1

ANLISE ESPACIAL E GEOPROCESSAMENTO

=
Gilberto Cmara
Antnio Miguel Monteiro
Suzana Druck Fucks
Marilia S Carvalho=

1.1 INTRODUO
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Figura 1-1 - Mapa de Londres com bitos por clera identificados por pontos e poos de
gua representados por cruzes.=
1.2 TIPOS DE DADOS EM ANLISE ESPACIAL
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Figura 1-2 Distribuio de casos de mortalidade por causas externas em Porto Alegre em
1996 e estimador de intensidade.

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55,437 (%)

* Perfis
* Amostras
8,250

Figura 1-3 - Distribuio de perfis e amostras de solo em Santa Catarina (esquerda) e =

distribuio contnua estimada para a varivel saturao por bases (direita).
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Figura 1-4- Mapa de Excluso/Incluso Social de So Paulo (1991) e agrupamentos de =

excluso social (Zonas Leste e Sul) e incluso social (centro).=
=
1.3 REPRESENTAO COMPUTACIONAL DE DADOS GEOGRFICOS
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Interface

Entrada e Integr.
Dados

Consulta e Anlise
Espacial

Visualizao
Plotagem

Gerncia Dados
Espaciais

Banco de Dados
Geogrfico

==
Figura 1-5 - Arquitetura de Sistemas de Informao Geogrfica.
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Figura 1-6 Geometrias: Ponto2D, Amostra e Polgono
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Figura 1-7 Representao Geomtrica de Grade Regular
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1.4 CONCEITOS BSICOS EM ANLISE ESPACIAL
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1.5 O PROCESSO DA ANLISE ESPACIAL

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= = = ~~= ~~= ~~=~I= = = = =
~==~I==~======~==
~= = = ~I= ~= = ~= ~= = ~=
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~= = = ~= ~= ~= ~~~= ~K= m= = ~I=
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m= ~= = = = = = = =
~= = = = I= ~= ~~= = ~~= =
= ~= K= ^= ~~= = = = = = = I=
======~=~K=`~J==
= = = (u1 , u 2 ,........) ~= ~~= = A = =
~= K= m= I= = = = = = =
==~=~~=I=~J=~====~=
=~~====I==~I=~=J== A ==
~=~~==~K===
=
l= = ~= = ~= ~= = S = = A =
~~= = ~= ~~= E [N (S )] = = ~= ~~= C N (S i ), N S j I= =
N (S ) =~======pK=p===~=~=~=

( )]

~= ~~= = = ~= = ~= I= ~=
~~===~=~==~==~=~~==
= = ~K= b= ~= = = = ~~= = N (S ) = ~~=
~= ~= = du = = = = u I= ~= ~= = ~= K=
b~= ~~= =~~= ~= E~= =~= FI=
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E [N (du )]
I=
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(u ) = lim
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ENJSF=

=
m~= = ~= = = = ~= ~= ~= ~I=
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(d (ui ), d (u j )) =
=

( )]

C N (dui ), N du j

du i , du j 0
dui , du j

lim

==

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n~= = = = = ~I= (u ) = = ~= ~= (u ) = X= =

~==I= u i , u j ==== ( h ) I== h =~=~===

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~=~~=~==^I=~=~=~=~==~= ui , u j =

=~=~=~~== (u ) K=l==~==~~==
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=
l= = ~= = ~~= ~= ~= = =
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===~=~==K=^=~==~=~~===~=
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=~==~==~== z K=^=~===
= = = ~= = ~= ~= J~~~= = ~=
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= K= b= = ~= = = ~= = =
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^= ~~= ~= = = = = = ~W= ~=
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Z (u ) I= = = = ~= = = ~= = ~= ~= = ~~= ~~=
o

Z (uo ) = f (C , (n )) K= b= ~= ~~= ~~= ~=

~W= = = = = = = = = = ~=
===~K===
=
k~= ~= ~I= = = = ~= ~=
= ~~~= Z = ~~= = ~~= = = = =
= = ~K= `~~= ~~= ~= ~~~= =
~= ~= = ~= ~= ~~= = = =
= ~~~= ~K= d~= ~= ~~= = ~= =
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~==~~=~~=~~K===
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^=~==~====~== z =~~=
= ~~= ~= ~I= z (u ) I= ~= = ~= ~= ~=

