the Moro Nation (Bangsa Moro), Mindanao Muslims viewed
themselves as under foreign occupation. Their primary allegiance was to Islam and not to
the newly sovereign Philippine nation-state. 563 By 1969, clashes between Muslims and the
Philippine military were a common occurrence in various parts of the historically Islamic
south. Armed conflict increased dramatically the year after declaration of martial law and
the rise of private militias. Soon after martial law, open rebellions arose and the Moro
556
Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. John S Bowman, Ed. 2000. Philippines [p.
490]. NY: Columbia University Press.
557
558
559
560
561
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Roland E. Philippines: A Country Study. Dolan,
Roland E., Ed. Marcos and the Road to Martial Law, 19651972. 1991.
562
Asia Society, Asia Source. Q & A With Thomas McKenna. March 2002. http://asiasociety.org/policy-
politics
563
Council on Foreign Relations. Pan, Esther. New Focus On U.S.-Southeast Asia Military Ties. 2
February 2006. http://www.cfr.org/publication/9742/new_focus_on_ussoutheast_asia_military_ties.html
84
National Liberation Front consolidated control under the leadership of Nur Misuari. 564 It
gained international backing from Muammar Kaddafi in Libya, who supplied arms
through Malaysia. 565
The 1976 cease-fire, known as the Tripoli Agreement, laid plans
for an autonomous Muslim zone in the south. But disputes over
implementation led to a resumption of the civil war within six
months. The Marcos government in Manila viewed assimilation
as the ultimate goal, rather than ethnic regionalism. 566
The MNLF negotiated a settlement with the government in 1996,
ending the 24-year civil war that claimed an estimated 120,000
lives. 567 The peace treaty provided limited autonomy to four
provinces in Mindanao under the Autonomous Region of
Muslim Mindanao (ARMM). The provinces include mainland
Maguindanao and Lanao del Sur provinces, and Sulu, Tawi-
Tawi, and Basilan island provinces. 568 Since the area is only
semi-autonomous and the peace negotiations did not address all
Moro concerns, low levels of violence continue to occur. 569 Since
the settlement, the MNLF has weakened and largely demobilized, but some members
splintered off to form the Moro Islamic Liberation Front and Abu Sayyaf. 570, 571
564
Global Security. Moro National Liberation Front. 27 April 2005.
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/mnlf.htm
565
Global Security. Moro National Liberation Front. 27 April 2005.
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/mnlf.htm
566
Cultural Survival Quarterly. Kiefer, Thomas. The Tausug and Martial Law. 31 December 1984.
http://www.culturalsurvival.org/ourpublications/csq/article/martial-law-and-tausug
567
568
BBC News. Guide to the Philippine Conflict. 18 December 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-
pacific/7887521.stm
569
pacific/7887521.stm
570
Council on Foreign Relations. Boot, Max and Jeane J. Kirkpatrick. Treading Softly in the Philippines.
No date. http://www.cfr.org/publication/18079/treading_softly_in_the_philippines.html
571
pacific/7887521.stm
85
A faction of the MNLF formed the more religious and militant

Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) in 1980. 572 Although at
first they fought for independence, now they may settle for
autonomy and protection of their ancestral domain and cultural
identity. 573, 574 The MILF formally renounced terrorism in June
2003. 575 In August 2008, after 11 years of negotiation, the
government and the MILF almost agreed on a roadmap for a
final peace treaty, but the deal broke down when local Christians
petitioned the Supreme Court to block the agreement. 576, 577
Fighting resumed and hundreds of thousands were forced to flee
their homes. 578, 579 Formal peace talks that began in December
2009 after a cease-fire in July, are ongoing. 580, 581 An International
Monitoring Team observes the ceasefire agreement to maintain
peace. 582
Prospects for peace were complicated by the emergence of another MNLF breakaway
group, Abu Sayyaf (Bearer of the Sword), in 1991. 583 Founded by Abdurajik Abubakar
Janjalani, who fought in Afghanistan alongside the mujahideen against Russian
occupation, ASGs membership includes former MNLF members who were unhappy
572
573
pacific/7887521.stm
574
575
November 2010. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2794.htm
576
pacific/7887521.stm
577
New York Times. Conde, Carlos H. Pursuit of Accord with Separatists Poses Risks for Philippine
President. 24 August 2008. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/25/world/asia/25phils.html
578
579
Council on Foreign Relations. Backgrounder: Terrorism Havens: Philippines. 1 June 2009.
http://www.cfr.org/publication/9365/terrorism_havens.html
580
The Gulf Today. Jara, Manolo B. Manila to Resume Talks with MILF. 15 January 2011.
http://gulftoday.ae/portal/b24d8dd6-f993-445c-a48c-44ea53a9f3b0.aspx
581
Yahoo News. AFP. Philippines to Restart Talks with Muslim Rebels. 14 January 2011.
http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20110114/wl_afp/philippinesunrestmuslimpeace_20110114115842
582
pacific/7887521.stm
583
Council on Foreign Relations. Abu Sayyaf Group (Philippines, Islamist Separatists). 27 May 2009.
http://www.cfr.org/publication/9235/abu_sayyaf_group_philippines_islamist_separatists.html
86
with the 1996 peace accord. 584, 585 Abu Sayyaf seeks an independent Islamic state and has
distinguished itself in the Filipino public consciousness through high-profile bombings,
kidnappings, and beheadings. 586 The first victims were Filipino Christian residents of the
South. More recently, Westerners, who offer the prospect of substantial ransom
payments, have been targeted for kidnapping. 587 Both the MNLF and MILF have
condemned ASG activities. 588
The Philippine Army killed ASG founder Janjalani during a gun battle in December
1998. 589 His younger brother Khaddafy Janjalani took over, improving ties with the MILF
and JI, and moving away from kidnappings in order to develop bombing capabilities. In
February 2004, ASG was blamed for a bombing in Manila Bay that killed over 100
people. 590 The group was also responsible for simultaneous bombings in three different
cities in February 2005. 591
Due to combined Philippine and U.S. counterinsurgency efforts, ASG membership
decreased from approximately 1,000 in 2002 to a few hundred in 2005. 592 Khaddafy
Janjalani was killed in a clash with Philippine troops in 2006, but despite the loss of top
leaders, ASG has not been written off. 593, 594 Its reputed links to al Qaeda brought it to the
attention of Washington, which has provided support for the Philippine
584
Reuters. Factbox: Philippine Rebel Group Abu Sayyaf. 13 August 2009.
http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE57C1AP20090813
585
The Economist. Muslim Insurgency in the Philippines: Jolo Man. 16 July 2009.
http://www.economist.com/node/14052248
586
587
Council on Foreign Relations. Backgrounder: Abu Sayyag Group (Philippines, Islamic Separatists).
27 May 2009.
588
pacific/7887521.stm
589
590
591
592
593
Council on Foreign Relations. Backgrounder: Abu Sayyag Group (Philippines, Islamic Separatists).
27 May 2009.
594
87
counterinsurgency effort. 595 The Philippines continues to capture and kill Abu Sayyaf
insurgents, including Abu Sayyaf founder Abdul Basir Latip. 596, 597
Communist Groups
Since 1969, the Maoist-inspired Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP) and its armed
forces, the New Peoples Army (NPA), have engaged in an insurgency to overthrow the
government and replace it with a Marxist state. While not strong enough to hold territory,
government forces have not been able to vanquish it either. The roughly 4,700-member
NPA justifies its attacks, which have killed tens of thousands, by claiming human rights
abuses. 598
The peace process between the Philippine government and communist groups has been
intermittent since 1986. 599, 600 Some progress led President Ramos to legalize the
communist party, but peace talks stalled in 2001 after rebels killed a congressman. 601, 602
After a revival in early 2004, talks broke down again later in the year with the
communists blaming the Philippine government for their placement on U.S. and
European terrorist lists in 2002. The government of the Philippines and the National
Democratic Front, the communist partys political arm, have scheduled formal peace
talks, to be held in Oslo, Norway, in February 2011, although attacks continue. 603, 604, 605, 606
595
596
Fox News. Philippine Troops Kill 2 Suspected Militants. 9 January 2011.
http://www.foxnews.com/world/2011/01/09/philippine-troops-kill-al-qaida-linked-fighters/
597
BBC News. Abu Sayyaf Commander Killed in Philippines. 21 February 2010.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8526703.stm
598
Relief Web. Philippine Rebels Vow Attacks Ahead of Talks. 4 January 2011.
http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900sid/LSGZ-8CSDU4?OpenDocument
599
New York Times. Conde, Carlos H. Peace Effort with Philippine Rebels Breaks Down. 5 August
2005. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/04/world/asia/04iht-phils.html
600
Reuters. Philippines Closer to Resuming Peace Talks with Maoists. 10 December 2010.
http://in.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-53477120101210
601
November 2010. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2794.htm
602
pacific/7887521.stm
603
