Alexandra Adams

Derek Neuharth
Julia Rocha
Geology 324 Lab
Cassel
11/14/14

Flood Deposits Project

Introduction______________________________________________
Multiple cataclysmic floods inundated portions of the Pacific Northwest from
Pleistocene megaflooding derived from the margins of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet,
particularly glacial Lake Missoula and Lake Bonneville, and from a sub-glacial outburst.
These glacial floods occurred during the last Ice Age (12-18 Ka), which accelerated
across the tilted surface of the Palouse slope, causing massive erosion. (Baker, 2009).
During the weeks between September 23rd and October 28th, 2014, we examined
sedimentary deposits in and near Starbuck, WA, and the Hells Gate Park region in
Lewiston, ID, (also known as, the Channeled Scabland). We examined and constructed
five separate stratigraphic columns. From the data collected we will divide and interpret
lithofacies based on lithology, determine flow conditions and directions, and make
interpretations of the depositional environment and history of the Channeled Scabland
based on these stratigraphic sections. The purpose of this research was to determine
whether there was one or multiple catastrophic floods in this area.
Background______________________________________________
In 1923, J Harlen Bretz first described the scablands in east-central Washington
as, lowlands of unconsolidated loess cover erosion into the underlying basalt bedrock
differing from the nearby Palouse Hills (Baker, 2009). He proposed that there was a
complex of anastomosing channels, cataracts, loess islands, rock basins, broad gravel
deposits and immense gravel bars that formed by deep erosion and deposition from
cataclysmic floods. However, his proposal was not well accepted by the geological
community. In 1942 geologist, Joseph Pardee, furthered Bretz work by proposing that
the source for the suggested floodwater was the ice dammed Lake Missoula
(Pleistocene), this led to Bretz acceptance in the geological community (Baker, 2009).
Later discoveries of giant current ripples, which Bretz had correctly interpreted to be
river bars, gave evidence to the presence of cataclysmic flooding (Baker, 2009).
Researchers such as Baker and Bunker (1985) agreed with Bretzs hypothesis, but
also added to it - that this was one massive, catastrophic flood event with several pulses.
They proposed that flooding may have come from other sources, and that these alternate
sources produced pulses of lesser flooding. However, some researchers, such as R. Waitt
and R. Craig, have suggested that some of the Channeled Scablands were created by
multiple, massive, and distinct glacial floods solely from Glacial Lake Missoula that
occurred decades or centuries apart (Shaw et al., 1999). Stratigraphic age studies using
tephrochronology, luminescence, radiocarbon, and soil extraction methods estimated
the duration of soil formation. Eric V. McDonald then used these methods to associate
the Channeled Scabland with the penultimate advance of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet.

Data/Observations_________________________________________
Lithofacies 1
Basaltic conglomerate of cobbles and boulders (<25cm) that are sub-angular,
poorly sorted, imbricated, with signs of traction deposition. Medium cobbles (~4cm) are
present at stops 1 and 3, while stops 4 and 5 have cobbles and boulders. The matrix
grains are poorly sorted, sub-angular, and vary with stop, from siltstone (stop 1 and 3),
to medium sandstone (stop 5), and coarse sandstone (stop 3). This lithofacies appears
primarily at the bottom of the stratigraphic columns, and is not present at stop 2.
Lithofacies 2a
Rippled sandstone made of very-fine to coarse sand grains (predominately fine
sand) that are well sorted, well packed, and sub-rounded to round. The ripples are either
asymmetrical ripples (stop 3 and 4), or tangential climbing ripples (stop 3) with a 20
climb. This lithofacies also contains flame structured soft-sediment deformation (stop
4), and cross-bedding (stop 3). It is not present in stops 1 or 5.
Lithofacies 2b
Burrowed or horizontally laminated sandstone that is either made of very-fine to
medium sand grains that are well packed, well sorted, and sub-rounded to round (stops
1,2, and 3), or, medium-coarse sand grains that are poorly sorted and sub-angular (stop
4 and 5). The burrows are found in stops 2 and 5, while the laminations are in stops 2, 3,
4, and 5. In some layers this lithofacies includes small pebbles in the sandstone (stop 1
and 4), or flame structured soft-sediment deformation (stop 4).
Lithofacies 3
Wavy laminations in a clay-containing siltstone with grains that are well sorted,
round, and poorly packed. The laminations average 1.3cm apart, and are present in
stops 2 and 5. Some areas of this lithofacies also contain soft-sediment deformation
(stop 2). It is not found in stops 1, 3, or 4.
Lithofacies 4
Cross-bedded sandstone, containing cobbles and boulders in certain layers, made
of fine to very coarse sand grains (primarily coarse sand) that are poorly sorted and subangular. Horizontal cross-beds are found in stops 4 and 5, while stop 1 exhibits trough
cross-bedding. One layer (stop 5) contains a single stone (~30cm) suspended in the
sandstone. A dune (3.8m) containing cobbles and boulders (<65cm), with signs of
imbrication is also present (stop 5). This lithofacies is not found in stops 2 or 3.

