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JEWISH ART
AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY
EDITED BY
CECIL ROTH
12 color plates
485 pages
450 black-and-white illustrations
For the
first
Jewish art
is
presented in a many-sided
Jewish Art,
day.
in
to the pres-
the
refuting
Jews
art of
their
from period
area,
to period
to
to the free
use of
human
figures
even
in
sibility
gogue
much
European art
may have developed from syna-
ultimately
evolved,
which
so
of
art.
down
architecture.
It
Jewish contribution
(Continued on back
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http://archive.org/details/jewishartillustrOOroth
in the ancient
Negev. (4
JEWISH
ART
AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY
EDITED BY
CECIL ROTH
Published in Israel
by Massadah - P.E.C.
JAN3
'62
08
may not be
any form without permission of the publishers.
reproduced
in
Number
61
9776
1oH
4S
54006
Works
Ltd.,
Ramat Gan
CONTRIBUTORS
APPELBAUM
SIMON,
Israel.
Archaeologist.
JAMILLY EDWARD,
history
and archaeologv
to professional perio-
dicals.
AVI-YONAH MICHAEL,
professor
Associate
Hebrew
University,
Israel.
of
Archaeologist.
architects
KASHTAN AHARON,
Israel.
Architect.
Senior
the
Director of
Archaeology
Jerusalem.
Author of monographs on
and architecture,
George Basevi, and English synagogues.
British Architects.
Anglo-Jewish
at
Academy
Hebrew
assistant librarian
Hebrew
history of
critic.
GEORGE WALDEMAR,
building
in
architecture.
KOLB EUGENE
(deceased)
Art
Israel.
Museum
critic.
Di-
of Art. For-
COHEN MAXIMILIAN,
Language
journals.
Author
of
The Art
of
Opinions
Hebrew
LANDSBERGER FRANZ,
Curator,
Hebrew Union
Museum,
Jewish
critic.
France.
Art
he Dessin Frangais au XX e
Humanisme et Universalite and Les
and
Siecle;
of
GOODMAN
fessor,
versity,
PERCIVAL,
de
Paris.
journals.
Author of Communitas.
HABERMANN ABRAHAM
M.,
Israel. Bibliogra-
pher. Director of the Schocken Library, Jerusalem. Formerly librarian, Jewish Community
of
Berlin.
Hebrew
poetry, bibliography,
of Jewish printing.
ISSERLIN BENEDICT
S. J., Gt. Britain. ArchaeoHead, Department of Semitics, University of Leeds, England. Author of monographs on archaeology and Semitic Studies.
Bible.
(deceased),
Israel.
Archaeolo-
Hebrew
Authority on Moslem
Adviser on Moslem
Jerusalem. Rector,
University 1943-
1945.
art
ture.
and
architec-
buildings,
Israel
Moslem
Archaeology;
The
Buildings
of
logist.
NAMENYI ERNEST
critic.
Formerly
art
professional
L 'esprit de
publications.
Author
of
SCHWARZ KARL,
L'art Juif.
PERROT JEAN,
France. Archaeologist.
Head
of
RODITI
EDOUARD
ple;
DISRAELI,
France. Poet
Israel.
Art
to Civilization;
critic.
Formerly
sculpture.
Ein Deutscher Meister der Renaissance; Graphischen Werkes von Lovis Corinth; Die
Juden in der Kunst; Jewish Sculptors.
WERNER ALFRED,
Author of Dialogues on
ductions to
and
ROTH
art critic.
CECIL,
Taught
art at universities in
Art.
and author.
artists'
biographies.
WISCHNITZER RACHEL,
U.S.A.
Art
editor
Reader
in
including
historical subjects,
and
critic.
Formerly
art curator,
in the
Paintings of
CONTENTS
17
Introduction
PART ONE
Time
of the
Synagogue Architecture
Jewish Pictorial Art
The Minor
S. Isserlin
in
in the Classical
TWO
41
PART
Simon Appelbaum
75
119
155
191
225
TO THE EMANCIPATION
Synagogue Architecture
of the
The
Illumination
309
Moslem World /
Hebrew Manuscripts
of
.351
......
.......
in
and
Ages
Middle
The
Illumination
of
Printing / Ernest
of the
PART THREE
Jews
of Paris
Age
of
Emancipation
/ Waldemar George
in Architecture
The Architecture
The Jewish Artist
Percival
of the
in
the
List
in
Israel
of
Ind ex
Modern World
Eugene Kolb
Illustrations
Goodman
Cecil Roth
423
455
497
.....
.....
.....
Alfred Werner
Contemporary Svnagogue
The School
377
of
253
Edward
Edonard Roditi
Jamilh
539
575
639
719
757
797
861
903
953
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INTRODUCTION
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INTRODUCTION
The conception
some
of Jewish Art
a contradiction in terms
may appear
for there
is
to
a wide-
made
impossible,
among conforming
uncompromising prohibition
mandments
"Thou
in
shalt not
Jews, by the
is in
less familiar, is
is
still,
though
the condemna-
hibition of graven
in the
Pentateuchal code
terms
in
its
detailed instruc-
was intended
to
following verse:
them and
be read
"Thou
in conjunction
them"
for the
that
nity.
In
all
tions varied
from land
to land
the prohibition
was
absolute,
whatsoever, of
man
or beast or bird,
is
in the
may be observed
however
artistic
is
and even
representational,
lineation
of a
not
art: for
animal
or
figure.
Hence,
times
the
all
in representational
human
even
and commanded
in
at all
times,
men went
The
human
beings
inhibition
to
figures
i.e.,
make
busts
a
Some-
and great
being incor-
in objects associated
as regards three-dimensional
do not begin
was admitted
circles.
vine worship.
and no representation
Jewish
in relatively "liberal"
latitude
fish
that no
tion to generation.
is,
to
purpose of worship,
is
with the
bow down
shalt not
be
Ten Commandments
flieth in the
to
in the pro-
images particularizes
with
itself,
with Di-
and
statues.
These
general appearance in
though even
in the classical
But
premise
is
Whe-
incorrect.
were intended
as
an
It
may
on the one
human
or animal
form
questionable. But
what
anv circumstances
in
is
certain
is
that
among Jews
loyalty.
it
is
was
of the
Indeed, the
In a
attraction.
stronger.
was automa-
INTRODUCTION
19
became
This was
20
it
a passionate iconoclast.
so,
of representational
(e.g.,
[figs.
Nahum
Rabbi
Avodah Zarah,
episode
Caesar")
known, was
of Jesus.
riotic
and a period
resulted.
symbols had a
whom
for
religious
was natu-
But,
it
is
now
the
was
as
sweeping and
believed.
"visages",
found
in
All
manner
as consistent as
of images
is
were
jto6oco7tov)
Jerusalem before
informed by a scholar of a
i.e.,
to
be
destruction in the
its
generally
(Parsufin:
human
beings,
we
are
New Testament
at least far
There
from general
views
their
adopted. At a representative
officially
Temple Court
imposed on
as of
in
human
attitude
reflected
in
who
writings of Josephus,
the
order.
orthodox
had been
That
this
development was
political, as
Roman
by
ded
if
hated
Roman
rule
with
symbolism tightened
its
its
hold,
more
made
the
so
iconic
objection
more
rigid interpreta-
was now
that
voung
eagle symbol
of
Rome's majesty
up by
hitherto un-
set
Romans
to
their standards
rule
much
representations
is
at the outset
religious, in origin
human
This
strongly
emphatically resent
time
at the
is
gathering in the
not un-
if
in the
Talmud
(Jerusalem
by
among
rally intensified.
Sinai
3rd century
the
tion,
ben
in
late
seemed
to
be
after
when
the
and permanently
finally
established
it.
as
Now
greater
to
lati-
elaborate
concerning
regulations
the
re-
of
himself used
liel
human
signet
ring
engraved with
demonstration purposes notwithstanding the spedisapproval, and did not refrain from
cific Biblical
as
pagan
statue.
an adornment
informed his
have
critics.
his statue
"The Aphrodite
is
intended
he
the
(we
are told
lest
Empire
in
plement
set
it.
found
lars of
in a
synagogue
in
object
Nehardea
at
was
to
be
which scho-
INTRODUCTION
21
to
nah 24b). This might perhaps have been a question of yielding to circumstances.
Kama 97b)
(B.
of coin-medallions
series
of the patriarchs
22
and heroes
this pe-
Ill
we
seems
to
venture to
in the sixth or
was the
iconoclastic
movement
was the
the other
and expansion
birth
of Islam,
with
known
as
outlook in
current
its
which prohibits
idols
1,
figu-
and
may have
likenesses ye
in
change
in attitude
and V)
as
we
owing
to a scribal error)
of
alls,
IV
Talmud
in the stan-
paint on the
to
of
make
to
designs on
representational art
nagogue
was admitted
home
some
for
some generations
it
embodied
opinions
we would imagine
have
ideal
happened.
in
objected
the
to
The
the
to
against
course,
to interpret
nerally;
tion
parallel, for
it
The
result
was
lasted.
currently believed,
It
is
among
loped
the
'Ashkenazim'. But
latter
that
In Spain, even
and
in this respect
cumb
fewer qualms
of the
Madonna
all
more
the
century
environment with
Jew
Eliakim
while remaining
to revere.
Though
in the
no
than the
exist
arts
all
Jews
A more
satisfactory
of
of animals
the
statutory
walls.
And
Isaac
though he himself
recalled that as a
he had frequented
of
figures
dis-
tions
services
the
figurative
interruption
among
after the
twelfth
the
it
'Sephardim' than
some extent
it
and influence
was
iconoclastic
the
in the Orient,
Of
and
further.
clearly,
life,
But,
Jewish
seems to have
we were
if
in
to the sv-
objected to pictures in
pietists vociferouslv
For a pro-
triumphed
that the
text,
traditional
the
for
in
impossible
manifestly
is
suit.
would seem
It
came about
be more ample
will
of worship
It
One
Byzantine
in the
fail to
riod, the
its
call
(d.
at Meissen.
Meir of Rothen-
1293) object
to the
presence
on
23
INTRODUCTION
21
human form
the
We
was incomplete.
in
it
which bore
human
knew
Rashi, too,
likeness.
of,
to,
wall frescoes
tween David and Goliath, with descriptive word(Babylonian Talmud Shabbat 149a).
ing below
On
the surface,
it
though he
certainly seems as
among
The author
of the
is
the well-to-
North
in
synagogue,
but
pietism,
tice
notoriously
standards
exacting
and
the
before
especially
work
this
twelfth
of
Torah-shrine;
most
the
reflected
German
century
his
so,
in
the place of
On
the other
hand, the scholars of the Spanish school consistently maintained an extreme attitude.
ha-Hinnukh, ascribed
to
The Sepher
Aaron of Barcelona
it
was forbidden
human being
to
13th
make
position
khavim,
III,
human
in painting
and
tapestries.
towards
art
was
mav be
fluid,
Moslem
countries a
shown
in
Chapter IX of
this
1.
God
appears
Senior
Samuel
Amsterdam).
it
the
Infant
Texeira.
1717
to
remains impossible to
Samuel.
Gravestone ot
Cemetery,
(Oudekerk
INTRODUCTION
25
26
Europe
parts of northern
in the
seventeenth and
common,
after.
It
now became
if
to
have figures
of
in relief
(i.e.,
three-dimensional)
Scroll,
tenance. (It
is
At
decorations
time,
this
Now
phardim
was
it
Moreover,
scenes.
Detail
of engraved
of
frontispiece
were executed
scripts
in Persia
of
God
in
Hebrew manu-
at
reliefs
one
in
at
depicting Bible
erected
least,
to
1717
in
comprises what
was
Ten Commandments
as Jews have always interpreted them. The Hand
of God had indeed figured in the frescoes of
Dura Europos but this went very much further.
in utter
of
we
that, as
Amsterdam
in
in
figures,
shrine.
2.
in
human
to Samuel. This
contravention of the
and
strong,
became stronger in
the Protestant world, and
in certain respects
tended to be
Europe
generally,
it
Western Europe
(e.g.,
human
on
ritual objects
mestically. In Italy,
synagogue
of the
we
how
are informed
at Ascoli,
removed
the Ark
to Pesaro in
On
the other
What
is
remarkable
is
easy-going day.
sible to
By a
in situ,
happen
it
comment
an incident
in our
priori reasoning,
own more
is
it
pos-
is
not the
Mantua
1742
in the
learned citv
of
half a
kiel's
picture,
Ribles,
it
some
iconoclasm
human
imagination.
from extreme
went further
in certain
in
(fig.
Vision of the
Dead
is
later
it
Once
again, the
amazing
fact
is
it.
INTRODUCTION
27
2S
Hence
at
aesthetic standards,
made
preciation
their
former
have
its
soon
too,
fol-
suit.
Leone Modena
scenes.
Biblical
1648)
(d.
in-
Venice of
liberty of
are
their
in
his
especially
if
they
in
on
(Frankfort
J.J.
Schudt wrote
Merkwiirdigkeiten
Jiidische
his
Main
1714
17):
3.
Museum
to the synagogue,
home. Some of
to
this
development
traits
of their parents.
spend
lovers, thev
tures
some
of their
IV
fort in
and
a great deal of
money on
pic-
portraits."
Portraits
to
appear
end
Marranos,
dox emerges.
acclimatized
in
former
lives
to
European
ban
iconoclastic
mitigating
it
their
had been
Christianity,
image worship
in a
protest
in
against
especially
the
human form
in
up
the paintings
ally,
so as to save
was common-place
and
had
was no
portraits
in
clearly realized
relation
between
their houses
and
known, though an
recommended
Italian
that a
man
may
lie in
is
theless,
of
synagogues while
same antiquity
in
in
the
by the
to
have
their
likenesses
it
among
their
to the
at the
same time
Jewish portrait-painters
Amsterdam
in
INTRODUCTION
29
even struck, though
this
30
aroused some
when he
painted,
in
London
visited
commissioned
artist
bv
sit
in
had
it
to
him unawares.
What
most remarkable
is
Eastern Europe
perhaps
ement
to
Judaism
in
as part of
Reform mov-
a revulsion seems
particular piety
as late as
some persons
that in
is
now
refusing to
method
objections
to
slight.
This fact
illustrates the
in the
which one
4.
is
Josef
Israels,
Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
Self-Portrait.
impossible.*
it
abun-
poses had
become
fully familiar in
Jewish
circles
at
much
Jewish
artists also
to
emerge
will find at a
began
The reader
is
possible. In
ac-
manv
perhaps Zoffanv)
remembered outside
in
in
among
England
tation
*
may
began
to
of local repu-
ra-
remember
style of painting,
work
their dav,
increase,
artists
name now
was
collectors.
we must
But
as well as aesthetic
some
of
approach are
Nevertheless, in
competence
as
indeed
fully justified. It
is
not
executed
the
such
period
be
that this
art
of
now
been expected
The
world of
in the
left
tury
scale of
who
names of
may be
appreciated
painters of the
Regencv
fashionable
England
If that
in
should happen,
INTRODUCTION
31
may perhaps
32
may
extent
make
artists
and
their
(fig.
3)
(fig.
Israels
cannot concern
that
itself
art.
results.
noteworthy- There
is
ob-
is
quence
in
se-
it
Yet
have
it
may be
in
the sense
an
Spanish
or
or
itself
Israeli
even of those
common
terms that
set
down;
for
artificial
unity,
based on geographical
been
just
French
or
Italian
lating
volume
with
The phenomenon
is
artists ?
what extent
to
handful of Jewish
viously
And
racterized as "Jewish"?
distinction.
only by postu-
is
it
able to re-
is
it
we have
manifestations,
all artistic
lifted
incorrect, for
is
But
arts
even
in the
is
it
fact
indeed explain
the
phenomenon
nineteenth
figure of
Social prejudice
that
until the
is
century
began on
pouring of
second half
hardly
single
artistic
is
to the
explain
its
was
its
Pissaro, Israels,
Liebermann, Modigliani
genius
(fig.
5),
all
had
to
itself,
same
become economically
pos-
On
factor
Titian, or
What one
simply the sum
land.
persons,
is
in
it
is
the
artistic
artistic
production of
religion, or of
Jewish stock.
final conclusion,
of
bond between
artists,
and
age,
ment
in
it
is
their
difficult to find
any
is
tions of the
or
numerous
extraction, wi h
is
little
no
superficial relationship
of course
whom
artists
this
of Jewish birth or
work
will
be concerned,
dieir
as
Victorian as
were
as
possible to distinguish
union
may perhaps be
Jewish
discerned
is
is
of the
trivialities
A bond
rites.
among
It
of a Jew-
as fidelity in depicting
ar-
profoundly
and
superficial ele-
That there
one thing
ish
in
fact
in
of
of
same
the
in
production
England, so that
persons,
phases, the
its
in
was no common
periods as a
all
homogeneity inevitable
a prodigal out-
abilitv.
with
due
may
of
this in
hundred vears
of art
in
in
of
the Jewish
due more
to
common physical background of the Eastern European ghetto, from which so manv of them emerthe
INTRODUCTION
33
5.
Amedeo
Modigliani,
Portrait
of
34
Chaim
Soutinc.
their authorship
colleagues.
to object;
is
proposed then
artistic
achievements
to describe in this
in
everv
medium
volume the
of Jews
and
chapter
down
tistic
and buildings
to authorship
whether
and
is
art,
The
or not.
VI
It
it is
is
arin-
INTRODUCTION
35
36
The
centralitv of cult-objects,
fundamental
to Christianity
sible
of the
Judaism. Jewish
in
life
artistic
lost in
beauty.
VII
the
gest
(fig.
synagogue frescoes
be described
6) (to
The discovery
at Dura
in themselves.
Europos
in
Chapter V) sug-
Christian
that
possibility
would
relics
ecclesiastical
art
art
same way
as church
music
is
art, in
much
believed to have
developed out of that of the Temple and the JewObviously, the sparse instances
^Jt;^*** ~A$k
The Hind
(>.
of
a fresco in the
Synagogue
from
in
VIII in particular).
It
it
will
become
(chapters VII-
cases,
Middle
for
all
this.
Poverty,
tension
is
more fun-
this
we have
to
The
have survived
norm
of the place of
It
the intention
was
to illustrate
it
of
The collaborators on
in their fields
different
its
The
Scroll
which
are
this
drawn from
and have
countries
way
ed
we
of
impose
are
theses
and
will
all
many
as
experts
different
to stand,
half a dozen
left to
eiated as
volume
The reader
approach and
still
working a new
are
field,
The
not beside
to
of service. It
It is
Spring symbol,
detail of
mosaic floor
at
Beth Guvrin.
IN ANTIQUITY
PALESTINIAN
by
It
is
because
easiest to write
A N
we
reckoned
is
in
millenia,
common
features.
we may
At most,
en-
influences, Egyptian,
Syrian,
art
and give
for the
it
most
and predominantly so
part,
we
common
origin
links
and
in
at the
end
of the
sibilities
sparse
it
population,
in caves
tine
was
closed
to
become
region
passing
shelter
it
protected
we
country the
which
of invasion
in the
first
east.
It
not until
is
the
shared by
is
decessors,
however,
so,
Nevertheless, a
bond
its
remotest periods,
subtle
PERROT
always the
ian art;
that
it
is
CONQUEST
ISRAELITE
in
the
all
soil;
centuries.
Hebrew
art
cannot
Canaanite pre-
its
same way,
if
to
a lesser
The rapid
which
sketch,
it
is
our intention to
its
all
periods
it
Dead
7.
whereas
ditions
development
This
to the
is,
of
an agricultural
and the
civilization.
dom converged
frequently
made
it
Human
battle-field.
or contacts with
nia, the
it.
timal conditions of
life
it
that Palestine
was
lization at
beginning.
its
op-
mille-
men
first
is
it
focus of the
possible
new
civi-
to divide our
first
will
be de-
43
44
The Natufians
whose
of Palestine,
original cul-
bv recent
excavations
Wadi
"Natufian" being
from
derived
was encountered
for
the
time
first
dwelt
in
they
predecessors,
lithic
lived
still
by hunting,
they
ground
it
winnowed
cereals,
in querns.
grain
and
decorated
rous
found
skeletons
by the nume-
in
the
Carmel
caves,
tools
which
them
small
on a
high,
8.
it
wide
pebble
apart,
whose
may be placed
in
furrow which
neck
joining of the
head
to
able material.
The
skull,
first
we
shall
lines
seem
centimeters
is
is
underlined by
marked with a
may have
a body made
manifestations
to us at present,
Some 4
7).
flat
whose contour
set
art.
(fig.
shows a broad
cular
known
calcite
facilitated
of
some
cir-
the
perish-
to represent hair,
is
capacious, with
Age down
the Bronze
when
II
Art does
till
not
make
its
appearance
Palestine
No work
of art
same period
flowering.
in
Upper
dustries of the
cave
in the desert of
procession
in-
tic
in
artistic
was thought
Umm
Qatafa
9.
art.
45
Crouching gazelle,
10.
ogival
and
vault,
Of
Um
Cave of
form corresponds
general
in
stone.
human remains
of the period.
than from an
artistic
point of view
is
a curious sta-
position, deriving
Wadi
and
The
Khareitoon.
statuette
is
in
10 cm. high,
hands show no
may be
city
head
and
details,
intentional.
measure nearlv a
should
artist
between the
analogy
in
general simpli-
the
this
The
8).
(fig.
is
it
interesting that
have noticed
this
difference
no precise
European
is
cer-
tainly
figurines
and
idols
symbolizing
statuette
of
fertility.
style
Its
Sireuil
and,
according
to
France.
tion
With
may be
found
tuette
very schematic
height
ment
is
the
same
associated
at
Shaar
human
palaeolithic
slightlv
Hagolan.
figurine onlv
tradi-
later
This
65
sta-
small
mm.
in
above
line,
rine
is
rine
from Mauern
in Bavaria,
figu-
in the
The lumbar
hardly indicated
indicated by an incised
is
the
is
art.
is
which seems
Natufi
lower part
46
Ukraine.
repeat
All
same symbolism,
the
to
to the entire
and
Russia
of
figurine
found
at
Shaar
is
Linsenberg
in
the Rhineland, a
Wad
animal statuette
in
from
length,
is
gazelle,
neck outstretched
are flexed
and
fine,
The master-
unquestionably a small
cave
Judean
the
10).
head unfortunately,
short
9).
in
(fig.
slender,
those of El-
(fig.
Zuweitina
its
where the
site
like
It
is
of
represents
as
broken.
if
Um
ez-
crouching
to drink; the
The
legs,
verv
tail
is
47
it
48
which
ses
mark
the
is
its
apogee.
The
Natufian
of the
interest
high
at
El Wad,
Kabarah, and
Wad
from El
(fig.
it
is
movement
as
Wadi
Fallah. That
its
to suckle, in a grace-
if
the
all
animal
represents a fawn,
11)
in
the decoration
relief of several
at
artist
in
epiphysis.
worked
in
high
at
relief
marked
at
parallel
incisions
much
skin
the
as
doubtless
as
felicity
of
adapt
of gazelle (Reaping-hook haft), bone.
Cave of El-Wad, Carmel. Natufi art.
still
quarters.
cuted,
hair.
out on
differ-
bellv
and hind
this
witness
made
be
to
work,
the
despite
Natufian
its
bears
mutilation,
sculptor's
love
of
full
and movement, bv
intelligent simp-
12.
Reaping-hook
hafts,
of
artists
this
figure
at the
to
material.
end
of
(fig.
12)
of
folds
its
period,
how
to
complete reaping-
shows
back from the belly appears to indicate a
the European
d'Azil.
Head
11.
indicating
those
and breast by
shoulder
knee,
in
length,
flint
blades,
eves.
These decorated
may be compared
sick-
lower
plateau.
levels
Thev
of
Tepe
human
figure.
on
Sialk
in
the
same fashion
This relationship
is
of
Sialk
with those of
art.
emphasized bv
inhabitants
Iranian
earliest
Bvblos
and
49
Fawn. Rock-carving
13.
at
Kilwa.
to
man
was
to sup-
we may
ture,
say
apparently
that
there
may
European
the
fairly late.
We
Upper
encounter
survived
Palaeolithic
it
still
vigorous in the
art.
Some
scholars
of Kilwa
in
attribute
rock
the
engravings
to Natufian art
(fig.
encounters
ever,
first artists
Middle East.
of the
how-
considerable
and
archaeological, aesthetic
an
of
difficulties
cultural character.
Neolithic
racial affinity-
conclusion on
a hastv
Transjordan.
50
in
1932 on
ainous massif of
S.
to
Palestinian Natufian.
membered
Palestine
tory,
the
It
should above
ancient
we
all
can go
be
were,
industries
The
in his-
re-
and
in
rarely.
is
of
its
originality,
for
the
sculptors
to
of
anv
Mount
new
basalt
which were
also
often
adorned
generally
The animals
are
shown
Men
appear only
life-size (the
of a
wild
represent
goats,
other
of
occupy us here,
will
it
oldest
much
line,
bovid
is
refinement of drawing:
framed by the
that
lines,
is
the
never worked.
but
in
some
51
testifies to
careful observation
light
One
been caught
at full gallop,
behind,
gracefullv
gathered under
forelegs
his
by arrows,
to the
would remain
fact
other.
52
who prolonged
artist
was primarily a
sculptor, the
Kilwa
tradition
artist
was an
have
be sought
to
on
namely, southward
prototype
his
life-blood,
almost
is
the
of
the
Morocco.
It
is
from
art that
their
and dynamic
ful
We
world
hunter's
true
in
animals,
is
with
marks
bearing
figures
arrow-pierced
bovid.
and
magic
the
for reproduction,
should be enough to
Some
that
vital
is
that
there
abundance.
seem
be wearing a
it
procreate,
kill in
of the goats
bles, or to
since
to
sort of halter,
and may
engravings,
At
work
of
of the
first
prehistoric
some
least
of these
may be
the
for
man
technique,
their
figures,
life-size
their themes.
whom we
find a
later
little
engraved pavement
Palestine on an
in
at
relations
be dragging hob-
rock
ing a
blows,
taste
are here
of
and
at the
dawn
Meso-
The
hammered
Aqaba and the Negev
rock drawings,
tinuity
and
artists
to
may
pictured
in this
been related
in
in
as
we have
described
time in
full
mentioned above
Galilee
comparison
is
to Natufian art
The
in-
is
not un-
the population
the
domestication
secured
new
of
leisure,
ress,
The
material
first
Even
if
it
were
to
be established
transformed
made
progress
but
in
the
rapid prog-
cult,
and increased
modification
fertilitv
animals
technology
settled
Jordan Valley,
economv.
The control of these means of existence
J
became
in the
link.
this
phical;
cultural
at
of this
fact
as
of
society,
first
now
profound
organized
villages
on
were founded.
the
influence
of
the
north
Mesopotamia!!
53
regions,
sources
and
achieved
therefore
progress. But
agricultural
in
the
54
re-
speediest
in Palestine a
in the
On
larism.
led
hills
its
to
new
was
religious
flowering,
and aesthetic
among
the
chief
Middle East.
works of ancient
strange
head
flat
the
in
art
14), evi-
(fig.
Head
14.
at
Jericho.
art.
face
is
The
These decorated
chin
is
shells.
is
related, as Miss K.
and
small
The
up-turned.
Found
clay.
idol,
Neolithic
measuring 20 centimeters
of an
is
The
in height.
made
front,
mouth
is
falls to
slightly
skulls
may
M. Kenyon
feasibly
be
suggests, to an-
cestor worship.
painted
the eye-
IV
brows from below a
The beard
is
above
repre-
around the
of
artist
aimed
portraying
in
divinitv,
made
progress was
of a
new economic
kindled
now
in
one
on
gether;
sented a
hearts
of
civilization
Palestine,
modelled
full-
reed framework,
whose fragments
largest
skill
of a
woman and
to-
child, only
to blur, the
in
an analogous
fundamental
cultural duality
and
ed by the emergence
in the
fragments remain.
were
to a
of the smallest,
same
The discovery
surprised us by the
was the
era,
till
great
and
Palestine.
in
new
Two
figure
the
lenium.
body
at
this
the second
in leaving
ceeded
a
Jericho
We
know whether
do not
as has
us
face.
In
Its origins
are
still
is
began
between
well illustrat-
southern areas of an
unknown;
it
is
possible that
be known
as
in
At any
rate, the
55
56
of
thin-
now
inhabited,
tlement.
meager
hollowed
villages
in
From
and genuine
a
taste
bone,
art.
for
pendants
in
brilliant culture
and ivorv
and
turquoise
mother-of-pearl,
of
stone
itself
copper
bracelets,
rings,
is
Above
at As-Safadi.
One
of
height
tions.
in
which
certain
particular care,
shows a pronouncedly
Egyptian neither
is
The head
nor execution.
in detail
centimeters
him
ing before
recalls
measuring 33
these,
(fig.
flat
is
which
skull,
treated with
is
very short,
Ivory
figurine.
Museum
newcomers
Beer
of Antiquities.
for
culture in Palestine
intrusion
As-Safach
the
Sheba
culture.
appearance of the
new
rela-
parts.
The very
Dead Sea
copper-sites in the
Wadi
provided
The
als.
Transjordanian
hollow and
re-
of the
statuettes
Jerusalem.
the
is
minds us
plateau
probably
wore,
whilst
beard
the
surrounding
of strands of
eyes were
ly
the pupils.
minent.
with
ears
circular swelling.
this detail,
mean
wool pas-
mother-of-pearl
The nose
The
are
is
representing
long, straight
marked by
The mouth
it
and pro-
a perforated
that this
face
filled
encrusted
the
is
may
57
ing this
akin
object
58
mak-
schematic figurines
the
to
of predynastic Egypt.
execution
for
also
differ,
the
face
highly
is
the
The
perforated
necklace,
for
have been
could
an
of
figure
that
of
site
pelican
simple
front
some
was
figure
this
sort.
decorated with
is
(fig.
appears that
figure's
so
amulet
it
while
indicated,
17),
and
lively
object
analogies
cm.
(4
not
are
5).
absent,
possess the
aesthetic
sense of proportion.
Much
rougher work
is
an ivory hippopotamus'
The
and
eyes
incisors
nostrils
are
indicated.
Hippopotamus
Beer Sheba ivory workers with their raw mathey could have seen the former animal
terial;
abundant
The
in
affinities
of the Beer
ned by the
Head
16.
of
Beer
figurine.
Ivory.
As-Safacli,
earlier penetra-
African
tion
of
into
southern Transjordan
influence
alluded to above
in
refe-
Sheba culture.
body, the
artist
long
slender
The
The
legs,
and delicately
backward
in
way which
satisfies
which
rids
the
figure
broken
at
the
of
is
some
of
not alone.
waist
(fig.
movement
hieratic
its
pendant-
16)
shows
But
ings.
it is still
to define the
too earlv
mechanism
of
It
otherwise with
is
which
invite search in
direction
Egypt,
larly
than
being particu-
this
the
other
case
with
the
Pi nhead
rna i:cnL
'
l
,
A u
Bone, from Abu-Matar.
Beer Sheba culture.
'
59
18.
afield.
schematic
small
man
on
seated
his heels
seems than
it
60
some
in
of
its
aspects, this
To
blob.
We
preceding.
much
potamia.
Contemporary
with
Beer
50
repre-
all,
people,
One
animals,
in length,
and
birds,
of these paintings
geometric
measuring 4 m.
bad condition.
be distinguished inside
a vellow
which can
and
Two,
sons.
ed
in
twice
in
then streaked
on a
the
The
rays
solar disk or to a
star.
sort of
ground
shapeless
brown
line.
yellow
lines.
down
to
the
ankles
probablv
chair,
then
a servant.
is
positions
motifs.
and
senting the
senting
Sheba
Another painting
represents
and
diameter
large
(fig.
with
star
18).
be monsters
five
less
Around
to a
measuring not
black,
breastlevel,
to
it
rays
red
of
than lm. 84 in
appear various
and mythological
beasts.
The
at
the
same
beyond realism
From
It
technical point
of
being geometric.
view, the
Ghassoul
Mesopotamian
Gawra and
mural
of the later
paintings
(Protoliterate)
of
Tepe
examples
61
at the
if
may be
tine.
fruitful
ginality
to determine,
connections.
period in Pales-
artistic
Its
that
marks a particularly
it
it
be interesting
will
its
mate-
we
intrusion
of a
executed in the
become
is
rial
to
62
fine black
and
The transition
the Bronze
to
:nium
finds
may
unknown
reveal
to us
and new
re-
it,
stamped
a
virtually
is
searches
some engravings
jars,
few objects
bone and
of
at
Megiddo and
seals
found
at
Megiddo,
Jericho,
sites of
Byblos,
floral
or
animal
These belong
to a
whose center
of
diffusion
affinity
It
we
is
also to
it,
route
tery
is
in
schist
from
palette
tamus-head
sawir,
in
may be
tomb
of As-
The
curious zoomorphic
for sacrifice.
sanctuary
is
if
its
from the Ai
second half of
first
of
with Egypt, as
body by
southern Syria.
principal
In Palestine, a rectangular
ivory.
Fr.rah,
Et-Tell,
Palestine
If
must be sought.
it
fine
triangles
the
third
Sheba
millenium.
ivories,
two
to a
bodv
The
Jericho and
as important
(it
of
of different material.
attachment. But,
for
if
comparable
in
flint
giddo
in the
One
of these
Another
theless
testifv
new
separate
to take
an encrustation.
masses,
much
as
in
anatomy
certain
in
Egyptian
63
potamian
foot,
istic
The drawing
art.
man walking
character-
is
to the right
Megiddo
It
difficult
is
it
many stringed
the man holds
to
in the other;
bow
see a
this
man
jection
(now
stele
in
From
style.
a pro-
The man
brandishing
is
whose point
in
coil.
is
and by others a
bird.
The
to
be
general shape
head
in profile, the
and the
again
legs
Egyptian
in
profile,
difficulties, for
additional
is
lel
object
it
certainly
contemporary
influence
is
makes
it
show
with
the
falling
a Hittite attribute of
is
is
not there-
of the third
This n
in Palestine
whi
its
pottery testifies
as caliciform.
Egypt
influence in Asia;
its
Palestine and
of
Syria
Asiatic
their
simultaneously
frontier,
the lands
materials,
and craftsmen
The
royal and
contain
city
Pharaoh,
most
of
which were
and
ists,
of
from
imported
jewellers,
art-
who
value,
their
to
signi-
ficance.
The
revival of Egyptian
duration; divided
by dvnastic
power was
rivalries,
of brief
Egypt was
provinces,
where
From
appearance.
new ethnic
made their
18th
their
first
of the
Jacob's
migration
in-
economies
is
mav be
The
latter,
bearers of
swift cha-
rolled in successive
in a state of
known
riots,
have been
to us but
VI
At the end
profiled wares
a superior
to
known
is
hand.
new
to
marked by
art
the
in
in
its
securing their
is
dards;
but
and Baluah
to
bow
The man's
belt.
period
64
districts
and
to
become
tine
was thus
empire
at the
controlled
from the
Hyksos capital of
65
66
Palestine
found
at
good
some
examples
representing a
man
been
have
bronze figurine
goddess
naked
fig.
20 )
hair,
and from
it
in front a pair of
forehead
is
bv
19.
she
a triple
row
of pearls.
Monumental
art
hardlv
Jericho,
nique
fine
ear-like
example of
projec-
this tech-
at
There are
wings.
stretched
frontlets
and two
decoration
granulated
worked
in
and
diadems
also
leaf,
Among
calcite
well
and alabaster
This
prototypes.
Palestinian
vases,
forms
proportioned
metallic
East.
which
the
is
often
imitate
golden age of
and
vase with
(fig.
by brows which,
end
plastic decoration,
at Jericho
at the
human
19) shows a
somewhat
over-
the head
human
type
plated with
are,
the
fine
silver
This
statuettes
20.
at
Naharivah.
67
of the
are
conducive to a real
the broken
is
at
The
flowering.
artistic
only
of the
stele
we
one another by
fields of checkers,
alternating with
wavy
tion in the
opposed
the
vase's shoulders
By
68
bands of color
chevrons, ornamenta-
lines,
at the apex,
superimposed
crosses.
are taken
him
More
were
stags
Me-
The
isolated
time to acquire
this
palm
or
These themes
commercial
relations
the
produced
The
arts.
new development
the
and
luxury
influence
artistic
of
now
reasserted
valley.
this
Aegean develops
becomes
fish,
living
swim
fishes.
conquest.
itself;
small
in
stimulated
grouped
sometimes
of
one another or
tree and,
tive
crosses.
and
up by many-colored Maltese
the
artistic
to the point
the
of
sometimes
it
between
distinguish
to
difficult
influence
where
local
we
The
by two
triangles
they
Aegean
leaving,
movement among
classic
up by
cup by a small
is
The
beasts.
a frisking
picked out
at
VII
may
elliptical figure
small dots.
in
whose center
We
Ras Shamra
it
is
line
have evidently
cup
bowl found
Of
the
discovered at Tell
at
imported
from
Whereas
at the
rally
in
13th
the
century.
still
frequent rebellions,
ly
its
little
originality
Syrian
retained by
influence,
illustrates
civilization better
this
on pottery
end of the
tion
still
a fine
beloi led
it
owed
to
found
at
Megiddo.
decline of Palestinian
in
the
same
art
decoration
appearance
its
and the
as
Nothing
centuries,
by
period.
The
marked by the
as
the Bronze
Age
islands,
end
at the
of
of the island
far
The
workshops were
flourishing
grown wealthy on
towns
trade, pro-
stimulated local
artists.
its
own
69
70
Its
been
obscure.
is
suggested
the
that
has
It
struggle
by symbolically interpreted,
should
gods,
their
or
nowhere
in
combat, but
do we see
such a symbolical
the
monument
role.
The
style of
however, so remi-
is,
lar beast
Shamra
ascribed
that the
Syrian
to
art,
perhaps an
war-booty
at the
at the
or
at
to consider this
monument,
local work.
The
wall,
from an
21.
Fight between lion and dog. Basalt tablet from Beth Shean
arranged
which
in a
niche of the
artistic
The
point of view.
basalt
With
the
cal situation
Amarna
Hittite
Empire became
steles
of
different
cutting of
of the
moon)
left,
was a small
of a
bareheaded god
on a
stool
and Rameses
(fig.
23).
The execution
II.
Palestine
and
its
ports
which
is
well proportioned,
is
in a
On
in
basalt statue
long garment
is
by a good
in
is
fight
bodv
head
its
at the
is
end
prolonged
The northern
this
was
about
artist,
at
hand
seated
in his right
astro-
Hittite control.
un-
sizes,
influence
is
here
dominant;
of
Syrian
Syrian
type.
It
is
moreover
the
is
seated
in
North
71
22.
lion
The
are to be found.
stylistic
homogeneity
of the
angle of Canaanite
art,
an unexpected
Found
well be explained by
and
political
at
made
ing been
for a
Hittite
mav
tablet.
72
to the
interest;
independence.
is
VIII
gallop destroy the enemy. Victorious in the fight,
period
in
number
come
to
us
found
at
above
than
all, at
large
ivory
of
objects
ivories,
more
constitute
site
an
has
afforded.
The
century,
oldest of
all
them go back
to the 14th
artistic
tradi-
of the period.
typical
We
most
among them.
of people,
rest.
It
represents
re-
disc.
of
Hittite
winged
figures
are
obviously
Although the
Hittite.
markable
versatility of technique,
Megiddo,
at
It
undoubtedly preferable
is
it
seems improunique of
its
type
is
is
re-
to regard
it
as hav-
and
in his right
who
left,
before him.
sit
shown according
to
is
later
Hazor
on the As-
syrian reliefs.
The
much freedom.
We
find
beverage,
while
treated with
seated on a throne
is
the queen
servant
is
again on an ivory at
it
several
is
of his vassals
the king
Although
cup
in the
who
homage
is
pouring him a
stands
behind
the
giddo
(fig.
first
ceded by
an
officer
a warrior.
The king
is
left,
the
same
unkown
in
73
He
is
in
and a napkin
lotus-flower
to
wipe
him
a plate,
no parallels
in
scenes
of
this
tvpe
shown
in
artist,
to
a remarkable
Mycaenean
of
mastiff
is
admire the
again on
this
time
its
skillful
is
most the
est
With the
slender-
to the fight.
To
the
same group
also be-
woman
which serves
ivories.
More
detailed
the form of a
in
as
To
spoon.
same tvpe
the
of
What
eyes
their
with
encrusted
in
women's
glass
complex play of
of the
Aegean
all,
pearls.
that
is
With
gaming
tables,
and nu-
Asiatic,
consummate
skill
end
of the
Bronze Age.
craftsmen
these
move
borrowed usual-
Egyptian, and
repertoires,
of striking force
At the end
and
in
producing works
originality.
of the
upon the
coasts
Israelites
had begun
to
settle in the
the Jordan.
The
composite
influence.
Megiddo
the
to
Mycaenean
the
from Duweir
bottle
comes
of
to the astonishingly
perfume
variety
at Tell
rounded bosoms,
fill
but with
74
history
an end. But
to
art
whose
of
this
birth
Canaanite Palestine
is
and development we
and whose
subsequent period,
Philistines
and
tradition
now having
Israelites.
continued
as
its
in
the
protagonists
ISRAELITE
by
BENEDICT
of
light
full
history
his-
S.
ISSERLIN
up
which
to
(weapons, pottery,
can be assigned
etc.)
newly-arrived
the
to
to
seem
drawing
for
its
definitely
to
in the
early
twelfth.
fore
them with
fire
conclusions
known among
the other
nomads
art
both
of Asia,
seems
to lean
theoretical claims to
theless, not
Canaanite
cities in
after
letariat
grouped
tically
tled
down
to
soon
set-
in juxtaposition
These
in a tribal confederacy,
latter
simply
any
finer
who
in turn
owed
latter,
century
thirteenth
allegiance
enfeebled dur-
had
B.C.E.,
plain belt,
ed
out.
and
in
the
Palestinian
The whole
it
flicker-
recalls in
some ways
the
Europe
of the
Dark Ages
is
much
course,
to trying
art
earlier
its
by the invasion.
From
its
(Exodus
tures
As
detail.
twined
XXXVI
tains
and
scarlet,
XXXVI:
mention
also
of
acacia
adorned
clasps,
some
in
boards
and placed
skins.
There
or
frames
medieval Europe.
whether Canaanite
shall hereafter
are thus
and
Israelite impact,
to see
the
We
semi-nomad ancestry.)
under the
anite art
ing
of
to the
(whom we
tion. Politically
is
all,
linen,
and
scarlet,
and
fine
twined
visualize
always
just
what
is
It
is
not easy
intended,
and
How-
There
as has
is,
been seen
in
and
much
it
giving
body
vague.
It
and
late
find
to
reconstruction
theoretical
to
to recall
its
tues,
commemorative
ture,
and
tic features
2)
beasts)
foreign
second
half
second
the
of
may closely
among their
R.C.E.
millenium
nomad
population
were apt
Canaanite
character
the
in
Canaanite
3)
the
cient Persia.
Northern
Asia
developed
in ancient
among
Egypt,
the
nomad
bordering on
of
work
scroll
(see
tine,
home among
parallels
paintings
sacred
and
profane
be
can
Winged
quoted.
developed in Egyptian
seat"
of the
art,
while
the "mercy
(if
is
to ancient Pales-
classes
Again
both
of these
on
placed
is
is
the
pottery.
Typical
a tendency to simplification
and ab-
is
little
We
have,
what preceded,
in
known about
tried
(see
22).
around a movable
among
some extent
among
the neigh-
boring nations,
details elude us.
Whereas the
art of the
remains largely
unknown
cient
Canaanites
to
which
will
is
well
Israelites
seems
facts
be relevant when
Egyptian
political
(ca.
1250
we come
to discuss
sovereignty brought in
1050).
see
disappearing.
sum-
to
how
into
hostile
things developed
Politically this
was a comp-
licated epoch.
The
each
Israelites
and Canaanite
city-
states
fought
result,
Then the
It
now
preceding chapter.
is
Let us
upland
contact.
in the
note
most ancient
line,
marize what
attempt to
and
villagers
ordinary
stract
lotus
4)
and
and sphinxes.
griffins
and Mesopotamia.
contemporary
complicated
popular art at
from
These
stock.
its
the lotus
36);
fig.
certain
which formed a
motifs
men-
may be rendered
may recall Egyptian
had developed a
art
wh
is
Some-
quarters.
commonly employed
leisured
ch latter
of
cattle
lions
decoration
incorporation
Syria
the
many
Thus
Aegean manner;
the
part
ancient
of
bv
mixed
strongly
or Hittite-North-Syrian models.
been
shows
from
in a certain tradition.
among
nomads
art
influence
of
clearly
buildings, sta-
official
number
the
some
of
conditioned
which are
Canaan
This comprised
art.
may be
78
Egyptian
as
MONARCHY
77
invasion
zone,
the
status
of the
other
latter
to
standstill;
the
to
lowland
as
belt.
These
latter
came
home
reducing the
hills
to establishing
an empire over
all
79
80
The
women
of
terracotta rep-
intended
labor,
in
artistic
as
The
or merit.
skill
much lower
some centuries
earlier.
tend to be
seals
than
level
satisfied
style, or
but crude, these seals employ motifs partly derived from Egvpt, like falcons, monkeys, snakes,
or
Asiatic motifs
as
scorpions, animals
some
for
time.
such
antiquity
great
of
ostriches,
vogue
often
It
was
style
seemed
to
remain
in
be linked with
to
same period
of roughlv the
have come
As
Cyprus and
to light in
About
Syria.
who made
similar seals
as those in Palestine
difficult to
is
it
the Canaanite
of their
artistic traditions
say
own.
and profane,
23.
about
Hazor
at
I4th-13tfa cent. B. C. E.
Western
down
skill
Palestine,
but
the
The
their
sphere
history of art to
We
witness at
this
first,
insufficient to enlighten us
artistic
to
special
them
is
"Philistine"
vase painting.
of
painting,
of
it
existence of Egyptian
to
occasional Egyptian
of
Canaanite
influence
subject
in
kinglets.
building,
The
Palestinian
traditions
is
were
blended.
the
Israelite
it.
thrust,
the local
However,
in
the
away from
less
level of aci
low
also
naturally
in
some
tradition,
while this
latter
ement seems
to
be attributed
under
territory
eclectic
stvle
to local potters
Philistine
the
as
swan preening
polychrome
of
stvle
in
might
general,
in
that
only
different
tradition,
The
character.
architectural
which an
in
Here a
of David.
in
its
spiral,
plumage,
must be said
is
apparently
working
domination.
in the
It
is
an
vague memories
developed from
the Aegean
Dodecanese. Occasionally,
the
makes
itself felt.
Thus
crowd
of
animals,
leading
seems
to
along
represent
motlev
a
a
cross-
MONARCHY
81
art;
vase from T.
Farah seems
el
to
go back to Egyp-
tian inspiration.
As
As
this
82
remains of
time
point
the
to
(Canaanite)
Palestinian
local
continued
existence
of
but
traditions,
amount
certain
and profane
of sacred
was
art
to
might
ephods and
idols
"fosse
anite
manner;
well-established
of
idols
in traditional
anite types
and a
23 )
fig.
shortly
of
idol
little
Hazor
after
war-god from
the
tradition
The coming
of the
be expected to express
towards the
arts.
We
happened
tha v this
proved
to
later,
still
architec-
now
remains dominant,
similar
The main
little
however,
fa-
and
is
archi-
program.
Outstanding among these for general interest
monarchy under
is
Solomon's Temple
(fig.
who might
prestige,
bv bounty
'/Awyy/vw/s/^M-
Gibea, so far as
at
small
Israelite
first
and
Egyptian
Lachish.
also
at
tural features
belongs to
conquest,
Israelite
temple"
and Egyptian
tradi-
the
Cana-
period,
this
is
Cana-
Gezer
in strata at
by
exemplified
is
which
1-8).
building
in
with
themselves
provide
(cp.
ZW/, d o a a d o a
it
utilitarian
strong
life.
cessor
his
still
us;
fail
"house of cedar"
(II.
documented work
is
of
Solomon.
his son
fact, to
mark
a per-
father's
Israelites
building up
the
in close
ture,
of
reorganized by
to
luxurious
train
nicians,
state,
25
of
and
furnish
building program
its
union
in active contact
made
effective
court.
the
the
means
this
local
for
and
an
a
for artists
foreign,
of
was now
immense
rich
and
ample opportunities
both
king,
the behest
at
All
new
many
in
C2
CD.
in
and techthe
new
other points
24.
Temple
(after
Watzinger)
83
it
architectural
that
sible
ture are
hidden
still
to
written accounts:
Ezekiel
extent
studied
the basis
of
1.
when
light
these
are
texts
and elsewhere.
must
remain
still
Solomon's Temple, an oblong building orientated east-west, consisted essentially of three divi-
Holy
(debir)
Holies
of
cubits
cording to
Chronicles
II
overtopped
wood
the
into
sibly
coffered.
main
hall
10 x 5m.); acit
Temple
hall
iu
height. Light
hall
by
built of ashlar,
store
height.
It
Holies
to the
stories
main Temple
was
and
trees,
floral
nal
golden
included
altar,
The
inter-
(besides a
in
Hob
of Holies
On
tall
in olive
wood and
gilded.
brass
archaeological
parallels.
use
if
house" temple;
this
is
Canaan
forms, in ancient
of
Solomon's
of the "long
be found,
to
made
is
Basically,
various
in
Megiddo, She-
(as at
now be
can
zone from
its
With-
alia.
and Holy
hall,
of
chambers, three
was admitted
clerestory
store chambers.
were
on wheels.
proper 40
door
and south by
est.
in
a ceiling of cedar
of
altar, a
great
of
double
hall.
it
in this
The Hob'
lateral
cubits long
were of
(ca.
tower-like
to
stone
to this,
chem r
hall
III, 4,
if
(The gates
of cedar beams.
(hekhal) and
sions:
questionable.
hewn
from archaeolo-
available
Much
struc-
neverthe-
is,
extent on
fair
XLI-III,
the
in
the
of
reconstruction
lacking,
is
possible
less,
members
Yet,
of later filling.
evidence
in
is
it
84
The
comes verv
latter
store
Solomon's
of
lateral
features
of
paralleled
the
in
the
of
was
there
quoted again
T. Atchana
earlier, at
was
at
in
Northern Svria.
tower-like porch,
parallels
at
Paphos
in
we
much
already
method
of
later
that
ashlar
walling,
but also
was known
is
still,
Anatolia,
there
If
could be ad-
also, in a differ-
methods,
If
can be
in
Syria,
illustrated at the
comtemporary
level
what seems
(Megiddo IV
and cheel
ple
it
may
ir
was surro
Tem-
by
a court delimited
bv ashlar
bv Ezekiel
tion,
we have
also provides
to
be
remember
MONARCHY
85
at
home
86
Phoe-
in
ing
now
we have
to external fittings,
remember
to
and Bo'az
twin
pillars
in
tion as
as a
tradi-
Cyprus, which
in
is
it-
and
(fig.
same
much which
not
is
looks
like direct
neighbor,
Egypt;
much
Canaanite-Syrian
of
is
is
Ornamental
on
constructed
such
detail
best re-
is
Thus,
considerations.
the
25.
capital imitated
by a somewhat
to talk
shall
have
still
(fig.
trees
we
the
like
nician-inspired
Phoe-
The
ivories.
difference
age
in
with
all
judgment
different
and
carvings
have conformed
where a beam
though the
word "unique"
as
Tem-
was
ours,
free
we know much
which most
forest of
detail
is
given
Lebanon," a long
less.
is
in
has been
military
armory
naval
buildings
in
pillars
later
and
certain
Greece.
The
The
highly
medieval Jewish
art.
What
we have
like
at
present
pillars
per-
and the
sister-states
monarchy
of the united
split
two warring
it
of
of
Israel
the
into
and Judah
presented.
and resources
to
them could
like
act
sisted in
no means of knowing.
us.
hall,
details
with the
and
years
else-
we know
cult
certainly
in Syria;
and
of light
must
known
of large dimensions
ple
analogous
finery,
its
throne
of the
hall
to porticos
where
What
of pillars
"bit hilani"
the
portico
join
supplying the
refined
life.
embellishments
Around
Judah
and graces
and
Israel,
of
the
87
2".
and the
city-states
(Amin
the
arts,
if
of
less
impressive
We
are
much
now superseded by
There
is
ashlar masonry,
and ashlar
c; n
the surviving ex
now be
nples uncovered
by excavation.
from Megiddo.
Splendid examples
been uncovered
is
at
of
have
construction
ashlar
House
Omri
of
in
and more
recently,
at
Ramat Rachel,
excavated.
actual finds.
still
capital
Samaria,
kind.
are
pillar
88
Construction
is
extremely careful;
chers,
quarry
the
foundation
bosses
smoothed.
but
courses
the
left
visible
Megiddo IV has
also
and
with
work
it
stret-
rough
carefully
furnished
ex-
Occasionally,
the
cost
of
some
less
im-
89
MONARCHY
90
of
is
with
ashlar
intervening
Megiddo; even
walling, as at
this
cheap dr\
kind of masonry
in
The
perior to
work
it,
is
vastly su-
Of the
royal
Ramat
What
have been
formed
we
cannot vet
tell;
at
may
at
Megiddo, stratum
of
Jeroboam
in
II
III
vogue
in
found
in Svria
general period.
no indications
They
of
tectural features.
Of the
art
and architecture
of
by Amos, such
27.
as those of Bethel
28.
and Dan, we
model of
Pottery
of the
at present
no
shrine. T.
el
Farah. Period
Hebrew Monarchy.
real
knowledge.
We
do,
how-
Hebrew Monarch\
by the
91
29.
knowledge
Bible. This
models such
of pottery
Gezer, T.
el
The
(fig.
with
latter in particular,
supported by columns,
proper with
from
ent
as
at
near Nablus
28).
is
front
in
pitched roof,
its
rural
is
its
small porch
the
of
chapel
known
sanctuaries
(fig.
to
us
from
What
the quality of a
tions
mouldings,
side
we
are
often
Of
work
carvings,
usually
know
ruined
About the
etc.
very
little,
down
almost
as
structural
since buildings
to
floor
level.
form some
Egyptian
to
have
and eighth
ideas.
irchitectural
fadt
ct
out
turies
in
92
B.C.E.
The
last
piece of
shrine
tery
in this direction
a pot-
is
(fig.
like
roll
Egypt
in
this
for
there of
time
is
quite
be
felt;
complete
monument
in
of
monumental
in
type
of
manner,
Egyptian
the
Pharaoh's
Daughter," a
cornice which
a fairly
fact,
evidence to be quoted
bv
is
basical-
a cavetto
pyramid;
established in
dating of this
Egvpt by the
New
be possible, however,
to assign
Kingdom. The
disputed.
it
fully
It
may
to the eighth-
93
MONARCHY
94
SKI
seventh century B.C.E.,
have something
as
which case
in
might
it
to
artistic
was
at
features
Egyptian
best
Saitic Kings.
ultimately
influence
architectural
limited,
from
derived
serve
We
to
some
common
the
was
ornamental
architectural
discussion.
had occasion on an
the "tree of
life"
page
earlier
to refer
ancient motif
is
architectural ornamentation.
The
applied to
work go-
scroll
is
turned to
model from T.
el
like inverted
model from
"The Tomb
30.
ment
utes
in
is
also
model
pediment ending
Transjordan.
to
back,
in
two
pairs
of volutes
back
downwards.
capital
made up
of similar vol-
at
T.
of
el
of a little clav
The mutilated
mav belong
to the
same
in
/,vj;u^
Reconstruction
of
row
of
engaged
pilasters
later
general tradition
JimJ.,/fJZ.
31.
in
work
which
95
96
dow;
imitated on contemporary
is
it
furniture,
as
Zenjirli-Sham'al;
at
up
at Assur.
parti-
between the
rael
Syria, traditions
to the
Stone slab with imitation of column capitals from Ramat Rachc
32.
somewhat
if
different
tral
which
is
from Mesopotamia
variation,
this
from
special derivation
pilaster capital
to Cyprus. Basically
flanked
by
painted
in
Simple or
volutes.
various
when
and
later,
Thev seem
deibi.
have
capitals
Megiddo
sites: at
of
or
(fig.
House
the
plain
florid,
these
colors,
and Samaria
of purposes; thev
on the
to rest
The
neighboring lands.
One
monarchy seems
of the
in
at
Hazor,
Me-
also in Transjordan as at
to
have served
a variety
for
also,
the
style of architecture in
earlier tra-
capital with
among
type represented
this
Megiddo
the
ivories,
and
is
Egyptian type of
home
at
more
to a
between
Damascus,
(ancient
there
at
Sheikh Sa'd
was found
a lion
(fig.
Israel
and
Qarnaim)
It
recalls
North
already
There
is
brazier from
Megiddo
referred to earlier
(fig.
essentially
of
two rows
of
pendent
leaves*
it
influence
in
is
the
century
now
excavated by
enough
rare;
cities
have been
drawn
and
capitals,
A more
columns
rare,
have
existed.
recent
from
find
of pottery
man
or
This
such definite
pendent leaves
the products of
is
(fig.
first
milleni
B.C.E.
On
ivory
carvings
a railing across an
open
it
the'
is>
win-.
imitate
One
is
stylistic
things
of these
traits
mere
actually
models
ed from Megiddo
is
(fig.
fantasy,
known
their
makers.
It
shows
at the cor-
97
Basalt lion
33.
ners
replicas
of
architectural
colossal
sculpture
as
poor execution
and sphinxes
lions
style
of
or rather
the
figures
similar objects
seem
to
layers
awav with
revolution did
this as
this
apparently
We
tent.
fig.
28 )
precincts
sculpture
sparingly:
Ezekiel
seems
(XL, 22;
have
26;
been
31;
34;
used
37)
And
it
and
fell
manner
and
(VIII,
10;
to sav
about what
the Assyrian
reliefs in
relief
few plain
head
"Aramean"
recalls the
exaggeratedly
the
surfaces;
There
is,
tradition of Northern
This
rulers.
now
its
high
pointed
cap,
this
animal
tradition;
it
again
mav be
deified
No
in
Hebrew
the gates of
Israelite gate
has up to
provided.
temporary
Ammon
(as
were known
in con-
features there
of Israel.
or
to
With
Land
kings
representing
to
tion).
of architectural sculp-
which seems
art
statuary
is
large
Syria.
is
shows
latter
of
ture
on
have been
plentiful representations of
interior,
(eagle?)
known, but
the bird
to
in
is
it
might point
cherubim
al-
known
female in
No
is
in
jordan
light
sa-i- ^.*,,4i
in Syria.
have come to
98
may be contemporary
eailier.
they are
MONARCHY
As
mentioning.
is
from Megiddo,
human
strictlv frontal,
it
refer to a
head
seems Mesopotamia!!
99
100
or
as at Gezer; they
Chief
among
intrinsic value.
little
made, splaying
(fig.
a tubular bodv,
base with
at the
breasts,
in a
mould and
fitted on.
and hair
wigs
or
The
curls.
little
arranged
widelv
type,
in
rows of
was
it
with
distributed
variations, goes
little
neatly
to influence early
affini-
Greece (Rhodes,
little
men
figures of
have
been found
also
settlement of Ibiza )
in the
These
figurines of horsemen.
"Pillar Astarte" of pottery
$4.
there
otherwise
is
Gezer; T. es
at
reliefs in
derivation, but
in
Of
from Lachish.
was
direct foreign
evidence.
little
is,
statuette in
its
maker
Safi
any
in
influences
unfinished by
left
field
artists
mav have
of the Great
Of
plastic
attack
ivory)
der
is
any
in
case.
YVe know a
the
denunciations
Isaiah
XL,
19ff;
method
of
XLIV,
of
9ff;
little
the
overlaid
is
and
prophets
(ef.
to
by sheet-gold fastened
archaic Greece,
century L C.E.
Of chryselephantine
their
speak against
(fig.
35).
On
to natu-
little
known from
adults
of a
about them
wooden core
down with nails
a
of
what were
figure
from
in
Some may
composition
detail.
but occurrences
precious
their
in
rendering
at
toys,
frequent
forms without
ralistic
statues
for
work
remained. This
have been
latter are
to simple basic
little
King
on campaign.
lias
much attempt
far-away Phoenician
statues one
Safi.
more precious
ticular, call
we have
salem
homes
could, in par-
political
might be expected
earlier served
there were
two
under the
Thev
seen,
Now
materials.
could also go in
in
to beautify the
princes.
latter
of
have developed
likings for
101
MONARCHY
102
Phoenician-style luxury.
ported to have
(1
ivory carver
preciated
at
must
also
the
Judean court,
for
included
kiah
him by Heze-
ivory
The
objects.
tastes
their
found cause
who were
to
Amos
royal masters;
upbraid the
idle rich
(Amos
VI,
houses
(III,
4)
inhabiting
or
15).
ivory
The reference
in that of
Jr.v*VliH$&^
in
Ahab's
earlier,
come
to light
The
all
35.
possibility in
some
items,
nearer the
fall
of
of flat plaques
pieces
there
to
be appied
as
meant
are
are
also
round
usually
items
is
rather rarer.
carved
decorated
in
low
with
The
relief;
insets
of
Pottery model of
make up
The
polychrome
The
insets
who produced
artists
from a
and gold
leaf.
these ivories
worked
the palmette
fig.
37 )
lotus chain
the
"woman
for
(fig.
36),
at the
win-
Astarte),
Isis
and
the carving;
winged
in
56.
tvorj
panel
from
Samaria
ornamented with
genii
lotus
sphinxes.
flower
and
Work
Inul
in
design.
the
round
in-
103
37.
throne
38),
(fig.
Stylistically,
known
and manv
school,
belong
ivories
them can be
of
well
to
dupli-
set
in
104
of Phoenician workshops.
mette occur
in
and the
pal-
is
in-
tradition of
on
the
to those
loot
Samaria
of
fall
found
in
transferred
Other
Assyria
to
to light at
earlier stage of
much
bowls.
The
Damascus.
against
Hazael
of
of
execution.
Many
little
with
colored
may
substances
also
details,
go
back
Other
rarer
pieces
are
it
a stone lionhead
With
mixture
this
inspiration of the
ed thus
Samarian
ivories belong-
went
to
part of an
at Sa-
some other
men were
local, Israelite in
descent or associations.
For the
existence
local
originally
of
carvers
is
trained
on
of
somewhat
school
crafts-
ivory
of
different
artistic
ivorv
as
sites
in all particulars.
derived
of
in
however, the
locally. It
is
to
On
Canaan.
Egyptian and
handle from T.
el
Farah
mixed
Nasbeh north
artistic
tradition
encountered
ed, in very
si
in
the
of
fact,
the
Phoenicians,
to
ivories
nilar execution,
can
be
on works
matchin
other
of Jerusalem;
Jordan, and
winged
site.
105
seems
to
more
among
detail
stylistic
The
motifs.
We
in the line of
106
38.
The common
MONARCHY
by
consideration
directions.
"Shema
the
of
well-known
larger class of
The
lion
Farah shows
el
we
refer-
rael
contemporary
It
including tech-
from
to such
back
and bellv
vogue
cles)
suggest
unimportant;
that
imported
country
in
by
the
school
strongly
court,
ivory
of
inspired
we had
by North-Syrian-Canaanite
lastly refer to
Israelite
of
still
the
of
craft
of the divided
mo-
and geometric
in
the "blob"
"dark ages."
style of the
By
the
come
a remarkable revival.
A new
type of seal
(scarab or scaraboid)
was coming
Israel-Judah especially.
in
into
use in
It
and frequently,
too,
istic
some decorative
is
itself
Jeroboam's
death,
which was
to
Assyria
and immediately
began
the
after
advance
Is-
raelite state.
and Judean
seal
mane
art,
must
a tvpe
en
of seal goes
the open
hair,
the
carvers
who were
to
details
its
which
derived
We
in
art
Western
the
to
Tyrian-dominated
knew
also
they
together
addition
Is-
artistically
is
forms part of a
seals,
of
seal
There
tion
of
is,
however, a second
which the
seals
Phoenician both as to
common
its
strain of inspira-
give evidence.
This
is
much Egyptian
in
heritage, as
general.
Such
medium employed, on
seals, and presumably textiles. The
cutters may well have derived their
terns from them. We know from
pective of the
metal, ivory,
Israelite seal
stock of pat-
the
Biblical
107
up
at
of
inspiration
important. Mesopotanhan
in
are
108
less
which seems
to
first
in
(fig.
40a),
Ishtar.
The
appear
Assyria
cockerel,
is
motif
also
during
there
favorite
(fig.
Greece,
to
the
period
orientalizing
40b).
(fig.
These
doms
are,
4():i.
of their occur-
we
rivation, as
saw,
have
examples
two
is
everywhere
developed
stvle
o r n anient,
detail.
elegancy
both
style
of
script,
Jordan
are
apt
to
be
stiff
is
and uninspired. On
purely linear; the
offi-
from the
differ
general run of private seals by going in for a design consisting essentially of simple surfaces sur-
On
in
much
in
painting
the
of
contemporary
of
in
borrowed
Western Asian
known
motifs were
Phoenician
and
other
metal goods,
etc.;
these
from
textiles,
in Israel,
rule.
if
few exceptions
to the general
Duweir
two graceful
of
flower
lotus
Lachish)
(ancient
drawing
41).
(fig.
bears
an
incised
gazelles nibbling at a
(In
we
tion
the two
anti-
Yet
the
should
the
as
later
general
a
rule
stands.)
That
painting
period
understandable;
lines.
of
largely
ten-
frequency
the
when
any
special
is all
For
turalistic
Tlii'
we compare
though without
dency towards na-
39.
embellishments. This
of
it
monarchy
the
was
time
is
when
perhaps
religious
favor
has survived
seems
to
in Israelite territory,
abomination
(XXIII,
Israelite painting
Israelite
though Ezekiel
is all
pottery,
Canaanites,
14-15).
the
unlike
this
impious
Our ignorance
of
of
the
preceding
or-
The
patterns
tional
lines,
show
but
make
little
attempt
at
other
40b.
The
cockerel
art.
109
air,
apparently tended to
strict
and the
into
fall
disfavor
in
the
revolution
and
successive
cultic
reformations.
when
is
making
of "graven
more
sions
only.
among
included
number
potters'
stock.
Perhaps
the
ranks
guilds
were
mainly
of the
is
monarchy
The end
(fig.
lands
work
in
Israel
is
politic
of direct in-
made an end
the Great
of the Persian
Empire
to
lenistic art.
Too
to
independence of
The
terest to us.
42).
of the political
greater
at
of the
the
village
in
the Babylonians.
fell
cutters
of the
also
seal
local
mixed tendencies
northern monarchv
as
decisive break
of the province of
members
of
two dimen-
divergence, which
illustration
of
members
their
We
110
41.
MONARCHY
little is
define
some
its
known about
position
in
the history of
may have
art.
To
followed
Ill
'
112
l/*M
"
^"
''
i'.i
''iir.
"'
mw ,,
.WVr.
tf^m
x
\ ^\)
k'Av
i"
"'"V\\,.,
,>,
^saS^J fc
X\
O^P
>
iiu.
>
42.
lavs
down
method
of construction
row
Other
(Ezra VI,
(three
worthy
buildings
of
in
country
the
offer
at
little
Lachish
ana-
may have
of timber)
the
decoration
in-
no architectural
details or
ing.
The
had no
The
Josephus,
memory
of
VIII, 73).
writing
some centuries
later,
representative
kind.
We
know
too
little
non-
about
in
the
decline
fifth
is
marked
Judean
by the use
little
known
art
to us, are
limestone
altars,
113
43).
(fig.
suffices
It
compare these
to
how deep
scribblings
and
Palestine
in
ing
some
kept
still
lion in fig.
43
decay
in its utter
very
Oriental
this "art"
is
die
feature:
its
shoul-
in
by Jews), however,
was
is
(only a
occupied
at that time
the arrival of
new
traditions
114
had
might
conceivably
then
was
so.
is
is
employed are
connected
(especially
have
no proof
Solomon's
in
not by derivation or
with
the
how-
and often
foreign,
of
cults
other
may
this
not always
connection,
it
found
it
which
and elsewhere
later
pottery
as
as
that this
nations
Eastern tradition.
MONARCHY
later
heretical.
cult,
elements
This
is,
in
fact,
the time
when
there
much
appears, as at T. es
Safi;
to
the
humble
first
it
now
As against
local copies.
indications of
Greek
this,
artistic in-
Yet there
Palestine
in
no
is
visible
Greek
coins,
Greek
and
vases,
art
Then
also
cial provincial
offi-
Greek prototype:
impact of Greek
it
and probably
also
Philistine types
Jewish,
is
Hebron
based on Arabo-
make an impact
art first
in
Palestine.
the field
see
to
this
art
we have
what
special
from the
features
artistic
(if
any)
divide
boring countries.
That
Israelite
and Judean
by matters
and
Israelite art
be
clear;
ed,
art,
overmuch pre-occupied
among
the
the occurrence of
it
seems
difficult
later.
jijJT^-
4 J.
Ornaments on
post-exilic
115
existed in
Elepan-
at
tine,
in
revealed to us by excavations.
and Judean
Just as Israelite
cult,
from the
art
do not
so they
differ
origin
in
traits.
ca.
is
occasionally a surpris-
movement, seen
as
were
it
in a
consideration
have referred
two
of
which
drawings
may make
to earlier
we
our meaning
clear.
of the
dedication to the
monarchy, from
split
their
of the
116
Let us look
at the
at a
scratched
lotus
no attempt
to give
it
is
on pottery,
ing
time
the
after
the
of
House
parting
company with
the
ries of
the west.
The Egyptian
and productive of a
influence felt in
special
One
class
of sculpture,
orientalizing
of
rise
Cyprus
Within the
seem
to
to
limits
thus
Israelite
set,
art
does
it
in
of;
from the
art of the
of observation
lift
and a sense
Or
let
us look at an even
like
reduction
and
in the
made
which
more
instructive ex-
(fig.
we
The cock
this
common
as a de-
way
in
which
where
The Assyrian
seems to
of graceful line,
it
this,
countries
Israelite plastic
much
way which
fact,
from T. en Nasbeh
cross in a
or resisted.
felt,
and body
outlines of legs
The
it
appears
seal cutter
is
significantly different.
(fig.
dered
very
detail;
fluffiness
everything
of the
is
there,
down
to
the
anato-
surfaces.
results
tic;
There
little
is
mav sometimes
attempt
at
Phoenician
artists,
("Ara-
scratched on pottery,
etc.,
is
it
is
(fig.
40b); early
The Judean
version
is
significantly different
from
and
The Greek's
for
plastic
detail
is
heraldic treatment
totally lacking.
and preference
is
much
less
involved.
art.