= ~= ~~~= ~~= ~= = ~~= = =

~=~=====~~~K=m~~====
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I= = I= = = ~= ~= = ~= = ~= = ~=
~~==~~===~==~=~~K=k=I=
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~=P==QK=
s~~=~=
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l= = ~= = ~~= ~= = = =
= = = ~= ~~= = ~~~= ~= ~= ~~=
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= ~~= = I= ~= = = I= =
~I= ~~= = ~K= k= ~I= = = ~= ~~=
~~==I=~===~=~~==~K=l===~=
= ~= = ~= ~~= = = = = K= l=
==~~=~==~==~=R==K=
=
k= = = ~= ~J= = = ~= = =
I=~==^I======~=~~K=l===
=~=~=~==== {Z i : i = 1,..., n} I=
= = = = = ~= ~~~K= _~J= = ~=
~~= ~~= ~= = ~= ~= ~= Z = {Z1 , ..., Z n } I=
= ~~= ~= ~~~= = ~~~= ~= ~= ~= ~= = = ~=
=~==~~K=p====~I==~=~==
Z i = ~= ~= ~= ~= = = ~= ~= = ~~= =
~=~=~I==~=~==~~==~=~K=
1.6 CONCLUSES
=
b= ~= ~= = ~= = = ~= ~~= =
~= = = = ~= = = ~= = ~= ~=
~~K= l= = = = ~= = ^= b~~= =
~= = = = ~= q~~= NJNI= = = ~~= ~=
~~=~~==K=

Tabela 1-1
Tipos de Dados e Problemas em Anlise Espacial =
Tipos de Dados

Exemplo

Problemas Tpicos

Analise
Padres
Pontuais

de

Eventos
Localizados

Ocorrncia de
Doenas

Determinao de Padres
e Agregamentos

Anlise
Superfcies

de

Amostras de
Campo e
Matrizes

Depsitos
Minerais

Interpolao e Medidas de
Incerteza

Anlise de reas

Polgonos e
Atributos

Dados
Censitrios

Regresso e Distribuies
Conjuntas

=
=
m~~==~=I==~=~==~=~=
~=^=b~~====~==I=====~=
c~= NJVK= l= ~~= = = = = E= `~=
= pI= d~= = p~= m~F= = ~= = =
I= = = ~= ~= = ~~= = pfdK= b~= ~=
==~===~=~~==~K=^=~=
~= ~I= = = = = ~~= = = ~=
~~I= = = = = ~= = = ~~= = =
~I=~~====^=b~~K=l=~=
= = = ~= = = ~~= ~= ~= =
~~=~=~==K==
=
Domnios do Conhecimento
Teorias

Conceitos
Qualitativos

Modelos
Inferenciais
Hipteses
Testveis

Anlise
Espacial

=
Figura 1-9 Relao entre anlise espacial e as teorias disciplinares.
=
`= = = ~I= = ~= = = ~= ~=
~= ~I= = = = = = ~~= ~~= ~K= l=
= ~= = = = ~~= ~~= ~=

==~K=j~====~=~==
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= = ~= ~= = = = = I= = ~~= = =
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=
b~= = ~= ~= = = = ~= = ~= ~= ~=
^=b~~K=^=~=~~~==^=b~~===
~=~=====~~==~==~~==
= = = K= p= = = = = ~= J= ~=
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b~~= b~~= = ~= ~= = ~~= ~I= ~= ~=
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~= == X= ~= ~~= = ~~= ~= ~=
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~~~= ~~~= ~= ~= = ~~= = ~I= ~= = ~=
==~~====X==~~=~=~=~=
~= = ~I= ~= ~= = = = I= ~= =
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~K= ^= ~= = ~= = = ~~= = = =
~= ~= ~= = ~= ~= ~~~= E= = ~=
~= = ~~= = ~F= = = ~~= E= = ~=
~==FK==
=
b~= ~~= = = = ~= = = ~~= ~=
~= = ^= b~~= = d~K= k= ~~~= =
==~~=~I=====~~=
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~K=b===~=====~====
~=~===~~===~~==K=
1.7 REFERNCIAS
=
l=J===~=~~I===~~=~==
=~=~~==I==p~~=a~~=^~==b~=
E_~=~=d~I=NVVRFK=p===~====K=q=
_~= ~= ~= ~= ~= ~~= = ~K= l= = =
= = ~= ~= = c~= = ~K= EOMMNFI= I= ~=