Interpretation/Discussion____________________________________
Lithofacies 1
The large size of these clasts (cobbles and boulders), along with their poor sorting
and sub-angular form, helps describe the depositional environment. The sub-angularity
shows that the clasts likely did not move far from their origin point, and the poor sorting
may be caused by a sudden dump of sediment as the high flow rate left. Another
indicator of a glacial flood deposit is that this lithofacies is traction structured and shows
signs of imbrication. This means that large clasts, such as cobbles and boulders, are
rolled and pushed along the river bed by the force of the flow. The environment must
have had high energy from fast flowing of water, indicating a glacial flood deposit from
the initial Missoula Flood (Shaw, et al., 1999).
Lithofacies 2a
We believe that lithofacies 2a and 2b are have the same composition, grain size,
and grain shape, but have different sedimentary structures. However, lithofacies 2a is
distinguished by the presence of ripples. There are both asymmetrical, and tangential
climbing ripples. Asymmetrical ripples indicate a depositional environment with a onedirectional current, often found in fluvial environments. Climbing ripples are also
commonly seen in river deposits with very high deposition rates from decelerating flows.
Since these climbing ripples are tangential, they contact the bed in a tangent
relationship with a curved foreset this happens because of a high fallout rate of
sediment on the lee side.
These foresets are important because they are deposited at the angle of repose, so
the dip of the cross-laminations in these ripples can be measured to determine the
paleoflow. Tangential ripples often form in stream/river deposits. In this lithofacies,
flame structures are also found. Despite flame structures being a diagenetic feature, it is
significant because they are created when an unlithified overlying bed forces the
underlying unlithified bed to push up through the overlying bed. This happens when
both layers are saturated with water indicating an environment with large amounts of
water flow. We have interpreted this lithofacies to be part of a fluvial depositional
environment.
Lithofacies 2b
This lithofacies is part of the same fine-grained sandstone as lithofacies 2a.
However, it is distinguished by horizontal laminations and/or burrows. It is possible
that all beds in lithofacies 2b contain both horizontal laminations and burrows, but the
presence of burrows have destroyed the laminations in some areas. Horizontal
laminations are often created by straight ripples found in lower energy fluvial deposits.
For burrows to form, there must be enough time between the deposition of layers for
critters to create them. This indicates an area that was flooded, then abandoned,
allowing time for burrows to form.
This could also be part of a varve a sediment layer annually deposited by glacial
melting and refreezing due to the needed time for burrows to form without being
washed out. Also, in order for burrows to potentially be created the environment must
have enough oxygen for critters to survive; this amount is present in both fluvial and

lacustrine environments. We believe that this lithofacies is part of a glacial river or

glacial lake depositional environment.
Lithofacies 3
Lithofacies 3, defined by a siltstone with wavy laminations, occurs between layers
of increased sediment size. The small grain size and inclusion of clay indicates a
depositional environment with low enough energy to allow suspended sediment to settle
(Shaw et al., 1999). We suggest that this lithofacies occurred between pulses of the
Missoula floods (Shaw et al., 1999). This can be explained by the sudden increase in
grain size for the lithofacies above it, and the wavy laminations found in it. These
laminations likely deposited horizontally, and the layer was saturated with water when a
flood pulse began. The pulse then quickly covered the lithofacies with sediment,
trapping the water. This caused the water to undergo compression, before forcing itself
to the surface, undulating the laminations. We believe that this is part of a subglacial
outburst flood deposit (Shaw et al., 1999).
Lithofacies 4
In lithofacies 4 a large boulder-sized dropstone is found within the coarse sand.
Dropstones like this indicate glacial flood deposits. They are created when a glacier
moves across a surface, picks up rocks and incorporates them into its frozen glacial
mass. The glacier then breaks apart, forming icebergs that float on the surface of water,
and eventually melt, resulting in the deposition of an allochthonous dropstone. Crossbeds and gravel dunes are also found in this lithofacies. Gravel dunes are often a rare
occurrence in comparison to sand dunes. These dunes have a rougher surface, resulting
in a higher shear stress and a faster flow current (Kabiri, 2013). We believe that this
lithofacies may have been part of a glacial flood deposit caused by an ice-dam flow.
Outside research
Outside research and supporting observations led us to form our interpretation.
We believe the intense erosion and deposition across the Channeled Scabland was due
to a single flood event with multiple pulses. As the Purcell lobe of the Cordilleran ice
sheet moved south into Idaho it blocked the mouth of the Clark Fork River. This
resulted in an ice dam that created the Glacial Lake Missoula in northwestern Montana.
When the ice dam failed, it released floods of water across the scabland. This was the
first flood event of Lake Missoula. Soon the Cordilleran ice sheet began to melt, which
resulted in the lake filling with water. This caused the ice dam to fail again, therefore
causing the subsequent pulses of Lake Missoula flooding (DeGrey and Link, 2008).
Evidence from Shaw (1999) indicates that there was no sub-aerial exposure between the
floods, this is explained by the absence of rilling, desiccation cracks, paleosols, or eolian
deposits in these lithofacies. From this we interpreted that the floods happened shortly
after one another, without leaving enough time for the previous flood to completely
drain before the next pulse began. Shaws evidence supports our interpretation of what
happened in this area; if there were multiple catastrophic flood events with decades or
centuries between them, there would be evidence of sub-aerial exposure indicators.
Our observations support our interpretation as well: lithofacies 1 was part of the
initial glacial flood deposit, depositing large boulders and cobbles across the scablands.
Then, the floodwaters drained out a bit and lithofacies 2a and 2b were deposited in a