It
shows, on
life;
is
the
show the
and elegant
and making
the Judean
sc
line,
ipt,
later period
detail,
but
117
by
"split
few outlines
only,
seal as of the
of vision.
at
Judean
all
art,
in
liar to itself.
sense
for
observation,
not
we can
evoke a
city active,
III,
2-3:
"The noise
of
prancing horses,
The horseman
and the
a slain,
This
and
lifteth
of
the
jumping
of the
chariots.
glittering spear:
and there
and
is
a multitude
annals.
of carcasses..."
Homer, or
in
the Assyrian
little
art
in
noisy, alert
and
seems
It
and curious of
in
some ways
up against strong
links
the
tion of slaughter in
somehow
detail.
sense
for
simple
and particularly
Jerusalem which
gift
for
liking
similar,
and a sharp
elegancy,
combined with a
evoking
seems
times
royal
same school
118
at
without further
hum
and
Judean poetry
split
T.
earlier
no parallel
may
just discussed.
Qasileh, while
of mediocrity of
It
is
in
MONARCHY
mind
doom
of
what
it
is,
by
Jewish art
at the
of
cavations.
On
the
courtyard surrounded on
by
sides
all
buildings,
its
now began
beauty
of
to
among
penetrate
the
Hasmoneans,
notwithstanding
the
struggle
for
On
whole length.
the western
side
the
of
it;
liberation
The
was
there
art,
Among
national values.
Jewish
of
its
function in national
life.
art to
life
pression alone;
by no means
it
tional connection
signified a func-
lenistic
this
of
basic
truth
spread increasingly
its
among
the
But
The
iles
we may assume
structure of
Persian culture, as
virtually impossible.
is
that
remnants of
all
its
its
tern.
Temple
the
describes
around
terms:
palm
the
"and
trees,
frieze
whole
it
high
in
building,
(XII, 18-19)
relief,
which ran
following
the
in
so that a
palm
tree
was between
palm
lion
tree
on the one
on the other
side,
side;
it
the
young
of a
common
of Herod.
columns and
capitals of the
all
is
Again,
palace at Persepolis.
e.g.,
on Darius'
Josephus describes
of the
nistrators
stamp on the
at
rulers
and admi-
Historical descriptions
Temple
period.
and thus
culture,
influence
to
draw conclusions
as to
art
its
in
The
characteristic
white
and the
work
for
colors
but so as
to
show the
In
other
artlessly,
these
words,
the
entrance
to
inner
the
later times.
hung
at a height of 9
colored
curtain
in-
was common
tern-
121
44.
pies
they were
situation,
richly
made
in
Presumably
if
such
draw them
Hence,
aside
the
heavy
in
could
curtains
lintel of
the
Temple
one piece,
virtually
for
impossible
it
to
we must assume
consisted of
befitting
a fringe of gold-thread
door
style
Temple
the
that the
Temple
curtain
in Jerusalem
lintel,
122
The method
of
been investigated
in all details
in the course of
we may
decorative composition.
The shape
delabrum
(fig.
of
the
123
45.
relief of
Rome,
and
121
an
is
interest-
Iraq-el-Amir, Transjordan.
at
fluence in Palestine
may be
ing
bunch
ristic
of leaves
hanging downwards,
of the bases
of
is
like
characte-
the
in
and continuity
acclimatization
Graeco-Macedonian colonies
of
were no doubt
Middle
the
The comparatively short duration of the Perhegemonv explains why most of the spare
sian
no attempt
adaptation
to
the
new
conditions
of
at artistic
different
Except
for Jerusalem
build
their
principles
tine
ween the
Hellenization.
may be
II
first
of
the
East
the
area,
of
classical
to
town-planning
of
for-
(first
Milatus )
Maresha
built
strictly
scheme. This
area,
began
settlers
mulated by Hippodamus
surroundings.
in
little
north-south
and
running
east-west.
The
in
at right angles
regular
grid-
It is
also
colonization,
which now
for
It
the
first
time was
must, however, be
first
ing to the
on
all
citv wall
with
The century
had
is
surrounded
a considerable influence
on the development
125
The
Tobiad
the
display
Palace
the
all
Iraq-el-Amir
at
45)
Alexandrine
of
characteristics
ruins of
(fig.
architecture
the building
is
we
incomplete, so that
of
are not
126
Hasmonean mausoleum.
to
reconstruct
was apparently
It
which served
of the
upper storey
monument,
pilas-
the
ters
tops.
The
wall-surfaces
column
small
corated
large
On
and decoration.
tecture
portal;
internal archi-
its
north
the
on either side
are
are
there
we
The
decorat-
building
is
we
el-Amir
Graeco-Roman
motif consisting
of a stem surrounded
leaves,
At Iraq-
capital.
two flower-and-leaf
in
ed by
tendrils.
The
decorated by a wide
of
lions
frieze,
approaching
each
The
and
tails,
Hasmoneans
of the
cover
to
window
Modi'in
in
of
Maccabees:
it
was
from
arising
mausoupper
its
ing
description:
"Now Simon
of his father
it
Syrian-Hellenistic
of
seen
Temple imple-
The candelabrum,
made by
may be
seven-armed candelab-
replica of the
The
differs
from
monu-
and brothers
it
with polish-
And he
its
dragons on the
have human
a base resembl-
Hellenistic prototype:
of
reliefs
while the
faces, those
delabrum intended
The
table
Temple bear
of shew-bread
It
make
part.
The
influence
in
resembles,
we know nothing
the
much
here a
their heads.
Of the tomb
first
schematic cha-
stiff
by
monument dating
century B.C.E. mav still be seen at
Typically,
even
in Transjordan.
art at the
ments
ships.
we have
lion's
Sueida
were de-
pilasters
weapons and
of
the
flanking
from the
between the
reliefs
artist
with
other,
freer treatment.
building was
of the
front
tures in the
The
is
well-known,
paws.
Temple period
The
first
fol-
originality in
coins of this
built
father, his
mother and
at
the rear.
And he
And on
the shapes of
all
manner
of
weapons
for a
mem-
who go down
to
by the
of the
inscription
Judea
of this period
of a
YHD
found
man wearing
at
Gaza,
we
On
a coin
see the
head
name
the Aramaic
god
sit-
127
12S
Ill
Notwithstanding the
descriptive material
rich
relating to the
is,
in
too,
of these times.
The Jerusalem
the
seat
of Herod's days
the
of
glorious
Temple,
and
rebuilt
it
was no
less
city
Temple
mentality,
gates.
The new
which began
trends of Hellenistic
to gain currency
among
Weltanschauungen. In the
this
field
of creative art
of the
"Pillar
would be wrong
<>t
It
the
coin
left
comes
different
coin
was found
diadem
at
man
is
completely
Bet-Zur.
It
shows
with smoothly-comb-
in front
bv something
like
in the
On
The
profil.
scanty,
it
is
known
representations of the
tal
human
figure for
ornamen-
vast
graveyard
stretches
for
several
miles
is
pressionless smile.
fundamental change
in the choice of
numis-
is
1\
first
-awakened
of
all
The
spirit of national
human
ritual
likenesses on
symbols and
in
the cor-
to
purposes.
both coins
shown en
the
artistically,
47.
Tomb
129
48.
as
Tombs
On
both sides
rise
of the
living
of the
sepulchral
rock.
Part of Frieze,
cription of
Queen
one of them
lower part of
this
ed by a structure of ashlars
(fig.
is
crown-
hewn
mausolea
family
47).
(fig.
Pausanias,
the
built
by Queen Helena
leum
of the
Kings)
nassus,
wonders
of
Adiabene
(now known
monument
and
in
hill-side.
whole
30 m. Steps
dug 10 m. deep
In order to
make room
into the
for this
and
for
of the
the
hewn
part,
The gatewav
48),
a fuller des-
from
part,
by pyramids.
and palaces.
hewn
Tombs
these tombs
built
as the
Some
was
ashlar,
which dates
is
upper
mauso-
fronts of temples
ed,
as a
of the
level. In
the mausoleum
130
which was
built
tomb, which
raised on
is
at the
sides,
we
find a
wide decorative
from
monuments topped
composed
frieze
of pine
in
is
(fig.
surmountcones sur-
fruits
131
49.
Detail
Tombs
and
of various
units,
naturalistic,
characteristic
is
period.
The
naturalistic
stvlized
of
fruits, or
and geometrical
Palestine
art
in
this
free-
the high level attained by decorative art in Palestine at the close of the period of the
The
ple.
an
Second Tem-
of the Kings,
interesting
foreshortening.
The
stronglv-
and shadow,
which
fill
As against
the
this,
whole
the
area
new
with
trends
in
and
its
of a
part of the
cube standing on
as a
corative
nean
era.
ti
Hasmo-
monument
is
in the
a large postament,
concave conical
form
ending
roof,
ending
in a
from cube
of the
sides
cube
is
to
cone.
Each
of the four
the
pilasters
mixtum compositum
late Hellenistic
is
shaped
remarkable
46),
is
up
for their
(fig.
Tomb
in
them.
accentuation by unconnected
Kidron Valley,
Jewish art
above
called Absalom's
The lower
have
the entrance
commonly
in the
decoration.
Jerusalem.
(fig.
dom
of Frieze,
132
to a
The Tomb
garded
as
of Zechariah
(fig.
sepulchre.
also
add
characteristic of the
among
Tomb, it is
monu-
133
Its
architectonical
Tomb,
from which
it is
134
mid
is
monuments by
a geometrical pyra-
Even the
(fig.
walls
50).
wall built
decoration
architectonic
wall,
by Herod
the Patriarchs
still
for
The remnants
Temple
the
and
were objects
time
to
Hebron
in
of the
(fig.
study the
treatment of this
architectonic
of structure.
The
type
was
di-
part,
slightly
set
of
enormous
ashlars.
The
51.
and protruding
pilasters
was
so that
created.
a pattern
The
with
contrast
its
of closely-set
between the
monumentalitv
markable
and
grace
(fig.
51).
in-
fluences.
Particular
care
was devoted
the
to
architect-
as for-
tresses,
resid-
and obser-
were equally
According
Tower
to Josephus, the
of Phasael in
in rich-
tecture.
that
of
its
decoration "sought
of the
its
like
among
Antonia
fortress,
built
bv Herod
to
WBf^^ *,/
50.
tion, this
palace, such as
Temple
(after Chipiez).
ces
at
of
the towers
we
Gallienus
its
of the
guard the
its
monu-
internal decora-
Roman
fortified
at
135
36
was
inlaid
for the
with small
Temple by means
name
From
Vallev).
the
is
Archaeological excavations
in
Palestine have
of Herod's
and the
The
The
niality.
which
tely
within
some im-
Thev confirm
<
monu-
originalitv of
conflict
between
and West
is
the
short
period
of
time
comple-
Palestine,
activity.
must be attributed
His work
to Jerusalem,
the
"Lower
Temple Square on
these tunnels,
IV
factor
of
wall of Jerusalem.
ture
The "Upper
hills.
in
this field
to Herod's febrile
mentioned
Gate, and
a fair
as
main elements
ed
is
Hill.
One
Talmud by
this
name
the
called the
tunnel
of
Hulda
Double Gate.
may be
art
regarded
and of the
in the
leaves
of
with long,
monolith,
the
alternating
with
acanthus,
but
Hellenistic
tal.
of
Corinthian
smooth
Temple
example of Herodian
The entrance
plan,
to
of
the
nowadays
The entrance
"City
or
still
in the
is
City"
On two
adaptation
of
an
Egyptian
we
still
is
capi-
find in-
work which
(fig.
52)
is
smooth,
The rim
wreath of leaves,
137
is
arranged.
fill-
it
one of the
examples
finest
bunches of grapes
made
building
this
138
Talmud, mainly
as that of the
relates
mea-
its
The general
to
character
of
The composition
Hulda Gate
rich
essentially
to both
is
too,
is
cupolas
of
recalls the
classical
Greek.
is
is
The
of
geometrical pattern
stylized
composition,
this
Hasmonean
Of the terminal
gate
tunnel
the
of
period.
nothing
remains.
The Temple
ts lity, set
we
still
Temple
of the
find traces in
many
some
monumen-
buildings, of
and
plan.
itself
we know
nothing.
assembled
look
which
of the contemporary
structure
its
in
and witness
inside
"For
splendor:
its
it
of the heavens
which have no
of the world,
Wars
limit" (Josephus,
The
5.V.4.).
walls of the
(fig.
Of
53).
particular interest
is
the
Temple
hall
find
ibid )
purely
the
tall
III, 2, 8).
man:
as
grape or bunch of
leaf or
Middot
Its
"Whosoever offered a
square.
impressive
itself, in its
it
and hang
In the Jerusalem
architectonical
it
on
Temple we
theme
of
the
its
Jewish
hill.
to the
Temple
nave with
its
in
a long perspective
Temple
square.
The
lofty
central
work
wings.
and the
The thousand-foot-long
across the
relief-
ceilings of the
stoa
was open
Temple square;
side.
its
had
general admiration.
It is
Temple.'
a favorite motif of
Thev formed
art.
monolithic columns,
supporting structure
of the planning of
is
echo
its
in
in
Herod's time
was
though
it
begun
shortly
The
after
construction of
Herod's
death,
half of the
first
century C.E.
The
capitals here
Temple
an
of the entrance to
in the center
we
As already
was conit
to the
139
40
3
6a
>
Q.
<M
:-'
'*,
:H.
141
Upper
The remains
City.
which
of this bridge,
Upper
City,
142
its
numental conception
of
the
The
more than 50
establish
to
town planners
of
which was
bridge,
feet
roofs
flat
trees
and plants
in the courtyards,
and
in
section of Jerusalem's
ted the
was
a
main
street,
The bridge
basilica; they had
common
axis
by the entrance
linked
unit,
architec-
The
gate.
and
Temple
to
the
square. At
its
square
central
of
Upper
the
the
City,
Upper
the
City,
stairs
palace.
tonical
which connec-
were constructed
to
The philosophies
of life
of the East
Terms
traklin
main
which was
street
parallel to
in
corresponding in function
The
spirit of the
formed the
Xystus,
their
Hellenistic trends
also
The
found
and the
the
Yet
terminology.
akhsadra
(triclinium),
we know
such
(exedra),*
any attempts
We
stoe
Talmudic sources.
virtually nothing
of data prevents
as
Lack
at reconstructing
vorite
to say
assumption that
it
its
name
all
sides
by a roofed colonnade.
The
time
layout
is
of
graphy and
Jerusalem's
history.
was unlike
capital
streets
in
As
in
Herod's
topo-
city's
Judean
Near East.
all
It
was only
new
after
devoid of
relief.
The
been modernized
it
Hasmonean
was situated
Upper
at
City,
and had
We
possess,
under Agrippa.
based
on Josephus' descriptions
ried out at
were
decoration;
on
ground
ed
the
contemporary Hellenistic
the
floor
of
show some
tectonic
speaks
royal
to
to the
where he
and on the
architectonic
all
'
one
signs
that the
instance
quar-
of planning.
cities,
The
Hasmoneans
Adiabene and so
closely
of
the
justifies
was surrounded on
tradition
tion
palaces,
of
consisted,
The former
it
its
own
single
architectural
unit,
its
own
internal
lintels
modest sculptur-
seat,
The exedra
in Greek, building
of the
was
learned took
place.
143
144
palace in Jerusalem
some
to
is
was
It
elan
of
The
its
builder.
that
richness of
overshadowed
execution
Temple
characteristic
We
itself.
its
the
must assume
this
known
chitecture
54.
courtyard.
in the
sentative
Long
thern part.
so
side,
Homo
halls
Oriental
of
characteristic
architecture,
Two
sides.
long
halls,
According to Josephus,
"on the western
summit
this
slope...
of the mountain,"
had
a nor-
Roman
the king's
"No
building
to this palace,
It
in
world
the
which was
in
every
at
Who
beams which
size
in
it;
human
its
of the
of the halls
pillars
single stone,
floors
made
rich,
of
one
were covered
top of
uncovered.
The mountain-side
served
itself
its
The
capitals
The
with ashlars.
it.
steep
The northern
half-colu-
way
in
of
Herod's
The
lack
of
archaeological
data
on
Herod's
hundreds of
manner
of shapes,
Rows
of colonnades inof
trees
The
in
architecture
of
Herod's
arched gate
called
tion
is
its
the
still
reflects
of Oriental
may be found
in
an
Homo
Ecce
Gate
(fig.
54).
Its
construc-
and served
as
fort's
an architectonic-decorative element
internal structure.
palaces
in
(Wars 5.IV.4).
Hellenistic art.
An
of
water spout-
and
as
for
a different order.
to Jose-
all
On
own
its
each with
The arrangement
exceptional.
fortified,
high.
way
and on
comparable
is
halls
was
honor of
and was
It
in
protectors: the
"Agrippae-um." Josephus
thern aspect.
of
the nor-
in
Two
to us.
its
we can
The lower
part
was a gate
145
Tympanon
55.
The smooth
has
Cave
surface of
its
and with
pillars,
of the
its
all
its
is
quiet and
completely
different
supposed
is
it
supports
it
and
raises
it
somewhat.
of the details
tympanon
the
all
art;
characteristics
of
new approach
which establishes
as a whole.
tympanon shows
Hellenistic-Alexandrine
style
free treatment
The
tendrils.
VI
new
Fruits, leaves
this
of the
The
to portray.
In
Hellenistic stvle.
The nature
146
to the
the com-
began
in
itself in
the sur-
The
of Jewish
as well as
on
sar-
again
the
so(fig.
56).
tympanon, which
and
elements
in
dian period.
new
of Jehoshaphat"
(fig.
55).
is
the triangular
known
The
connecting constructive
ment
style
as the
"Cave
the
is
is
composed
naturalistic patterns,
Hellenistic-Alexandrine
sition
Characteristic of the
tympanon
tympanon
Different
fills
is
of
also
this
both stylized
typical
of the
school.
its
Oriental nature
is
note-
"5.--^
ele-
of
called
is
which
tendrils
becomes
nar-
of
.'I
is
drils.
its
execution
it
differs
at
the
time.
The
lateral
[;
leaves,
unite
rounded
at the
bottom,
is
^_
tent that
it
no longer resembles
-v.
*.
Tympanon
of
the
Tombs
of
the Sanhedrin.
Jerusalem.
147
for
its
Its
tic
which protrudes
background;
the
plastically
decorations
Tombs tvmpanon
are
from
its
Svnhedrin
the
of
out in a sharplv
carried
which
lie
method
of treating stone
is
is
57.
worthy
an adaptation of the
the impression of
wooden
chests.
Their
are
lids
The
ed.
decoration of
in
new type
in
Judea
of stone treatment
at the
end
of the
The metamorphosis
of
is
found exclusively
structural
of
ment
of
is
familiar
Greek decorative
art.
is
several
century B.C.E.
ing
to the deco-
first
instance in
lull
of
the
its
The colonnade
in a repeating
Oriental
is
trend
is
The two
of
the
decoration,
broad frame of
and decorat-
which are
attributed
to
the
style, technically as
The stone
ossuaries give
and
their
capitals
is
this
clarity
first
well as compositionally.
An
compositional structure.
area.
in
rhythm. Notwithstand-
ed
columns
ossuaries
we
by arches
ossuary
On
single capital.
wood
of twin
resting
the
row
small
chest
(usually
The
is
composed
of
eight
triple
leaves,
appears to
149
VII
One
58)
end
at the
of the
The composition
57).
found
also
Jerusalem
in
consists
two
of
wavy
a light,
in
line,
is
figures;
rosettes
(whose
(fig.
(fig.
engraved
later
human
or
on another ossuary,
150
we may
territory
and
his successors,
and
Herod
II.
himself,
to offend
subjects,
is
way which
movement in their
freedom of
artist's
For while
application.
in art
more
for a
new
in
human images
of
coins.
is
interpretation of the
liberal
Roman
the
Second
governors
invited to
respected
Judea
of
the
religious-conservative
ristic
Temple
art
period.
ment known
at
as the "whirling
wheel" and
Under Herod
was
ly
this
of Oriental
strictly geometrical,
geometrical lines
Its
consist-
origin
E?st.
is
leton for
structural ske-
free
curved petals
underwent a change.
became the
all
is
thus changed,
original
its
vered
this pattern
and on ossuaries
dynamism
have unco-
as a decoration
on doors,
etc.
The
tion
and
in decorative pattern
were made
at the
to the differences
in
ment
creative imagination
new and
tely
had no opportunity
full. Its
developing to the
of
of the Jewish
political
the
slow
War
in
its
of
this
vitality
original
wav.
stvle,
from a Jewish
its
art
alreadv
Herodian period
of the
is
a con-
suffers
and
in
racterization
the
of
lack of technical
and more
II
some understanding
tion,
subjects
skill in
from Agrippa
as
of the
art
of coining
the palm
II),
procurators),
nates
vine
(Agrippa
II
and Roman
the
(period
the
of
leaves
more
be
to
freely
racter
the
of their sculptors.
The
The coinage
ele-
objects
which were
in general
use at
time.
in
this
branch of
good grounds
ed by the
for the
latest
assumption
excavations
fully confirm-
that decorative
we mav
in the
postulate,
not
deviate
from the
Roman
fashion
generally
151
Jewish
58.
Coins,
Hasmonacan
5.
6.
State
1.
John Hyrcanus
I;
I.
Second Temple:
filled
II;
10.
9.
8.
12.
First
Second Year (6768); 14. Shekel, Fifth Year (70); 15. Bronze Coin,
Second Year (6768); 16. Half Shekel, Bronze, Fourth Year (6970).
human
figures
under Herod.
its
and
We
de-
late
Second
the
Roman
to
follow
line.
of
There
is
Jewish
art
at
to
in-
may
the
4.
(c)
were
of
3.
13. Shekel,
Roman mural
2.
7.
11.
ed,
Destruction
(a)
(6667);
of
the
to
152
Christianity
153
As
will
be seen,
in the
common and
would appear
it
ed what
have
origin
their
Western
which
changes
teristic
new Jewish
terms of
from
of the
art of this
its
them
distinguish
their prototypes.
in
in
which
of Jewish art,
tic-constructive application
of their execution alone;
it
and
is
artis-
of the technique
in
no
degree
less
into
unit. It
this principle
is
fic
exist as
an independent
plicated
web
of
speci-
of
unit,
in the
but
com-
by reason
sc
its
its
emotive
effect
is
this art,
on the spectator,
of
Western
Western
art
art.
and
logical
in
compo-
the
element
geometrical
is
patterns,
ment
it
of a ribbon pattern.
of
But even
ele-
in these cases
repetitive
the
geometrical
web
we may
complicated
visually
note
in
discerned, unlike
154
Occidental
the
of
logic
Although
in the
compositional con-
shadow
effects
occasionally
is
gratified
ple
mous
it
background
as
all
and we are
creation,
justified
in
defining
East.
At
first,
remained
it
faithful
but
in
and
Near
the basic
to
combination
its
the course of
its
development, Jewish
art
and discovered
original
methods
of compositional
The development of
dependent style was obviously the
combination.
the artistic
artists
of
of
the
Jewish
the period
spirit
changed Jewish
attitute to
new
in-
expression of
architects
spirit
new
the
reflecting
and
the
in
many
fields
soil,
which was
during the
first
century B.C.E.
of Aelia Capitolina on
era began.
al-
art
had
we
Jewish
the
at
itself,
new
SYNAGOGUE ARCHITECTURE
MICHAEL AVI-YONAH
by
was
together")
in
conception.
worship from
earliest days:
its
ha"get
beginnings a revolutionary
its
places
of
temples, which
i.e.
living
(as regards
its
holy of
to
Such a
these).
shrine,
whether
contained
it
even nothing
in
or the
at all (as
Jerusalem
of the
was surrounded bv
Temple
spacious
the altar
ed
to
heaven.
This
sacrifices
its
Orient and
Classical
This was
common
ascend-
was surrounded by
court
to the
and post-Classical
the
in
East:
like.
the
royal
This was
Such
halls,
cities.
called basilicas,
Thev
consisted of a
was these
for
origin
it
of the
exile.
to
have origin-
Return to Zion
rose from
now
was found so
the
useful, that
communal
in
that,
Temple, synagogues
towns and
in the various
assembly would
certainly
the
in
and
so ingrained,
gradually
Persian
it
Temple
the
its
life
for the
hint of the
from
LXXIV,
8, to
apparent
the
reference
"the synagogues of
God"
Psalm
in
Hebrew
(in
case,
synagogues were
last of all in
City of Jerusalem
for
above,
we need
graphical
itself;
the Hob'
Temple
there the
and
outside
Israel.
The
spiritual
evidences
come
to us
content
the
of
of
from
these
from the
the svnagogue.
The
citizens.
disputed;
and exhortation,
judged the
basilicas that in
became the
hall of assembly,
community
in
public
IN
form was
adapted
to a large extent
(architectural
The prob-
to express in
and ornamental)
we
member
that
mother both
the
of the
re-
spiritual
we
SYNAGOGUE ARCHITECTURE
157
IN
158
significance
would have
contain
to
all
to-
we
its
beginnings
remains )
(as
the
to
synagogue from
evidenced by archaeological
developed
fully
Byzantine period,
shall
at the
style
the
in
other places
synagogue
in
speaking)
(chronologically
Judaea
in
fore
70 C.E.
tion,
found
We
1914.
in
the
few
of
Of
very term
and the
underground
synagogue
is
rary proseuche)
inscrip-
building
this
inscription
plastered
may have
rooms, which
dating to be-
Theodotus
refer to the
(this
parti-
is
certainly
*,
Jerusalem
in
foundations
archaeological
synagogue
is
it
Ages.
some
time in
first
when we come
lite-
law and
II
existence
the
for
it is
of
the dedicatory
to the time of
King Ptolemy
III
Euergetes,
who
is
strangers.
found
in the
needv
all
Ill
The earliest
certain remains of
synagogue build-
left.
synagogues
in the diaspora
may be
onwards.
constructed in Palestine
the Talmudic description of the synagogue of the
community
of Alexandria. Said
century
(over
found so
far).
(i.e.
be
fifty
till
into
the diplothree
stoon
to
gathered from
the
types:
earlv
It
was
like a
and
kind of great
the late (fifth to eighth).
basilica, a stoa
of those
who
The dating
to
Egypt
synagogue has
left
be based on
stylistic
considerations,
Exodus). Seventy-one
with a sudarium
in
his
(192-211).
Some
this derives
hand"
mark
uishing
signals
was
facades,
of this group
it
found
Galilee
in
The
attributed
construction,
i.e.,
(i.e.,
south
we
shall
direction in
Most
of the synagogues
in the
was the
and that
is
is
see, this
halls
in Galilee,
public;
scholars,
so big that
had several
his family
it
that
the
in a corner of
(piece of cloth)
at Qisyon,
of the
only
elder... In
as
secular
remains
synagogue, are
first-century
to
building.
found
now
at
Delos,
considered
formerly
part
of
159
160
the
of
Philippi
gate
the
[of
Macedonia]
in
by
side,
of
citv
river-
place
of
praver."
The plan
synagogues
differences
exist
the
in
uniform; although,
fairly
considerable
course,
of
of
is
various
places,
as
conse-
of
statutes
The
~>
Reconstruction
'.
of
Khol
(after
synagogue at Capernaum
and Wazinger).
59, 60 )
to this type,
The
site of
in ac-
mountainous
Galilee,
The
in
consequences:
architectural
of such
selection
paved with
stones)
leading up to
nity
its
it
views
marvellous
the
in front of
it;
which was
of the edifice,
visible
at
dis-
The
difficulty.
tectural
ensemble led
forms even
in front of
sources,
as
at
(i.e.,
the
Capernaum.
at
of
our ancient
in
it
of the sea
synagogue
Umm
(or lake,
at
Gischala
or
the
one near
The
el-Qanatir
phus
is
in
who
Golan).
the
referred to
XIV, 258)
(Antiquities
had
to
Golanite villages
Umm
and
sea
in
now
the
the
small
Khirbet ed Dikke
called
could
only
apparently
sq. meters.
and
consider
synagogues of
separately
three
we must
group,
this
details
the
groups:
different
and
the
architects
who drew up
the plans;
lastly,
bv
group.
Jose-
quotes con-
synagogue, and on
who
act-
"to
build
ral,
to their idea of
accordance
with
The
of Jewish worship.
the plans
and
what was
it
ornament, had to
place
who drew up
and who
in
some
cases
satisfy,
drew upon
his
constructions.
carried
praver
their
native
the
of the
fitting for a
architect
elevations,
of
places
size
arrangements so that
its
workmen who
the
Conversely,
satisfy.
el-Qanatir
who were
near
whom
allowed
columns was
its
first
or
second
one of
no express mention
Capernaum)
24 m.
interior length of
its
fact that
meters
sq.
exceeded bv
is
there
The
61]).
[fig.
length
its
is
(figs.
on mountain slopes, as
built
Meron, with
that of
measures 360
it
(although
largest
Capernaum
the Synagogue of
carry
traditions
their
of
On
the
other hand,
the
the
mannerisms
masons, steeped
country.
even
Thev
into
the
in
would
carv-
161
SYNAGOGUE ARCHITECTURE
60.
61.
Ruins of synagogue
Ruins of synagogue
IX
at
at
Capernaum,
interior.
162
163
ing
of
decorations
from the
derived
originally
inherited
their
to
would be
it
them
for
difficult
to ren-
the
hills
workmen seem
cutting in marble.
The
in the selection of
local
for
instance,
an
good-luck symbols
i.e.,
synagogues of the
proportion
of
and width
first
The
principal
is,
The
strade.
Women
Nashim
'Ezrath
was
originally used
be
set
up
lerv to
women
for the
rangement seems
to
normal usage
Palestine synagogues.
in
Kfar Bir'am
up
to the
has
62)
(fig.
its
us with
azin to furnish
general
idea
to say,
its
roof
which sub-
aspect.
common Greek
of the
re-
at
is
that of
storeys
of columns,
facades preserved
by
till
frontal
closer to the
dates
both sexes
typical
a balu-
separation of
bv
of length
notice,
ornament.
in this
high
unusually
the motifs
we
to
L64
is
is
of
in
the
two
known
a peculiar variation
to the
of columns, a third,
As a
result of this
triangle
into
for this
better
may be
variation
lighting
the
for
Temples accessible
few
to a
consisted
The reason
interior
synagogues.
remain
it
in semi-darkness;
synagogues
The
is
surrounded bv
aisles
on three
sides.
also
small
windows high up
gogues were
three doors of
ante-room.
The
court
is,
an almost invari-
in fact,
by
lit
which
light.
will
be discussed below. To
mounted by an
made
ments and
as protection
to provide
accommodation
for stran-
we have
to
The facade
was
of the Syrian
doors.
circular
window surmounted by
richly-sculp-
The
sists in
debris
main colonnade
in
the
hall;
these
presumably
window had
a triangular
window was
the
more
richly decorated
and
much
course, there
is
SYNAGOGUE ARGHITEGTURE
165
Ruins of synagogue
62.
is
at
the
IN
166
The
earliest
nament
is
The
which usually
square pedestal
stylobate.
The columns
The bases
rests
on
low
peculiarity of
umns
which have a
to
be found
in the ossuaries
what
fore,
is
element used
The few
in all
in
spirals.
The
is
of
particular
interest
for
the
We
some
to the usual
there-
owing
from the
We have here,
art.
also find
Umm
el-Qan-
atir
been preserved,
viz., a
The
windows
reflect
Tem-
ples.
if
we
did not
entirely
In
native
decoration,
to
the
founded on
a preference for
on optic principles,
i.e.,
acanthus leaf
all
these details
we
workman, with
transforming
the
his
classical
trained architect.
an ornament based
III.
own
hand
traditions,
design
of
the
of the
fruits.
of the
more
city-
167
The
of
interior
synagogue
the
was
halls
in
which was of
to attract
faithful
bv
was
its
at-
to
was
Law
of the
was
meant
opinion that
All the
later in the
(Hebrew
is
no
University, Jerusalem).
of stone ben-
the paintings;
of
Dura Europos,
in
to
to their plainness
comprised frescoes
The most
was a de-
bility
back ornamented bv
illustrating
similar
that this
is
There seems
was the
mentioned
to
so called "Seat of
Aha
th
seat
of
2,
Moses" which
and by a fourth
At the time of
velation. It
hibition:
is
their
ornament
a re-
"Thou
shalt
not
make unto
in re-
was
in
thee anv
the time
rich
use
Hammath-bv-
at
be a general agreement
Matthew XXIII.
in
consider
63); fragments of a
were discovered
chair
history.*
a rosette, sculptured
lief.
Tiberias.
Biblical
was found
(fig.
possi-
perfect specimen,
Chorazin
at
is
walls
its
The
in
down
63.
with
The
flags.
but there
ches, one
far dis-
scroll
In
it
of the
a richlv-eaived frieze.
168
its
use:
honor;
some
others
scholars
hold the
See
preface.
chapter
VI:
also
the
general
discussion
in
the
SYNAGOGUE ARCHITECTURE
169
64.
who
sume
that thev
either
IN
in all their
170
Capernaum.
at
of
Solomon"
and above
it
is
David"
of
of latter ages).
Above
an egg-and-dart ornament
same
gogues of the
figured
Dura-Europos
details
mosaic pavements,
and
Synagogue with
rich,
its
with
period
later
their
the
of
storied
frescoes,
have
tains a
still
mythology
(Hercules,
Two
fig.
represented on
away images
of
witness the
living
things
carefully cut-
the
in
Galilean
The ornament
gues
liefs,
arches,
as far as
and
it
is
sparingly
rather
manner: on
lintels of
consists of re-
the
in
classical
in
upper gallery
extant
applied
(fig.
64).
The
latter
is
usually the
Capernaum
65).
and Rama.
It
it
is
ornamented by a
scroll of
acan-
65.
Frieze from
relatively
period,
liberal
synagogues.
Medusa, a centaur),
the
gar-
in
no
sculptures
in
the
synagogue ornament
(clearly
of the
to
symbolic)
(later) Torah-shrine.
Fragments
in the synago-
The degree
(Nabra-
used
svnagogue
in
at
the
Galilean
Chorazin.
171
tations
sty-
is
and the
curls
reduced to geometrical
patterns.
in
the round
Hammath-by-
is
to their frag-
Tiberias,
traditional "knops"
and "flowers"
cf
Exodus XXV,
The
inscriptions
synagogues
Galilean
the
in
of
responsible
We
buildings.
all
the
for
of
erection
these
exception of two
von )
its
The problem
synagogue
in
We
Hebrew.
in
all
of
been found
in
all
the
synagogues
earlier
The excavators
naum Synagogue
door,
parallel
hold
to
of the
Caper-
struction
main
were donated by
etc.)
stairs,
drawn
were
synagogues
as
harmonious
have
few and
are
assigned
remains
certain
of
this
con-
colonnettes
and
The
site.
to
signs,
however,
of this sup-
for
it
narrow passage.
A more
likelv solution
seems
(most
to
to
They
synagogue.
gogue
the
that of the
enough
of a
bound up with
has
parts
further
is
31-6).
ture,
lized in
and
owing
to establish,
is difficult
172
see below )
likely
sibility
similar
scrolls)
at
sufficient
niche.
plethora of donors.
tion the
noted
problem of
the
before,
synagogue,
its
salem.
used
tvpe
earlier
we
their orientation.
with
built
should men-
As we have
synagogue,
of
its
facade,
Thus
at
if
the
all,
(assuming,
of
directed in the
Talmud
It
is
would be reasonable
to
in
almost
all
If
for
we
its
its
evidence as
re-
i.e.,
in the early
of the
tion,
room
scrolls
in a side
car-
at
Caper-
wall.
placed
was
so,
ornamental
the
window
semi-circular
facade
with
huge
its
any case,
direction
building
of
is
this
worship
or
bema
re-
dria.
a deliber-
Beth
we assume
place.
The prayers
is
synagogue, such as
the
its
the
to
the
of
orientation
against
The
She'arim
Synagogue
(see
bema
below)
in the
would
SYNAGOGUE AKGHITECTURE
173
seem
support
to
view.
this
A wooden
174
structure
no trace
IN
T --n-;
the
in
IL L
LX TTT
pavement.
S3
IV
J
-
It
is
especially
CD
if
therefore,
We
We
now
CD
are
U-
dj
0;
CD
QG
sn
result,
tirely similar.
The period
of experimentation ends
CD
type of synagogue.
The new
which emerged
principles
~j?^
and
finally,
in
and occasionally
three:
direction
of
was
(b)
it
the
(c)
to
large
in
by
extent
relief
frescoes
was
ury,
and
synagogue.
of
the
most interesting of
transitory
type
is
that
its
original shape
it
first
architect
basilical
form
central
aisles,
the whole
is
no
sequently
ly
was rendered
there.
The
walls
We
all
strict-
consequences
of
interesting from
synagogue
Judea;
and
its
of
the
natural
its
so
Eshtemoa, excavated
two points
far
width
rectangular
of view:
excavated
exceeds
and
clearest
66).
(fig.
The Synagogue
*)
it
and San-
were
Beth
since
only
(i.e.,
from
evidence
was one
the
The
blocked.
is
is
tions
was apparently
stone Torah-shrine
She'arim
the
there
of
She'arim,
Mazar).
synagogues
the
Beth
(after
mosaics.
The
Synagogue at
ground plan
66.
were transferred
congregation
abroad were
and
Jerusalem,
prayed towards
also
plan.
common
in
its
in 1936,
it
is
the
southern
length,
the
in
This
in
svnagogue
Renaissance
Italy:
175
176
was entered by
Husifa,
where the
beyond
its
the worshippers
had
it
make
certainly to
a half-turn
The
synagogue
newly-discovered
consists of
been excavated
same
which
Huldah,
at
ritual bath.
tvpe.
was preserved
prove the
to a sufficient height to
which
indicated above)
(as
it
for the
seven-branched candlesticks,
regard
the
as
Alpha
Beth
common
representing the
interesting
to
mosaic
note that
if
we
if
are to
below)
(see
The
A group
ed with
of
this
to
It
foundations, as
its
of these
is
the Euphrates.
pal
evidence.
vered
of a
was
much
also disco-
in the Galilean
however,
this
later period
is
evidently
The
change
of plan
at
a later date,
rias,
three
Husifa
synagogues
(Isfiya)
and
of
to
The
fame
be discussed
which are
frescoes
in the annals of
its
princi-
in
imposed synagogues,
two super-
one)
earlier
is
its
We
should
which
also in-
Hammath-by-Tibe-
Yafia,
title
evidence of a
is
The
distinct
is
arrangement.
would have
lost
(as
which we may
to the earlier
street
on
worship-
and
of
separated by
aisles,
its
sides (north
was
wall
school-room.
opposite to the
direction
prayer.
of
This
common
three
all
is,
of
however,
ings
and those
in
which the
later
to lack
an apse point-
found
in
and a carved
lintel
were
this naturally
The same
arran-
at
On
Two
as the
women's
section.
The prayer
extended
a niche
salem.
However,
niche.
in
(assumed)
in the
it
were
serv-
hall
was
much resembi.e.,
its
in length;
main
it
had
differed
from Eshtemoa
in
in
The
ancient synagogue of
Capernaum on
SYNAGOGUE ARCHITECTURE
177
room seems
Dura Europos
building at
178
presence of a wooden
to indicate the
bema there.
The later
IN
dated
is
67); this
(fig.
is
somewhat
The
sures
been much
hall
(its
first
mea-
sides, including
its
entrance
old
abandoned and
direction.
posite
The
in the opstreet,
one
left
right led
a door to the
of the
to the
Here
lodged
in
acquired
now
the time
when
The general arrangement of the synawas not changed, except that there
see us to have been no separate room for women.
It is possible that this was a sign of the more
Synagogue
67.
at
(after Pierson
enlarged.
gogue
hall
attitude,
liberal
also
women
the
is
surmounted by
by the mural
evidenced
It
had
conch which
a seat
it
parallel to the
the
plans
of
the
sixth,
at
which have
development witnessed
in
be seen by a comparison of
synagogues,
fifth-century
straight,
the
a conspicuous
one end.
its
plan.
its
all
details
The
and we
layout of the
inscriptions
uncertainty ap-
its
two super-
gogue
is
459 C.E.
Two more
synagogues
period of transition.
(to judge
the
Diaspora,
the
in
seems to
The
two
earlier of the
was entered
Miletus. This
at
to
as at
Dura Europos
lica
court.
It
A bench
The prayer
ran
hall
was
ending
in pilasters at
The same
aisles.
this
services
wall
plies to the
the
surrounded by
(perhaps
and was
Adjoining
indicate
nected
aisles,
but there
separately
rounded by
its
large
is
is
no
mav
no trace
courtyard
on
its
sur-
west side
(20.83 x 28.51m.).
The synagogue
at
Priene
mav be
ascribed to
179
180
The beginning
at Dura
type of synagogue.
later
an apse)
fourth
we
Macedonia
at Stobi in
century.
assume that
We
end
at the
of the
inclined
therefore,
are,
with
(i.e.,
development of the
in the
the
in
basilical
of the
transition
to
later type,
was followed by
The evidence for this as-
sumption
is
side
first in
away
di-
The
tvpe of synagogue
later
group were
columns,
of the
when
friezes)
a well-
is
stone, with
in this
is
The synagogues
which
type
pedestals,
bases,
lintels,
in their
in ruins
(viz.,
fragments of
On
the ground.
built
their
of dressed stone
walls
were
filled
Thev
the inside.
reflect the
impoverished state of
The
finest
68.
Synagogue
at
plan
be noted were
in fact isolated
inscriptions in the
the
same
jecting square
niche
in
fragments of mosaic
character
the
led
must have
There
view of their
corner.
is
The building
is
and another
is
in
on that
in
row
the center
of benches
side.
the
of
late date.
in
at
Alpha Synagogue
of the Beth
in
VI
The evidence
Diaspora
now
points
to
the
fourth-fifth
century
as
If
Aegina and
seen
in
Hammam
were
Yugoslavia)
see below)
Lif:
is
(near Monastir in
fourth century,
it
is
the earliest
end
known
of the
building
SYNAGOGUE AHGHITEGTURE
181
69.
It
Synagogue
Hammath
at
synagogues of the
bv two rows
and two
of pillars into a
An
aisles.
basilical tradition,
vestibule, 3.75
hall.
it
m. wide,
hall
On
rest.
The
182
described as a basilica!
is
IN
later
architectural
characteristics
basilical plan
the
of
basilical
and
differs
which
is
reflected in the
The
the south-east
may
The
The
The
be
in
dated
earliest
to
the
seems
to
fifth-to-eighth
centuries.
at
Gerasa
in
aisles
might
century.
at
likely to the
end
of the fifth
(fig.
68)
is
emperor)
refers to Justin
The
Justinius.
I,
who
This
in
all
probability
synagogues of
this
also
have served
at
for clerestory
of
galleries
windows.
was the
late
Hammath-Gader (el-Hammeh,
east
to
this
row
plan
at the
end of each
this svna-
pavements
stylistic
and archaeological
aisles.
galleries,
more
pillars
of the sixth or
later
consequence date
with
earlier basilicas
corner.
The
later
(fig.
69).
The entrance
in its
to the later
183
70.
synagogue
was
halls
by three doors
as a rule
in
towards
one
into
The
direction of prayer,
synagogues
east at
In
arrangement
This
Jerusalem.
is
at
(except
was
the niche
i.e.,
at
this
attached
in
it.
The
The synagogues
cease to serve as
course,
the
In
anomaly
continu-
cantorum of the
development,
parallel
added
type
The normal
basi-
is
was by way
of
in
in the
From
the
two cases
(at
se-
thex,
the
raised
was
area
in
at
least
carved
with
the
The
seven-branched
latter
synagogues
at
were
candlesticks.
in
fig.
70
The
the
centers in
to
to the schola
churches.
Christian
nave
community
Ionia,
in
Iical
comparable
two sculp-
eases
is
some
side
steps
each
sticks flanking
the
rise
on
colonnettes
and the
semi-circular apse
on
rested
not only for the shrine but for the two candle-
of the apse.
direction of prayer
Ascalon.
at
brought
Hulda, west
184
raised platform
also
fulfilled
in
shape.
width of the
Na'aran
enclosed
is
in a
basilica,
at least
irregular in
at
separate enclosure.
apse,
and there
is
still
some evidence
the
that
The
court
From
the court
presumably a
semi-circular
it
side.
the
in
went
as a free-standing construction.
was placed
to
it
far
We
chest,
width
in
wooden
at
Na'aran
on one
came superfluous
Whereas
was usually
in
the center.
the plan
is
Hammath-Gader
owing
to the
to
SYNAGOGUE ARCHITECTURE
185
two entrances
the
walls,
architectural
synagogues
ornament of the
later type of
The
seem
the
of
parts
to
dinarily
the
of
decorated
building
capitals,
relief
in
which are
or-
where the
on the abacus
cross
was put
same period.
in
the
good
deal
screens:
menorah with
accompanying
four
its
wreath
to
The
churches.
many
Owing to
of
Talmud* we
the Jerusalem
proximate
date
the
are able to
fix
ap-
from
change-over
the
for
half
first
observance.
fairly
liberal
We mav
when
of
show
all
The mosaics
vigor in draughtsmanship.
much
Beth
at
Ladv Marv
Hammam,
of
spite
in
at el
In
city.
this
much more
same
in
in near-
entirely different in
in
Thev
conception.
their
style,
Oriental in detail,
childish
are at
alive**.
The period
varv,
in-
Ham-
at
mosaic representations
various
the
The
pavement
found
and
lions
math-Gader.
more popular
in
issuing from an
186
is
IN
no opening.
The
of
comparative liberalism
art of the
later
which greater
strictness prevailed.
was due
to interference
Palestine
is
we may
Whether
bv the Moslem
a disputed point. In
of destruction
in
this
rulers of
iconoclasts, as
themselves
which
inscriptions
It
Hammath-Gader pave-
of
two
lions,
shrine
stick.
In
on these buildings
ings
were defaced.
In
the
more
which
liberal view,
this
to
even
the
scruple)
candlesticks
scene,
hope
Lions'
the
and
probably
for
lions; the
selected
redemption:
Well
(Na'aran),
such
the
its
as
expression
Daniel
Sacrifice
in
of
of
the
The
roll
enriched
in
of
covered
at
(earlier generations
floor
Divine
hand
any
without
Palestinian
its
(Arab.
kind;
Salbit)
it
was
in
same
Recently,
with
the
remains
of
mosaic
synagogue floor,
were found near
dis-
1948.
Isaac
(Gerasa); at Husifa
symbolic
liberal
allowed representation of
have walked on
seem
cipal elements
it
svmbol on the
till
a sacred
lasted probably
the
west Negev )
(see
187
This synagogue
in
15.40 x 8.55 m.
north,
is
a building
is
i.e.,
mount
earlier state
its
It
Samaritans.
of the
had a
It
and
hall
African style
188
is
rich. It
palm
trees (symbols
The
Land
main
of the
Hebrew
script
"The Lord
pavement
bv
used
still
rule
shall
Samaritans:
the
ever and
for
Greek
also contained a
ever."
inscription
The
beasts
and
strown
be dated,
to
is
the
In
bv
is
be upon
"Blessing
Aramaic
we
which has
donors"
The ornament
with
apse
The synagogue
(it
in
similar
is
Aegina
at
is
Greek lands).
is
small
to
chapels.
it
that of
is
The plan
of this
(Hammam
Naro
synagogue
is
Lif)
peculiar:
The main
the
hall
in
right
at
angles to-
was from
the building
main
hall;
into
the
placed
is
woman,
in
Julia,
The main
such a way
pers could
so
of
inscription
that
it
can
hall,
and
.see
it.
the synagogue
we may assume
The whole
trellis.
own
when
rather inclined
is
made
Julia
the pavement
who
women
The pavement
at
deco-
more obvious
Christ-
ian svmbols.*
VII
synagogue
in
art,
and
We
in
geneity
worship-
Naro,
in
the
homo-
is
its
in
to catch a
(at
Dura-
glimpse of a
pictorial
immense
it
by
hall.
acanthus
believe that
of
was
an
Christian
influence
was
development
of
synagogue as a place
of
in
the
art.
The function
led directly
of the hall
within
style of this
"at her
pavement shows
proper.
Tunisia.
of the
rest
orientated
in
and
Apart
is
its
a church
synagogues
was
ture
the
all
is
of
ly
as
a place
See
**
It
may
Roman
earlier archibasilica,
with
V.
mentioned that what was. formerly considered the most westerly synagogue of classical times which
had left archaeological traces (at Elche in Spain) has now
been shown pretty conclusively to be a non-Jewish building.
be
SYNAGOGUE ARGHITEGTURE
189
its
traverse transept,
and combine
lery,
Roman
in
IN
with a court
it
the gal-
interior,
basilicas as the
promenade
by making a niche
City,
character
of
svnagogue
the
service,
which
in
and
sacrifices
tion of divine
of the Temple.
This spiritualiza-
by the
its
lack of a
in
plan
The
its
fourth century.
The ornament
of the
significance: a Jewish
to
differ
from
their
synagogue architects
the
in
earlier
Roman
was
mar
to
the simple
fixtures
ex-
spirit-
Roman
basilicas the
was given
with
and approaches
of
richlv
dir-
sit
through-
tion. In contrast
and
all
to
facade
ornamented.
From
Jewish orthodoxy.
permanent
to
art
synagogue
which
ternal construction
figurative
it
phase abo-
basilica,
evolution of
in
tainly
Law
first
zeal
perma-
The
this
worshippers.
190
turned
the
classical
antiquity
of
art
the
into
principle
is
foreshadowed
phenomenon
of Jewish art,
bv that of Jewish
history,
great
in
victory
ability to express
whether-
German
it
had
of
to
its
it
had
the Jewish
itself
is
paralleled
to its
unique
its
own
in
to
adapt
spirit
itself.
was
its
ages
which
Owing
The
orna-
gene-
in
the
country or
linguistics.
their
illustrate the
art;
its
Hebrew
all
origins.
by
There
ample evidence
is
presentational
among
were
arts
unknown
wholly
not
We
XV.
(Antiquities
Alexandra,
that
6)
ii.
be contemptuous
likely, therefore, to
had
conventions)
religious
hope
(Wars
I xxii.
Antonv with
concern
us
here;
it
among
painting
as attested
Elsewhere
in
us
guilty intentions.
is
Jews
justified
the practice
the
of
of
how Herod
sending her own
tells
was not
painted
Mark Antony
II
of accepted
portraits
(hardly
is
classes
significant.
The
so far as to
one case
some evidence
There
side.
all
is
manner
is
The Temple on
were
to
be found
in
built
Jerusa-
feature of the
lettering
70 who are
used
in a
II
Philadelphus
divine
artistic
Temple
re-
traditional in
in
The Talmudic
B.C.E.
names
in
objection
to
writing the
be
remembered
that
the
rabbinic
should
It
disapproval
applied specifically to scrolls intended for synagogical use; in the case of private codices there
among Jews
of painting
on a sarcophagus found
or painter from
life,
human
Talmud. Rabbinical
literature
is
is
beings. Similar-
mentioned
in the
and does
up bv the Romans
dian
palace
animal
it
in
friezes,
Tiberias
which
was
were
as a trophv
The Hero-
decorated
destroved
bv
with
the
"The practice
of
The deceased,
in
Rome,
in
attested
is
is
at this
frescoes
were
may
70, these
Pen-
referred to
is
one Eudoxios,
beings."
Gold
script illumination.
Jewish
human
passage of the
refers to a family
by an
"all likenesses
this,
rabbi
Jerusalem
for-
of figurative representations
of actual
of
an early
at
portrait
in
date,
of
year 66.
Whether
the
in
does not
upper
went
Rome
phus
show
to
man
is,
that
likeness,
he draws
instill it
this.
a figure
with
spirit
bath 149a).
193
among themselves
Scholars differ
originated
first
the
illustration
with
decoration
the
or
scrolls
which
as to
scripture
of
representational
inscriptions
194
in
is
the
in
plates, pottery
lamps
Some such
trans-
of
and
and
textiles
portable
see Chapter
the
IV
synagogues and
of
Talmudic source
century
channels
as
and carvings
paintings
have served
may-
articles
in
work, a
this
Palestine
ban on wall-painting,
the
of
wall-paintings
clined
synagogue
To
interior.
story,
obtain the
in-
the
of
profile
Bible
the
illustrating
down
hall at
of pic-
of mosaics.
now
evidence. Jewish
monuments
side
panels
vived
(figs.
is
homogene-
and
means
came
be a
to
broad
On
all
thirty
of clas-
cuts through
tically
confirmed
fully
left.
When
of
the
is
wall
and the
The
pictorial
art,
the
in
of the
rates,
on the verv
would hardly
soil of
site,
the
ruins
of
this
svnagogue were
the
north
the
of
main
means
menace
gate,
in
immediate
The strengthening
had pre-
way
of
as those of
city,
Pompeii had
eruption.
gogue on the
shortly
before
built
this,
its
earlier
syna-
decorated
with
as
we
are
informed by a
series
of
paint-
fiftv years.
II
What we know
We
toward Jeru-
salem
spots
to view.
was
it
many
off in
masses.
all,
71, 72).
the
and the
In
fairlv intact.
west )
On
which
In a grove in the
lioness.
lion
left,
a table
is
two
set
right,
is
has been
It
kings
last
reigns
Judah
of
were deported
to
who
their
after
short
res-
may
represent
the birds
is
Judah, Zedekiah
an allegorv of the
(cf.
last
King
XXIII,
5.
mv
to
in
in the
Psalm
cern us here.
values,
enemies" referred
of
XVII and
Ezekiel chapters
We
are
interested
in
the artistic
ling brilliance
start-
later svna-
gogue.
partial
rebuilding of
195
196
197
198
o
D.
199
The
73.
Dura Synagogue
the
in
Valley of
Dead Hones;
detail of frescoes at
200
Dura-Europe
The hypothesis
that the
now
now
running
in
Moreover,
received a decoration
the
allegorical
all
was abandoned
style
figures
were introduced,
Some
as
sented by several
scattered
which may
scenes,
would
imply
the
existence
of
illustrated
first
Some
as
scholars,
exist-
may have
lost, is
faithfully follow-
advanced
favor of this
in
several of the
thesis.
feature
is
Such
a practice
was
of the scroll at a
spectator
had
surrection panel to
is first
portion of the
to
be repeated
Thus
in
the Re-
in
On
73 )
it
may be observed
tistry in
that
in
in
212 C.E.,
tament subjects,
all
Gospels.
When
in
first
to
be
in
contrast
to
and
is
fewish
was lacking
clear
Christian
early
everything
art,
intelligently
In the
times
(fig.
to
in
the
of
the re-
Israelites
was
not.
This
may be
additional evi-
more detailed
scroll illustration.
where
planned,
Ill
art
in
ideological
content.
On
visitor
saw
one
201
we have
left,
We
the right
202
(fig.
scenes
him fed
see
of Zarephat,
we
Triumph
the
Mordecai (see
of
see
72). Ahasuerus
fig.
the
uppermost
Persian
had come
ruler
possession
into
the
of
and Midrashic
legend
Dura
frescoes
We
move now
to the
in the
nerous hero
who
who
the
in
very remarkable.
in fact
is
displayed
stories
spares
of the doorway.
right
He
Saul's
contrast
in
life,
is
shown
David
to
i.
Joab
and Judah
of Israel
scene depicting
in the great
Bones (see
fig.
of the
Dry
73).
What
Messiah.
striking in this
is
sequence
is
that
it.
What we have
of episodes
ly
here rather,
is
a selection
the
artist
David
connected narra-
in a
introduced
episode
an
David
from
anointing of David
serting,
74.
He
in-
row.
We
Tabernacle, seen
subjected to
trials
first
and
in
its
glory
and
as
it
was
dow's son
true
a confirmation,
prophetic
mission.
is
a kind of
bv
contrast, of his
Solomon's
throne, set
discussed.
of
minence given
in
the
been
the Finding
Dura
frescoes
is
the pro-
was
has
tribulations.
directly over
Noteworthy
to
in
was
the
paintings
that
a deliberate attempt
raelitish
Kingdom, the
so-called
Kingdom
of
Is-
Eph-
203
"5.
raim.
To begin with
left,
fresco,
is
bed blessing
we
where the
his
204
his death-
Ephraim and
tribes
lyre.
comparison
is
very
In
scenes, Joseph
is
instructive.
rounded bv
children's
his
brothers,
his
children
and
his
children.
The two
central
205
by standing figures
On
tance.
the
left
emphasize
to
impor-
their
we have Abraham
75)
(fig.
open
and on the
scroll,
Moses
with
shown twice
is
burning
the
the
Ezra.
or
Josiah
as
left,
he
the
in
bush
on
the
figures,
same
episode,
right
and
miraculous
the
receives
side
on
signs
of these panels
The niche
itself
had an
ser-
architectural frame-
emergence of what
much
sented in
the
a menorah,
same
a tetradrachm of the
repre-
frontality of
rical
groups (Moses
symmet-
in
at the
when comPompeian
Rome. Some
Titus in
existed
stvle
as those
Roman
late
in
historical
In painting, however,
Dura
it
had no
reliefs
Rome.
in
parallels in the
Rome
marked the
it
this stvle
new
introduced a
ideal of slender
new
way toward
Temple accompanied by
The
lulab,
termed By-
is
ethrog, and
significant
tation of the
Dura Syna-
gogue paintings so
in the
What made
we have
206
(e.g.,
open
values,
new
scroll).
way
sense of
European
to
art,
pointing the
Jewish
built
the
the Temple
Mount Moriah, on
tradition,
on
sacrifice
episode
of
Solomon was
where
the
spot
associated with
had
Isaac
found
other
synagogue
may be assumed
of the
that they
as those
hitherto.
But
it
been
has
antiquity
of
builders
We
owe
circumstances.
if
art
is
to
verv
much
wrong, however,
to
striking
would be
It
and has
indeed,
speculation.
realistic obser-
is
Most remarkable
individualized
the
is
Aaron,
High
treatment
Normally,
onlv
not
(as in the
rise
their preservation to
Christian
given
taken place.
No
to
monumental synagogues
of Galilee de-
was out
of the
of
clothes.
the
Priest,
in
green
miter. His
Moses,
who
elsewhere
now
has a
It
is
not
in
other synagogues as
must be remembered
modern times the content and form
well;
for
it
determined bv
tradition.
that
before
of art
were
change
the
of
mood
is
which
scene
widow's son.
On
the
spectacularly emphasized in
shows
left,
Elijah
the
waist
up
The
in
sign
reviving
the
widow holding
clothes,
of
and
is
mourning.
her
nude
On
207
76.
the
right,
is
decked
tolds.
We
in
pink
garments falling
cannot dwell
in
detail
in
(after Rice
and Sukemk).
IV
in
208
elegant
on the various
special tvpe of
art
was mosaic
to
compose
and
tion,
was
floor
the
chairs,
the
thrones,
also
emploved
floor decora-
banqueting-t
which
the
hies,
painting,
far.
The passage
<
209
Talmud informs
of the Palestinian
cording to the
owing
to a
full text:
homoeoteleuton
in the
The scene
(ac-
ns also
standard printed
210
this
1928, for
in
77)
(fig.
when
was
it
the prac-
Abun
this
clear
who
lived in the
first
to
is
is
not quite
Rabbi Abun L
his later
(It
it.
According to
prohibition
II).
(Leviticus
was im-
XXVI,
to
I)
The importance
and
in
later of this
the
intended by
sacrifice
ancestor,
first
its
was very
its
time
all
prominence
ship.
itself in
due course,
as
we
Targum
was
human
including
common
merely
Riblical scenes,
but, as
ventional in Palestine
such
centers
were not
Byzantine period,
the
what
is
now
Beth
Alpha
of
cities,
as
figures
it
in
and sophisticated
forms,
of
its
original
we
name.
sixth-century
76)
closest
to
The
surrounded
bv
Greek inscription
of the
two mosaic
Marianos and
broad
human figure.
name of
introduction.
and
may be
it
it
must be borne
artists
work
of
whom
are
in
left
he
left
Then comes
Abraham stands
ram,
entangled in a
Moriah.
the
bush.
offering Isaac
up towards
God
the
known
already
of
the
to
be brought
hand
so
common
and
in
folk art.
executed,
been found
is
by
the most complete form the tvpical and conventional arrangement. Elsewhere, too, there
seems to
Svnagogue
of
In the fifth-centurv
is
in
It
should be
the father
is
Aramaic, indicative
primitive; but
Roman,
is
that Beth
in the pre-
and not
of the
mind
The execution
ritual art.
artists
presentation
A
name
border.
his son
time, capable of
decorative
sent case
of
the apse, he
medieval
ter,
absent.
in
is
frag-
now
re-
unrecognizable were
conspicu-
synagogues
is
the
In
the
Jerash
211
212
;&
a&t
i
.J
-4
BtVOiN
The
mosaic
floor
of
Beth-Alpha Synagogue.
ill
8.
The
constellations
W! HlUMUnlyini iWM
'I
Beth-Alpha Synagogue.
213
214
be found also
in
Nirim
at
in the
its
and a
lulab
shofar,
inscription invoking
we
hand,
central position
its
(6th century).
in
the other
synagogues at Naaran
floors of the
(5th century)
On
Israel.
on the mosaic
Much
peace on
radial
which
is
Isfiya,
it
is
emblems
of
Beth Alpha
with huge
ark
in
The
type.
its
perched on
birds
how-
is,
its
gable
is
This
The whole
is
Rome.
in
has
It
fact a feature
in
79.
the ceremonial
of
However,
its
layout
is
at
el-Hammeh, Transjordan
and Sukenik).
sufficiently
Moving
clear.
first
a panel
and
finally a
of the
Synagogue
and two
of
decoration
the figured
which
trees
an inscription
is
reduced to two
lions
preservation
ners
of
the
very bad),
is
we
square which
encloses
zodiac
One
of
these,
winter,
in
blooming
life,
(fig.
no flowers, no
no attributes
fruit,
no
birds.
clement season
is
beautiful.
as
perfect as
Her
hair-style,
her
gogue
is
is
The Zodiac in
The
poorlv preserved.
The
Noah's ark
much damaged.
We may
at adjustment.
One
had become
and
Jewish minds
to the
It is,
how-
was transmogri-
female figures.
The mosaic
Thus
of the vestibule.
79).
(fig.
resting.
floor of the
Naaran Synagogue
(fig.
is
80).
signs of the
215
216
m m
tmss*m*/ismM&!r7$ feto***
80. Torah-shrine
(after
detail
of mosaic
Rice and
Sukenik).
months, or by figures of
tian symbols.
tinian
tional
synagogue mosaics
Roman
which became
the
saints, angels
18th
constellation
century
now
and
signs
Jewish
in
adjusted
to
figures,
art
the
up
to
Jewish
The
in
of the
One
of the earliest,
classical period
Naro
5th
early
two
latter zodiacs
may
is
among
three
the
panels
niche.
century.
pavement here
finely-executed
central
extant
(Hammam
tions, the
form
to avoid the
interesting examples of a
is
Naaran Synagogue.
of the cross.
or
festivals.
the
designs in Pales-
still
traditional
and Chris-
floor of
(fig.
An
panel,
The
81).
divided
is
one fronts
central
runs
inscription
subdividing
across
this
two
sec-
into
it
into
symmetrically
with
double-handled
vase
in
cocks
flank
and
face
the
outward.
Two palm
trees
(fig.
tendrils
The
fill
82). Blossoming
the background.
inscription
is
flanked by
Above the
inscription
we
see fish
The
is
strip
left
unfor-
recognizable
ing
81.
at
Nam.
Hammam
Lif,
Tunis.
tendrils
is
blossom-
which suggest
217
large
218
were ingeniously
fishes
identified
as the
The sun
is
enclosed in a wheel
to a Jewish legend
wheel."
its
If
is
scene expand
nature.
by
Local color
is
it
African
and the
lion,
Messianic
the
of the fertility of
vision
Nilotic landscape
the
of
which adjoin
panels
decorative
with baskets of
ibises,
the
groves,
tendril
in
fruit
and of bread.
decorations
under-
the
of
catacombs, in Pales-
in
tine
Jewish
There
tion.
link
variety
folk-art
The
of
art
svnagogue
an
example,
for
is,
between the
of
unmistakable
catacombs
and
grafitti
reliefs,
Dura Svnagogue
the
of the
as
decora-
at
Beth
dipinti
of
found
numbers
great
in
in
the
excavations
of
graphy
mind
the
of
Jewish
catacomb
that
and owing
mily
tombs,
hensive
to
lack
scheme.
decoration
art
is
have
allowing
decoration,
of a
Funeral
are
for
keep
in
inferior
to
to
usually
synagogue, both
the
of
art
We
art.
execution
in
general
conceptual
chambers with
a
rare.
fa-
to
one chamber
in
siderable interest.
ward on
sheltering a
shut, the
of confor-
(a niche
one on the
is
left
is
figs.
87-89). The
lion stands
The menorah
human
floor
of
figure in long
draped garments.
It is
possible that
were meant
to suggest
an actual
mav
which appear
nations.
filled
left,
in
top.
Some
and
specific
One menorah
in various
combi-
is
on the
right,
the moon.
shown
is
significance
menorah
liturgical service.
compre-
unified
The attempt
82.
>
and connected bv
Shearim are a
rider,
a bar.
man
set
on a
Other motifs
vertical
in
Beth
leading a horse, a
219
83.
and
human
so on. It has
figures
mounted on
his steed
may
art,
been
symbolize,
the Messiah
220
Rome. Boats
referring
Holv Land.
in Italy, particularly in
as
in
fresco,
of
them em-
some
bodying human
figures. In
crow-
figures, Victory
and a bag
83).
(fig.
ceil-
figures
in
is
surrounded
by
ornamental
filling
corners.
The
sides
and
walls, in
the
which
are
divided off by
Rome
lands
hanging
down
from
221
to the whole. It
is
possible that
these
later
catacomb. However
ish
designs
decorative
be,
222
may
this
such as
undoubtedly Jewish
of the other
catacombs
in
Rome.
in
whole a unified
of flowers
effect.
Baskets
85.
candelabra on
decorated
ceiling
at
catacomb
at
Villa
Torlonia,
Rome.
Near
walls.
giving the
chamber was
this
the
zographos mentioned
in this chapter.
com-
on the chamber
and
cosolia
The
central
vault
is
norah
medallion
on the
me-
(fig.
also
On
is
occupied by
its
open,
exhibiting
Scripture
scrolls,
the
doors
on either side
(fig.
pagan elements
of the decoration.
We may
conclude
that
the
period
faithfully
reflected
scroll
on decorated wal
at Villa Torlonia,
Rome.
of the
catacomb
223
in
its
selection,
its
ideology, and
its
symbolism
art
first
time
in
history,
whole.
a conceptual
living
experience. This
Jewish
224
art
inter-
some
place,
but
Tolerated at
infused
first
it
and
with
its
its
time and
own meaning.
later obviously
guided by
also
***
M--
:$W:
f~*,
%
w
Vv
LT
'>
.Hafr.'*-.
Candelabra
in the
in Israel
by
Talmudic period
of the
arts
Al>
Roman
provincial art
noted that by
"provincial"
should be
it
its
catacombs
Jewish
although
of
Rome
or thev can
termed
cannot be
be judged on purely
all
PELliAUM
appear
ossuaries
richly-carved
frequently.
less
of Palestinian
we
here
shall
and ornamentations,
the
or
pavements
mosaic
work must be
its
period,
II
aesthetic
accepted
in this
is
one
bound
fore,
does
to
reflect
it is
not, thereit
taste.
and Second
revolts
in
C.E.,
and
in
Mesopotamia,
numbers,
dence.
Life
as the
in
Jewish
craftsmen
Talmud and
Palestine
survived
ultimately
returned to
No
to a certain
of the
in
the
selection
of
Jewish
decorative
(the menorah)
both
in
symbols:
fre-
hence
statues
and
it
of
tects
the
much
concentrated
of their
adornments on the
and windows
of the facade
doors,
sills,
flanks
on ground or second-storev
lintels
and
on
level, also
and
The
fine
arculated
at
of Chorazin,
carved
symbols
embodied
the
in
carvings
were very
lion, birds,
the palm-tree
frequently
springs),
the
the
ovolo,
ivy-
Jewish
in
was
gregation,
offerings;
from the
differed fundamentally
with
The synagogue
pagan temple
cult.
Free-standing
tomb monuments
become
rarer, as
if
to avoid the
special
figures
tories,
problem
which appear
winged
female forms.
these
figures
is
presented bv the
in
some synagogues
We
human
and even
rarely
dominate
the
vic-
that
decorative
227
scheme
serve to
fill
The execution
of these forms
is
(though by no means
petent
and invariably
lacking in spirit),
who
motifs
and the
(plants,
ancient;
liege)
this
is
a fair
argument
who
executed
for
was
in the lion-figures
some prayer-houses. A
arks in
from Chorazin
ler lion
better;
of energy; but a
is full
it
up and
rearing
is
much
same place
fore-paw, and
striking
smalis
far
with
its
its
spirit
at
Hammath
near Tiberias,
The forms
of
adjuncts (the shofar, ethrog, etc.), sometimes enclosed bv wreaths, which one sees on these re-
are
liefs,
between the
similarity
the
is
menorot and
style of these
one
for example,
dis-
pagan
would suggest
that the
reliefs in
finds
some support
in the
geog-
nounced Greek
and imagination.
fragments of seve-
to the
culture.
Whatever the
case, this
differing
is
skillfully
forms
of
the
expression;
so-called
Capernaum has
tifully
filled,
craftsman
at
some of
space beau-
who was
close to nature
and
The opinion
of scholars
is
and appear
latter,
earlier
tury);
few
from the
tic,
The most
point of view.
artistic
that
is,
aesthe-
Aegina synagogue
of the
and
technique ex-
this view.
Not
cellent;
on the other
straint.
The
in this respect
in
southern
terns;
its
of
"transitional"
floor of the
with
Tunisia
in
of
is
birds
its
low
al-Lif Syna-
and winding
On
it
no doubt
is
as inscriptions testify.
artists
standard
certain
its
its
Hammam
pagan work.
by Jewish
lenistic technique.
synagogues
gogue
Palestinian
this
perhaps
wreaths
The
and
men
Syria)
originality,
Greek) of the
the
(in
sical
much
has
foliage
their
who
column
capitals
of
ossuaries
to the
the
gogues of
Among
to faith
alike.
must be drawn
tention
ral
to
228
judged
by
Despite
"classical"
cri-
teria,
Byzantine
buildings
are
described
work
is
in
another
at-
it
is
full
of
primitive
vitality,
classical art,
reflecting
had vanished
229
new
non
at the
phenome-
may be cited
2nd
synagogue
the
of
The
Nirim
at
the
in
with
including
the district;
in
or
faced
and
not,
this
positional
opportunities.
