T A U C T P P P M: Ehavioral Cience

THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO
THE PROFESSIONAL PROGRAM IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT
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020 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE
Ghozlan, Ayah
Section : 03
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Project Budgeting & Financial Control Dr. Tarek Saker
CONTENTS
I. INTRODUCTION
II. BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE
*DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES & SOCIAL SCIENCES
*CATEGORIES OF BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
III. HUMAN BEHAVIOR
*FACTORS AFFECTING HUMAN BEHAVIOR
IV. BEHAVIORISM
*VERSIONS
*B.F. SKINNER & RADICAL BEHAVIORISM
** DEFINITION
** RELATION TO LANGUAGE
*MOLAR VS. MOLECULAR BEHAVIORISM
* BEHAVIORISM IN PHILOSOPHY
* 21ST CENTURY BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
V. BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS
*APPLICATIONS OF BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
VI. APPLIED BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS

VII. BEHAVIORAL MODIFICATION
* DESCRIPTION
** PUNISHMENT
*TECHNIQUES
* SOME AREAS OF EFFECTIVENESS
VIII. MOTIVATION
*MOTIVATIONAL CONCEPTS
**THE INCENTIVE THEORY OF MOTIVATION
**INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
***INTRINSIC MOTIVATION
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***EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
**SELF-CONTROL
*MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES
**DRIVE REDUCTION THEORIES
**COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY
**NEED THEORIES
***NEED HIERARCHY THEORY
***HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY
***ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY
***SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY
**BROAD THEORIES
**COGNITIVE THEORIES
***GOAL-SETTING THEORY
**MODELS OF BEHAVIOR CHANGE
**UNCONSCIOUS MOTIVATION
**INTRINSIC MOTIVATION & THE 16 BASIC DESIRES THEORY
*CONTROLLING MOTIVATION
**EARLY PROGRAMMING
**ORGANIZATION
*APPLICATIONS
**EDUCATION
**BUSINESS
IX. DAVID MCCLELLAND'S MOTIVATIONAL NEEDS THEORY
*DAVID MCCLELLAND'S NEEDS-BASED MOTIVATIONAL MODEL
**THE NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT (N-ACH)
**THE NEED FOR AUTHORITY & POWER (N-POW)
**THE NEED FOR AFFILIATION (N-AFFIL)
**APPLICATION
X. MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
* MODEL DESCRIPTION
* DEFICIENCY NEEDS
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** PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
** SAFETY NEEDS
** SOCIAL NEEDS
** ESTEEM
* AESTHETIC NEEDS
* SELF-TRANSCENDENCE
*SUCCESS OF OFFSPRING
*1970'S ADAPTED HIERARCHY OF NEEDS MODEL
*1990'S ADAPTED HIERARCHY OF NEEDS MODEL
*WHAT HIERARCHY OF NEEDS MODEL IS MOST VALID
*MASLOW’S SELF-ACTUALIZING CHARACTERISTICS
**MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS AND HELPING OTHERS
**SELF-ACTUALIZATION, EMPLOYEES & ORGANIZATIONS
XI. MOTIVATIONAL CASE STUDY

*THE 'HELLESPONT SWIM'
XII. LABOR MANAGEMENT – MOTIVATION
*CONCLUSION
*APPLICATION IN WORK LIFE
XIII. REFERENCES
XIV. NOTES
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INTRODUCTION
We live in a complex and changing world. Our world is made up of
individual human beings, each similar yet uniquely different. How do people
relate to each other? Why do people think, feel, act and react the way they
do? Does their behavior affect their life, work and the environment around
them?
The Social and BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES help us answer both simple and
profound questions like those above. We begin by figuring what is human
behavior and how it affects our interaction with our normal and work life.
We then go a step further by examining the expert’s view of the

individual and society and how we may best relate to the diverse world in
which we live; How to use their knowledge in motivating individuals and
getting the best out of them, whether in life, marriage or work environment
and even with kids at schools.
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BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE
BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE is a term that encompasses all the disciplines that
explore the activities of interactions among organisms in the natural world. It
involves the systematic analysis and investigation of human and animal
behavior through controlled and naturalistic experimental observations and
rigorous formulations.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES & SOCIAL SCIENCES

The term BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES are often confused with the term SOCIAL
SCIENCES. Though these two broad areas are interrelated and study systematic
processes of behavior, they differ on their level of scientific analysis of various
dimensions of behavior.
Behavioral sciences essentially investigate the decision processes and
communication strategies within and between organisms in a social system.
This involves fields like psychology and social neuroscience, among others.
In contrast, Social sciences study the structural-level processes of a
social system and its impact on social processes and social organization. They
typically include fields like sociology, economics, history, public health,
anthropology, and political science.
CATEGORIES OF BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Behavioral sciences include two broad categories: NEURAL-DECISION
SCIENCES and SOCIAL-COMMUNICATION SCIENCES. Decision sciences involves those
disciplines primarily dealing with the decision processes and individual
functioning used in the survival of organism in a social environment. These
include psychology, cognitive, organization theory, psychobiology,
management science, operations research and social neuroscience.
On the other hand, Communication sciences include those fields which

study the communication strategies used by organisms and its dynamics
between organisms in an environment. These include fields like Anthropology,
Organizational behavior, Organization studies, Sociology and Social networks.
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HUMAN BEHAVIOR
HUMAN BEHAVIOR is the collection of behaviors exhibited by human

beings and influenced by culture, attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority,
rapport, hypnosis, persuasion, coercion and/or genetics.
The behavior of people falls within a range with some behavior being
common, some unusual, some acceptable, and some outside acceptable limits.
In sociology, behavior is considered as having no meaning, being not directed
at other people and thus is the most basic human action. Behavior should not
be mistaken with social behavior, which is more advanced action, as social
behavior is behavior specifically directed at other people. The acceptability of
behavior is evaluated relative to social norms and regulated by various means
of social control.
FACTORS AFFECTING HUMAN BEHAVIOR

 GENETICS
 ATTITUDE: It is the degree to which the person has a favorable or
unfavorable evaluation of the behavior in question.
 SOCIAL NORMS: This is the influence of social pressure that is perceived by
the individual (normative beliefs) to perform or not perform certain
behavior.
 PERCEIVED BEHAVIORAL CONTROL: This is the individual’s belief concerning
how easy or difficult performing the behavior will be.
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BEHAVIORISM
BEHAVIORISM, also called the LEARNING PERSPECTIVE (where any physical
action is a behavior) is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition
that “All things which organisms do — including acting, thinking and feeling—
can and should be regarded as behaviors”. The school of psychology maintains
that behaviors as such can be described scientifically without recourse either
to internal physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such as the mind.
Behaviorism comprises the position that all theories should have

observational correlates but that there are no philosophical differences
between publicly observable processes (such as actions) and privately
observable processes (such as thinking and feeling).
VERSIONS
There is no classification generally agreed upon, but some titles given to
the various branches of BEHAVIORISM include:
 METHODOLOGICAL: The behaviorism of Watson; the objective study of

behavior; no mental life, no internal states; thought is covert speech.
 RADICAL: Skinner's behaviorism; is considered radical since it expands
behavioral principles to processes within the organism; in contrast to
methodological behaviorism; not mechanistic or reductionist;
hypothetical internal states are not considered causes of behavior,
phenomena must be observable at least to the individual experiencing
them.
 TELEOLOGICAL: Post-Skinnerian, purposive, closes to microeconomics.
 THEORETICAL: Post-Skinnerian, accepts observable internal states
dynamic, but eclectic in choice of theoretical structures, emphasizes
parsimony.
 BIOLOGICAL: Post-Skinnerian, centered on perceptual and motor modules
of behavior, theory of behavior systems.
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B.F. SKINNER & RADICAL BEHAVIORISM