ABS-CBN News. Philippine Government, NDF Meet in Oslo in Peace Bid. 14 January 2011.
http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/nation/01/14/11/philippine-government-ndf-meet-oslo-peace-bid
604
Yahoo News. AP. Filipino Govt, Rebels Confirm Peace Talks. 18 January 2011.
http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20110118/ap_on_re_eu/eu_norway_philippines_peace
605
Relief Web. Philippine Rebels Vow Attacks Ahead of Talks. 4 January 2011.
http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900sid/LSGZ-8CSDU4?OpenDocument
606
Phil Star. 11 Killed in Clashes Between Government Troops, Leftist Rebels in Mindanao. 9 January
2011. http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleId=646864&publicationSubCategoryId=200
88
Poverty
Poverty is a serious problem in the Philippines. In conflict areas, a history of poverty
causes people to lash out against the government while the armed conflict exacerbates
poverty. 607 The poverty rate has remained around 45% since the 1990s. The internal
causes of poverty are interrelated with access issues. The main causes of poverty are
unemployment, governance concerns (basic services, land reform, etc.), rapid population
growth, macroeconomic issues, armed conflict, and agriculture sector problems. 608,609 ,610
External shocks such as natural disasters and elevated global food and fuel prices also
contribute to increased poverty levels. 611 Recent official reports indicate that 7.1% of the
99 million total population are unemployed, and 45% live in poverty, a percentage
roughly unchanged since the 1990s. 612,613
The historic concentration of land ownership, and thus political power, in the hands of a
few has never been successfully addressed by the Philippine government. 614 Successive
coup attempts have forced elected presidents to put their immediate political survival
ahead of long-term planning in the national interest. 615 This has enabled the small land-
owning elite to evade redistribution programs. 616 Minorities face loss of their land, mainly
due to development projects, government neglect, worsening poverty, and
discrimination. 617
607
608
Asian Development Bank. Poverty in the Philippines: Income, Assets, and Access. Chapter 6: Causes
of Poverty [p. 85]. January 2005. http://www.adb.org/documents/books/poverty-in-the-
philippines/chap6.pdf
609
The World Bank. Philippines: Stepping Up Reforms to Sustain Growth September 2010.
610
611
612
Manila Bulletin Publishing Corporation. Unemployment Rate Steady at 7.1% in Oct. 15 December
2010. http://www.mb.com.ph/articles/293091/unemployment-rate-steady-71-oct
613
The World Bank. Poverty headcount ratio at $2 a day (PPP) (% of Population). 2010.
614
New York Times. Onishi, Norimitsu. For Philippine Family in Politics, Land Issue Hits Home. 14
March 2010. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/15/world/asia/15phils.html
615
Washington Post. Sipress, Alan. In Twenty Years since Marcos, Little Stability for the Philippines. 24
February 2006. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-
dyn/content/article/2006/02/24/AR2006022400184.html
616
Institute of Development Studies. Has Land Reform Changed Land Ownership Concentration? 2007.
http://www.eldis.org/go/display&type=Document&id=33348
617
Minority Rights. Philippines Overview: Current State of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. 2005.
http://www.minorityrights.org/?lid=3462
89
Human Trafficking
The Philippines is a Tier 2 Watch List country for human
trafficking according to the U.S. Department of State. 618 The
Philippines is a source and destination transit country for the
trafficking of men, women, and children for prostitution and
forced labor. 619 Filipino men and women who migrate abroad are
trafficked for labor and sexual exploitation in Asia, the Middle
East, South Africa, Europe, and North America. 620 Internally,
Filipinos are trafficked from rural areas to urban centers and
cities. Women and children are trafficked internally to work as
domestic helpers, factory workers, beggars, and sex workers.
Some Filipinas are trafficked by organized criminal gangs.
Crime syndicates are heavily involved in the commercial sex
industry and in international trafficking of persons, particularly
from China, South Korea, Japan, and Russia for sexual
exploitation.621
618
According to the U.S. Department of State, Tier 2 Watch List country are those countries whose
governments do not fully comply with the TVPAs minimum standards, but are making significant efforts
to bring themselves into compliance with those standards AND: a) the absolute number of victims of severe
forms of trafficking is very significant or is significantly increasing; b) there is a failure to provide evidence
of increasing efforts to combat severe forms of trafficking in persons from the previous year, including
increased investigations, prosecution, and convictions of trafficking crimes, increased assistance to victims,
and decreasing evidence of complicity in severe forms of trafficking by government officials; or, c) the
determination that a country is making significant efforts to bring themselves into compliance with
minimum standards was based on commitments by the country to take additional steps over the next year.
Office To Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, U.S. Department of State. Trafficking in Persons
Report 2010. 2010. http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2010/142749.htm
619
Office to Monitor and Combact Trafficking in Persons, U.S. Department of State. Country Narratives:
Countries N Through Z. 2010. http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2010/142761.htm
620
Human Trafficking.org. Philippines. 2006. http://www.humantrafficking.org/countries/philippines
621
Human Trafficking.org. Philippines. 2006. http://www.humantrafficking.org/countries/philippines
90
Armed Forces
According to the latest studies in 2006, the Armed Forces (AFP)
of the Philippines includes the Philippine Army (66,000
members), Philippine Air Force (16,000), and the Philippine
Navy (24,000 members including 7,500 marines). 622 It is
responsible for enforcing domestic laws, particularly in remote
locales, and has played a prominent role in fighting both NPA