The sarcophagi
Rome
interest
is
much
as
Ill
clear that
is
Neveh
thus,
veilings
beauty at
in
still
survive, with
like.
These decorations
freedom lacking
by the
and
in Gali-
considerable
art
which
is,
Rome
at
and
ceilings
of
the
first
are
with plant-motifs,
normal pagan
style.
general style
in
tomb-chambers
filled
for
on them.
sarco-
style,
while
filled
by
a finely-executed
menorah whose
feeling
and
pagan
known,
parallels are
differing only in
the
this period.
nini,
their techni-
was a
of
In the
between
doubt that
entirely gentile.
walls
proved, for
is
an
find
difference
this
possessed decorations
we
re-
Hauran Jewish
lee;
beings in a man-
cal level
stylistic
human
instance,
enjoy a certain
catacombs of
the Jewish
of
Jew
com-
specific
stricted to synagogues; at
flamingo
zoological as theological.
him with
elephants,
its
forty-four panels
southern
figures
mosaic
late
230
is
the third
rather
more
whose decoration
decid-
is
and
it
may be guessed
that
author was from the home-countrv. Verv beauthe coffin from the Villa Torlonia bearing
tiful is
on
its
side a
execution
is
sensibility
low
relief; its
of spaces
one acknowledges an
artist of
so delicate
so balanced, that
impressionist); onlv
this
and
in
feeling.
commemorated,
that
of the
is,
a painter of figures.
used
is
in
The
B.C.E.,
first
its
asso-
Jewish
This
to
describe
here
building,
building,
work
the
which
called
of
an
probably
decorating
amphitheatre.
survived
till
the
here we
chalice,
fourth arcosolium
is
a landscape of the
sail
in
the
Temple
great
frescos,
Jewish
revolt
under
human
Trajan,
(115-
figures such as
appears at Dura-Europos
in the
art,
which
231
may have
originated in the
century B.C.E.
1st
or even earlier.
232
tion.
came
high
relief
IV
The great
during
art in Israel
Shearim
period
this
is,
of course, Beth
at the
Esdraelon
tional that
87 )
fig.
The
began
great necropolis
period of this
brilliant
in the
a focus for
Rome
entered from
the hillside,
the
cleft in
The
hill.
cophagi or
in
cists
the arcosolia.
classical
ornamented with
and
bulls'
lustv,
which began
art
also
room
of hall
xii
The end
wall
is
in the
same
and
wall-graffiti.
human
The
figure has
14 found
in
to
have been
the court of
Tomb
striking dignity
rectly
by
which supported
was
and beauty,
restored from
strengthened
or meeting-hall behind
Series 11
its
if
monument
of
it
remains.
pilasters
Its
sculpture
were
walls
owes much
To
scroll
The
his head.
with a certain
was
of the
it,
and
and
frieze also
containing flowers in
in
their
high
and
pronounced expressionism.
If all
at a corner
effectiveness that
dental
rosettes
the relief of
menorah on
burial chambers.
is
appears a
is
been placed
in
or there
other
Torah-ark
pillar, a
Tomb
The
and divided
color.
border;
in the late
itself
in
rarely. In
is
to re-express
The wall-decorations
empire.
crude but
is
lions
dis-
retiuclate pattern
been
intact sarcophagi
into
and
art,
ossuaries laid in
tomb-doors
rather similar
recalls
it
wooden
par-
so excep-
spiration.*
in red.
school;
must be attributed
is
in
the
of the
it
became
it
any
of
Shearim
Betli
at
graffiti
to
and
of
inci-
the
(fig.
88),
photograph of
and Survival,
II.
this
2/3, 1957:
233
87.
Burial
chamber
at
Beth-Shearim.
234
235
88.
Striking talent
sailing-craft
man
(fig.
89);
it
is
The
bottom (a
detail
sail,
all
weigh and we
feel in
swells her
we
sail;
Prominent
is
236
under
is
is
sail-
in
objets
d'art
found
other
at
Hammath
at
Beth Shearim )
93
Its
that
but
(like
representations
not survived.
in
Jewish
Second Temple
show
(fig.
From the
arts of building
and
work, pottery,
glass,
wood and
life
is
pass to
metal-
textiles.
workers
we
burial,
Jewish metal-
revolutionary
Government
of Bar
Kokhba (132-
Temple and
its
vessels
(fig.
90)
(the facade of
bunch
as a
of grapes
whole
and the
overstruck on
deliver a
blow to
strikingly
the vine-leaf.
and
89.
Drawing
of a sailing-craft
at
art
on
Beth-Shearim.
a burial
chamber
237
90.
238
The
Engraved Menorah on
93.
91.
by a chain attached
the
filling
to a
Worthy
aperture.
Among
and
vered
in Syria
similar
in its
(fig.
lamps of
lamp
disco-
clay,
being
filled
through a hole
epoch
is
the
fragmentary
Its
bronze
rim
is
paten
from
decorated with
scroll
seems
to
is
gold disc of
its
face
its
who was
Talmudic days
have vanished.
to
in
associated
name
of
its
a "pearl-setter."
a small
decorated
is
owner,
is
artistic
a craft
We
faint
reminder
metal-working
in
239
represented on coins
art
chalice
volt
which appears on
(66-70
C.E.),
ossuaries
in
240
and
syna-
in
work
of the later
their pro-
on
late
Roman
is
it
silver vessels
the like)
repertoire of Palestin-
When we come
a sphere in
their
which the
enter
crafts,
but
and
meet the
arts
we
that sphere.
reflects
Among Jews
popular taste
a clav oil-lamp
was
95.
lamps
are
frequently
in
found
synagogues
of
in
of
A.
Reifenberg,
Jerusalem.
Jewish
in Palestine
lamp consisted of a
adjuncts;
its
pear,
age
and
^i^xdim
we
seems
there
to
made
new
on.
The
variety of motifs
identification of
lamps
as
is
Jewish
is
95) into
centers
are
located
whose respective
Alexandria,
in
example found
For
at
whose
Syria;
Jerusalem.
private
collection,
of
the
halal(hic
earlier
later
than
background
of
F.
of these
imp from
typologically
consideration
Bronze
None
late
94.
Palestine,
241
242
among
They
originated in Alexandria,
On
Egyptians
it
to Italy.
drawn
in
*jfcmmm.-(
a lower temperature
96.
when
the Jewish
and
well
first
There
community
is
some reason
and
Roman
religious
manufactured by the
and bearing
state
identical
on certain coin-
Different
96),
nozzles,
some
of
Hanukka lamps
including
which were
circular
(fig.
with spout
field for
vine,
and
Over
glass.
Most
was gummed
this
in the
second upper
dishes
to the inscriptions
gifts to friends
are
of their designs,
identifiable
and
relatives.
by the
upon
The
subjects
into
and
menorah
The
inscription
is
(fig.
and
similar
either arranged
around
the
its
fish
episodes.
Africa
at
is
thought to
the
their
importance
in their
lies
forming a de-
ring the
VI
Tradition
participation
to
Jews
glass
industry,
ascribes
is
its
and
glass
at Tiberias
in
also
industrial pro-
no doubt that
in the
of
glass
in Pales-
in
the
97.
Israel
Exploration
journal
VII.
3,
1957,
154
sqq.
and
tine;
have
formed a protective
been found
of
so
issues.
more
layer.
and
243
244
in the
century Egypt,
curtains
stuffs
were
fan-
There
as Iudaica vela.
4th
in
embroidered with
were known
tastic figures
is
Talmudic period;
also
used
in
In
to
answer
We may
distinguish
and that
of popular
art.
The
burial,
found
its
it
was
this,
Thus
and
Palestine
in
various forms on
Syria,
whose
we
exteriors
and
expression
it
first
and foremost
adapted to
its
own
in
This
glass.
in classical
spirit.
Archaeo-
among them.
gentile
art,
and
in the
lestine
bolism
common
together
is
in
media, which
Palestine;
98.
first
of public
to the Syrian
and Nabataean
cul-
tures.
the gentiles,
when Jewish
art
entered an era of
find bottles of
and
Of considerable qua-
it
pos-
it
was
lit\
is
made
of green glass
symbols
in
amphorae, the
nicnorali, etc.
in the
at
form
Beth
is
Israelite
to us of
th.it
drawings
ol
clay lamps
branch
the
(fig.
exist-
'i -).
Torah-arks seen in
has
all
also
is
graffiti,
on
traces of
necessarily
referred to by
Tomb
Yassif,
adventurous
human
door,
Israel
basalt,
:
exploration
representations
from
Louvre,
into
(fig.
Kfar
Pans.
and here,
if
anvwhere,
we
tradi-
245
glasses", the
of Bar
Kokhba prove.
the result
The
less
is
of the
skill
246
(fig.
101).
importance
tinction. Its
omenon,
is
as a re-emergence
as a sociological
extraneous
pavements
is
in
phen-
from domination by an
their vitality
of
Beth Alpha
the craftsmen
We
artistic
perhaps
raav
achievement
naum and
symbolize
Jewish
in the plant-scrolls of
or
two
represent
striking exceptions)
is
figures
Nearly
'essness.
the
all
movement, which
reflects
rity
was
and carvings
at
this quality
on the one
moments
rest-
native familia-
graffiti
craft.
tion
and
It
at
these
religious faith
its
rience.
we may
was
artist
means
less
of expression
throughout the
Jews
that
Roman Empire
the
in
man form
in their art; in
Rome Jews
gentiles.
was the
artist,
is,
not
who
in-
quite irrespective of
thorship.
the
In
craftsmanship,
that
Jews
in
its
is
re-
Jewish,
technical au-
realm
there
is
of
little
artistic
doubt
101.
Amulet;
Jewish
that attach-
loving observa-
surely some-
is
al-
may be no
and nervous
(with one
rudimentary, such
It
different
to
Caper-
"minor"
Museum, London.
M
[
^Sf*:V:iS.^/5^\152_!!CI2.^
_W_.
16th
...
century.
by
We,
I.
Architectural Achievement
so far as language of
tradition,
The architectural
history of
phical
position,
the
and
its
was searching
and selected
to shrines
its
character and
way
of
own
On
quarters.
own
but
it
the existence of
among
their neighbors
the
Jewish
was onlv
in
pendent architectural
same period, an
known
idiom developed,
interior space
which constituted an
original departure
from any
synagogue
people,
ter
assumed
sifted
architectural
It
or
satisfaction
and 17th
number and
art of building.
architec-
life.
giving
of
particular needs.
concept of a synagogue
from dwellings
fully expresses
its
people's normal
of expression. It
and
means
for
creativeness
existence
its
of
of
other
architectural
sphere
creative
tural expression to
to the
sources of inspiration
all
geogra-
its
climate
specific
its
conditions.
local
determined by
is
beyond
study
or
group
cultural
or
religious thinking of
Judaism
original significance.
sharp
is
between
divergency
its
own
the
life in its
theme
for
the
building
of
European
synagogue
of
The theme
story
gains an
added
interest
from the
fact
in
characteristic
to space, the
tween
the
Jewish
liturgical
Europe be-
tradition
and the
ture.
with
art
and
II.
may be
techniques
architectural
the term,
in
said
response
so far as
in
to
the
basic
meaning
of
It
is
basic
art
could
furnish
the
instruments,
and
fact
of a
in
Program
the
history
of
medieval
were generally
involved.
European
The Evolution
have produced an
small.
its
surroundings.
The synagogues
in small
its
communi-
255
ties
made by
lations
bv secular
or
officials
Furthermore, while
buildings.
existing
of
surrounding
the
the enlarge-
buildings,
be higher than
to
edict
ecclesiastical
were
The
interpreted.
fully
depths have
below that
not, as
is
the
without
interior
restricting the
synagogue's
the
pronounced
Lord") but
is
external height.
law
the
transgressing
Hence,
until the
synagogue
This
interior.
exclusive
direction,
still
is
Had
prayer been
requiring
activity,
it
which
become the
archi-
congregation
the
similar
is
sense of the
literal
a secular building.
axialitv
("Out of the
The synagogue
the
in
praver
as
is,
gation
buildings,
term, that
focus
of
house of assembly
it
completely,
Jerusalem,
to
interior
tectural
dominate the
of the
floor
first
the
placing
of
tradition
synagogue
level of the
spite-
permanent place
forth as a
Law, orientated
256
turned, to
imposing
naturally
that
to
as
pravers.
Law was
platform
gravity,
dominating the
as important
churches.
Christian
of
longitudinal
reading
the
entire
from
of
its
thus
The
building.
between
rivalry
two
the
foci,
at
such
stances
as
existed,
instance,
for
13th
in
At
was
also
activities.
all
based as
these
relationship
the
to
space,
interior
is
disturbing
the basic
be explained
was
later,
a harmonious
and
is
the individual,
hall of
it
no great
the
size,
number
of the congre-
synagogue
interior,
it is
ship
resulting
problem:
the
in
permanent
space
relationship
connected
with
form
which
architectural
between
in
in
Law
time
This
European communities
which survived
until recently,
came
in
into
European Jewry
the
epoch
medieval
Law,
at a
its
characteristic
Jewry
of liturgy,
In
ancient
of the
importance expressed by
aron attained an
the
by the highly
was
consideration.
At a
axialitv.
of
form
cultural
of
and
frequently
conditions.
Renaissance,
it
in
subservient
Thus,
at
preserves for
its
to
earlier
purposes building
architecture.
awn
(see
kodesh or Ark
The women's
section
is
The
separation of the
257
258
forced
In
gallery sometimes
had
It
women
to
be
attending
of link
section with
all
example,
in the
many
architectural detail. In
its
hall
women was
as the
synagogue
a separate
main space,
at
as, for
Worms. Sometimes
the
level
of the
neath
as, for
gogue
at
similar
arrangement existed
in
When
Toledo
tury, a gallery
in
hall.
It
Provence (a
was constructed
in
Carpentras [1396]
in the
14th cen-
purpose
for this
was not
until the
woman
tance.
with
accommodation
well-planned
The women's
galleries
existing
naturally
this
The
tvpes.
to
its
for
women.
choice,
therefore,
fell
for a centrally-located
was
other,
as
arrangements
liturgical
and monastic
at
possible
as
little
in
reminiscent
church. Town-halls
undivided chamber
synagogue
in
of pillars or
The method
and
tion
structural
of construc-
arts:
pointed,
Heme
and
four
plain
shapes
all
or
five-ribbed,
and many
place.
IV.
The oldest
before
ber
it
building in
its
1938,
was
the
renowned
in
Novem-
Svnagogue
is
a late develop-
Amsterdam.
The Impact
of
Architecture
double-nave
chamber
Romanesque
in Central
synagogue,
and
2)
the
Europe,
1)
the
vaulted
or single-nave synagogue.
Had
this
been
so,
or,
we must
of
refectories
III.
needs,
of
in the
to
it
that
fict,
aisles.
longitudinal,
with
The plan
a
is
central
102.
axis
I.
III.
Vestibule;
IV.
Rashi Chapel.
of
259
103;i.
Worms
in
in
the Rhineland.
Its
Synagogue
at
construction began
and
from
its
much
early
to
late
Romanesque.
The famous
Worms,
interior, east.
Cathedral
at
the
affinity
tural
260
of
same
time,
and
there
construction
is
detail.
Column
capitals
a
in
marked
architec-
and characteristic
identical.
The
interior
are
space-arrange-
261
Worms
103b.
ment
and
proper,
species:
earliest
Europe
section.
is
Romanesque
known example of a
synagogue
double-naved medieval
the
of Central
Women's
which
structure,
the
is
Synagogue.
262
(fig.
The building
102).
is
pair of
their capitals,
and apparentlv
also the
doorway,
details of carving
of
the
The
columns.
double-nave
resulting
midway between
the
two columns.
(It
on
is
replacements
were much
than
larger
Jews
in
the
one
Worms.
and was
level
is
with one
central
column,
and
altogether
is
unique arrangement.
104.
(fig.
103
a,
b) seems to
Synagogue
.in
at Regensburg (Ratisbon),
etching by A. Altdorfer, 1519.
interior;
263
105.
been
have
Gothic
In
remain.
gogue
prototype
synagogues
erected even
land.
the
in
over
all
the
of
and
double-nave
Central
Europe,
at
Ratisbon
of this tvpe
of the syna-
(Regensburg)
artist
264
Albrecht Altdorfer
(fig.
104).
at the
late
end
The main
hall,
a double-nave, built
pillars
had four
its
in
elongated
Having three
pillars instead
265
106.
formula, since
the
it
bimah arrangements.
interior, east;
is
of
"Altneuschul"
Synagogue"),
(fig.
"the
(literally:
The gloom
105).
atmosphere
stories
congenial
woven about
the
to
that results
interior
traditional
building.
this
known as
Old-New
Most
an
folk
of the
and
is
unique
impressive exterior
pattern
of the
in
period
different
(fig.
it
from an
266
hostile
simple
and
clear:
in
is
principle
Worms, except
with
nave
the
(fig.
107)
Svnagogue
is
cedly Gothic in structure and feeling, though restrained in decorative details because of
content.
The
ribs, five to
it
its
Jewish
would seem,
fifth rib
was intended,
formed by the
was
situated in the
of
pronoun-
and
ribs
push outward.
to
267
107,
figs.
doorway
focal
Access
through
is
arched
an
The
bay.
108.)
268
relationship
points
importance
in
space
obviouslv
is
primary
of
and
this
awn) nor
(opposite the
or south wall
is
sector furthest
from
at
(e.g.,
it
Spires,
was
tury
theoretical
decision
made on
the
Arukh
many
although for
built with
still
The
1567;
of
interior
was henceforth
to
per-
of
synagogues
later
cross-section
time
Worms,
108.
afterwards
low
as
auxiliary
structure.
appended,
also
surrounding
visually impairing
its
and
building
the
The carving
exterior.
details
corbels
strained,
and equal
sober,
awn
over the
the
to
The tympanon
the pediment
standard
in
in
decorated with
is
were executed
on the
ternal
14X8
meters,
The
floor of the
"Altneu" Synagogue
is
well below
first
purely
initially
expressing
a
its
interior
clear
is
symbolical.
single,
Worms; on
architectural
mass
volume.
in
its
Romanesque
the
of
largest
predecessor.
Romanesque
is
or
end
at the
Gothic
Cracow
of
gogue
ex-
higher than
The
The
Kazimierz
plan
is
Worms and
a
The
synagogues
is
at
Gothic with
struction
and
the
that
direct
was
building
inferior
alterations
little.
inspiration
though
Renaissance
external
of
to
it
constructed
the
"Altneu"
architecturally.
under the
Synagogue,
Notable
is
the beautiful bimah, of octagonal plan and enclosed by a 16th century- wrought-iron cage some-
and
made
10/.
Altneu
synagogue.
(after
Prague,
Masak).
ground-plan,
inspiration
in other
for
same slenderness of
expressed in metal
late
(fig.
109).
269
109.
V.
'Old'
synagogue
in
Synagogue
construction
in the
of
synagogue building
Middle Ages
is
270
in Central
was alwavs
problem
of
moderate span.
intermediate
supports,
dom
one nave
in
of
buildings
medium-sized
stone
in the
form
solution without
course,
assured free-
JEWISH ART
271
Synagogue
110.
Miltenberg-on-Main, cross-section
at
The
axon.
Krautheimer)
(after
emphasis
equal
272
to
all
four
and by the
walls
the middle
were
character
of
repeating
bays.
built
Among
down
World War
to
Miltenberg,
Schul"
Romanesque
II)
Leipnick,
built
well
in
for
(or existed
exist
were those
as
Prague
in
still
known
or Gothic struc-
as
the
Bamberg,
at
The synagogue
at
small
relatively
As
vaulting.
instead
of
in
the
of the rectangular
photograph of the
interior
110)
is
the
fifth
of
five
being
interior
by giving
13th
the
in
ribbed
vaulting
(fig.
successively
its
An
with
"Pinkas-
four ribs,
vaulting
centurv.
the
the
Miltenberg-on-Main erected
13th
at
The
111).
(fig.
the
of
axis charac-
112).
(fig.
The
longitudinal axis
was
addition
the
of
northern
the
whose
of
entire
southern
or
the
of
rhythm
the
wall,
windows
small
length
strengthened by the
later
accompanied
the
Most
the
interior.
of
became
at the
visuallv
end
of
more im-
stressing
the
bimah remained
longitudinal
character.
The
and con-
VI.
in
Synagogue
at Miltenberg,
(after
Krautheimer).
vault-plan
contribution
original
at
the close of
the
to
the
which evolved
number
of
buildings,
some
of
made
which are
273
gems even
architectural
if
European architecture
of the
thus belong to
general
historical
from
perhaps
which were
Poland and
Bohemia
later in
to
synagogues,
square-formed
the
built in
in the
and
of the period
in
it
274
difficult
is
it
uniform
specific
morphological group.
Prague was
in
built in
Empe-
Rudolph
ror
Jew"
II to
whom
after
down completely
two vears
rebuilt
later.
wide
1689 and
in
nave
central
The
is
aisle.
is
The
The
ribs.
plaster deco-
which
building, in
characteristic early
Synagogue
112.
Bamberg,
at
interior, west.
decided deviation
is
we have
known
in
till
it
women's
and
ly to
The
with
ly
hesitancy
stylistic
from
arises
the
these
of
its
two examples
character
peculiar
Prague,
of
subsequent-
The
make
building
it
The
built
Isaac
in
1582,
vaulting, here,
architectural
tradition,
is
"monastic
intersecting
too,
lines
of
(fig.
113).
at
oldest of
Kazimierz
them was
vault."
It
is
covered by a
As with the
the vault
is
two half-cvlinders
at
built.
Renaissance
It
idiom
as
was
(who
prominent example of
is
was
it
The
used
architect
in
small
Francesco
the designer of
many
a disciple of the
also
worked
in
Cracow
structure
is
buildings in the
in
The
while in
Isserles,
women's
barrel-vault
all
1594-6).
with
sides.
It
has
section.
113.
lateral
Notable
is
Synagogue
at
R. Isaac Jakobowicz;
section
(after
Grotte).
cross-
formed by the
suburb of
built in the
1553 by Moses
in
Lwow,
The
cross-
Renaissance
taller
Nachmanowicz Synagogue
and
gallery
is
dieval
Under the
and flower
on Tuscan columns.
ported
gallery
right
275
276
architects.
The
is
is
co-
appearance
the
vault
of
normal
cross-vault.
windows,
(fig.
etc.,
are in Renaissance
its
synagogues of Zamosc
115), Husiatyn
(fig.
direct use
altars
Grotte)
neighboring
the
new
and
II.
Moravia
Emperor Joseph
Bohemia
down by
to their
but
angles,
the
enclosure
is
downward
and
dome. This
is
cylindrical
115.
is
which
Synagogue
at
many.
These
Bohemia, are
sometimes strengthened
formed
in
now gained
more
buildings,
built
nounced Baroque
particularly
and decorated
taste of
in
the
in
pro-
Zamosc,
interior,
Bimah.
(fig.
in
the
277
116.
town
Synagogue
at
is
below the
dictates.
1764
the
at
similar
synagogue
was erected
built
in
ferred to,
leading
to
lie
Bavaria;
hence
is
it
were
not
main roads
surprising
in
278
VII.
Shortly thereafter,
Central
and
Eastern
in
the
wake
Europe,
and
of the West,
particularly
279
Synagogue
117.
at
Kuttenplan;
The
ments.
isolation
Jewry proceeds
in
is
to create
to
new
be-
traces
develop-
to
cross-section
emphasize the
(after
Grotte).
interior's
dome and
bimah beneath
their
some well-known
later
mentioned square
single-cell
the
Jews
from
focus
a conventional space-relationship,
of
European environment
wav
The
last
ground-plan and
280
it,
by means
i.e.,
as in the case of
this
first
and
crafts.
is
achieved.
way
of
builder's
stract
It
He
task
in
its
yet
had
it
the
master-
Jewish
be executed and
The
cipal difficulty
stress
was
worship.
dilemma.
expressed
suitable
central position
prin-
desire to
tance. This
tion
which
the
building's
rigidly
solu-
shell
with
this
which
four-pillared
synagogue
independent
architectural
focal
point.
resulted
invention
is
The
an
and native
11K.
Jewish achievement.
to build
It
and vet
Synagogue
at
groundRzeszow. Above
ground-plan and
of
of
between a
new synagogue.
281
282
phenomenon
fascinating
Had
need.
an emotional
Jewry been
in
to exist
construction.
of
(cf.
Wolpa, or
many, where
it
pillars
also
surrounding a bimah
as far as in
Rothenburg, Ger-
apparently
a superfluous support
large
some timber
latter
deeply rooted
tradition
as
it
specific
of
how
in Jewish
monumen-
tality.
The
Synagogue
119.
at
Nowogrodek,
A much
however,
if
stronger
spatial
the structure
is
possible,
period.
upon
side
called
to
ta'ze
tionship.
is
its
structural
this
system, to
Many,
the
clearly
buildings
from
local conditions
especially those
city-walls,
were
built
surrounded by a
possessed
fortified
arcaded
fortresses,
The
roof
attic
If
parapet
in the
the
become
its
would be
fulfilled.
It
finally
masonry,
split
extreme
conclusion
type,
e.g.,
the
at
Rzeszow,
absolute
(fig.
type
118,
of
119). Simultaneously, a
building
in
developed,
among
nine equal
Lwow
and
bavs
(fig.
120).
at Z61-
this
tvpe
as
was
bimah could be
these
impact
itself is
of
interior,
and Bimah.
central pillars
exterior
120.
plan
283
Synagogue
121.
at
were
adopted,
would seem, bv
it
121).
contrast to these
In
synagogues
of
very
were
the unfortified
appearance
simple
whose
The
tiers,
Lwow
cross-vaulted
is
in
4 pillars
in
the
all
synagogue
building
as the accepted
built in
at
equal
bv 12 arches, with
nine
The
(opposite the
Zoikiew
built
in
1690 are
form of
pillars.
The
highlv
hall
with
the
wood engraving.
four
pillars
instance,
(1705;
rally,
the
in
"New Synagogue"
vaults
of
such a
synagogue
bimah
elsewhere
is
to
northward to Lithuania
to
(fig.
Germany.
In Palestine, synagogues of the four-pillar hall
interiors of
of
order to
fill
height.
The
began
at
in
emptv wall
window, which.
a considerable
The
form
dome or vault. Beside the synagogues menmanv other examples are known to have
to
tioned,
church), apparently
on
rest
buttresses.
for
Rzeszow
at
fig.
the
arches
284
them by Ashkenazi
and
settlers.
was
stage,
quickly
accepted
to other
further
central
bay.
The
four-pillar
most
on
passed
it
as they
dome
over
synagogues
in
285
synagogue of
War
II,
were
relatively high,
Aboab
gogue
and
at
Synagogue
Istanbul
the
town
of Jerusalem. In the
a
the
Safad,
at
Ashkenazi
the
include
Palestine
the
in
Tomar,
of
old
city
in Portugal,
ly a
still
surrounding
the
of
scarcely
distinct
an
more
Even
phenomenon.
architectural
unique
the
timber
tions full of
be regarded
tics.
common
plain.
is
the best-known
is
twist
which
Polish
mood
the
gave the
(fig.
123).
quieter and
17th
the
in
century,
imaginative
movement and
stone
In
theme,
become
the
combina-
topic.
Poles frequently
generally
owes much
rise
some measure
in
roof,
special
characteristics
have given
The
"festive"
but
restrained,
exterior
influence of a
upward
obviously
aware of
his
synagogues are
are
well
Timber Synagogues
may
in
The
landscape.
group
They
remains.
them dominating
of
eaves an
VIII.
some
builder,
exists.
one
single
286
synagogues,
also
existed
constitute
in
the
separate
temples (the
tc ancient Slavic
some remains
of
or to the
Khazar tradition
inherited
ancient
sulted
this
development
re-
among
village craftsmen
working
and
prototype,
Slavic
preserved
skill
artisans.
for cottages
and
inns,
mistakably
separate
group,
It
is
and un-
associated
with
In the
was concentrated
prising
that
though
now,
in
the
after
Poland; hence
buildings
the
it
were
devastation
is
not sur-
numerous*
of
World
Synagogue
characteristic
design.
In
Some 1800
1939.
cases
rich
of the interior
wood-carvings and
in
bright colors.
pogroms
in Poland
many
at
little
in as
an internal
287
'
*"
288
cAyT
^v^_.
*Sil3gfe.
r*<z~
'Jfrenc'jmcijr,
^impart &
ff.
%.
Synagogue
12.3.
gallery.
and
Unique
"winter room,"
cold weather.
Pogrzebyszcze,
at
was
characteristic
the
It
to faci-
exterior
Berson).
(after
timber
westward and
was
synagogue
built
at
Kurnik near
of timber
columns
litate heating.
exterior
The
in
three
molded
barrel-vault
Israel
tiers,
The
the central
paintings
are
one forming
the
work
of
octagon
square
to
at
center.
is
The
transition
from
Chodoiow. Most
of the Polish
built at the
in
end
the neighboring
verv
manor houses.
dome
interesting
slightly
in
common
Inside
was
reminiscent
a
of
stone-vaulting
IX.
1767 a
in
The Synagogues
Jewish life
gendered
fested
in
in
specific
the
of Spain
art
building.
The degree
of
of the
The
289
al
and
religious
independent manifestations of
among
type occurred
this
developed a tradition of
As a
result
its
own.
and usages, a
of local conditions
came
type of synagogue
nish
290
among Spa-
into being
to the
points
nish-Hebrew names
their
awn and
the
interior,
them
customary Spa-
its
tevah.
most extreme
As
and
visual language
world.
in
Christian
Spain
Arab
this,
(the
for
only
rather
Western influence
mudejar
in
ornamental
few
details
manner
only, in the
which
combines
Synagogue
125.
interior of
Gwozdziec,
at
wooden dome.
in
Spanish
Moslem
walls
of
their
who
neighbors
much
embellished
like
the
Koran.
medieval synagogues,
unostentatious
into
(fig.
the church of
Like most
126).
this building
is
modest and
outside,
Its
and indeed resemble the famous mosque of Cordova. Four long horseshoe arcades which carry
a
aisles.
capitals
The
columns
octagonal
are
and
their
The column-bases
in
windows
which no longer
124.
Glazed procelain
exists.
tiles.
in the
women's
Despite
the
western
section
building's
291
126.
seems
and
Toledo
is
(22X28
thanks
spacious,
arches
to
it.
The plan
is
Jesuits,
of the hall,
ha-Levi
later
took
Cordova,
of a longish
that
The windows
interior.
who
by
in
1356 and
built
the
of
Don Samuel
rhythm
the
columns.
the Svnagogue of
Abulafia,
in
292
a flat
just
described in
and other
decorations, inscriptions,
at
Seville,
its
details.
decorative
patterns
lettering belongs
specimens
The
by
off
of
important
record
The
Hebrew
walls.
women's
aesthetically
and
is
initially
inscriptions
the ejection
the
made
on
each
bimah,
little
the
of the building
phardi
screened
letter-
At
The form
is
first,
at
a longi-
of the tevah,
the Se-
known
it
from
of
and the
its
wall.
side
century
the
Torah-
13th
Most
eastern
for
trend.
alabaster
gallery,
perforated
miniatures.
it
the
all
(verses
scrolls,
the
delicately-carved
ing
adorn
127).
(fig.
walls
to
The domi-
hekhal
Thus
a longitudinal
to
The
expulsion
in
293
Spain
itself
but
tinued to exist
in
this
Holland, and
was no evolu-
of the Spanish
tion
exiles.
Two
The Synagogues
in
the
Spanish
Diaspora
of medieval origin
An account
Italian
of
and
one
at Carpentras,
18th cen-
rebuilt in the
of
the
294
small
"Carriere"
18th
the
town, a
century in Rococo
was remodeled
style.
It
in
was the
this
de-
in the
we must
synagogue
Jewry
vxnxT? TftTnaa
in
such
communities
in
ty II W,WH4iWJ^^
^mhdi^W^-b P^MiM\Lumh^,i^^'.
'
127.
in the 17th
in
295
JEWISH ART
128.
The
Bevis
(painting by Isaac
129.
interior,
296
297
130.
introduced
century,
Having severed
nish
past,
munity,
in
religious
at
practices.
they had
and
novel
Touro Synagogue
their
to
reconstruct
synagogue
their
building
comthe
influence
felt.
community
1671-75
at
(fig.
tecture of the
Amsterdam,
built
in
the
years
Newport, U.S.A..
in
London
sembles
of the time.
set
English
The
built
Protestant
On
1700-1,
in
re-
meeting-houses
aisle
leaving
ark, later
e.g.,
West
128),
(fig.
Dutch churches,
famous
interior.
the
298
community
came
synagogues,
in
Curacao,
Rhode
Island,
(fig.
130)
erected in
1763
after
299
gogue
at Fostat
(Old Cairo)
300
a former Coptic
is
Damascus
basilica
built
there
is
in
with
Orient
model
and
nave
svnagogues
for
two
world
of Cairo,
surrounded by a columned
is
portico;
portion
Another
aisles.
is
of the court-
arrangement meets
131.
of a synagogue,
thing
to
any
prototype
American colonial
countries
is
origin.
adapting
solutions
of
mihrab,
of
of
Baghdad
alien
is
de-
131
principle
Cochin,
opening onto a
Moslem mosque
and magnificently adorned with Hebrew texts
like the Spanish synagogues. The famous synacourtyard not unlike that of a
surrounding
the
are
that
on
this
mention
east,
of the
in
(fig.
and
built
Farther
recorded.
the
for
portico
at Irbid
no others
Galilee,
in
mav be made
in
comprised a columned
by
provided
is
Meron,
at
shade
while
worshippers
ly
in
architectural
pronouncedly
at least
Aleppo
at
if
the
in
and
any-
little
in style.
Synagogue architecture
Moslem
and
form
this
all
in
at
On
svnagogues.
at
mandarin
in
in
1652, and
known
to us only from
who
hundred years
pagoda
later,
was
visited
characteristic
surrounded bv communal
gogue proper
offices,
at
(fig.
132).
XI.
The Synagogues
of Italy
balance
ark.
In
Italv
had lived
in
Italy
Synagogue
Italy
Jews, and
tions
also
arrived.
It
was, therefore,
their
local
Ashkenazi
absorbed
tradition.
of refugees
132.
this
number
own
clear
tradi-
that
the
301
133.
134.
Synagogue
(after
at Ferrara,
Synagogue
ground-plan
Pinkerfeld).
at Pesaro, interior,
135.
302
Bimah.
at
Venice, ground-plan
(after Pinkerfeld).
303
136.
pended on
variety
of
Italian
synagogue
The "bipolar"
whereby the ark and
factors.
important
achievement
synagogue
interiors,
that
it
was
in large
but
in
it
the
was an
development
of
must be emphasized
measure a concept of
interior
as in the other
at
Padua,
interior,
304
Bimah.
way
of
of construction
as
in
later
coffer ceilings
struction currently
of the Renaissance
employed
and
of con-
in the architecture
later of the
Italian
Ba-
305
Sephardi synagogue
137.
from
adopted
periods,
The
hall
final
of the
but
fill
the
of
wall and
synagogues
Italian
seem
previously,
and
"bipolar"
forms
function
the
on
Baroque,
Renaissance,
the
Rococo building
drew
treatment
Decorative
roque.
we know
little
have existed
to
at
main
intersection of the
bule
134).
(fig.
The
most of the
solution
generally
drastically
as
is
(fig.
many
local
built
over a crypt).
gave
full
Italy.
Italian
One
referred
and
satisfactory,
above.
to
it
was introduced
In places
solution
synagogue
such as
built
is
The
altars,
on columns
(in this
re-
which are
"bipolar" arrangement
generally
ascended
in
into a niche
of
two arms
to
the
variety of designs in
In the "Italian"
stance,
Baroque idiom.
Synagogue
at
Padua, for
(fig.
in other
(or Sephardi)
is
middle of the
placed
in the
in-
lofty
which the
all
at
which
stairs
the
"Canton" Synagogue
The need
135).
(fig.
Frequently,
over
satisfaction
of the
church
Pesaro
to
slight variations in
sembling
the
Jewry
of Italian
is
in
though
interior,
as
it,
It
Pesaro
about them.
Venice
building practice.
But
disciplined.
and elevated
not
and
evolved which
axis
and
306
the interior
is
designed on a lateral
is
of the
North
east
words,
axis.
Italian houses
307
(fig.
137).
Its
now
it
Italy
Italian
The
dassare Longhena.
and a splendid
terior the
interior.
women's
modest
section
is
built as
an
elliptical
work
Baroque outshines
all
in-
The
exterior
308
singular
of
tradition
interiors persisted
to Israel.
synagogue
Italian
had pro-
duced a wave
of
mosques.
however,
This,
imitations
churches
of
and
of
over
interest
and the
with
rest.
Most
of these synagogues
were
built
Venetian
Ghetto.
Apart
Italian
fine
the
bipolar
space
concept,
skilled
the
art
of
the
countries
the
period
experiments
described
in
is
special
concerned
architectural
original
of indepen-
achievements
validity
from
tradition
nishing.
many
in
the
down
own
retained
to this day.
Emancipation
buildings,
our
have
and remain
sweeping
their
period,
with
its
eclectic
so in the architecture of
to give specific
its
values.
RITUAL ART
CECIL
by
ROTH
justifies
of the Jewish
comment about
this
God, and
XV, 2
mance
will glorify
[lit.
'adorn']
my
is
him" (Exodus,
Him
ritual art
in the perfor-
of the
and goodly
a goodly succah,
lulab,
and a goodly
or nothing
Little
been preserved
ex-
laged;
pressly
made
forbidden to
take
we
adornments hung
learn of the
and
in the succah,
of the gold
fillets
no evidence that
is
at this time
any of these
made
pressly
for
specific
With the
purpose.
sumably intended
kah, there
is
made Jewish
of
ritual
Temple,
the
for use
on the
feast of
Hanuk-
until
the
close
the
of
first
millennium.
It
this
such
objects
as
we
commonplace. Thus
read
in
anything
similar
ransom
in order to
As a
priso-
old
medieval
more than
sixteenth
century
neralization, to
are
due course.
fication in
spection could be
and expert
careful
If
made
the-
However
that
might even
may
it
objects
ritual
now be
discovered.
gogue
in Fostat
scheduled
silver,
and three
of silver,
silk,
1186-7,
pairs of finials
out of
(rimmonim) made
some
of
Presumably, domestic
made
in
at
much
Rabbi Meir of
Jewish ritual art
gold,"
ritual objects
and so
began
to
Jewish ritual
assume
its
be
The name of
Rothenburg, the great German
as we know it now had begun to
the
same
time.
on.
evi-
it
form.
all
not
is
we find
drown up
the
in
of great antiquity
an
in-
(Cairo),
anti-
to replace the
sell
to
and
exile,
with them
Syna-
life.
pil-
up with
was
this
however, has
date,
of this
now
of
it
is
very
Perhaps an
fine.
German
in origin, re-
economic well-
new groupings
in
Court Jews.
domestic
religious
abundance
side
the synagogue.
the
It
objects
may be remarked
adornments
that here
figure
in
great
The
taste
and charm
then manufactured
in
of
some
for
of
Poland and
311
312
in the
local Jews,
On
anonymous work
tainable
Jewish
know,
Abraham
which
of this type
craftsmen
d'Oliveira
(d.
mentioned elsewhere
some
reputation.
silversmith
who
has been
1750),
work
in this
138.
Museum,
Kassel).
On
and fashions
To be
was one
the
of
which
in
some
sure,
Jewish
It is
modern
until the
believed that
Jews
era,
in
the
But
Western
to
silver-
characteristic
in
smitherv
and periods
of the countries
with
Europe,
tendency
growing
the
in
period
Moreover,
Crusades,
the
of
in
this
was
in connection
who
designed
of
London
eighteenth century;
and
younger
his
( 1723-94 )
first
New
Guild of
ascer-
London
of
Myer
contemporary
President
York,
who
of
silver
ritual
the
it
Myers
carried out
some
distin-
America.
Certain decorative features became very com-
mon
in,
ritual
and almost
art
Peter's in
of the
Rome
post-medieval
there
is
period.
a spirally fluted
Jewish
facture;
it
that
ritual
in
may
in origin;
in Jerusalem,
From
the Re-
different.
was neces-
mark
much
that
manu-
of non-Jewish
is
and
Holland
of the Gentile
manufac-
burg,
c.
Main,
c.
dler,
Hester
1700),
and
Bateman
ornaments
for
that the
am
We
for
William
Grundy
know
at
of
least
the manufacture of
the Torah,
made between
Jewish communities
instance,
(Frankfurt
Gentile
their
Jeremiah Zobel
silver
certain
is
it
Germany
England,
turers,
craft
be,
metal-work
silversmith
Robin
commission was
to
Tissard
be executed
undertook
in a
room
St.
bronze
Temple
it
In
However
in
Silversmith's
of
We
amount
139.
Breastplate for
Breslau,
Torah
scroll.
Silver repousse,
New
York).
RITUAL ART
313
and inevitably
with
identified
Hebrew books
175).
fig.
It
Kings
of
began
VII, 21,
Boaz
and
Jakhin
on
(see
feature
that this
of
314
European Jewish
in-
from
art
V,
as
a deer to
The
23)
fulfill
as
an
be bold
should
and
eagle
fleet
as
and
eagle
man
that
light
lion,
illus-
(Ethics of the
Fathers,
This
antiquity.
classical
deer
though
figure,
also
less
138).
(fig.
(fig.
ancient
Temple
and
of
table
such
furniture,
shew-bread,
already
tradition
we
quently
found
in
as
see other
the
altar
perpetuating
medieval
the
scripts.
presented
gift
bear
by
representation
in the priestlv
of
hands
by members
the
the
often
ex-Marrano
of that tribe
In Italv
communities)
(and
other
later
family
Law: sometimes by
IV,
17)
18th century
(Museum
joined
of
Hebrew Union
College,
Cincinnati)
in
Cohen would
of a
crowns
Monarchy, and of
Good Name
Priest-
surpasses
them
upon two
when
staves.
is
impossible to determine
was
relatively late.
Tabernacle as being on
imitated,
interiors
and
representations
in
and on Holv
silver rollers,
but
of
Scrolls
in
in
synagogue
various media
in
no trace of anything
The account
all."
It
in
the
way
of ornament.
Synagogue
of
and
silver,
without
giving
any further
II
details.
The ritual
art of the
wound
The same
is
true
of the
sacred appur-
599.
in
315
316
site
sections
handles and
fluted
spirally
was executed
finials,
1766-7 b)
in
Shem
The
practice
crowns of precious
placing
of
of London.
on such
at least
Law
the
in
among
"Two
other objects
lists
made
Sepfoer-Crowns
ly
which
refers to the
Crown
Law"
of the
merable times on such objects and others connected with the synagogue
These
ritual.
objects,
were
as atarah,
at
Aaron of Lunel
how
hig
make
Sepher haMan-
in
which he
tells in his
visited, in
a silver
crown (atarah)
it
Sepher To-
for the
with miscellaneous
March
of
to
12,
and
Crown
cast,
Torah
tor
scroll.
Silver
parcel-guilt,
18th
century.
Law
which was
sum
was
to
a fortress,
tion of masonry.
our
cases
were
with
worked
and
engraved,
and
few
sometimes
fine
examples
(fig.
munities, cases
times
also
well-to-do
in
were made
140).
in
Though
Eastern
comsome-
householders,,
who wished
to
An
the
for
have
exqui-
super-
at
lions'
to
to
be
six
towers
crenellated like
be engraved
in imita-
design.
The 1477
in shape,
hexagonal
one
remained to
In Oriental
was enclosed
repousse
contract
at
manufacture of a crown
Avignon was
for
the
model with
to
nished;
Hebrew
it
was
to
be adorned with
lettering. Unfortunately,
of so early a date
small,
be
fur-
and with
no such objects
the Torah-crowns
be
reliefs
shaped
of
like
roval
coronets,
closelv
RITUAL ART
317
Among
was
ticularly, there
to
fit
sometimes
rising
wooden
over the
tops
lions,
griffins,
141).
It is
or
finials
the
or
Europe
rimmonim
(for
in
neighboring
and kept
provided,
(ob-
churches)
in place
by the
surmounting each
stave
of
the
further
is
proverbial
Crowns
of Kingship,
Priesthood and
More
The
wooden
form
original
Some Oriental
a
it
silver
in
Ger-
plating,
could be placed
finials still
unchanged, while
in others
it
may be
discerned
rimmonim (now
however
historians of
the Sephardim
form
drastically their
We
how
the
architectural
in Pro-
it
was
Torah-finials. It
the
of
of
at this
is
these
objects
fourteenth
or
known
to
be extant,
century,
fifteenth
now
Cathedral of Palma
in
(Ma-
jorca)."
Camarata
in
Sicilv,
sion of 1492.
They
community
where we know
among
by
generally used
term
Maimonides,
amples
Learning.
have been
to
(cf.
scroll,
crown
one
an early date
at
common
Madonna
and
Italian
deer, etc.,
this
should have
atarah...
introduced
simpler
the
festivals,
of the
tier,
the
tappuhim
above
by an eagle
stave-
great weight
of very
fantastically in tier
each supported bv
dove
more
it
its
made
ders being
a tendency to divorce
318
just
that
of
the
in
rets
side.
to the present
(cf.
Prov.
III.
18)
is
turrets,
hang small
bells.
These were
to
become
and
to their
We
at
e.g., in
generally
(cf.
some me-
in
the
form
of
apples,
joy of the
in his satire
("bells")
gene-
to the Bible
bells
which according
to
be
The
interiors,
in
ing countries.
architectural
designs based on
to
it,
became
so
common
in
as
Northern
(tappuhim)
The extreme
Bonfed
(c.
in
seems that
It
due
apparently
showing synagogue
dieval manuscripts
in
name
rarity
the
319
320
m^ktrT*
H2.
of
and Western
the
Europe.
for
Finials
Jewish
Torah
Historical
Different
scroll.
Thus the
of
and
countries,
Silver.
Society
tradi-
and 18th
Venice.
18th century.
England.
University
(fig.
pierced
which supported
of
shew-bread,
menorah,
etc.);
in
142).
decoration,
inscription.
of
level
A common
were usually
(altar,
(Tuck Collection
London).
College,
Nuernberg
silver gilt,
topped by a
lion
cartouche for a
the
with a
rampant
dedicatory
RITUAL ART
321
322
Hol-
in
was
teenth centurv
form of a
in the
many
with as
ed by a crown
(fig.
be found
to
is
London synagogical
eighteenth
the
surmount-
as four tiers,
England
to
the earliest
in
Early
silver.
centurv
the
in
turret
pierced with
three)
and
tions,
knobs
bulbous
of
tion
(generally
composi-
floral
form composed
later into a
of an
form
turret
followed by urn-shaped
neo-Classical
in the
of
be
finials in
the
and culminating
style,
individual
the
of
reaction
number
compositions of dimi-
nishing crowns,
vival
to
reappears,
and a
obelisks,
open-bowl form.
the
against
re-
This
architectural
rimmonim
the
produced
about
first
colo-
nial times.
Some
commun-
povertv-stricken
143.
ities,
made
their
materials
cade, the
objects
ritual
of
the Torah-crowns
of painted
folk-art thus
emerged.
for the
another adornment
communities beginning
Many
scrolls
were kept
in
Ashkena-
in
the Torah-shrine, of
were used
in
ornamental
scroll
it
became customary
to
plaque
Silver.
Dutch,
18th century
Museum. Amsterdam).
adjusted
containing
an
inter-
("New Moon,"
144),
(in English
which the
"Passover,"
finials,
scroll.
other
In addition to the
Torah
(Jewish Historical
sometimes of bro-
zi
Finials for
text
was
"Hanukkah"
generally and
somewhat
and
less
con-
Now,
sometimes
Europe
attained
justification.
great splendor
in
These
Central
A common tvpe,
323
324
iiiiisii
*v
1-44.
New
Commandments on
(see
fig.
the
indicator-panel
central
High
Priest's
reproduced the
se-
York).
Owing
to
its
it
was
manufacture
special pains
possible
to
describe
assumed
(fig.
it is
hardly
innumerable forms
the
it
145).
and the
by the hand,
Ill
and
outstretched
forefinger
whatever
form, termed
too,
its
was made
in
hand with
was accordingly,
it
ijad.
Generally, this,
(e.g., in
a miniature ring).
The use
is
attested
by
literary sources
(cf.
Sabbath 133b,
Hasmoneans, as indicated
to
in the earliest
Dead Sea
RITUAL ART
325
*' -v-
145.
^ '*-'
i i:
Torah
Pointers of
scroll, Italy,
however, only
--; "i
Germany,
in the
Middle
persecutions in
Memorbuch
were
add the
The
pillaged.
the reference
We
is
to
congre-
is
possible that
warm garments
it
learn,
earliest
who among
(12th century?)
detail
woman
of a
sity
of
for
in his
day
it
was usual
marriage.
Law
on the occasion of
From approximatelv
this
period
etc.,
century,
However
that
may
made
synagogue a cur-
hundred ducats.
five
It
scroll of the
among
was
lavished. This
where
we have
seen
antiquity the
end
whether
was
practice,
his
living in
This
of the
Padua
German' banker
the
so
in
many Jewish communities. We are told, for example, how Naphtali Herz Wertheim, a wealthy
wraps
or of the
east
cloaks or
women
326
of the
feature
sanctuarv
wilderness
parokhet.
as
was
curtain
(Exodus
The
generallv
of
the
XXVI.,
classical
in
known,
curtains.
after
tabernacle
31,
at the
etc.)
the
in
the
as
the
in
Moravia
327
32S
**.~"
146.
Prague Jewish
in the
Museum
known as
XXV,
in
khet.
motifs,
by the
lavish
Hebrew
lettering, either
Apposite
the
use
Biblical
in
specific
patterns no
provided
quality
superbly
the
of
their
decorative
embroidered or applied.
verses
were incorporated,
or
sity
To
as
and
the
In
ark-curtain
by
enclosing
or
the
of
light
for
e.g.,
special
New
for
special
there
occasions
the
On
the
Year and
especially
(as
Sometimes,
religion.
well
as
be white and
to
to
very
name
Elkanah
is
tains.
the
valance
(fig.
146)
Temple appurtenances
altar,
and
the
so on.
(fig.
two
of
18th
the
of
to
There are
for
work
the
in
artist-embroiderers
gifted
century
inscription
of
Hochstadt
also extant
Torah-scroll
made, sometimes en
suite
and
ler,
tended
to
Among
the
more
texts.
most prominent
itself,
dedicatory
The manufacture
147).
a
in Bavaria, active
found
characteristic
Crown
lizing
so often
is
no
of 1713-24,
Lamp symbo-
for
17)
the kaporet
svmbolism,
stones.
made
and
Some
in
sometimes
communities.
in
gold
were
orphrevs
semi-precious
England
Ashkenazi
with
and
and
These
silver
have
thread,
elaborate
sometimes
RITUAL ART
329
Ark
147.
much
raised
stump-work,
in
curtain,
with symbols of
made by Leah
with
silk
the
manner
of
festivals
within
what
is
termed
plastic
its
shrine), the
model.
Some
outcome resembling
Central
Needlework
etc.
330
European
on
canvas,
Museum.
seldom had a
tions,
embroidered
York).
New
long
strip
of
material,
or
"binder"
(mappah)
of domestic manufacture.
received
much
donor:
in
the
New
These were
York Jewish
also often
Museum
is
one
331
332
and
a repre-
of
bridegroom
under
standing
canopv
the
Manx
Worms.
they
of
degree of
Occasionally,
attained
as that
high
artistic merit.
IV
Besides the fine specimens of craftsmanship in
precious metal intended for use in the synagogue,
especially in relation to the Torah-scroll, Jewish
ritual
of a large variety of
We may
home
ceremonials.
We may
form.
the
trace
specific
star-shaped
development of
this
earliest
in the
much
Museum, London).
as
Italian
was only
cords,
needle-work,
six
these
Jewish
girl
who, as she
re-
sometimes
are
exquisite
of
Germany, an
mother
into
typed formula
in
for
the
termed
scroll,
in
first visit.
large,
of
a binder
of
born of good on
Mav
"
son
....
the Almightv
tomary
to
at
It
was
cus-
conventional
birth
in the official
on
Later
was termed
it
the
Sephardim
of
Northern
quality.
In
is
s\-mbols;
thus
of
of the zodiac,
some
of the
own
their
spouts.
of
18th
the
sil-
Abraham
silversmith,
part
Europe
types,
as
furt silversmith
made bv an
may be
d'Oliveira
century
(fig.
in
the
148).
early
the
In
impressive
figures
which
design,
representing
the
made in
and Western Germany
vances, were
In
due course,
was displaced
in
various
Alsace
(
intricate
sometimes
and
embodied
Jewish
obser-
(Metz, Forbach)
Frankfurt
am Main
lamp
RITUAL ART
333
Kiddush beakers,
149.
were
specifically
manufactured
silver,
for
Jewish use,
of the
England
shaped
Germany,
Biblical
verses,
specific hexagonal-
silver goblets,
were
manufactured
great
in
goblets,
sensations,
(fig.
were made
cumcision
made
and
ceremony.
Special
"Cup
to serve as the
as the ceremonial
were
cup
the
in
one
and the
is
in
(North Italy)
when
form of
into
fitting
among
also
hooped beakers
cir-
use in the
goblets
it
is
said to
murder accusation
of 1475.
in the tragic
be
made
cious metal.
of
materials
Thus one
of
other
engraved
than
glass,
presented
to
Solomon
pre-
appro-
in 1802.
was
inscribed,
priately
'hough
ming cup
334
it
ended with a
pic-
and
a taper
to the
accompaniment of aromatic
Western
when
in
for this
purpose
myrtle
of
but
countries,
day that
(in
Hebrew hadas)
and the
Italy
Orient.
This
is
or
some other
still
the case in
was
replaced
by
applied even
now
in
many
parts of
Europe
to the
mony
of havdalah or "separation."
mitzvah;
that
to
(d.
Rabbi Ephraim
1175)
is
recorded to
only
spices
were proper
he had a special
glass
for
the
container
for
made
of
One
are
probably
those
in
the
15th-century
ritual
335
336
Reubeni
we
1530),
(c.
silver
havdalahs
musk
to
smell;"
was
of silver, wherein
all
we
form.
In
the
of
of
the form
in
A number
of a tower or steeple.
of refe-
or
book
of
this
was
work
that
accompanied by
a sketch of the
guild
it
was
made
object should be
who
the person
ordered
came
original inspiration
ces in
On
thus throwing
this
The
least.
it,
of
Monstranz" and
"Juden
imagine
to
what
it
could
else
is
make
difficult
been
have
intended.
it
it
would be a
surmounted by a
veritable church-steeple,
Europe,
17th
18th
centuries.
Central
etc.
Bezalel
Museum,
and Eastern
is
Jerusalem.
Frankfurt
Rabbi
Israel Isserlein, of
relating
whom
which
presumably
served
for the
in
had
he
in
form,
floral
was made
The
usages
of silver
original
type,
been
pre-
has
havdalah ceremony
Eastern Europe
shaped
spices."
the
down
to
ate clusters
(fig,
150).
sometimes
of the conclusion
in elabor-
though
a
am Main
(c.
1550)
it
hundred years
later.
The
made
at
151),
(fig.
altered
material used
was
masonry;
filigree
was used
example,
it
tower lent
Eastern Europe,
the purpose
itself
human
representing
to
(see
150).
further embellishments:
figures could
the
fig.
went on
various
The
for
be placed around
synagogue
officials
Scroll, Persia,
background
Museum, Jerusalem:
RITUAL ART
331
his
German
the form of a
those from
Bohemia often
bulbous
bell-towers
of
the
imitate
Baroque
the
rural
was
taper-holder,
Western Germany
in
in
ample, there
is
Church
of the
of
sixteenth-century
Hanukkah lamps
home, perhaps
ninth)
light
oil
are
adorned
ratively
on either
side.
the spice-con-
after
Hanukkah
the
for
festival,
the practice
metal;
of
only
metal
in
in
for
it is
Rothenburg would
light the
(not
Hanukkah
lamp
clay)
lights
(Tur Orah
Hayim 673).
The type
of
generally of a
wall,
flat
burners
oil
affixed
below
it
at right angles;
was
generally
appended
hand
side. It
of the
specimen extant
oldest
is
of arches
"rose
and a
window"
is
The
centered.
mid-
(fig.
152):
of
Gothic church.
This type
Middle
Ages.
In sixteenth-century Italy,
tention
began
would be
to
be paid
cast in
to the back-piece,
at-
which
style.
Biblical or apo-
of
Isaac,
Holophernes
or Judith
an episode which
in
Jewish folk-
on
16th-century Italian
officials.
tainer,
figures repre-
figure
Roman
also
The
also
Hanukkah period
(fig.
tectural pattern,
coats
cum
lore
338
Spice
Silver,
New
York).
339
Hanukkah lamp,
152.
cast bronze,
14th century.
French or
Italian,
S.
340
flat
tury in Poland.
synagogue
for
use, a
into silver
and
later in
London, was
to
was
cially there
of the
mon
new
scale
human
it
Amsterdam
in
produce some
extre-
Germany
there
In
of styles,
some highly
is
figure, as for
example
in the
type of standing
began
to
espe-.
objection to representations
little
Hanukkah lamp on a
be produced
com-
rations, these
well
both
as
menorah and
the
began
to
from as far
last
gene-
room with
for us
have
to
candles.
The
purpose of lighting
lighting of the
of the
Ha-
most popular
delicate
merit,
smaller
Israel.
new
types,
some
of considerable artistic
continue to be produced,
especially
in
of
were made
in
Europe
of
of
silver,
pewter
at
this
period.
A further
which included
number
of svmbolic food
RITUAL ART
341
342
(Moses, Aaron,
is
in-
lahma)
some
in
cases supplemented
or even substituted
by the
traditional
The manufacturer
service.
signed
the
adding
his distictive
these
centurv,
imitated
made
plates
on
the
reverse,
mark. In the
last
were exactly
plates
embossed
in
generally
silver
dishes
Germany.
in
made
Seder plates
of
in
engraved
and
service
The
personal
inscriptions.
of the
specimens
date
Pewter was
made
to
also
carry
from
finest
later
era.
gifts,
preparations.
some
Hanukkah lamp,
These had
sort of container,
to
and
be placed
in Italy
it
be-
manufacture
special
Several
to
sil-
in
customary
towards
came
early
Cohen and
18th centuries.
of the
The Passover
same type
dishes
154). They
are
all
are
(fig.
with a
floral
decorations.
di-
154.
Cohen
Museum, New York).
(Jewish
I,
Pesaro, 1614.
343
344
ver, mostly
versions. In
Germanv,
at the
end
of the eighteenth
made
of
unleavened
made
of
which the
tar
made
often
in
one of the
figure to represent
Purim
for
havdalah
the
slaves used in
Israelite
poses
mor-
pushed by a human
duced
(fig.
many
155), for
ceremony,
other pur-
weddings, for
sometimes
or
with
Purim
platter,
Museum,
tic
were
sometimes
manufactured
Germany,
in
Paris).
poses; these
ties
lions
wardens
family
badges
of
surers.
Among
successive
or
trea-
for
banquet
annual
their
156).
(fig.
glass or porcelain,
in their
on porcelain
which might be
mounted bv some
detail
pious work
were depicted
sur-
of the burial-scene in
silver.
Of
medieval
betrothal rings
(fig.
of great magnificence,
and
it
is
pletely characteristic,
Jewish, even
if
silver,
two
band (which
wide)
is flat,
into
in
in either case
omen (mazal
representations
types. In
in
tov,
is
very
enamel,
etc.)
fine instances
or
with
RITUAL ART
345
346
Renaissance
seven-
the
decorated with
enamel, sometimes
finest
the
more compli-
in
Central Eu-
accompanied
candlesticks
appropriate benediction;
it
is
were
when
they
years
later
in
by the
VI
exhaus-
their
devotion.
There
the
or
band
is
Sometimes, the
else
peace-maker between
bosses or rosettes.
teristic,
On
however, there
is
superimposed a minia-
the
Temple
in
Jerusalem,
so
as
of the
was
man and
traditional
wife,
re-
Jerusalem above
my
chiefest
to
comply
CXXXVII, 6
joy." The roof
158.
Betrothal
rings, gold
and enamel.
(Jewish
carpets
were made
walls, in the
Moslem
to
fashion.
One specimen
dat-
The handle
Italy
(probably Venice),
Museum, London).
17th century.
or a representa-
'
347
*fl*fc
'.
348
****'*
./aM&--
mm
"\3?
al"%n \"a
,l
itjk? D'Hso
a*w znf
,t
Sr1 "Cn3
""zy
159.
NoS VT'
^tr ft*!"
N*!"'
"'t
'o.", ^a^*"'
Germany.
7th
century.
seat on
rfcTDTW O
-'
mony
story.
foj
',!-
(one
Torah-scroll.
illuminated, as
The
we
silver, to
Scroll of Esther
shall
was
also
was
also
tive
work scenes
for
the
use
of
the
motifs of the
Ashkenazim
scroll
in the storv
in
or
(fig.
depict in repousse
159).
Among
the
RITUAL ART
349
Bookbindings,
160.
silver.
Holland,
Italy,
etc.,
Collection,
when he aroused
street-doors,
was some-
made and finely carved with Hebrew inscriptions. The bread on Sabbath eve would
times specially
have
its
household, bearing
Hebrew
women
and sym-
inscriptions
bols.
of the
the
New
350
18th
17th
on
engraved
finely
The
avzam (arm)
gift
a prayer-book in
(fig.
an ornamental
wedding
silver
binding
or her
sometimes was
families.
was often
(Formerly Howitt
centuries.
London).
In
Germany
of
given him
by
bridal
suitably inscribed.
have
set the
belt
silver
his
bride,
body was
embossed
robe on the
in silver.
The mezuzah
sometimes
ioned
The
of
wood,
of
Tabernacles
citron
might
of
ivory.
on the Feast
silver
some-
sometimes as a box
fruit,
ritual
or
silver
(etrog)
be
box
symbols.
The
alms-
at the
specifically
design.
Italy
In
especially,
beautiful
one very
The study
common
made
containers
for amulets,
ritual
svmbols,
Day
its
infancy.
little
of
Atonement.
Up
was paid
attention
decades, a
number
have been
built
accumulation
is
is,
however,
in
it.
Within the
last
up.
is
begun
of parti-
which
by
its
and which
lopment.
is
still
receiving a
memorable deve-
WORLD
by
Modern
tion to
na-
ato-
mic research
The
man wants
own
nationalistic
to clothing,
from
his
was divided
societv
occupations
into classes,
considered
some devoted
honorable
and,
to
conse-
matter
how
garded
grade
re-
of the
Umayyad
or Abbasid
resi-
much
ropean.
161.
tapestries
and
rugs,
which
filled
of
He saw
beauty.
limits of his
armor,
were
all
means
pen-boxes,
his
works of
he thought
painters as
to
that
it
lamps
his
art in their
of
little
members
craftsmen,
of his
own
and braziers
architects
society. It
is
it
art that
immediate
162.
and
true
Aviv.
the
Tel
within
as
collection.
He
them with
that sometimes a
citizens.
The Arab
Yemenite jewelry.
was
The
that, unlike
or Persian felt
Aviv.
353
WORLD
354
monopoly
of
all
metal work.
we
If
or a platter
made
sure
it
was
in
that
was made by
it
Jew.
was true
it
work
Essentially the
consists
it
eternal.
is
of silversmiths,
of the
work.
filigree
It
is
made
in
such
and periods
a varietv of regions
as
Museum, London.
Africa. Jewish
art
shown here
(figs.
they are
Jewish and
monopoly
Among
artisans
of
even
the
professing Jews
long
for
Moslem
if
in a
the
is,
either
made
in
virtual
North-west Africa.
is
mainly modern
handiwork
in
wood than
in
(fig.
few
163).
definitely Jewish
of
therefore,
no
else
where
certain
work
of metal
that
men
and Christians or
It
in
were
world
wonder
(and
centuries),
all
is
Moslem
all
161, 162)
still
prevail,
and
is
dune
niche
century
(fig.
bv Migeon "montant
we
find
10th
11th
and another
Museum
in
164.
modern times
a virtual
in
the
of
355
reconstructed
(now
in
York)
may
ark
Museum, New
the Jewish
example
Mordecai
a cenotaph in the
is
photograph
can
taken as long as
it
be
considered
sacrilege
be
possibly
in situ; while
is
would
removal
its
167); un-
(fig.
placed that no
so
is
it
and
of Esther
Hamadan
in
fortunately
The
166).
(fig.
mausoleum
traditional
good
of
The
synagogue
alike.
but
literate,
different
in
Having learned
356
script.
as children to write
had
spoiled their
hand
when
for Arabic
naskhi lettering. In
Mameluk
no Moslem
and verv
rative
Syria
artisan,
other
none
and
Arabic,
was known
these
of
but
script
for
his
Onlv Jews,
therefore, could
ible for
lamps.
We
II
We
later,
period,
when
it
the Ottoman
Damascene master in
during
a
of
Museum
very much
Jewish
to
turies
in the
London)
in
(fig.
There
made
Mohammedan
in
coun-
Hebrew
Later
and
still
Near) Eastern
(e.g.,
one
in
Jewish.
lettering.
Middle (not
Eumorfopoulos
the
168), which
(fig.
The main
the group
Col-
perhaps
characteristic
Whereas
script.
is its
is
for-
of
in all
opaque
glass,
of
which
in
public
of
bottles,
lection)
clearly
is,
Egyptian glass-lamps
merly
with an upper
inscriptions,
and private
collections.
in
Among
the
the Victoria
(fig.
Detroit
(fig.
169).
stands
out
once.
at
Studied
much
Orientalists copying
Of Jewish textiles made under Mohammedan rule, almost all the surviving examples are very late.
monumental Ara-
them belong
venture to suggest
these
all
orbit
Fustat.
I.
who were
wooden beam
Collection
fireen.
present treatment.
now
Moslem turban
of fine material
Museum
of Islamic Art,
in the
Cairo,
Inscribed
of the
proper
lamps mav
from
and
European
we
16"".
the
reservations)
Most of
so
attempts of European
like first
Thev look
Ill
of
Samaritan hanging
still
in
munitv
at
357
166.
WORLD
358
at
167.
Cenotaph
in
the
mausoleum
traditional
Hamadan. (Courtesy of
of
Antiquities
Department
of Iran).
169.
168.
Jewish lamp.
(Formerly
in
Eumorfopoulos Collection).
Hebrew
inscription.
of
Dr.
359
Victoria
brW
171.
rew
172.
1
inscription.
Hanging
360
361
173.
the Textile
in
rug
in
(fig.
century. As a whole,
lar
Moslem
it
is
WORLD
362
usual
mosque
columns,
mosques
unique.
the
tvpe. This
bases
of
is
which look
The Hebrew
inscription
like
domed
our knowledge,
on the upper
mihrab
re-
it
The main
prayer-rugs, but
worthy
peculiarities.
Moslem
The appearance
of a
Hebrew
all
is
a quotation
text
on a Turkish
363
174.
Bible,
written at Cairo,
carpet
is
is
nothing to
made bv Jews
the Hebrew letter-
1010.
and Stassof).
traditionally
seven-branched candlestick,
and the
found
staff of
modern times
Of
(fig.
special interest
is
it
be mentioned here.
the Samaritan
silk
hanging
Sadaqa
in
1509-
-0,
probably in Damascus.
It
often
to
be
Hebrew
almost down to
and designed
like the
incense-burner,
the
364
Jewish tradition;
how thoroughly
its
the
Samaritans,
as
well
as
lem
tic
East,
assimilated
the
lived.
language
of
artis-
5*
3
175.
176.
with decoration
177.
Page from decorated MS. of Pentateuch from
Yemen, dated 1409. (British Museum, MS.:OR. 2350),
178.
361
368
well
framed with
bed
in
bands
inscri-
Arabic characters.
(figs.
174180). The
finest
belong
to
group
and
oldest
acquired
in
the
Near East
the
the middle of
in
Abraham
scholar,
Firkovitch.
He
he ruined
fore
his
repuation by
falsifying
genuine objects,
in
mea.
community
first
treasure
in
the Cri-
skimming from
was published
some
this
half a cen-
of the plates
from
page
Illuminated
179.
MS.
of
Pentateuch,
showing the
centuries.
The
sub-
Library,
15th
British
Moslem
script
scribe
is
best
Museum.
IV
countries
all
was concentrated on
by
excelled at
Perhaps
art.
reading
nated.
which
the
in
used
in the
field
fact
synagogues for
work
this
illumi-
is
art-
ists
that
Abraham ben
biblophile
who
may be
at least
two
Biblic;
which more
significant
of the
all
high standard,
its
Islu
in
his library
served as an ex-libris as
Decorated page of Bible MS., 13th 14th cenFormerly in the Karaite Synagogue, Cairo.
Leningrad. After Giinzburg and
Library,
(State
180.
turies.
Stassof).
369
WORLD
370
is
ly objects
or else to
be seen
The
in Jerusalem,
first
row
The ornaments
It
is
heraldic
emblem and
hand
of
ing
objects
(figs.
(fig.
179)
and
region. In a
way, the
to a manuscript, today
early
Mameluk
period
of
its
master.
(fig.
the
in
mosque-lamp
Temple
letter
a well-known Saracenic
Syria or
samekh.
number
is
private
at
to the right
are entirely
synagogues or
in
religious ceremonies.
main-
Jewish
One
a
for decoration,
i.e.,
marri-
shly
as
the
Jewish
those
among
communities
lavi-
European proven-
of
all
other products of
colophon, showing
unfortunately deprived of
sort.
Yet
its
its
effect
(fig.
Meshed with
their
371
|P
|p
v nj3 $#$
pHwP
^Vyo VW~~~^^
JL
delicate colors
horror vacni
that
marked
it
them accompanies
it
is
offer
in
this
illu-
outstanding example
to
Blanca
in
Moslem
rule
oldest
bv
What then
Moslem
fig.
may
when
applied to the
field of art:
first,
be done
most conserva-
we
can
Aleppo,
which one
in
in
Christian recon-
to
after
Jewish patrician
first
the
in
of Jewish art in
their
Rejeb Pasha
countries ?
according
already
the
quest.
Mehmed
this chapter.
of
field.
Moslem miniatures
An
Maria
rule
But
lent
VI
own
miniatures, imitations of
(fig.
In a class of their
of
^^m ^
(fig.
182.
similar,
'j'Ha^^^?
^^^~~~~-
372
there
is little
Moslem
unless
it
at our dis-
at present.