Skinner, who carried out experimental work mainly in comparative
psychology from the 1930s to the 1950s, but remained behaviorism's best
known theorist and exponent virtually until his death in 1990, developed a
distinct kind of behaviorist philosophy, which came to be called RADICAL
BEHAVIORISM. He is credited with having founded a new version of psychological
science, which has come to be called BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS or the experimental
analysis of behavior.
**DEFINITION
B.F. Skinner was influential in defining radical behaviorism, a philosophy
codifying the basis of his school of research (named the Experimental Analysis
of Behavior, or EAB.). Radical behaviorism departs from methodological
behaviorism most notably in accepting treatment of feelings, states of mind
and introspection as existent and scientifically treatable, this is done by
identifying them as something non-dualistic.
However, radical behaviorism stops short of identifying feelings as
causes of behavior. Among other points of difference were a rejection of the
reflex as a model of all behavior and a defense of a science of behavior
complementary to but independent of physiology.
**RELATION TO LANGUAGE
As Skinner turned from experimental work to concentrate on the
philosophical underpinnings of a science of behavior, his attention turned to
human language with VERBAL BEHAVIOR and other language-related
publications; Verbal Behavior laid out a vocabulary and theory for functional
analysis of verbal behavior.
What was important for a behaviorist's analysis of human behavior was

not language acquisition so much as the interaction between language and
overt behavior. In an essay republished in his 1969 book Contingencies of
Reinforcement, Skinner took the view that humans could construct linguistic
stimuli that would then acquire control over their behavior in the same way
that external stimuli could.
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MOLAR VS. MOLECULAR BEHAVIORISM

Skinner's view of behavior is most often characterized as a "MOLECULAR"
view of behavior; that is, each behavior can be decomposed into atomistic
parts or molecules. Skinner claims that a complete account of behavior has
involved an understanding of selection history at three levels: Biology (the
natural selection or phylogeny of the animal); Behavior (the reinforcement
history or ontogeny of the behavioral repertoire of the animal); and for some
species, Culture (the cultural practices of the social group to which the animal
belongs). This whole organism, with all those histories, then interacts with its
environment.
BEHAVIORISM IN PHILOSOPHY
BEHAVIORISM is a psychological movement that can be contrasted with
philosophy of mind. The basic premise of Radical Behaviorism is that the study
of behavior should be a natural science, such as chemistry or physics, without
any reference to hypothetical inner states of organisms as causes for their
behavior. A modern example of such analysis would be Fantino and colleagues'
work on behavioral approaches to reasoning.
Other varieties, such as Theoretical Behaviorism, permit internal states,
but do not require them to be mental or have any relation to subjective
experience. Behaviorism takes a functional view of behavior.
21ST CENTURY BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS

As of 2009, modern day behaviorism, known as "BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS," is a
thriving field. The Association for Behavior Analysis: International currently has
32 state and regional chapters within the United States. Approximately 30
additional chapters have also developed throughout Europe, Asia, South
America, and Australia. In addition to 34 annual conferences held by ABAI in
the United States and Canada, ABAI will hold the 5th annual International
conference in Norway in 2009.
The interests among behavior analysts today are wide ranging, as a

review of the 30 Special Interest Groups (SIGs) within ABAI indicates. Such
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interests include everything from developmental disabilities and autism, to

cultural psychology, clinical psychology, and Organizational Behavior
Management (OBM). OBM has developed a particularly strong following within
behavior analysis, as evidenced by the formation of the OBM Network and the
influential Journal of Organizational Behavior Management (JOBM; recently
rated the 3rd highest impact journal in applied psychology by ISI JOBM rating.
Some of the current prominent behavior analytic journals include the

Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA), the Journal of the Experimental
Analysis of Behavior (JEAB) JEAB, the Journal of Organizational Behavior
Management (JOBM), Behavior and Social Issues (BSI), as well as the
Psychological Record. Currently, the U.S. has 14 ABAI accredited MA and PhD
programs for comprehensive study in behavior analysis.
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BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS
BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS is a school of psychology based upon the foundations
and principles of BEHAVIORISM. Division 25 of the American Psychological
Division is devoted to the area of behavior analysis. According to Division 25:
"Among the APA divisions that advance psychology as a natural science, the
Division of Behavior Analysis is perhaps unique in its emphasis on behavior as a
subject matter in its own right. This analysis is pursued in three relatively
distinct ways:
 In the EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS of behavior per se which undertakes

research on basic behavioral processes in a temporal and biological
context.
 In APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS, which extends these processes and
research procedures to behavior in a social context, especially to
behavior-environment relationships of relatively immediate individual,
social, and cultural importance.
 In the CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS of behavior which addresses historical,
philosophical, theoretical, and methodological issues."
APPLICATIONS OF BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS

BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS has proven to be a particularly effective learning tool
for helping children with autism or developmental delays acquire and maintain
new skills. As well as knowing how to deal with workers (labor) and satisfy
their needs in order to reach their maximum productivity rates at work.
These treatments include the Lovaas Method and ABA (Applied

Behavior Analysis) and utilize techniques such as Discrete Trial Training. The
basic principles of behavior medication are often adapted for use in
educational settings, the workplace, and childcare.
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APPLIED BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS

WHAT IS ABA?
"APPLIED" means practice, rather than research or philosophy. "Behavior
Analysis" may be read as "Learning Theory," that is, understanding what leads
to - or doesn't lead to - new skills.
It may seem odd to use the word "BEHAVIOR" when talking about learning
to talk, play, work and live as a complex social animal, but to a behaviorist all
these can be taught, so long as there are intact brain functions to learn and
practice the skills.
Typically developing children learn without our intervention that is, the
'typical' environment they are born into provides the right conditions to learn
language, play, and social skills.
As well as workers starting a new project – new environment - without

any intervention they learn to work and cope with the new working
procedures -- new environment --; Providing the right conditions these workers
learn how to work efficiently, with high productivity while enjoying what they
do. ABA is all about the rules for setting up the environment to enable
workers to learn & achieve the desired productivity.
Behavior analysis dates back to Skinner, who performed animal

experiments showing that food rewards lead to behavior changes. This is
accepted by everyone who wants to train their dog to 'go' outside, but we are
not so inclined to want to believe the same of ourselves.
Part of the problem is that people do respond to a broad range of

reinforcements (rewards), but it is really true that an edible treat is among the
most reliable, especially at first. The skills that we more often think lead to
learning --motivation, self-discipline, curiosity-- are marvelous, and really do
set us apart from other animals but those are truly sophisticated 'behaviors'
that fully develop only after more basic language and social skills are in place.
Conversely, any new behavior that an animal (or you or I) may try, but is
never rewarded, is likely to die out after a while (how often will you dial that
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busy number?). And, as common sense would have it, a behavior that results in
something unpleasant (an aversive) is even less likely to be repeated.
These are the basics of BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORY. ABA uses these
principles to set up an environment in which kids or Workers learn as much as
they can as quickly as possible. It is a science, not a 'philosophy.'
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BEHAVIORAL MODIFICATION
BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION is the use of empirically demonstrated behavior
change techniques to improve behavior, such as altering an individual's
behaviors and reactions to stimuli through positive and negative reinforcement
of adaptive behavior and/or the reduction of maladaptive behavior through
punishment and/or therapy.
DESCRIPTION
The first use of the term Behavior Modification appears to have been by
Edward Thorndike in 1911. His article “Provisional laws of acquired behavior or
learning” makes frequent use of the term "modifying behavior".
It refers mainly to “Developing techniques for increasing adaptive behavior
through reinforcement and decreasing maladaptive behavior through
punishment”.
Two related terms are BEHAVIOR THERAPY and APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
(previously discussed). Emphasizing the empirical roots of behavior
modification, some authors consider it to be broader in scope and to subsume
the other two categories of behavior change methods.
Since techniques derived from behavioral psychology tend to be the