======_~==d~I==~=~=K=
m~~= = ~= I= = = = j~= ENVVRF= ~~= ~=
~= ~= I= ~= = ~= ~= ~= ~= = ~~=
~~K= b= mI= = = = = o~= ^= EOMMNF=
~=~==~~~~==J~==~I=~==
~= ~= ~= ~~= = ~= = = ~= ~~= ~= =
K=
=
m~~= = = = ~= ~~= ~= ~I= = = =
`=ENVVNF=~~=~=~~===~I==~==
= = ~~= ~K= r~= ~= ~= = ~~I=
= = = = = = = = = = f~= = p~~~=
ENVUVFK= ^= = ~= dpif_I= ~= ~= ~= ~= ~~= ~~= =
= = ~~= = ~~I= = = ~~= =
==a==g=ENVVOFK=
=
m~~=~==~=~=d~I====~=
`~~= = ~K= EOMMNF= = _= = ja= ENVVUFK= `= ~= =
~= = ~~= = pfdI= = = = J= ~= `~~=
ENVVTFI= = = = = = = = ~= =
~= pmofkdK= l= = = p~~= `~~~= = ~~= = ~~=
=_=EOMMNFK=^~==^=b~~=~~=~==~=
~==~==`~~=ENVVTFK=
^I=oK=EOMMNFK=b~~=b~~==^~==b~I=
b~I= p~K= _= eI= rcjdK= E= =
YKKKL~~[F=
_~I=qK=~=^K=d~=ENVVRFK=p~~=a~~=^~==b~K=iI=
i~K=
_I= pK= EOMMNF= d~= ^~= = q~~= =
f~W=l=`~==w~=m=~~=~=p~==b~=
=p~~=`~~~K=a~=Ej~==p~=oF==
f=k~~==m~=b~~I=p=g==`~K=
_I= mK^KX= jaI= oKX= m= = d~~= f~=
pK=lI=l=r=mI=NVVUK==
`~~I=dKX=a~K`KX=jI=^KjKX=aD^I=gK`K=f==`~=~=
d~K=p=g==`~I=fkmbI=OMMN=EO~K=I=~==
~~~I===KKKLLFK=
`~~I= bK= ENVVTFK= aI= f~= = = = q= = =
m= = d~= = Eh~F= = p~= =
m~= = f~= d~~= EpmofkdFK=

a~= Ej~= = p~= oF= = f= k~~=

=m~=b~~I=p=g==`~K=
`~~I= jKpK= ENVVTF= ^~= = j= = ^= b~~= ~=
`~~~= = ~= = o= = p~K= q= = a~= =
b~~=
_~I=
`lmmbLrcogK=
EfW=
YKKKL~~[=FK=
`I=kK=ENVVNF=p~==p~~=a~~K=`I=g=tK=
aI=`K==^K=g=ENVVOFK=dpif_W=d~~=p~=i~=~=
=K=k=vI=l=r=mK=
c~I= ^KpKI= `K= _= ^= jKbK= `~= EOMMMFI= n~~=
d~I=iW=p~K=
f~I=jK==bK=p~~~=ENVUVFK=^=f==^=d~K==
k=vI=l=r=mI=NVUVK=
j~I= aK= ENVVRFK= d~= f~= pW= p=
^~K=iI=oK=
qI=bK=ENVUPFK=q=s~=a~==n~~=f~K=`I=
`qI=d~=mK=

=
APNDICE
SOFTWARE PARA ANLISE ESPACIAL
=
^= ~~= = ~= = ~= ~= = =
= = ~~= ~= ~= = ~~= ~~I= ~=
= I= = ~= ~= = = ~= =
==~I=~=~=~==~=~=~~K=
^= = I= ~= = = ~= pfd= = = = ~=
~~K=j~=I=~=~==~=~~==~=
~= ~= ~= ~= = = = = ~~= ~= ~= = pfd=
==_~K=b==~=~~~=~=~=~I==
~==~~===~===~~==~==
~==~K==
=
m~~= ~= = I= = ~= = ~= = =
~= = ~= ~~= = ~= ~~= = = ~= =
~=~======~=~~K=a~~=~=
~=~~I=J=~=====~=~=~=~~==
~~= ~K= m~~= ~= = ~~~~I= ~J= ~=
~= ~= = K~J~KI= ~= = d= aI= = =
~===~===~K=

=
^==~~=~=~=I=J=~~===faofpf===
do^ppI==pfd==~I==~===~=dpq^q==
~= = ~~= ~= ~~K= s~J= = = ~=
q~~=NJPK=
TABELA 1-2
GSLIB Biblioteca para Geoestatstica
Descrio

Biblioteca para desenvolvimento de programas em geoestatstica,

escrita em Fortran 90

Autores

Clayton Deutsch e Andr Journel

Disponibilidade

Software livre em <www.gslib.com>

Funes

Anlise Exploratria: estatsticas descritivas, clculo de variograma (2D

e 3D).
Estimao: krigeagem simples e ordinria, com modelo de tendncia,
co-krigagem, krigeagem por indicao, simulao seqencial
(gaussiana e por indicao), com suporte a variveis contnuas ou
categricas.

Aplicabilidade

Geoestatstica Linear (cap 3) e por Indicao (cap 4)

=
=TABELA 1-3
GSTAT Software para Geoestatstica
Descrio

Ambiente para desenvolvimento de programas em geoestatstica,

escrito em C. Possui interface com IDRISI e GRASS.

Autores

Edsger Predesma

Disponibilidade

Software livre em <www.gstat.org>

Funes

Anlise Exploratria: estatsticas descritivas, clculo de variograma (2D

e 3D).
Estimao: krigeagem simples, ordinria e universal (com modelo de
tendncia), co-krigagem, krigeagem por indicao, simulao
seqencial (gaussiana e por indicao), com suporte a variveis