Although
date and
work
of art
was produced
bears a
Hebrew
inscription, or
It
Of course
would be
is
it
this
of a
can-
does
just as diffi-
Armenians or Copts
made
in Islamic countries.
in
secular works of
art
n
JEWISH ART IN THE MOSLEM
37:
mm~
WORLD
374
in
^VaVaXYa^Va^^^^
iuwG -pg
;_
9T
'"
'
V- '*"*
"'*>
>*-^^^^.Wi^jn T<nWr^S3b^So|i<l|jo-pnn
183.
184.
"/
TIT+13T* ->%jt
ourj
^Coi
->:
jp? o-jy
375
ethnical
unless
origin,
an inscription
in
a non-
he
member
not a
is
there are no
means
of the
of
Moslem community,
This
is
had no idiom
artist
difference
much
vironment.
was
as
But from
time
time,
to
Hellenistic
private
as
Syrian
any
capital,
or
Empire, or a
and
incorporate in
house,
It
was the
inarticulate cry of a
do
it
sculptors,
artisticalh
felt
such moments
and
isolated
either
and
cases these
were
of Jewish history or
who happened
Up
many
in
to a point, this
was
to
as inefficient
be nearby.
and
inarti-
But
a seven-
and
something
lintel of his
it
painters
Jewish
sarcophagus as
in the
but
less.
to his en-
Roman
time
life:
tically,
too,
rare
is
of his
to which.
if so,
language
376
own
it
We
was heard.
have no means of knowing
artist in
secular
Moslem
work
is
the Jewish
he
left
nymous donor
Artistically,
if
Moslem
as
it
no signature.
He was
an anothat
his
to inquisitive
by
So far
architecture,
as
been
lost.
That Jewish
numbers
tively great
in
all
is
view of the
of the
It
sufferings
would
ex-
is
all
only possible
ND
13
pagan
RGER
have been
its
inventors. It
assume that
in private
not unreasonable to
is
and not
to scrolls
have
made
demonstrate
and
of this art,
is
is
our informa-
floors
attempts
development.
and codices
to outline its
may even
is
it
this referred
had
Jews
from
to derive
this earlier
to
in
which appear
Jewish tradition.
preserved, and
The
fictitious
II
"Letter of Aristeas"
centurv b.c.e.)
Ptolemy
ed
II
relates
and that
him
we
Elsewhere, too,
name
of
God was
writes the
lettering.
(Sabbath
of the
Lord
"If
in
we
all
written in gold.
The
then
strated:
the
and
who
classical
as
"One does
it
is
God
ordered
it
in
read
in a scroll of the
were
It
one
The
103b), however,
unfavorably:
this practice
names
gold
in
Babylonian Talmud
comments on
purpose
for this
period
is
to
be
among
set aside."
the Jews
clearly
nowhere mentioned
demonin
the
Yet these
illuminated
Hebrew
first
are
lost.
Nothing
century:
tenth
codices
if
the
of
they existed,
is
and from
this
period,
only
too,
single pages,
have thus
far
to the student.
for
objects.
eleventh-century
174)
We
Oriental
but
for letters
manuscript
in
(see
an
fig.
a semi-circle
This
is
design
and
is
is
supported by a central
composed
of
minuscular
pillar.
letters
We
have
we know
of
is
poems
wing
this
custom
Ages.
It
was
continued
throughout
the
Middle
for
all
this
chapter
VI.
in the
379
380
<<-'
'V
V.
IKS.
>
Design of lion
in
minuscular
German MS.
Middle Ages
of the
assumed
also
letters.
and even
objects
which were
in
One
of
the
fol
is
in
famous
is
(Beginning of Masorah
13th century.
curious.
tenth-centurv
to
Book
of Ezekiel),
manuscript,
probablv Egyptian
by
flat,
its
in
(see
three
that
is
dimensions,
visible
179),
Above
fig.
golden
two wings
also
strip
laid
flat.
with two
the ark,
381
above
ly
it
placed perpendicular-
make them
to
The wings
visible.
out of
some supplementary
some
decorated
we
Among
figure of
Temple.
382
these,
in
hesitation to
life.
IN
the
filling
(or
first
and
first
was
itself
very lavishly
treatise
pages,
last)
or nearly
left plain,
so.
text
num-
inclusion, in a
Jew has
lost,
hopes
Messianic times.
that
and
in
made
we
It is
come
shall repeatedly
centuries.
dle
There
is little
Ages beyond
obedience to the
advance
across
in later
it
in the early
this representation,
Mid-
probably
commandment which
in
prohibited
up with some
seen, links
Farhi
called
Bible
who was
Crescas,
Sassoon
the
in
in point
first
the so-
is
Collection,
This
most profuse
is
one of the
plements.
memorable case
their im-
millenium.
and
we have
style,
many
Moslem
finest
and
carpets
tapestries,
letters
Ill
we must
lived, partly
ly
now from
that.
now from
side,
it
utilize
pictures,
this
illu-
its
turn to Spain,
representation,
and
this
picto-
The former,
non-pictorial
tendency
is
repre-
some
of
no correlation
One
the standard Jewish works of reference repage from an elaborately illuminated MS. (a
commentary on the Book of Psalms) purporting to have
been executed in 1158 by one Abraham Hispanus(l). If
authentic, this would obviously change the entire perspective of the subject. But the MS. (in the Palatine Library,
Parma) is clearly not earlier than the Hth century; 1158
of
is
vessels
and
pages,
final
Psalms
a
The
surround
an
ornamental
panel,
central
hand
here
The
the margins.
in
186)
(fig.
example shown
first
in
is
The
area
is
not
and the
filled,
lines
shoot, like
pattern
human
tells
Throughout
excitement.
strange
figure
expect
avoided,
is
it.
this
even
wooden
As an example
Jewish book-art
produces
gold.
in
pages.
manuscript the
heightened
of
we may
today in the
the
of Passover
illumination
peal to
rity,
museum
of that city.
because of
women and
The haggadah
was always
it is
small
its
children,
fact that
it
its
bulk,
its
ap-
great popula-
into
383
384
six
someone
that
pret
of
God
To
in a state of rest.
figure
Here
incorrect.
is
whom
but man, to
inter-
representation
as
shows
artist
God
not
is
henceforth
is
as-
in
cover
But
faces
their
makes them
he
angels,
represents
what
power
of expression there
scenes
Sea
is
in these
is,
clumsilv.
Miriam
below:
the scene
is
the
beats
timbrel,
dance
French
The
189).
(fig.
art
$w;:;
look
strength
rv^-'^P
is
here:
Gothic
of
church
Remarkable
similar.
Law
of the
artist
front
in
portals,
of
marked
strongly
is
influence
on
Sinai,
to
which the
(fig.
Haggadah
merges
On
whom
wav up
he accompanies
to
Moses
(fig.
He shows
time.
shrine open
tures
in
is still
its
life
at the
of his
own
187),
of
festival
dough and
(fig.
188).
emphasis on the
flat
plane, so that
backdrop
(figs.
With regard
imposes on
to
content,
too,
in
figure,
apparently Joshua,
figure of Moses,
the folio
is
the
is
is
bread (see
fig.
dough and
188). Here
we have
of unleavened
it is
not a single
a genre pic-
added
There
is
other
genre theme.
regularly
Spanish manuscript
to the
Another fourteenth-centurv
(British
Museum, MS.
Or.
178-190).
himself certain
The crowd
other.
England.
In the Sarajevo
above the
scene
the
artist
limitations:
still
God
is
sits
187.
The
Fifth
murrain.
Plague:
Miniature in
the
Museum,
Sarajevo
Haggadah.
Sarajevo, Jugoslavia).
188.
The
bread.
189.
Miriam
hands
in
dance.
190.
Miniature
The Giving
Sarajevo
in
the
Sarajevo
Haggadah.
distribution
Full
of
page miniature
in
the Sarajevo
of
Passover
Haggadah.
387
191.
(The
the
Haggadah
in front of him.
At
British
haggadah of
38S
Museum. London).
meal
in a British
Museum
manuscript of Spanish
shown
is
is
rated page
191).
It
(fig.
miniature, contently
gnaws
his
it
bone
just
below
it.
389
IN
390
shown being
is
this
ritual.
MM Wn-M'
I-WW rv>iv:>
v^-**-!
*lli
and
which
color,
preferably
is
even
animals,
here
on
laid
specially-colored
ground
whole
and
finally closed
is
by
unknown
which
to the Orient. It
had used
The
traceries.
a broad border,
is
initial is
designs, or
floral
is
the Euro-
art of the
which seems
iSiro
West
to
fjp$p3Q$*
-TOraofrtrn pte a*
have
text.
One
should
some
is
of
them
in
art
We
will select
ntt*'iinaiiTnaimn.'vr
illu-
written in 1476.
It
is
and
is
Kings
to
I.
Chapter
I.
earlier
In
date.
the
we
Kennicott Bible
again
is
in
Biblical
artistic
two columns,
unencumbered bv
contents, the
imagination.
is
binations,
the
conveyed
in
in
the
ally
also
incorporating
but occasion-
sometimes hu-
animals,
example, there
at
scribe's
on leaves, and,
a hare feasting
monkey swinging
the top, a
The
is
colophon,
in
composed
the tendrils.
of
"anthropo-
is
refinements
of
black-and-white.
interplav of the
which cannot be
But,
whereas the
upon
in
shows David
his head,
holding
of the
Jewish book
naturalistic,
then,
Kennicott Bible
in his right
both
and, for
this limitation,
as a
manuscript,
hand
(fig.
192). In this
tendencies
illumination,
a scepter
of
Spanish-
IV
new
text,
lines,
artist
The
ornamented
sists
however,
in execution, to
haggadah
of a
be found
somewhat
emphasized
to France,
it
must be
and
to
|E\VISH
391
392
dominating
Gothic
It
art.
probable
is
that
some
Hebrew manuscript
the illuminated
Middle
of the
Ages.
fourteenth
when elsewhere
time
cisely the
upon
in the
was entering
it
its
have survived a few medieval Franco-Jewish specimens of manuscript illumination which are of
rare merit.
Aaron kindles
(The
British
and a number
an
800
in the first
some
lacks
socially,
or
initial,
an
illustration.
This
was distinguished
achievement
Nathan haYarhi,
century,
in
at the
Jewish communities
ence
in
other
its
for
Abraham ben
sphere.
tells
ment and
this
influ-
is
among them
corporating
as has
in Spain.
of the
in
characteristic
is
in
sanctuary vessels,
example
is
later
a manuscript
in
the
in
in-
1299
1301,
the
Roval Library
in
in
Copenhagen,
of objects
is
above
deeply
ture
all
and
in this codex.
human
penetrates
into
figure.
this
style
Now
the Jewish
inclination
In
consi-
this fea-
and
field,
art,
becomes apparent
of the
hitherto
193).
(fig.
illustrations
implements
its
lacked the
also
fluence
Here and
twice, suggesting
seven-branched candelabrum
Tabernacle
dered
Forty-one full-page
had a hand
will
none of which
a coat of arms,
is
ling the
It
artist
it
to the Bible.
there, the
illu-
leaves, almost
devoted
distinguished in
of other writings.
treatment, be
artistic
illustrations are
some extent
miscellanea, com-
It is a
liturgical texts
the candelabrum.
of 1278.
all
193
is
Mu-
jvnvs
in the British
the inthe
in
upward with
a light
of the body.
cussed above
(fig.
of the
Haggadah,
Covenant were
in
visible.
assumed
human
shape, but
wings.
hesitation
to
their faces
represent
them.
In
fact,
there
all
is
Life.
the elongate
we
find this
393
194.
The Gates
of Mercy. Page
from the
Worms Mahzor
of 1272.
IN
394
395
limitation
the
to
plane.
flat
The cherubim,
tree
in
in-
protective
such
We
levities.
Hasidim
39(i
709) against
(p.
show, as an example of
cultivated especially in
Germany,
this art,
was
available.
grapha
(see
185).
fig.
book of Ezekiel,
is
is
a lion,
in
book among
art of the
it
true,
is
Jews
at specific
The most
interesting
work
German-Jewish
of
prayerbook
referred
1272,
of
the
is
to
Ages German
of
territory
Jews or of Jewish
In
there
the
literature
is
sometimes
twelfth-century
artistic
about
achievement.
Hebrew manuscripts
mentioned
commentary
to
this
is
have begun
that
time.
first
Hebrew
volume of
the
Pentateuch
the
illuminated
decoration of
From
an
in
University of Jerusalem.
There were
already
at
least
Atonement.
of
Their
columns
194) what
(fig.
Mercy, men-
of
on
rest
evil.
Dav
wolves,
Above
the longed-for
Jeru-
salem.
human
figure there
A hymn
for the
second
(fig.
is
Ten Com-
common
man Jewish
striking,
ous example
po-roarmwi
pre
rwntm^-^TCRi
bition
is
Museum
Bezalel
of Jews; non-Jews,
S3W83tia>vwaaare
*=
*3
to
I'awtrtwTwa
"Oj< 9tf r**;
other
later
liturgical
in
date,
manuscript,
in
From
ational
the
Worms Mahzor
Library, Jerusalem).
of 1272.
is
the
the representations
probably somewhat
hunt.
in
have described
(The
curi-
The Dec
most
per
rnjj;itbin'>yp"
8<
195.
haggadah manuscript
in Jerusalem.
sometimes
or
medieval Ger-
in
to that
which we
surmounted by a delineation of
Law
characters,
at Sinai, in
which
all
the
tradi-
397
The Giving
196.
of the
Law and
Whereas
still
rounded
Romanesque
appear
in
Worms Mahzor
at the top, in
style
later
of
was
architecture,
German
the gate
those which
One
1295-96
levi.
in the
is
of the
most beautiful
a codex of
Maimo-
398
13th-century
196).
(fig.
German Mahzor.
tional Jewish
IN
in
in
(Academy
of
Codex
Budapest;
Sciences,
Out
of this
background
and
and
little
squares.
in this there is a
text.
Where
flow
these
text,
399
Only
Ml
$03
figures
How
short
figures of
Sea,
as
(Parma,
height but
in
and massive,
Moses and
century
in
are
Festival
Liturgy
written
of the fifteenth
German artist.
The most important work
in
this
style
made
it
much
else
thev increase in
thickness.
illu-
its
conception
symbolism.
drawn the
Jewish
in
but
sacrificial knife,
In
spite
is
in
left for
we show
(fig.
to
in
illustration,
text.
It
The
tinued
graceful
in
style
of
now
is
medallions,
con-
Penta-
in
forty-six
manuscript
this
On
it
page
its first
mahzor, written
Library, Viei
on
ground
spiders'
webs
in
encircling
1347,
now
Biblical
in
the
scenes
198).
National
words
and delicate
as
198.
is
some-
here
of the
is
little
their initials
no relation to the
joy
great deli-
not so
Abraham has
scenes
lies
who do
stopped bv an
is
be expected
art-lovers
all
we
example
the
In
the
complete color
Budapest).
in
entire pages
Sciences.
the
has
and designs
Moses constrains the people. Marginal miniature from
197.
Mishneh-Torah of Maimonides, written and illuminated by
Nathan ben Simeon Halevi, Cologne, 1296. (Academy of
is
(Leipzig, 1927)
the
Rossi 653)
in
Palatina, cod.
probably
breadth.
in
instance,
for
and
and the
his
initials
heavier,
vrqjM
\TP3
do
in
runners
400
200),
is
>-fLX*
f*
401
IN
402
is
Mishneh Torah
how
clear
it
text.
mentioned
just
Haggadah
the Darmstadt
and more
replaces
by a heavier
solid style.
first
written
ben Meir
Israel
from the
to judge
his
197) makes
(fig.
style of
century.
Interestingly
named Meir
who
Jaffe,
the Library
College,
Cincinnati.
the talent
is
is
more
One need
(fig.
and son
Compared with
How much
symbolic dishes on
where, the
it
its
depth
golden
the
Else-
(fig.
202),
Worms Mahzor
Haggadah
there
cloth!
shows us a chase
artist
is
platter,
hidden by a
The sequence
of bless-
the
initial letters,
its
slight
alteration
mnemonic
"Jagt
(and
number
of manuscripts of
some printed
was made
Haggadah,
to
form the
later in
in a large
gin
this
The
in contrast to
artist of
the
German
was
texts)
trees.
Here,
The
approximately
in its
several
to
illustrations
page,
the
Hag-
delight of genre.
illustrate
the
grain
is
Our
tion
from
shows a
this (fig.
man
and next
to
first
him
second
man opening
In the
sack.
one sees
illustra-
the
right,
flour.
left
man draws
hounds
ing,
adults
Second
These
books.
is
to decorate the
matzah with
lightly-sketched
escape.
contemporary
gadah
Schocken Li-
the Cincin-
the
brary, Jerusalem)
in the
ori-
Worms Mahzor,
tries to
illus-
and
199
family.
little
Cincinnati
the
ings to
father,
(fig.
century Spanish
it
fig-
the case
is
191),
,-,
haggadah now
Hebrew Union
the
of
is
Even
if
illustrations
by German Jews
were,
at
403
2(J0.
at the
almost
as
on the
life,
illustration.
as
404
we
are informed,
illustrated
thirteenth-century author;
and
by the
his
original
(fig.
to
as
evidenced by copies
in
example was
Oxford, Milan,
added casually
been
199).
VI
Germany,
have
The art
art
realism
(fig.
is
204).
main
at that
art
which began
ime.
It
especially
by the
to flourish in Ger-
is
to
be anticipated,
in
Italy.
its
In this
in the
art of engraving,
zenith, as
ly,
Italy
and
was long
own
tradi-
miniaturists,
have
mixed kind
as
of style, halfway
art.
405
we have some
Nevertheless
begun
IN
manuscripts, perhaps
in
406
in
or else
Italy,
and partly
nish
case in point
show
partly Spa-
memorable
Italian influences.
Codex
the Bible
is
in the Library
by a Spanish
1494
scribe,
decorated pages
figures
(fig.
15)
parently
Our example
made
in
Italy,
manuscript,
unfinished
this
is
text
Ap-
was
too,
(fig.
still
der.
on
this folio. It
classic
which earned
name
word
first
of the
201.
Meir Yaffe.
by
Germany,
15th
century.
Haggadah written
(Hebrew Union
College, Cincinnati).
Among
these, to
Simeon,
now
one
creator
in the
tration to a verse
straits I called
We
see a
my
man pray-
ing,
The
illus-
city hall
and
its
above
tower
it
of
How
determine.
The
imbued
deeply
long
its
tradition
it
is
of
impos-
examples
oldest extant
one
may assume
that
Hebrew
codices in Italy
date.
this
As
in
fifteenth
century, a
was
alreadv
torial art
more
liberally
that
is
to say, to avoid
new
manuscripts
and
Europe,
in
was
Italy
in
minated
settlement
also
book illuminations.
Jewish
sible
and
oldest
pervaded
folio is
Italian art,
the
all,
as an independent edifice.
wave
the
native
all
adjacent to
The
typical of
of Italian-Jewish
haggadot including
(fig.
ret
several
of Joshua written on
lands. In this
by a harmony
on the arch
sit
Book
rubs
Renaissance,
the
in for-
decorations
German
nothing
of
all
in
books.
now
art of illu-
declining.
else; for
an object of reverence,
is
in
this
respect,
407
202.
ins
century.
Museum
family). It
is
only one of
its
(fig.
208)
we
by the sounds
forest
and
itself in
without
He
fear.
is
surrounded by a
is
mination,
If,
its
gilt
sits
woods. Attracted
of music, deer
listen
David
see King
framework, and
this again
illu-
in fifteenth-century
it
came from
easel pictures
This
tendency
towards
now
Unfortunately,
.
Prepara
Nuernberg
idah.
(Schocken
From
valuable
the
Library,
l:>th
century
Jerusalem).
picture-like
enough
in private
is
Frankfurt-am-
in
hands
in
New
York.
manuscript
L
to
effect
manuscript of Maimo-
Main, but
203.
in a
is
preserved,
artistic
but
this
is
abilities of
409
IN
410
Mto
.+*
&
-ai
'*>jh>
><?*>
** *# '>> Vi
jphh.1 l>t
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*w ^m
J***!
wi
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>
**i
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-"rtf
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w w w^ts ?w ^ot
pa?
'fK
204.
Sahula.
the illuminator.
word
in
burnished gold
Jewish book-art
is
same time,
initial
this
initial
which
a technique with
But
well acquainted.
word
is
at
the
placed against a
many
initials
simultaneously
serve
practical
section.
Our example
(fig.
and
need but
purpose:
thev
introduces the
The Temple
picture
which
many
Omar
a
in
Jerusalem,
fifteenth-centurv
an
ox,
and
left.
Behind the
lies
in accurate perspective,
is
hills
not presented
an illusion of depth.
Such a degree
209)
of
Temple
possible.
ly
traveler to Palestine
mastered,
service.
altars
desired paragraph or
Temple
Two
memento.
more
Thus,
successful
of a
ambitious
achievements
were
for example,
we have
very
attempt
synagogue
ben Asher's
been
at
in a
representing
the
interior
now
in
(Codex
411
112
great
work ("Canon")
in its
Hebrew
that
some wealthy
many
core"*
'HDfi
vicissitudes
is
(fig.
in size, introduces
we see
general. So
wr tertian
their
doctor
hand extended
is
company
he
Only the
turn.
to ac-
giving.
is
were
The
less
easy to understand.
serious rival
of the fifteenth
205.
555
Rossi
The
interior
the
of
to
synagogue
is
take part in a
On
is
surrounding him
enwrapped
human
in their
figures are
is
in
similar
in an identical
from contemporary
fact
man-
life
illustrated
by an
early
der meal
New
(fig.
Renaissance
known
to us
testifies
to the
abundance
Even
in the
of that time.
will
eighteenth century
be treated elsewhere
other author.
it
had a
in this
revival. This
volume by an-
**
The
is
illuminated pages,
This
we reproduce
of printing
Theological Seminary in
tions of this
letters,
art
the Torah-shrine, a
with movable
century a
VII
We
blessed.
is
Even more
tl
abandoned
at
in in
Germany, the
imes
in
Italv,
religious field
**
have repeatedly
stressed the
dependence
of
413
206.
in
which
it
ap-
to
conclusive evidence.
scripts
To be
sure,
not
all
manu-
them usually
tell
414
pended
IN
of the
work
To mention
close
the
of
written
in
thirteenth-century
Germany
of high artis-
(fig.
Mishneh Torah
197),
Nathan
ben
He made him
to finish
with
415
information
can
be based onlv on
certainly
but written in
he
that
is
Hebrew
416
in
is
Portuguese,
which proves
script,
many such
reinforced by
would make
is
it
likelv
memorable
Spa-
series of 14th-century
rest
However, we
human
first
first
direction of
Hebrew
script,
left.
Opening page
Spain or
Bible.
of the
Italy,
Book
about
of Joshua in an illuminated
1500.
Bibliotheque
artist of
is
the
down
the sequence of
This
the Christian
Nationale,
Paris.
186)
(fig.
(fig.
we have
tion
that
illuminator
scribe
are
and the
per-
different
division
of
was
labor
desirable.
We
(Libro
composed b\
a Portuguese
Jew
trac-
208.
of colors,
tbove
all
gold.
Such
Museum,
Jerusalem.
Prayer.
From an
Mantua,
Italy,
1436
417
209.
he found
artist,
of legends
Bible and
We
in
it
the Bible.
made ample
use of them.
how Abraham
is
of the
haggadah manuscripts,
but
Jethro
fully
Pharaoh bathes
in the
Nile
by the Egyptians;
blood of
Israelite children
Maimonides.
Moses
his
is
imprisoned by
daughter,
her. This
Zipporah,
wedding
(illus-
faith-
from dailv
former,
the
by
freed
trated in the
under a
into
of
418
York.
whereupon he marries
body
cast
Mishneh-Torah
New
IN
life.
tallit,
and the
to the latter.
rabbi,
winecup
in
to
the
hand, next
419
German
a
.^t*_^t-**-'-
fir*'
420
portrayed in
is
Ambrosian Library
in the
served
Milan (cod.
in
hebr. 30-32).
In
spite
humor
the
of
seriousness
of
these
scenes,
arrival
of
Elijah
who
mount
riding on a donkey,
is
some on the
tail!
lamb,
paschal
bitter herbs.
unleavened
the
and the
bread
is
held aloft
hand
at
his
bitter
his free
times, illustrations
Hebrew
The
210.
Aviccnna.
"Canon"
Italy,
text.
There
is,
of
"Go
forth
and learn
the point.
of
illustrates the
Law
of the
crowd
This apparently
look out.
tells
how
God
it
is
mount
the
artists,
of
Temple and
Nor
is
it
are
also
Elijah,
its
Messianic
the
or
appearance
the
*"
'
'
"'
':
*J^
of
implements.
^filTO.# &
the
like
and the
aurochs
of buffalo with an
is
v\-
scenes,
topics.
mal)
iv<
coming
the
sr
Sinai,
-V'.
Jewish
f.-'-v ** \B'9>f.ioi
will
in feeling,
(shor
enormous
ha-bar)
tail.
mam-
137
^7
kind
Messianic hope
were
211.
Messianic
Kingdom.
Even the
festive
meal
at
haggadah attributed
Italian
Bonifazio
il
421
Jacob).
The
artist
this
by a young wanderer
walking across a
and a book
hand
"Go
is
found
(fig.
in
who have
their different
attitudes
narrative.
"Thou
haggadah
open up
Many
for him."
an
illustrator,
meaning
"who
independently. Similar
it
the
of the Cincinnati
forth
treatment
422
field,
in his
do to thy
to
illustrates
(i.e.,
Haggadah
IN
who opens up
companion next
to
this
son
ities
his
in the
colophons.
From
masters of graphic
art.
art,
212.
and could
also
have been
making books. In
trast to, for
however
this field,
example, architecture
No
everything
was
a Jewish scribe
dispensable to a congregation.
The need
of
in con-
Joel
for
in-
Torah
outward
hibition of
making images)
restrictions
or through
many
cases
scrolls,
tracts
and
bills
of divorce
was
sufficient to give
occupation
and
at
the
livelihood.
Torah
scrolls
it
follows that
some
as far
meet not
to
From
with
illustrations.
initials,
where
ornaments
permissible,
it
was
and even
artistic
achieve-
is
All
talent
of their
artistic productivity.
Among other
is
is
the center of
all
directed toward
artistic
it.
Here,
of Jewish
pictorial
expression.
And
here,
finally,
we
color.
by
With the
came
in
to
European
art
to eke out a
do-
its
main would no longer be the book but the manudocuments and diplomas, and
facture of
would be exposed
the printed
From
in
its
too,
it,
M.
NAMENYI
the sopherim
were able
printing at the
art,
The miniaturists
long tradition, had acquired
aspiration
artistic
which thev
outside of their
hanced with
artistic
(megilloth)
work
Another
decorations.
field
letter.
an
And
of
or marriage
ketuboth,
contracts.
finally,
and prayer-books
appear haggadoth
and illuminators
an unusual
Rich
page.
of
facility
the
in
were
patrons
art
of
decorating
accustomed
to
this
order
conceal
to
incunabula
were
entrusted
to
Indeed,
artist.
the
plainness,
their
miniaturists
and
designs.
was
This
the
case,
and subsidiary
charities
organizations.
The forms
of
European
We
will revert to
them
first
in
illustrated
for
more
Through
men and
inspiration from
tions
of the
number
ever-increasing
which poured
of copies
this
artists,
of art of all
became
illustration of
it
books and
and the
scrolls.
as the
and even
found one of
contract,
artistic creation
istic
art,
expressions
in
its
most character-
illuminated
books.
The
is
determined by rabbinic
rules.
scene of Jewish
to
copy Torah
life,
scrolls
governed
this
because
and
it
was
their
duty
type of work,
all
artistic
fantasy
among
tury.
the
The custom
of
illuminating
ketuboth
is
its
text
encircled
by
The custom
is
to decorate ketuboth
in
color.
seems
to
have
213.
been widespread
Illuminated
later
on,
marriage-contract
for
the
first
{k,etubah)
known
426
425
of
German
(Austria).
It
origin,
The
largest
number
of
represents the
However, few of
floral
deco-
427
rations),
come
essential
home
one another
428
to us
from
Italy,
commissioning richly-illuminated
in
is
we
conception of these
artistic
213).
(fig.
City
Jerusalem
of
("That
the
in
Psalm
of
spirit
my
On
frequent.
quite
find a
of illustrations
series
"Thy wife
be
shall
ketuboth
certain
of
137
joy")
again,
Psalm 128:
like
olive plants,
baroque
of
but
remain,
excess
certain
of
of Esther
bears the
decoration
the
has
appears.
within
written
text
superb
portico
two
of
base,
of
The
flowers.
grace
more severe
classical taste
example
for
as
expressing
also
by
one
in
makes
of
the light
itself
decoration.
floral
rococo,
of
forms
structural
rich
in
of the centurv
appearance,
its
document
beautiful
Ohio).
cinnati,
The
is
in a portico
window
or
bearing the
inevitablv
imprint
is
of
never
of
the
generally
encircles
of the
the
two families
traditional
a very
overtones,
coats-of-arms
common
motif in
Another
signs
the
of
the zodiac,
engraving
as well as
s\
element
in
frequently
thus
certain
used
creating
printed
were
link
the
with
prayer-books,
nagogues o
lend
illuminated,
with representations of
too,
text.
Adam
first
Knowledge
the Tree of
Garden
in the
of
Eden.
Besides
with
connection
the
about
individuals
be
to
in
responsa
his
in
ketubah
the
the
discusses
(15),
of
(1545-
Salonica
of
portraits
the
of
moon.
He
tates to
oppose
it
it,
though he
outright. Nevertheless,
(e.g.,
of
hesi-
we meet
in the Jewish
the
couple in
elaborate marriage
of
who were joined in wedlock in Hamwe see not only the portraits of the
in 1690,
up by cherubs, but
Italy.
Mordecai
Songs or kindred
families,
folkloristic
of Songs
writing in
burg
with
These are
of Esther or
Some specimens
sometimes
if
table."
especially
name
inclusion
Song
Illustrations of the
Modena
Thus
It
was
common
duties
were
(fig.
214).
also illustrated.
names
of the
carried.
The
young couple
is
rep-
429
214.
Top
of illuminated
marriage-contract.
Hamburg,
430
Hayim Seminary,
1690. Etz
Amsterdam.
husband and
on horseback
visitors
in front of their
house; the
The names
sit-
who
illuminated these
is
it
that this
The framework
was sometimes
we
find a beautiful
plate form
surmounted by
and
name
tribute
to
his
type, with
(in
Haham
much-loved
the
of
recently deceased,
was added
at
Isaac Aboab,
the base as a
until
in use in
London
until the
document
with
and
decorations
architectural
some modifications
be illuminated,
to
it
common
did not
stand
alone.
case.
of the ketubah
floral
the drawing of a
generations,
their hosts.
of the artists
plain
artistic
of their
fashion.
Adam and
talent to
in
of miniatures in a similar
order
of
Eve, nude,
ject
painter and
Italia, a
whom we
shall
speak
1648,
colored
rural
scenes.
another,
ketubah
copper-plate
by
far
hand)
This
showing
was
simpler,
in
later
(subsequently
a
number
superceded
Dutch
taste,
of
bv
with
matter of the
poem
(e.g.
in Italy
lacking.
to
such docu-
Jews,
university
of acanthus leaves
diplomas
(including those
for example, at
of
Padua
431
432
at this
There
as a model.
extant even
is
member
a license for a
of
which
or ritual slaughterer, in
man
performing
We
this function.
charmed by the
are
rah")
which
to
prayer,
in
("miz-
direction
eastern
the
nai-
mark
turned
one
decoration
as
for
Feast
amulets
or
Tabernacles,
of
(fig.
parchments
mystical
example,
as
name
shad-
\\5.
Academy
of Sciences, Budapest.
calendars,
in all countries.
1567),
(c.
now
Hebrew Uni-
Ill
versity, Jerusalem,
The main
maintained by
Book
of Esther.
minated.
On
is
illu-
the 15th
in
tion
were
in great fashion.
limited
to
countries
ment
of
and
Italy,
to
lesser
Sephardi tradition,
the
extent the
embellish-
Europe
con-
text
How
A
of
the
early
is
the
but
obviously
to
belongs
is
to
Library
clearly
the
the
ascertain.
dated
17th-18th
Rylands Libran
illuminating
in sepia in the
Athenaeum, Liverpool,
century; anoth
at
of
impossible
1453,
of
tradition
back
goes
two
enemy
style,
characteristics of a period
jenerations
after
this
date;
of
Mordecai
and
makes
this
it
con-
known
Extant
in
specimens of the
both from
Central and from Southern Europe plainly indicate a long antecedent tradition.
in
megillah
her husband,
Zeresh's
(e.g.
any
In
Italy,
may be
two types
From
this period,
continuous.
is
of
illuminated
megilloth
purely ornamental.
The columns
is
linear,
formed
of
used,
acantho-floral;
in
imitation
sometimes,
of
the
into
a point,
owner's family
scroll,
which
is
cut out
433
tion.
The
stands by
however,
itself.
Rome
(Cas. 4851)
miniatures
the
of
episodes
various
norms
prescribed
enclosed
all
geometric
within
The
text
is
in ac-
and
allegorical figures.
of the
banquets,
the
the presentation
dancing.
The
of gifts,
artists
Collection in the
and
in the
stress
is
Esther.
Museum
Budapest
of Sciences of
in
London. In
this
of text
i"' t *ii^
tynw"?
>
otnca
d"i"->n *^*i
ti-^o
is
tT
{njf "-itfN
fVHHb*i -J->or~i
a-3o->i-t
>f?nti
-*i*rt tJfcD3 Hp ~tp>>,
i*
>
IWirt
IS
*ato<
*-r-'ft*Ti f->nti
'
illuminated
in
sepia.
'
'
Ho
'
'
of Esther,
onp
Scroll
'1
-^
MV
Tpi
can
16th century.
its
represented
ya ay-intfAwrr
HrtpnS -v.fi -vp H03
xrnivi n*te'Ji tp ant< tr-iyrr rtJ'-io' op S*rV Ho jin jt3k u
~<&Sr nteiHco U/i-"fc>f'N -iHio^t j-uv-ro Has *^'H< am ush
p* "truriV insrt Wfni) -v-vx k-Hrft rr -fc>p ai& k'-tftH
ty
wvr r jnmHi o-opft Ho ? "iH>i ru+i tTJC^o Hoi
>
The
vivacity.
its
>item
illustrate
is
Jrwr
216.
The
traditional
X.
of
on top of the
figures
Itfta'
F=P
work
of the
parts
Kaufmann
of Padua, the
Academy
Jewish
laid
the narrative
the
a re-
whole
up with
the
of
and
(generally towards
the condemned
patterns.
of
names
the
that
Haman
Book
of the
text
interpretations,
sons of
in
434
!^^
435
217.
Book,
436
etc.
by
wers and
lions
beautiful
piece,
seems
flo-
wood-engraving,
show
tumes, too,
216).
(fig.
one executed
late copies
(e.g.
by a Polish
artist,
Of
exist,
at
type
this
of
including some
Venice
in
1748
is
French
origin,
It
is
from
of
which are
with
(fig.
The
is equaled by the beauty of the vigThe arcades vaulting the columns are surmounted by a balustrade adorned with flowers
mentation
nettes.
probably
emanating
from
the
(presumably made
in
Rabillu-
Museum
text.
in
skill,
London and
in the
in
Roth
birds.
Biblical novel.
entrance
The
the
of
last
of the
columns there
The
technical
of
fh
extant.
megilloth
copper-plate borders.
is
century
appear
and
In other megilloth
seventeenth
the
scrolls there
century.
Collection,
middle
of
the Jewish
to
thus,
showing the
mizrahs
folkloristic
good reason
is,
way on
their
into
the
in
made
thence
to
is
flutter
in
(fig.
in
scroll
vignettes,
which
yvere
inserted
the
plate;
later
on,
from
was then
Two more
great
many
filled in
bv hand.
columns of
one
is
in a
text
The top
of
437
at
and
finish
of
had
previously,
great
438
influence
Oil
the
hand-
The
engraver Francesco
Christian
Venice
produced
also
Crisellini
of
megillah
in
beautiful
is
illustrating
flowers.
century,
is
the
The
initial
last plate,
five
characters
boards
of
of
surrounded by acanthus
as tail-piece,
lettering and,
(Haman, Mordecai,
sign-
artistic
below the
value than
the
scroll
described
vignettes set
in
text.
blessings
moved from
production of engravings
to
Italy
Amsterdam
art.
We
the
conception
know two
markable
are
among
of his
works
in copper-plate;
artistry.
He
places
the
of
re-
characters
on
framed bv a
The
text
is
baroque
B3iw
BPOVJMi
njnipur
rraa
Bbp '30
t
>
mi
^-an# "wwyw*iwrt7Tnritf'*!
oiai <p rpr-iyyw o**""'"'*^
tns
an
jj
rw'
tmyvh
ni"psn
rTTri'f7onTri3S (Din-'iK>''OT^irtnDTvJ
vymptpg1?
fa it -ry anfignrarura
,
wprv
'<
If
^1
'
r-
r*<*'i
KbiTsri
Scroll
to
,-rtK
,
W^anrao'inHDjwr&Tww-pnhpri
Sag rwt' onTT TfWojntfTO to o' qp
r^^TO#on^r^bira N}eo- 33
,
borders.
-fjraac
"Wl
Sssnrb
218.
f won
pir)Nrntt'vicroK4aro , ^T's-->SycM<
7*3Nl7*rtl
t|
|v,
o-T^oyttfr*n?rwro 70 i33->?e<o-n-n IS
CPT-Itt'r"W3 fOT&TriKnpl'nnSHn3
<
Hasin^rranripwnpTmBrrnffi-nM
nyiw
^WTsnrbpHB^iwps^w^mrvs
; c
ipn'ro
porhn
_^,
Italy,
17th century.
ft
irmt"
-ipNPrt
439
tympanums crowned by
women
made
of
figures
charming
They
loth.
the
engraved
same
artist's
signature.
megillah of outstanding
The only
of creatures.
ning of the
scroll, a
kinds
all
Dutch
origin.
in
decorations by
tian painter-engraver,
The border
and
nette
J.
J.
of acanthuses
The columns
of text
is
(but
not
One
attractive
colored
many
fine
illuminated)
of
scrolls
less frequently, in
borders.
Haman and
ancestry of
tical
Paris),
of Marie-Antoi-
guillotine
generations,
is
Mordecai, for
of
embossed with
elaborately
one (Roth
is
China
in
the
of
(fig.
community
'lost'
of this scroll
is
classical
figure,
Kai-Feng-Fu
of
219) early
The beginning
Chinese
we
dress,
are
shown an executioner
Chinese
culinary preparations
and
making
children
in
their
gaily cele-
by vases
Collection,
beheaded by the
Decorated
vivors
before Ahasuerus.
plate
(Klagsbald
century,
merit was
artistic
the
the
the
scrolls.
is
conception as
artistic
Among
the zodiac.
teenth
also
are of the
in
From
scroll,
of the
of
larger
second
text
the
In
columns.
megilloth,
loristic
these
holding palms.
scrolls,
and
flowers
440
IV
with flowers and small statuettes. At the beginning of the scroll three small engravings illustrate
the story of the Book. In
engravings,
the
text
all
names
ever,
Two
megilloth how-
one
other,
Nyitra
From
numbers
in
megilloth
were produced
at
folklore.
copper-plate borders
water-color.
in
great
give
1834
illuminated
actual
in
Some
evidence
craftsmanship
of
of them,
fine
are
some
enhanced with
artistic
taste
In the beginning, as
generally in S uthern
of
cases the
Germany,
and
solid
Italian influence
There
is
a close relationship
between the
Amsterdam, where
for
art of
only natu-
It is
more than
a hun-
rise of fine
transcends
especially
among
(i.e.
mar-
at the time,
an
artistic
in
in
Spanish,
which,
to
be printed.
whole
line
Amsterdam
in
influential teacher
441
442
'
*,
Wi poMUn
t^^rpfrrpnfppp^pTrypx^rirj
dt px Wtep hban
rvife^p
219.
seventeenth century.
extant
still
perfect
testify
skill in
The specimens
to
rather
copyists,
who
Abraham Machoro
beu
(c.
(c.
In
pages, as
1675) whose
(c.
(c.
1719).
museum
in Cincinnati,
Amsterdam
in
was
collaboration
in
.'jWki'
of
masters begin to
1775.
in
number
make
of
their
From about
1756 Yekutiel
who worked
Solomons,
appearance
same
Oxford
in
this
competent writing-
time, moreover, a
at
in various
Israel
e.g.
about the
time.
engage us elsewhere,
of the
an aristocratic family
initials.
1664)
hand
taste,
title
<
in
of his
pedantic
Noteworthy
community
Kai-Feng-Fu
Jfehtej
bw$
W mfct?
it
of this period,
script
of peculiar interest.
many households
in that
Italy,
precious possession in
country was a
roll
some-
briefly
cities
and holy
sites
and
periods which
of the
of majestv
imitate
is
David
work
of
is
signed A.
Israel.
copper-
edition of the
"al
The
picthis
question.
Talmud (1752-1765)
in
finally
illuminated
to celebrate a
there
Hebrew
all
closer
also
wedding
in
is
of the
in
and there
He
Hebrew epithalamium
gaily colored,
Probably
post-Biblical
criptions
mate idea
title-
Biblical
is,
were
by a
in the
by
far to versimilitude,
visitor to or
executed perhaps
Renaissance period.
Land
443
the seventeenth
144
art of
eenth,
to a
coming nearer
These illuminated books of the eighteenth century are exclusively liturgical. Haggadoth, megilloth,
of blessings,
prayers
incidental
artistic
The
almost
constitute
the
entire
production.
art of
engraving exerts
its
influence on the
It
is
some-
The
is
came from
all
of
fig-
Amsterdam
frontispieces
220). Meanwhile,
(fig.
22(1.
of Sciences.
Budapest.
V
In
witnessed
renewal
circumstances
buted
especially
primarily
Jewish,
continued
vitality
of
said
art
Court jaws,
life
The
in
the
the
svnagogical
of the new
who endeavored
of Jewish religious
exception, on the
1712
at
proselyte
not
the
haggadah,
We
men
illuminators,
a psalter for
an
it
that the
fore, to learn
as
m Wolf Gewitsch,
Irian
also executed
archduke. There
is,
how-
of
in
engravings
Jacob,
Mattheus
be found
1695 and
bv
the
Merian of Basle.
did
art",
with
Abraham bar
to
almost without
haggadah published
Amsterdam,
Icones Bihlicae
is
The iconography
might be
business
free themselves
of
so servilely,
and
of wealthy
to
artistic,
of the
contri-
One was
development.
of the
have
to
unique
this
book.
illuminated
the
may be
to
to
Two
tendencies of the
artistic
times.
entirely
correspond
were
to
completely
the
text
of
transformed
by talented miniaturists, who succeeded sometimes in surpassing their model, enriching their
445
rm iVllWJEJaJaM^M'-H.B^
the
no doubt
that,
thanks to engrav-
knew
our miniaturist
ings,
the
princess
is
446
the works
Poussin and de
like
same
treated the
The
la
Fosse,
who
subjects.
three angels
the house of
hand
(fig.
Jewish
The Four
Joseph Leipnik.
The
sages
Amsterdam Haggadah
the
in
B'nei-Brak
of
of
Merian
for
his
illustrating
them
(Genesis XLIII,
brothers
nine characters
light of a
sit
of
34-4),
Joseph
where
gadah
in his
hag-
of
of Sciences in Budapest,
light enter
The
Copenhagen),
youngsters
Abraham
We
serves
some
for them.
of the miniaturists of
mere
copyists.
Where
hand, their
They
to copy,
prove
this de-
artistic quality
enliven their
it.
run
lets
jno
of
three
as
of 1739,
represented
are
banquet
the
Haggadah
Museum.
of 1740. British
{Haggadah
Community
portrays
221.
222)
plate, with-
sity of
Erlangen,
MS
in a
of the Univer-
figures,
makes the
monize
wise one,
who
to him.
Again
in the
David Leipnik
Sloane 3173)
the finding of
in
common
The whole
with
picture
is
222.
Uri Phoebus Segal. Page of illuminated Passover
Haggadah, 1739. Library of Jewish Community, Copenhagen
447
But he shows
it.
mastery
his full
448
those colored
in
works of
real
art: .e.g.
gadah and
colors;
in
The
that of Cincinnati.
himself
presses
quiet
in
he composes
artist
ex-
and harmonious
lines
his
text
established
at his house.
the
all
families
works known
is
Arveh
The
first
of his
Oppenheimer
There
Vienna.
in
life
of
the
of
who, however,
this place,
the famous
for
native
reputation:
made
his
turer-rabbi,
Court
at
Trebitsch, since
Another
seems that
It
reside
to
court
Simon Wolf
Jew,
in 1712.
another
who
artist
acquired a privi-
Wolf
The home
was Moravia
artists
for gene-
While
polis.
after
in
(Tora/i-curtains,
His
work
extant
oldest
dated
circumcisions,
Vienna
register
of
(Jewish
title-page of this
is
As on almost
richlv decorated.
most of these
of
Gewitsch.
of
of manuscripts
1728
is
223.
number
etc.);
art of ritual
embroidery
in
we
all
of
lions.
clouds in a chariot of
fire,
rising
Abraham
of the title-page
representing a synagogue
towards the
receiving the
is
a lovelv vignette
on the
right, in front
ing.
1713.
In
masterpieces,
is
dated
1716-17.
one of
The
his
famous
left a
group of
at the
haggadoth
lies,
women
and
at least six
Heine
psalters, etc.
1723
his
his
in
(fig.
gifted
"Rabbi of Bacharach,"
223). At
least
is
His
pen-drawings,
genre pai
ing as a
tings.
Tel,
Whenever he
he transforms
dated
little
takes an engravit
and recomposes
The census
of
Jews
at Pressburg in
Moravus Gebitsensis
sarea Viennensi
Officialis in Bibliotheca
Uxor,
artist. It is
he worked with an
Cae-
famulus, I ancilla."
thus pos-
assistant (famulus).
449
The
number
great
need
some
for
of his
would confirm
quality
works would
justify the
it.
Pressburg,
at
Pressburg Aron
who
is
lives
production of
cantor
Hebrew
books.
Vienna possesses
in
made
in
He was
in
German, the
in
in Latin, Eccleciastes
fudaicus,"
Song of Songs
as
two pictures
same house
the
in
"viennensis
Herlinger,
Israel
signed
is
and Esther
French
in
nov.
(ser.
450
calligraphy,
is
it
this time,
too, the
in
work
moves
of illuminated books
na's
ascendancy
in several collections.
declining.
is
into
Germany. Vien-
On
at
all,
of the art of
illu-
mination
of the
an excellent penman;
all his
works have a
by
definite
(sometimes
pictorial expression.
They no longer
all
those
imitate en-
senthaliana,
drawings.
(Zimel)
Bohemia.
Polna,
of
"prayers
calligraphic
in
the
for
Two
sovereign"
German
still
From
in the
true
year 1733.
medieval
the
of
It is
in
at
the
(Heb. 223
large
Hebrew and
in
a calligraphic work,
massora
figurata.
an
of
art,
which,
among
mark
Jews, had
compositions
small
markable
at the British
skill.
Written in Vienna
Museum
and
in 1714,
completely.
pictures,
basically
talented painter,
who
relationship
at Pressburg. It
made
in
is
very
is
his
The
an interior has
does
it
the
artistry.
some
of
was
the works
his re-
contains,
was formerly
knew
obviously
of 1740, representing
haggadah
are
their
of
in
vignettes,
miniatures
independent
these
These
some
Al-
haggadah
that.
real
art.
of the
dence of the
are
close
artistic
1740)
of
his
hand
difficult to
first
It is
all,
pended
to the
haggadah he made
at Frankfurt in
gayski Collection,
consider him
New
among
York).
We may
rightly
who
|EWISH ART
451
European
artists to
Jewish
this
haggadah
1747
of
MS
Erlangen
of
pretty
follows
Amsterdam
(Library
one
the
is
the
the
of
forming the
is
nesis,
The Temple
contemporary
represented per-
untrammeled.
is
Oriental dress
castle.
Some
drawings.
or
in
which
to the
growth of Jewish
The stream
tury
of Polish
countries of
in
art.
resulted
in
introduction
the
of
at this
make
the
Central
of
fashion
some
of these artists
come from
of
however,
Eu-
East
In the
art.
did not
this influence
itself felt.
To be
to
of them,
generations:
The
remaining.
as
We
rial
manorial
sacrifice in a
of Jerusalem appears
art
manner
as very
(Ge-
the
wav
'Pact
VI
substituted
artist
to
landscape. .Abraham
lovely
in a
page
interesting
unleavened
the
some very
with
1712,
of
edition
written,
engravings
the
closely
University
the
of
magnificently
1262),
carrying
figures
Another scribe of
richly-dressed
452
and grotesques
wooden synagogues
of Po-
is
folk-
Silesia.
Two
pieces
executed
influence exercised
Hamburg show
at
by the
art of
the
is
who finishes
Jewish Community
his
of
Copenhagen)
Segal,
1739 and
Altona
follows
altering
Jewish
it.
The
dress,
iconography
the
characters,
are
set
in
in
of
lovely
fore,
heads the
official list of
England), wrote and illuminated a book of miscellaneous pravers in 1714 for the librarian of the
Earl of Oxford, with decorations and illustrations
Amsterdam,
North European
landscapes
in
first
1741 (Heb-
at
a circumcision register in
or
startling
where
volumes preserved
One
of the
most
else-
interest-
is
haggadah by Nathan
realism
is
instance,
the
men"
accordance with
in
Flowers,
fruit
moniously
ritual
three
the
text
like
of
"three
Genesis.
wit.
objects
appear
angels
the
calligraphy.
seder
are
The
statutory
allegorized
bv
is
dimensional representation
His onlv concern
is
we compare
this
of
453
Hamburg, we
common
notice a
source or inspira-
succeeded
in
art
but
tion,
tbe
already
has
latter
monopoly
of folkloric art.
among
lived
eighteenth centurv,
ciety of
minated
adopted the
which they
artistic
lived.
are
due
1740
year
the
(Klagsbald
Collection, Paris,
1756).
with
tion
coloring,
livelv
its
crowd
daisies
floral
ornamenta-
tulips,
carnations,
little
all
In
we
in
the
find
eastern
part
folkloristic
of
Jewry
some
talent,
of
artist
of Kize
(Kopcseny
text,
but only
plays
all
local
popular
which
The
art.
to these works.
micrographic
in
of inexhaus-
more miniatures,
In ten
in
which
moment
has an
artist
succeeded
poignancy a scene
in
on the
seated
of death.
in
which we see
mourning
floor,
offered to
Seldom
of the fraternity.
linking,
art,
so
speak,
to
medieval
the
our dav.
ters of
dis-
The
The character
ornamentations of
floral
add
unique loveliness
is
of the rich
represented here.
synagogue patrons
centurv.
In
also
illustration of the
ornamentation
floral
in
various
in
Museum, Budapest).
it
fantasy.
tible
illu-
title-page
Jew,
Ashkenazi
its
rations,
in
lettering,
Alsace,
is
in
in
and perhaps
this kind,
specimen of
finest
scattered
art
book illuminations.
of Jewish
The
around him.
Still,
454
The communities
of Central
Europe now
the
new
ones,
wished to lavish
too,
Memorhuch,
or
memo-
In
dies out
The Jewish
The
of
art of illumination
European
book
in
place in
countries.
the Centurv
who
ters,
in the
These miniaturists
art.
what
Moses
less
importance
are,
Mendelsohn
in
was
European
in
the field of
in
the
field
art,
of
and, above
this tradition
rial register;
all,
their pinkas,
(hebroth)
charities
folklore type
the Kishinev
community
flect
and
e.g. a
to the
They
with the
artistic
means
of their time.
future generations,
talent with full
who
wav
for
but
art.
Once
in
J
Exceptions must be made, of course: e.g.,
( )
Haggadah executed by Arthur S/.vk. published
in
1930.
the elaborate
ir
facsimile
by
The influence
and
of the manuscript,
was
implicitly
clearly discer-
On
press,
new
the
pos-
sibilities
to
when
the narrow
was done
once for
were inherent
all,
it
in
M.
MANN
HA HER
hibits
cut, the
volume and
this
were
ner of work.
one of the
earliest
inestimably
and continuing
It
were
work.
The printer,
work in many
too,
endeavored to embellish
his
and expert
inks
artisans.
But
his
primary
made
in
practice
The
and
mam
with
regular
the
of
work" of that
too.
and
printed
We
first
scribe-
this, too,
Jewish
words
in
was
printers
several
know
of
are
his
in
compared with
The
first
is
his
when
manuscript
been
filled
as in a
The
in
mam
by a
skilled
illuminator,
exaetlv
secono.
dated
letters.
name
printed
book,
model
in
and gene-
(which mer-
although the
first
in course of time,
Spanish
characters),
own
its
bellish their
work
In due course,
cursive form.
wishing to
to the utmost,
em-
had recourse
to
Asher's Arhaah
his type-faces
for-
craft.
own hand-
type-cutter
of
immediately obvious
is
each has
definitelv
this
empty
exchanged
was
left
book,
at first scribes
man-
is
in
of the
their traditional
found
in
and from
form
in the
as
of
best scribes
parts
of
termed
tastefully set,
printers
letters
well
is
Jacob ben
latter
of high reputation,
own
right.
who
Not
45'
were
infrequently, they
their training
is
originally silversmiths,
and
their achievement.
who
work
same period
to cut
Hebrew
which began
More
did similar
was the
Alfonso
silversmith
the types
some
in
of the
The climax
artists,
work
of the
of these typographical
ornamental
letters
work
of pioneer produc-
Hebrew
the
press
shall see,
he was
borders,
and
we
1489-92; as
in
presumably
the finely-decorated
letters,
to
Soncino,
who earned
this
at
letters in
in Hijar
initial letters
find
all
still
are the
in Italy
letters
Either an entire
tively as a
the
letters
lettering,
Guillaume
le Be,
Similarly,
the type-artist
Paris to Venice
Meir
for
he who
and others
di Parenzo,
subsequently
Antwerp. In Holland
in the
in
and
for
Giustiniani,
Italy.
Hebrew
cut
for
Hebrew type
Marco Antonio
It
was
tvpefaces
for Plantin
in
single
combined together
The use
as required.
common
as a heading, or else
letters
of these
continued to be
Thereafter,
it
was perpetuated
in
Germany and
sometimes
attaining
fairly
high
aesthetic-
level.
Christofal
artist
Hebrew
Hebrew
The
letters
single
to the eye,
printing
of these
is
and
still
their in-
perceptible.
be considered works of
art in themselves.
II
type-faces
Joseph Athias;
to
We
engraved background.
in
designs
floral
this
set in a decorative
used at
Italy,
Later
such
Renaissance
later on.
was sometimes
also
this practice
designed for
doubt
without
initial
When we come
press.
Hijar
at
beginning of
letters at the
the
and
great
in
as headpieces
for the
the
the interior
Toledo.
to function in 1476.
significant
in
pioneer Spanish printers, for example, commissioned that same "Master Pedro"
458
This
some
of
Amsterdam
The most
Hebrew
was
in
superb works of
Hebrew
themselves.
The
earliest
manuscripts like
had no
in
art
them being
all
title-pages.
books produced
at this time,
first
was
scripts
459
\rop n^om
nm WDK>inin> pk
cjrnifcai
460
onmz
s&
nwn^r^nin^nn^x
did
>S
to n> rrai
od nm
>?j/
mn>nonSD^Kmrv
tddi
o?
DpnwSTnrjjnarorvD
tfjiorayottw
n:n mw mrv yw
-po>
tpfet
o>ik
pnn
it^pjioS^x^nnnfTi^n
rwv
-pop
aou3Tj^
idd 020
ta> dSs
ok
ok
nr-iJODTKi
T03jiSi3f03nTTo>cD>nonn
tdkS
nonn iK>p
lONSonSStrpSnK
o>Su
<>-nnoi^mnonnpn
nato
D>D3nn&ip6Sr
T0C07TTO
ns0)
224.
A page from
ployed
among
found
to
artists
being em-
works are
productions
illy
f
up
in
Hebrew
cimens
in
early
H86/
examples
J.
of
Spanish
1492.
Hebrew
One, of
Abraham
in
the
Rible
printed
bv
461
462
W
kryoa ?5>P/
%
ag
ia p pro*
h\
ypr>c]t*
tw
twJj ipto
pw pv Twuwft
jp i?tt*)T pn
'
'
'
225.
page from
Portugal,
1495,
By Samuel d'Ortas.
(fig.
224). This
is
ascri-
and
who was
at
in
The border
to
in
Latin liturgical
[EWISH ART
463
which appeared
gossa,
time.
of the inter-relationship
is
into
it
at Hijar at
no need
is
may be
it
The
family.
said that de
Cordova was
Jews that
Mariano
to a
border which
remarkable.
is
go
to
It
was
Eleazar Toledano in a
in
from Portugal,
it
tantinople,
to
Cons-
in several other
to
be
tical
it
Jewish works, the blocks being subsequently purchased, after use, by the
were
it
also
used
in various sixteenth-century
attached to the
is
ori-
Hebrew
printer; or per-
man, before
226).
When
crafts-
it
(fig.
of
filled
The normal
indistinct. Portions
left at
by now
worn and
461
difficulty
presented
itself.
the beginning of a
first
page,
where the
title-page
was desirable
in
is
margin
it
Hebrew production
period
this
ship. This
is
is
Code ("Tur")
of Jacob
to serve as
is
The somewhat
were by way of
it
it
on the
printer wished to
225).
(fig.
book
is
part of the
first
primitive
floral
Hebrew book
Italian
illustration to the
cate
in
the
for
leaf,
left,
whereas
to the right.
make use
be
to
in a
in a Latin or
When
Hebrew
of a border prepared
deli-
various ways.
He might
regardless
simply disregard
it
forego
it
encloses:
as a leo-
do the
as a lion, to
will of thy
Father
in
Heaven."
insert
its
it
at
first
later
page;
on
or,
perhighly
of Face". This
was
his
and
in
in
colophons to
Abraham
Naturally,
it
was
are to be found in
The Soncino
in particular the
seems
likely
must be ascribed
home
to him.
bar-
and rearrange
it
were
tried at
one time or
We
cino's various
which he used
memo-
a superb
borders
as in general tvpogra-
and most
Hebrew,
enough
somewhat
of superior
in Italy, the
phv.
it
barically,
or,
artistic
family, especially,
made
lavish
cesco del
Tuppo
in
his
magnificent edition of
Thev had
special
liking
for
tvpe showing
it
465
pia
"
Hiwn'wya nsiu>
j-nS
t
33 'TOynTKia.x )<nina
w nl
law iruipo nya* sS piyi
oipb rty
,l
rs>v
3 DSp
,
m ism
/ /nyeS
.iVm
nVSn
<jio
7inS' 3nnt)
iarj sin
ci niaisn
n Sy nyv
pa
,I
Jip
irtsi
ivon iwso u
pyn'wi sin *j3 two
tm 'a yi3 nsiD fyyowywio)^
j'jio JJ.
'isiip
ima ji'anpivn
'"731
Mflb irunn
iSai
nSiyn
jioifl'pja nua-ipn
wna
aios
226.
wisi 'nam
of the
effect,
it
all
it
ovmrwomo'otanroD)
pyai .Ton
atabrmyVwiou'V W>'
first
nm pnm
'Jin pnnn"?
nMn ^Sfa
j&lw
nrysiuai
J31VnK-VyO1fwn
OTp
pyi
O'ayaomraipjy'jiaiswnpi on
tf"3n w,Taa'riT'onsn uaD w^jiddtk
^^yo rynw Tntn p iy'n, ii3.T J)a
ri'y in ins pi won hn ouVjoi iuj
jk 'i3S sSi ooSo
Tnnya rraisi
pnna tm mown pa rrnai qna fW'a
TDisi vSy 'l'y'ia
'a ^s tqiSi imins
nwA inis no'ii pyn isi i3 i\wa hp
*?3jn
n psi
'.
V3is tna
'flS
o""13 "'
'j
jiipi
466
Hebrew
at the
Bible
beginning
with magnificent
at the beginning
1490.
first
ornamentation of
left
plain
this sort
was most
into
was
Talmudic
in place,
tractates
as
we
see in various
which he produced
in
1489-90.
467
2~
Title-page of Bahya's
Commentary on
the
Bible. Naples.
1492.
468
469
been
just
there follows
said,
superb
at the
in the
If a
artists
border of
470
ability,
Hebrew
publication.
this
good reason
side, there is
to believe that
it
was
Ill
prepared
originally
for
conceivably by a Jewish
symbolism and
even though
artist,
seem
style
be
to
its
non-
specifically
There
is
this
ly
pagan
Its
setting of profuse
them mounted on
rubs (one of
on a
title-
16th
pages.
Jewish.
type,
stag,
hunting
and a
down
winged che-
a horse, another
hounds
of the
body
title, its
found
at
which does
every book
evidences the work's
Only the colophon
of the text.
not occur in
Hebrew work
in a
Fano
in the
title-page
Rokeah printed
ment.
mentioned
woodcut
in the
is
form of a
real title-page
The
coat-of-arms.
bed
is
as
style has
left
blank for a
been variously
descri-
and authorship
which
(i.e.,
of this border
was used.
it
It figures in
Italian
work,
L'Aquila
produced
Volante,
1492
(fig.
227). But,
at this
Soncino. There
therefore,
used also
time
left)
is
(Tammuz
volume the
Naples about
1492).
printer, Azriel
work by
his brother-in-law,
Moses ben
in
Isaac,
in
connection
counsel." There
is
thus
some reason
to believe that
we have been
considering
in
themselves.
In the second half of the sixteenth century very
much
use was
made
baroque columns
Peter's in
Rome
for this
in the
purpose of twisted
form of the
Italy, that
came
Later,
it
(fig.
of this,
lavishly outside
common
on so extremely
later
in
Jewish
ritual art of
became usual
frontispieces
add
to
some vignette
character whose
stance recorded
is,
to
to the
engraved
pillar in St.
Bahya's com-
title-
228). It
to ima-
were
in the
Jewish form
in the Bible
first
it
seems to
tion,
also printed in
have been
had already
some reason
in the edition of
of
is,
it
earlier in the
produced
summer
by
Neapolitan press
over,
in
is first
in 1505,
folio
life
of the Bib-
auin-
1644)
here the
it
name
a
of the
man
Almighty
kneels;
is
(Alt-
seen
Moses and
471
11351 '3X3
TV TOD *7J31
muya 'is-i
'*>
ffWB
t<Si
tn-ilQ
maw ny m inc< pi
n^-i a'D^io
133
P'xnia rrn
"3
n,t<
-pan'
wi3n
wist*
wb
mm
mm
wi
228.
page from
Ritual
=e/
472
473
Aaron appear on each
is
and underneath a
side,
474
^5
t w
Delicately executed
this tradition.
title-
aiaiS Tin
(Amsterdam, 1666),
Good Name,
Kingship and a
rah, of Priesthood, of
his son
Solomon
in atti-
The
title-page of
(fig.
benedictions
cir-
sowed
in ho-
nor of Isaac
the
and
copyist.
On
the
other
1602)
name
signed on
is
Hans
by
is
its
frame
the
(Rasle,
hand,
upper
IIS
whose
Holbein
part. This,
s^r
however,
is
Title-page of
Senior Godines.
by the
artist
Francesco
Griselini.
Meilitz Yoisher
on Mount
tablets
Mi-
Sinai,
of pious Jews in
riod,
Hebrew
pictures of
tials
is
ini-
page
ravens
of the
is
the engraved
Highly
artist.
(second)
title
Minhat
1742/4:
before
scenes
Shai
this
each
which
is
appeared
repeated
section
from the
of
lives
of
thrice
the
Mantua
in
in
Rible.
Moses,
(as has
in
figure of the
at this pe-
most memorable
in
printers
had a
to
be found
its
way
way
and
few
liturgical
Amsterdam
at the
of the
Solo-
this last
the introduc-
Almighty ap-
on
his throne,
The
and
time
book,
shows
Joshua,
later
into religious
It
the
the
tion to this
in
among
some environments
therefore
is
is
seen
be used sometimes
tion as an
for
such work.
Amsterdam Pentateuch
475
to
476
Some
them.
of
them
may be counted
as
IV
The earliest
Jewish
book containing
illustra-
tions, so far as
that
owing
up
most
the
in
and
of hatred) links
and
distinct
manner
definite
Printer's
Italy,
and
so
on
entitled
ho-
(in
who
work
literary
French
artist
illustrations
hula.
It
has
been
told
briefly
another
in
chapter,
among
that
the
author
the
illustrated
ori-
enough
likely
were invited
sort,
of former days.
life
It
is
many
for
is
naturally ano-
nymous.
In
the
period,
early
the printers
often
used
and beautifving
rious:
their books.
The
rjllfe
musical instru-
The
earliest printer's
at the
first
is
B8 <ws
^-*
The same
flag
is
badge
is
the
of
we
see a decorative
name
of the printer
is
in
Hebrew books
is
so great that
an entire
yj.
(fig.
marks
231.
"The
Easterner's
Parable"
Soncino, Brescia,
1491.
\\l
\ **
"C"**
"fTPj^Y
7<&-<&GZ2:
477
manuscript
ginal
he
interest of youth, as
work
the
of
us),
tells
all
the
attract
(to
478
work
When
work
at Brescia in
therefore
included in
this
woodcuts of
Soncino printed
also
it
fairly
was
unknown.
is
It
at
Now
Jewish source.
we know
that
232.
these illustra-
of
tions
may be
hypothesis
gin
in
was confirmed
one of the
The
discarded.
as
Christian ori-
seemed by the
it
monk
illustrations a
something unimaginable
a crucifix
production.
It
in a Jewish
been established
was a
fact that
seen wearing
is
practical joke
Hebrew
added by hand
cown
trations,
Kuh Buck,
There
is
the Yiddish
as well as the
and German
turies.
chapter
classical
antiquity
in
Jewish
it
has
printed
been
it
was usual
illustrations,
ing lulabs.
It is
probable that
all
these drawings
The
books of Minhagim
illustrated printed
first
1601,
we
in
Judeo-German printed
find,
in
Venice
In
in
to
embody
Amsterdam
presses
inserted
(fig.
emerges. The
work
secular
first
representation
Immanuel" by Immanuel
Later
it
is
found
of
became customary
Rome
rite in
(Brescia, 1492).
ver,
when
of Tabernacles
hymns included
Ash-
last
the
to include representa-
kenazi
in
and
for Passo-
in the service
men-
gim
for
of
1723 included
Hoshana Rahhah
of
tradition re-
this
The
further pictures
a thousand years,
232),
so on.
Now,
after
in
how
in
e.g.
books.
seen
of the Palestinian
of Biblical
numerous Dutch
Minhagim
another
in
Fox Fables
became common
women's compendium
They
new
ever-popular composition,
Tzenah u'Reenah
history, the
pictorial tradition in
ries of
(e.g.,
of that
editions
later
a picture of a headless
man
(fig.
le-
head on
this night
would
Especially
notable
are
the
illustrated
which begin
in
broad-
the 15th
illustrations
("Jossipon")
published at
which served
as the
model
for
manv
to
479
tory
up
which the
in
reached
links
it
in the
work
On
considerable.
is
480
Hebrew
art of the
printed book
its
ritual for
The
printed
first
published,
it
believed,
is
haggadah
illustrated
Constantinople
in
it
have survived.
gadah appear
also
the
in
Headless
of
to preserve.
man
The
earliest to
book
for
known
and dated
at
about 1480,
in a solitary copy.
first,
the
beside which
staffs
to
in their
six
Passover meal,
hands
(fig.
234). There
and
probable
the
that
its
loins
and
reason
is
this
craftsmanship
was
Jewish holidays:
are
known
also
experiment.
It
was only
by way
was
of
tion began.
We may
which recur
illustrations
rious
illustrated
editions
of the haggadah,
those
are
now
Firstly, there
introductory:
illustrating
Hanukkah
woman
in
and Amsterdam
From such
far
so
What
manuscripts.
Jewish
mentioned
as in
is
it
non-
in Italy
in
been
has
and
so on.
In Ashkenazi editions,
seventeenth centurv,
sheets
Bir-
sort
Jewish.
Individual
in
initials of
German
medieval
first-born,
of
here see a
We
it;
hag-
edition
first
the
of
Passover
the
in
kat
style of
Drawings
Oriental-Spanish.
is
found subsequently
sort
was
isolated
the
traditional
The main
we
down
to the
stage also
find
at
this
representation
of
the hare-hunt.
is
illustrated
by the
story
of the
up
it,
to
Law
drawings which
special
Most of
its
find in very
many
particularly
though
we
minhagim books.
occasions,
this
illustrate
his-
as
known
in
engravings.
early
181
The
234.
set
the
for
482
Passover meal
of
1526
is
the prototype
all
down
to our days
lettering, its
(fig.
ornamental
all
initials, its
its
its
splendid
marginal cuts
is
among
the
finest
press in
lifting the
cup of bene-
manner
ceremonial ablutions, or the slaves in Egypt making mortar, or the 'four sons,"
cuts at the
his
and
so on. Larger
in
of the
at the
the triumph
of the
book
bottom
is
kingdom of Bo-
we
The Hebrew
once
letter shin
again,
appears
bv
The Bohemian
letter
this
coat-of-arms
pose that
who
is
also flanked
in this case
Some
later.
name
of the printer,
was the
artist or
engraver;
the
father of the
name
sup-
of
it
it
is
merely
in
Haggadah
first
of
1590 the
exactly
illustra-
borders,
vice,
and
after the
Grace). The
last
Adam and
gates of
is
is
ser-
perhaps the
flanked above
and illuminated
new
woodcuts
letters
in
this
edition
were
made,
such
as
the
of
483
unrcn feQHftQ
155.
page from the Prague Haggadah of 1526. Printed by Solomon ha-Cohen's sons
woodcut.
484
THE JEWISH ART OF THE PRINTED BOOK
485
The
236.
of Israel
battles
in
Canaan,
issue. In the
illustration
Prague
worn
dah
cuts deriv-
Augsburg Hagga-
printing
recognizable,
is
Prague Haggadah,
Prague
we
tradition
of
city
in
An
shows
it
illustrated
1550 which,
in
Italian
definite
Mantua
the
spirit,
in the
However,
editions.