communist insurgents and Moro separatists. 623, 624 130,000
reservists supplement active duty forces. 625 Another organization,
the 6,000-member National Capital Region Command, created in
November 2003, defends the elected president against coup
attempts. 626 In December 2010, President Aquino announced a
new counterinsurgency plan that would shift some troop
activities from combat operations to civilian-military work, such
as building schools, clinics, roads, and drinking water systems in
the countrys conflict areas; troops would also act as teachers and healthcare
workers. 627, 628 The plan is part of government measures meant to undercut Maoist and
Muslim rebels reasons for violence.
Filipino armed forces have also been engaged abroad on many occasions, including
during the Korean War, and in Africa, Haiti, and Kashmir, among other locations. 629,630, 631
622
623
Library of Congress. Philippines: Philippine Constabulary. June 1991.
http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/phtoc.html
624
Global Security. Philippines. 3 July 2009.
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/phillipines/intro.htm
625
626
627
Reuters. Cutting Poverty Will Defeat Philippine Rebels- Aquino. 21 December 2010.
http://in.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-
53702920101221?loomia_ow=t0:s0:a54:g12:r1:c0.425813:b40143556:z3
628
Manila Bulletin Publishing Corporation. Aben, Elena L. AFP Ushers New Decade with Bayanihan.
31 December 2010. http://www.mb.com.ph/articles/295844/afp-starts-new-security-plan-bayanihan-jan-1-
2011
629
630
United Nations Peacekeeping. UN Missions Summary Detailed by Country. 31 December 2009.
http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/contributors/2009/dec09_3.pdf
631
United Nations Peacekeeping. Current Operations. No date.
http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/currentops.shtml
91
Private Militias
Many heavily armed private militias operate in the Philippines.632
They often have alliances with political parties and powerful
landowners, and sometimes act as a bulwark for the government
against communist and Muslim secessionist guerrillas. 633, 634
Militia men, police officers, and soldiers are hired by corrupt
politicians around elections to gun down journalists or political
opponents or to intimidate voters. 635 Violence in the run-up to the
May 2010 elections killed at least five political candidates and
more than a dozen campaign organizers. 636 These criminals are
not always arrested and convicted. 637
The most recent and atrocious act of militia violence was the
killings ordered by the ruling Ampatuan family in Maguindanao
Province on 23 November 2009. 638 A private militia killed over
50 people. 639 President Arroyo was an ally of the governor until
the massacre forced her to end the alliance. 640, 641 The group included members of an
official militia that used government-issued weaponry and supported Philippine security
operations. 642, 643 President Aquino announced a year later that he would not disband state-
632
PRIs The World. Private Militias in the Philippines. 7 May 2010.
http://www.theworld.org/2010/05/07/private-militias-in-the-philippines/
633
634
New York Times. Conde, Carlos H. Clan in Philippines Accused of More Killings. 16 November
2010. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/17/world/asia/17phils.html?ref=philippines
635
The Economist. Private Armies in the Philippines Guns and Goons. 7 January 2010.
636
Amnesty International. Philippines Election Marred by Political Killings. 7 May 2010.
http://www.amnestyusa.org/document.php?id=ENGNAU2010050716725&lang=e
637
Amnesty International. Philippines Election Marred by Political Killings. 7 May 2010.
http://www.amnestyusa.org/document.php?id=ENGNAU2010050716725&lang=e
638
Human Rights Watch. The Ampatuans, State-Backed Militias, and Killings in the Southern
Philippines. 16 November 2010. http://www.hrw.org/en/features/phillipines-maguindanao
639
Reporters Without Borders. Predators: Private Militias, Philippines. No date.
http://en.rsf.org/predator-private-militias,37295.html
640
641
642
643
92
funded militias, but he did continue the state of emergency status in the province. 644 The
president cited cost and an overstretched military and police force as his reasons. No
prosecution in the case has been completed. 645
644
ASEAN Affairs. Aquino Says Militias to Stay in Philippines. 24 November 2010.
http://www.aseanaffairs.com/philippines_news/security/aquino_says_militias_to_stay_in_philippi
nes
645
Amnesty International. Philippines: Justice Still Not Served One Year After Massacre. 22 November
2010. http://www.amnestyusa.org/document.php?id=ENGNAU2010112219669&lang=e
93
Security Assessments
1. The Military Base Agreement (MBA) negotiated between the U.S. and the
Philippines in 1947 was still in effect in 2001.
False
In 1947, the United States and the Philippines signed a Military Base Agreement
(MBA). The Philippine National Assembly chose not to renew the agreement in
1991.
2. Current U.S. military presence in the Philippines focuses solely on combating
insurgents.
False
U.S. assistance in the Philippines includes military training and intelligence, as
well as law enforcement cooperation, and programs promoting education, health,
and development. U.S. personnel are not allowed to participate in offensive
operations.
3. The Islamic separatist movement in Mindanao developed in the 1990s.
False
Mindanao, in the southern Philippines, has been engulfed in conflict over Muslim
political and cultural autonomy since the late 1960s.
4. The Abu Sayyaf (ASG) is a high-profile Islamic separatist group known for
bombings, kidnappings, beheadings, and reputed links to Al Qaeda.
True
The Islamic separatist group Abu Sayyaf (ASG) is well known in the Philippines
for its bombings, kidnappings, and beheadings. Its reputed links to Al Qaeda have
also brought it to the attention of Washington.
5. There are two competing communist groups in the Philippines: the Communist
Party of the Philippines (CPP) and the New Peoples Army (NPA).
False
The New Peoples Army (NPA) is part of the Maoist-inspired Communist Party
of the Philippines (CPP) and acts as the military forces for the CPP.
94
Final Assessments
1. Typhoons are a relatively common occurrence in the Philippines.