most effective in altering behavior, most practitioners consider Behavior
Modification along with Behavior Therapy and Applied Behavior Analysis to be
founded in BEHAVIORISM. While behavior modification encompasses applied
behavior analysis and typically uses interventions based on the same
behavioral principles, many behavior modifiers who are not applied behavior
analysts tend to use packages of interventions and do not conduct functional
assessments before intervening.
**PUNISHMENT
In recent years, the concept of PUNISHMENT has had many critics, though
these critiques tend not to apply to Negative Punishment (time-outs) and
usually apply to the addition of some aversive event. The use of Positive
Punishment by board-certified behavior analysts is restricted to extreme
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circumstances when all other forms of treatment have failed and when the
behavior to be modified is a danger to the person or to others.
In clinical settings Positive Punishment is usually restricted using a spray

bottle filled with water as an aversive event. When mis-used, extreme
punishment can lead to affective (emotional) disorders, as well as to the target
of the punishment eventually focusing only on avoiding punishment (i.e., "not
getting caught") rather than improving behavior. People have consequences
for their actions both positive and negative. This should be taught early as it
carries through adulthood.
TECHNIQUES
THERAPY AND CONSULTATION cannot be effective unless the behaviors to be
changed are understood within a specific context. The process of
understanding behavior in context is called FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT.
Therefore, a Functional Behavioral Assessment is needed before

performing behavior modification. One of the simplest yet effective methods
of functional behavioral assessment is called the "ABC" approach, where
observations are made on Antecedents, Behaviors, and Consequences. In
other words, "What comes directly before the behavior?", "What does the
behavior look like?", and "What comes directly after the behavior?"
Once enough observations are made, the data are analyzed and patterns
are identified. If there are consistent antecedents and/or consequences, then
an intervention should target them in order to increase or decrease the target
behavior. This method has formed the core of POSITIVE BEHAVIOR SUPPORT for
children in school from both regular education and special education.
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SOME AREAS OF EFFECTIVENESS

Functional Behavior Assessment forms the core of APPLIED BEHAVIOR
ANALYSIS and thus forms the core of Behavior Modification. Many techniques in
this therapy are specific techniques aimed at specific issues. Interventions
based on behavior analytic/modification principles have been extremely
effective in developing evidence-based treatments.
One way of giving positive reinforcement in behavior modification is in

providing compliments, approval, encouragement, and affirmation; a ratio of
five compliments for every one complaint is generally seen as being effective in
altering behavior in a desired manner and even producing a stable marriage
and a healthy life.
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MOTIVATION
MOTIVATION is the set of reasons that determines one to engage in a
particular behavior. The term is generally used for human motivation but,
theoretically, it can be used to describe the causes for animal behavior as well.
According to various theories, motivation may be rooted in the basic need to
minimize physical pain and maximize pleasure, or it may include specific needs
such as eating and resting, or a desired object, hobby, goal, state of being,
ideal, or it may be attributed to less-apparent reasons such as altruism,
morality, or avoiding mortality.
MOTIVATIONAL CONCEPTS
**THE INCENTIVE THEORY OF MOTIVATION
A reward, tangible or intangible, is presented after the occurrence of an
action (i.e. behavior) with the intent to cause the behavior to occur again. This
is done by associating positive meaning to the behavior.
Studies show that if the person receives the reward immediately, the
effect would be greater, and decreases as duration lengthens. Repetitive
action-reward combination can cause the action to become habit.
Motivation comes from two things: you, and other people. There is
Extrinsic Motivation, which comes from others, and Intrinsic Motivation, which
comes from within you.
Rewards can also be organized as Extrinsic or Intrinsic. Extrinsic Rewards

are external to the person; for example, praise or money. Intrinsic Rewards are
internal to the person; for example, satisfaction or a feeling of
accomplishment.
A Reinforcer is different from a reward, the reinforcer is intended to

create a measured increase in the rate of a desirable behavior following the
addition of something to the environment.
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**INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

***INTRINSIC MOTIVATION
INTRINSIC MOTIVATION occurs when people engage in an activity, such as a
hobby, without obvious external incentives. Research has found that it is
usually associated with high learning achievement and enjoyment by students
or workers. Intrinsic motivation has been explained by Fritz Heider's attribution
theory, Bandura's work on self-efficacy, and Ryan and Deci's cognitive
evaluation theory. Workers are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:
Attribute their final results to internal factors that they can control (e.g.
the amount of effort they put in), believe they can be effective agents in
reaching desired goals (i.e. the results are not determined by luck), are
interested in mastering a topic, rather than just rote-learning to achieve good
work levels.
In knowledge-sharing communities and organizations, people often cite

altruistic reasons for their participation, including contributing to a common
good, a moral obligation to the group, mentorship or 'giving back'. In work
environments, money may provide a more powerful extrinsic factor than the
intrinsic motivation provided by an enjoyable workplace.
In terms of sports, intrinsic motivation is the motivation that comes from

inside the performer. That is, the athlete competes for the love of the sport.
***EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION comes from outside of the performer. Money is the
most obvious example, but coercion and threat of punishment are also
common extrinsic motivations.
In sports, the crowd may cheer the performer on, and this motivates him
or her to do well. Trophies are also extrinsic incentives. Competition is often
extrinsic because it encourages the performer to win and beat others, not to
enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity.
Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can

lead to over justification and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation.
Extrinsic incentives sometimes can weaken the motivation as well. In

one classic study done by green & leper, children who were lavishly rewarded
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for drawing with felt-tip pens later showed little interest in playing with the
pens again.
**SELF-CONTROL
The self-control of motivation is increasingly understood as a subset of
emotional intelligence; a person may be highly intelligent according to a more
conservative definition, yet unmotivated to dedicate this intelligence to certain
tasks.
Drives and desires can be described as a deficiency or need that

activates behavior that is aimed at a goal or an incentive. These are thought to
originate within the individual and may not require external stimuli to
encourage the behavior. Basic drives could be sparked by deficiencies such as
hunger, which motivates a person to seek food; whereas more subtle drives
might be the desire for praise and approval, which motivates a person to
behave in a manner pleasing to others.
By contrast, the role of extrinsic rewards and stimuli can be seen in the
example of training animals by giving them treats when they perform a trick
correctly. The treat motivates the animals to perform the trick consistently,
even later when the treat is removed from the process.
MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES
**DRIVE REDUCTION THEORIES
The DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY grows out of the concept that we have
certain biological needs, such as hunger; as time passes the strength of the
drive increases as it is not satisfied, then as we satisfy that drive by fulfilling its
desire, such as eating, the drive's strength is reduced. It is based on the
theories of Freud and the idea of feedback control systems, such as a
thermostat.
**COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY

Suggested by Leon Festinger, this occurs when an individual experiences
some degree of discomfort resulting from an incompatibility between two
cognitions. For example, a consumer may seek to reassure himself regarding a
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purchase, feeling, in retrospect, that another decision may have been

preferable.
Another example of cognitive dissonance is when a belief and a behavior

are in conflict. A person may wish to be healthy, believes smoking is bad for
one's health, and yet continues to smoke.
**NEED THEORIES
***NEED HIERARCHY THEORY
ABRAHAM MASLOW'S hierarchy of human needs theory is the one of the
most widely discussed theories of motivation.
THE THEORY CAN BE SUMMARIZED AS FOLLOWS:
Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior.
Only unsatisfied needs influence behavior, satisfied needs do not.
Since needs are many, they are arranged in order of importance, from
the basic to the complex.
The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower
level need is at least minimally satisfied.
The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality,

humanness and psychological health a person will show.
The needs, listed from basic (lowest, earliest) to most complex (highest,
latest) are as follows:
Physiological
Safety
Belongingness
Esteem
Self actualization
***HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY

Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory, aka intrinsic/extrinsic motivation
sometimes called the "MOTIVATOR-HYGIENE THEORY", concludes that certain
factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction, but if absent, lead to
dissatisfaction.
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The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime, but
"respect for me as a person" is one of the top motivating factors at any stage
of life.
He distinguished between:
1. MOTIVATORS; e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility which give
positive satisfaction,
And
2. HYGIENE FACTORS; e.g. status, job security, salary and fringe benefits that
do not motivate if present, but, if absent, result in de-motivation.
**The name Hygiene factors is used because, like hygiene, the presence will
not make you healthier, but absence can cause health deterioration.
***ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY

Clayton Alderfer, expanding on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, created the
ERG THEORY (Existence, Relatedness and Growth). Physiological and safety, the
lower order needs, are placed in the existence category, while love and self
esteem needs are placed in the relatedness category. The growth category
contains our self-actualization and self-esteem needs.
***SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY
Developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, focuses on the importance
of Intrinsic Motivation in driving human behavior. Like Maslow's hierarchical
theory and others that built on it, SDT posits a natural tendency toward growth
and development. Unlike these other theories, however, SDT does not include
any sort of "autopilot" for achievement, but instead requires active
encouragement from the environment.
**BROAD THEORIES
The latest approach in Achievement Motivation is an integrative
perspective as lined out in the "Onion-Ring-Model of Achievement Motivation"
by Heinz Schuler, George C. Thornton III, Andreas Frintrup and Rose Mueller-
Hanson.
It is based on the premise that performance motivation results from way
broad components of personality are directed towards performance. As a
result, it includes a range of dimensions that are relevant to success at work
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but which are not conventionally regarded as being part of performance

motivation. Especially it integrates formerly separated approaches as need for
achievement with e.g. social motives like Dominance. THE ACHIEVEMENT
MOTIVATION INVENTORY - AMI is based on this theory and assesses three factors
relevant to vocational and professional success.
**COGNITIVE THEORIES
***GOAL-SETTING THEORY
Goal-setting theory is based on the notion that individuals sometimes
have a drive to reach a clearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a
reward in itself.
A goal's efficiency is affected by three features: Proximity, Difficulty and
Specificity. An ideal goal should present a situation where the time between
the initiation of behavior and the end state is close. This explains why some
children are more motivated to learn how to ride a bike than mastering
algebra.
A goal should be moderate, not too hard or too easy to complete. The
goal should be objectively defined and intelligible for the individual. A classic
example of a poorly specified goal is to get the highest possible grade. Most
children have no idea how much effort they need to reach that goal.
Douglas Vermeeren has done extensive research into why many people
fail to get to their goals. The failure is directly attributed to motivating factors.
Vermeeren states that “Unless an individual can clearly identify their
motivating factor or their significant and meaningful reasons why they wish to
attain the goal, they will never have the power to attain it”.
**MODELS OF BEHAVIOR CHANGE

Social-cognitive models of behavior change include the constructs of
motivation and volition. Motivation is seen as a process that leads to the
forming of behavioral intentions. Volition is seen as a process that leads from
intention to actual behavior. In other words, motivation and volition refer to
goal setting and goal pursuit, respectively.
An example of such a motivational and volitional construct is perceived

self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is supposed to facilitate the forming of behavioral
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intentions, the development of action plans, and the initiation of action. It can
support the translation of intentions into action.
**UNCONSCIOUS MOTIVATION
Some psychologists believe that a significant portion of human behavior
is energized and directed by unconscious motives. In other words, stated
motives do not always match those inferred by skilled observers. For example,
it is possible that a person can be accident-prone because he has an
unconscious desire to hurt himself and not because he is careless or ignorant
of the safety rules. Similarly, some overweight people are not hungry at all for
food but for attention and love. Eating is merely a defensive reaction to lack of
attention.
Some workers damage more equipment than others do because they

harbor unconscious feelings of aggression toward authority figures.
Psychotherapists point out that some behavior is so automatic that the

reasons for it are not available in the individual's conscious mind. Compulsive
cigarette smoking is an example. Sometimes maintaining self-esteem is so
important and the motive for an activity is so threatening that it is simply not
recognized and, in fact, may be disguised or repressed.
**INTRINSIC MOTIVATION & THE 16 BASIC DESIRES THEORY

Starting from studies involving more than 6,000 people, Professor
Steven Reiss has proposed a theory that finds 16 basic desires that guide
nearly all people behavior.
THE DESIRES ARE:
 Acceptance, the need for approval
 Curiosity, the need to think
 Eating, the need for food
 Family, the need to raise children
 Honor, the need to be loyal to the traditional values of one's ethnic
group
 Idealism, the need for social justice
 Independence, the need for individuality
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 Order, the need for organized, stable, predictable environments

 Physical Activity, the need for exercise
 Power, the need for influence of will
 Romance, the need for sex
 Saving, the need to collect
 Social Contact, the need for friends (peer relationships)
 Status, the need for social standing/importance
 Tranquility, the need to be safe
 Vengeance, the need to strike back
In this model, people differ in these basic desires. These basic desires
represent Intrinsic Desires that directly motivate people behavior, and not
aimed at indirectly satisfying other desires. People may also be motivated by
non-basic desired, but in this case this does not relate to deep motivation, or
only as a means to achieve other basic desires.
CONTROLLING MOTIVATION
The control of motivation is only understood to a limited extent. There
are many different approaches of MOTIVATION TRAINING, but many of these are
considered pseudoscientific by critics. To understand how to control
motivation it is first necessary to understand why many people lack
motivation.
**EARLY PROGRAMMING
Modern imaging has provided solid empirical support for the
psychological theory that emotional programming is largely defined in
childhood.
**ORGANIZATION
Besides the very direct approaches to motivation, beginning in early life,
there are solutions. Virtually every motivation guidebook includes at least one
chapter about the proper organization of one's tasks and goals. It is usually
suggested that it is critical to maintain a list of tasks, with a distinction between
those which are completed and those which are not, thereby moving some of
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the required motivation for their completion from the tasks themselves into a
"meta-task", namely the processing of the tasks in the task list, which can
become a routine. The viewing of the list of completed tasks may also be
considered motivating, as it can create a satisfying sense of accomplishment.
APPLICATIONS
**EDUCATION
Motivation is of particular interest to Educational psychologists because
of the crucial role it plays in student learning. However, the specific kind of
motivation that is studied in the specialized setting of education differs
qualitatively from the more general forms of motivation studied by
psychologists in other fields.
**BUSINESS
At lower levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, such as Physiological
needs, money is a motivator; however it tends to have a motivating effect on
staff that lasts only for a short period. At higher levels of the hierarchy, praise,
respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense of belonging are far more
powerful motivators than money, as both Abraham Maslow's theory of
motivation and Douglas McGregor's Theory X and theory Y demonstrate.
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DAVID MCCLELLAND'S MOTIVATIONAL NEEDS THEORY