Amsterdam
as the artist
drawings came
around, as
A new
tradition,
dav,
precision, the
wrong way
in a mirror.
doth produced
own
and
on the cycle of
the
drawings and
see
The
from
486
illustrations in successive
in the
appears
Sephardi world
down
to our
in
many
pictures regarding
all
influ-
at the
in
1560
arrangement and
spirit,
Prague
issue.
is
much
influenced in
by the 1526
its
an entire
Abraham down
and the
Italian stylistic
Abraham
into the
in this case a
Promised
drawings
in
the
sits in
gondola
figures
The
artistic level.
here, however,
The borders
manner
is
illustrations
craft.
etc.,
are
sometimes above
tion
we
tures
a full
later
first
time,
view of
two
fea-
of vignettes, of
of
(fig.
find,
which
it
to the Exo-
a series
social
history,
artist
and
their artistic
Mantua
issue
Plagues.
1560
standard
and
its
is
this
issue
arrangement.
dam
in
1662
is
closely
A haggadah
in
printed at Amster-
its
trations
are
The
initial letters
(fig.
comprise drawings of
illus-
shown
A new
as
Negroes (nigromanti)
style
artistic en-
487
David kneeling
picture of
Spirit."
has
It
in
now been
1SS
Matthaeus Merian
of
map
is
Israel."
Venice,
names
1609; woodcut.
are
Haggadah
be
to
found
in
and
fa-
Amsterdam
adopted
the Rhineland
about
Judaism
way
on
full
prose-
and
portraits
as the
greater extent.
1712, with
and now,
working
of
It
many
was reprinted
was imitated
selyte illustrator. It
Of him and
bach
skill
it
is
stated
fore
our
Jacob
person
exalted
of
caused
father
Abraham son of
him to draw and
upon
a sheet of copper,
when
there
was no beautv.
now
All will
Offenbach
name
and
1721
of the pro-
in a large
am Main
edition,
number
1710, Sulz-
1755,
Fiirth
of
spirit
the
in
1711,
in
of his craftsman's
Amsterdam
in
be
to
continued
of
some
He
map
first
word)
Ivte.
the tribes of
all
be printed with
to
published by a Jew.
a Christian
to
Amsterdam
the
was
map
in
Palestine
plates
among
land
first
down
237.
gravings
in his
Basle,
at
In
the
copper
engravings
the
of
haggadah
made, however,
the
eliminate
to
influence
of
e.g.,
in the
Law and
in the
own
been
the
same
their beautv,
and
will
rejoice
by
his
fellows
as
ability, as a practised
and
skill
was the
known
and
all
that
first
is
plans,
in
models
heaven and
printed haggadah
The decorative
pictures of
lical
events such as
Adam and
of Bib-
eliminated.
doth, published in
illustrations
whole
of a
manuscript
of
model
of hand-
all
over
Central
tion here,
and
fuller
treatment
fically
(fig.
lavish-
Seder plates
as the
series
Europe
artists
the
by an important
school
ham and
as
in
devoted to
this
in
work
speci-
twelve illustrations
the
are included
a
in
marked Chn
in
this
popular in
ian
influence, most of
all
in
the
its
day, with
its
489
238.
Title-page from a
Copper-plates by
Abraham ben
Jacob.
490
491
mavr,
still
while
in
contemporary
Israel
there
492
have been
Zim-Zimberknopf, Jacob
splendid editions of
I.
Wechsler and
These
of the
also,
others.
artists
development of Jewish
art.
and
their pro-
JEWISH ART
the
In
centuries of the
first
ROTH
CECIL
by
meet a
Europe, into
Domnulus and
name
on a coin issued
One was
about 555
processes
parallel
the
a certain
(fig.
this, too,
at
239). The
was a Jewish
Chalon-sur-Saone in
coins minted in
first
Gentile societv.
of the
sway
intensification
of the
the Jewish
had formerly
were
circulated,
Numerous
self-
intellectual activity
and
same time
at the
of the Torah;
some
At
siastical,
fact
participation
that
much
of
artists
did
was anonymous.
eccle-
Jewish
restricted
mean
not
was
art
We
Jewish
that
when
the stage
which again
This
participation.
European
of
more-
this time,
post-Renaissance period
to the
ex-
it
did
mean
thus approach
objects than
from scattered
literary
work
allusions.
has been
it
some specimens
artists,
of
whose
239.
were known
Roman Empire,
in
not
only
Palestine
the
and
an
urban
and,
at
the
an
artisan
tation
sixth
century
e.g., in glass-
onwards,
and well
on
into
the
all
over Europe
The name
of Priscus
(later
I,
its
European
the
in
in
Court Jeweler
and destined
to
in
known throughout
What
in
is
most remarkable
Poland
at the
end
the
is
in this connection.
of the twelfth
Hebrew
rulers for
whom
names
(e.g.,
of the
"Mechis-
names
of the Jewish
minters
little
etc.)
etc.)
(Abraham
(fig.
240).
499
was regarded
as
Museum.
at
time implied a
Spain and
ability.
In
inscriptions,
Throughout
lers
Hebrew
240.
500
skilful painter of
(c.
1290),
who
Whether there
tale
example, wholly
that
among
age,
which
the
in
of this
some must be
anonymous productions
to
inevit-
so
much
siastical
articles
his
art
in
intention.
religious
made
eccle-
his
of such
clientele.
In
and
preposterous
existent.
that
European
that
practice,
life
of
posterous; and
work
was
does not
imply that
it
it
was
was non-
then resident
in
one
official
Samuel
of
document
tells
us
in
in his
Rabbi
a certain
in
1378
company of Jaime
whom, presumably,
the
he assisted
how
was
in
secular.
When
his likeness;
smith
is
said to
in
have executed
1345 a
silver-
the making
chalices or crucifixes.
in
Similarly, in
1480,
Queen
to ensure that
one
"no Jew or
Solomon
certain
Moor
1399
in
of
records in
Barbut manufactured
at this time. It
official
it is
workmanship.
of Jewish
certain
is
Mary
the Glorious."
Ob-
was not
assembled almost
Jewish
were
had no objection
the round
Europe
certain parts of
artists
at
in
familiar,
some
to depicting the
of
(more objectionable by
as
we have
whom
human form
far
in
from the
in
mere
objects.
501
502
N^
241.
by
242.
Juan
243.
Meir
of the
Jaffe.
Nuremberg
City Council,
1468.
503
That painters,
Jewish
art of this
to
be found
there-
is,
self-evident.
fore,
were
too,
period
though
of
is
the famous
Abraham Crescas
executed in 1376/7 by
of
who pronounced
Aragon,
that
to
it
details are
emphasized and
of castles, animals,
be the
map
fairest
the geographical
this,
by drawings
illustrated
who
painters
mentioned
are
in
contem-
open
is
certainly the
artists;
who
example, Meir
skilled
as
is
known
well
to us
book-
as
binder;
so
whose
of Jews,
for
was the
Code
of these
work
be
to
is
some
certain that
illuminations
Jaffe,
sional
will
as
this
241). Profes-
period.
Another chapter of
works of the
of other distinguished
chief impor-
its
number
also a
504
at
Cologne
in
1295; Joel
Maimonides'
of
century in
on.
the
newlv-revealed
fifteenth-centurv
Aragonese
made
that he
name seems
imply
242).
(fig.
Middle
tions,
those
we
in the
The
also forbade
in
Jews
to
this craft. In
Jews
closely
Germany, they
of
damped
known
known
a
copy
of
Pentateuch
Council of Nuremberg.
see
fig.
Meir
243)
This
for
to
splendid
in thin tendrils.
human
ent-
boughs, terminating in
Hebrew inscription
name. One authority, who
is
is
artist,"
ascribes
versions.
where knowledge
shown
is
follows
It
productions
some
that
especially
cases
in
Jewish craftsmen
also.
point to be noted
is
of
that
to us
much
of their
remains unidentified
perhaps
more than
this,
and
or indeed,
is
to
or
be sought
in
produced
for far
on the
general market.
to
II
Mu-
is
printed
anonymous
manuscript
subsequent
in
achieve-
in
bind
appeared
that
and
tion
a series of illustra-
City
the
wined
Jaffe,
and manuscript-illuminator
also as a scribe
of merit. In
of
so
of his
to
and
Italy,
him
Jews participated
in
were
artists
ately,
very
among them
little
is
That there
of
505
244.
about 1460-
Italy,
Bezalel
506
Museum.
Jerusalem.
Sachs,
beni
to
when he
first
day.
He
d'Este,
seems
note in his
slight
Duke
of Ferrara;
I,
Bembo,
for
whom
Pentateuch, which he
for this
wood by
his sons,
in
Venice and
now be
identified.
The same
worked
as
a boy.
whom
Benvenuto
Cellini
silver
not.
now
casket
bearing
finelv
in
the Bezalel
representations
executed
in niello
of
Jewish
ra
ficient
more
who
to
specific sense.
of suf-
This
is
Salamone da Sesso,
in
name
he
years
courts
was
Italian
He
(fig.
245). These
superb
articles of
encrusted
with
pagan
(never
Biblical)
scenes,
classical
and frequently
were
is
the age.
ceremonials
hardly
is
an exquisite
in
is
Museum, Jerusalem,
in
most of the
507
508
weapon fashioned
exquisite
the sinister,
is
Cesare Borgia,
for
Towards the
from
who worked
collaboration
close
Rossi
in
de
in Italy
name, corresponding
ish
Angelo
certain
we
century
to
Jews, notwith-
is
enough; but
likelv
it
re-
mains unproven.
Painting introduces us into a somewhat different
sphere, closely associated with that of manuscript-
illumination,
tion.
attenin
Re-
and Giacobbe
d'Elia
di Vitale
1507/8
in
member-
to
known
less,
of the
ally
Battista Levi
(c.
whom
by
Giuseppe
name makes
certain that
jew.
it
certain
Ostiglia,
case,
of Florence
fired
vear,
who
1675)
(d.
is
said to
in
when
thai of Jonah
is
his
imagination
He now
was
of the
in
first
Salvatore Rosa.
on
like the
but his
Levi;
de'
however,
Jewish familv,
to a
tried his
hand
it.
we
that,
it
is
We
today.
salons of
at
identified
some
he did landscapes
excel
be
(like
figure-painting)
his
and that
for
some
fellow-artists
is
2-15.
reli-
509
converted to Christianity,
number
by
the
Jewish
Jewish
rose
was
Roman
Roman artist
sician.
the earliest
to
of
he emphasized.
life
It is
younger generation of
into the
new
Ve-
artists in
nice,
of the
century. It
Old Testament
dilection for
Christian allegiance
different
Pietro
in the
eighteenth
is
was not
so profound.
(1614
Liberi
1687),
very
contemporary
baptized son of a
Vienna and
He was
eminently success-
specializing in altar-pieces
in
first
much
ration,
His painting
of
is
which
still
is
be seen there.
to
was
be
can
David
only
with
identified
who
Lodi,
de'
competent
produced
The
1492.
engravings
contributed
historical
to
Giu-
light
some
work produced
in
publication
is
in
Naples
in
artist of
certainty
is
citta,
said to be
engraver.
production in which
artistic
Italian
He
in
Another branch of
Cavaliere d'Arpino"
"II
latter
phy-
in
ably quite a
in
Jew became
if
510
in the
Renaissance and
We
ture.
know
again
none
in 1629,
work
of his
members
down
was
It is
to the
at
Jewish
of the
Cohen
work
in
the
middle
from
Ancona,
Pesaro,
centurv.
licen-
once
identifiable.
is
sixteenth
though
ritual objects of
Padua,
who was
of a Lazzaro Levi,
Faenza,
of
work
ticularly
(par-
Testament
Old
bearing
or
in-
are to be ascribed to
clients)
them.
Another aspect of
be taken
which must
artistic activity
into consideration
is
architecture.
se-
to consider to
were
tian art
and
Vene-
later
as the founder,
College of Artists.
printed in Hebrew,
was obviously
in
a separate
presumably
are
to
be
emanating
from
found
Hebrew
in
Jewish
books
masters,
almost
from
certain
the
end
of
Moses ben
the
Isaac,
century.
specifically
brother-in-law of the
it
is
associated with
not,
certain,
it
necessary only
is
it
was
carried out
bv
of
Synagogue
of the Transito
fictitious
Toledo
to
Oporto )
sive,
the
it
of understanding,
at
The synagogue
ruins
of
of
which are
Monchique
still
impres-
was constructed,
honored mem-
as
511
and
religions
512
and were
bars,
Southern Europe
in
me-
the
in
dieval
not
for
art
itself,
far
emerged
the
in
century
seventeenth
certain
in
Protestant
On
dices
ft*
-
emerge
to
-4f
in
such
cities
as
On
and
Salom
Aryeh "the
Italia.
officer
who
Engraved border
for a Scroll
of Esther.
The
Cemetery
Prague
of
states that
was according
it
Synagogue
of the Meisel
in
though according
structed;
that citv
to
were con-
contemporary
to
is
Wahl. So,
too,
some
of the Eastern
European syna-
were
architects
at
(Lutomiersk)
sufficient to
work
in the
and
so on.
of
buildings
which may
their
definitely
be
we mav assume
to
connotation,
for
the
Moreover, the
conscience.
his
were
to a great extent
in
bors,
engage
in the
at places
to
new communities
same occupations
and
tastes
ligion.
German
states,
spreading
later
in
else-
become
one
religious
spe-
its
working
relatively
point
that
in a
common.
emerges
time
after
have to deal
at
the
tion.
is
outset
that
their
incidental
to
in the
time
in
whom we
will
activity
was
artistic
their
main occupa-
artists in
order to satisfy
to
their artistic
Ill
We
have been
to elude or break
of
competence
in
medal-engraving;
the
pewter-
expands
into
the
miniaturist;
the
JEWISH ART
513
AND
(fig.
which he
ment
engraved
the
in
well-executed,
quite
alive
1642,
in
247).
It
tably has
Italia's
haunting
eves; a
man
Italia's
portrait,
in
responsible
Israel's
rather
the
for
all
also believed to
is
executed no doubt
nasseh ben
inevi-
six
been
unfor-
work
face
have
not
etchings
but
to
portrait of the
brooding,
achieve-
perhaps
is
Israel
technically
age:
valuable,
historically
(fig.
ben
dull
the
of
spirit
included the
Menasseh
of
portrait
attached to
is
This
production.
non-religions
well-known
for a
more importance
sent connection,
his
514
hastily
clumsy
Me-
to
originally
247.
Portrait of
Italia.
painter on porcelain
Menasseh ben
the author
in
as the result of
amateurish
ultimately builds
There
is
up
a reputation as a miniaturist
nor
not as yet
in
of the
on
view of
social condi-
be anv question
lomon)
Italia,
member
of the
when
themselves,
well-known
Italian
the plates
Italia's
when
Godhead,
etchings
they
bv
are
are
clumsy and
that of
Italia
himself
(1603-1675)
We may
of the
Israel.
a border-line artist,
in
who
Temple
(fig.
248).
in
the
ancestral
1629, he
where
came
to
in
Amsterdam,
We
know
noteworthy
Scrolls
of
two
Esther
248.
Rabbi Jacob Judah Leon (Templo).
Reconstructed model of Solomon's Temple, 1670.
-r*
515
516
David Nieto
at his
desk
specimen of
a typical
which was
1727
(fig.
portrait
of
of
London, engraved bv
Among
is
J.
Faber,
woman
painter
who was
Catherine da Costa
not without
1756)
who
artist,
woman artist
preserved. Member
Jewish
first
(1679
known Anglo-Jewish
the
Mesquita,
1752.
in
emerges one
ability
in
a pupil of
some
of
which show
teenth-centurv fashion
David Estevens.
249.
Portrait of
was
Besides
engravers
Among
the
first
own
(1714,
these,
we
associated
charm
e.g.,
miniature of her
a naive
and por-
II,
dressed
in full eigh-
Abraham da
livelier
Costa, in
250).
find
with
number
the
of
lewish
title-page,
of
monte,
in
band Jacob
Israel
To be
sure,
of
period
and
it
of the female
members
especially
is
them
of the
Thus,
in
in
the collections
dispersed
in
eighteenth
otherwise
1895,
century
there
figured
drawings
unknown members
numerous
and paintings
of that
and
of
allied
clans.
it
became usual
Ashkenazi colleagues)
to
have
their
like-
members
artists as
of their flock.
large
number
of the
We max
250.
517
works printed
Amsterdam
number
who
this
period.
of expert calligraphers,
embodied
generally
drawn
London and
in
at
518
finely-
*vflfc-"
r-tf^w>
-yr-vt
S*y
-pro tyv
m o* v r-tn 3*r
*>*kiv
-tn
r/vW" .-w
cm
These
connection.
with
greater
in
dealt
are
detail
else-
period
this
at
manuscript
art,
high
expectedly
Jewish
of
reaching an un(see
level
chapter XII )
in oils,
showing
251.
Aaron de Chaves
is
(d.
c.
who
1705),
painted a con-
He shows
competence
in a Scroll of
a greater
We
encounter
will
calligraphist
table
name
the
also
of
229), a no-
fig.
inter alia
(Amsterdam
nediciones
1687).
He had
some
barked as a painter
London has
by him
in oils.
in
Aboab
Isaac di Matatia
of
the
life
and patron
Amsterdam. One
in
illustrates
(a
episodes
and
finallv, a
and
the
A. Rubens,
ascription of the
,-/
tie
corpse
that
he
his
is
in
1681
Negro
to
be;
serin
Chaves, but it is accepted by J. Meijer, Encyclopaedia Sephardica Neerlandica, who illustrates his arian
Hagen),
tistic
activity
to
Van
after
well-known picture
Ruvsdael's
(fig.
artist
The
and
Jewrv
in the
spiritual
his forte.
atmosphere
Some
oil
the' close of
The
Amsterdam
artist
artists are
unknown.
in
which
shows
of
At
seventeenth century.
more Catholic
series,
is
its
mem-
certainly the
work
of a Jewish
artist,
to judge
Environmental influence
may be
traced also in
its
different countries
519
The Jerusalem
252.
Infirmary. Caricature by
lem Infirmary,
Jerusa-
same
title
(fig.
vior
The
and weaknesses
management
abuses in
alleged
peared
anonymously,
tributed
and emphasizing
of the institution
certain
among
its
with
management, apauthorship
the
various impossible
names
dis-
(inve.
and
bug)
is
it
Modena
not
was
in Italy,
certain
(though probable)
from
anonymous
520
1749, London.
artist,
works of
art,
torical scenes,
none
beginning
and snuff-merchant,
and
decorate
to
and
then
to
became
his
later
paint
his
main occu-
in
in
into a
Prince de Conde.
Duke
He was
Modena and
of
often
the
employed by the
them
and notables,
in
seated
an etching,
in his
in
them
bodv
The
enemy
having a
artist's self-portrait is
Notwithstanding
this
dog's
in this field.
253
its
it is
intense aesthetic
still
produced
rabbi of Zante,
Abraham
to his Birkat
Avraham
who emigrated
to
Amsterdam
at the begin-
could be expanded,
list
demonstrates
unusual achievement,
fig.
noteworthy.
so
his bit-
his
Jewry was
how
strangely
retrograde
Italian
in this respect.
been converted
artists
to
Christianity.
emerges
who had
of Jewish birth
We
must
came converted
some eminence
to Judaism.
One
the English
also
phenomenon which
who
of these
was
beof
miniaturist Alexan-
521
522
who
considered
is
Cooper
Alexander
Amsterdam
himself
to
as
and
subsequently
a Jew;
where
Stockholm,
emerged
he
in
called
referred
constantly
to
Judaism
(fig.
254).
German
settled in
He seems
his
map
of Palestine with
merit
fashion
fig.
238 )
which
.
There
him
the
Isaac
Aboab da Fonseca
engraving
thereafter
of
is
also
illustrations
of
some
set
new
ascribed
Abraham
Alexander
la
Cooper.
Garde,
1647.
to
Haham
portrait
of
Amsterdam, painted
of
254.
artist
was
(or
we do
name
to
nineteenth
the
until
natural
ascribe
to
the
century;
traditional
know
of
land
not
is,
in
the
any
fact
prejudice
plastic art."
closely associated,
and
in
which
this.
moments
it
is
to the consi-
thev
artistic effect
From
rary
monuments began
artistic
ible
for
lay
in
merit;
more
artistic
fune-
to emerge, occasionally of
example,
in
(as,
253.
was
there
Hebrew
decorative effect
Among
and
its
and
Spanish,
reliefs
They
onlv
than Dutch
in
incidentally.
many
very
in
remarkably high
Italian rather
by
cases
standard,
artistic
and execution.
in feeling
commemorated:
and
of Isaac,
calling of Samuel,
apparently
In another case
Curacao
we
of
Indies,
scene,
deceased
the
Deitv
the
of
West
bust
in
himself.
high
in
the tombstone
relief.
But there
unproved.
(the
in
In one case
on.
so
That the
were Jews
is
there
is
good
reason
sculpture
of
authorship as
it
of
was
for
imagining
and
that
this
Jewish
in
in inspiration.
to guild-control,
A wholly
different
productive
and
engraving,
thereafter
trait-) painting.
The
in
more
medal-
designing,
to
pewter
its
to the
new
was within
It
school
Jewish
Jewish
of
artists
began
velopment. Hence,
some
and
a whollv un-
a group of
artists
among the
Ashkenazi Jews than among
retrograde
the
professional
of
little
same
that
due course,
in
the
in
context
this
art
its
of
socially-
the cul-
turally-advanced Sephardim.
Let us take, as an
illustration the
at this
record
of
different
ways
artist,
in successive generations. In
the
in
Ans-
mid-eighteenth century a
in the
named Samuel
emergence
of
his livelihood
copying
Torah-
run more
and codices
style.
He
(1727
1793)
for example, to
engraving
to
who
and hence
sense,
specific
in
Competence
to other spheres
to art
itine-
in this exacting
tended
scrolls
approach
Germany and
neas )
in the long
it
Torah-scribe
IV
while
normally had no
it
applications
ecclesiastical
524
activity
is
school
branch
summit.
at the
of
MODERN TIMES
523
Low
Pinhas
pious calling,
which
same
to the
of Central
principal
their
turies,
them by hand,
common
At the age of
was
seal-
in
the style
thirteen he wrote
at this time.
and decorated a
voung
artist
was now
of course,
family,
was
him
to
be pro-
Leo Pinhas
(as the
called)
Scroll of Esther
became
which includes
and
his court
portraits
of considerable merit.
He had
pro-
525
whose
Friedrich Konig,
turist
two men
stvle of the
some
he copied: the
style
in
is
portraits
probability the
all
Leo
1837)
was
work
Pinhas' son,
526
and
of Prussia
some
sides
nature,
of a purely Jewish
series
Napoleonic king-
Consistory of the
the Jewish
dom
of
tures
began
book
illustration
Westphalia. In later
which
in
He
work
calligraphic
to
later to the
sitters
his family.
numerous
including
and
in Cassel
when minia-
life,
and
Masters,
he
showed
occupation
ungrateful
some competence.
copying Old
to
His
son
Hermann
turn,
in
fession in a
We
see
Hebrew
through
scribe-calligraphist
The
255.
father.
artist's
the traditional
the
eigh-
Johann
who succeeded
who worked
in the
of
86),
and
eldest
most
important
1734the
of
brood
who
was
sister-court of
that
of
Nathan (son
Jew
Treu.
originator
Its
of the affluent
Bamberg) who
to the Prince-Bishop of
youth
under
fell
baptized,
too,
generation,
like
and
this
in
work included
also
still-life
daughters
their
day
in his
of miniature-painting,
scenes,
Joel
and became
influence
Jesuit
of this
was one
also
is
other Jews
capacity
became
Bamberg. His
later
compositions, genre
of rather
heavv
including
attained
as artists. It
manv
art
some
slight
altar-
his three
note
in
unnecessary, however, to
Jews
was
It
onlv
two
generations
but how
The most
this
circle
removed
far
in
atmosphere
1847)
who, trained as
and
his inte-
artist-son of
Rome.
of
portraitist
Pope
Dresden.
He
is
at
miniaturists of his
day,
in the
527
much
Lowe
MODERN TIMES
oi2S
the
(1756
1831)
who,
up
and miniature
Michael
as
Johann
a fashionable clientele,
Empress Catherine
of Russia
II
of the philosopher
well-known.
approach
different
fessional
artist
when
the period
tvpe of
this
in
work was
artistic
number
quite a
of Jewish
European
said to
is
various Western
been seen
witz
in
to
in
have engraved a
series of
no fewer
century attracted a
number
of such practitioners
engraving
of
art
cient,
and became
very
profi-
sitters
manv
included
.///?/
figures.
Hazan
In
of the Berlin
as his ability.
d.
1829;
Wilhelm,
The
256.
was
rino.
eminent
1815.
Jewish
miniaturist
to
this
of
1857)
Another
was
period
who, born
a goldsmith
and
at the
to
of
in
his
many members
at
at the
work
metier and
to
in
made
of the nobilitv
and
tures,
most of them on
ivory, are of
lively
d.
1837;
d.
1865) arrived
but always
from Breslau
in their craft,
and
in
works
popular
throughout
Germany,
especially
their
(fig.
256), theatrical
Academy
of Arts
esteemed the
impeccable
the
in
1862;
d.
His minia-
who worked
Moritz,
in Berlin
though restrained
The
Friedrich,
for a short
title
of
academic
ability of
to grant
artists.
The
But
them
it
Berlin
August
in
1812
seems as
little
AND
[EWISH ART
529
death
own hand
at his
in
process
similar
which
that
to
developed
medallists.
known
Ages
as far
in various countries of
Benjamin
son
obviously an
Beer
Elijah
of
name
of
Physician
the
seems
be of
to
his
own
co-religionist
Moses
forgetting
examples of
days in obscurity.
rest of their
course,
530
In
the tradition
men
successive
in
crafts-
army
officer
or
Relgian Jean
the
who had
served as an
in
were mistaken
that thev
(as
we
shall
see),
Hebrew
inscription
it
the earliest
known Jewish
exact sense
was probably
who
it.
Hence
medallist in the
Joel
it
more
of Eleazar
Brody when
of
fig.
257 )
It is
of
the
heated rabbinical
which
controversy
Germany and
it
170).
an entire
adjacent areas
the
n.
257.
however,
in
Samuel Judin
and medals
one
ing
1730-1800)
(c.
who
commemoration
of
the
victory
of
Abraham Aaron
1744-1824)
who worked
ben
Lipman
satisfactory
at the courts of
medals
(c.
earliest
Belgian
tradition linked
postage-stamps.
up with
of Polish birth,
emerged
to
Jew
medals
to
become
of Arts
in
tellectual life,
for
somewhat
commemorate
Academy
of
and
whom
member
issued
in Berlin
he designed
florid series of
his victories.
prominence
Thus the
old
a tvpical nineteenth-cen-
Mecklen-
Portrait
some very
Levi.
struck coins
in
Joel
The son
Meanwhile, with
tunities in
less
than
and semi-
and
for
me-
the
official
of the Prussian
in
the
in-
police-registers at the
Among
also.
531
who
ex
also
libris
and was
successful
Dutch
of
traitist
for
both
miniature-
and
and
(1757-1839).
birth
Abraham
mediocre
portraits
day a considerable
Solomon Polack
reputation.
local
532
Isaac Polack,
and
drawing
etching
of
who was
engraving
Saul
responsible
1764
in
rabbi
Levi,
at the
The
at
Roval
Academy from 1790 onwards, engraved the titlepages to some Hebrew books printed in London,
and published several engraved
portraits of un-
258.
(The
known
earliest
London "and he
miniaturist in
Jewish book-plate).
sent
me
possibly, Jeremias,
Jew"
the
time
Academy and
Roval
of
competence
very soon
if
for the
most
part, deservedly
for-
in
born
in
was provided
engraver
in Berlin,
Solomon, B. Salomo,
rick
gotten.
It is
William
II
etc.
won him
government prize). In
makers
or
as
engravers
competence
on
as seal-
which
pewter,
in
more ambitious
in families, as
community
the Jewish
Benjamin
Lew
(d.
of Portsmouth in
1747 was
and non-Jewish
clients;
these
included what
is
which he made
Mendes
in
for the
1746
(fig.
were
also
professional
engravers
two
s.
and
production
Isaac,
who
with
another Jew,
(later of Exeter),
collaborated
in
of
in-
whom
Elias,
who
many
local
book-plate
Moses Mordecai
Ez
kiel
Abraham Ezekiel
(1757-1806),
259.
Martha
533
260.
he removed
middle
life
artistic
activity
appetite for
to
London, where
was obscured bv
his
insatiable
his
534
bv a Sephardi
co-religionist,
who
exhibited in
the
eighteenth-centurv
Ashkenazi
vironment emerged at
min
Barlin,
is
in
exhibited in
and
Martha
in
who
Isaacs,
miniaturist,
who
Chatham
Among
Tevele
Schiff,
who
portrait-painter
artist,
Jewish community,
Academy
prolific
one
too,
painters
woman
his
Jew named
own hand.
From the most
"little
London; while
typically English in
its
now
in
the
more elegant
courtly posture
London
(fig.
Rabbi
of the Great
259), who,
it
is
Synagogue
in
interesting to note,
National
likeness,
for a
and back-
De
Castro,
Royal Academy
in
first
535
Royal Academy
536
at the early
an armv
officer.
is
who, born
that of
at
wandering came
England. Here,
about 1761
at
in
was brought
royal patronage,
be mentioned
to
in Frankfurt, ran
after a period of
to
name
highly-distinguished
point
this
into fashion,
and was
executed some of his best work, thereafter returnHis portraits and conversation
ing to England.
pieces are
among
of eighteenth-century English
life.
His biographers
in
is
recorded that
when he
penury he lodged
Among
ciety.
in the
had some
Certainly, he
first
came
to
London
his portraits
is
261.
sician
emerged
or
family
prolific
in
England
Jewish
of
mav be
it
fame
between
and
birth,
The
notoriety.
presumably of German
on the
said,
1738-1826),
He had
whom
sons, all cf
whose
of his
steps
activities
same
"art",
exhibited
gifted,
British Institute
distinct ability as
with
marked
which was
at
the
Academy
He had
vogue
the
to
at
this
Norwich
school,
period cf
British
for
example, his
Norwich marketplace
Edward
for
(1781-1854),
Royal
affinities
in
painting. His
(fig.
father's
which he taught
and
his
in
more
three
(1790-1870),
who
Town was
exhibited
(fig.
Town
at this
borderline
which
painters
at
the
who
introduced
the
into
cello
mu-
England
261).
The
case of Zoffany
admittedly, dubious.
is,
On
in
is
period
who
we have
too,
was not
a figure
Once
again,
for a time
England,
Jew. In him
worked
also
we
a professing
whose
significance
was immeasurable.
was converted
ly
originally
to Christianity
abandoned Judaism
Danish
or else informal-
early in life
and miniatures,
birth,
an enamel-worker,
number
and became
of his canvases
Mengs (1728-1779)
in
his largest
537
mixed
of
and
was one
birth
came
at the
of the
most celebrated
in
European painting
An
figures
influential
age of tvventv-one
538
of
painter to the
first
in
moned him
to
povertv, at the
which he enjoved
far
beyond
his
savior of style
was an
in his
was the
first
as
painter.
on the theorv of
art.
Even
his
more pedantic
He
He
(e.g. that if
rules of
to recognize in the
one hand
in a portrait
wards)
the
which he professed
Old Masters
hailed
genius of Gova.
painting,
He was
deserts.
influential writer
and
his
in262.
fol-
Portrait of the
lowers
(fig.
262).
He
left
p ession on the history of painting as the founder of the neo-classical school, which was to reach
its
Marquise de Laan.
tion period.
and episodic
This account
is
inevitablv sketchy
ments
of the nineteenth
and twentieth
centuries.
by
Time
a merciless eliminator.
is
It
erases names,
human
made bv
endeavor.
Occasionally,
of
rolls
are
revisions
a generation
its
is
On
forgotten after
is
fiftv
the
years
gan
neighbors
in
work
general
movement
ever,
began
it
Jewish family
a
demand
so
life,
surprising that
manv
had recourse,
at
artists,
recommended
latives.
Jewish
born
Revolution
and the
Camille Pissarro,
all,
be found
in
is
few
of these
current handbooks of
in galleries
names are
artists
remain
and
paintings
their
sculptures
were
of
all
titles
of nobility. Nearly
skill
in
friends or re-
of miniature-painting
field
painters
portrait
once made
in the
ed Gentile patrons
we
Central Europe,
the
new Jewish
too.
find
few major
portrait-painters;
some
as
man-
inferior,
men
and
of real vision
as
artists
among
but manv of
talents
interesting
still
in
initiative,
From
Jewish colleagues
more ambitious
canvases so popular
the
assimilationist
trend,
abandoned
Europe,
in the
most countries
will
number
ed,
As
of
be
all
in that age.
it
were, to
seen,
in
the nineteenth
disproportionately
Germans
events studied at
pursued
portrait paint-
century.
large
cipation were
at
no wax-
of
new
peak
limit
the conventional
with admirable
of Jewish
services
them by
to
not
is
to
and even
art,
in
to the
It
fairly
artists
new
of the
first,
astonish-
is
soon became
wealthier classes.
the
of re-
years of this
Now, how-
of emancipation.
adopt
to
wide-spread
first
rightlv forgotten.
had
life
their careers in
since this
or of
Germany; inevitably
in
which
at this
so,
time
improvement
startling
in
which be-
progress.
It
is
worthwhile
to
deal
at
541
Philipp Veit.
263.
who
characteristic figures,
count prominently
in
German
nineteenth-centurv
The Seven
art:
on
Eduard Bendemann.
The
his
less
successful
(1790-1854),
Veit
brother,
and
(1793-1877)
Johannes
or
Jonas
is
To them,
porary classicism.
was
its
in
Rome.
was
art
religion
Quattrocento
pious
of
turned
Philipp
of
story
542
masters
whom
to
spirit.
thev
Theirs
much
today,
of
it
disappointingly
looks
poor,
tour,
and
Simon
Veit.
Intel-
husband, and
unhappv
left
in her marriage,
meeting the
gel.
Dorothea
Veit after
von Schle-
Roman
father
tried
to
went
end of her
to live
was
life
who
to exert a profound
in
the
it
and
to the
and not
its
Some
of
however,
it,
composition
perfect
generous
collections
long line
earliest of the
who were
to enrich the
New
World.
Roman
too,
He engaged
Rome, with
followed
frescoes
to
joining
artists
original style to
European
art.
The theory
of the
frescoes. Veit
was the
first
to revive
on wet
suit.
voung man.
as a
From 1815
of color.
Catholic faith.
The
and aridness
theme
for these
down
to his
and
Years
in
in
Potiphar's
263).
(fig.
1819, a
The Seven
Wife
and
When
festival
of
German
artists
Fruitful
was held
MODERN TIMES
543
Eduard
264.
F.
J.
Bendemann. Jeremiah
became
Of the
at
Rome, but
Berlin.
direc-
Frankfurt-am Main.
the latter
was
tute.
The
Germany by
Saint
household, especiallv
in
"When
the
is
mural
large
for
the
of Religion,
resisted their
when
Institute:
tant
544
notice the
to
came
strict
to wish her
good
the
mother,
artist's
who
her grandchildren...
them her
While
a painful impression
St.
Boniface
is
tidings of redemption, a
in
voung
down
the
Many
Austria,
frescoes.
churches
in
The
figures
in
he drew
in
and
stiff,
and much
no
somewhat awkward
The
be found
still
is
marred
He left some
and manv excellent
Duesseldorf
verj
several
self-portraits.
Of
who was
not
much
younger,
little
is
Liege, an Adoration
Catholic church
in
of the
Berlin,
Shepherds for a
his
memoirs,
the
painter
Moritz
Daniel
in Berlin in
Bendemann held
at the
all
man had
the honors,
were available
when he
to
an
him.
He was
only
professorship
was commissioned
aban-
to
the distinc-
all
artist.
attained
thereafter,
he
of
He was
the
famous
Duesseldorf
Academy.
of the Virgin
In
Friedrich Bende-
twentv-seven
among them
in
Julius
work
remained undemonstrative."
Eduard
tions that
portraits,
pious,
less
storv of
by an overdose of sentimentalism.
the
tainly
coming
le
Merite, and
distinction that
was
545
not bestowed
546
institution that
did not
works
including
The
(a once-famous
canvas), the imaginary portrait of Emperor Lothar for the historic Roemersaal in the ancient
town
hall
of
not
portraits of celebrities
life-size
a single one
fame
Bendemann's
remembered.
numerous
the
Frankfurt,
is
on
rests
now
two
Jerusalem
of
Crown
and
(fig.
264),
Prince of Prussia.
1836,
the
commissioned by the
in
before,
years
three
first
at the Fall
1832
the
conversion to Christianity.
In the
neath a
first
tree;
man
in the
up emotionally
express
supposed
to
mann
among
and
century.
tableau.
no more
real
his failures
German masters
the best
carefully arranged as in a
is
the figures
is
of the Duesseldorf
inability to
Bende-
of the nineteenth
II
may be
some
were
that
whose
stylistic
it
as gifted.
The
tic
canvas. Everything
But
to the end.
or aesthetically.
ihe
Portrait of
Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy.
left, is
Eduard Magnus.
265.
considerable talent,
artist of
more
German
for
significant aspects of
smooth monotonous
of this school,
finish
characterizing
and succeed bv
works
hood,
two
so important a part,
than by
artistic merit. In
"line of
these
story-telling rather
paintings, the
in
enced
Ingres,
When,
to
finally
adopted a more
was
Bartholdy
way
to a virtuosity that
the
same way
as a
bad
It
film,
is
effective,
fifty
but
catering to the
influ-
and
forty years after The Mourning Jews, Bendemann returned to a Biblical theme, in the The
Jews Led Into Captivity in Babylon, the technique
still
pictures have a
he advanced
realistic
and
in years.
He
and has
left
(fig.
265)
and
of
the
singer
Jennv
record
the
of
his
and Spain.
Julius Muhr (1819-1835) was another wellknown German-Jewish painter; the son of an
outstanding
champion
of
Jewish
emancipation,
347
266.
in
tion.
Sichel
(1843-1907),
the
atten-
another
whom
his
historical
composition
celebrities as Liszt,
Magnanimus
at his Wife's
another
Dreams
of Pharaoh,
after
won
Sichel the
which he specialized
in
Rome
historical
Prize,
his cold
sitions.
i
j
active as portrait-painter at
Among
his pastels,
which
shows us a
mother-in-law
striking
example
of
energy
and
portraits.
kindness.
His
two
sons,
Heinrich
his
(1814-1882)
in their father's
was one
of the
painted
many
devotional
Paris,
portraits of such
Among
his pupils
were
Pissarro
compo-
in
and the
the
Explains
Joseph
picture,
He
Grave;
548
skill.
Julius Jacob
(1811-1882) studied
in
Duessel-
Delaroche
tween
in Paris,
trips
Germanv
then returned to
be-
of
exotic
life
left
us an interest-
In
Austria,
(1825-1901),
paintings.
One
there
widely
known
for
his
historical
title
as Ritter
Vienna
by the
von Mal-
5 U)
was the
first
Europe.
His
manner
of Meissonnier. In
professor
as
Jewish religions
dinavia
(fig.
1853),
of
266). In
had
Samuel
prizes
in
promience even
was
new
which
submitted
he
he submitted
that
so
in
Belgian
his
au-
second
day
in
his
for
Italian masters
the
after
Between
him.
here.
1850 and
medals on
series of
1860,
number
He was
of pieces of statuary
Moses as
he designed a
Samson Breaking
Child,
different coins
fifty
in
his
Bonds and the monumental marble group commemorating the Van Evck brothers
Charles
Jacques Wiener
design
the
piece;
as
honors
Born
careers
their
Jesi
(1823-91)
(1832-88), began
In
pupils.
relief:
field, in
and
Bartolomeo.
In this
his
of
thorship,
which attained
his
by the
and Charles
to
(1788-
He was famous
honor.
US a few inter-
illustrate aspects of
wide popularity;
his
Italy,
Correggio,
upon him
lavished
as a painter
nineteenth-century Scan-
in
life
left
the Stock-
at
550
Wiener.
Aristide
Maestricht.
in
Astruc.
became
thers,
assistant
London and,
engraver
of
the
Roval
at first
in
mint
where he specialized
in
in
to Brussels,
Aachen,
later
His
Brussels.
(1815-1899) studied
Paris,
in
first
in 1841. In 1845,
series of
Belgium
in
medals representing
interior
and
exterior
historical
years,
in
to
the
past
other
was suggesting,
Western-European
in
artists,
those
too.
in
in
where he devoted
all his
time to the
his age.
of Sir
Among
his
of the Belgian
Grand-
Wiener brothers
illustrates
in
this
field,
between the
(fig.
267).
more medals,
historical
representing
monuments
of
some
Europe.
He
of
the
main
also designed
* It has
proof,
that
551
number
III
ed
Jewish artists were meanwhile beginning
cover the
everyday
of
potentialities
artistic
to dis-
Jewish
life.
tian
and
vases,
From
the Christian
of painting
sort
low
the
aristocrats or
between
in
or
allegorical
subjects.
historical
Yet,
books,
of
trators
adorned
manuscripts
scale,
by the
otherwise,
or
who
harvest
miniature
with
illus-
homelv
So
activities.
occupations
too,
as
shown elsewhere
is
in this
life.
had
its
came
to the fore,
Low
patrons.
especially in the
also
class
and
his
kind
in situations
to
was the
first
new
created a
after
the
French
of art patrons
class
Revolution
lawyers,
traditional
of
da
and
Vinci,
Old Masters.
to
Munich and
Oppenheim
Paris,
to
years.
Lucca Academy.
St.
Leonardo
Correggio,
After studying in
went
be genuine works by
to
The Return
When
decided
give
to
to
artist
Academy's award
the
The Danish
was a member
the
at
Oppenheim's drawing
of the Prodigal
to
Italian.
sculptor Thorwaldsen,
ever,
of this jury
in
in
an
how-
and resented
change
to
class
him the
middle
at
1799 (1800?)
the
in
political
to follow
the need.
fill
The
yet develop-
had not
of middle-class Jews
a taste of their
were available
scenes,
their
modest
religious
552
Egyp-
of
MODERN TIMES
its
his colleagues'
the favor of
Oppen-
no one.
oils of
and shortly
Old and
New
Germany
in
1825,
These
still
all
needed portrait-painters
to
be a market for
the
satisfy
new
little
as well as lim-
historical
nationalist
and
there
later,
was
canvases to
patriotic trends.
artist
discovered, to
discriminate against
done
hundred
him
ears earlier
as they
might have
as long as
he gave
fortunes,
whose
tastes
were
who had
as conventional
A growing
its
much
eighteenth-century
Oppenheim's
trayal of the
his era.
talent
was
Ten drawings
painting.
Italian
world and of
made
skillful
of
Hermann
1833, the
artist
lasting fame.
began the
The Return
553
268.
of a Jewish Volunteer
to his
Family, which
moment when
Moritz Daniel
made
well.
of Liberation
timelv appearance at
the enfranchisement of
tells a story,
Wounded
arm
in
battle,
in a sling, the
German
and
tells it
and
young
still
officer
The pious
father, an
it is
York.
paternal pride,
since
New
554
shape of a
in the
cross.
other
canvases
costume of the
back
some
fifty
late
on
Jewish
eighteenth
years
in
picture,
this
of years nine-
motifs
in
century,
history
(fig.
gouache
(grisaille)
in
order
to
the
going
268).
oils
in
facilitate
555
this
brilliant results.
Life")
shown
in
an infant
editions.
compositions
several
family
celebrating
Scroll in
the
the
pictures
middle-class
to detract
from the
Two
the
to
years later, he
superior
soliditv
lithographs.
manv other genre paintings of the period, because Oppenheim never permitted a preoccupadetail
humorous
to exhibit
talent.
to
tion with
After
in
are, unquestionablv,
compositions.
of
to the
number
large
genre
exotic
bank-notes, but
feit
invited
is
or
556
is
Romantic
painted
also
is
various festivals;
ster;
of
He
leben
painting.
MODERN TIMES
the
as
of
he returned
and was
to Pest
bv publish-
concept.
which he contributed
geist, to
IV
In the
first
suspended
century, a
of
artists
in
career as an
The second
artist.
The
third of the
1902), was
was
In
be
the
it
noticed,
this
coinciding
with
less eventful
and more
successful.
he painted the
It
fine
(one of them
now hangs
that
to
to
Hungarian
other
Hungarian-
in
the
of the
began
Ilhi-
to return
to paint while
important
third
Hungary,
Poland, too.
Hungary,
century
in
first
in
the
Jewish painter of
number
and trained
of
life
him
strierte Zeitung.
also
the
its
to
all
all
composi-
still-life
tions
most popular of
autonomy. In the
generation of consciouslv
number
first
Hungarian painters,
a'
Jewish
of
artists
his age.
his
whose
1865).
After
receiving
his
training
artistic
in
work
of a
number
of other suc-
Duchv
of
stvle that
first
major
was appointed
Parma. Towards
portraits,
talents
in
their realism,
all
Budapest
of
came
later
than
in
Hungary.
an
his
brief
text
raries.
of his
life
in
Romantic
Romantic
academic
slightlv
series of
it
tradiis
more
in the con-
native of Drohobvcz,
Galicia,
he was
move-
IEVVISH ARTISTS
557
269.
Maurycy
Poland.
to
his
son's
558
receiving
He
painted
scenes
from
glorious past
patriotic
Polish-Jewish intelligentsia.
interest in his
into
the
latter's
soul.
young
own exuberant
The memory
still
fresh,
and Gottlieb
poems
He was
in
instance,
of
only twenty-two
(fig.
in
the
gala
proud
nation's
instruction in drawing.
(for
of
his
of
the
at Prayer
in the
Tel Aviv
Museum
559
sentimental
Oppenheim's portrayal
in
of
Jews,
charm
MODERN TIMES
French master.
sentations of
560
theatricality, too
and
of inner feelings
they
posed,
gestures
convincing.
are
shadowing
his face
The Hebrew
coming
Jewish
as
Jewish
in
as a genuinely
it
it
for
European
Eastern
of
showed
it
them, as well as
to
and educators,
parents
Gottlieb him-
sensation
generation
artists,
their
to
is
press hailed
in
men
beauty of the
Oriental
their
earnest, dignified
the
of prayer,
act
expressions,
their
real;
he showed the
colors,
the
are
that
and
art
Gottlieb
was unbelievably
work by
prolific, as if
to
early death.
was
an
as
in
the
it
German, a
Italian, a
he had
a presentiment of his
shows Jesus
as
artists before,
Temple
no longer
Pole, etc.,
but as a Jew,
man embraces
daughter as
if
my
Jessica,
child!"
Finally,
in
loss,
his
and
the composition
him
reveals
where the
artist
tinguished
as a Jew,
(fig.
dis-
now
deep
hospital,
Though
his art
had
tuberculosis
of the
fate
been kinder
to
in
the history
we
value above
in
all
sitters.
his portraits.
gems
attain-
larynx.
pleteness
ed,
of
Today,
of psychological penetration
in beautifying
movement
interests
common
ly
among
who
cf Sephardic extraction
He
Municipal
synagogue
Law,
for
Museum
The Unveiling
interior,
reveal
has
left us,
The Hague,
in
a fine
of the
Holy
Some
warmth
and a
color
of
brilliance
of
among
outstanding place
of this
The
medium.
productive
painters of
among
nucleus
The Hague
is
to
the
be found
Jewish
in the Ver-
(1813-1876)
in oils
is
remembered mainly
and water-color,
of typically
as a painter
Dutch views,
Among
though
his
city's
old Jewish
his compatriots.
He was
some
Leonardus Verveer
(1817-1903)
was
active
in
and genre
scenes.
in
(1826-1900), the
its
he often selected
of
treated in a
folkloristic
in his
genre scenes.
themes, which he
wood-cuts were
ciated.
and
and
in
falsifying
lightness of touch
in art,
men have
and
first
there
that
and
The Hague,
Holland, at
in
fisher-villages are
270).
Cracow
was
been driven
It
also,
at
561
270.
Maurycy
who
specialized in portraits, as
of paintings
a
few
now
among
on Jewish themes.
historical compositions.
in
example
Amsterdam's
of
the
He
number
also executed
Mother's Blessing,
Rijksmuseum,
is
good
that
New
562
York.
which Jozef
Israels
was
later
The
painters
well-known
(1825-1873),
pupil
of
Salomon
Leonardus
563
Verveer,
have
historians
of Jewish art.
been
generally
by
neglected
As a master
Dutch
of
museums
to 1863,
he was professor
of painting at the
London
in
Hart's
crowded with
canvases,
large
of
News
of
and usually
English history
He
scenes
us
left
of
life,
all
he
with
shares
Moritz
Oppenheim.
His
example of
is
a fine
his
tion of
illustrating
(e.g.,
Henry
Receiving
The Execu-
matured
that
in
However
now
stiff
and overfinished,
is
manner.
figures
has also
1881, he
From 1854
years later.
564
Mother
Hannah, the
as
VI
The existence
England
the
in
in
school
miniaturists,
This
in himself,
after time
at
Academy. In the
the Royal
emerged
Jewish
artists
who were
in
early
England
of outstand-
Law
demic
is,
with
all
tradition in
The Elevation
of
which
it is
from
Scroll
of
it,
their heads,
dignified,
his
is
tion.
The most
was Solomon
mouth
to
silversmith,
London
in
his
family
graver,
as a
He
continued
Synagogue
at
Leghorn
(fig.
Law
in the Ancient
271).
Abraham Solomon
(1824-1862) was outstanding among a group of
His younger contemporary,
neglected
in
spite
mostly because so
of
their
many bad
painters
qualities,
were
care-
is
he saw the
showed
later,
Time
of the
British Institution in
a Jewish Synagogue
Reading of the
Law
Synagogue
and
a full
member
five
He was
self-control, of
first
London mer-
Jewish freeman
dabbled
in
painting,
his sister,
distinguished themselves as
his first picture
in
demy
his paintings
(apparently de-
at the
in
1843.
In
artists.
and
his
Rebecca,
Abraham had
the
'forties
he exhibited
"period
565
271.
Solomon Alexander Hart. The Rejoicing of The Law in the Ancient Synagogue
Oppenheim Collection, London.
by the works
pieces" inspired
Moliere, but he
had
of
Goldsmith and
to
of the Atlantic.
the
trial;
tal.
The
social scene
pair of pictures,
new conveyance,
in
version,
first-class
and
insecurity
Solomon
manship and
railway compartment.
asleep, a fact
traveller's flirtation.
In the original
criticized
gentleman
which
because of
in the corner
facilitated the
young
young son
of
distress.
First-Class:
a pretty
while the
friends,
third-class
ciated,
the pictures
a relatively
was seen
travel
in
is
showing people
to emigrate
security
The Acquit-
of Leghorn.
566
pictures,
brilliant
are
still
small
in
as
observation
close
in
color,
scale,
careful
of
in
nature.
His
detail,
and
when they
The most
gifted of
in
his
Academy.
all
567
and
to paint draperies.
when he
Two
Academy.
The Finding
("Two
showed
first
568
drawing
at
the
Royal
of
women
ugly
ludicrously
looking
critic
at
who thought
finely
it
Burne-Jones
painter
said
that,
pre-Raphaelites.
artist
Solomon's
of
opinion,
his
in
many
novelist Thackeray,
that these
life
loss
of
was unsurpassed
in
drawing of
whether
faces,
272.
youths.
drawing
is
"There
and
certainly the
Jewish
artists,
figure
among them,
younger
tragic,
restless
pattern
Abraham
was
Simeon
brother,
most interesting
Solomon's
(1834-1905),
whose
life
of his
rarely appreciated
artist's
well,
in
is
now
choice of subject as
Solomon,
Brotherhood, which
the group of
Rome
in
self-taught,
fell
at
many
respects, resembled
thirty
years
serious, dedicated
earlier.
young
artists
Here,
who
too,
were
loathed the
art,
appealed
Rossetti's
frequent and
studio,
welcome
sister
Rebecca,
of satiety,
some note
ness or of weariness,
some semblance
of expectation or
of outlook or inlook:
whether
it
is
of thought or feeling
tion;
it
some touch,
be oriental or modern
in its origin,
impress
itself
even
to perplexity
(1884),
The
inspired
Gladiators.
Had
bv
contemporary
At
and carriage
novel,
far
in their faces,
appeased. Always a
chamber
feast or sacrifice, in
groups
wonder
Habet
both
a questioning
to
Greek
is
there which
in
his
of
description of Solomon's
who died in
make copies
cians,
it
a pre-occupation
more
of emotion
of
Roman
569
ladies
where
a gladiator,
about
is
having
whim. Some
less
opponent,
fallen to his
of Solomon's
canvases depict
Law
Isaac
(a
Offered.
He
also executed a
number
of wood-cuts
But
his best
work
be found
in his
colored
himself
now
is
Some
and
dramatic, sensitive,
subjects,
among
are to be reckoned
commonly
rich
color,
in
what
the best of
is
the
that
fact
early
artist,
in
had become
life,
fervent Catholicism.
in
who
one
as
Solomon
heart-failure.
life.
revealed
and sorrowfulness,
his tenderness
all
to
where he
drawings,
chalk
is
or
he died of
after
570
VII
of
it,
e.g.,
Jesus and
of Songs,
Solomon
might
have
accomplished
for himself a
the annals of
him
to
some account
media
is
desirable, therefore,
to
One
nings.
modest begin-
its
but names
two names
or
United States
in the
only
mystical music.
character,
art.
homosexual and
bv
tales
in
The
practices.
sadistic
name
brilliant
of orgies
handsome
in the exciting
and drugs.
nineteenth.
early
almost
all
It
is
interesting
for
activity
artistic
note that
were associated
to
clearly,
the
more favorable
soil
North.
was
at
eighties;
work
a
America
in
John Canter
the
in
seventeen-
(1782-1823), probably
he was almost
later
as
he then took
to save
He
few
this
to prison.
to drink
him were
of
no
to
avail.
What works
cheap dealers.
of
most
end the
matches
as
pavement
artist
drink and
by police on the
drugs.
street,
One
two
jail,
he worked
Efforts of friends
artist
we
Fortunately
shillings
Released from
and drugs.
in the Civil
for
in,
fought
more.
relative,
merits.
Charleston,
in
in
training,
only
aunt,
We
"Sunday painter."
that
Penina,
know nothing
he
had
poetess
studio
contemporary
as
and
of his further
in
New
He was
a "fashionable,
what he wanted
unconscious.
He was
Of
taken
enough
is
or not he
known
was
to
make
it
possible to determine
of Jewish origin.
whether
MODERN TIMES
571
many
were executed
portraits
whose
of
to cancel debts."
it
is
impossible to distin-
many
whose
some painted
portraits,
New
mansions.
still
in old
many
Orleans has
of
collaboration
in
be found
to
account,
Southern
of his works:
in the
from
subjects, deriving
and war-horses.
the
New
wanted
its
fully rea-
who
(1822-1891),
Henry
of
1815-
a silver
Svnagogue,
fire.
Intercession of
analogous
to
his
Moses
now
for Israel,
Moses
still-surviving
time.
There
is,
in his
portraits.
an American
tation to
make
artist
Before
melodramatic composition
its
lost
but no doubt
the taste of
for
In 1852,
the Amalekites,
his
The
was
been destroyed bv
just
in
however, great
as today,
it
was
graphy
to
as
artist
and
daguerretvpist,
he
accompanied
West
than
came
artist,
an
as
to the
in-
United
Coast. His
on
glass,
were
as official
in the
Smithsonian
Insti-
made
for a
when
were raised
objections
stir
to the phvlacteries
Not related
to
this
artist
New
Haven, Connecticut,
difficult
the
in
rather
likeness
remembered today
sion.
which had
continued
and
emphasizing
Max
Inman,
only twenty-three
lines.
praised for
Moise
of Russian Poland,
new medium
of this period
artists
slightlv
character.
Competing with
of
may be
tradition
make
painter
this
in
Street.**
illustrated,
whom
572
and
it
is
hard
'eighties
is
so
com-
to realize that
to
Piloty,
filled
he
with
from
historv
or
from
romantic
poetry.
on her
bier,
embodiment
garlanded barge.
their
these impersonal
oils,
573
older than
little
was the
Rosenthal
New
of the Prodigal
his
he
his knees,
grief,
Though
over-elaborate and
said of The Birth
well-painted,
this
on
flag), in the
Corcoran Gallery
A Wedding
picture
is
theatrical.
of the Flag
of
falls
seration.
politan
mother
in
first
American
Washington, and
Museum
of
New
York.
distributed
The
in
figures in both
unreal settings,
though the
artist,
574
undoubtedly
in
all
sincerity,
and
correctly
executed
in fresh,
as possible.
Mosler's portraits,
ior to
It is
tieth century
in
might be said
of the
whole
in their
art.
It
little.
of
Ame-
was not
JEWISH IMPRESSIONISTS
ERNEST
by
The
M.
nineteenth century
is
NAMENYI
that
visited
Economic and
the formulating of
hundred years
of a
in
all
movement, Jewish
In this great
Up
a leading part.
to the
by
and no work
artist
have plaved
artists
arts
countries of Europe.
have
to
of
defi-
nitely
we
who
con-
and
and
who,
each countrv,
in
now
The
the social
crisis in
brought a decisive
abortive,
life
us.
manv
1848, though
political revolutions of
them remained
of
ini-
concerns
of Europe.
The
ideals
and
main
spite of
setbacks, the
common
heritage
whole Continent.
of the
Meanwhile,
the
of
the
Jews
was
it
made
fied
even the
liberal
admit them
It
and
to
industrial
professions
freely.
disabilities that
it
them
possible for
it
commercial
In
Jews
not
of
where
fought
in
in
generation
for
freedom,
social
less
the
light
of
1848
more equitable
to
surprising,
the
and
were beginning
activities,
national
order.
of
as
oppressive.
this,
were
that
even-
movement which
liberation
and
Nevertheless,
the
in
and an almost
and
foreign to Jews,
in the
religious passion
added
dynamic power
been
to this
whole philosophv.
These
expression in
to find
of
in
art,
and above
all
in
that
art
period,
painting.
The
the
of
painters
Realist
viewed nature
as part of a universe
from
but
the
outside,
an
among
integral
element.
among
the
situation
too,
were modern
origins,
idealistic,
of positivism
this
their
ideas that
new
new
form
Even where
social
in
realistic
have become
idealists;
and
life
its
and
among
cularly,
the
of
their
labors,
manv
it
is
elements of a homogene-
this social
philosophv that
the
life
lyrical
contents
lyrical
of
life,
managed
leaving
the
life.
of
its
new
these
new
painters
felt
contemporary science
absolutely
integrated
JEWISH IMPRESSIONISTS
577
Imbued with
expressed
et
proached nature
them want
it
were content
to render
now became
At
come,
was thus
represent
to
their
own
their
new
with
objects
communicate
exactitude,
but
onlv
impressions of things,
The composition
of their
as
well
as
a student
in the
In
Ingress.
of the great
1850, Pissarro
painted
the
open
in the
influence
Salon of the
air in
Montmorency
Corot prevailed.
of
artists rejected
be careful not
in
which
the
1863
official
Salon
In
bv the
advised Pissarro to
critic
He
to imitate Corot.
became
then withdrew
where he painted He
all
for a while in
neo-Classical
to
worked
his re-
the univer-
finite.
On
the
life.
household goods
conception of the
though of French
origin,
first,
possible to experience
it
of
in a spirit
to transform
of
in
itself
life
had never
a humility that
578
During
fled
War,
Franco-Prussian
the
Pissarro
to
large
number
by means of
back
in Paris
and exhibited
its
tried
above
and
distinct
all
to
rather than
mix them
to
obtain a
brighter coloring.
One
painting
is
in
sult
It
absolute
the
in this field.
first
much
among whom
Renoir,
scious
Sislev,
the
first
school
member
(Pointijliste)
Impres-
new
its
in
a while,
of Seurat's neo-Impressionist
settled for
good
in
Paris.
Afflicted with
an
of
the
boulevard from
his
Among
as the re-
genius,
throughout
he settled
life
in
he was a
nineteenth-century
of
sionist
was
is
the one
of the revolution-
to
so
that they
cafe,
quarters:
of the
all
their
head-
Law." (See
fig.
3).
II
by
Saint
Thomas,
in
the
of Sephardi extraction
and bv
his absolute
had discovered.
was something
579
as sacred as the
was
felt,
sacrilege.
made any
demands
of opportunism;
concessions to the
was
yet he
He
in
from
far
for instance,
felt,
was more
in
he adopted
own
in his
it
painting, abandoning
and thus
too slow
of sensation.
components was
spectral
its
immediacy
gress.
him
makes
most important
Gauguin
Paris.
sympathy or
and working
living
own
He
times.
is
The graphic
Pissarro's
arts
total production,
close
to
two hundred
all
the
bound
itself,
who
to those
till
Pissarro
among
first,
nine-
towards the
life
of peasants.
had
begun
in
Israels,
lacks
feel,
know
prints.
but
brilliance;
and
litho-
The
ments
beautv.
and advice
graphic
soil.
in
which, they
in their
We
Pissarro
different
fields,
the
in
science of Impressionism.
many
all
The
our
the subjects of
in
terms
of peasants.
revolution
artistic
artistic
the
at all times in
of
in
remained
them
see
in
Pissarro's philosophy
which he
we
on the contrary,
pity;
drove
are
of their different
Nor
influenced
in turn in his
ture,
who
within which
itself,
it
580
became
all
art.
Without
painters.
a sensitive
nature and an
reveal the
integrity that
artistic
life.
outstanding
He
married
in
deeplv emotional
also
to
produce
his
life
of peasants
The subject-matter of
may indeed have much
and
of
In close cooperation
the poor.
ters
in
common, but
tent
reveal
that
was
philosophy
his
entirelv
his
move
all
us but
lives
among
he paints
Only
in
is
as simple
and prosaic
lyrical quality.
their
various
tasks
of
those
is
who
till
the
soil.
likewise an artist of
personal.
He
the
The
as
is
he sees
there
it.
am
movements with
great
known
as
sensitivitv.
Manzana
he revived,
of their
Of Camille
in studies
in
some
is
remembered
prints,
birds
and
JEWISH IMPRESSIONISTS
581
273.
forgotten
Roch
art
of
the
Felix Pissarro
artists.
Adler.
Towing
Japanese
great
the Barge.
woodcut
as his
much
obtain
Jules
to
Ludovic-Rodolphe
recognition;
own
with his
mainly as a
fine
graphic
artist
is
and
is
known
interest
above
as
all,
of the period
(1830-1903)
Without being an
mention.
social
in
problems and
is
remembered,
life
of
Museum
Barge"
273)
art.
(fig.
Jules
is
of
young painter
integrity,
Germans before
his art
of
promise
had
fullv
matured. Eduard
is
remembered
for
his
sense
of
problems
the
of
light
is
and shadow.
noteworthy
as the
Impressionist,
and remarkable
He de France
footsteps;
Art, Paris.
deserves
Modern
devoted
and
father's
of
remembered
as the
Museum
582
the
moved by human
works
being
commissioned
to
many
decorate
of his
public
decadent in
his
mannered
primarily a decorative
style,
he remained
artist.
Lucien
born
Levy-Dhurmer
in Algiers
(1865-1943),
was
who was
in Paris
Brought
Jean Adler
up
in
the
same
tradition,
(1899-1944) followed,
his
son
and of the
politician
583
interesting
in
Flemish
citv of
art
and
in fashion
and
of
contemporary currents
of
drawings.
his
In
deeply
his
Moslem beggars
painting
representing blind
Tangier,
Levv-Dhurmer revealed
of
human sympathy
most
from
exotic
a rare
in
quality
work
contemporary
other
moving
treatments
of
Rostand,
Henri Caro-Delavaille
belonged
to
(1876-1928)
the
who,
old-established
like
Se-
Always
istics.
Delavaille
of
his
graceful
enjoyed
great
Leon Bonnat,
master's
and
character-
pleasing,
popularity,
Caro-
especially
friend,
the
poet
27-).
Edmond
herself
well-known
Delavaille's
best-known painting
illustration
of
French-Jewish
generations:
Caro-
writer.
is
an interesting
social
in
life
her Sisters"
his
275)
(fig.
community
of Bayonne.
more recent
styles of painting,
other
Impressionism and
century,
painters,
achieved
considerable
distinction.
Lew
Simon
North-African themes.
Brandon,
Madame
some
584
Rostand,
in
Cezanne
in
an idiom of
his
transcend
too
many
of
Brilliantly intel-
he semotimes
systematic
own.
fails to
of
illustration
Provence and
which he painted
in
his
his fine
Belgium
is
and
a painter of individuality
talent
whose
of his
(born
Cambo,
also to
Museum
of
Modern
Art,
Paris.
1882)
and
be reckoned
Henri Caro-Delavaille.
275.
among
original
Fauvist
synthesis
balance,
French
its
in
its
still-life
compositions
of Strauss achieve
post-Impressionist
of
art
sense
is,
of
moreover,
and
restraint
another distinguished
sionist
contemporary
Their
trends.
My
gifted
interesting
typically
and
Cezanne; the
of
of Kayser
and
more
the
disciples
an
586
JEWISH IMPRESSIONISTS
585
school.
Long
artist
of the
Among
later.
Solomon
"Allegory,"
sion;
of
it
Anglo-Jewish painters of
idealism
and
Exchange and
ive panels.
Besides, he
demand
great
fashionable
and
(fig.
Although Camille
One
Pissarro
had
lived
in
Eng-
work
was
of Whistler, onlv
felt
much
alliance
for the
of
For Lon-
House
was
of Lords,
Edwardian
as a portrait-painter in
society;
in
his
portraits
revived,
nineteenth-centurv
Ill
the
of
with
manner
276).
discus-
now
through
of sobriety
an
the
in
he has
Deeply rooted
Jewish
don's Royal
art,
era,
this
remains
(1860-1921)
personality.
'illustrates
post-Impres-
Arts, Paris.
Christianity
academy
Modern
of
Solomon
J.
outstanding
is
a professor in an
Museum
Sisters.
of his
Israel
masters
more outstanding
Zangwill,
virtuosity
English
painted
portraits
with
an
and
(fig.
is
earlv
277).
that of
energetic
the
New
587
the
is
interplay
delicate
of
588
communicating
in
and
light
colors
that
achieved an
the
of
that
art
is
French
great
His
was well-known
and an
is
in
England
a graphic artist
as
Haggadah
by
particularly appreciated
Among
collectors.
satirist of
Max Reerbohm
origin.
witty but
among
that
such
example
as for
Rothenstein
(fig.
Among
remembered
tvpes;
Frank
Emanuel
1851-1940)
End
Arthur Friedenson
Leopold Levy. Portrait of a Bulgarian
276.
(born
Girl.
achieved
(1865-1948)
Jewish
etchings;
1872), a well-known
first
Jew
to
have
towards
moreover,
contemporary
Solomon's
was
better
continental
understanding
of
Solomon
J.
trends.
Joseph (1863-1940)
William
Sir
alw a\
Rothenstein
(1872-1945)
will
artists of
for
for the
surfaces, in
delicate
some
of
of his
Law"
manner,
gogue
(fig.
in
278)
interiors
religious
is
a fine
example of
his earlier
life.
Here he managed
in the
to suggest the
ceremonv by
stress-
pious worshippers
of the
who surround
churoscuro of the
277.
Solomon
Portrait of
J.
Solomon.
Child on Horse.
JEWISH IMPRESSIONISTS
589
278.
while Joseph
art;
1931)
is
("Tom")
remembered
The poet
Isaac
Friedenson
(1878-
delicate etchings.
for his
Rosenberg
Sir
590
(1890-1918)
also
which he remained
in the
The
(1867-
Rem-
few
Impressionist
innovations,
his
and
personalities
and
Jewish types
genre scenes
(fig.
portraits
his
of
Jewish
and author
of a
long be remembered.
One
of the
most successful
279.
Sir
Max Becrbohm.
Cartoon.
591
among
remained,
592
his contemporaries,
which,
in the
Hudson River
much
rized
of
school,
had characte-
American
of the
art
nineteenth century.
Born
in
New Jersey, of
from whom he in-
Arlington,
well-to-do parents
and the
of culture
Paris,
Eilshemius
arts,
many
years
in
He
280.
manner
Hungarian
artist Philip
1937),
one of Europe's
century,
and
of royalty
traitists
he settled
in
turn of the
the
them
a grand
in
The
whom
he flattered by representing
manner and
colorful poses.
in
academic American
art really
artists
and
art-lovers
first
deve-
America's
few
Paris.
Impressionist
Yet America,
in this period,
show
home and
all at
work
in
Europe.
its
and
literal.
of
all
whose
Eilshemius
had
final-
and
encouragement,
ly claiming supernatural
of Manhattan.
some
Only
powers
he deserved, both
common
American
set out to
it
little
indeed
in
Romantic
and
artistic
life
from the
as the
school.
literalist
or a naive painter of an
Friedman had
was never
able,
assuming,
reality
and
until
as
his
of
allegories,
as
Friedman
lavished
by
earlier
the
absolute
and
conventions
conversely
out
generally
and
to art. Instead
did,
fantasies,
set
work
retirement, to devote
Eilshemius
Romantic
to
a postal official
of
he receive
Mahatma
as the
by the
New
cognition
"ash-can" school;
For years,
galleries refused to
a style that
in
artist
York's art-world,
importance are
artists of
painters,
of the
and
skill
painters
saw
that
to
were
on more
what
his eyes
Some
New
are
among
ter
It is
one of the
Louis Eilshemius
(1864-1941)
should have
of his vistas of
in real life.
without
any
sort,
so
realistically
reproduced,
own, which
more
594
JEWISH IMPRESSIONISTS
593
derisive or
more Romantic
would
artist
last
the time
all
at
retire-
devote to
able to
compulsive
his
"Saw-
talent required. In
and
But
literature.
him decide
that
art
was
Exhibition
national
in his painting,
had the
of macchiaioli henceforth
it
macchie or spots
to
Serafino
1855,
in
much more
da Tivoli adopted a
mary manner
Paris
in
cided that
and
of
producing the
effect
owed
Italian school
name.
its
American
art-trends.
ment and
of freshness.
remained
number
of successful
be mentioned, such
George de Maduro
as
Peixotto
who
1940),
is
exhibited in Florence
But
critics
move-
left
his
da Tivoli
in-
such as
buildings.
He
Among
On
vocation.
real
his
ad
for painting
his predilection
at Saint
main
IV
Nowhere
Europe
in
nowhere
as in Italy;
against
ment
and
of national
the
ideas
1848
of
of
of
revolt
of
spirit
with
the
all
more
field
obsolete
against
men
seemed
that
all
did
leave as profound a
young
Italian
dissatisfaction because
was
its
glorious past. It
of
spirit
his
was
in Flo-
quite properly,
revolt,
of the
Still,
one compares
if
of
that
da
remained
Tivoli
too
deeply
it
had survived
in the neo-Classicism
Sincere in his
century.
is
nevertheless
very convincing.
with greater
artistic
gifts.