2. Mindanao is the largest island in the Philippines.
3. The highest peak in the country, Mount Apo is also an active volcano.
4. In terms of area, Manila is the largest city in the Philippines.
5. Major river transportation never developed within the Philippines.
6. Millions of Filipinos must look abroad for employment.
7. The majority of Filipinos work in the agricultural sector.
8. The Philippines is the worlds second largest producer of geothermal energy.
9. Foreign ownership is restricted in the Philippines.
10. The Philippine governments Tourism Act of 2009 was passed to stimulate the
countrys growing tourism industry.
11. While the Philippines is now one of the poorest countries in Asia, it was once the
second richest after Japan.
12. More than three fourths of all Filipinos are members of the Catholic Church.
13. In the Philippines, women are at a disadvantage when competing against men for
managerial positions.
14. One form of martial arts practiced in the Philippines, eskrima, was brought to the
islands by the Spanish.
15. Muslims in the Philippines are based primarily on the northern islands of Luzon
and Mindoro.
16. The influx of Catholic Filipino settlers from other islands was one of the main
triggers for the Muslim separatist movement in Mindanao.
17. Subic Bay Naval Base is still active and is mainly used for logistical support for
the current conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan.
18. Private militias are tolerated by the government because they take orders from the
Philippine armed forces.
19. Communist and Islamic insurgent groups work together to effect change in the
Philippines.
20. The primary issue of contention between the Philippines and its neighbors is
competing sovereignty claims over the Spratly Islands.
21. The Austronesians who settled in what is now the Philippines are thought to have
come from Taiwan.
22. Islam did not reach the Philippines until after the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th
century.
95
23. During World War II, the Philippines were occupied by the Japanese.
24. The Philippine -American War resulted in independence for the Philippines.
25. After over two decades of authoritarian rule, Ferdinand Marcos was driven from
power in a bloodless coup.
96
Further Reading
BBC News. Guide to the Philippine Conflict. 18 December 2009.