American David Clarence McClelland (1917-98) achieved his doctorate in
psychology at Yale in 1941 and became professor at Wesleyan University. He
studied particularly motivation and the achievement need.
McClelland is chiefly known for his work on achievement motivation, but

his research interests extended to personality and consciousness.
He is most noted for describing three types of motivational need, which he
identified in his 1961 book, The Achieving Society:
 Achievement Motivation (N-Ach)

 Authority/Power Motivation (N-Pow)
 Affiliation Motivation (N-Affil)
DAVID MCCLELLAND'S NEEDS-BASED MOTIVATIONAL MODEL

These needs are found to varying degrees in all workers and managers,
and this mix of motivational needs characterizes a person's or manager's style
and behavior, both in terms of being motivated and in the management and
motivation others.
**THE NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT (N-ACH)

The N-Ach person is 'ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATED' and therefore seeks
achievement, attainment of realistic but challenging goals, and advancement in
the job. There is a strong need for feedback as to achievement and progress,
and a need for a sense of accomplishment.
**THE NEED FOR AUTHORITY & POWER (N-POW)
The N-Pow person is 'AUTHORITY MOTIVATED'. This driver produces a need
to be influential, effective and to make an impact. There is a strong need to
lead and for their ideas to prevail. There is also motivation and need towards
increasing personal status and prestige.
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**THE NEED FOR AFFILIATION (N-AFFIL)

The N-Affil person is 'AFFILIATION MOTIVATED', and has a need for friendly
relationships and is motivated towards interaction with other people. The
affiliation driver produces motivation and need to be liked and held in popular
regard. These people are team players.
McClelland said that most people possess and exhibit a combination of

these characteristics. Some people exhibit a strong bias to a particular
motivational need and this motivational or mix of needs consequently affects
their behavior and working style.
**APPLICATION
McClelland suggested that a strong N-Affil 'affiliation-motivation'
undermines a manager's objectivity, because of their need to be liked, and that
this affects a manager's decision-making capability. A strong N-Pow 'authority-
motivation' will produce a determined work ethic and commitment to the
organization, and while N-Pow people are attracted to the leadership role;
they may not possess the required flexibility and people-centered skills.
McClelland argues that N-Ach people with strong 'achievement motivation'
make the best leaders, although there can be a tendency to demand too much
of their staff in the belief that they are all similarly and highly achievement-
focused and results driven, which of course most people are not.
Characteristics and attitudes of ACHIEVEMENT-MOTIVATED PEOPLE as McClelland

suggested:
 Achievement is more important than material or financial reward.

 Achieving the aim or task gives greater personal satisfaction than
receiving praise or recognition.
 Financial reward is regarded as a measurement of success, not an end in
itself.
 Security is not prime motivator, nor is status.
 Feedback is essential, because it enables measurement of success, not
for reasons of praise or recognition (the implication here is that
feedback must be reliable, quantifiable and factual).
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 Achievement-motivated people constantly seek improvements and ways

of doing things better.
 Achievement-motivated people will logically favor jobs and
responsibilities that naturally satisfy their needs, i.e. offer flexibility and
opportunity to set and achieve goals, e.g., sales and business
management, and entrepreneurial roles.
McClelland firmly believed that achievement-motivated people are

generally the ones who make things happen and get results, and that this
extends to getting results through the organization of other people and
resources, although as stated earlier, they often demand too much of their
staff because they prioritize achieving the goal above the many varied interests
and needs of their people.
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MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Abraham Maslow developed the HIERARCHY OF NEEDS MOTIVATIONAL
MODEL in 1940-50's USA, and the Hierarchy of Needs theory remains valid
today for understanding human motivation, management training, and
personal development. Indeed, Maslow's ideas surrounding the Hierarchy of
Needs concerning the responsibility of employers to provide a workplace
environment that encourages and enables employees to fulfill their own
unique potential (self-actualization) are today more relevant than ever.
Abraham Maslow's book Motivation and Personality, published in 1954
introduced the Hierarchy of Needs, and Maslow extended his ideas in other
work, notably his later book Toward a Psychology of Being, a significant and
relevant commentary.
Abraham Maslow was born in New York in 1908 and died in 1970.
Maslow's PhD in psychology in 1934 at the University of Wisconsin formed the
basis of his motivational research. Maslow later moved to New York's Brooklyn
College. Maslow's original five-stage Hierarchy of Needs model is clearly and
directly attributable to Maslow; later versions with added motivational stages
are not so clearly attributable, although in his work Maslow refers to these
additional aspects of motivation, but not specifically as levels in the Hierarchy.
MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS MOTIVATIONAL MODEL

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MODEL DESCRIPTION
Each of us is motivated by needs. Our most basic needs are inborn,
having evolved over tens of thousands of years. Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy
of Needs helps to explain how these needs motivate us all.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs states that we must satisfy each need in

turn, starting with the first, which deals with the most obvious needs for
survival itself.
Only when the lower order needs of physical and emotional well-being
are satisfied are we concerned with the higher order needs of influence and
personal development.
Conversely, if the things that satisfy our lower order needs are swept
away, we are no longer concerned about the maintenance of our higher order
needs.
For instance, a businessman at the esteem level who is diagnosed with

cancer will spend a great deal of time concentrating on his health
(physiological needs), but will continue to value his work performance (esteem
needs) and will likely return to work during periods of remission.
Maslow said that needs must be satisfied in the given order. Aims and
drive always shift to next higher order needs. Levels 1 to 4 are deficiency
motivators; level 5, and by implication 6 to 8, are growth motivators and
relatively rarely found. The thwarting of needs is usually a cause of stress, and
is particularly so at level 4.
Examples in use:
 You can't motivate someone to achieve their sales target (level 4) when
they're having problems with their marriage (level 3).
 You can't expect someone to work as a team member (level 3) when

they're having their house re-possessed (level 2).
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DEFICIENCY NEEDS
The lower four layers of the pyramid are what Maslow called "DEFICIENCY
NEEDS" or "D-NEEDS": physiological, safety and security, love and belonging, and
esteem. With the exception of the lowest (physiological) needs, if these
"DEFICIENCY NEEDS" are not met, the body gives no physical indication but the
individual feels anxious and tense.
**PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
For the most part, physiological needs are obvious - they are the literal
requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met, the
human body simply cannot continue to function.
Physiological needs include:
 Breathing
 Homeostasis
 Water
 Sleep
 Food
 Excretion
 Clothing
 Shelter
 Sex
**SAFETY NEEDS
With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety
needs take over and dominate their behavior. These needs have to do with
people's yearning for a predictable, orderly world in which injustice and
inconsistency are under control, the familiar frequent and the unfamiliar rare.
In the world of work, this safety needs manifest themselves in such

things as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the
individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, and
the like.
For the most part, physiological and safety needs are reasonably well
satisfied in the "First World." The obvious exceptions, of course, are people
outside the mainstream — the poor and the disadvantaged. If frustration has
not led to apathy and weakness, such people still struggle to satisfy the basic
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physiological and safety needs. They are primarily concerned with survival:
obtaining adequate food, clothing, shelter, and seeking justice from the
dominant societal groups.
Safety and Security needs include:

 Personal security
 Financial security
 Health and well-being
 Safety net against accidents/illness and the adverse impacts
**SOCIAL NEEDS
After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human
needs is social. This psychological aspect of Maslow's hierarchy involves
emotionally-based relationships in general, such as:
 Friendship
 Intimacy
 Having a supportive and communicative family
Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it

comes from a large social group, such as clubs, office culture, religious groups,
professional organizations, sports teams, gangs ("Safety in numbers"), or small
social connections (family members, intimate partners, mentors, close
colleagues, confidants). They need to love and be loved by others. In the
absence of these elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness,
social anxiety, and clinical depression. This need for belonging can often
overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of
the peer pressure; an anorexic, for example, ignores the need to eat and the
security of health for a feeling of control and belonging.
**ESTEEM
All humans have a need to be respected, to have self-esteem, self-
respect, and to respect. Also known as the BELONGING NEED, esteem presents
the normal human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People need to
engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity or activities that
give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and self-valued, be it
in a profession or hobby.
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Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem or an inferiority

complex. People with low self-esteem need respect from others. They may
seek fame or glory, which again depends on others. It may be noted, however,
that many people with low self-esteem will not be able to improve their view
of themselves simply by receiving fame, respect, and glory externally, but must
first accept themselves internally. Psychological imbalances such as depression
can also prevent one from obtaining self-esteem on both levels.
AESTHETIC NEEDS
The motivation to realize one's own maximum potential and possibilities
is considered to be the master motive or the only real motive, all other motives
being its various forms. In Maslow's hierarchy of needs, the need for self-
actualization is the final need that manifests when lower level needs have
been satisfied.
SELF-TRANSCENDENCE
Near the end of his life Maslow revealed that there was a level on the
hierarchy that was above self-actualization: SELF-TRANSCENDENCE.
"TRANSCENDENCE" may be said to be much more often aware of the realm of
Being (B-realm and B-cognition), to be living at the level of Being… to have
unite consciousness and “plateau experience”, and to have or to have had
peak experience (mystic, sacral, ecstatic) with illuminations or insights. Analysis
of reality or cognitions which changed their view of the world and of
themselves, perhaps occasionally, perhaps as a usual thing.
SUCCESS OF OFFSPRING
Maslow stated that the achievements and success of his offspring were
more satisfying than the personal fulfillment and growth characterized in self-
actualization.
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1970'S ADAPTED HIERARCHY OF NEEDS MODEL,

INCLUDING COGNITIVE & AESTHETIC NEEDS
1. Biological and Physiological needs
2. Safety needs
3. Belongingness and Love needs
4. Esteem needs
5. Cognitive needs - knowledge, meaning, etc.
6. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc.
7. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking
personal growth and peak experiences.
1990'S ADAPTED HIERARCHY OF NEEDS,

INCLUDING TRANSCENDENCE NEEDS
1. Biological and Physiological needs
2. Safety needs
3. Belongingness and Love needs
4. Esteem needs
5. Cognitive needs
6. Aesthetic needs
7. Self-Actualization needs
8. Transcendence needs - helping others to achieve self actualization.
WHAT HIERARCHY OF NEEDS MODEL IS MOST VALID?

The original five level Hierarchy of Needs model, and it remains entirely
adequate for its purpose. The seven and eight level 'hierarchy of needs' models
are later adaptations by others, based on Maslow's work.
Arguably, the original five-level model includes the later additional sixth,
seventh and eighth ('Cognitive', 'Aesthetic', and 'Transcendence') levels within
the original 'Self-Actualization' level 5, since each one of the 'new' motivators
concerns an area of self-development and self-fulfillment that is rooted in self-
actualization 'growth', and is distinctly different to any of the previous 1-4 level
'deficiency' motivators.
For many people, self-actualizing commonly involves each and every one
of the newly added drivers. As such, the original five-level Hierarchy of Needs
model remains a definitive classical representation of human motivation; and
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the later adaptations perhaps serve best to illustrate aspects of self-

actualization.
MASLOW’S SELF-ACTUALIZING CHARACTERISTICS

 Keen sense of reality - aware of real situations - objective judgment,
rather than subjective.
 See problems in terms of challenges and situations requiring
solutions, rather than see problems as personal complaints or
excuses.
 Need for privacy and comfortable being alone.
 Reliant on own experiences and judgment - independent - not reliant
on culture and environment to form opinions and views.
 Democratic, fair and non-discriminating - embracing and enjoying all
cultures, races and individual styles.
 Socially compassionate - possessing humanity.
 Accepting others as they are and not trying to change people.
 Comfortable with oneself - despite any unconventional tendencies.
 A few close intimate friends rather than many surface relationships.
 Sense of humor directed at oneself or the human condition, rather
than at the expense of others.
 Spontaneous and natural - true to oneself, rather than being how
others want.
 Excited and interested in everything, even ordinary things.
 Creative, inventive and original.
 Seek peak experiences that leave a lasting impression. (see the
Hellespont Swim case study)
**MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS AND HELPING OTHERS

There are certainly some behaviors that are quite tricky to relate to
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. For example: Normally, we would consider that
selflessly helping others, as a form of personal growth motivation, would be
found as part of self-actualization, or perhaps even 'transcendence'.
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So how can we explain the examples of people who seem to be far short of
self-actualizing, and yet are still able to help others in a meaningful and
unselfish sense?
Interestingly this concept seems to be used increasingly as an effective

way to help people deal with depression, low self-esteem, poor life
circumstances, etc., and it almost turns the essential Maslow model on its
head: that is, by helping others, a person helps him/herself to improve and
develop too.
The principle has also been applied quite recently to developing

disaffected school-children, whom, as part of their own development, have
been encouraged and enabled to 'teach' other younger children (which can
arguably be interpreted as their acting at a self-actualizing level - selflessly
helping others). The disaffected children, theoretically striving to belong and
be accepted (level 3 - belongingness) were actually remarkably good at helping
other children, despite their own negative feelings and issues.
Under certain circumstances, a person striving to satisfy their needs at

level 3 - belongingness, seems able to self-actualize - level 5 by selflessly
helping others and at the same time begins to satisfy their own needs for
belongingness and self-esteem.
**SELF-ACTUALIZATION, EMPLOYEES & ORGANIZATIONS

Maslow's concept of SELF-ACTUALIZATION relates directly to the present
day challenges and opportunities for employers and organizations - to provide
real meaning, purpose and true personal development for their employees, for
life and not just for work.
Maslow saw these issues fifty years ago: the fact that employees have a
basic human need and a right to strive for self-actualization, just as much as
the corporate directors and owners do. Increasingly, the successful
organizations and employers will be those who genuinely care about,
understand, encourage and enable their people's personal growth towards
self-actualization related training and development, and of course way beyond
old-style X-Theory management autocracy, which still forms the basis of much
organized employment today. The best modern employers and organizations
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are beginning to learn at last: that sustainable success is built on a serious and
compassionate commitment to helping people identify, pursue and reach their
own personal unique potential.
When people grow as people, they automatically become more effective

and valuable as employees. In fact virtually all personal growth, whether in a
hobby, a special talent or interest, or a new experience, produces new skills,
attributes, behaviors and wisdom that is directly transferable to any sort of job
role.
The best modern employers recognize this and as such offer

development support to their staff in any direction whatsoever that the person
seeks to grow and become more fulfilled.
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MOTIVATIONAL CASE STUDY

EXAMPLE OF SELF-MOTIVATION AND MOTIVATION TRAINING EXERCISE
Motivation is often best explained by reference to real examples. The
'HELLESPONT SWIM' is a true story of unusual and remarkable personal
achievement which demonstrates several aspects of MOTIVATIONAL THEORY, plus
various other principles of effective management and performance
IN THE WAKE OF LEANDER: SWIMMING FROM EUROPE TO ASIA

