1

Aubrey Radford
Professor Harper
English 101
10/31/2014
Trouble on the Eastern Shore: Self Destruction in Rurality
Substance abuse is a problem that exists everywhere: whether young or old, rich
or poor, and whether the community a person lives in is urban, suburban, or rural.
Growing up in the rural community of Centreville, Maryland, I have gone down my own
path of destruction, and witnessed that of others. Drug abuse and destructive
behavioral traits are not unique among adolescent students in rural public schools.
High school students in rural communities are just as likely---if not more likely to turn to
addiction and violent habits than the same peer group in an urban or suburban
community (Johnson). Statistically, rural, urban, and suburban drug use stands neck
and neck, and overall the results are scattered. In the Youth Risk Behavior Survey from
2003, twenty-seven percent of rural, twenty-seven percent of suburban, and twentyeight percent of urban teens reported ever having using drugs (Johnson 557).
What makes substance abuse different in rural communities is the quaint and
safe reputations that rural areas uphold, which generate much less of a national focus
on the problems in these areas. In reality, there is a problem in rural areas, and a
solution lies in communal activities and the public school systems. School bonding,
which is the cultivation of a connection between students and the schools they attend,
can offer a positive outlook for teens. According to Jeffrey Shears, Ruth W. Edwards,
and Linda R. Stanley, authors of the article School Bonding and Substance Use in Rural
Communities, In rural areas where out-of-school activities and other venues for
involvement for youths may be fewer, school bonding might be more protective against

substance use than in more urban areas where institutional opportunities for other types
of bonding abound (7). Rural communities struggle to keep kids busy and involved,
which can impact the views of teens roles in society. Not only can out-of-school
activities restore feelings of involvement, but integrating school bonding into public
school curriculums can restore adolescents faith in themselves, their education, and
views of their own self-worth.
Rural communities rely on schools to offer activities for teens and children but
very little is actually available due to constraining budgets, a small population, and a
limited availability of teachers to attain and retain. Positive behavioral development and
self-esteem are connected to teens who do not turn to drug abuse, but often, especially
in rural areas, students feel excluded and discouraged, and they do not receive the
proper attention or empowerment needed in order to develop a positive self-image. A
solution lies in utilizing public schools and the local community to help teens feel like
they are worth something, and to provide the encouragement these adolescents desire
in order to want to become productive human beings. Ages twelve to seventeen are
vital times of development for a young mind. From birth up to the age of twelve are also
very important, as children are easily moulded, experience discouragement, and retain
early traumas. This paper will focus on the social issues that take effect starting around
the age of twelve, along with an explanation of psychological predispositions that can
contribute to future substance abuse and how creating a bond with teens can
encourage them to be the best versions of themselves. (Shears, Edwards, Stanley)
Many at-risk behaviors begin to manifest with the start of puberty. During this
time a childs body is going through rapid changes, but these changes can go beyond

physicality. Signs pointing to mental health disorders can appear during this critical
time, and if left untreated can be a contributing cause for substance abuse. In the
article Substance-Use in Childhood and Adolescence: A Brief Overview of
Developmental Processes and their Clinical Implications, Natalie Castellanos-Ryan,
Maeve OLeary-Barrett, and Patricia J. Conrod explain:
Risky behaviours increase due to a relatively more rapid development of
the socio-emotional system, which is hypothesized to lead to increases in
dopaminergic activity and sensation-seeking. However, this happens
before the cognitive control system, associated with self- regulation and
impulse control, is fully developed, which is not until the end of
adolescence or early adulthood. Vulnerability to risk-taking during
adolescence would therefore be heightened when a fast-developing socioemotional system combines with a slow-developing cognitive control
system. (42)
In layman's terms, this means some minds experience an early maturation in the pleasurecenter, while the part of the brain that senses when to stop, and regulates self-control, is
yet to be fully developed. Alcohol use before the cognitive control system is fully
developed can also lead to damage in this area, delaying or preventing this part of the
brain to develop completely. This article also explains social conditions which predispose
teens to substance use. When a teenager is entering high school, he or she tends to
spend less time with family. During this period there is less supervision and teens can turn
to a crowd where drug use is a social norm. Antisocial characteristics may lead to this turn
in behavior. According to Castellanos-Ryan, OLeary-Barrett, and Conrod:

Studies examining the prospective link between childhood internalising

problems and adolescent substance-use show that children with high
negative-affect, depression or anxiety symptoms are more likely to initiate
alcohol-use early (King, Iacono, & McGue, 2004), have higher marijuana
use (Wittchen et al., 2007) and have alcohol use disorders (Mason,
Hitchings, & Spoth, 2007) in adolescence and early adulthood. (43)
Isolation and negativity can lead to disorders in which an adolescent is likely to turn to
dangerous substances in order to cope with these feelings. On the contrary, there is also
information that shows children with ADD or ADHD also have a predisposition to substance
abuse. Externalizing and internalizing behaviors are both risk factors of substance abuse.
Externalizing behavior is that of children with ADHD, who tend to over socialize, and deep
down feel like an outcast, or an annoyance. Internalizing behavior adheres to children who
are susceptible to depression and anxiety, and tend to isolate themselves. These
predispositions can especially become a gateway to destructive risk taking if this juvenile is
subject to bullying, being bullied, a witness or a victim of other violent behavior, or if the teen
simply feels left out in school or does not fit in with their peers. Tests and surveys can
target, not just behaviors, but personality traits and coping mechanisms that may drive a
teen to substance misuse. With these tests schools can identify who is in need of bonding
or intervention, and in what ways students can be helped. (Frydenberg, Castellanos-Ryan,
OLeary-Barrett, Conrod)
As a teens are developing, they begin to learn how to cope with their feelings and
stress. Productive and nonproductive coping mechanisms are two major types of coping
mechanisms that can determine the type of path an adolescent might move towards.

Productive coping mechanisms are related to those who set high goals, have a positive view
of themselves, and feel a sense of control in their lives. Drugs and destructive behavior are
perceived as results of a series of nonproductive coping mechanisms, which include a selfshaming, a sense of worthlessness, low self-esteem, and a lack of self-motivation. During
adolescence these mechanisms can switch around and are not stable (Frydenberg). In the
book, Personality, Stress, and Coping: Implications for Education Erica Frydenberg states,
One of the major changes in psychological functioning that occurs during this
developmental period is the expansion and diversification of ways of dealing with stressors
(Mullis & Chapman, 2000). In a variety of studies, coping has been shown to make
significant contributions to adolescent adjustment and engagement in health risk behaviors
(94). In other words, Frydenberg is saying that throughout adolescence teens begin to deal
with stress differently, and the way teens cope with stress can influence the decisions they
make.
I can relate to the internalizing behaviors and nonproductive coping mechanisms that
lead to self destruction. I was always a quiet child, and I experienced bullying and rejection
from my peers throughout middle school. I thought of myself as worthless, and I did not feel
encouraged throughout the rest of my experience in grade school. I am only one of many
voices of the teens who have gone through this, and it is never the same for anyone, but
this research opens up an understanding to what I and the people I associated with
throughout high school had gone through. Changes in the presentation of education have a
chance of preventing, or at least minimizing these negative experiences. I consider myself
one of the lucky few to escape the grips of addiction. I avoided this with a shred of
optimism, a hint of luck, and one single goal---not to become an addict. I do still struggle

with anxiety and depression, and I have my vices, but my outlook on life has altered
completely. Eventually, my peer group changed, I began to associate with educated and
encouraged people, and I started to feel a bond to their knowledge. I decided I could
change my path in life, even if it felt like it was too late. If rural communities as a whole
could re-establish their approach in education and inspiration by creating a bond with teens,
communities can inspire troubled juveniles and alter the way they perceive not only
knowledge, but their own potential (Shears, Edwards, Stanley).
Not only are there limited programs that create bonds with teens, but rural areas are
limited in social activities all together. School systems are depended on as a large provider
of activities for rural teens. The problem with this dependance is the low budgets that rural
public schools face. A lower population means less funding, and less attendance leads to
less class members, which are required for a broader school curriculum and after school
clubs and activities. School bonding provides academic encouragement and when students
feel an interest in what they are learning and doing in school they will feel confident in
creating their own fun. If the community could come together and create independently
funded after school programs which provide social bonding, school bonding may not even
have to be fully integrated into curriculums. In recent years, programs like D.A.R.E. has
toned down on discouraging drug use and has begun to use bonding as a technique to
heighten self-esteem, which has lead to an increase of the programs potential
effectiveness.
Education on the dangers of destructive behaviors is very important, but presenting
substance use as prohibited and bad only sparks curiosity in youth, and points out users as
criminals and lowlifes. When I was attending middle school, the program D.A.R.E. initially