Born
in Pesaro,
first
of a
showed
his
first
felt,
Michelangelo,
younger
artists
where
all
more
the
were accustomed
to
advanced
meet. This
were
far
became known
as the macchiaioli,
Jewish
painter
their
works)
da
group was
Tivoli
(1826-
to the doctrines of
them thoroughly
blot.
figure of the
Serafino
with
liveliness
that
went
281
far
new
and painted
beyond
the
school
(fig.
591
among
remained,
592
his contemporaries,
which,
in the
Hudson River
much
rized
of
school,
had characte-
American
art of the
nineteenth century.
Born
New Jersey, of
from whom he in-
in Arlington,
well-to-do parents
and the
of culture
Paris,
Eilshemius
arts,
many
years in
He
280.
manner
was the
Hungarian
artist Philip
1937),
and
of rovaltv
traitists
he settled
in
turn
the
of
one of Europe's
century,
the
them
a grand
in
The
whom
he flattered by representing
manner and
colorful poses.
in
academic American
art really
artists
and
art-lovers
deve-
first
America's
few
Paris.
Impressionist
Yet America,
awakened
in this period,
rather
rudely from
home and
all at
work
in
Europe.
its
and
artist
York's art-world,
show
literal.
of
all
whose
Eilshemius
had
final-
and
encouragement,
ly claiming supernatural
of Manhattan.
some
Only
common
American
set
it
little
out to
indeed
in
and
artistic
It
life
is
from the
one of the
as a naive painter of
last of
Romantic school.
literalist
or a naive painter of an
Friedman had
was never
able,
assuming,
reality
until
as
his
a postal
are
(1864-1941)
should have
Eilshemius
Romantic
Friedman
lavished by
Louis Eilshemius
as
did,
New
and
to art.
Instead
the
absolute
and
conversely
out
earlier
what
of his vistas of
work
conventions
fantasies,
set
to
official
retirement, to devote
generally
among
of
allegories,
Some
ter
he receive
of
New
cognition
by the
For years,
galleries refused to
a style that
in
in his
importance are
artists of
painters,
of the
and
skill
painters
his eyes
saw
that
to
were
on more
in real life.
without
any
sort,
so
realistically
reproduced,
own, which
594
JEWISH IMPRESSIONISTS
593
more
more Romantic
derisive or
would
artist
the time
all
able
last
at
retire-
devote to
to
compulsive
his
But
literature.
his
new surroundings
him decide
that
Exhibition
da Tivoli adopted a
and
mary manner
in
Paris
had the
cided that
of macchiaioli henceforth
precursor of
American
Among
some
macchie or spots
and
of
producing the
effect
to
owed
Italian school
name.
its
ment and
remained
of successful
be mentioned, such
George de Maduro
as
Peixotto
who enjoyed
his
move-
left
remaining there
da Tivoli
in-
such as
buildings.
is
exhibited in Florence
number
He
art-trends.
1940),
it
Serafino
1855,
in
much more
in his painting,
On
vocation.
real
his
soon made
national
and texture
was
art
surface
and
at Saint
main
IV
Nowhere
Europe
in
nowhere
as in Italy;
against
ment
that
all
did
of national
the
ideas
1848
of
of
and
cause as pro-
social ideals
of
revolt
of
spirit
with
all
the
more
field
obsolete
against
men
seemed
young
dissatisfaction
Italian
because
its
leave as profound a
his
glorious past.
It
was
in Flo-
of the
one compares
Still, if
of
that
da
remained
Tivoli
too
deeply
it
had survived
in the neo-Classicism
Sincere in his
century.
nevertheless
is
very convincing.
with greater
artistic
gifts.
Born
in
Pesaro, of a
showed
was
first
felt,
Michelangelo,
younger
artists
where
all
more
the
were accustomed
advanced
to meet. This
were
became known
as the macchiaioli,
their
works)
Jewish
painter
figure of the
Serafino
da Tivoli
(1826-
1859) But
.
them thoroughly
group was
his
to the doctrines of
first
with
liveliness
that
went
281
In his nudes
and
far
new
and painted
beyond
the
school
(fig.
595
Paris
in
as
women; Ulvi
MODERN TIMES
who
a sensitive colorist,
who began
1931),
and
schools too;
also of Livorno,
long
work the
reflected in his
life
modern
596
influence of
more
(1883-
Vittorio Bolaffii
was subsequentlv
influ-
by some
coming
Surrealists,
all
be-
estranged
creasingly
of
his
youth.
who belonged
to the
Rome
circle
though deeply
of "real life,"
The landscapes of
Clemente Pugliese Levi (1855-1936) communi-
vigorous
not
portraitist,
caricatural
averse
to
deliberately
Amalia Besso
touches.
artist's
1863) was a
(1856-1929)
feminine
And, going
landscapes.
to
the
other
281.
Impressionist
the
to
modern
more
came
great city's
life,
produce many
to
when
open
air,
in the
most of
his life in
able influence on
where many
in
1845
in
e.g.,
were
Adol-
Egvpt, spent
manv younger
of his
artists in
works revealed,
Livorno,
he
became
The contribution
of Italian Jaws,
be
negligible.
On
in
who
at
an early
as
of Italy
was
so small
figure
European painting
ly expressive.
A number
In 1868, he
art.
to Paris,
illness,
which
Few
artists,
in this
indeed,
who
towers above
managed
pictorial
Israels
realism
(1824-1911),
more
(fig.
faithfully
than Jozef
Born
passion
its
in Groningen, of a
was admitted
at the
Academy
devout
age of
of Fine
282.
Arts,
and
it
seemed,
at
he went
to Paris,
Jozef
as
first,
his
Israels.
if
Jewish
Wedding.
he would be
In 1843, however,
artist.
where he spent
he continued, on
five years,
though
return to Amsterdam,
to
worked
becoming
fully
of Millet
life
and the
to detect in the
became part
though he
and preoc-
spirit that
he had
of his
own
also assimilated a
rich influence
am
too
of
my
come
subject-matter, but
he
closer than
purpose...
and
is
my
world that
in
in full
try
somehow manage
to the people.
to
orient
share
to
its
paintings impressions of
it
of these people,
been able
am
when he
Amsterdam.
settled for
apparent
Rijksmuseum,
itself as
a while in Zandvoort,
life
598
JEWISH IMPRESSIONISTS
597
life
and
art too,
Rembrandt. As he wrote:
"I
understand Millet's
though
was
different.
learned
how
From Rembrandt,
to
thoughts through
makes
all
express
light,
all
for instance,
his
feelings
he
and
works of the
its
path
stress the
599
the
in
paintings
of
no longer the
are
Israels,
have been
of Millet; they
safed.
brought back
Scribe,"
that
to
life
the under-privileged."
of
full of
of plain people
Word.
he was
The
In
this,
humanism
that recog-
Rem-
no contrasts
is
it
its
much
not so
mere
itself,
physical
prettiness as reality
toil
life
from the
paintings
humanism
of the artist
compositions,
warmth
of
many
life,
all
own
providing
of
The
poor.
always present
only
not
the
in these
but
light,
too,
Israels
is
of
life
who
must
that they
of
qualities of his
The
light
justice.
It
is
his
it,
man
an old
"The Torah-
great work,
his- last
Instead,
and
he went to
life,
subject
of his
600
also
life
of his
"The Son
own
for
not
It is
instance,
in
detect this
difficult to
works of Van
early
Max Liebermann
unless
influence of Israels.
turned with
painters
towards their
admiration
Dutch contemporary.
great
art of
Still,
it
was on the
As
far
their
as
be detected most
manner
of painting
is
was
of an Ancient
Jewish
life
that Israels
was the
art
of the
to express
first
has
Amsterdam, a
school of artists
it
decrepitude of Jewish
to
life in
theme he painted
find, in the
who
(fig.
is
but
too attractive;
much
several pictures
282),
we
of the
this
workday
couple
life
still
who
is
none
communicates
of petty tradespeople.
and
life
Nothing
to
art
without
express
Dutch
his
how he
ambiguity
and that
in his
mere chance,
the
spirit
to
of
of Judaism.
work was
so that
all
light or easv or
due
was vouch-
was the
first,
in
modern
times,
approach
Jewish
in depicting
life.
Israels,
Isaac Israels
liberate himself at
(1865-
an early
After living
many
He was
nearly forty
he
when, influenced by
went
life.
to Charleroi, in
great distinction
men
modern world,
or
women
at
JEWISH IMPRESSIONISTS
601
283.
work
The Coffee
witty,
and a
(fig.
reveal
grisettes
He
283).
the
re-
Rotterdam.
Among
who
the painters
followed Gauguin to
girls,
the
from
of Indonesian dancers.
had developed
far
By
his father
to contrasts of light
style
own
their tonali-
in
of his
ties.
The
while, to be
who
more
direct
formed the
Jewish
first
life in
reaction
Among
against
life
of Amster-
these artists
modern
the
mean-
on a number of painters
primacy
felt.
working
Paris
and midinettes
Museum Boymans,
the
of the
life
of
style
fined
Sorters.
he lived
to 1914,
colors,
that
Israels.
From 1903
in factories.
in Paris,
Isaac
602
artistic
more
who
to study
idiom, an idealist
scientific
or realistic
the
Impressionists,
Dutch
dwarflike
ability,
in his
living.
Jew
a striking figure.
own
and he
country,
first
time,
some Impressionist
paintings.
to
was
in
Pissarro
know
the
artists.
him
with him.
The Dutch
that
at once.
He heard
set off
immediately
painter thus
abandoned
He
in
603
284.
Amsterdam, where
284) are
still
his
paintings
on Jews
(fig.
who
who belonged
to
school
this
include
Salomon
popular.
604
life.
Mention should be
made
characterize the
work
and obtained
Israels
using a
greater
range of
chiaroscuro
colors.
effects
by
The Sephardi
more
some
and has
left
us
Monnickendamm (1874-1943),
originally
Rembrandtesque
of
his
European woodcut
specialist
in
color
felicitous syn-
in
the Ger-
Auschwitz.
dis-
an
prints in
VI
finest
generation,
and
influ-
Until
German
the
art
end
of
the
nineteenth
century,
historical
style
JEWISH IMPRESSIONISTS
605
Munich school
of the
many Romantic
genre
landscapes,
and
scenes
pretentious portraits.
606
world.
moods and
fantasies
he stripped the
Menzel
man
even more
The
who, through
artist
new
aging a
his activities
German
current in
was Max
art
1848, began
German
German Jewry
that, as early as
with the
liberalism
heyday. As a representative of
Max Liebermann
illustrated a
his
synthesis of Ger-
culture.
age of
drawn
felt
fifteen,
became a
From
for sheer
the
realist,
whom
he followed
Liebermann began
in
1873
to Paris. Here,
he had occasion
no mark on
his
the works
be under-
to
He
infallible
communicate
in their art.
he formulated
logic,
immediately
to study, to
Impressionists
all
for
his
With an
own
art
His painting
this implied.
by French
German Impressionism,
Nordic
was no mere
painting. But he
from
considerably
in
time,
when
impor-
now
color
of the
Lei the
At the same
not brilliant.
realistic if
and
rich
Liebermann acquired
began
childhood, he had
its
generation,
this
was
that
as
that
it is
of
now
imitator.
called, differs
French.
certain
stiffness of
reigned in the
German
who
liberated in
atti-
in
The works
that he
movement and,
and
his
great complexity
Among
his
and
own
its
robust sensuality.
contemporaries, he admired
to
when
he, too,
Both
Liebermann's
artistic
development. In 1884, he
The
great
German post-Romantic
painter
Hans von
its
wit,
in his writings, in
which he communicated
determining
artistic evolution.
After the
exhibit
part
of Berlin's
banished from
of Fine
and dignity
he died
end
to
works were
public
in 1935, re-
him
Germany's
Academy
all
revealing
in
World War, he
first
and even
its
peak of per-
an equal of
many
most
famous contemporaries. Though he had chosen
Berlin as his
was elected
as early as 1899,
collections. Broken-hearted,
in
thereby pro-
as
of his
of his
summers
and
607
285.
now
in the
landscape
(if
sand-hills,
figure of a poor
all
is
moving
and poverty of a
concentrated
in
the
goats,
Edam" and
his
"Hospital Garden in
his
"Seamstress"
(fig.
tions,
marks
all
In
his
studies of hoi
created works
emeu on the
sea-shore,
Liebermann
some
Seamstress.
of the great
Amsterdam
reproducing
In
century.
crowded Jewish
the
quarters,
solidarity
with Jewish
life,
bustle
of
these
own deep
a
sense of
that he
solidarity
never relinquished.
285) belong to
608
Portraits also
life-work of Liebermann,
most popular
of
portraitists in
Germany
in its years
he has
sonality,
left
in the
in
which
can be counted
among
the
more
striking
610
JEWISH IMPRESSIONISTS
609
of bis art
and
WHHHMmttOHn|
model had
to
individual, so that
go beyond
he has
left
all
that
is
merely
us portraits of repre-
is
also of great
me-
rit.
Of
his
fail,
latter.
indeed, to
Hermann Cohen
great vigor
(fig.
of his generation.
in the life
of small
of his inspira-
towns and
villages
of
most
outstanding
Impressionists",
Lesser
Ury
*
The third among the major German Impressionists
was Louis Corinth, who was not a Jew but married the
Jewish writer Charlotte Behrens and who included many
Jews among his friends and pupils, so that he too was
effected by the Nazi ban on Jewish and "judaizing" artists.
Lesser Ury.
287.
(1861-1931),
the
life
of the
A London
Street.
is
German
capital.
Unlike Liebermann,
the
felt
oppressive
when
somewhat
weight
all
He
his friends.
up
Born
in
at last
life
though
Birnbaum
in
set out
an
academic
pieces.
vet,
character
From 1882
and
to 1884,
286.
Max Licbcrmann.
Portrait
of
Hermann Cohen.
are
still
mainly
he withdrew
that he
He
of
floor.
who
wearing
a considerable fortune in
beneath the
the artists
thus led a
success came,
he remained a misan-
poverty
of
genre
to Vollu-
produced
among
and
betray
in this
611
288.
remained
as
posed them
the open
he remained
the
life
ters
whom
Ury returned
until his
death
German
color ist.
where
in 1931. In his
most
by the charac-
other...
essentially
duced among
most
his
pantheistic.
lasting
Ury
also pro-
him a
Ury expressed,
bril-
rain-
are
streets
rainy streets.
which
features
287). Above
all,
of
from the
rise
his
favorite
he remains a subtle
Form
all
Ury
The
its
its
relationships
Lesser
of
always seek a
color.
cafes,
in
everything...
and
sidewalks
(fig.
to Rerlin,
metropolis,
he could observe
topics
in
city-scapes of
shining
made
Form
unites."
of the
of the
skies
the setting
characteristic works,
swept
air, in
he generally com-
air.
In 1885, Lesser
by the
instead,
612
expresses
I
tween things,
their effects
itself,
on each
but every-
liance. Lesser
mere
above
all,
Judaism by an
spirit
of
JEWISH IMPRESSIONISTS
613
289.
Hermann
Struck.
number
German
art-
and has
interpretations of the
left
Opp-
Julius Bodenstein,
Krestin,
arts.
Among
tributor,
and
tarism,
all
made
Italy.
baum,
Pickard
Adele
Munich
of the
which he remained
Ernst
of Galilee.
member
Lake
614
many
for
always active in
social
ills.
its
Simplicissimus,
of
German
merciless critic of
mili-
Emperor Wilhelm
of
and narrow-mindedness
sionists.
ful
and sober
types
(fig.
portraits of Eastern
European Jewish
more
penheimer
where
Among
(born
1876)
Op-
subsequently achieved
already
family
II
and revealed
of
in his
draw-
among
the most
Thanks
to his great
knowledge
of
all
the tech-
now well-known
in
New
York. Julius
is
Rosenbaum
artist to
Hermann
He
his generation.
Berlin
that
offer
interesting
Struck (1876-
has also
left
(fig.
Germany
some
in
fine prints
615
Ephraim Moses
290.
The
etchings of
most
lasting contribution to
German Impresmanaged
capture
movement and
in
light,
in
felicity.
terms
of
Emil Orlik
Lilien.
My
616
Child.
American) book
illustration;
he has
(and
left
later
some
fine
Ephraim Moses
in Galicia, lived
Lilien
(1874-1925)
was
who, born
name
its
some
Germany's "modern"
signer
striking portraits,
and
signed a
mint.
illustrator of fine
number
of medals executed
by the Berlin
1945),
whc
also
artist
Hugo
from
Steiner,
in
to the Jugendstil,
those
that
taste
tury.
Lilien's
illustrations,
day
father, a
(fig.
especially
left
in
own
us a
JEWISH IMPRESSIONISTS
61'
618
(fig.
291).
we have
Jewish
artists
on occasion,
of the Jewish
folklore.
painters
seen that
But
and
religion
it
was
managed
in
in
ceremonies
scenes of Jewish
to gain recognition
by
of
specializ-
tically conservative
Western-European
col-
were
scenes
of
local
and
folklore
Joseph Budko.
The
Scholar.
literary
all
the
life.
have
monument
contributed
to those artisans of
so
much
to
Jewish
Poland
who
artists in
whom
who
folk-art.
inspired
the
Central
Joseph Budko
292.
chroniclers of Jewish
Europe
folkloristic
much
Galicia
regionalism
of Austrian
created,
life in
and
for
that
in Eastern
Jewish terms
characterized
619
293.
Kaufmann. The
Isidor
The
first
1917),
of his
of the trio
life in
when he
(fig.
Vienna. His
senticlass.
1839-
first
was obtained
synagogue
interior
on the
fast
commemorating
Vienna Salon,
manner.
this painting
sensation
was immediately
it
were
years
to
vounger,
in
Isidor
made
Kaufmann
years and
all
his
working
Chess-players.
and
delicate gradations
293).
He
as a painter in a
human
histrionic influence of
Kaufmann, continued
London,
in
re-
His
son, Philip
figures.
in
(fig.
end
"A
first
in
Kaufmann's
to paint Jewish
Vienna and
now
came
620
The youngest
lers of
Epstein (1870-1945),
life
was Jehuda
in Mogilev,
He
622
JEWISH IMPRESSIONISTS
621
"Job"
(fig.
"Maccabees." At
somewhat
and
dull
was
his painting
first,
but he
colorless,
and
cially
in his
vision
and
and more
landscapes, a quality of
were more
a technique that
The
impressionistic.
Polish
was a
late survivor
known
had originated
in
and
Germans
was
scenes, he
Warsaw,
in
the
at
Among
number
of outstand-
Eastern
the
of
still
effects
Hungary,
in
also
to wane
when the
began
Europe,
as elsewhere in
age of eighty.
ing
his representations
murdered by the
Well-
in Vienna.
294.
Poland for
emergence of
Segall,
Marc Chagall,
Adler,
who
artists
Issachar
be treated of
will
such as Lasar
later,
did Eastern
spirit.
is
present chapter.
valuable
and
work
their
number
folklore
whom
three of
all
own
its
too,
in the evolution of
painting.
determining factor
as the only
In
Hungary
however, a
itself,
elements to
evolution
the
modern
of
Hungarian painting.
This evolution occurred, at
mainly
first,
two
in
VIII
colonies,
artist
section devoted
at-
the
exhibiting
this,
thirty
Hungarian
of 147.
of
this
far
total
art that
from complete,
it
were being
felt
Whereas
painting
of the
had
still
in the
country in the
in 1850,
last
Hungarian
Viennese Academy,
it
has subsequently
it
began
to
talent.
Nagybanya
tention.
the one in
in
Tran-
in coordinating
present
son
in
Budapest
of
wealthy
technical
to
made
Paris,
knowledge
he was able
Vienna.
and studied
possible
it
where
he
of his art.
whole
In
1883,
for
perfected
Bihari's
artistic
him
his
stay in
development,
to paint
in
was
(1856-1906)
poor house-painter
and
patron
travel
Bihari
century.
the
as
forward
of artists
of
to
number
Hun-
outstanding
The element
MODERN TIMES
623
624
individual
The son
(1867-1945).
the universitv
left
to painting.
he
painted
the
These
poor.
themes
on
cycle
from
derived
works
the
of
life
Fenyes
of
were declared
to
and severely
criticized
as
such.
indeed,
in
their
They
reflected
be
socialist art,
295.
what
restrained, however,
the
quality
of
Parisian
of the composition; a
much
mere
On
prettiness.
histrionic effects
from
return
his
love that he
Paris,
Hungarian
the monotonous
town notables,
plains.
Here, he studied
of the peasants
life
in the transparent
rant atmosphere in
and small-
and almost
air
common medium. He
figures in a
in
Romantic
vib-
seems to
instead,
spirit;
them
in their
he painted
everyday sur-
With broad
his figures in
such a manner
its
details,
which he painted
masterpiece
(fig.
is
perhaps
his
"Sunday Afternoon"
is
felt, in
spite
wor-
and
was
Szolnok
artists'
colony.
smoking
its
means.
had achieved
full
masterv
al-
dust-
his
their
life,
so
full
human
of
dignity,
all
At
ings,
full
figures in
first,
of
of
folkloristic
to genre paint-
implications,
light colors.
tion
he limited himself
to life
by
but
the
his use of
subject-matter
was
already
preparing
way for the future evolution of his art, espewhen he began to compose his pictures in
terms of color, which made it possible for him
the
cially
to attain true
tion. In his
admirable
still-life
paintings, however,
War
The
First
World
He observed mankind,
mud and
from man's
seated
minor
servants,
Here
Fenyes
kers
evil
create
tales.
The themes
of his
Rock"
in the
JEWISH IMPRESSIONISTS
625
626
much
Landscape of Snow,"
chord
of the very
Artist
in
a final harmonious
like
He
died in 1945
sufferings
a result of his
as
is
One
it.
"The Old
of Nazi domination.
The
artists'
come
some
cellent teaching of
residents.
means
light
as
was influenced
he achieved
Hungarian peasants,
of
life
the
(1867-
color
of
was
problems of
in
all,
the power
in
of expression in itself, he
by Gauguin
in
them
Ivanvi-Grunwald
Bela
more distinguished
its
among
Outstanding
painter
Jewish
of
JSHjiiiaf<*tvi
colors
296.
by landscapes
of
an
became more
artistic
energetic, so as to express
that
sensitivity
Among
has
the
modern
remained as
faithful
the
capital,
and
his
in
of
interiors
picturesque
of
peasant
Hungarian
On
composition
the
(fig.
through
of light,
qualities
word
translatable
that
atmosphere.
seemed
The Academy
so unsatisfactory to
their
leader
of
Stockholm
teenth
century,
among Jewish
He was
whose
talents
first
of
fortress
which
his
Jewish families
he was already
conventional
earliest
historical
works are
painting,
faithful
In
the overwhelming
of
of his
Paris,
Israels.
IX
artistic traditions of Swedish, Norwegian
foremost
to settle in
home was
rank
to that of
a student of the
darkness
yielded to
The
months on end,
unity
depressing
(1866-1932). His
achieve
and
restraining
296)
Impressionist
the
to
exerted
Perlmutter. Market-place.
ritual
months
Isaac
of
examples.
He
recognized imme-
would be
MODERN TIMES
627
628
enterprising
of
its
mem-
storm
the
in
of
and
critical
public
protest.
sion.
now unable
of Velasquez,
to escape
"The
"The
Rlacksmith,"
Dancer,"
all
realism at
first
shocked the
most
Josephson's
"The
Cigarette-girl,"
and refreshing
Stockholm.
critics in
famous
painting
was
his
originally
theme, the
final
number
artist
his
in
of variations on
its
by Prince Eugene
the Stockholm
however, to
same painting.
In France, Josephson continued to paint pictures
increasingly striking.
as sheer expression,
He withdrew
to
are
Brehat, a
still
artist's
all
among
the
the temperamental
and
with
previous
all
The
painting.
surroundings,
artist
gan
to
produce a
series of
flux
(fig.
of
297).
them
in a
moment
of their
was soon
to
artist
be-
The draftsman-
of an extraordinary nervousness,
artist's
ship of these
in
some
His paintings
art.
quivering expressiveness.
being
static in
indicates
When
Josephson died
ment
in
many
years to come.
Swedish
art
and indicated
its
tasks for
life.
In
already
and the
that
symptoms
however,
The
Swedish
nineteenth-century
policeman,
1885,
had
when Sweden's
settled in
to organ-
exhibition of anti-
artistic
Montmartre decided
opposition
ize itself as
movement,
academic
art
its
Influenced by
JEWISH IMPRESSIONISTS
629
Pissarro
his
in
lyrical
Den-
interpreter of
mark's countryside, of
landscapes of green
and
fields,
of
Impressionist in
many
An
farms.
cattle-raising
its
its flat
left
of the best of
Copenhagen's National
Museum
among
"Slaughtered Ox,"
in
Whereas the
dependent on
were
age,
reached
quality
this
theme
Rembrandtesque
in
the
in
One
of Philipsen's
the
Danish-Jewish
most remarkable
disciples
Gottschalk
Albert
painter
was
and
literary
certain reaction
occurred
began
who
new
at
to
Stalinist
an unhappy
ever, to
anxieties
life
of almost psychopathic
to a great
was
active
in
Born of a long
Mogens
came
1891
to Paris in
among
At
to study art.
Ballin
banquet
by
whom
he was introduced
to the
came
convert to
"Nabi" group.
him
Catholicism
to Italy, be-
Two
most of
retrospective
rich
and
German occupation
during the
show
fantastic"
of
where an
success, but
his
Ballin's
of
these
against
last
Painters
trends.
intelligentsia
in
for
art
introduced
sake
art's
In
1943,
Denmark,
"strange,
new quality of
Among the most emitrend were the por-
this
Jewish
and the
extraction;
who was
partly of
landscape-
Jewish
(1861-1900), son
Verjbolovo )
Moscow
patron, Levithan
of Corot
in Paris
first
and
him
to
the
become the
which enabled
its
idiom
however,
remains,
masters,
dull
though
and tend
his
that
own
color
of
French
his
harmonies
of the Dispersion
all
grave,
elegiac Slavic
mood.
met
so
well blended
new
is
ned
are
now
he was
established,
much
of
as
Jewish
fiance.
The
visit-
and thus
sionists.
1889,
In
nowhere
1914)
era,
to his beliefs
which
political ideas,
hundred years
the
nent representatives of
for political
of
as
medium
all,
sought
still
later.
our
this
philo-
that hangs
in
own
their
to convert the
realism"
Soutine,
Western
artists of
cular qualitv in
handling
and
Realist writers
in
630
Western Europe.
until
later.
sionist,
in the
to teach
French Impres-
Russian in
as the
its
works of Levithan
298). "Compared
(fig.
saw yesterday," he
"vast
Chekov wrote
Elsewhere,
king."
and novel
bv circumstances
to live in
When
him
side around
in the
upper part of
forest
in
some havstacks,
friend,
all
faithfully than
is
would indeed
It
in his description
already midnight.
stretching over a
Everything there
sleep.
beneath the
this
To
ful
caught
in a
No movement, no
main
some
distance of
is
its
five
one looks at
moonlight, with
its
its
versts.
izbas,
street
When
Village:" "It
framed
his desk,
"A
eyes as he wrote:
he was forced
hav-stacks,
silent...
under the
its
sleepv
toil,
from
looks as
It
if
the
stars
tender emotion, as
world and
all is
Levithan's
Levithan's
of
greatest landscape-painter."
632
298.
be
MODERN TIMES
631
evil exists
if
now
in the
good."
so deeply
art,
no longer
impregnated with a
began
to follow the
and receive
art
art,
which henceforth
its
whose
activities,
soon brought
new
circle of inno-
life
to
exile
but in his
book
in
Paris,
in
of the
most important
was
Petersburg
baptized
manhood returned
illustrations,
his
as
and died
a
child
to Judaism. In his
incomparably
masterly
and
costumes
of
Scheherazade,
The
Firebird,
mous
ballets,
of real genius, in
whose
blended
(fig.
JEWISH IMPRESSIONISTS
633
real
in
humble
tions;
is little
work
of Bakst, however,
movement
tors of a
its
whose
origins
there
talents
inspiration
Asiatic
folk
despised
to
art
styles
and
in
great extent
in
in
revival
and techniques
Slavic
of
of
the
disciples
and
is
land,.
Russian
remembered
around
Paris.
snowy land-
much of the
who painted
same regions
French masters
of France. Leonid
of
many
of the
painters
borrowed
in the
of Greek-orthodox ikons.
Among
mainly
long-
the
the
and
tion
634
who
Leo
Tolstoy,
home
in
Impressionists:
Odessa,
many
died.
lived
years
in
Paris,
where he
his
inspira-
299.
Museum
of
Modern
Art, Pasternak's
"The Eve of
MODERN TIMES
635
Examinations"
the
represent
white
shadows;
facile
its
element
of
re-
300)
and
own
his
number
son,
Boris,
Pasternak
art.
of portraits of
Rainer-Maria
including
celebrities,
their
Impressionism
was
male
room where
anecdotic
the
composition and
this
of
shirts
rounding
group
636
Rilke
later
to
(fig.
become
his father.
of the Jewish
extent influenced
to
as
which
a
its
community was
by external centers
more outstanding
pendence.
We
of attraction
were drawn
talents
political
artists
de-
such
as
E.M.
in
Lilien
to a great
Germany and
Austria,
afield, to
ever transcended
the
Jewish provincialism.
300.
.coniil
Pasternak.
Portrait
of
Raincr
301.
Maria Rilkc.
manage
to
limitations
little
of
of this art
a
kind of
JEWISH IMPRESSIONISTS
637
and
patriotic
for
taste
historical
painting.
638
One
in Jerusalem. His
"Wandering
(fig.
band
of
means when he
theme intended
how
were
insufficient
tried to
his artistic
handle a contemporary
to express his
deep attachment
to
Mauricy Minkowski
was
(born 1888)
consi-
to
attain
considerable
realistic
the
last
decades
compositions
flights,
depict
of Polish-Jewish
of
pogroms
life
during
domination.
Tsarist
(fig.
life
302)
His
and
of traditionalist
Mauricy Minkowski. After the Pogrom.
Tel-Aviv Museum.
302.
psychological observation
His
gifts
by Jewish
Serafino da Tivoli; in
England,
in
Isaac Levithan; in
innovators
in
every country
who stormed
the
among
bastions
the great
of
post-
Grundwald:
mentioned
lution of
Sir
all
in
in Italy,
D'Ancona and
William Rothenstein;
were active
in Russia,
these are
names
Ivanyi-
modern
art.
a large
of
number
of
whose
had
faith
marginal
relationship
the
to
in
it
develop-
artistic
of the world.
rest
that
true
is
kept
centuries
for
and
bv
the
economic
an
artistic
of
instability
status,
own
faith
political
and
their
their
to invent
ghetto,
state
within
representatives of almost
the
state,
reveal,
if
Jewish
by Jewish painters
and
ritual
subtlety
Age
since the
artists
for
plastic
self-expression
many Jewish
arts.
Immediately
media
after
their
of
the
liberation
indeed began to
artists
own
peculiar talent.
we have
France,
and Surrealism,
sionism
In
as the law-giver
own
among
some
harmonies,
lost
The Visual
never
any
revealed
refute
by
it
that
stating
may
to
fail
Do we now have
homogeneous
is
number
extraction
in
its
who,
with
an important
as individuals, play
posed
larly
spect,
has
it is
is
simi-
in
interpretation of art,
nationalistic
not
onlv
narrowed the
in
this
re-
intellectual
of the
of
common
Western
art
it
and proclaim
forget
Nuno
Gonzalves,
whether
or
real
Hals
each national
one
imaginary,
Frans
all
basic unity. If
its
the
renovated
it
or
characteristics,
express poetic
let
specifically
while
has
art,
Chagall,
order to
expressed
Jewish painters,
create
art,
in
now
all
one
Marcoussis
book,
is
have
idiom of Cubism
Sandro
even
nor
originality,
extent,
of
similarly
to
spiritual
in his
Arts,
to bring
the
Botticelli.
of Emancipation,
the
in
the
life
included
now produced
to
though they
the art
all
manages
back
But the
all
in
tends
common
with
to
with
Velasquez,
tic
century,
true descendant
with
rhythms
t,
But, whi
of
Hogarth and of
in his tortured
advent of an Apocalypse.
is
rather
the
is
appearance
of
in
the
a separate
past
problem
great
but
number
who have
of
achieved
641
have enriched
spirits
the
common
The
Jewish
be
heritage
artists
work
of the
Some
ways.
several
in
world.
civilized
of the
interpreted
the
of
hostile
we
a spirit of eclecticism;
work the
their
in
new
birth of a
of uni-
spirit
and docu-
It is
it
had reached
be viewed
is
it
as
tomorrow? Be that as
Or
decline?
its
may,
it
heyday began
its
With
all
the Jewish
from countries
by
its
culture
by
and
of
as
if
own development
individuals.
as
Drawn
invention.
artistic
sons
middle-class
well-to-do
of
first
lated
doctrines, as
its
which
followed
in
had
also the
Gauguin's
The
footsteps.
pictorial
all
modern movement
the
created
and of
there
in
series
taste that
the
in
of
was being
arts
developments
of
style
began
painters
whether
tion,
versality.
mented
642
on a whole
group of younger
artists,
color
of
disciples.
How
a situation?
Many
remained
of them, of course,
own
specific indivi-
modern
art as
pathy in
quarters, they
official
more
research.
heartily
artists
shared,
welcomed.
in
attacked or defended
living
express
and working
themselves
European
its
conditions
fully
art, Paris
museums where
same
dealers,
by the same
in
and French
Foreign
Paris,
critics.
allowed
an
else.
and
were
Their
of Central
of
themselves
lands
at
of a series of artistic
counted
As soon
ality,
an
their
earlier
training
had developed
financial help,
many
that
Jewish painter,
Impressionism
and
contributed
When
person-
own
and
their
hopes of
selling their
II
own
to formulate their
We
their
dis-
negligible.
as
of
the art-schools
self-taught,
as they
works was
establishment
artists
contribution
the
genuine culture
all
towards
also a climate of
to
As metropolis
is
of
artists
all
the achievement of
and
It
The
and
in a spirit of criticism
atmosphere
that can
of their own.
more
its
than
technical
the
of
them
La Ruche
to
protect them-
To
windows.
who
re-
MODERN TIMES
643
presented
Jewish
of
traditions
various
the
all
from
ranging
critics
mysticism
Many
rationalism.
to
have, therefore,
and
of Jewish painters
on them.
exert
to
It
made
dogma
of iconoclasm
and
The bankruptcy
of classicism.
anthropomorphic
of
buted
were
attri-
true, every
(ill
Fernand
ters
were
dealers
all
Cheron,
in
When
the
Moise
Paul
Guillaume,
anti-militarist
above
lived
first
His
Kisling.
home he
whose
Zborowski,
a while.
and
Leger
for
declared,
leftist
and
Though he
srjent his
for drinks
always
man
when
full of
a police-
in the past
to a Jewish artist.
my
world
whom
of
all
revolutionary
the
contemporary
of
art,
passport!"
life
of privation
and a
sickly
began
to tell
on
his vitality.
He
subversive theories.
made more
bearable by a
murmur-
was
in 1915,
Ill
works were
Four jewish
Pascin,
It
Chaim
we
that
Modigliani.
Modigliani, Jules
Soutine,
inevitable
is
Amedeo
universallv
are
first
begin
should
The antecedents
with
of this re-
have
as chaste as a
medi-
shocked the
figures
whom we
man
in the
street,
and the
to
in
will
but
in
wholly
the relatively
occidentalized
(Leghorn)
in Italy,
community
Livorno
of
in
1884
art,
at
first
Venice,
in
classical training
ing the
first
where Modigliani
loved
bed
life
to
fits
friends,
his bitterness.
lived,
and
he con-
starts.
He
of poverty, drink
and Rome,
of Florence, Milan,
museums
The
multi-cultured and
small,
When
he moved
from
his youth,
its
characteristic
tic
than
much
of
his
later
productions.
the anatomy
lest
In
development.
to
its
His
which
simp-
if
like a
many-
seemed
no time
His mediaevalist
to waste
645
303.
Amedeo
646
of life
and
of
human
full of a
values.
that
the
artist's
Motherhood
last
who
painting repre-
this
in
sense of humanity.
France summarized
and almost
An
in his
(fig.
303).
wholly different
cultural
background was
(Pincas)
who was
647
born
in
1885
in
Vidin
Bulgaria, of well-to-do
in
began work-
time established
to
Munich, studied
in several
he became a member
at-
and
also
all
his
German
successes
Montmartre,
On
set feverishly to
studio, leaving
burial
No
somewhat
artist of
of Picasso, has
his
Paris
to Jewish rites.
as
much
passion and
York. In
his
drawn with
diabolical brilliance.
in
trip to
by a rabbi according
other
records of
New
he committed suicide
1930,
June
citizen.
he immediately
his
became an American
nevertheless
From
com-
he moved
but
and water-colors.
He
where he was an
States,
as far as
age
way
United
at first in
at the
art-schools.
the
for
to devote
out
and decided
life
secret, until
of
which he practiced
wearied of a settled
all
in
648
travels,
satirist,
has
left
us
Europe, America
in
among them the Swedish artist Isaac Griinewho painted a remarkable portrait of him.
and North
wald,
(fig.
2).
ters,
By
Africa, especially of
low
life,
which held
The world
that he
His
German
publishers
with contracts to
of the First
On
him
dream.
At the outbreak
women
with
motley population of
continued
illustrate books.
to
ply
304.
lules Pascin.
its
Reclining Girl.
all
races
Cuba,
Spanish,
649
and
Havana
in
life
among
are
communicating
much
characterize
best.
him an unusual
left
immediate impressions
his
of his early
to
art.
His
The
time,
more
closes
cursive.
lines
painter
of the
which he en-
We may
see
which distinguish
painter
Chaim
Soutine.
ghettos
were centers
he was born
in
1884
was
was not
ugly,
be detected
to
young
an indigent family of
ment
to excel in handling
unsavory
in
ele-
becoming pornographic.
type
His
favorite
feminine
is
under many
motiv,
work
throughout
variations,
He was
leit-
his
and
pencils
and
He was
color.
damp basement,
in a
ing
him
Chaim become
his family to
for
up
aged
to see
without culture,
nights,
was locked
hope
of thus cur-
in the
to obtain a
this
at
buy colored
severely punished,
form and
in
man
cobbler.
stole a
of sin.
and hoped
a tailor
surroundings
in the early
was
themes
ferent to the
seemed
Soutine's
of
gift
such
School,
town
native
Paris
His
in
work
as
the
of
who
as
his
girls,
production,
Pascin's
in
Modigliani's, elements
describes.
what he
in
His early
an observer.
as
his
had
training as a cartoonist
skill at
numerous sketches of
his
650
idiot.
he manset
about
Success-
later
304).
(fig.
The
satiric
way
gave
to fantastic sarabands,
rococo ballets,
and
fantasies
allegories
For
his fascinating
all
cir-
some never-never-
orientalistic
qualities,
however,
and
of his drawings
ings
colors
colors
gave
that
strokes.
Later,
relief
his
real
to
palette
more transparent
fluidity.
like
in
his
forms
became
in
broad
strictly
to
go
to court,
roubles
made
it
possible
for
Soutine to leave
Vilna.
in
1910
to
Pinchas Kremegne.
his aims,
but his
He seemed
difficulties
accompanied by
to
have achieved
his colors
of turpentine,
life,
when
oil
settled
the
was
their mother-of-pearl
lighter,
more
mother threatened
and
his loveliest
belonging
to
in
the works of
Almost
no personal
correspondence
of
Sou-
[EWISH ART
651
Chaim
305.
tine's is
The few
preserved.
Soutine.
The
Baker's Boy.
wrote
and he followed
ter;
way
remains
with
difficulty.
he
a severe diet.
Money
actually
sense of security.
thus
himst
not in
it
mythical
confessions.
figure,
He
anv
652
in
general,
He
rather uneasily.
expressed
Though he
them
or tearing at
them with
his palette-knife.
653
Cagnes (1918),
Ceret
(1920-1922).
when
last,
success, at
bought several of
his pictures
when Bing
public,
first
work without
exhibited his
the gallery,
visit
many
the
to
come
to the
United
to
had
In 1943, he
States,
the dan-
all
he continued
to paint
to return to
Paris,
Though
number
Soutine's
of periods,
it
While he lived
he painted
flower-pieces,
his
clouds,
away
and
trees
in
hill-sides
series
his
life,
seem
in
He had
and 1943, he
that
is
and the
random
at
tor-boys
Soutine's personal
lity of
1920, he
broken
in
Here, he created
still-life
compositions,
and
models
his
whom
achieve
a rare qua-
nies, in a
on
came up
Academy
of Fine Arts.
study at the
his
when he
was
to a
monthly sub-
able, nevertheless, to
vancement
liberal
Chagall's
new
Thanks
in the Arts.
politician,
most of
these
revealed himself as
that
all
Such an
of color
knowledge
with sym-
alike
and
Marc
Communion,
In
and expanding
and men-servants
be carried
to
convulsions.
portraits of the
in
face
self-portraits
are re-
he chose
life
asleep or dead.
seem
1942
bolical meanings.
tables, all
neurosis, but
steadily. In
finally
only apparent.
own
him increased
is
vealed at their
But the
of composition.
true
rhythm
Ceret, after
how
epileptic
that
rhythms
reveal, in
all
artist's
The
himself.
to
this
he remained
in
boy
(fig.
to dissolve, contracting
skull of the
revealing,
as
is
respect, as a vivisection
The
to
seem
wild
of
La Ruche,
his landscapes
by an earth-quake;
shaken
into a
life
which he died.
after
visitors.
In 1940,
654
La Ruche. At once, he
an outstanding personality
moter, Herwarth
Chagall's
first,
in
Der Sturm,
655
probability
The
was
itself in
to
1918,
Commissar
Cultural
authorities
where he
area,
the Vitebsk
for
set
museums, and
upon
calling
ment
new
of a
Eliezer Lissitzki
group of
cow
who
artists
analogous to the
and
art,
which would be
arts
the
in
traditions
he was asso-
Nathan Altman,
Ryback,
with Issachar
ciated,
independence and
to
to
develop
art
young
of
art
political
he was commissioned
to Paris.
to illustrate
Dead
Immea num-
Souls, the
Near East,
and types
Old Testament.
In
Holy
visited the
in
search of
during
1941,
German
the
His arrival
of a
in
triumph.
designed the
wartime
New
for
two
ballets,
Tchaikovsky's
one-man show
at the
New
York
Museum
of
Mo-
citizen
and returned
Ame-
France after
to
its
first
was
that of Russian-
ghetto.
that
In
Cha
harmony
On
his arrival
at
once
dependent on
of colors, less
monochrome
almost
fantasy had
effects of greys
and browns
When
he
later
Cubism, he abandoned
for
good
Rembrandtes-
his
have charac-
was never
programmatic Cubist.
from wanting
to
problems,
solve
legends in terms of
duced
to
transcribe
style.
did the
artists of
depict, in one
moments
several distinct
presents, as in
his
prefers
its
picture,
his fantasies,
cow on a church
roof with the milkmaid coming down from the
sky to milk it. The air seems indeed to be the
is
most
at
home;
as in a
air,
The
of war,
the
German
policy
of
all
make him
as well as of
comic
never recovered
all
of
fantasies.
In later years he
liberation.
The
a brighter
when they
moved on
of prose.
humor and
Pissarro
he travelled
moods
express
to
in Paris,
logic, too, as
In
refusing
diately,
the pedestrian
literature.
matters
physics,
was obliged
and
656
1914,
ill's
Apollinaire
alreadv
in the
explained
laws of logic,
My
Museum
entitled
To
Modern
Wife
in
the Paris
of
On
Mane
Katz.
Saturday Walk
in
Jerusalem
657
658
Through
ivory-
bunch
of flowers
Chanukah
lamp,
turquoise-blue
and a seraph
sheep complete
sacrificing a
this in-
Chagall
painting
brought
has
kind
modern
to
angelic
of
purity,
it
of man's spiritual
all
legends,
his
which
Fiction,
fantasies.
his
is
art
allegories
own
as
again
in the
tebsk
its
who
too.
IV
may
of their generation
all
these
majority
of
Jewish
Paris
painters,
artists
with
together
School
the
of
the
of
originally
Fauvist
milating
developed as a continuation
Expressionist
Realist
stemming
that,
Impressionists, has
the
of painting
tradition
from
influence
the
School
of
Paris.
and
Ex-
moods
in
of
School
the
European
duction
is
gave them
it
and popularity
of
with
Jewish
their
life
as
it
of
is
the
hardly
On
the
its
keen
Paris
in
in
to
Paris
1914 and,
after
the war,
became an
even imposing
few
and
genius,
sudden flame.
Montparnasse
Armv
deal
warm
or Polish ghetto
now
The Russian
its
Eastern
of
must
as
who were
stimulated
birth,
to a
Paris
is
varied.
intellectuality
brought
of
origin
We
Sisters.
Central
of
assi-
Two
31)6.
ex-
true to
of
With a few
cognition as masters.
ceptions,
artists
style of dress
modern
artist.
659
Pinchas Kremegne.
307.
Among
painters
was one
Kisling
art
the
that
few
of the very
to
relies
School of Paris,
the
of
Still
to develop
an
on traditional
great extent
MODERN TIMES
and
Apples.
to
decorative.
We
and
which gave
his surfaces a
perhaps learned
quality,
Kisling
allowed
himself
own and
his
that expresses
types,
when he
interpretation
stressed
of
clearly his
physical
certain
their
affinity
with the
his
thus
306).
drafts
towards
tin
that
he
less
orientalizing
uiship
end
than
of
his
all
Pascin,
life,
to
in
White Russia
came
Vilna,
in
to
Salon dAutomne, he
made
itself in
in
while
some freedom
expressed
Paris in
for
innate sensuality.
rather
studied
his
remains his
660
Corsica,
Israel
all
him
as
Sweden and
a master of the
In
many
of his
still-life
(fig.
compositions,
early
307).
one can
an individual or as an
life,
whether
artist, offers us
a fine
painted
free
professional
in
Kisling
tended,
repeat
himself
integrity
that
made
its
it
possible for
fame.
is
Russian-
THE SCHOOL OF
mi
who
(born 1891)
shared
there in
life
was
him
the
first
to a
662
La Ruche
of
artists
PARIS
and abroad
to
308).
(fig.
teenth
life
his
Cezanne
as well.
modern
painters
who
is
and
fame
(fig.
in Paris
tzerland
1942.
in
commit suicide
which came
war
of the
in a
and
his
mind, whose
human
of
anxieties
remained a painter of a
years, Kars
all
fled to Swi-
many
ciation of life
almost
he
till
in
lasting
paintings.
lyrical
appre-
Always
faithful
to
those principles of balanced construction and emotional poise that distinguish the great
number
tions that
of composi-
The
period.
by rare touches of
is
relieved
he applied
life
distill
he
was
may
too,
is
to
be reckoned
representatives
among
He began
of
the painters of
life
in
Kiev as a
interiors
style of his
rare
lyrical
quality
and a painterly
of the qualities of
German
soon
many
discerning
His
recognized.
dealers
and
self-portrait,
is
one of the
finest
examples of
his
mature
style.
The
Future generations
works of
308.
Jewish
background,
many
of his
work
of
father,
Mane-Katz
(born
1894).
in the Ukraine,
was shocked
His devout
at
Kremen-
years
of his
artistic
in 1926.
maturity,
310), landscapes,
knowing
still-life
the
or
contempo-
raries,
chug
inconspicuous
Academy
artist.
Nevertheless, at the
in Kiev. In 1913,
he came
in
to Paris,
self-portraits
compositions and
MODERN TIMES
663
309.
Here he began
subjects
themes and
in poetic
664
tended to be more somber, relying more on chiaroscuro effects and less on contrasts of color.
We
terms and
to pass in
number
review more
rapidly
here
perhaps
less
tainly
tioned,
other
Jewish
scale.
documentary
painters,
he
has
years,
studies. Like
stressed,
all
that
he
many
in
his
paints.
he emigrated to America
ne
an
cheerful
tirely
fig.
new range
311),
of colors,
whereas
his
landscapes,
bright and
earlier
work
no
large
known, though
gifted,
less
in
career
(born 1891)
of
was
other
artists
cases cer-
we have men-
than those
typical
of
many
Makarov
in the
Ukraine,
who
coming
in
to Paris
1911.
His development as an
artist
of the
realist
who
delights in
665
portraits,
Polish-born Maurice
and
its
suburbs.
primarily
Paris
of
picturesque areas
of
666
vising
Van
Gogh had
used, but
and more
own
in
gentler
by
Polish
birth
nationality,
is
an
idyllic
who
world,
his
optimism
still-life
paintings
and
men
of
more
intellectual
strictly
wo-
by a return
women and
Rubens. In his
to the sensuality of
seem
to crystallize in solid
masses.
Polish
by
birth,
too,
Pressmane
Joseph
is
who
settled in Paris in
(born 1904)
France began
guishes
much
of his work.
In his paintings on
subjects with
less
humor and
fantasy than
and a
and
deli-
now
some
offers
affinity
Zygmund Landau
the ghetto.
1919
to
style of his
Paris
David Garfinkel
in still-life
France
in
composi-
what meditative
of the city.
Jean Markiel
portraits
and
in
some-
picturesque views
(bom 1921)
Academy, then
in Paris,
studied at the
where he
Cracow
settled in 1935.
War
work
in
as a pri-
1945 and
1900)
Lodz
is
also,
no child of
he came
own, rich
in
since
still-life
and
Zygmund
who
in
lyrical
memories
of
Lodz gave
birth also to
(born
native of
and tender
his
since
Self-portrait.
to attract attention as
Abraham Mintchine.
310.
after the
1934,
is
a painter of intimate
psychology; he
Bonnard and
is
mainly a
of
scenes
the
which he
in
recent
years
Paris
among which
1910,
in
mainly
in
has
Algeria.
and
depicts.
a native of
he conlocal
Simon
Chelm who
worked
His
in
paintings,
311.
terpiece,
seek
to
suggest
Mane
without
space
exclusively
by suggesting volume
color, light
and
in
ever
terms
of
of circus-scenes
for
many
remained
his
and make
it
hobby
his
much
retire
years,
until
on basic draftsman-
excelling
of a prosperous banker
compositions,
particularly
David
Seifert (born
post-Impressionistic
sitions
Im-
his
contacts
painter of Biblical
delicately sensitive
and
landscapes
in
interiors,
and nocturne
twilight
effects.
art of the
some
also painted
he assimilated the
by
mood, he
still-life
312).
tempered
re
which
painting,
to
he was able to
Impressionism,
of
Rembrandt
wl
responsibilities
in Paris,
by family
in Bialystok
years prevented
(fig.
the painters of
pressionist masters.
airiness.
among
668
ship,
MODERN TIMES
667
and
and
1896)
is
landscapes,
a painter whose
still-life
compo-
how
Austrian
native
Galicia
German
influences
in
his
669
670
who came
artists
An
Empire.
Russian
former
from
to Paris
artist,
(born 1902)
and Sculptors
of France. In 1925,
Later,
influence.
living
is
Cubist
modest
extremely
in the tradition of
the great
in Paris
territories of the
he developed a more
He de France,
the
and
its
as the metropolis
Sterling
(born
c.
in Paris
La Ruche. Painting
ciated at
of
full of
seem condemned
beauties that
first
tradition of Soutine,
museum, no
he was able
Fauvist,
who
(born 1903),
Irisse
Basically
galleries,
gave birth to
studied
to emigrate to France.
Irisse
has
the
assimilated
in
His
art
in
sponsored
represented
is
of
Resistance.
post-Fauvist,
is
was
active
style,
and
German
the
in
that
of
peopled with
ual
psychological
man
to his surround-
similar
concep-
insights,
1945.
since
attention
composes
his paint-
moment, with a
great
in his figures
Europe
in
he
much
has attracted
Expressionist
France
to
France,
is
Basically an Expressionist, he
came
exhibit.
French
who
to
several
School of Paris
and
his landscapes.
to
istic
in
Max Band.
312.
Rumanian-Jewish
at
times
to
Expressionist
painter
of
the
an,d
schools
of
Central
and
Eastern
deli-
Though born
(born
c.
in
New
York, Mottke
pean Jewish
inspiration for
to Paris in
Weissmann
to the Eastern-Euro-
many
of his works.
Weissmann came
and
still-life
compositions.
He paints in a somewhat
family
and
life
is
and
fellow-townsman of Soutine's
is
Jewish
Zarfin, son of a
industrialist. After
but went
where he studied
in
1923
to Berlin,
671
672
and
borrowed
matured slowly,
has
style
gradually
colors
his
development
who,
(born 1899)
Antscher
Isaac
of
born
in
some
work a
high
A number
artistic
of
the
two years
exhibited,
first
various annual
later, in
salons, besides
group
select
of artists
who
painter
and
Maurice
to that of
analogous
lyrical feeling,
In his flower-pieces,
Utrillo.
David Murginsky
Similarly,
trasts.
in
studied
the
at
commissioned
Rezalel
execute
to
of
Suwalki,
man
to Israel,
was
then
School,
some
murals
the
of
in the
came
salem. Later, he
gue
Antwerp,
children,
a
and
Paris
in
Belgium.
still-life
the
for
His
Born
1914
in
under
moved
to Paris
typical
of
city's
other
who
Jacob
and
Paris
hand,
local
Steinhardt;
charm.
in
manage
his
youth
1948, he settled
in
on
After
art-colony.
came
while in Munich, he
close asso-
he was already
exhibit-
among
to
the
movement
tors of the
brought
has
throughout
famous
School
the
Paris
of
world
the
known
initia-
which
art
the
to
fore
Czobel
313).
(fig.
Hungarian art-world
the
in
contemporary
in
one of
as
as "the Eight,"
who
intro-
duced Fauvism
to
lasting influence
on contemporary Hungarian
work
a
art.
Cezanne,
on drafts-
masses of
first
is
similar
to
those
characterize
that
the
to
sfamato
of
compose
and
his portraits
arrangements in masses of
according to principles
effects
warm
derived from
colors,
Cezanne,
1908)
Israel
where
number
of
to melt into
now
exhibited
was born
fine pain-
the
groups.
still-
and
color,
Turner
each other.
Israeli artists. In
revealing ha
Hungarian
Nagy-
in
(born
of English w
life
t\
years
the
in a
ter of sea-scapes
to
he
views
convey the
to
English-born,
and participated
art
1948
in
Reginald Weston
is
emigrated
he studied
streets
old-world
reposeful
unreal
many
for
was born
outstanding,
manship
there
Paris,
of
in
and
Hungarian-Jewish
and worked
Bela Czobel
famous
portraits
interiors,
life.
studying for
Czobel at
in
banya,
in
well-known
of
most
Great Synagogue
colors.
Synago-
abstract
in
its
Here he
the
dreamlike
curiously
from
techniques
quality.
of the jeweler or the Oriental miniaturist. Palestine, too, contributed to the artistic
of Whistler's oils.
of
early
"the
in
years
Eight,"
of this
century.
to
Also
Paris
in
leader
much
post-Impressionist
attention
by developing
certain
more
manner analo-
673
674
1890-1910,
the
that
of
ugliness
grotesque
some
unusually
a great
Among
his rare
often
that of the
by
influenced
Profoundly
masterpiece.
displays
lyrical.
traits,
Bereny
painter,
An
Fauvists.
Paris
works a
sensitivity.
gesting
the
intellectual
in all his
very
among
leader
of sheer painting
figures
Bereny's
of
and
as
and somewhat
intentional
Ce-
landscapes
in
ticularly
Provence
of
well as
as
portraits.
in
many
attention
attracting
was
(born 1880)
Bertalan Por
also
Hun-
in
years in France. At
as
first
painter
decorative
of
313.
After
Budapest.
known
he
became
Por
Bertalan
in Paris
1949
In
1919,
returned
Another
Hungary.
to
has
of
disciple
distinguished himself
also
Cezanne.
as
Although a deaf-mute,
when he was
sent to a sana-
he emigrated
France as a laborer,
to
After a
steel-mills.
while,
he began
to
to
work
try
in
his
nial
a victim of
German
Hungary
pupil
was
(1879-1954)
Perlrott-Csaba
of
in
his
Impressionist
the
native
master
Becoming
self-
final-
ly
work
becoming an
first
house-painter.
as
artist.
in
A somewhat
his
ability
as
compositional
space
in
to
an
elements
so
to
as
though
energetic
suggest
ornamental
Schwarz-Abryss
(born 1905)
is
the
expression
Born
of
in the
painter
peculiarities
his
perhaps
Tokay wine-
destitution
of a seasonally
at the
style
as
employed
laborer.
Still
illiterate
previously,
style.
often
interest in the
problems,
confused
treatise
Expressionist
won manv
French,
in psychia-
on
relativistic
post-Fauvist,
aesthetics.
Schwarz-Abryss
on palette-knife
effects
and
which
An
has
bril-
relies
MODERN TIMES
675
there
His
Sephardic
com-
the
work
paint
land-
admiration
great
Gogh
Van
of
Spanish-speaking
in
munity.
676
has
scapes, flower-pieces
him
led
and even
for
to
self-portraits that
tortured
color,
and
fervor
painterly
some
type. In
ever,
Peretz
of his
still-life
when
his best
the
of
rare
derived
and
life
least inspired
Another
314).
compositions, how-
elements
introduces
is
thus at
by Van Gogh
(fig.
among
Sephardim
from
S. Sinai
(born
1915) was born in Smyrna and has also specialized in realistic descriptions of old-world corners
of
especially
Paris,
back-streets
Saint-Germain-des-Pres.
tionalist
Among
of the
the
area of
more
tradi-
Marie- Andre
Klein
(born
was born
1901)
in
his real
vocation
Hommage
David
314.
Peretz.
Hommage
and
gest perspective
relief.
He
is
at his best in
Of the Hungarian
tion
that
1950
for
the Paris
painters
of the
Paris,
and
compositions.
still-life
is
School of
surely the
trips to Spain,
From
his
com-
many
his
he settled
in
debut
cartoonist
as
where he
Paris,
is
Berlin,
in
now
generally acclaimed as
heir
Lautrec.
colors,
the
to
In
many
Vertes
great
traditions
Toulouse-
of his
displays
of
scurrilous
sensuality
humanity
of
member
of
all
the
School,
Dreyfuss-Stem
(born
it
and
color.
by a sense
sitivity as
from
cessful
commercial
artists
a colorist. Roger
Worms
(born 1907)
Of much
of our age.
born
portrait-pa
Army's
humor remain more essentially Parisian, ParisMaurice Van Moppes (born 1904) has
come to (lie fore in recent years as a cartoonist,
his
ter
and decorator.
war
War and
artists
during
the
Second World
677
From
paigns in a volume,
den.
painter
managed
of
the
in
his
of
much
nineteenth-century
treatments
Hambourg
sea-scapes,
recapture
to
Algiers to Berchtesga-
especially
masters,
water
of
of skies,
delicacy
the
of
has
and
of
A number
of gifted
women have
Lou
Metz when
came
she
to Paris
the Cubists.
achieved
Neue
dis-
Albert-Lazard
city
Paris
this
French
specifically
critics
since
1951.
its
Originally a
artist,
style
because of
qualities.
French
flower-pieces.
Munich and
in
well-known figure
in
at
first,
by
In spite of the sweeping allegations of certain
Montparnasse
anti-Semitic or reactionary critics,
German
sionist
mists.
678
who
consider
ed
portraits of his
Ghandi, Paul
as well as of
vities
the
Einstein,
Valery,
poet
Claudel,
and other
of the
of
leaders
were
celebrities.
style,
Cubism
all
schools.
and
Museum
1934
in Paris
work
Maxa Nordau,
pher
born
Ida
in Russia,
Mordkin
(born
famous
1884)
was
in order to
be
him
in
in Paris in 1929,
until
and continued
to
mans.
is
315.
Louis Marcoussis.
The
Eiffel
Tower.
679
680
of a
new-
itself
from day
to day.
was
also
born
Warsaw, of a
in
abandoned
am-
his
an engineer to con-
bitions as
new
the
and decided
academic
gan
art
instructors in
man
modern
trends in
work of Ce-
to study the
zanne. In 1916, he
came
into
who
Rosenberg,
him
throughout
Three Musi-
cians, painted in
Museum
of
Modern
dern Art
Art, Paris.
Museum
the Paris
in
ensuing
the
Hayden's
years.
316.
encouraged
(fig.
Mo-
of
316), remains
(Markus)
Marcoussis
Louis
came from
a well-to-do
middle-class
(1883-1941),
coming
studied
art
in
to Paris in 1907.
At
first,
sionist masters,
Cubism
(fig.
315). Be-
Paris
in
fame
his
witnessing
an
illustrator in
as L'Assiette
style that
Paris
owes much
to the
"modern
in this
years,
now
decorative
style" of the
much
of
style
manner, developing
still-life
of the
modern
among
art.
An
the
best
examples
exquisite craftsman,
by bringing
it
ment
quality of taste
endows
thai
quality.
all
his
and
of
Mar-
early training in
of technical refine-
work with a
rare poetic
always fresh
eschewed
and
soon
in a
artist.
affirmed his
all affectation.
developed,
strictly aca-
own temperament
prized
it
art is
now
is
composition in which he
demic, but he
are
his
work
of his earlier
Cubist graphic
desultorily.
Germans looted
the
lost.
One
in
to
excels as
reverted
air painter.
ment
Hayden
which he sought
new
au Beurre and he
more
still-life
his
to a
on
the
he now enjoys.
that
this
In 1904, he
almost
at
came
to Paris
independently,
Reth
Picasso,
by Cezanne's
later
whom
Inspired,
as
681
682
painting,
jecting
sub-
requires
theories,
his
to
in
forms
its
laws
that
har-
and
colors,
the
to
monies of music
317).
(fig.
1885) came
of
to Paris as
German
the
Germa-
Wilhelm Uhde. At
critic
and
collector
first,
di-
Delaunay, founder of
painter
among
mental abstract
sia,
water-
fine
tions
in
tumes and
que
number
of un-
ings:
coal-grit,
fragments
of
ceramic,
plaster,
After
Levy-Dhurmer
pages 582,
(see
is
the
first
extraction,
he studied
art in Paris,
extensively.
brief
An
original
Valensi
Impressionist
is
Italian
but considers
concerned, mainly
theorist
lectured
has
After his
partly
of
the field of
in
and published
period,
he became,
art,
around
formulat-
now known
as Cine-peinture,
which
static
nature,
suggesting
movement
rather than
must
in
1953, she
first
retro-
experimental movements.
1943).
Born
in
is
Pomerania, he experienced an
early in life a
first
studying art-history he
felt
retiring.
the urge,
at the
artist.
In 1908, he
as
moved
life to
to Paris
and devoted
almost
a
all
his
works the
"illusionist" devices,
in
such
(fig.
318).
of
according
initiator of
sets,
were framed
583),
outstanding
of plain color
tapestries
an
paper, etc.
ill-starred
of the
317.
the experi-
artists
pacifists.
other
artists
Many
issues of
German
MODERN TIMES
(SN3
One
tures
was reproduced
1934
in
684
as the cover-design
and
temporary
Marcelle
the
of
of the
abstract tradition
con-
in
art.
who
School
Paris
another Cubist
is
Germany. Born
early training in
first,
Strasbourg,
in
and
and
Serusier,
of the
and the
Purist master
Amedee Ozenfant
did she
remained
faithful
to
the
rigorous
traditions
of
mum
(fig.
319).
318.
illustrations
and
contain
cially as
Berlin in
capital's pacifist
and stained
leftist
intelligentsia
to
glass,
medium which, by
its
of puppets,
to
Paris,
espe-
and exhibited
moved
she
maker
arts,
in
gallery. Later,
their carefully
in
saics
and stained
number
glass
artist specialized in
of abstractionist groups
moin
and movements.
and deported
to
the Lublin-Maidanek
number
of Paris galleries
an interest
recognition.
tonic
to
in his
have sought
work, which
is
to revive
slowly gaining
start
by
Pla-
beauty and of
art to nature,
Freundlich painted,
up
tion
in
Paris
as
Dadaists. Later, he
Purist theories
modest
artist,
to attract atten-
and
by Cubism.
strangely
not lend themselves easily to photographic reproduction. Painted in white on a white background,
of his works, for instance, suggest the forms
objects
by the
differentiated
by
texture
of
his
outlines or contrasts
interpret,
in his paintings,
when he
listens
trasting colors or of
color, rang,
arrangements of irregular
in flat
etching
of
two-dimensional
haggadah,
some
tive
monumental
piety inspired
mainly allegorical or
patterns, broken
architecture, an almost
on
steadily
composed
to
some
what he experiences
of
the
great musical
685
1894), so soberly
realistic,
propagandist
modern
styles of
and
there
in
some
for
Born
art.
the
of
in
most advanced
Warsaw, he studied
in Paris.
found
his
way back
Already as
(born
classics.
to Poland,
686
Chapiro
Jacques
child,
(born
Dunaburg
in
fortress
of
Yalta,
he worked
model and
as a
a street-sweeper
He won
in
in Polish artistic
him
life.
to Berlin,
in 1924, Berlevi
the
launched a
style
known
as
friends,
artists
and
Mechano-Faktura or
moved
Wanderlust, he
his
to Paris
where, since
still-life
known, because of
mt and
port
movement,
many changes
of style, an im-
modern
art
in
Though no longer
Pailes
elements
earlier
life
Vachtangov
Petrograd.
He
tor's
art
and
figures
bats,
member
realistic
and
"World
of the
and
solid
and discerning
taste for
mation of
his
whole
style;
one-man show,
Born
in
Paris
of
(fig.
can
interest
still
almost
architectural
in
the
structure
horizontal
and
vertical arrange-
relief.
new master
of
and
sculpture
1949
mainlv
in
be detercted
in
321).
original
was only
as an important
acro-
320). His
it
in
(fig.
French paint-
powerful colors
younger painters.
its
still-
draftsmanship
to-
among
on
meanwhile
numerous
of clowns
style
wards a more
traits,
The Dybbuk,
the production of
in
his
Cubist manner. In
collaborated with
many
from
inherited
Moscow and
319.
post-Cubist with
687
harmonies,
Zendel
developed
has
life
painter,
and
mainly
style,
landscapes.
color-
personal
in
still-
painter's
on some younger
artists
(fig.
1919
as a child
for a while
At
first
somewhat
ments of unexpected
and
objects,
paint-
who
delighted
poetic
arrange-
a figurative painter
surprising
was
he became increas-
at the
so
much
at the
School of
that
he abandoned
An
it
to
study
and
their
still-life
color-harmonies
(fig.
323).
community
eighteen,
in
an unmistakably
Marseilles of Sephardic
in
Harbor
is
mudic student
1'ailcs.
Arditi
a Hassidic
facques
Georges
520.
Chapoval,
and
German
him
322).
Zendel
Like
<>SS
to
Brittany. Courtesy of
until
become
in
he decided,
a
originated in
painter.
M. Kaganovitch.
at
He
the age of
left
Poland
689
Gabriel
322.
321.
690
Zenilel.
In
of
Praise
the
Craftsmen's Tools.
when
1928 and,
France
in
to
as
in
an interesting innovator
in
the
post-Cubist
Surrealism.
clear colors
of
fine
graphic
remarkable
artist,
plates
he has etched a
inspired
by the
series
cultural
The
very
a
slight.
leader
and Baargeld
surrealist
Marcel
among
is
the
Janko
mentioned
manifestos.
had
original
in a
Mereth
the
Paris
of
which
is
Rumanian-born
concentrated
in
on
Victor
earlier period in
depicting
his
own
dreams of humanity.
consequence of
now
to assimilate,
graphic
also
School
ficiency
early
he
nightmares
been
number of
Oppenheim
Dadaists,
indeed
Zurich
of the
His
style of Parisian
One
and
from the
number
of icono-
324). All
MODERN TIMES
691
692
units
he has formulated a
color,
that
style
two
color or of
or three colors.
same
Zev
(born
is
his
American
the
1914).
fantastic
paintings
latter
viewed
as
jester's
by
with
Gifted
children.
court
more
his
is
immediately decora-
The work
of
Esther Carp
cannot easily be
323.
Portrait.
tain
many
Born
now
in
elements
compositional
from
derived
French
color.
shadow
or of relief. In
he thus continues
in the tradition
effects of perspective, of
many
movement
still-life
respects,
or
patches without
in flat
and
com-
street-scenes
of flat
dies
and seem
dream-world that
to depict a
re-
and
nations
his
paintings
with
almost caricatural.
decorative
peculiarly
that
effects
are
VI
which
positions
abstract
human
as
would
otherwise
representations
of
be
animals
almost
and
of
figures.
in
among
the
Rumanian
(born
the
painters
gregarious, inclined to
Most of
Surrealists
on account of
his
dreams, Herold
recluses.
Some
however, be
artists of
classified
Zak
forms into
in
Paris
common. Few
Paris only in
his
of
of them,
By breaking up
work
a style or an ideology in
like
surrealist topics.
School
the
of
been legendary
under
difficulty.
its
various headings
Russian-born Eugene
who
settled
in
his death)
693
324.
his
affinity
Victor Brauner.
Zak
is
yet a
modern
in
of musicians,
characters.
(fig.
Paris
Brisel
Bella
painters,
Among younger
(born 1930), who
325).
Man
and
694
bull story.
and
painted religious
generally
seemed
particular,
naive,
his
he
work
Max
Converted to Catholicism,
oils.
is
is
scenes;
Jacob
miracles,
to fascinate him.
in
Sometimes
by
a profound faith
and
by the Germans
to
was born
less
seems
in Jerusalem,
sculptural
in
design,
their
have chosen
to
are
more remi-
painter
the
of
School
of
Paris,
Sioma Baram
camp near
by devout French
intellectuals, to
at his
in
Apollinaire
painter
Quimper,
in
in a very decorative
the
Jacob (1876-1944)
in Brittany,
group
was the
Max
of
manner.
and distinguished
which
Guillaume
and
most
imaginative
French
Museum
disconcertingly
witty
is
Drancy con-
Miracles
Paris.
are
said,
have occurred
movement
afoot to
Rome.
in
painters
1920,
in
he
the art-colony of
gradually
achieved
of the
La Ruche. After
a
certain
fame
MODERN TIMES
695
696
Jewish spiritual traditions and of French techniques. His views of Safad and his studies of Jewish
types
religious
reveal
profound attachment
his
The work
also defies
Kirszenbaum
of J.D.
any attempt
(1900-1954)
under the
at classification
The son
he be-
gan
to paint
he emigrated
to
at first as a laborer,
of Berlin papers,
1933, he came
In
vani.