THE 'HELLESPONT SWIM'
With a shout and a prayer and a curse, we leapt at dawn from a boat
into the water of the Dardanelles and started to swim from Europe to Asia.
It had all started in London over the umpteenth bottle of Bulgarian red.
For a long time, I said, I had wanted to swim the Hellespont - the narrow
channel between the Sea of Marmara and the Aegean. The Hellespont hit the
mythological headlines a long time ago. Leander, who lived on the Asian side,
had the misfortune to fall in love with Hero, who lived in Europe. The course of
true love did not run smoothly. Geography was not on their side. The
Hellespont has a nasty current ripping down the middle of it and a reputation
for chewing up ships. And religion didn't help, either. Hero was a priestess of
Aphrodite, and sworn to perpetual celibacy. So their meetings had to be covert
and at night. Just as in most relationships, ancient and modern, the bloke did
all the travelling. She held out a lantern, and he swam each night towards it.
They copulated all night, and he then swam back.
One night the wind blew out the lantern and that current took Leander
out into the Aegean. He never returned. The heartbroken Hero had the
decency to hurl herself into the Hellespont and the myth was born.
The Hellespont was assumed to be swimmable only by gods. But then,

after one failed attempt, Byron did it, and it has been done from time to time
since. We should have a go, I said to Steve and David (fat, pale, thirty-
something pie-eaters like me). If a club-footed syphilitic like Byron could do it,
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so could we. The Bulgarian red spoke, and it said yes, and before it could
withdraw I had put a deposit down and committed us to the swim.
The paperwork is nightmarish. The European shore, at Abydos, is inside

a restricted military zone, and rumored to be mined. The Hellespont itself is a
marine motorway, carrying a huge volume of traffic between the
Mediterranean and Istanbul and the Black Sea. The Turkish authorities don't
like the idea of Englishmen's bodies choking the propellers of container ships,
and insist on lots of permits. The man to sort all this out is Huseyin, whose
long, white wispy hair makes him look like a mammalian anemone. He has
organized most of the successful attempts on the Hellespont in recent years.
So we trained a bit. We lumbered over to municipal pools and

floundered up and down. We never seemed to get faster or less tired, but we
did seem to get a bit thinner. It was difficult to motivate ourselves, because
there really didn't seem to be much connection between the heated human
soup of the public baths and the swimming of a major shipping lane. But the
calendar ticked on, and we got on the plane, still a bit bemused, and found
ourselves somehow in Cannakale.
Huseyin met us, mapped out the route (head on into the current for a
mile, and then a gentle swim home), made us eat moussaka and vitamin pills,
told the barman not to serve us any beer, and booked our early morning calls
for us so that we had no excuses.
With the dawn came renewed incredulity at our stupidity. It was cold,
there were some vast tankers plying up and down, and the rip current at the
centre of the channel was throwing up white horses that looked like Grand
National winners. Also Huseyin had told the press about the attempt. A launch
full of photographers was following us, and failure would not be private.
As the sun came up our clothes came off. The lads on the boat rubbed us
down with axle grease and with a great scream we committed our bodies to
the deep. An underwater gust rolled me over, and from then on, the channel
churned me around.
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As soon as I hit the sea I was on my own. Yes, somewhere behind me

was the grumbling of the escort boat's engine, and somewhere way ahead
Steve was burrowing efficiently towards fame, and somewhere to one side
David was grunting and swallowing water, but I was in my own tiny world,
hedged in by waves and the sides of my goggles, vaguely conscious that
stretching down and down below was the vertiginous green of the channel. It
was a lonely and disoriented business. If I stretched my neck up I could
sometimes see the hills of Asia, but there was never any sense of movement.
From the boat there were occasional shouted hints and words of
encouragement like: "Sewage slick ahead: keep your mouth shut", and "This is
where blood started to pour from the Ukrainian's ears."
Steve had set purposefully off with a front crawl of the sort he'd only
ever used before to part crowds to get to the bar. I had thought that the waves
would prevent really effective crawl, and had trained mostly using
breaststroke. This was a stupid mistake. Breaststroke has a phase when there
is little forward motion. When you are swimming into the current this means
that you lose half of whatever distance the stroke has won you. It took me fifty
minutes to realize this and change to a continuously propulsive front crawl, by
which time Steve was almost in the arms of his very own Hero.
Rhythm is everything, the good swimmers say, and rhythm is hard when
the sea which surges around you has no sense of it. You seem to make no
progress at all. There was a vague sense of pressure against my chest as I
ploughed into that current, but there was no visible fixed point against which I
could measure any progress. Failure, though, was unthinkable. Too many
people knew about this venture. If I didn't reach Sestos I could never return
home. So I kept striking away and then, suddenly, the current eased. A shout
from the boat told me to turn up the strait. That was the indication I had been
waiting for. It meant that the back of the Hellespont was broken. I began to
realize that there was no need to keep a lot in reserve any more.
From then it all happened quickly. There was a wisp of green weed at
the bottom, and a stone appearing out of the gloom. Looking up, I could see
the crenellations of Sestos castle on the gorse covered hills of Asia. A thousand
miles away there was some cheering as the press men hauled Steve out of the
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shallows and asked him what on earth he had done this for. And then suddenly
we were there too, stumbling out into towels and a posse of television camera
men. They asked us for comment. David, mentally enfeebled by the effort,
gave them an elaborate and deeply embarrassing pun about Leander's libido
based on 'breast stroke' and 'breast stroking' which, laboriously translated into
Turkish, started as gibberish and ended as filth. We ate nuts and pulled our
bellies in for prime-time silly-season Turkish TV, and drank brandy to the
memory of that great hard man, Leander, who had done this every night and
back, for love, not glory.
Greek deity, it seems, is a reasonably accessible career. This is a classic

swim, but not a particularly difficult one. David and I, who both used that
pathetically inefficient breast stroke over the two miles, did it in about eighty
minutes. Steve, who is a regular ten pints and three bags of chips man,
wallowed home in under an hour. The rumors we had heard about
hammerhead sharks, giant squid and solid rafts of jellyfish were unfounded.
The rumors about diarrhea and vomiting, however, are completely true. Those
denizens of the deep strait between Europe and Asia are of truly mythological
proportions. But that's another story. And who cares? According to the best
authorities on Olympus, we were officially gods.
**This article is by writer and adventurer Charles Foster.
There are many motivational forces and factors in this case study, What
motivational theories and concepts are illustrated in the account - for example,
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, McGregor's X-Y Theory, McClelland's
motivational theory; and the ideas of Adams, Bloom, Handy, Herzberg,
Tuckman, etc.
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LABOR MANAGEMENT - MOTIVATION

CONCLUSION
Maslow has money at the lowest level of the hierarchy and shows other
needs are better motivators to staff/employers. McGregor places money in his
Theory X category and feels it is a poor motivator. Praise and recognition are
placed in the Theory Y category and are considered stronger motivators than
money.
 Motivated employees always look for better ways to do a job.