educated my classmates on what drugs were, why they were bad, how to say no, and how
to resist peer pressure. After a series of banal videos and attaining a new found knowledge
of what drugs were, there was a new found curiosity. There is no valid evidence that
D.A.R.E. is an effective program, but D.A.R.E. is considered to be the most popular drug
prevention program in the world, and even our president Barack Obama declared a national
D.A.R.E. day on April 8, 2010 (93, 94). In A Summary And Synthesis Of Contemporary
Empirical Evidence Regarding The Effects Of The Drug Abuse Resistance Education
Program, Renee D. Singh of the University of California looks into the effectiveness of the
original D.A.R.E. program, and the newly revised D.A.R.E. which includes a new program
called keepin it REAL. In this article Singh analyzes a series of research in attempts to
answer how effective the worlds most popular drug prevention program really is. According
to Singh, Ennett et al.s (1994) meta-analysis indicated that D.A.R.E. was not effective in
reducing illicit drug use among youths. Similarly, a more recent study examining D.A.R.E.
outcome results published between 1991-2002, reported an overall effect size that was
small and not statistically significant (West & ONeal, 2004), thus, providing further evidence
of the ineffectiveness of D.A.R.E (97). Singh is insisting that D.A.R.E. is ineffective.
D.A.R.E. did not redesign the programs system until 2003. D.A.R.E.s revised program
includes the use of bonding with students and encourages positive decision making towards
students (95). Though research of the revised D.A.R.E. is limited, this new approach has
potential, but drug prevention programs are short-term, and evidence suggests that if there
is any effect from these programs, this effect is also short-term. If a slightly similar program
could be integrated into daily life, during or after school, long term effects are possible.
(Singh)

Even though most rural areas appear to be peaceful and pleasant places where no
harm is done, no place is perfect. Rural public schools need adjustment. The structure of
public schools are based off of the general view of America, which focus on urban and
suburban settings. Troubled students need specific attention and inclusion in order to retain
self-worth. Through developing a bond with their school, teachers, and community, teens
have the opportunity to become involved with their studies and futures, and can become
interested in their own community, rather than lashing out against it. Discouraging and
looking down on drug users only increase criminal activity. Instilling bonding into school
curriculums and increasing communal activities has potential to change the lives of many.
This is not easy task, this involves an extreme amount of patience and effort that,
realistically, not every person has. By identifying psychological and social hurdles, and
encouraging these potentially lost youths, lives can be saved.

Works Cited

Castellanos-Ryan, Natalie, Maeve O'Leary-Barrett, and Patricia J. Conrod. "Substance-Use

In Childhood And Adolescence: A Brief Overview Of Developmental Processes And
Their Clinical Implications." Journal Of The Canadian Academy Of Child &

Adolescent Psychiatry 22.1 (2013): 41-46. Academic Search Premier. Web. 16 Oct.
2014.

Frydenberg, Erica, and Gretchen Reevy. Personality, Stress, And Coping : Implications For
Education. Charlotte, N.C.: Information Age Pub, 2011. eBook Collection
(EBSCOhost). Web. 1 Nov. 2014.

Johnson, Andrew O., et al. "Violence And Drug Use In Rural Teens: National Prevalence
Estimates From The 2003 Youth Risk Behavior Survey." Journal Of School Health
78.10 (2008): 554-561. Academic Search Premier. Web. 16 Oct. 2014.

Shears, Jeffrey, Ruth W. Edwards, and Linda R. Stanley. "School Bonding And Substance
Use In Rural Communities." Social Work Research 30.1 (2006): 6-18. Academic
Search Premier. Web. 17 Oct. 2014.

Singh, Renee D., et al. "A Summary And Synthesis Of Contemporary Empirical Evidence
Regarding The Effects Of The Drug Abuse Resistance Education Program
(D.A.R.E.)." Contemporary School Psychology 15.(2011): 93-102. ERIC. Web. 21
Nov. 2014.

10