Kirszenbaum began
themes,
including
through
and wood-cuts,
in
which
for
of the
War and
the People, of
show held
which reveal
by
surprised
many
of
1955,
in Paris in
were
collectors
quality
of
of
a big retrospec-
manv
critics
and
remarkable
the
Balgley's
of
The Book
Peace, of
Man. In
earlier
paintings,
to that of Chagall,
known
Frenel,
also
first
as
Frenkel
Palestinian-born painter of
when
to
his
school of painting.
a
number
it
was
Kirszenbaum went
ransacked
and
still
dered.
hiding;
into
a British
his
artist,
often
disciple of
had
that
his
of his
undergone
Impressionism;
the
art
German
and
he
that
rning
offering
in
his
nel
to
now
ork
absorbed
Expressionism.
true
perfectionist,
able synthesis.
His
work,
things
especially
by
haunted
always
past.
Gifted
life
after
elegiac
with
the
an
unusual
had
lived
for
exploring
to
time,
of
pictorial
to reconstruct the
was
war,
recollection
scenes
back
to
machine
Re
French
of
had
World War, t
of
of the schools
of the School of
are
inspiration
influence
addition,
in
the Eastern-
was always
style
Western-European
and
and
was
Though
is
He was
It
France, Kirszen-
of
work
his
remaining extremely
work,
his
studio
his
most of
looted,
baum resumed
the influence of
(born 1898),
returned to Palestine
tion,
was
illustrations
Biblical
prophets
of
figures of El Greco.
especially
as
is
with a kind
in Paris
representations
whose appearance
325.
work
to
handling
desperation,
of
a refugee to Paris.
as
is
like
and Kirszenbaum
as well as the
of an
The melancholy
remarkable svnthetis of
mood
of his reminiscences
Paris
after
the
Second
Old Testament,
697
bv touches of humor. His
ever,
698
new
discover,
if
lease of
only
life,
something of the
vicariously,
some
to recapture
He now seemed
and mysticism
of the mystery
riotous
its
known
in
his
paintings that
to Paris
still
works
he had
festivities
even
of his talent,
later
into
joy
is
if
no longer immediately
religious.
Michael
is
S.
Gottlieb
theatrical sets
1932, emi-
in
work
for
and an abstract
his
artist,
Aram
some
reveals, in
of
rative
realistic por-
traits,
some views
dows.
more
include
His
examples
brilliant
as well as
tions.
works
abstract
of
compo-
is
still
lived
in discussions
on
known,
if
Jewry contrast so
Bialystok,
and circus
Jews
Bukovina,
Kolnik
atmosphere
dignified
in
former
has
paintings,
composition
harmonies, as well as
in his
their
and began
to
paint his
1923, he
came
to Paris,
worked
style.
first
In
for a while as a
Toulon.
in
Paris
In
a
of thirty
admirable
Galicia
and
types
and
its
remarkable
and
artists
with
now-vanished world
Austrian
Berlin and
significantly
recorded
in
and scenes
exhibited
of
entirely self-taught.
the
is
settled
Simon Segal
of
in Paris since
of
sitions,
The work
draftsmanship
improvised
some extremely
some
for
sober
their
color-
more widely-known
bv chance and
began
to deve-
699
MODERN TIMES
700
human
rize the
above
those
all
human
that the
more frequently
main focus
constitute the
in the subject-mat-
Among
ter of a painting.
leading
and
should
figure
painters
group,
known
Paris
and
as
of
the
new
this
Humanist
neo-Romantic
in
in
ler,
Victor
Paul
Eliasberg,
327.
Segal.
Harbor Scene
known
in Brittany.
kel
and surroundings
to
have indeed
unsophisticated
children
children
the
or
His
craftsmen.
whom
(fig.
sculptures
of
compositions
still-life
likewise
own
toil
his
sustenance.
his
also
The
representatives.
of
outstanding
its
George Mer-
women and
in
of the
among
as Benn.
men
by generally being
and
of outstanding
culture
who
encour-
parents
an interest
to develop
in art,
literature.
for instance,
was
banker
who played an
Berman
life
is
its
extremely sophisticated in
blending of colors,
its
least figurative of
who
Segal,
is
of
the
Tsarist
a palatial residence
capital.
still
of Proustian characters
guests there.
Paris
Berman began
of the
first
show with
the
painters
intellectualism
that characterize
since
It
much
birth of
t<
was
I\
of
that art
began
to
be
felt
School of Paris
the
and
modern
deeply
Italy;
against
in
VII
reaction
frequent
to study painting in
he held his
1919,
figurative.
and
Around 1930,
among certain
In
the
formalism
This
was
the
first
public
Humanist or neo-Romantic
own
brother Leonid.
appearance
school.
of
the
In 1937, he
in Holly-
art, especially
artists
Ame-
of
was tending
to neglect certain
rica,
especially
as
THE SCHOOL OF
701
tumes and
and
sets
tacular.
painter
manneristic
and landscapes
perspectives
of
Berman
in
PARIS
draw
to
his
mental
art of ancient
he
influence,
may seem
puzzling these
The painting
Leonid
(born
conception
classicist
328).
(fig.
Eugene
of
1898)
of
Paris,
in
Berman's
brother,
differs
reproduce from
to
qualities,
and
observe
to
ability
the
returned to
has
702
then
too.
Egypt and by
underwent
an
spiritual
its
Impressionist
he returned to Egypt
to practice law,
all
women
his
often
those of
some painters
pseudonym
in his
human
figures play a
less
landscapes of Eugene.
man
taste.
be
appreciated
painters of the
of exquisite
Ben
Romantic
who
Benn with
Benn.
The
signs his
the
former,
first
American
who
in
was
insists that
work
human
of art
born
and
In his larger
as
first
Haunted
the
for
proportions
of
his
composition
scapes
of
views of
French or
cities,
and transformed
appears
it
by
man.
in
own
land-
and
his
aspects of nature as
now
gardens
Italian
when
Like
inhabited
Tischler,
(born 1895),
America, tends to
his
who
In
some respects an
traditions
in
Rome
of the
heir
German
in the early
to
painters
the
Romantic
who worked
fre-
of culture
is
respect,
and
communicate an atmosphere
in
in nature.
beginning to
is
in
world of per-
quality of
painter
Warsaw, then
He
era.
It is
affinity
of the
328.
Julien
Levy,
New
the Beach.
York.
MODERN TIMES
703
32
veloped a curious
of
fisica
curious
>.
affinity
other
certain
pantomimes,
Italian
compositions
these
Like
depict
704
in Paris,
where he
more
in a
who have
(fig.
specifically
directly
neo-Romantic
sought
participated
in
inspiration
especially Breughel
the Italians.
Humanist
the
from
or
Flemish
the
masters,
Coming
to
from Rumania
Paris
in
of Bonnard.
interiors
a larger scale
with a
exhibiting. In 1924,
he began
and pain-
ters,
tries
out
many
of his
to
He
and
window
typical
in color
interior,
Pollack
Israeli-born
An
on canvas.
composition.
painter,
Hanna
is
Married to the
Ben
Dov
(born
as
les
meaning
often
remains
Extremely
modest,
Michonze
attracting
ittention
and
been
fully
predated.
his
(fig.
seems
to
his
subjects
330).
sfumato
avoid
uses
wife;
in
muted
brighter
stresses
color
harmonies
some
and
more
treat
these
and
with
cheerful
colors
and
rative calligraphy.
THE SCHOOL OF
705
706
PARIS
VIII
A number
non-figurative art
seem
appeal,
since
ordinary
schools
different
of
or
abstract
of
to
on many
1945,
the
of
abandoned
previous
in
styles
been
has
so
Known
their
themselves
express
recent
in
on both
widely publicized
of the Atlantic.
sides
to
exclusively in the
years,
order
Ab-
Tachistes,
as
non-formal or non-figurative
stract Expressionists,
who belong
to these various
compensate
so as to
have
and
their texture
skill in
lost
Among
by
whatever
for
may
their art
particularly significant
view,
1898). At
and a Parisian
a Cubist
first
disciple
Hosiasson became,
abstract
of
(born
is
the
generally
is
Among
only
in
one
by
himself
distinguished
justifv
to
probably
choice
his
being
the
abstraction
of
as
Gregoire Michonze. The Danger.
330.
from
commandment.
this
terms
In
quality
regressive
of
interpretation
literal
Freudian analysis,
of
moreover
is
second
the
in
keeping
composition
(born 1892)
and
is
formal abstract
Born
in Nijni
tween
1930
Leon
color-harmonies.
Zack
as
well
as
to
Catholicism.
Novgorod, he painted
in Paris
and
spiritualized
1939
extremely
be-
Humanist
re-
among
the
younger
artists of
the
new
is
rare
school of which he
is
a recognized master.
Kolos-Varis
is
the
Zsigmond Kolozsvari
(born
of
Hungarian-born
1889).
Though he
from
has
his
original
generally
art.
In
recent
his
from most of
trasts
his colleagues
achieved
colors
of
in the irregular
which
his
patches of bright
who have
origin
recently
achieved
certain
colorists,
seem
however,
to prefer clearer
to distinguish
them-
that
pseudonym
away
tended
Kolos-Varis
relies
exclusively
on
exquisite
color
and
texture.
One
of the
is
Jean
MODERN TIMES
707
708
where
encouraged
Warsaw,
in
as
Hassidic traditions
the
of
spite
to
was
she
child,
in
her family,
of
artistic gifts; at
the age of
Government. She
of the Polish
in
at
Encouraged by
influences.
settled in
France
various
Fauvist
first
began
Picasso, she
United
the
to
artist
(1950-1952)
to
States.
backgrounds.
among
was born
Albert
Avram
studied
Istanbul,
in
developed a non-figurative
gest
which
architecture
in 1946.
He
own,
style of his
in
soon
in
his generally
architectural
He
forms.
seems to eschew
outlines,
effects
stranger
artists of Paris,
Paris
an utter
is
imitate those
produced
works salvaged
in
in the
331.
community
Jewish
An
in the ancient
Constantine,
of
Algeria,
in
in
Both
painting.
his colors
his
calligraphic composition
stripped of
its
and translated
folkloric
Polak
Amsterdam, lived
paint
during
the
1948
settled
in
abstract
which he has
individualistic culture
Marcel
and
painter,
331).
(fig.
(bom
in
1902)
hiding
German
Paris.
and
but
born
American
and drool"
so-called "drip
Many
Sam
origin:
these
of
painterly
among
others.
John Levee, in
already developed
has
cular,
though he
owes many
still
effects
Chelimsky,
Jewish
Francis,
Oskar Chelimsky,
Allan Zion,
of
like
Nicolas
to
of his
personal
more
de
partistyle,
strikingly
Stael.
Oskar
painters
of
the
School of Paris,
in
continued
to
and
in
known
occupation,
Primarily
younger
of
non-figurative
was
group
important
non-formal
in
his
to
canvases
is
ness of the
work
of
many
The
of these
marred by
effective-
younger non-
figurative painters
larity
to
cially
to
in
crayons.
of
these
style
is
its
striking simi-
justify
many
their
709
Tobey
as
What
whom had
their
710
work
in their
done
at their potential
Abrami
genius,
meaning which,
in
constitutes
lover,
Max
poet
who came
1943)
IX
Many were
Paris
shown
them together
France between
of
selection of their
Though
vary considerably,
of
by the Ger-
work was
an outstanding commemorative
in Paris in
exhibition.
killed
their
it is
and importance
styles
(1887-1943),
first
War
Born
colorist.
in
World
Soon
as
Odessa, where he
his studio
became a meeting
all
over Europe
all
in
Warsaw (1884-
of
originally
1925
to Paris in
campaign
having
after
fought
in
has
left
the
Polish
of
liberation,
came
and
a fine draftsman
and be-
his family,
Samuel
water-colorist.
worked
an
at first in Paris as
studying
art.
artist's
model while
a brilliant
has
Jacob.
George Ascher,
Oriental calligraphy.
briefly.
(1874-1943)
1923
bohemian
life
Montpar-
of
wars,
and
of
of paintings, often
He
drivers.
and
David
to Israel
from Russia
to paint
to collect African
first
sculpture
ment and
collectors.
In
his judg-
taste
he travelled
1929,
bringing back a
number
of works
to
Palestine,
and sketches
He was
attention.
deported
and murdered by the Germans during the occupation of France, before his
Henri
receiv-
deserves.
it
outstanding
was
victims
artist
(Chaim)
the
Epstein
Nazi
(1891-
A
in
in
and
of
still-life
work
compositions that
have continued
Pissarro,
Camille
and Cubist
schools.
as a halutz,
began
as
an art-student to France;
there,
life
later
deep attachment
gest his
of his
his studies,
somewhat
riors,
to the scenes
and the
Poland, 1906-1943),
portraits,
among
figure
came
1919
in
came
lyrical colorist.
occasional
complete
to Paris to
style as a
still-life
number of museums.
Hoherman of Warsaw (1902-1943) painted
are represented in a
Alice
of
young
girls
life,
and her
elegant
design.
sculptor;
and
a gift for
(1904-1941) worked
borate
portraits
in
Paris as a painter
somewhat decadent
stylizations,
and
he achieved
at
his
best,
left
us, in addition to
gouaches
interesting
of
series
main
faithfully the
reproduce
that
many
features of
number
ancient synagogues, a
of Poland's
moving land-
of
families
range
limited
the
was painting
death;
War
World
First
after
During
and a persecution-
other
of
portraits
(Lwow,
views
urban
certain
in
"spleen."
public-
Galicia),
(1893-1943)
industrial
and
qualities of painting
European Jewish
example of the
brilliant
is
artists
Weinbaum
in
re-
1890-
(Kamenetz-Podolsk;
more
capital's
still-life
compositions,
studies
in
left
us a
number
Eastern-European
of
views
typically old-fashioned
great
found
the Expressionists.
al
Vienna or
It is this
by
work
the bare
in
the
among
wonderful variety of
of Paris.
More Jewish
any time
anvwhere
in the history of
and worked
else in the
Western
art.
in
world
Attracted
have con-
has thus
of
which
all
of
ly of
The
no possibility
contribution of
peculiar
rals of
temperament
of Eastern-European libe-
when they
community
in order to express
themselves as
Jewish
There
Berlin,
of
types.
at
the
in
French
intellectual-
productive as a painter of
of the
warmth and
have contributed
interiors
Abram
Rimer
of
strollers
in
Alexander
painted
in Paris,
Viennese
a series of interesting
patients.
1889-1942)
and
internment
his
Mandelbaum painted
clinic,
to
he remained subject
reprieve,
mania.
he
while
spy
was condemned
a landscape, he
his
Poland during
in
as
express
to
color,
of
712
many
within
Yet
fruition.
their childhood in a
ity.
MODERN TIMES
711
who
younger
flock to
or
from
and
less
in-
Israel.
Paris
More
immediately
restricted space
more
is
artists of
work was
in the
whose
life
and
Enough, however,
To many
readers,
the
history
of
birth,
may seem
or Polish ghetto
and keen
intellectual
genius at an earl)
artistic
expression
individual
its
stereotyped.
their place of
warm
Jewish
life
age,
ii
was
Impressionists
its
of
sudden
as
it
and Fauvists
of the generation cf
Soutine.
As long
The Russian
for self-expression
num-
approach to
art;
and
its
in-
in the
work
of at
THE SCHOOL OF
713
least
guished)
PARIS
714
distin-
least
of
XI
Jewish
artists of
names known
ries of
of
II,
and the
them are
likely to survive
eration. It
is
by
galle-
some
of
and pioneers
few
War
many more
promise have begun to make their
of them,
who may be
rather
representative
significant.
Paris has
remained
as
it
the
fically
Jewish themes.
Chagall,
'
only on
if
manv
subject-matter of
in
1927
father
The
in a small
speci-
how-
painter Maryan,
been acclaimed by
ne\
critics as
Born
his
emigrated to
Paris.
duced a
332.
and
all
subsequently settling in
Israel,
Maryan has
pro-
on Jewish themes,
re-
Mainly calligraphic
in
his
on
His views' of
cities
mals,
in a
yan's paintings
in
ani-
to de-
on Jewish themes
offer
no
real
Maryan
Jewish religious
life
(fig.
Among
the post-war
"New
Realists" of Paris,
ish painter
among
reputations.
The
style
of
consi-
the
"New
The
Realists"
homo-
many
of
recog-
other Jewis
Jacques
Parisian. In his
life of
stresses the
emaciated features of
symbolize
world
his
models,
who
by
under-
Alexandre
Garbell
characterized
The Russian-born
(born 1903)
332).
Halter
composition,
or etchings.
pict
Law.
of highly-stylized bulls
to the
as
opposed to those
of Paris
is
painter
another
artist of
acclaimed.
likely to
be widelv
Warsaw-born
lived in Paris
yet remains, in
many
on his canvas, he
715
Marek
333.
ative
achieving
often
artist,
rare
of
effects
Halter.
quality.
unusually delicate
colorist.
younger painters.
We may
mention,
two con-
conclusion,
in
far-differing environments,
Though born
dam
has only
the
war.
moody
more attached
than integrated
Thus
French
capital.
to little-known
munities.
sitive
end
of
somewhat
and
romantic
in depicting
painter,
neristic
style
visions of
his
come
artists,
than metropolitan
rather
in Galicia in
Rasically
716
at Acre.
and
The Harbor
MODERN TIMES
Magnasco. In
his
creasingly
become
in-
334).
(fig.
Born
in
to find
money
number
of
manual trades
in order
painter by
life.
truly
from
their
themselves
original
as
Others remain,
art-schools
artists
background
of
the
and
School
imposed
of
and sometimes
in
Paris,
Paris.
French
regionalist
334.
Alfred Aberdam.
The
Painter's Family.
717
tends
style
to
somewhat academic.
be
Tunisian-Jewish
artists
self-taught artist
who
lives
Jewish
villages.
The haggadah
Edouard Benmussa
somewhat
that
still
garish
and
in
two
its
illustrations
unsophisticated
In
many
Algiers,
basically a post-Impressionist
some Fauvist
life
of
Jewish painters.
native Djerba
in his
Mane-Katz
Other
Robert Saad, a
include
folk-art
North-African
The
life,
names
is
that they
artistic
It
may be
artistic
produced
num-
of the
significance of these
who
some
has absorbed
718
by the teeming
by
If
we
might look
teristic
theme,
find
it
it;
and function, we
spirit,
is
shall not
perhaps
It is
America and
in
what
question,
we
of these
smiths, plumbers,
and
could be
specifically
be considered.
other hand,
an
synagogues
of
tion
We
we
in
Jewish
in
on the
If,
It
is
"masons,
of
glaziers."
carpenters,
Throughout the
it
is
we must
all
architecture
of
a bewilder-
Now
have
to exclude themselves,
and function
lity"
work
now suddenly
of building.
The name
things. It
is
architecture
means
several different
is
for carrying
on various functions;
is
it
the
entire
and an
inside
different
and
religious
corporations of craftsmen.
as
we come
building.
modern
into
Even when
times, there
the
rites of
And more
generally,
is
no Jewish
the
Likewise, there
majority host-people.
(There
is
are,
architecture.
to
causes
tions:
other
sections
of
this
work
will
have
Modern
statement holds )
in
its
architecture, like
community and
all
tied
different
now
in
architecture,
to
its
rooted
is
site;
but
its
some
needs developed
chances.
ment
We
as to the
architecture
in
and
making
a judg-
it
we
are
insisting
20th century,
and
of the architecture.
of the
Jews
was
show no attempt
to
One could
at
beauty or order.
It
was not
architects
crafts
made
where a Jew
of talent
an architect. In
Israel, of course,
the condi-
in
every respect.
In Germany,
it
was another
still
story.
Right up to
THE JEWS
721
IN
ARCHITECTURE
722
obtained.
still
and
family,
religious,
connections
art
department
stores
and
and supports
that belongs to
(In the
builders.
many
more Jewish
among
architects
much
smaller
In Russia,
finally,
we
which
we
Rut
in
were
Jews
And
this
and
artisans,
were said
building-contractors
all
and
small-townsmen
be Jews.
to
from
is
it
335.
ward population
the
that
great a
so
We may
Let us
(2)
now
George
architect
lish
as in architecture.
(1794-1845),
Rasevi
who was
killed, as
him a conhappens,
it
the result of a
as
During
the
Ages
Middle
the
fall
master-builder
Cathedral.
became an
artist
artisans; in the
Renaissance he
SGc?)
is
exactly
in the
Among
should be:
sober
and
dignified
(1843),
logy;
London
in
it
is
is
and having
more
solid
and
bohemian.
This
gentlemanly
status
and
its
correlated
common). What
is
that a
man
of talent
is
(Conimpor-
accepted on
this
we
are
civic,
given,
apparently
monumental, or
we
without
discrimination,
ecclesiastical commissions;
their
influence.
In
outstanding Jewish
chapter, on
some
cases,
architects
illustrations
may
synagogue architecture.
be
of
found
the
work
in
the
of
next
723
gives
away
amusing
its
work
is
it
window on
claritv.
such
an elegant piece of
724
David
Mocatta
He
(1806-1882).
was,
whose influence
to
less
windows
is
palaces. There
shadows and
are, therefore,
And how to
manner never made
integrate
for fire-
Reference
may be made
St.
perfectly English
educated
is
in 1823, as a
a fresh
and highborn,
in Dr.
as befits a
travels in Italy.
native and
man
young
young man
of Rasevi's
of twenty-nine. It
man
here to an indepen-
dent,
it
owed some
as a railway director
of his commissions:
he doubt-
for
he was
had a
England
They
are planned
buildings.
larger
libitum
one station
in
The
"style"
is
applied ad
places?
as
to the stone
was
style
of
is
lightened
Greek influence,
The whole
is
at the
native,
336.
1840)
tion (c.
is
more "modern"
a small building
in
was vice-president
Italy,
was otherwise
tect.
He
the
to
typical
early
ceased
family fortune,
Council
the
of
London, designed
in
same
the
its
of
336),
it is
architect's
of the R.I.R.A.
and
gentleman-archi-
the
practice
but,
on
succeeding
being Chairman of
Reform
first
(fig.
Congregation
in
permanent synagogue
1851.
same time
and both
Station.
1840.
THE JEWS
725
l4
Jii
*Jh
s-Pt
<
<
3-
:4
%.'
,.
IN
*
W _'-_,
">
,
r ,,.wii
ii l
ili'
II
p.
..
I I
726
.-! n
'
.^u.iiuiimiiL.jJ
ii;f|l l#|
ARCHITECTURE
li
[''-,
,,.
-1
"i"^
337.
the
of
tic
Georg
Deutsche Reichsbank
Itzig.
period,
Berlin
we have
(1879)
work
the
is
and more
of the period.
more
clear
interesting than
and
the
the exterior.
of groined vaulting.
The whole
is
and
There
controlled,
it
is
not so
with
the
typically-German
much
same sphere
the
though somewhat
less to
Messel
glass
The
338).
(fig.
French
interior
It
is
the verticals of
but obviously
all,
this
is
style.
The
mind how
the exterior
Now
is
it
means
to look.
an unfortunate
purified of
its
Gothic
had an
to
make up
(The mansard
bow
illustrious
and
later
kind of
progeny.
as Itzig,
as faith-
professor,
of Art.
mere
list
social milieu).
Eduard Simon
brings to
life a
whole
of
to convention).
flirtation, this
Geheimrat, and
sian
is
and
after the
lighter
is
orderly
beasts,
stone, steel
modeled
remarkable combination of
is
it
module
is
architecture;"
1879.
refined,
are
The plan
tural
and cultivated
Berlin.
German work
interior
of a well-born
337).
(fig.
in
'j-A^^'i
;*
built in Berlin
338.
Alfred Messel.
store in Berlin.
1904.
MODERN TIMES
727
and
decorative
the
pierced balustrade
dow with
its
detail
728
The
Arabesque.
is
is
domes
the
requires very
It
And
onion-domes.
into
especially in the
there
interior,
little
to turn
everywhere,
a variegated
is
somehow
the whole
a
who
grant
is
mixture
this
in order to
who
allows expression to an
The
munity
feeling.
was
misproportion.
its
The nave
is
is
squat.
They did
And
ing.
calling to prayer.
339.
Eidlitz.
New-York. 1868.
in
style
and
feeling. It
was
as
if
had
a different
a facade that
hand
Eidlitz built a
number
On
the one
of churches, including
1867)
in St. Louis,
by the
ous
was
made
builders.
stvles,
and studied
as art-history. In
in
architect like
Emanu-El (1868)
White.
New York
Italian stock,
This
as
it
town.
the
in
to
in old
architect
America;
much
and
main
the
"Moorish"
in
that,
shown here
The
in
Stanford
member
elected a
At
quick
is
glance
harking
back
is
to
of
the
feeling
decorative
since
is
Gothic
immi-
its
strength
the
Gothic
the neo-Gothic
in
appears
it
like
Eidlitz
movement
in
Romanesque;
intention
was
the
gogues.
So
as
France
was important
339).
much
of these an
who was
achievement
grant
(fig.
Basevi had as
and
astonishing
originally
was
that
things;
spires
are
to
syna-
made
into
good
in
taste.
ontologie
the
work
Yet this
is
if
Humaine
in Paris
of a sensitive,
(fig.
340)
feels
of
is
it is
much
new way
detail tries to
(1913)
trol in
on
all stress
frieze
the Institut de
of
is
scale;
the
subject matter
at
THE JEWS
729
there
ARCHITECTURE
IN
is
is
refined.
He
has
gifts,
he
cannot find his way, he goes backwards. Pontremoli has a great fondness for the Greek grandeur
and
Salomon Reinach,
for
a house. If Proust's
this is the
The
for
whom
he designed
architect,
problem seems to us
historical
be
to
up
to
art
among
than ritual
art.
In
modern
little
Jewish
little
to
built.
this:
plastic
painting,
museum
of
show other
adequate,
sculpture,
art,
the
and
of
architecture.
practice
of
the
For modern
modern
plastic
masters,
in-
tion
to
Nouveau"
new
of
vitality in
what
is
340.
to find a
Emanuel Pontremoli.
Institut
Avant-
that
"De
or
number there
we
among
consider "L'Art
Wright or
many Jews
among
the leaders.
(1887-1953)
is
conveying
master,
expressionist
logical
work
known
a
whole
as the architect
it is
who
a sculptor
by
and plan
his
Rut
peculiar
harmony and
genius
of
is
melody,
in
his
him
disposition,
as
psycho-
as a
though
are
in architecture
"Expressionism" or the
Stijl" or
Erich Mendelsohn
the
is
rebel in order
Urbanism
strong
the rejection
in
ture
stifling
who must
always
in expression.
is
730
is
orchestration
may be
in
one
or
another of these.
His Einstein Tower, in Potsdam
de Paleontologie
Humaine
in Paris.
1913.
(1921), de-
731
make
signed to
and
Expressionist sculpture
(fig.
The
341).
was
sketch
is
its
astronomic observations
certain
another planet.
and frightening,
as
if
It
is
perhaps
same powers
in a
French
in decline. It
mental, but
is
merely "architectural"
effect
of the interior
is
more
we
have
Everywhere
in
it
to
store at
tug-of-war
and you
in the sculp-
(fig.
342).
Half
curtain-wall:
These
armature.
prising
sier
lightness,
arranged:
and
flatness
bands
flat
not
a fine elegance
French
Hadassah
United
States.
Among
Mount
on
Hospital
years in the
last
here were
his productions
after
like Albers:
and
sur-
Le Corbuthe detail
is
par excellence.
If
we
hood,
we may
external behavior.
naissance
organically
closely
Now
periods,
in the
when
religious
and
the over-all
community was
the
its
is
political
structure
ties, this
horizontals;
artfully
imitated.
are too
by maintaining an absolute
if
its
bay window,
pilasters
at
he achieves as
at the
uprooted.
is
be pretentious.
to
now-abandoned
The Schocken
weak even
create
the artist
site;
is
it
stony
its
but
be monu-
to
out of place on
meant
is
frigid. It is
it is
likely
in
style
and centered
metrical
732
for a
make
to
when they
lived in the
ghettos.
meaning
it
of
good
to
be
lapsed;
it
In our
own
is
again a
341.
Kncli
in
Potsdam. 1921.
THE JEWS
733
IN
Erich Mendelsohn.
342.
ARCHITECTURE
The Schocken
734
Store. 1929.
pervasive.
many
technological changes.
community
spirit
even
peculiarly
spirit
of
cities,
clinics,
social
is
its
economic, and
congenial
reform,
to
them.
It
slum-clearance,
is
is
the
garden-
political,
In
of the society.
made them an
intellectual
and
history has
critical minority,
public
law,
radical
politics,
philanthropy,
in
trade-unionism,
public
gressive education,
in
medicine,
and the
reform
social
psychiatry,
loped from
gical
its
work,
pro-
and
Israel,
com-
atmosphere,
we would
And
phenomena,
it
if
we
is
Some
very prominent.
was achieved
as early as
(1884-1923)
in
on Spaarndammerplantsoen
warm and
pare
it
To
poetic.
with the
Dutchman, Oud;
appreciate
concrete
or
(fig.
it,
for
housing
here
343)
is
we must com-
housing of another
more
extreme,
with
the
whose
chief
concern
is
meer; and
like
flat
vertical accents.
what a richness
The housing
of texture
fits
its
street.
And
there
is
drawing on indigenous
skills.
Also,
735
343.
Michel de Klerk.
344.
Housing
project
MODERN TIMES
on Spaarndammerplantsoen in Amsterdam.
in
Vienna. 1930.
736
THE JEWS
737
white
framing.
poetry
is
To be
sure,
this
IN
ARCHITECTURE
738
Vermeer-like
be found
in a school;
We
Henry Wright
in the
of
Radburn
(N.J.)
a highly interesting
to
commercial framework.
ward and an
344).
S.
345)
(fig.
American attempt
(fig.
Garden City
bv Clarence
Wlach
in
disciple of
Ho-
associate
Garden City
also in
more urban
concentrations.
now
crowded
city:
Stein
projects break
families (the
the
The
acre).
of
imitated
345.
Clarence
S. Stein.
usual chaos;
them
for 1,200
12 families to
neighborhood planning
unified
more urban
allows for
is
some
use.
various
in
it
living-
The essence
of the plan
is
to solve
by
cul-de-sacs
common.
development
The most
New World
in the
United
States.
as
far
as
Puerto Rico:
the
is
is
at
of the patients,
and
346.
739
it is
such a building as
this
W.
Arnold
347.
how
sits
environment.
its
client's
crucial proof of
is
his
it
work.
The
fails
who designed
tic of all
it is
Stadium
in
he spent
athletic
considerations he adduces
his
it
own
plays
style:
tell
and two
it
allows for
somewhat
the one
New
little
York
(fig.
here: the
time or care on
summer
town planning
concerts; in the
new
community center
W. Brunner
(1857-1925).
Denver, was
an
in
in
as
has never
it
in
Baltimore,
Designed
America,
Arnold
it.
been adequate
Lewisohn
in
realis-
most famous
we show
flexible expansion.
Very active
case
his
New
20th century."
is
in
the
Then
building
fanatic
classical
and was
is
all
America, he
reconstructions
Like
his time
his
way
every building
in
of the
York.
rejecting
make
to
dedicated functionalism
of correcting
One
in
New
740
familiar to
all
is
less
in fact
and popularly
terrible.
Brunner 's
Temple Beth-El on
Fifth
Avenue
in
New
York,
THE JEWS
741
IN
The
situation in Israel
is
economic,
for
social,
well-known
tically
every
ment,
from
kind
socio-economic
of
community
absolute
And
authority.
perhaps
the
Israel,
arrange-
chief
to
out of this
social
co-
state-
the
in
"necessity."
tecture
is
interests
of
"efficiency"
how
or
even
and
in the
rational
there
in
and
is little
still
the
father of the
last
thirty
(Yitzhak)
Klerk.
We
years
in
of construction of
Israel
(fig.
was
Richard
a pupil of de
Nahalal (1921).
What
is
an island
in
348.
history,
naturally,
yet
is
in those radiating
soil
to the center.
What
bold scheme
this
farms
wagon-
somewhat
an alien land,
is
is
success
will
so
is
is
is
won, what
is
effect
right
is
over and
it
than
better
the
old
is
high
achieving stability
of
we
nothing but a
all
drifts
away. (And
through the
monumental
Planning in
middle,
crossing
the
empty
axis )
country as
laid
is
of planted trees.
something provided
history.)
huge task
again, there
and stands
is
These are
unembarrassed by
scratch,
previous
The
axis.
site
yet,
on the
of trees
yet there
elicit
ments
its
pluralism,
cultural
nothing
742
monumental layout
problem
the best
prac-
is
through
operatives,
centered in
is
of course, especially
is,
ARCHITECTURE
we
Israel,
by Arieh Sharon
(Physical
"at the
743
Israel...
the population
The tendency
is
envisaged at 2,650,000")
to regard the
is
whole
com-
as the
look
MODERN TIMES
is
gests this
and yet
is
munalism.
seems
Space
will
details or illustrations of
synagogues
to
two
or
Israel archi-
be spoken of
First, the
had
by Yohanan
Dean
wishes, however,
as
that sun.
One
to us falsely regional.
rather
in
that
also
744
350),
we
(fig.
of
the
We
(fig.
349)
Ratner,
his
work
to
show
buildings must be
stone-faced.
The
rule
is
is
local
unity; also
ings.
An
and the
it is
city has
an ancient, stony
artistic
difficulty
that
first
struck Israel.
may be compared,
It
e.g.,
too,
the sun-
what
We
an adjunct of real
Many
estate.
varieties of archi-
tecture,
expression,
are
functional
brilliant sunlight. In
for
the
excessively
office-buildings
ly in function, structure,
the
vast
of
tribe
architects,
and
business
itself,
the
Jews
are
vastly represented.
spirit
in the fields of
entertainment and
merchandizing.
And
these ave-
have taken
in large
Whether we consider
numbers.
theatre-
we
shall find
Jewish de-
Or whether we consider
huge department
stores or little
shops, Jews have been extremely apt at creating the setting for
mention,
French-born
349.
Yoh
lan Ratner.
in Jerusalem.
1930.
in
America,
the
Raymond Loewy
THE JEWS
745
350.
Dov Karmi.
351.
IN
ARCHITECTURE
in
746
1954.
Bremerhaven. 1909.
747
It is
tastic
mannerisms that
cafeterias
and
we
see
were
once
artist.
So
movie-theatres
everywhere
in
first
at the
1873)
(with Strnad)
Wright's of the
is
Ry 1914,
there
is
Ziegfeld Theatre in
is
Milan
the
tional;
viously
e.g.,
was monumental,
theatre
Stadttheater in Rremerhaven
La
theatricality of a
Scala in
to the structure
(1909)
in Rerlin
institu-
(fig.
351)
(1914),
we
externalized.
the structure;
New
in principle, the
is,
York a generation
Raroque turning
we
is still
some
relation
is
show and
kind of
we must mention
al engineering,
though
this
As with
all
hundred
coming
we may be
of steel
inforced concrete
so
for
later.
subject.
This theatre
front.
Pre-
notably the
it
glamorous
it
style;
not eclectic.
748
become world-wide.
It
352.
is
Dankmar
Adler.
it
is
and
said to be in a
first
re-
new
such fun-
in
Chicago. 188/
THE JEWS
749
ARCHITECTURE
750
in the
of the
the participation
as a
IN
group
more
is
The
case
community
or
assess.
Jews
difficult to
not as with
is
commercial
whose
individuals
been
contribution
has
outstanding.
Louis
and
partner
in
trulv
Sullivan's
was
engineer
of Adler
and
Albert Kahn.
353.
is
modern concept
of func-
is
Chicago (1887)
in
a characteristic
modern
ders of
architecture. Adler
field of
ner
of
that
left
him
and
problems involved
in the
As Sullivan put
it,
modern
office building."
fine confidence,
have
to
without
It
was
was
temperamental
authority
final
sharp,
in that office
own
his
in
arbitrary
basis
being
line
each
field,
drawn.
that
The
office
The Auditorium
this
admirable
is
is
master.
is
and
delicate
the fine
and
thin the
Romanesque
Romanesque
to a professional
to
solidity
again, pales
away
a famous
is
not visible
is
from any exterior view. There were serious problems of the foundation, triumphantly solved with
great
originality,
auditorium
itself
were
so
of
the
It
is
first
is
historically
celebration of the
steel
There seems
in the
West
artist,
barrassed as to
what
Sullivan,
to
obviously em-
is
do with
this
new
thing
windows seem
to
an upside-down Gothic.
It is
with sureness.
handle
this steel
Obviously here,
how
countries.
tion
a masonry building,
is
a certain
is
The decorative
he
of
verticals,
trained.
important.
and
whole
horizontals
off
As Adler put
adjusted
forthright
their
what
it,
cian,
Steel
caught right
tional style.
(fig.
The Ohio
Sulli-
main
constructivist, springing
in
build-
and
spite
have
to
be no especial
to engineering,
amount
link of the
of exclusion
from
it
in certain
Yet,
sometimes
Thus,
excelled.
Albert
Henry Ford
(for
bile factory at
Jews
whom
he
modern
times.
Kahn
influ-
With
automo-
we might
glass
of the
aesthetic statement
chapter.
(See
fig.
365).
A.
I.
Gegello.
He
Packard,
Cadillac,
etc.;
Willow
he has worked
etc.
at,
for
engineering
themselves.
The
and
architecture
factory
shown
its
The
whole huge
structure
depends
its
from
working
all
tains of the
The work
tects
about
steel
and the
possibilities of
it
the
man
who knows
best.
glass cur-
may be
may
On
At
hospital,
suburban
housing
isolation
of a
(fig.
like a
As
and an
design
is
dacha
style in the
same
direction. In
clumsy,
fairly
unable
sought; this
lack
is
of skills
in
this
style
rical
Centrosoyus of Le Corbusier
G. Gewurtz
bv the lack of
craftsmen;
to
is
these
histo-
in-
springs
of nearly
of the various
ally,
J.
project.
The suggestion
the
by
is
model looks
won
(No doubt
quite interesting
is
diseases )
it
Diseases
it
human and
cy."
mind; but
Infectious
for
inspection the
first
good
its
Hospital
rather
also
make up
to
competition.
Memorial
354
engineering functionalism at
won
of the School of
demism unable
A.I.
is
norm, he
ideal
in
1940),
was the
ing,
the advanced
ject not
thods
of
when
great esteem
Also,
better
the professions
fire-station for
Kahn,
7.12
Run,
fig.
MODERN TIMES
751
for
instance,
craft
skills
the
renowned
THE JEWS
753
IN
known
that
House
for his
of Culture in Leningrad,
is
factory at Belyi
glass
Trotskii's
(fig.
355), designed
more
masterly.
It
rican
factory
but
Bychek
in the nineteen-twenties, is
more
artistic
Ame-
than similar
way
canti-
shown here)
very quietly in
sit
typical of Trotskii's
genre.
When we
various styles.
754
(One
its
work
American
business
see this
is
in Russia
now
"traditionalists,"
imitative
version
second competition,
"socialist
realism,"
the
sentimentalized
grandiose,
was
and
Iofan's idea
same
Trotskii again, in
H. A.
how
project
is
lifeless, frigid,
an
the
Peter
The
won by
of
the
building,
skyscraper-style
355.
"neo-Classicist."
was Hector
of the winners
theatre in Russia.
H.A.
ARCHITECTURE
it is
little
that from
more than
modern
architecture,
become
it
is
is
not
from
is
architect;
The
crisis
came
to a
The
first
prize-decision
ended
Moscow, 1932.
in dissension
among
it
have made
in the
modern
755
in engineering).
art
among
The absence
of a native plastic
start in
The
now
human
succeeded
is
condition, both
is
MODERN TIMES
modern
art the
756
Jews
will
own.
If so,
America or
the
we would
Israel or both;
peculiar
it
it
to occur in either
stable communities. It
style
expect
is
of the universal
modern
stvle.
While the
EDWARD JAMILLY,
by advances
in political
civilized
From
was not
It
came
which
The
that
fact
early decades of
to terms
v^ast
number
of
and
into
new
built
Few
embark on
cident with a
bad period
program
coin-
of architecture. Accord-
be found
in the majority
of
and labor
in profusion,
and some
interesting deve-
to
buildings
II
and
of interest
of transition in
in
its
few
style.
number
of quality. This
European
national
dominant
was
were
Methods
a period
the
of construction
new
pre-
and
of
those of
still
to revolutionize construction
been
half of
of buildings
was
still
first
architecture. Renaissance,
variations,
vaulting
materials
and design
felt.
The Roman
commonly adopted
by synagogues since the dispersal was still predominantly in use, but two experiments, at least
in
rare.
Architecturally
of their
correspondingly debased.
is
development.
faith;
with the
this period,
Jewry
another
to base further
during
until the
19th century
realities of life
design of a
marked
Furthermore, the
tenets.
and aimless
own
his
eclectic
basilican plan
synagogue
first
of these
in the Seitengasse,
Vienna (1824) by
Joseph Kornhausel;
may be
religions.
This
architects
of
The
and builders
ancient
fitting
building
non-Jew
built a religious
his
objects;
occasionally,
own
suit
ideas,
ceremo-
new and
strange problem,
to differ
from
it
is
classic
its
style
it
of the
prevailing
(fig.
upwards
central
Avignon,
manner was
synagogue
by the
in
the
At
Roman
many monuments
of that
759
356.
Synagogue
in
the Seitengasse,
it is
not
Temple
of Vesta
was
built in
Rome.
may
when
set
his castle
synagogue
circular
and grounds,
at Worlitz
built the
(near Dessau)
in
MODERN TIMES
760
style
The
is
interior has
as formal
and
contemporary
print.
the
in
exam-
site.
The
of
and good
an Empire interior
classic proportions,
interior of Avi-
roof,
lit
dows.
opened
galleries,
to
set Ionic
carry the
flat
were two
slightly
lit
this
design
its cei-
galleries
were screened
diagonal
trellis
apse facing
the two.
it,
Womi
galleries are
provided on either
ling
but
by
owing
full
this
to
There
entirely through
unusual features of
columns
ceiling.
to site restrictions;
to
their full
height by
Middle Ages,
761
Paris synagogue
but in
its
was
original
rebuilt in
762
1850/1 by Thierry,
to
have been
Bayonne (1837)
le).
is
manner;
a strong
Roman
influence
is
The
Sephardi synagogues,
off
bv great
is
curtains,
ark, as usual in
set in
French
at
in
demand by
Metivier,
J.
columns
a Protes-
latter,
com-
later
school,
by the
fine
by G. Hetsch,
Copenhagen (1832)
university and other
at
architect for
358.
by Andras Landherr.
The
in the
first settlers
follow-
Newport,
R.I.,
contained
New
York and
suggestion in their
little
was
put.
new
take on a
to
undeveloped
character, as yet
Old World.
in the
was on
a parity with
synagogue began
to
pression
of
to
simplicity
rior
that
and lack
all
ex-
churches,
glorification
The Beth
its
the
raised
interior
was arranged
established
a tower
Sephardi
in
(1794),
accordance
tradition,
its
even
Georgian
Colonial facade.
Ill
Davies.
first
building,
the
loss
congregation
by
of
fire
of
its
Charleston
763
MODERN TIMES
Egyptian revival
was
a small
Israel
features:
(1848-51) are
by means
ceiling
the
in
to his later
veh
style;
764
lit
through a domed
Another
of a central lantern.
Washington
its
of Strick-
its
made
of
Egyptian motifs
Canterbury
in the tiny
359.
opened
L.
its
Warner and
built
a very correct
first
later,
Aus-
revival
had
in
a building with an
this
solidity
of these styles
is
an
rapidity with
at
lies
More
classically-moulded wood-
the
Greek
were
few
had
century.
359).
(fig.
than
curious
exteriors of the
a shallow curving
Athens)
in
came back
to
who
from archaeologists
Napoleon's Egyptian
more
manner
inconsistent
of the pharaohs. It
synagogues
for
to
was no
adopt the
as long as
it
little
the davs
closer to the
when any
style
William Strickland
(1822-5).
in
of
would do,
gian
home
to
design their
He produced
form
but
with
commissioned
new synagogue
Egyptian
details
(fig.
360.
in Philadelphia
765
IV
pre-
When
birth.
architect
in
and
was thought
to
Ludwig von
planner
city
Forster,
suit,
and
in conjunction
766
Vienna (Leopoldstadt)
at Pesht
at Miskolcz,
the
(1860)
latter
Hungary
banded
exter-
facade interspersed
its
(fig.
historian,
spirit of
trial
and gardens
of the palaces
of
synagogues
now
Toledo,
of
and
Middle East,
the
in Islamic
countries,
had
West;
the
architectural
their
As early
fried
1838/40, Gott-
as
Semper
built a squarish
timber
dome 69
feet in
The Synagogue
Hungary
at Pesht,
(1!
the
entrance;
the
internal
detail
was
it
was one
of the
mid-century,
synagogue,
the
interior
of
the
Cologne
Sy-
like
it
the
London, remains
ly a classical building.
Cathedral, shows
elaborate the
New
York
architect)
in
Houses
of
Parliament
in
The
old
Temple Emanu-El,
(see
fig.
and
its
synagogue
in the
Tempelgasse
in
Vienna (1853-8)
full-
details
pretentiousness,
all
retained a middle-European
built the
767
362.
gogue (1869/70)
in their
Tombs
outside
Cairo!"
many
onion-shaped
and
bulbous
synagogues of varying
domes.
They
sizes at Liverpool,
and
New
the
form.
excessively
modern
flank
London
in more fanciful
The new Florence Synagogue of 1880, de-
dome dominates
while the
city in
which
it
(who
the
built
synagogues
Romanesque
book
in
in protest against
style),
and Hamburg
in
1874 on architectural
was placed.
styles, in
which he
Jewish synagogues;
of partiality
headed by
unauthorized
restless to
rior,
countries,
768
By 1866,
MODERN TIMES
it
and perverted
notion
taste,
imparting
of
an
Oriental
tinople, lieb
achieved dui
period
(fig.
362). Although
religious
grounds as
it
is
on
is
as
historical."
style
769
of ornamentation
was fashionable,
exam-
isolated
that
it
was applied
Where
gle architect
H.H.
being
still
would turn
Often a
built.
hand
his
sin-
to several styles;
who
built a
num-
and follow
few years
and
later,
using a Doric
florid Italian
who
Renais-
many
Greek
the
in
(1859/66, by
strated
was desired
dome
Oranienburgerstrasse,
of
over a
cross
synagogue
770
The
Berlin
J.
the enormous
it
flanked
noble
design a Renais-
with
mansions
in
Vienna, could
Forster's
Oriental
still
built
examples
before
capital cities
him.
which
influence
was natural
in the
an
style,
Synagogue
of
ally
Italian
and
Rome,
America,
nati,
Tiber on the
narets!
site of
(fig.
363).
e.g.,
the
(Ohio), with
Plum
its
thirteen
tectural
detail of the
363.
style
in
use
all
Street
geogra
them
Temple
of Cincin-
the Romanesque.
The
synagogues of Breslau and Strasbourg (now destroyed) were surprisingly pure copies of
the
bank
of the Tiber.
Roma-
MODERN TIMES
771
into
fall
772
onto a Renaissance form. Moorish, Arabic, Saracenic and Turkish detail was applied freely to
all
graffiti-
Ages
in
and
machicolations
to
windows,
gables,
rose
corner
turrets
roof
crenellations
and arcading;
arches,
octagonal
particularly
by no means unusual
to find, in the
details
and
towers
lines,
stilted
Middle
were
it
was
same syna-
drawn from
half
often
all
were used
364.
Synagogue
J.
Knoblauch and
others.
(1859/66),
by
in a building of
with
style
lican
in
the
manner
typical of these
elevation, consisting
and lean-to
aisles
window
Mannheim
placed
centrally
over
Synagogue (1855),
so in general
is
entrance.
is
although the
distressingly complicated
by too many
and Stuttgart
(1875)
former
the
(1861)
styles,
and the
latter
Byzantine
of Paris
Rue
domed
Rue de
des
interior.
la Victoire,
Tournelles
bv
The
synagogues
by Aldrophe
Varcollier
1874
(1879)
and
Romanesque in
style: while the supreme example was the Temple
Emanu-El in New York.
Brussels
There
(1880)
is
(fig.
hardly
365)
are
365.
The Synagogue
in
Brussels
(1
773
well,
to the winds,
restraint
774
gance upon
artifice
now
occupied. In fairness
let it
of taste
they
Jewish
to
committed by church
while
architects,
secular
VI
synagogues
although
out,
medieval
contemporary
the
style,
be detected, mixed
detail can
amount
of Gothic
in
sometimes
windows
the tracery of
in
or in
ached
Synagogue
in
of a pointed arch.
It is
dows
gable end.
At Archshofen,
(built
New
window
rose
The building
and has a
detail
it,
is
otherwise Georgian in
England clap-board
structures.
For
Mikveh
full-blooded
we must
go to
Israel,
a building in
details as the
memorial
tablets.
Perhaps Vienna
to
Working
in a citv of Classic
with a
(1883/4)
pendants
Mullnergasse
(fig.
complete
(1888/9)
flat
366), the
with
towers,
in Early English
was sup-
Max
built
its first
when
the
flush of novelty
towns
(e.g.,
where
church
Sheffield
1877,
consistent
Schmaltzhofgasse
the
architect,"
in
detail in basic-
which
religious
at the center.
un-Gothic
styles
for
exterior.
tion
posed
ward quirk
(1883/4),
Fleischer.
tecture,
ally
piercing the
in
Max
little
Massachu-
of Plymouth,
flanking
Schmaltzhofgasse, Vienna
by
and Leeds
architects
were
in
England),
employed.
The
and
true
it is
any capital
and Baroque
archi-
Let us pause and consider one or two interesting sidelights in the history of nineteenth-century
He
is
scale, designs
already
made
for a church.
synagogues.
patterns
We
have
and trends
in
been
following
general
MODERN TIMES
775
367.
two buildings
F.
W.
776
Scholander.
unusual to
most
there
are
sufficiently
deserve comment.
in
noticeable
galleries,
of
edifices
Although
it
Swedish
the
capital."
it
(fig.
in external
appear-
367). There
is
community
its
of Turin to express
feet.
This
gratitude for
its
to the
were de-
lays
walls.
Perhaps due to
re-
its
styles,
own
its
windows
is
to circular.
synagogue
Novara
in
in 1863,
The
until 15 years
architect, after
whom
it
was
Cat
de force
dral
md
to
attempt
raised
upon
community
of the burden,
finished
monument.
It is
now used
as the
as
it
Museum
civic
of the
Risorgimento.
drawn
this
of
structural
columnated
The
last
had been
common
Roman
times
it
strife
significant
777
modest communities
and
selves,
them-
between communi-
of friendly relations
numbers
large
ark
778
and
platform,
as
structural
form
was
ties.
As a
their buildings
in architectural
character;
the
square
came
(and
later
by Orthodox
into use
congregations, which
of
maximum
octagonal)
capacity.
had
domed
as well as
to
plan
Reformed
The combination
of
bema
We
have
style in
mainly
outward appearance.
by Orthodox
hand,
land,
ately
of Byzantine forms.
When,
in 1818, the
movement was
started
which was
in
lican plan
because
turies,
and ceremonial
Jewish
fitted
it
in the
U.S.A.
resisted
far-
the other
by Sephardi communities.
Hamburg,
have
On
and was
for so
it
Reformed congregations,
Reformed
to
as well as
Finally, for a
form of service
in
furnishings
liturgical
was immediately
so well,
went
of
revision.
came
service
by degrees
and organ
a preacher, choir
to resemble in
came
of service
many
respects that of
Christian worship.
The
tionary,
gues.
effect
From
Reform synago-
to
was elevated
The
a pulpit.
came concentrated
Once
this
at
all
merged
to
into
activity be-
it
became
desir-
from
plan.
sermon
distinct-
all
Form
became
to hear the
follows
function;
first
the
basilica
grew
plan with
in
the
domed
larger
central
towns,
Greek
space gradually
solution because
it
brought
368.
"Mole Antonelliana"
in Turin (1863),
by Alessandro Antonelli.
779
theater plans
became an obvious
and
solution,
Reformed synagogues
in
be
pulpit, with
and
rials
and
As
tional effect.
mate-
emo-
striking changes,
felt,
fined to half a
more than
the Reform
tional worship, in
00
,
hitherto con-
relaxed;
advanced
for a departure
from convention,
be
to
generation,
this
may be
it
passed
its
zenith, there
came a
further spate of
stylistic
revivals.
Germany
In
particularly,
a curious
emerged;
genstil"
it
Reform Synagogue
building of the
much
parently very
was
it
usually lack
full effect of
sent
traditional for
the
galleries.
These
general relaxation of
(except
in a century,
style
780
MODERN TIMES
Classic,
in
London
florid orna-
Em-
pire,
now
this
of services, timing
handled more
cessors.
lin
in
skillfully
The Synagogue on
close to that of
in swift succession
rior
its
pseudo-Renaissance
inte-
in
Christian worship,
Stylistically, as
temple,
we have
the
as
chosen to
call
For
the
dome
seen, the
synagogue
or
itself
pression which
ches.
is
it
would
a while,
it
differentiate
from chur-
it
which came
of Byzantine origin,
to
to
fit
new form
nities
The
of service.
and the
full
now adopted
rise of
citizenship
to suit the
enjoyed bv
and
artistic
New
Government
pressive
New
in
wealthy commu-
now
Shearith Israel,
U.S.
style.
be
ned
see chapters
and
VII.
The wtml
"minister"
Traditionally Judaism
congregation and
is
had a
rabbi
who was
essentially
teacher.
on
sites
781
York on the
lines
Romanesque
detail.
Synagogue
of
architects
They
rous
782
new
now
materials
available
vantages.
classic architect
catta
chapter)
previous
the
in
in
by which
the
was
moulded
suitably
example
represent
to
an acanthus
it
leaf,
to show.
Rue des
expended one-quarter
879)
concrete
new
materials
until they
present
The Ameri-
domed synagogues
symbol
(a
wedded
most
the
construction;
Roman Empire
of the
budget on
its
Co.
of universality),
inforced
of
&
mo-
into
buildings,
more
their structure
mass-
Among
to architectural forms
became absorbed
and express
began
re-
their eclectic
369.
Tournelles, Paris
the
to
first
tect
(see
influence on
interior
American architecture
of this
profound an
so
place of worship
(fig.
is
369). The
similar
to,
honestly.
Following the
heterogenous styles
ter of
ing in the
of
first
of
ing, a
of
all,
and the
new
to appear. It
of too
itself,
in
1913
like the
at
architects. It
Essen
domed
building, reached
through a
its
series of vestibules.
Yet
it
was
fresh in
The facades
conducive
restless,
Once
this
hardly
and solemnity. To
first
step
to
take.
of the building
by the same
city,
in a simplification of design.
interiors
rial
showed
same
great
in
(Czechoslovakia), a
domed
783
784
manv
its
of
predecessors and
its
contemporaries,
possessed
It
of simple
its
(fig.
a fine sense
proclaimed
dignity,
well in
all its
and design
shape
parts; the
dome owed
of the
rally
During the
brick sy-
nineteen-twenties,
nagogue
Amsterdam-
built
at
building
new
even
than
Rehrens'
interest
in
effects
was
also a time
the influence
of
when
371.
Synagogue
in
Elte.
be
to
(fig.
architecture
Cubism and,
in
371). This
came under
consequence,
was necessary
it
at the
German Modernism produced a Liberal synagogue at Hamburg in 1931 (Ascher and Fried-
at
as ascetic as
any
(fig.
Temple
&
Sincere,
Chicago
1952,
fig.
new
Germany produced
style to develop.
gogue
Owen
at Dollis Hill, a
tered
built of brick
interior.
and
relied purely
on that material,
slit-shaped openings
lar
and angu-
Me-
Temple,
built
before
relies
and
circle,
fe^ru-^^LM.
370.
Design
oi
Synagogue
and
its
its
ef-
(fig.
785
786
in that
swung
away from
little
in-
inoffensive.
new
occasionally
ideas.
IX
The new
ings of
all
architecture started
by stripping build-
and exposing
irrelevancies
their
naked
was replaced by an
adornment: such
is
The pioneer synagogues of Europe between the two world wars had a sound functional
action.
basis and,
been
satisfied
by
men have
integrity alone,
rarely
and a natural
372.
374
The
Liberal
concession to romanticism
sole
The
IS
and along
its
simple,
is
simple
little
building at Aalborg
effect,
though
(1934). The
a richer
and more
new
in
much
Dutch
to
J.
J. P.
and had an
The way
owed
architect,
it.
of the pioneer
is
and 1930's
lack-
rather
experi-
complete
break
which
they
373.
Temple
lyrical
emerged.
come
of
The work
787
veloped
temple
MODERN TIMES
recent
in
now
greater
kitchen,
and
stage, a
library,
and administrative
club-rooms
is
offices;
services;
American
large
flexibility
day
The
years.
788
given natural
is
he
settled in
to
seize
temple
after
new
all
of
had
which he
se-
built
for
for a
synagogue
in the
Judaean
hills
shows the
His American projects include the Park SynaThe Memorial Temple, Budapest (1935),
by Vago and Farago.
374.
med
The
U.S.A.
large
need
world.
had a
distance
of
and many
little
city
sited
on a ridge
Synagogue,
St.
(fig.
of
its
made
and suburban
with
sites for
in
main
to
be attached
The
building.
to the
reversion
given
tious
full
Amoona
Parallel
roofs
importance,
equanimity semi-rural
flat
acquired
congregations
Ame-
a great do-
greater
their
of
eeting place
was
375.
and butter-
789
fly
respectively.
roof
before
shortly
Finally,
he
death,
his
the centers at
built
790
St.
Paul,
came
which he be-
in
interested
in
conical
demonstrated so
the
modern
clearly
words,
"lift
and
Many
also
own
Mendelsohn
large
how
built
for
the
communities.
rich
been
and these
built,
in
nearer to
376.
Hillel
Foundation,
shorn of
pleasant;
ir relevancies,
Among
may be
(Reth-El)
Evanston
centers at
111.,
Champaign,
and Evanston,
111.
around
planned
by Harrison and
111.,
(Hillel
Abramovitz.
(Frankel Memorial)
Foundation)
courtyards
and
(fig.
with
376),
circular
377.
Israel),
of the
big Temple
Percival
Israel
Goodman.
Temple, Melbourne.
791
have
been
also
built in
792
and E.
Gentili,
the
latter con-
gogue destroyed
War, behind
in the
its
existing
facade.
The wholesale
destruction
gogue destroyed
in
German
of
its
syna-
existing
One
munities.
of the
the
first,
(Kemper, Hadebrand, and Leistikow); unfortunately the Byzantine plan of Franz Roeckle's
bastic building of
been
struction has
modern
and
clarified
bom-
in the recon-
simplified, with
work added.
near London,
acting as a
is
Percival
at
Temple
111.
(West Suburban
prolific
designer
is
Percival
rarely large,
all
in a fresh
The
Goodman.
(figs.
377, 378).
styles
were
is
on
with success.
emerging
in
is
appear in synagogue
to
modern
in
architect
more
It
studies
scientific
way
hardly seems
could see
synagogues
in
Paris
and
in climate
the
climatic requirements
arts of sculpture
universal
artificially
design,
indication
them. The
when
and are
it
England.
now beginning
to
in
racter
materials
and textures
simple lines
its
garden in which
smaller buildings
to the treed
placed,
awakening
378.
(Weinrach), with
foil
in
their
in
French
to give
no
reduced
East
between
their sites.
(fig.
Middle
by
large
perforated
sunscreens
appropriately
moulded
to
allied fields.
illustrate
pies, interesting
modern synagogues
in
Millburn,
New
Lon.
n,
Miami Beach,
it
was designed by
if
at
Hadera
woman,
Judith Stolzer
run in Jerusalem )
793
379.
came
into being, in
were frequent,
it
conception
the
of
old
vided shelter
sons, while
to
have provided
emergency
in case of
would be possible
synagogues in
fortress
Poland.
revived to
for
Stolzer,
M. Robin,
glass-towered
favorite atmospheric
794
R. Friedmann.
pyramidal
manner
(fig.
temple
in
his
380).
He
has
architects,
it
survey
to
marauders. Israel
due
is
young, and
many demands on
resources, chief among
to the
building
ment
resettle-
needed
civic
build-
The synagogue
inspires the
project
Modern movement.
pupil,
Frank
published
now
in
Sullivan's
Lloyd
1954
Wright,
a
design
380. Design for a glass-towered pyramidal temple by Frank Lloyd Wright (1954).
795
and
interesting hexagonal
Temple
New
York (1954),
is
Israel at Portches-
lyrical.
The program
MODERN TIMES
is
spurring to
796
the
imagination;
it
this
has
new
all
style;
in the
the possibilities
WORLD
by
The troubled
history, the
rica
throughout the
first
and Ame-
artists
artists of
Of the
it.
what vague
notions.
early years
great
life
rooted in the
thd
belated
Jewish
of
of the
(1910).
contemporary Jewish
those
and Scheherezade
artists
number
It is
(1910),
surprising
especially France
in
number
many Jewish
of
of
which sought
to renovate the
the
Revolution witnessed a
accomplished
this
experiments and
that
Marc Cha-
gall
later
as innovators in Soviet
of
Stalin,
however,
of
art
Caucasus.
the
know,
Russia.
We
artistic
artists
of Paris.
conceptions,
to
the
before
existed
by
Bakst
art,
many
of his
academic
nineteenth-century
idiom of
reverting, in
stifle
of Russian
all
the
art,
When
emigrated
to
Paris
with
the
Diaghilev
he
ballet,
and 1920, a
purges,
tal
all
those artists
all
who
of art of the
Though
of
in fact,
He
moment.
on French, German
artists
ment
in
The
painting.
modern move-
Polish-Jewish miniaturist
the masters of
Socialist Realism, a
ters, their
lasting influence
work remains
among
as impersonal
and undis-
and mediaevalist
and techniques
styles
of Bakst.
Among
Russian
artists of
there
remembered everywhere
cal
it,
as a
master of theatri-
The most
Jewish
the
art,
early
important development
years
of
the
Revolution,
in
Russian-
formulate
national
who
of
small
consciously sought
Jewish
style
of
art,
799
which
poster-work,
in
Constructivism.
a
strong
among
After
influence
lichkeit School
known
generally
is
1920,
this
Germany
in
German
the
800
as
exerted
style
especially
too,
Neue Sach-
Dadaists, in the
own
Altman's
Jew
1912, his
of
Self-portrait
Old
Russian poetess
teaching
of
twenties,
Altman enjoyed,
dom
one of the
as
the
recognized masters
art.
was
ing
encouraged to develop.
officially
another
is
381.
early
officially
contemporary Russian
of
In
381).
(fig.
Centered
is
Rom
concentration-camp.
and purges,
and
who
a Soviet
in
Smolensk, Lissitzki
in
in
and
chenko
early
years
Revolution
the
of
to
Constructivist art
tra-
the
to Jewish
popular
as Rakst
had already
Russian
reverted to
and
folk-art
folklore.
Pro-
in
Altman
(1889
studied
art
first
first,
Impressionist,
latter-day
during
his
brief
Cezanne's theories
and,
position
like
stay
of
worked
in Saint
in
Altman
Paris,
became,
convert
draftsmanship
to
and com-
he
modified
elements
the Raijonu
matism
his
derived
me
of ^
and basically
Cubism,
from
of Larionov
lievitsch,
proun
1918
ing
utilitarian
art,
tricks
(fig.
Lissitzki
he produced apparently
and
Europe.
realistic
of illusionist
man
Lissitzki's
in
which he com-
own
revealed to
illusionist
art.
German
He
artists
collaborated
new
also
field ot
with
the
he organized,
of a
real
is
who brought
from
new
are
experiments
382).
some
and
incorporating
so as to develop a
to invent
style
his skills as
all
Isms
Futurism,
own
1922,
Italian
describe his
to
Lissitzki's
efforts.
to
word proun
Nathan
in a series of
the
and
ditions
reverted
of the
in the Arts,
famous
for the
was
there
returned to
was no news
of
Russia.
him
For many
until his
years,
death was
801
announced
laconically
occurred
having
as
IN
802
in
1941.
Among
Jewish
known today
as
painters,
(1888
(1890
At
and
mention here
the Revolu-
time of
the
both well-
),
as sculptors, deserve
too.
the
associates,
Pevsner
Naum Gabo
brother
his
Antoine
artists
and
friends
Lissitzki's
tion,
Gabo had
physics,
engineering in
and
art in Russia
stract paintings
three-dimensional
loid,
achieved
that
portraits
cellu-
in
effects
paintings
tivist
and
mathematics
chemistry,
$m fill
modern movement. In
structivist
him and,
in 1920,
and
of time, as
art,
of the
opposed
to
pure
the
the
But
Constructivists.
382.
still
of
far
being founded
Realists,
Socialist
Realism
the
on a
hundred and
Russia,
were
Gabo was
in
considered
undesirable
even
in its
Germany, then
in Paris
Pevsner
achieved
sculptor
and innovator
his brother, in
and
and
and
nized as an
artist
whose
later,
as
with
In the
the
Ukraine
was
expected
consecrate
to
vetgrad that a
ghastly
wave
of
was
in Elisa-
pogroms had
way
of life
and
and
revolution
Moscow, though
this
was
interested
the
to
any
at
his father
Ryback began
might
mere present.
wake
counter-revolution, while
home,
constant
of
the
in
this
so
new wave
stein,
loose
From
of the officials.
which he was
America.
who may
power,
remained haunted,
it
moments, by an awareness
Russia.
celebrity
in Paris,
idyllic
moment break
London, while
in
considerable
to
most
that
feel
in
came
Pale."
was happy,
Tsarist Russia
"the
as
knowledge
pressures
some
fifty
military
they
Gadya. Lithograph.
political
Had
Eliezer Lissitzki.
revolutionary
in
and
also
he managed
was now
that
structural
rhetorical devices,
tions,
It
means
his
taste
experiments
mainly
to express intense
for
folklore.
In
as
emo1921,
803
MODERN TIMES
804
father's
his
which he
will
and
felt
com-
still
art.
series of dry-points
which
he
executed
in
some of
Paris illustrates
spiritual
artist's
he
its
become maudlin;
had once
he
that
no longer obsessed
is
by
now
childhood,
his
all
felt
that
and
communicated so urgenta
as
ly
testimony only
degenera-
avoids
barely
383.
Pogroms
Issachar Ryback.
1919
in the Ukraine,
or
of
humorous anecdotes
genre painting.
Shtetl
Cubism soon
expressive style of
liarly
Ryback completed
attracted
It
was
The
no longer haunted
in
series
Berlin that
this
colors
immortal
his
ghetto types.
(fig.
modern
the
artist's
intense
filial
late,
for the
that
In
it
1925,
Moscow
or to perish with
to
return
and costumes
From now
increasingly romantic
and
nostalgic,
his
in
Expressionist
These were
distortions.
intended to communicate,
ambivalent
atti
of the world
\\
temporary Jewish
out the
first
art,
an attitude towards
human
tragedies in
in con-
life
and
history
of Ryback, like
same
aspirations
movement. Wherever
literature
to
have
this
briefly flourished,
to
art
they
and
this
now seem
tragic death.
structural
relatively
even
still
to
elegiac.
to the
died,
dicated.
for the
became
unknown
Ryback
it.
In 1935, Issachar
Ill
Cubist or
own
The flow
des,
ich
far
still
805
384.
America.
Many
more
readily in
IN
France or
in
as masters of the
(d.
1953),
are
unjustly
forgotten.
was
806
Museum, New-York.
far
more
naturalistic
and
less
much
tortured style.
life
transpose, in
of the
humor
of
807
to
be
less
Eastern-European Jewish
had
years, Glatzer
life.
and
his reason
what
avoiding
been
have
might
of
strain
considered
of his later
paintings,
One
history
was
contemporary Polish
of
well-known
also
the
flow
the
emigration
of
youngest
the
brothers
New
their
ters.
and
assimilated
successful
between
Poland
two
the
painters
Jewish
of
life
and almost
massive
sculptural
Paris Fauvists,
his
owed
of
such works
very
his
ther's footsteps,
in his
artistic
flects
thirteen
famous bro-
Leopold
talent.
was
encouraged
who had
inherit
years
and
of
The parents
sisters.
qualities
us, in
of
family
of
four
death,
his
Jewish
as
child
and
Maurycy Gott-
born
premature
Translating
younger brother
the
wars.
in
was
Gottlieb
latter's
though he
art,
Leopold
too,
is
France as a distinguished
in
after
Poland
of
(1883-1934),
lieb,
From
384).
of
effects as in those
same macabre
and
rich
past,
(fig.
simulation, the
and innocent
sensual, elegant
persecutions,
.SOS,
full
measure of
Gottlieb's
Though
he
his
instruction
first
received,
like
his
brother,
Cracow Academy,
the
in
older
later, in
stolid
in Paris.
more
unknown
outside of
sound
who
artist
New
might, in Paris, in
York
or in Israel,
general-
in
Be-
Warsaw
and somewhat
studies
lyrical
Germans
of
(1896
later to
brilliantly sensual
New
York.
decorat
between the
painter of
of a Slavic
by
by the
was well-known
Paris,
compositions,
an
fatherland;
his
its
design.
elegii
warm
The world
representation
of
a style, that
distinguishes
its
extremely
that he depicts
the
artist's
is
own
sketches
his
of
Gottlieb
Cracow. In 1926, he
and
Museum
of
official
as a master of
left
on the
action
contemporary Polish
and
art,
settled
ism,
French Impression-
his contacts
extremely
of
itself
killed
Warsaw.
in
Zygmunt Menkes
still-life
young women
He was
World War,
First
been granted
fame.
in
During the
delicate
contemporary trends
and,
had
1918,
after
work
became a member
He
On
sought,
means
of
and
exclusi-
immediate
never
experiments
own
as
taste
an
by constantly renovating
and
artist.
his
He
his style
own
thus
and
his
immediacy and a
S09
all
and
IN
to his
human
artistic sensibility.
810
powerful personality
in rich
and somber
color-
of
the
interpretation
of
great
his
sacrificing
the
philosophy
structural
interpreting
for
gifts
some
Farkas developed a
elongated
cately
figures,
has
Gottlieb
perhaps
by the
artist's
mains laconic
(fig.
re-
The Clowns,
brilliant
are master-
critic
about the
art of Farkas,
Hungary and
Israel,
it
but
deserves to be
collections of
modern painting
and
in that
the middle
illustrates, since
it
that are
affinity
Magyar
rather
founded
Amos
than with
Slavic
folklore.