 Motivated employees are more quality oriented.
 Motivated workers are more productive.
The average workplace is about midway between the extremes of high

threat and high opportunity. Motivation by threat is a dead-end strategy, and
naturally staffs are more attracted to the opportunity side of the motivation
curve than the threat side. Motivation is a powerful tool in the work
environment that can lead to employees working at their most efficient levels
of production.
Nonetheless, Steinmertz also discusses three common character types of

subordinates: Ascendant, Indifferent, and Ambivalent that all react and
interact uniquely, and must be treated, managed, and motivated accordingly.
An effective leader must understand how to manage all characters, and more
importantly the manager must utilize avenues that allow room for employees
to work, grow, and find answers independently.
The assumptions of Maslow and Herzberg were challenged by a classic

study at Vauxhall Motors' UK manufacturing plant. This introduced the concept
of ORIENTATION to work and distinguished three main orientations:
Instrumental: where work is a means to an end, Bureaucratic: where work is a
source of status, security and immediate reward and Solidaristic: which
prioritizes group loyalty.
According to the system of SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT developed by Frederick

Winslow Taylor, a worker's motivation is solely determined by pay, and
therefore management need not consider psychological or social aspects of
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work. In essence, scientific management bases human motivation wholly on

extrinsic rewards and discards the idea of intrinsic rewards.
In contrast, DAVID MCCLELLAND believed that workers could not be motivated

by the mere need for money — in fact, extrinsic motivation (e.g., money) could
extinguish intrinsic motivation such as achievement motivation, though money
could be used as an indicator of success for various motives, e.g., keeping
score. In keeping with this view, his consulting firm, McBer & Company, had as
its first motto "To make everyone productive, happy, and free." For
McClelland, satisfaction lay in aligning a person's life with their fundamental
motivations.
ELTON MAYO found out that the social contacts a worker has at the
workplace are very important and that boredom and repetitiveness of tasks
lead to reduced motivation. Mayo believed that workers could be motivated
by acknowledging their social needs and making them feel important. As a
result, employees were given freedom to make decisions on the job and
greater attention was paid to informal work groups. Mayo named the model
the Hawthorne effect. His model has been judged as placing undue reliance on
social contacts at work situations for motivating employees.
APPLICATION IN WORK LIFE

In order to motivate your employees, you need to first be motivated
yourself. You need to have a firm understanding of where you want the job to
go, be aggressive about doing it, and excited about taking on the challenge.
Then you must communicate these feelings to your employees. Your job is to
lift your employees out of mediocrity and make them achievers.
Motivation is extremely important. Non-motivated employees can have

several negative effects on your business. These include friction on the job,
substandard output in quality, a high turnover of employees, absenteeism,
tardiness, and many of the disciplinary problems that you wish to avoid. It is a
fact that motivated employees are the most productive and will produce to
their maximum abilities.
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To bring about a positive change in behavior, management needs to be

aware of and deal with the different motives employees have for performing
their jobs. This is the most critical ingredient to a successful motivation
formula. Managers should provide the availability for achievement, manipulate
the expectancy for success, and take into consideration the incentives for
action, which differ from individual to individual.
Recognize that there are dangers in the use of external pressure to

perform. Excessive incitement to pressure often hampers the performance
level. The process of motivation is not concluded with any one particular
performance, but rather is constantly reassessed as new information is
obtained through practice and continued work. Results have to be placed in
perspective so that the individual realistically evaluates successes and failures.
Carefully analyze the performance of individuals and provide each with

attainable personal goals. Concentrate on the specific elements of an
individual’s performance and reward on the basis of achieving personal goal
increases. This will keep morale high. Stress the attainment of small goals.
Employees can then build on their accomplishments. Keep written
documentation to help identify problems that may go unnoticed, as well as
achievements and improvements. Look for gradual gains. Know your individual
employees. What motivates one specific individual may have no effect on
another. Any motivational strategy you use should have realistic and attainable
goals the whole organization can strive for.
Practice and teach self-reinforcement. There are two steps to this

process. Nurture an understanding in your employees of their own physical,
technical and mental attributes. In other words, make them aware of the
strengths and weaknesses in their abilities. Establish two-way communication.
Instead of telling employees what they did wrong and telling them to correct it,
ask them what they thought they did wrong, and what they would do to
correct it next time.
In addition to making individuals aware of different aspects of their

performance, it enables them to make objective evaluations of their own
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performance. Two-way communication also provides for better and more

specific feedback, which enables individuals to improve more quickly.
Motivating individuals is not a simple task. It’s very difficult and requires
significant skill to execute fairly. If you’re not sincere, others will sense it. If you
lack genuine care for others, it will be uncovered. If you’re manipulative, you’ll
anger others. Some people can coach, some can lead, and yet others (a few
others) can do both. Know your own limits.
The operation of a business is a team task, so too should management

be. If you’re not a good motivator, delegate the task to others. The ability to
motivate others is important. Words are cheaper than dollars. You cannot
continually throw dollars at people hoping to properly motivate them and
expect any to remain for yourself.
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REFERENCES
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioural_sciences
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behavior
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavior_modification
4. http://www.mikeholt.com/mojonewsarchive/BM-
HTML/HTML/Business_Management_-_Newsletter_85~20030916.htm
5. http://www.businessballs.com/maslow.htm
6. http://www.businessballs.com/motivationalcasestudy.htm
7. http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/f/behaviorism.h
tm
8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation
9. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism
10. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis
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NOTES
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THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO

THE PROFESSIONAL PROGRAM IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT

VI. APPLIED BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS

XI. MOTIVATIONAL CASE STUDY

We then go a step further by examining the expert’s view of the

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES & SOCIAL SCIENCES

CATEGORIES OF BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

On the other hand, Communication sciences include those fields which

HUMAN BEHAVIOR is the collection of behaviors exhibited by human

FACTORS AFFECTING HUMAN BEHAVIOR

Behaviorism comprises the position that all theories should have

 METHODOLOGICAL: The behaviorism of Watson; the objective study of

B.F. SKINNER & RADICAL BEHAVIORISM

What was important for a behaviorist's analysis of human behavior was

MOLAR VS. MOLECULAR BEHAVIORISM

21ST CENTURY BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS

The interests among behavior analysts today are wide ranging, as a

interests include everything from developmental disabilities and autism, to

Some of the current prominent behavior analytic journals include the

 In the EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS of behavior per se which undertakes

APPLICATIONS OF BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS

These treatments include the Lovaas Method and ABA (Applied

APPLIED BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS

As well as workers starting a new project – new environment - without

Behavior analysis dates back to Skinner, who performed animal

Part of the problem is that people do respond to a broad range of

Since techniques derived from behavioral psychology tend to be the

In clinical settings Positive Punishment is usually restricted using a spray

Therefore, a Functional Behavioral Assessment is needed before

SOME AREAS OF EFFECTIVENESS

One way of giving positive reinforcement in behavior modification is in

Rewards can also be organized as Extrinsic or Intrinsic. Extrinsic Rewards

A Reinforcer is different from a reward, the reinforcer is intended to

**INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

In knowledge-sharing communities and organizations, people often cite

In terms of sports, intrinsic motivation is the motivation that comes from

Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can

Extrinsic incentives sometimes can weaken the motivation as well. In

Drives and desires can be described as a deficiency or need that

**COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY

purchase, feeling, in retrospect, that another decision may have been

Another example of cognitive dissonance is when a belief and a behavior

The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality,

***HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY

***ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY

but which are not conventionally regarded as being part of performance

**MODELS OF BEHAVIOR CHANGE

An example of such a motivational and volitional construct is perceived

Some workers damage more equipment than others do because they

Psychotherapists point out that some behavior is so automatic that the

**INTRINSIC MOTIVATION & THE 16 BASIC DESIRES THEORY

 Order, the need for organized, stable, predictable environments

DAVID MCCLELLAND'S MOTIVATIONAL NEEDS THEORY

McClelland is chiefly known for his work on achievement motivation, but

 Achievement Motivation (N-Ach)

DAVID MCCLELLAND'S NEEDS-BASED MOTIVATIONAL MODEL

**THE NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT (N-ACH)

**THE NEED FOR AFFILIATION (N-AFFIL)

McClelland said that most people possess and exhibit a combination of

Characteristics and attitudes of ACHIEVEMENT-MOTIVATED PEOPLE as McClelland

 Achievement is more important than material or financial reward.

 Achievement-motivated people constantly seek improvements and ways

McClelland firmly believed that achievement-motivated people are