fluvial environment with a lower flow, allowing burrows and laminations to form
without being washed out. Lithofacies 3 would be silt beds that were deposited between
irregular subglacial outburst floods from glaciers upstream of the first Lake Missoula
glacial flood (Shaw et al., 1999). Lithofacies 4 was deposited during the next pulse of a
smaller flood from Lake Missoula, leaving cross-beds and dunes due to the drastic
increase in water flow.
Paleoflow Direction Interpretations
We measured paleoflow directions on cross-beds, dunes, and ripples across the
Channeled Scabland. In stops 1, 2, 4 and 5 (Fig. 7) we calculated paleoflow directions
dipping in the southwestern direction. In stop 3 (Fig. 7) the paleoflow direction we
calculated dipped to the northwest. After arranging the directions on a map of the area,
we interpreted the paleoflow direction of the flooding. We believe that when the ice dam
broke, Lake Missoula flooded the scablands from the northeast in a southwest direction
(shown in stops 1, 2, 4 and 5). However, stop 3 doesnt fit this interpretation as the area
is located to the east of the primary flood area, and not dipping in the southwest
direction. This led us to believe that the flooding caused the Snake River to back-flood,
flowing east instead of west (Fig. 8). This resulted in the deposition of the
conglomerate, found in lithofacies 1,
before returning to normal and flowing
back into the main flood area. Indication
of this can be found in the clast sizes in
the first lithofacies. Lewiston (stop 3),
located the farthest east along the Snake
River, and the farthest from the main
flood area, has the smallest clast sizes
(medium cobbles) for the conglomerate.
This would also explain the northwest
flow direction in Lewiston as the flow
DeGrey and Link; Figure 8
returned to normal to reconnect with the
other stops, and eventually the main flood area.
Paleoflow Depth Calculations and Interpretations
We first used Van Rijns method (Julien and Klaassen, 1995) to calculate
paleoflow depth of the dune found in lithofacies 4 at Little Goose Dam. The original
equation is [] = (2.5(h)^.7(d50)^.3). After plugging in the variables we measured, the
dune height (=3.8m) and the average grain size (d50=0.06m), then found the
minimum flow depth of this dune (h) 6.07m. This means that when this dune was
formed, the water was at least 6.07m high. However, this method is error prone. Van
Rijns equation is meant to calculate the paleoflow depth of a sand dune, while we
measured the depth of a gravel dune. Also, the equation we used was a simplified
version of the actual equation; we did not include the transport-stage parameter in our
calculation. Another source of error is the measurements we made in the field. The
average grain size was an estimate, and not exact. The dune height may also be incorrect
because we only measured what we could see the bottom of the dune was possibly cut
off or missing. If the average grain size is larger than our estimations, then the paleoflow

depth would have been smaller. If the dune height is larger than our measurements,
then the paleoflow depth would have been larger. It appears that this equation
characteristically underestimates flow depth.
We then tried the equation created by J.R. Allen (1984), which is a bit simpler to
calculate. It is [d/hm], where d is flow depth, and hm is the mean dune height. For a
dune, the range of numbers is between six and twenty (Bridge and Tye, 2000).
Therefore, the two calculations are: d=6*hm, and d=10*hm. When calculated, using 3.8
meters as the hm, the range of paleoflow depth for this dune is between 22.8 meters and
38 meters. This answer sounds more reasonable for the dune we measured. However,
there may still be similar errors in this depth; the measured dune height may only be a
part of the dune, because the bottom could be missing. For the depth obtained from
Allens equation we interpreted that the floodwaters in this area were deep enough to
form cross-bedded dunes across the Channeled Scabland.

References
Baker, V. (2009). The Channeled Scabland: A Retrospective. Annual Review of Earth
and Planetary Sciences.
Bridge, J. and Tye, R. (2000). Interpreting the Dimensions of Ancient Fluvial Channel
Bars, Channels, and Channel Belts from Wireline-Logs and Cores. The American
Association of Petroleum Geologists.
DeGrey, L. and Link, P. Lake Missoula Floods. Digital Atlas of Idaho.
Julien, P., and Klaassen, G. (1995). Sand-Dune Geometry of Large Rivers during
Floods. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering.
Kabiri, F. (2013). Flow over Gravel Dunes. British Journal of Applied Science and
Technology.
Shaw, J. et al. (1999). The Channeled Scabland: Back to Bretz? Geology.