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7887521.stm
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State. 2009
Human Rights Report: Philippines. 11 March 2010.
http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2009/eap/136006.htm
Bureau of Democracy Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State.
International Religious Freedom Report 2010: Philippines. 17 November 2010.
http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2010/148891.htm
Bureau of Economic, Energy, and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State. 2010
Investment Climate Statement The Philippines. March 2010.
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Profile: Philippines. March
Freedom House. Country Report: Philippines (2010). 2010.
http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2010&country=7899
Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, U.S. Department of State. Country
Reports on Terrorism 2009. Chapter 2: Country Reports: East Asia and Pacific
Overview. 5 August 2010. http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2009/140884.htm
http://www.trust.org/alertnet/crisis-centre/crisis/philippines-mindanao-
conflict?v=timeline

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Standard of Living ........................................................................................................ 50

Principal Island Groups

University of the Philippines. 41 Architecturally, it is representative of the Spanish colonial

The Pre-Spanish Period

Hindu and Chinese Influences (200 C.E.16th

The Spanish Period (15211898)

The American Period (18981946)

World War II and Japanese Occupation

ecozones. Nevertheless, due to the illegal practices of companies and/or officials, it is

Transportation and Telecommunication

1. The Philippine economy relies heavily on remittances from expatriate Filipino

10% of the population. 402, 403

Traditions: Celebrations and Holidays

vegetables or tamarind, a sour fruit) are a means to preserve leftovers in a tropical

Music and Dance

Sports and Recreation

1. The majority of Filipinos are Muslim.

Neighbor State Relations

organizations operate in southern Philippines, which the United States considers a

Islamic Separatist Groups

A faction of the MNLF formed the more religious and militant

1. Typhoons are a relatively common occurrence in the Philippines.

BBC News. Guide to the Philippine Conflict. 18 December 2009.

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