contnuas ou categricas.

Aplicabilidade

Geoestatstica Linear (cap 3) e por Indicao (cap 4)

TABELA 1-4
ClusterSeer Clustering de Processos Pontuais=
Descrio

Programa para deteco de clusters (conglomerados) associados a

eventos

Autores

Godfrey Jacquez

Disponibilidade

Software comercial em <www.terraseer.com>

Funes

Deteco de Conglomerados Espaciais: testes focados (Diggle, Bithell,

Besag e Newell, Turnbull) e globais (Besag e Newell, funo K de
Ripley).
Deteco de Conglomerados Espao-Temporais (Kulldorff)

Aplicabilidade

Anlise de Eventos (cap 2)

=
TABELA 1-5
CrimeStat Anlise de Estatsticas Criminais=
Descrio

Software para anlise de eventos associados a criminalidade

Autores
Disponibilidade

Software livre em <www.icpsr.umich.edu/NACJD/crimestat.html>

Funes

Estatsticas descritivas: centro mdio, elipse dos desvios padres,

ndice I de Moran.
Deteco de conglomerados: funo K de Ripley, k-mdias e ndices
locais de Moran.
Estimador de densidade: kernel estimator.

Aplicabilidade
=

Anlise de Eventos (cap 2)

TABELA 1-5
SpaceStat Anlise Espacial de reas =
Descrio

Software para anlise espacial de reas, com nfase em tcnicas de

regresso espacial. Possui interface com ArcView.

Autor

Luc Anselin

Disponibilidade

Comercial em http://www.spacestat.com/

Funes

Anlise ExploratriaW=estatsticas descritivas, ndice I de Moran (global

e local), mapa de Moran, ndice C de Geary, com testes de hipteses
sobre autocorrelao espacial.
EstimaoW= Regresso por mnimos quadrados, e regresso espacial
com vrias tcnicas: modelos SAR (spatial lag e spatial error), com
incluso de heterocedasticidade.

Aplicabilidade

Anlise de reas (captulo 5)

=
TABELA 1-6
SPRING =
Descrio

Software de geoprocessamento de propsito geral, com funes de

processamento de imagens, modelagem de terreno, lgebra de mapas
e consulta a bancos de dados geogrficos. Possui interface com
SpaceStat e suas funes de geoestatstica utilizam a GSLIB.

Autores

Equipe da Diviso de Processamento de Imagens do INPE

Disponibilidade

Software livre em <www.dpi.inpe.br/spring>

Funes
de Anlise Exploratria: estatsticas descritivas, clculo de variograma (2D
Anlise Espacial e 3D), ndice I de Moran (global e local), mapa de Moran, ndice C de
Geary, com testes de hipteses sobre autocorrelao espacial.
Deteco de conglomerados: funo K de Ripley, vizinho mais prximo
e ndices locais de Moran.
Estimador de densidade: kernel estimator.
Estimao: krigeagem simples e ordinria, krigeagem por indicao,
simulao seqencial (gaussiana e por indicao), com suporte a
variveis contnuas ou categricas.
Aplicabilidade
=

Anlise de eventos (cap 2), geoestatstica Linear (cap 3) e por

Indicao (cap 4), anlise de reas (cap 5).

TABELA 1-7
ArcGIS Geostatistical Analyst=
Descrio

Extenso do ArcGIS (software de geoprocessamento de propsito

geral)

Autores

Konstantin Krivoruchko e equipe da ESRI

Disponibilidade

Comercial em <www.esri.com>

Funes
de Anlise Exploratria: estatsticas descritivas, clculo de variograma (2D
Anlise Espacial e 3D), anlise de tendncias
Estimao: krigeagem simples e ordinria, krigeagem por indicao,
co-krigagem e krigeagem disjuntiva
Aplicabilidade
=
=

Geoestatstica Linear (cap 3) e por Indicao (cap 4)