(1877-)
the
contemporary
promience,
Sturm exhibitions
in
for
Berlin
while,
around
in
1920.
Though more
Kadar
some
has, in
quality,
of
Leon Bakst
(1890-)
spite
in
is
or of
another
some
of the
work
Hungarian- Jewish
Cubist;
distinguishes itself
tender
its
Marc
by
its
solid construction
and harmonious
style
and
color-arrangements.
to Kadar's
more native
or Eastern-European
Cu-
bism.
artists
who
as
died
two
The
Among
dic-
in Nagykallo, a center of
in
fads.
of
Hungary
Almost
art.
IV
of
enthusiastically
tates of fashions
The art
and gouaches,
art.
385.
Plasterers.
Drawing.
811
being
many
ligious holidays. In
Amos
of his paintings,
but
too,
German
Hitler's
anti-modernist
to
own
his
very
In the great
tastes.
he sponsored
painters
and
lumped
all styles
pinks, greens
conform
to
purges
by Jews,
cultural
812
whom
non-Jews.
among
Many
these
of
book-illustrators,
wood-cut
Two
artists
has
decorator,
to seek refuge
whole
were forbidded
and
etchers of
a distinguished
many
illustrated
years,
of talent
artists
abroad
or, for
to paint or to exhibit
art-movement
dern
Germany.
in
itself
became much
less
completely from
its
(1896-
well-known
finest
work
in
Hungary
one of
as
contemporary book-illustrators;
is
his greatest
Hungary
as a victim of
From an
important
may
country's
his
Nazi
also died
artist
of
most
our time
German Dada
many
who
Weimar
of
Jewish
its
German
would remain
talents,
now be
rary
exception
the
School
German
be
can
painter
actually
sufficient proof,
single
listed
today
than
rather
and
our age,
of
among
belongs
Paris
of
art. It
no
Freundlich,
major innovators
the
Freundlich
the
Otto
of
German- Jewish
among
of
was
in
terror.
Hungarian-Jewish
in
purged
mo-
was thus
It
twelve
type-designers,
Kosma (1884-1949),
and
architect
printers,
were forced
painters
in
of
a survey
that Franz
Marc was
partly of
many
Jewish friends,
often said.
Among
of the group
Jewish
artist
duced by
was not
and
is
so
known
as
Die
this
Jew
as
all
works pro-
To be
warth Walden
and
(1878-1941), born
lecturer Herin
Berlin as
man
The contribution
lution of contemporary
is still difficult
to assess.
German and
Austrian art
art.
Walden founded
of the
writers.
which
works of young
he founded,
in 1910,
813
the famous
Expressionist periodical
number
and, in a
IN
814
Der Sturm
and
of galleries in Berlin
else-
where, promoted during the following two decades innumerable exhibitions of modern
German and
began
taste
many
foreign.
show
to
both
art,
becoming
erratic; in
all
now sound
Expressionist art,
of
characteristics
almost nationalistic.
Russia,
cess in
Germany;
guages
institute in
In 1929,
"formalist"
in a Soviet concentration
who
Other Jews
art
as a
movement
Germany
in
modern
in his affinities
he had
World War
in Italy
many
for
II,
years
Levy was
tration-camp.
some other
deserved.
arrested
praise
critical
During
truly
graphic
left
artist
Book
of Job (1944)
effects of color
and book
and
art of
illustrator,
us in Confessio (1908)
some
Book
Wolf
be a pioneer of Expressionist
what tortured
style of caricature,
closely allied,
to
his generation.
art.
Meidner
the nineteen-twenties,
Nazi concen-
much German
By
pressionism.
by the Gestapo
in a
Ludwig Meidner.
386.
mains an
line
and
artist of
sound than
been more
itself
of both subject-matter
and forms. In
neo-Gothic or Biblical
like
style,
and content
his
somewhat
became
Steinhardt
distin-
arts, stressing
finest
wood-cut
artists of
New
York
sky-line.
composi-
It
His
was
in
almost
prophetic
visions
of
mechanized
German
literary
as
Ex-
art.
had served
Front,
in the
where
so
much
War I, Steinhardt
German Army on the Eastern
During World
his
contacts
with Jewish
life
in
815
387.
and
After a
plastic
trip
first
values
to
Israel
of
Jewish traditions.
1925,
in
Steinhardt
settled there in
the
many
attracted attention in
wars, a
to
number
Walden's
in
Sturm
Wollheim taught
Diisseldorf,
in
In
same
the
which tended
art,
German
art
and
to distort
to
many
whom
influence.
Born
Artur
painter
Impressionist,
in Jassy in
Segal
but
Cubism. Segal's
to
obtain
later in
much
reality.
In exile
recognition.
Anita Ree
(1885-
pictures
to
be
very
in
gradually
distinctive
trick
four
somewhat
of
equal
his
monotony
of
her
qualities of design
at
lived
first
developed,
of
and
an
after
prismatic
many
tends,
fields
remain
intolerable
was
style
schematic
though
the
Germany
of
dividing
artists
from
influ-
(1875)
refuge
profoundly
1905,
France and
and
in
when
there for
of his generation,
later,
to foresha-
was
is
seem
self-portraits
pressionist style
an exotic
in
exhibitions.
art
stylized
then exhibited
Hamburg background
who
regularly
middle-class
the two
Expressionist painters
Germany between
816
Bornholm Harbor.
and somewhat
dow
great teacher.
Among
in
MODERN TIMES
of
his
however,
monotonous,
and construction
(fig.
387). In 1910,
817
IN
he emigrated
in
Spain and
to
first
Kulviansky (1892-)
Issai
At the age of
same kind
of
morbid temperament
The
in
village of
as
Lengnau,
Soutine.
community
tions a small
of
Jews among
whom
the
was born
in
Lithu-
Guggenheim family was prominent. To these belongs the naive painter Alis Guggenheim (1896-)
he came
to
Vilna,
who began
then to England.
ania.
818
founded by
influential as a teacher
1933,
fifteen,
her
career
artistic
and remains
age
the
at
of
though
twenty-six,
Rerlin
advance-guard
School
when
in a
groups,
it
was
still
number
including
in
of post-war
Bauhaus
the
entirely self-taught,
finally
sists
and
their technique
to
My
European Jewish
living in France.
and sculpture
As a pioneer
Kulviansky
too,
work only
kerchief in the
Lengnau
Synagogue
Lengnau
now produces
charm.
hi
ve
prevented
and
figu-
of his
many
emigrations
from
acquiring,
Kulviansky
Most
have
in
The
Village Fountain or
are
an elegiac
of
full
New
The circumstances
occasionally.
of abstract painting
rative
or else
in their sentiment;
York,
prominence,
considerable
Abstraction-Creation
and
realists
phic
artist,
at
first
group,
post-Surrealists.
later
An
he sought much of
the
Paris
among
Sur-
in
outstanding gra-
Willy Guggenheim
world as Varlin,
at
one time
(1900-)
is
in Paris.
known
who
a Zurich painter
the art-
to
friend of Soutine
lived
and the
more painterly
revived
brilliant
glass of Swiss,
raising
the
There
Surrealistic compositions.
liant
much
of Seligmann's art,
affinity
painting
on
unprecedented virtuosity
to
it
success
also
in his brilis
curiously
thus, in
Germanic
Renaissance.
comes certain
sensitive individuals
ly lost in a setting
who
by
in
VI
feel utter-
more
S.
of
J.
1870
to
occupation
objective,
of
Holland and,
was forced
it
expresses
Obsessed
who happen
in a truly
to furnish
with decorative
detail.
On
a lower plane
commercial
to
though admirably
to brand,
artist's
by adding
name,
all
be of Jewish extraction.
artists
and
a J in
those artists
Many
outstanding talent
who would
artists
of
819
them and
much
S2<>
in
and warehouses
city-scapes of cranes
techniques
Cubist
of
with
perspective,
Tower. In some of
of the Eiffel
compositions, such as
wald resorted
to a calligraphic
(fig.
and
costumes and
Among
the
Delilah, Isaac
outstanding
creative
generation.
their
at
his designs
among
is
artists of his
(ioteborgs
His
Griinewald
found
cari-
genera-
painters.
on German Expressionism. In
the operas
in his
Bohemian
morously
for
Tree, Griine-
388)
times,
views
and almost
that,
self-portrait
in his
The Singing
several
vanishing-points, as they
Isaac
in the port
of
388.
patches,
flat
way
to
Sweden,
Ernst
who
Benedikt
Kunstmuseum.
tion. It is
tor
made
lop, in exile in
Roelof Citroen
Cerman
of the
1896
Sweden, a
and associate
hibited
extensively
Martin.
His
),
a friend
Banhaus move-
which he
style,
calls
he has now
ex-
Intensivism,
is
always figurative,
modern
nates.
artist.
countries,
onlv
Sweden
of
Similarly,
has,
above
one
most
modern
of
ideas
the
and
in
Scandinavian
recent decades,
(1889-1946),
cars
the
styles in
all,
was
for
many
promoters
active
of
Scandinavia.
After
the
World
War,
Matisse before
Griinewald
settled
in
domes and
below our
level of reality
day-dream-
still
with weird
cities,
in his paintings
suggest imagi-
suggests
First
As
the child's
own
world as well as of
much
sought a return, in
and
very brightlv
of typically
wald painted,
colored
until
landscapes
about
and
1920,
portraits,
applying
his
821
IN
822
in plastic terms.
the
VII
individual
artist
and assimilate
styles
can
acquire
easily
without
skills
development
this
Similar tendencies
tual
come
one of
and
have
lost
genius,
creative
greatest
its
art,
to
Amedeo
among
who were
the Futurists
contemporaries of
later, in
a second genera-
the
and writer
painter
emerge
Carlo
Levi (1902
an important personality.
as
which
much
in
with
is
professional
Much
as his writing
sonal, relying
is
this
implies, than of
considered
novelist's
impressionistic
narrative.
and per-
start,
has
community
he
Rome
in
and
writing.
In
own
was
alien
Italy,
(fig.
389).
of Levi's painting
to
his
memories
of
he
to
seems
have inspired
to
Southern
mains, in his
mind and
symbolic of man's
justices
that
corrected
which
Italy,
fate,
may
and,
at
and
land
artistic
considerable
encouragement
official
Fascist regime,
which seemed
monumental or heroic
to execute a
number
buildings.
He was
of
some
of his
thus commissioned
of mosaics
Nevertheless,
of in-
same
diversity
be
389.
the
that he painted.
official
from
to appreciate the
qualities
re-
traditions
distinguish
whose
to
artists,
the
tried
heart,
he
year,
classical antiquity
in
The
time
are supposed
indeed be
the
first
man which
to
of
coast.
the
landscape
utterly
childhood
Northern
much
The next
enforced
his
communion with
that
almost traditional
haunts
1932.
for
all
now
exhibited
"School of
work and
still
on the Adriatic
Lucania
Ancona,
of
After
masters,
and Enrico
itself
common
ripening.
intellectual
Donati (1909-).
two
or
and murals
in
for
1939 Cagli
823
New
and
career in Paris
824
York as a commercial
artist
Surrealist
tions
among
much
composi-
to.
Surrealists
whose
the second-
has
art
now
lost
of the anxiety
Surrealism
realists.
have
to
The son
of the
Emmanuel Romano
and
studied
At
dance.
at
one-man show
first
Glicenstein,
Rome
first
age
the
Henryk
sculptor
under
he
twelve,
of
gui-
father's
his
held
his
Munich Kunstverein,
in the
then exhibited extensively in Italy and Switzerland before emigrating in 1928 to the United
States.
skilled
work
Romano
much
of his best
visits to Israel.
came
France and
to
Portrait.
later to
1945.
to a
America as a
re-
fugee.
whatever
his
some
of
The
(1891
in
style,
all
Ruchenwald concen-
neo-Realistic phase
to
modern
hilly regions of
current
he has managed
Cagli's work,
sity into
he
a
in
physics. In
most of these
illustration
men-
in the past.
many
literary
A
was
much
of
strikinglv decorative.
to
us and
by
he made a successful
his
its
as sole witness.
two
\lter 1934,
figure,
Jewish family,
human
testifying,
spite
bom
in
in
back
and a
He
cal virtuosity,
Arturo Nathan
The scenes
programmatic
390).
more
to transcend a kind of
(fig.
of the
new
contemporary Italy
1944)
of whatever
back
390.
levels
tics of
of
reality
is
in-
sixteenth-century mannerism.
825
On
IN
ment
and
to their social
work
many
of Jewish painters in
seem
to
Ita-
Wolmark was
movement which, since
In this respect,
thirty years
ahead
of the
the end of
World
War
trial
Bomberg
David
Birmingham-born
remains the
it.
(1890
first
or Vorticist
lian painting.
has contributed so
II,
England's daily
826
which he depicted
in a stylized
scenes,
manner. In por-
VIII
traying,
It
is
novators
came
among
the
Jewish
creative in-
England
of
artists
for
an audience
instance,
London's
in
in his use
effects;
the
New
York sculptor
compositions,
pressionist
most of London's
of
life
Bomberg developed
of
a brilliantly ex-
rich-
ness of color.
1906,
couple
of
of
interiors
the
great
him
to try his
Exhibition of
synagogues
Sargent
John
portraitist
hand
at
because
had urged
once attracted
at
paintings,
portraits
mudic
students.
critics.
Wolmark's
of
venerable rabbis
These he depicted
in a
or
tal-
Rembrand-
and
Israels
Isidor
In Edwardian England,
among
his
more sober
show
Wolmark
thus became,
At a Grafton Gallery
manner.
to
his
own work
hang
no
Finally,
of
such
chromatic
Van Gogh.
In 1916, Wolmark published an article to propose the brightening up of Britain's drab towns,
next to that of
hospitals
like
and homes.
music,
has
He
maintained that
healing
power,
phenomena
and
color,
that
same psycho-
as a gesture of
for the
of
painting, his
work sometimes
to
Of England's Whitechapel
ler
(1892-1939)
member
artists
senberg
what
of the
of
Gert-
first
abandoned
Expressionist
East-End
soon
Gertler
crude
is
and writers
Mark
painters,
some-
their
Subjectivism
Ro-
de-
to
best illustrated
in
some
Classicism that
of his portraits
is
will
now hangs
in
of the
of his
common
is
contemporary scene
realities
London's Jewish
in
a while,
would
reflect
modern Anglo-Jewish
the
style
that
Bund,
in other countries
in politics,
in the
campaign
and
in literature
to raise Yiddish
827
of Gertler,
These works
much
art, in
Ryback and
others
literature in Eastern
tish associates
lors
and the
work
humor
who,
in those years of
modern
were
sorely
com-
),
Sickert
in the
crowded beach-scenes.
especially
By
which sought
painters
position
lity
fantastic
manner.
less laconic
have developed a
of Paris,
828
had
art
movement
new
English
in
settled
to a steady
routine of imitating
styles.
romanesque sculptural
In
its
Much
forms
his
in
In recent years,
tic quality.
The painting
artists
straint
texture
by
distinguishes itself
its
qualities of re-
of color or
originality
of con-
the
work
many
of
and devices
England's
more abstruse
of Paris. In the
Jewish
artists,
or extreme styles
work
these
of a
number
of
towards
trends
much Eastern-European
vidualism of the
stylistic
painters in Paris
and America.
staid,
if
It reflects, in their
The Ukrainian-born
(1891-1950)
of
which he depicted
himself particularly
and costumes,
more
were
skilfully
West-End
adapted
creative
Leon Bakst
to the tastes of
London's
distinguished
sets
is
less
nett
Jubilee
(1914
taste,
postage
)
Abraham
and
stamp,
Games
skill
and
IX
Manchester
Emmoody
artist,
Kapp's (1890
lias failed, in
matter;
one
is
mordant
style of
dractsmanship
artist
of the School
With the
stream of refugee
to English art.
artists
began
some provincial
centers to
new life
London and
to bring
years,
personalities
on each other
to
and
produce a
829
refugee painters
ment
of
who
is
the
many
London"
nental School of
The
Among
IN
artistic career of
typical, in
nuity that so
many
many
have expereinced
in
to
be Jewish
830
in that
it is
intended to trans-
Hebrew
calligraphy. His
monumental
figures,
and
types
(fig.
intellectuals
Jewish
artists
some Hebrew
tion
After
seldorf,
where he began
his
way
to Diis-
and
as a teacher.
and the
As a refugee
blems.
member
international show, as a
section.
of the
German
him
no longer hope to
make
Germany. Emigrating
new series
An unusually
a whole
York
is
on a book-
binding.
Here he
New
lettering that
style of
had acquired
of personal
and
and especially
less
and
and
as a
pro-
matter relied
artistic
or invented a
increasingly varied
Adler faced
rich,
less
work became
on anecdote. In
consequence of
Paris,
his association
he could
a living in
at first to Paris,
no longer concentrate on
he could
his work.
War, he volunteered
for the
At
World
Polish
training in France.
and where he
remained
He
last
first
acceptance
spent his
London area.
twenties, the work of
life in
In the early
Adler's
1943.
until
years of
the
Germany.
Always
it,
Adler had
art,
unlike Chagall
and
anecdote
and humor
be
identified
and defined
which might
as specially
on
can thus
391.
fankel Ac
ler.
The
London.
MODERN TIMES
831
392.
Jacob
Bornfriend.
The
Beer-Drinkers.
vakia,
systematic re-examination of
parents' farm,
But
was
it
all
the techniques
German
and creative
sonal
managed
to
fuse
in
his
philosophy,
subject-matter,
he now
composition,
phenomenon
1952.
Bornfriend
few years
spent
later,
many
to
to Prague. It
was here
more decorative
and folk-art that had
of the
been suggested
his
age
he moved
that he discarded
on
until, at the
childhood
his
where he worked
he went
of nineteen,
832
him by the
was now
exposed
to
modern
art
an anecdote,
single artistic
human
tvpes.
tell
and
artistic influence.
of
how
illus-
and underwent
he remained
of
that
is
in factories,
833
how much
and
of exile
and
of
IN
834
his experiences
Widow
(1952)
(fig.
deep feeling
human
situations,
Max Weber
Jewish talent,
it
The
formal
Only
Bloch
painter Martin
where he
new
life
in a
(1883-1954)
had
instill
art.
much
recognition in Germany,
led, until
tant
of Matisse
and the
work
impor-
first
a disciple
had
also
much from Cezanne, in his style of composition. From the German Expressionists of Die
learned
he had
Briicke,
also acquired
whatever he painted
whether
mature
it
style
began
its
became
ability to
reduce
be a landscape or a
his emigration to
ally
to
an
to discard the
dramatic distortion
some
London
critic
own
his case,
and
still
in
restrictions
cramped
his
Of the
Jewish painters
Herman
(1911-)
had
as the son of a
and help
living
to
all,
be a painter rather
painter Bobowski,
a group of
who
artists,
pism
all
.(fig.
Herman organized
Warsaw
in
predominantly Expressionists,
avoiding
from every-day
life,
393).
Herman emigrated
to
Belgium
in
1938. Here
him a conception
of socialism that
void of
is
all
he
1940,
In
time Britain,
as
an
lore.
exile
escaped
Herman
to
England.
expressed at
by seeking refuge
in
first
In
war-
his anguish
memories of
his
He
is
post-war England,
work
saw
own
to earn his
own
day
all
Josef
libe-
style.
Josef
worked
his family.
393.
poor cobbler
who
afflicted
thing of his
memories
was at times
an
with so
too,
bril-
own
now seemed
past that
irretriev-
art
failed to satisfy
to
impose
he
village, Ystradgynlair,
of self-examination. In
his
835
836
be particularly successful
to
his
in
his
in
Norman
clustered around
almost like
it,
a hen surrounded
by
a brood,
(fig.
reer
unusual
is
in that, unlike
to
prime of
spiritual
been able
a world that
Among
home.
whose native
last,
in
new
sense of
communion with
monumental dignity
of the
in the fields,
These
on the sea or
all
to him, a
his neighbors
roots as a painter
of man's
toil,
whether
show
that
Herman
an
his vocation as
to achieve, as
an
in
Kalman Kemeny, a
painter
in
as a
hold his
moved
one-man show
to
Paris
By 1936, however,
sufficient
skill
to
life,
of Paris
alien's
in a
that suggested
took up painting
to
wandering
an
(1901-), for
he had come
acquired
already
first
viewed French
tions
after
had
he
a lawyer,
originally
hobby only
Uhlman
an
affinity
so-called
In
post-Impressionists
London squares
post-Impressionist views of
particularly pleasing,
and many
distinguished
commissioned
sophisticated;
he seems
for
some
native
painter
England's
of
has
(1898-)
as
of
John
in
good example of
his
somewhat
noblest
Church
in
is
and
sculptural
dis-
years, has
of Saint
London,
in recent
which
his
flat
surface
(fig.
the
Polish-born
painter
now
finds
395).
color,
and
Feliks
also of
Topolski
(1907-)
almost
more
England
clearly
himself in
are
of his portraits
insight.
pularity.
is
psychological
rare
planes, that
who
also assumes,
ma-
which
has thus
the kind of
reveal
He
his life.
artist,
the
artist in
Enormously
all
prolific,
that he sees,
he seems
to sketch
837
IN
838
men
whom
tist,
with several
diffe-
somewhat
on
Biblical
and
traditional East-
ern-European
themes.
Jewish
of Prague,
metropolitan
and
sketches
an
earlier period as
vealed
himself
his
in
395.
a painter in
kind
as
Daumier
with
idealized
underworld
nostalgia
which he
Expressionist
for
romantically
with
imitating
wit
great
pean
art.
deve-
of
the
styles
Old Masters*.
various
cartoonist,
soon
Trier
types,
re-
of
After
cartoons.
veloped,
his
after
first
European modernism
XI
It
in Brazil, a
is
colors,
the past
years has
now been
living
and has
of
which
in
(1891-1957)
left
in
he
in Vilna,
Lasar Segall
to
of typically
morbid
not
life.
On
work became
(fig.
his
family
of
starvation,
396).
his
return to Europe,
In
he
1916,
German-occupied
in
somber,
increasingly
unemployment
undergo an
him
Memories
of Vilna, an
impressions
of
album
this
visited
city
fear.
My
Vilna,
and
if
of etchings, recorded
visit.
After his
refusal,
become
perma-
art, at
Russian peasant
Segall's
his
in
already
is
in Berlin,
first,
home
is
teristics, that
school
with Western-
fifty
contacts
on
cultural-political grounds, to
nent
member
began
to play
non-conformist in the
artistic
and
political life of
to seek
went on
number
are
also
the
Israeli
Vicky,
of
Jews
of other
Press,
the
Joss,
Sallon,
the
the
incisive
personalities.
Star,
Ross,
Daily
of
Mirror,
London Picture
has become increasingly popular,
liantly
London
London
cartoonist
of
in
pathos and a
literary
and
artistic
his
lar,
art. All
of
express deep
horror or of
London's
German period
devastating mood of
works of
in particu-
839
3%.
underwent
tion
in
of the
composi-
tional
artist.
series of large
instance,
manner
his
less
pastoral
of
Segall
he
landscapes
bucolic aspects
of
depicted,
Brazilian
life
for
in
Mauricio
tions
840
Lasansky
United
(1914-),
States,
reputation
as
who
now
resident
an unusually
graphic
fine
work
monumental
similarities
bril-
of Clave
free
portraits of
XII
earlier
low
life in
some
A comprehensive
of the
of the
Europe,
the
Janeiro,
tions of destitution
in
and
of vice in
of
German-occu-
now
pied Vilna.
Other Jewish
artists
who have
attracted atten-
in
in
New
at
work
as there are
art,
as great a
841
diversity of styles
IN
as ex-
the
of
history
contribution
Jewish
to
modern
when
began
to reach
New
York.
earlier
Though
The
842
some
of the
almost
reflected
American
all
style.
his
Weber
art,
remarkable diversity of
preoccupations that
has affirmed, in a
permanent
styles, certain
his
reflect
true personality.
whole
world of
shifting
had
or
in
little
realities
Resentful
and
is
As
stable
New
among
more
the
artistic life
journalists
Realist painters of
of art. It
common with
intellectual
art as a
as
New
world of
graphic
art.
talents
many
whom
is
Among
patrons.
Stieglitz
now
the
daring in the
great photo-
first
among New
York's
more
of Manhattan's
first
exhibited,
American painters
Max Weber
acclaimed
generally
as
one
(1881-)
of
the
and the
Born
in
America
men
and complex
too, so
urban
brought to
in
Brooklyn
an almost
trate
and
incredible
and
plications too,
nostalgia
and anguish, of
fleeting nature.
its
Weber
in his
most formal
deeply
human
Weber
own
inherent absurdity,
its
resurrects
paints,
all
memory
all
permanent society of
But
that
it
style,
his
in its
sees. In a timeless
Weber
recreates a
own.
changed. In The
work
of those years.
its
and reconstruction,
of sheer design
that
always conscious of
is
guilty
slightly
Though he underwent
a phase of Classical Cubism that is well exemplified in his Two Musicians, Weber was never satisfied with the limitations imposed upon him by so
of art.
illus-
strictly
in their
Realists.
Russia,
as a
Matisse or Pascin,
like those of
an exotic Orient
artists
their
Stieglitz
new and
York, to cham-
however, Alfred
1905,
helpless
to
new kind
In
be more
of
New
limitations
that
Picasso
of
modern
blems that
we
The work
all
of
Abraham Walkowitz
lives.
(1880-)
influences have
Cubism
of his
Siberian-born
artist's
in this
843
Walkowitz exhibited
city-
1944
in
as
Known
temporary scene
in
than those of
one of the
city-scape
painters
in
the
understand
itself,
America's
the
peculiar
Manhattan skyline
as a
her
life,
from exhibiting or
cated, ever to
a slightly art
is
Russian-born painter
another
distin-
among America's
colorist,
he rearranges,
dustry,
in
in-
(fig.
some
The
severity of
respect,
Cubism
of Paris
who
of
its
refuses,
modern
ing
primitives. In
comments on
New
York
left
artist
life in
of
outstanding
Bernard Karfiol
talent.
New
York.
Born
America as a
nudes, which he
endowed with
quality, achieved as a
throughout
came
an early
\\
an intellectual and
V/
dis-
v,
and
still-life
compositions which
owe much
and
1/7
of
Ml
l
became
/
/
much
in
tions of art;
fir,
Ul/l
of his
work
decades has
is
id
torical.
It
is
Hungary,
in
us fascinat-
hibition.
his life,
at
397.
through
however, sophisti-
Hirsch (1899-).
United States
all
any of her
selling
to the
one
witty unmarried
This German-born
as
more
emulates
Lozowick
elite
an Alpine landscape. In
guished
York's
artistic
and
charming
three
New
to
Lozowick
to
and
intellectual
Louis
of
phenomenon
exclusive
of
many
of twentieth-century
first
for
begun
has
Stettheimer
Florine
pioneer
composition
that
enjoy the
to
Ml
Abraham Walkowitz.
Isadora Duncan.
Drawing.
845
398.
to
which he remained
by,
Karfiol
school
with
an
increasingly
Shifts.
art-
from
personal
New
York and
portrayed,
monious
in
style of
New
tor
artists,
is
America
and studied
art in
York
to
846
subjects
sensitivity.
faithful.
IN
temperament of a sculp-
colors, Sterne
Though he has
many
spent
travelling
years
cism in which
balanced
less
artists
locate.
seek in vain
One
among
Among the
who have come from
many Jewish
painters
one of the
is
of
with
both
certain
Russian-born,
who were
offers affinities
and
Fauvists
Paris
actual
the
of
in the
sensitive
were pioneers
in revealing to
New
York the
who
heri-
The work
the
center,
SIS
or exoti-
rally
to
MODERN TIMES
847
of
to
Die
with
Briicke.
America
as
in
any
American
William Meyerowitz
New
of
disciples
Cezanne
remains one of
(1892-)
among
and
the American
the
of
Paris
post-
York
and
Though
New
School of Paris.
as productive as the
influenced at
York, as distinc-
by the
first
Paris Cubists
qualities of
Far
in
order
of his subjects. In
simplifies,
much
Benn has
of his work,
and
folklore
themes
be
listed
among
in the
of
and
also a painter ot
skill;
children,
modern movement.
is
her
and
landscapes
flower-pieces,
still-life
social
as well
Surrealists
New
York
in
mised him
of
neglected,
contribution
his
New
York
is
often
relatively
young
as
his
own, founded on
of the aims
artist,
ene
ot
style
and means
thirties,
the
painters as Chagall
fifties.
the
of Matisse, Rouault
and
found
too.
in the
kind
of
visionary
fantasy
work
of a
to
be
States
from
Russia
Less
folkloristic
in his fantasy
and humor
1911.
in
same
Kopman
and refusing
to express
in
work
Expressio-
social or poli-
of
New
Utrillo
floor
York's
as
Maurice
from a twentieth
compete
sian
Lynching
planned
particularly
significant:
offering us a k id of pictorial
hatred,
it
believes
Kopman
that a
much
any
at the
Kopman shows
instead
of
pamphlet on race-
a writer,
to
Born
(1899-)
in the
had
Rus-
originally
life.
Extremely
literary in his
"3
<L>
>^
cu
c
cu
H
<u
CD
849
almost caricatural
way
850
in
his
IN
more un-
of stressing the
The
sculptor
effects
Chaim Gross
of
now
of Russian anti-Semitism,
bestialities
expresses,
in
his
of sheer living.
owes much
to his sculptural
of volume.
ago, of discovering
American
"Sunday
Among
and
primitives
the artists
whom
painters."
now
collected,
ob-
in
leading American
and
gifted
in
bom
ters,"
his childhood,
when he
already carved in
wood
tions
his
Eastern-European Jewish
carvings that he
made
folk-art
later as a
boy
and were
still
proudly shown to
maker
for
many
visitors
New York,
years
as
women. Only
after
had been
Morris Hirschfeld.
Courtesy of
Sidney
Nude with
Janis
Gallery,
cupids.
N. Y.
399.
many
New
York
as
Avenue
is
typical of the
human
perspective and of
in
all
his work.
As
in
childlike
treatment of
figures that
one
finds
many
of his
(fig.
cats,
lions,
exactitude
of
detail
in
the
picture.
and
tigers,
style
of
that
still
exotic
beasts,
in
Byzantine
traditional
XIII
art
reproducing
or
Persian
York's
models.
Israel
Litwak (1868
was
also
a native of
great
Armory Show
exhibition
MODERN TIMES
851
852
My
Family are
fine
(fig.
401).
the
a
Marxist
consciously
school
by the
Daumier and
New Masses
of
gun
to
style as a
munist publications.
York's
to a great
oi
the
Leftist or
Com-
Born on
New
bethe
Under
WPA,
Roosevelt's
painted
some
striking
Gropper
murals;
his
which The
representing a proto-fascist
American senator,
is
an outstanding
Dada
of
was
had continued
to
be
felt
throughout these
years
came
sion,
after
significance."
"social
in the
current
400.
acclimatization
Iso-
The Jewish
painters
Moses
as twins in Russia in
The
artistic
to
whom,
as
said,
all
by
liberal
give to their
lity.
have
(fig.
400)
401.
Moses Soyer.
My
Family.
J.
853
IN
402.
ticularism or regionalism.
born
in the
Grosz, developed as a
WPA
artist a
854
macabre
style
From
his birth-place in
first
gone to a private
un-
of moral
comment
The Philadelphia
is
which he expresses a
in
Realism,
sculptural
forms.
that
detail
gives
to
New
York's
great
wealth of
Levine's
paintings,
the
lacks
It
Jack
less
Miami
(fig.
402)
now
in literature
and the
arts, like
West's Jewish
Geller
had acquired a
work
of Todros Geller
it
(1889-1949)
fitted neatly
Middle-Western par-
national group.
lar, in
in
he designed stained-glass
West, especially
artists,
would be
as
ins-
popu-
),
World War, he
set
MODERN TIMES
855
mained stranded
in
to obtain
war, he completed his studies in Paris and emigrated to the U.S., settling in Chicago. Bekker's
paintings have a quality of
line
and designer
for
many
856
all
Upper Michigan
Avenue remains a
fine
of the
art of the
of
Hassidic
art,
milarly inspired
by
si-
Safed. In addition,
to
visits
Romantic
in the traditional
major
of the
sion as
spokesman
traditional
Jewry
mis-
at large has
own
faith in his
works such
folklore in as personal a
manner
as
traditional
as Chagall or
S.
Schwartz
(1896
has
constantlv
though
from Vilna
in
to
Ame-
America
-103.
Church
is
perhaps
tic
in
all
that
Roman-
humanly
is
valid
and
his
street in Asheville,
Homecoming
North Carolina,
he has proven
his
New
broad and
in-
England
Ryback.
is
ality
has
Russia, he
is
first
earned
In
the
his living as
twenties,
of a
lithographer.
Paris,
Miner, 1949.
it
all
as
that
he
Born
in
an industrial
studied
in
he might have
mere aestheticism
857
(fig.
IN
858
as his assistant
on the Rocke-
feller
demned
engage
Shahn
Communist
Paris
the
in
also
produced a
Tom
the life-story of
An
objectionable.
politically
as
artiste
terminology,
of illustrations to
series
The work
of
an
inspired, in
early stages,
its
was
art that
by the
illus-
largely
careful study
Bloom studied
in Boston,
Born
where he de-
from reproductions.
stress the
macabre element
(fig.
his
interiors,
human
Hyman
404.
to
still-life
limbs,
and
joying
much
York
critics,
raised,
New
are
life,
among
macabre compositions;
his least
remembered from
a Christmas-tree
not
obsess
cination,
one's dazzled
Bloom
that does
all
of
concentrates on a limited
of themes that
affect
him
intensely,
hallu-
number
frequently
in themselves
deeply
XIV
In the years that followed the Roosevelt era, a
majority of American
less voluntarily
artists
The decade
Jewish
more
of
artists,
withdrew more or
politi-
many
of
whom had
many
among
New
cri-
Abraham Rattner
of
(1893
Born
).
in
New
New
notaure group. In
as a
member
of the Mi-
1935 and
America
in
itself in
the formalism of
by
of Gothic
stained-glass
significant.
the triumph
ters,
and
Paris
tic
among
of the
When
success.
deliers,
Scroll.
everything that he
in
synagogue
In his
paints.
Bloom tends
techniques,
painterly
delicate
is
modern
use of color.
in
its
technical devices
Never tempted
to
and
its
rigorously
competitive
New
his compositions
against a
flat
seem
to
be molded
figures ot
in bas-relief
like
practiced a
859
preferred,
on
860
XV
he has
unequivocally
occasions,
several
MODERN TIMES
In the
he has abandoned
sculptural
conceptions
abstract-expressionist
felicitous
earlier
his
final
analysis,
our age.
it
is
architectural
or
itself
kind
ot
favor
in
crisis;
of
Tachisme that
is
not always
in
consciousness of individual
the
in
flict,
between the
cultural traditions
of the
it
artists,
Western
cing.
Three Jewish
to
conclusion, be said
artists can, in
in our century,
life
if
still
seems to
Whether
inspire
presenting
it
made up
liar,
need
of odds
the
man's distrust
small
nobody
exorcized
as
of
contem-
Israels, in
in
Vienna
in the
in
among
Berlin's "Patheti-
Raymond Loewy
industrial
pav'
system ot
his
of "streamlined" forms
in
not
does
and
of "packaging" that
dern
art;
is
mo-
rational styles of
re-
handicrafts,
that
the kind
of revolution
in
taste
in nineteenth-century
aware of
its
own
has
foibles
and
follies,
thus
and Kramer,
Paris, in
of
in various
poses
itself
or in the Chicago
As soon
ceases to assert
itself as
vidual
tely
artist's
The
earlier
style
for-
ceases to be
symptomatic,
is
JEWISH SCULPTORS
by
Of all the
most
alien
creative
the
to
of his nature.
been
prohibitions
Religious
drawn
in color, thus
more than
a painting
work
of a
of sculpture.
he had
no opportunity
sculpture has
arts,
Jew.
KARL SCHWARZ
that
so
arts,
nute
We
detail.
some
a former chapter.
of proportion, since
and the
descriptive.
The
On
Jew gave him no opportunity for creative acThe Jews and Jew-
sional with
last
of heroes, nor
and reproduce.
ish
the
Work
in
many
Even
its
He
lacked
to the
the
vertheless,
in
this
in the nineteenth
came accepted
in
was
be represented
as legitimate
ture on the
still
second
remote from
human
features to
in relief
somewhat
earlier,
to a miniature.
and physiognomatic
whom
way
no other
The Jewish
charted
until then
un-
vir-
II
In addition, the
The historical
perhaps the
bolic
of
all,
in exploiting the
on tombstones,
rhythms inherent
script.
rise to a
Sometimes,
to
had accomplished.
new world,
and unknown to him.
common
came
with asto-
artist
in the
for himself
of his time
artists
and secondly,
and twen-
of sculptors
artist.
first
Ne-
for centuries;
number
He hewed
the fore.
artist
experience
direct
field
he quickly produced
until the
Jew
the
highly developed
flat
relief
was
first
Jewish
artist of ability
who dared
it
was
to
move
to Berlin
at
so.
and
863
864
he showed
it,
from
his
courage
nineteenth-century
early
deal
to
gerous subject
mad
with
realistically
The
Tsar.
to Rus-
by
France,
a
dan-
bloodthirsty
of his
is
life,
which he had
own
Tormented by
son.
killed his
his conscience,
he seeks
The head
his faults.
is
sion
the
diverted the
and
artist,
Mark
405.
1882.
from
The result is a
a monumental
later to Paris,
half of his
life,
he saw no beauty
instances
in the
and experiences
Unlike Rodin,
life.
when he modelled
nude, as
in the
Women
and
was
intellectually
all
Whereas Rodin
unattractive.
Antokolski was
whatever
his
faults,
more powerful
century, one
intellect
all
artistic
who
personalities
of the
last
It is
artist
later years,
when he no
which tolerated no
to great
advantage
statues
size
Spinoza
in the fine
thinkers
of
(fig.
In
Petersburg, he
ber of genre
in
wood and
a scholarship
and
modelling
won
reliefs
ivory,
and ended
plunged himself
His
Ivan the
woodcarving.
St.
to
go to Rerlin.
Petersburg and
Terrible
made
the
twentv-eight-
such
heads of his
life-
Socrates
and
as
his best
remembering
is
Christ
his
before
feet, Jesus, a
Pilate:
with
kind of Jewish
to
letters
in
revealed themselves
frivolity,
age,"
working
his
St.
On
gan
thinker,
in the
and
the
critic
Stassov,
in
how
earnestly
alas,
all
is
my
and
finally:
I was
"What
know
that
to
Reauty
is
in finding
your
is."
JEWISH SCULPTORS
865
who
1859-1939)
Antokolski's pupil,
of expression.
(
it
is
of
little
interest to
heights
Ginzburg
Ilva
us now, though
at
He
skillfully
earned,
Jewish
in the history of
in
1932),
pioneer,
who was
later to
make
(1866-
Schatz
Boris
name
a great
for
dream
his
art.
of a national
statue
which
he
attracted
executed
such
and
notice
Hasmonean
the
dramatic
in
Jewish
folkloristic
Mattathias
of
pose,
King Ferdinand of
that
academy
States.
and
artistic
social
Rome. Among
in
activities
best-known creations
Ezekiel's
which B'nai
B'rith
is
commissioned him
monument
to execute
The work
represents Liberty as a
woman
of majestic appear-
flaming lamp,
might
It
little less
Design
be
said
of
work,
Ezekiel's
all
is
is
a mystifying feeling of
is
Jefferson
he was concerned
Virginia,
there
technical
skill
as in the
work
Arlington
Jewish
artists,
external form.
concept.
free himself
beloved teacher,
his
Hebrew
On
Mark
his
The
Antokolski.
was regarded
and that
ballad,
the
was painting
of
United
to the
Monument in the
National Cemetery and in the Thomas
Monument at Charlottesville, both in
of arts.
is
that
866
as
an old
and
sentimental
as true Jewish
Confederate Soldiers'
is
an
stops
vigor
it
a second glance.
strength, Ezekiel's
interest
on
bordering
occasionally
work
to
in
Antokolski's
beholder
the
enables
that
an excess of
over-finish,
is
Whereas
through a
barbarous
on the
more
violent styles
many
of Picasso or Epstein.
Like
art, illustrate
mic, eclectic
art.
his
sitters
without
much
for-
American
mond,
Ill
as be-
plastic artist to
Ezekiel, born in
Rich-
Institute
and fought
Confederate
side.
Germany where,
with a bas-relief,
chael
memorable
Beer)
foreigner.
He
in
the Civil
War on
the
Prize,
the coveted
Rome
(Mi-
then went to
never
Unfortunately,
only
these
two
nineteenth-
still
remembered
who were
and pathetic
at the
ly forgotten.
Guttmann
to
figure.
Apprenticed to a gunsmith
artist as a child,
having shown
ability in carving
867
Museum
the Hungarian
of Fine Arts,
sands of reproductions of
over
Italy.
all
considered
is
finest creations.
Engel, (1815-1901),
who was
and sent
originally destined
and
(whether or not
"decision"
While
in Pressburg.
and thou-
were distributed
it
one of Guttmann's
More
868
this
hand
at sculp-
was permissible
was unfavorable,
As soon
human
however, he moved to
his
Queen
in
England,
his busts
Victoria
and
were
latter.
was
international reputation
to
acquired by the
modify
him
so great that
He was
he was
forced, however, to
ment, which
now
monu-
406.
Glicenstein.
Woman
The
Pioneer.
rich
toys.
At eighteen, he trekked
No
he learned engraving.
to Vienna,
less a
where
him
him
a scholarship enabling
An-
to study.
He was
of drama.
full
was
life
the
Jewess, and
his
Paris,
celebrated
he
hopelessly in love
fell
actress
Rachel,
herself
lost
Beer (born
bered for
in Brno,
his association
But during
sculptor.
his life,
Berlin's
seum
Museum
of
New
of Herzl,
Hand
in
in the
Under the
influence
Shma
Yisrael, In the
Sweat
of
movement
trait
in
portrait to
Vienna
include busts
The
if
original c
fine porfirst
He
such
died
in
was acquired by
at
thy
Basel
From
Brow,
and Promise.
It
(1897).
certain
portant Jewish
points
of
artist of this
view,
period,
limits
of
the
most im-
who went
the
be-
prevailing
Gli-
JEWISH SCULPTORS
869
(1870-1942).
censtein
he spent
Italy
youth
he developed a many-sided
last
his
in the
nich,
870
artistic activity.
New
York. His
first
works
were of a
His
and
period
is
dancing
of Paris portraying a
girl
The Song
with a ram.
number
many
In a great
development
towards
evergrowing
an
American
realism.
of his singular
creations. In 1928,
num-
ber of busts in bronze, and wood, which are outstanding for their mobile expressiveness.
Also noteworthy are the marble bust of Rabbi
Museum
strength
came
working.
No contemporary
able strides
in Springfield.
to
wood
made compar-
from the
artist
naturalistic excitement
and
weak
and greatness
of an expressionism born of
ive period
showed him
to possess.
In 1940, he
created
monumental
figure,
is
woman
in
which human
if
work
is
a powerful
monument
pioneer in Palestine
(fig.
406)
illustrates
may be
artistic efforts
revealed themselves
Monkey
in
their expression.
fried
ornamentation of buildings;
feelings find
phenomenon
is
Sieg-
influ-
similar
(fig.
407.
Monument
dignified quiet as
La Defense
Homo
still-life
his
after trips to
studies
the
Copenhagen Municipality
at
figure of
his charac-
many
utilitarian objects.
871
he moved
872
to Paris
By
glass polishing.
in a
and
and
carving,
crystal
glass
an unusual imagination
in the
of stylized
Among
thin glass.
was
the
Leopold
77-year-old
gifted
Sinaieff,
and
statues
especially
Grieving
his
for
Bernstein
and
Ezra,
1933
living in
similar to Zadikow's.
Paris,
whom
in
Dortmund
1877, and
in
London, possesses a
versatility
in
he learned
to
which he applied
bronze,
in
tombstones in Germany.
to
tation
Among
the
the
to a tragic
German
gifted
(1884-1943), whose
sisted
of a lovely
silver,
number
some
his
Jewish
great
were brought
Arnold
Zadikow
ten-centimeter-high figure in
work
artists
lives
sculptor
first
whose
World War
and
interrupted
however, was
by
fol-
a large
lowed by a
number
of
which the
traditional
cation of the
His
best
castings of medals
turned,
the evacuation of
Mainz by the
stones
celebrate
Allied
Forces
World War
woman
I,
he
in granite
he executed
the granite
works of
He
his
(fig.
in
in stone, to
which he then
Abbey and
land,
and
works of
and
of figures.
in
Westminster
masterpiece
fig.
409),
and a time-
Many
of his
IV
this kind,
in Jerusalem.
He
each with many
a separate
To
German craftsman
growing
and
semi-precious
lessness
in
Rathenau,
He made many
The
figure
gene-
of his
artists
Walter
examples of the
Motherhood
is
sculptor.
marble
of
script are
David
cast figure of
figure of
life-size
bust
of this kind.
Hebrew
modern work
as
ration.
II
of a female
classic beauty. In
1932,
With changing
JEWISH SCULPTORS
873
enclave
the
school
Paris
left its
years,
and
leaders
own
various
who became
personalities
modern
trail-blazers of
emerged.
art
had stepped
into
From
exceptions.
Jewish
tury,
artists
Man
his
Outdoors
Tango
circus
Couple Dancing
figures
strange
in
in
dancers,
motion
and
poses.
He
tion of
were
However,
came
minority soon
this
By
artists
rapidly.
relatively few.
The reason
for this
is
small
plaster-of-paris
reached
Paris
during the
magnet
new approach
which substituted a
to art
artists
first
from
all
From
reproduction.
Kogan whose
Modigliani, for
full
of
peak
its
as
capricious
center of artists
attracting an ever-increasing
figures
movement.
ing this
e.g.
with the
(1915)
it is
this
874
Livorno,
origins
it
number
of
drew Modigliani
Cracow-born Nadelmann,
were
in Russia,
whence Lou-
and Hanna
Orloff,
born
in the
Ukraine
who came
a master of
line
originality.
many
years there.
in
to
sculpture.
In
addition,
unstable
his
that
he happened
He worked
pitifully
pieces
at
many
of
Among
Museum
London,
in
Museum
classic
of
Modern Art
New
York displays
in
field.
woman
in
motion
From
he greatly admired.
consists
of geometric
beginning of World
although
He
whom
heads
tion, since
form
Rodin
his
his art
War
elements.
he lived
in
From
New
all
the
York
in Paris.
409.
875
MODERN TIMES
we know
876
(fig.
411). His
and harmony.
had
guished for
unique
art,
Hanna
Orloff
own,
distin-
style of her
its
medium
is
no
less a
is
into
gilds.
One sometimes
finds
in
her
and
of
Her
statues of ani-
forms.
plastic
Never
Hanna
at
the
same time,
original,
humor, and
realistic
is,
and always
expressive.
Marek Szwarc's
art formerly
drew, almost
which he executed
in
in
order
to
a master of
rhythm
of the
human
was the
The
figurines
he produced
all
detail
(fig.
410).
moved
striven
to
for
to Israel at the
in
one particular
style.
lyrical.
girls
men
strong and
powerful.
is
the most
is
411.
life
copper
410.
others,
followed an old
He
Wood.
JEWISH SCULPTORS
877
412.
relief
Jacques Lipchitz.
(repousse) in the
manner
The Kapparot
of objects
Sacrifice.
made
878
motion of
light,
creations
are
church decorations.
formula.
to Catholi-
to translate
The
first artist
to
theme
of a
man
with a musical
879
more
The
work
to
to the
what bring
life.
conception of
its
880
elastic
construction.
his
MODERN TIMES
light.
Rotterdam.
in
It
she
lifts
Bernard Reder,
413).
(fig.
who
started his
career as a
the
off
first
exhibi-
his
The
horrified astonishment.
tamed
soon
Paris
in
strength.
He
influence of Maillol
unbridled
his
primitive
own
imaginative powers.
ting
Women
Monument
City.
in
In
has acquired
New
new
rhythms of the
instrument, he formulated
it
works,
in a variety of
stone
Squat-
as the
Two
and
Bathing,
of Paris.
May
Ossip Zadkine.
413.
Works such
driving
art
city's life.
the
sensation
of
new
form.
Out
of the
melody-song
tumult of the
as
man
embodied
angel,
itself
The
emerged.
new themes
thirties
made him
in the
Prometheus
mother
seek
in despair, a
now
prayer
Sacrifice (fig.
The Miracle
The
rebirth of the
began
flee
to
interest
Jews
in their ancient
New
Ossip Zadkine
tor.
is
no
York, he has
artistic
life
less a painter
come
elicited
life,
by the play of
of primitive peoples,
light.
in
with a Bull
wood with
(fig.
and
414)
Centaurs
both
in
Women
Women
in
Bird,
stone,
in Battle
Battle
power and
extraordinary
ever seeking
new
fighting spirit,
his
expression.
Fantastic
to
than a sculp-
brought to
brought to
up realism
give
to
today.
homeland
France. Living in
dynamic language. In
member
only
New
York
of the
after
his
as a child,
European
arrival
in
was considered
school, since
Paris
the
at
an
was
it
age
artist.
of
He
ed
there.
juggler-like
proficiency.
all
life's
the prominent
he executed
in
1940
The
work
Woman
a large, bronze
JEWISH SCULPTORS
881
Walt Whitman
statue of
He knew how
14 years.
which he worked
at
enormous technical
He
eye.
and
skill
for
true
He had
a steady, discerning
of light
ness,
882
many
inspiration.
present-day
Among
artists
his followers
is
Benno Schotz,
artist
He
has also
ful effect.
Without
of
mention are
his
and
Orr,
on stone. Born
directly
moved
artistic
in the
United States, he
background
life
by the play
The
lived:
and
Commandments
early
them
The
all.
and uncompromising
radical
as a sculptor:
carried
415).
Epstein
executed
paid
with a completely
tribute
to
his
people
of light
and
in Paris
to
brought to
(fig.
styles
he used are
cubistic in
Hammering
out the
style, as in his
blocks,
By
work
far
sculptors
is
of African
Negro
art
which he
to
the
dynamism
in
we mean
the
liv-
power out
ing
By
which he fashioned
of
dead matter.
Joseph
stvle.
Conrad
His busts of
and
George
He
himself with
all,
as
he used
a model,
children.
his
Above
own daughter
moment
riations
without
number.
No
Through Epstein's
creative-
414.
that
he
way
rhythm
primitives here,
Adam and
new concept
Ten
of Lazarus
monu-
Bernard Reder.
Women
in
1949.
883
SSI
two works
called
first,
was created,
is
made from
one,
a stone
born out of
stvlized
reality,
classicism
more
modern
a master of
rative
wood,
stone,
and
glass.
in
His deco-
which
light
is
more
There
in the field of
is
He
art.
wood
sculptures.
movements
of
415.
Jacob
The Annunciation.
Tate Gallery, London.
Bronze.
Epstein.
due
tion
to
its
cubistic form.
for his
in
ebony woods
teak tree
is
is
the inspira-
woman
with
Together with
Lipschitz'
art
is
all
artists,
He makes
use
he
final
body with sm
iothly
flowing muscles,
with the
416.
JEWISH SCULPTORS
885
Jeremiah's Journey to
886
chiseas his
woman
African peasant
tion,
and
The
Negro heads
his large
who
artist
(fig.
Moses
is
com-
done
wood,
in
so smoothly
The emphasis
sion.
is
is
Herman Wald,
among
permeate
of music
and dove
much
ever, leave
to
his
His
The Refugees
woman
pictures a
of
pet-
embrace
to save
it
from
The
pursuers.
its
large
is
hope
VI
Jews are conspicuous adherents
the avant-
of
Among American
number
artists,
are Jewish.
arts.
a disproportionately great
They
are,
it
may be
said, pre-
destined by the fate of the Jewish people to concern themselves with problematical themes stem-
stresses
and
social strata
and sorrows
they
energetically
throw
Many
of
them
into
the
or their pa-
Jewry which
their
themselves
still
imagination.
been
This has
contribution to American
art.
But
their
it
417.
fills
would be
whose stone
is
the
work
of
Life.
Wood.
unique
note.
William Zorach
plicity saturated
expression.
At the age
of four,
Europe and
its
persecutions strongly
887
imbedded
in
New
He
in his personality.
York and
him
flat relief
studied painting
chance experience
modern American
to bring to
in
first
New
a painter in
the
888
Paris,
MODERN TIMES
He was
He
is
techniques. Zorach
is
His
life-
early important
daughter
tion
in
marble, a composi-
in
his
in
black
is
much
child.
finest
wife,
granite,
(fig.
achievement on
strikes
variation
419).
1945
of
He
is
this
his
theme.
It
419.
He
sculpture.
New
artist until
New World
brought
wood
the
He knows how
to
exploit to the
wood he works
He
with.
He
simplifies
forms
in the abstract
manner.
theme
of the
of dancing figures in
theme
wood, transforming
it
in the natural
into
human
form
bodies
merging and flowing into one another. Like Zohe works directly on his media, preferring
rach,
working with
joy in
ture.
in
Nat
Rene
Biclel
lhapshak.
Election, Johannesburg.
wood
it
He
has a
flare,
uncommon
light
(fig.
in
420).
medium. He
is
more dramatic
in ex-
he prefers a
lighter rhythm.
JEWISH SCULPTORS
889
Thus he
890
at
mahogany. Inspiration
in
for
this
composition
of
re-
rejoicing,
The rhythm
bals.
veyed
in the
of the dance
is
con-
elm
is
in
Talmud Scholar
(fig.
sionistic.
is
to sculp-
child
classic masters of
Italy
led
him
beautiful
his
in
where he studied.
to
further step
closed contours
marble
realistically
wood he
group
as
in
Destitute.
the
In
effectively brings
out the
421.
2J
He
parts.
achieves
mism and
finally
stronger
dyna-
to their
cubistic
In
statue
content.
of
A Woman Sunk
Group, the
in
the
her sorrow
is
full
force of
imparted by
in
vers,
cast in aluminium, in
metal
the
light
effectively
bodies
on
por-
throwing
with outstretched
420.
Chaim
Gross.
many-sided
legs.
artist,
well
891
versed in
all
techniques,
who
is
Louis Slobodkin.
which he adheres
cast stone, in
construction.
He
impression of
bound forms
to a strong tectonic
is
an
interesting
made
its
effect felt
As
Metropolitan
are
on the sculp-
of years.
the
a seated
Museum
stone
Memorial
in
reliefs
is
head
today in the
the
Roger
Kennedy
woman
is
hammers concave
out
the
of
in
which
422.
his
Saul Baizerman.
The March
metal.
method
This
endows
his
Among
his
most
Exuberance,
effective
which
in
women's
reliefs
bodies
motif of motion.
By way
stone
892
(fig.
422).
When
looking at these,
come
to
The
life.
classical
with the
and
life
suffering of the
tariat
is
lisch,
which
theme
preoccupation of Jewish
artists
working prole-
work
of
Max Ka-
is
He made
realistic
living figures
for example,
is
bodv seeming
of the Innocents.
a strong, realistic
Hammered
brass.
423.
tool
J.
894
JEWISH SCULPTORS
893
his
hands
powerful
Goodleman
also
is
His art
handling.
Aaron
personality.
are
is
artistic
It
is
World
symptomatic of conditions
men
sculptors of
to
block of granite)
of expression
possibilities
static
to the
in
the
figure prominently
New
wo-
(Meditation from a
expressionistic
ecstatic
Berta Margoulies
in
Poland and
895
head,
MODERN TIMES
entitled
Last
the
896
Prayer
424)
(fig.
is
especially impressive.
bound form.
to
Self-trained,
much
as possible.
from an egg-shaped
stone.
camel imparting
it
Snob
woman
hammered
425). Her
(fig.
motion expresses
in
endowing
it
with
its
whose
The
and
fall
life.
art has,
its title
lead statue of
fluctuating rise
girl
in
is
Anita Wechs-
gone through a number of phases from the natuthe realistic and finally, to the abstract.
ralistic to
feel
424.
Prayer. Bronze.
personal
spent her youth in Relgium and England before
anti-war
fashions
coming
to America,
France and
Italy.
She
capable of expressing a
is
emotions
The happiness
of media.
of the bronze
in a large variety
head of her
little
wood from
own
1949.
style.
In
groups
decorative
entitled
strongly
cubistic
mahogany
War
work
to
Music.
in
form
She
out
strongly stylized
called
is
very
sculptures
of cement,
Wil-
The
War
Her experiment
ing.
of
copper and
the
cubistic
There
statue
is
mute
423)
of
Jew with
(fig.
resignation
for
news from
The head
of an old
Another
woman
artist to
be influenced by Zo-
is
large in form,
and
rich in feeling.
Among them
are
Men
in
rigid forms.
Her
quiet, exalted
head
of
425.
JEWISH SCULPTORS
897
898
attempts.
favorable to the
is
new
forms of
and
art;
is
it
resentment of representa-
atavistic
be foremost among
though
sometimes
experiments in this
outstanding
with
always
sphere,
those
achieving
success,
results.
brilliant
own
his
how
expressionistic
426). Seymour
(fig.
mood
of his statue
fields
radios, etc.
came
artistic talents.
bronze,
as
in
The
in
Woman
Seated
his
for-
Dancer,
expression
his
for
little
screens.
tin
plate
con-
These creations
volume
an element of space.
wholly
new
tors
in the service
Many American
Jewish sculp-
that
It
are
is
for
their
ability
now being
The
them
be
can
style
latter
his Recollections of a
Mummified
observed
precisely because of
in
Cat, in which
framing
of glass decoratively,
at
down
to a
complex
of
motion
abstractly
and decoratively.
Bernard
Calder,
Rosenthal,
plastic.
tached to
steel
little
He
Alexander
is
swinging
with
together
which move
plates
interesting
shadow
in
at-
the
pictures.
plants
whose
stone wall.
The movement
Constructivism
brothers
silhouettes
is
Naum
in sculpture
known
as
Gabo
and
Antoine
Pevsner.
Naum
while
attending
art,
began
lectures
his practical
on
work
the
in
concepts
of
tion of Constructivism
were
first
practical applica-
in
erected
life
of the synagogue.
by
of
cuts.
illustrated
is
An-
his brother
in painting,
mer
Gabo,
is
of
shape of automobiles,
Sal
Construc-
ned with an
in Paris,
426.
899
427.
MODERN TIMES
relief
on Temple facade
900
JEWISH SCULPTORS
901
and non-
abstract
that
902
The
ish
significant
first
symbolism
attempt to create
in abstract
form has
is
the presentation of
as
the
in
Metamorphosis
Aggressive
or
He
428.
by
My
Spirit" in
Illinois.
are
this
his
synagogue
in Milburn. This
work
the im-
elicits
reliefs
ther in pointed
and
spiral
forms
(fig.
377).
among
single,
harmonize
He
Cyrano
in the
symbolization
drastic
their
of
Whitney Museum
is
The
Thumb
caricature,
woman accompanying
herself
absorbed,
humor
and
irony.
The
sculptor
mic expressionism
is
are
also a
full
of
master of dyna-
The
Vine
St.
art of
Temple
in Nashville
427).
(fig.
works
is
my
but by
The
spirit."
Springfield, Mass.
Temple Bethel
in
and through.
He
is
(fig.
428)
It is to
of
this
genius, will in
expressing
the
Jewish
spiritual
to the fore in
Israel.
hark-
a mas-
Raymond Katz
expressionistic through
ter of
for
a de-
sody depicting a
fully
in
on a
lute,
new temple
melody.
like a
relief in
and sculpture
visions,
from
wood
Among
some
of
tation.
whom
in the general
among
and ambitions.
its
present scope
ART
EUGENE KOLB
by
contemporary
of
IN ISRAEL
Israel
art
of 25 years.
man and
Both the
the institution
on the
ence
development
of
Israel
art
in
its
anything in any
way
savoring of
The Jewish
art.
who might be
capital
institution sympathetically,
and the
would
fanatics
certainly
At the
or a graven image.
making a
outset,
likeness
however, Bezalel
of Boris Schatz as
had neither
early period.
In
work,
this
absorbed his
vears.
later
made
whom
to
or obsession
It
was
Vienna
in
he broached
the
first
of
plan to
his
Bezalel,
which
1903 that
in
acquaintance
the
Theodor Herzl,
after
some
His achievement
a sculptor.
Schatz
of
in this sphere
it
chapter
previous
be named
God implanted
wisdom and
ol
spirit "in
knowledge and
whose heart
in all
in
From
work
there on,
his
with Jewish
increasing preoccupation
Here, at
tality
a final
and organiza-
implementation
trips to
Vienna
of
Ephraim M.
establishing
1906
adventure.
Palestine
has
an
all
the
art
the
Lilien.
an
artist of
above
sion and,
where he
is
institute
earmarks
christian
was
artists
and
still
is
active.
as lithographer.
all,
a talented illustrator.
work
of the
circle.
permanent exhibition
in
They shared
of
First,
Moslem nor
went
of
He
later
in Jerusalem
Bussia for
idea
Pann
1914 and
left
What
were founded
The
last,
He
realized
tees
Jerusalem
Berlin, as a result of
year,
of
ami
in
made
home
formerly the
Paris in
was found
he settled
problems involved
possibilities of
it,
tional
and
full
solution
this formula,
it is
of sustenance
man
in
With
un-
His
existence."
manner
artist-
derstanding and
new ways
with
known Hebrew
in
certain
of the
convictions
and
connected
with
Jewish
themes.
is
principles.
necessarily
Secondly,
this
stem from
ART
905
IN ISRAEL
of decorative craftsmanship
of Boris Schatz
pictures of
was
as well as to the
director
and
department
tapestry
the
of
directed the course in decoration; to the producof Ze'ev Rabban, whose best-known work
tions
was the
"Song
white silhouettes
drawing
Aharon
of
("The
Halevi
Beautiful
inspired
of
I.
and coldness,
sion
as
if
modern
of
tions
art
being
as
Bezalel
that
decide what
Jewish
is
contrary
drew
Bezalel art
until in the
The
it
World War
modern
The
from abroad. In
it
imita-
way,
this
and developing
It
proved
faith in itself
gave birth
to the flourishing
and
qualitative
sisting of a small
of
However,
revolution
the
culture
national
dance
it
style
its
ideas
and
new sensation
A new Hebrew
also
siveness,
which
Modern
of life of the
theater
was
rebirth.
began
rhythm,
contemporary Jew.
came
Bezalel in
made up
Some
second
of the
of these,
first
movement
of
were
artists
Jewish
Artists
whose sphere
served
founded
of activity
by the
in
Association
Jerusalem
in
of
1920,
museums
homes.
its
con-
to Jerusalem
re-
In
at
I,
social
Palestine.
Hebrew
changed.
World War
working
coterie
tions
literature.
artists
in
and
cultural,
1925,
the
in
order
in
also
all,
world of
naissance of the
drawing new
its
economic,
continued growing
art
its
in
the
young
became an anachronism.
the
art
after
The
arts.
down by
came
of
farther
end
the
to
to
life
them
in
of
("The
wood-cuts
906
In
1923,
or galleries, exhibi-
number
of
young
artists
"Tower
This
of
first
annual reappearance
artistic life.
biting in
all
in the
became
About 20
art.
first,
in
a central
to
30 Jewish pain-
it
new, original
into
and wealth
of
being.
movement exerted
consi-
Although the
The
bitions
was the
fact
artists
in
907
429.
Israel Paldi.
as the
had come
country, studying
Academy
to
Vienna and
in 1911-14. In the
war
at the
years,
Munich
he was a
429).
(fig.
to
which he sought
independent personality.
Israel Paldi
908
still
MODERN TIMES
group
1893.
still
is
reserved for
in
Rumania
in
some
1920
He was
full
After his
of revolutionary ideas.
first
mode
com-
of
color
of
to
Academy
less
attended the
dis-
tortions of
from
Jaffa port
of the model.
profound change
about following a
later
traint
his return
from
and obscurity
Corot and
in his art
in a surprising spiral.
was much
Paris, there
in his
Courbet,
came
development proceeded
Upon
as
visit to
re-
he
executed
lived in
tum
trips to Italy.
In 1916-19, he
art in
and
modern
New
York
tine
in
in 1920.
1922,
he
When
Rubin returned
already
possessed
in
to Pales-
thorough-
World War
II,
this
in
pointed at this no
his figures
who came
abstract
compositions
loped a
which undoubt-
edly
Rubin's
in
new
personal
formulation,
in
undergoing
ART IN ISRAEL
909
Menahem
430.
gay, romantic
mood
of the
and Jerusalem
in their colorful
above
ceeded
in
fruits,
and,
which he suc-
Palestinian landscapes in
all,
lyrical
came
hedonism.
whom
artists for
each problem
is
He
in his
differed
Weltanschauung and
each painting
a problem
is
and
few
traces on him.
knew modern
art
was
friends,
man
and
his
in
it.
His pa-
who
monumental female
Shemi,
figures.
way
as not to
war
service,
if
the clouds
bright, free,
(fig.
become
a victim
Shemi worked
in realizing the
many
his for so
had
his life,
years. Suddenly,
became
and possessed
in
dream
charm
of an Oriental
430).
Although born
in
Rumania
Nahum
(1898),
the age of
was brought
to Palestine
He
War
I.
After
Gutman
to this
day.
His
chief
characteristics
are
facile
drawing,
brilliance.
Picasso,
neo-Classical
mechanic,
He
910
at
that
He
watercolors,
is
and
as
an
unerring
oils
and
sketcher
his
and
MODERN TIMES
911
illustrator.
912
of
At
as a living reflection.
he was attracted by
first,
day
it
figures
life
from every-
striking portraits.
and the
mood
the Sea
with their
many-colored
One
of the
ships
which anchored
1919
Ukraine,
Odessa
brought
also
1894).
in
1912
he succeeded
that his place
in
others,
Russia,
Boris
World War
Litvinovsky
came
Schatz
(b.
to
was
in Palestine.
came
to Jerusalem,
but
like
where he studied
at the Petersburg
to
Aca-
Jerusalem.
Rubin or Gutman),
for his
(fig.
431). In the
played
did
self-expression
Litvinovsky dis-
fields of color,
less consistency
(as
his
method
The Market
therefore, Litvinovsky
many
after
Pinhas
When
to
off Jaffa
Pinhas Litvinovsky.
431.
in
emphasize the
flags.
first
its
way back
in
niscences
Aviv Museum.
recognizable
are
his
in
plastically-
Joseph Zaritzky
arrived in 1923,
ways.
He had
is
power
of his original
of his color.
(born
Ukraine,
1891),
close to Litvinovsky in
who
many
Academy, which
because
it
laid
School.
By
of the Paris
his
432.
artistic
perception
despite
all
was already
so
stable
that
among
who
tender
wife.
its
first,
in
the begin-
went over
of the
From
(fig.
432).
roofs.
But,
From
tine, Zaritzky
Ofakim
and
which he painted
and
pictures
abstract
Association,
hundreds of pictures
scapes of
gigantic
existence.
still-lifes,
From
was the
1945.
attached no im-
it
Israeli painters
At
914
ART IN ISRAEL
913
was an
and
in
Hadashim
("New
Horizons")
of the
group
with a Jewish
spirit
915
He
manently
in 1923.
to settle per-
familiar
left
at the
a strong
in 1926, there
him with a
of the Cultural
In this
Committee
his
Federation), Frankel
group. However,
his
studio
outcome
is
However, a positive
of this complicated
method
of
working
is
revealed
and
color
itself.
in Tel Aviv.
and freedom
As
far as
to exhibit a
Two more
artist
who came
young modern
to the
crystallized,
first
time in 1919,
433.
first
art
of expression as a purpose in
first
("Com-
Haim
and
Moscow
in
the
Palestine
in
now founded
we know,
Another
in existence
pure abstraction
excitedly.
group
was already
When
art
in Paris.
modern
all styles.
became a student
he returned
916
in
1924,
and,
clothed
new
Gliksberg
first
when he
the
men(b.
studied art
arrived in
impressions
he
and
There
is
apparent
Tsiyona Tajer,
who may be
in his
landscapes
with everyday
life.
considered Palestine's
ART IN ISRAEL
917
434.
modern
native-born
first
interest.
She
the
is
first
of
double
artist to
engage
painter,
woman
918
is
is,
in
in
fine
his
aquarelles,
Untouched by
ideas,
two
years.
Upon
returning
home
The
secting planes
of her portraits
clearly
point to
Ludwig Blum
(b.
since
1923)
traits
(b.
in
appeared
strange
in
the
light
unique
which
Palestinian
atmosphere.
first
pupil
into his
changes
own world
for
of
himself
1922
at the
working
age of thirteen.
by
class
his
He
outlook and
Louth's teachings.
stylistic
in
penchant for
mysticism often endows his works with the character 'of a legend.
for
revealed especially
while his
Andre Louth
is
paintings, in
which he
later
is
tied to the
way
of
alleys,
his
life.
work-
gouache
developed a special
and ancient
which with
their
Jaffa,
creating
compositions
went
on,
more
colorful.
these compositions
(fig.
433). As time
became
freer
and
Moshe
435.
artists,
young
the
in
further
The main
were
the
was, of course,
Paris.
visits
became
stays
and studied
until
1925
in the
at the
Galicia
Upper
following year
Viennese Academy
in 1926,
Arye
years.
as a halutz in
Europe
He came back
of Art.
of instances,
Galilee, returned to
several
of
"Modern
in
Artists,"
and took up
own
In 1927,
in
Moshe
into a personal
434).
(fig.
went
Castel also
Oriental style.
first
The
mind the
bring to
delicacy
1940, he
ancient Persian
of
Upon his
made an effort
miniature painting.
return to Palestine
supplement the
to
and Rouault
him
Paris
live,
and
Hasidim
While
visiting
enthusiastically
received.
Similarly,
Moshe Mokadv
music
in
tures,
his
gouache
From
pic-
the be-
American
also
now upon
and by a number
of
made
Mho
compositions in which he
his quiet
by
abstractionists,
remark-
in 1951-3, a
at the
where
he chose to
were
Galilee.
Born
to Paris.
Bezalel and at
in
Tel Aviv.
his residence in
of his painting
istic
in
The
920
1955.
Hotel. Herzliva.
personality,
center of
Usually, these
number
MODERN TIMES
919
alphabets.
use of ancient
letters
from the
In recent years,
435).
Aaron Avni, a
realistic
painter,
came
to
the
warmer under
grew
still
He
artistic
tion in Palestine,
ronment, he nevertheless
did
not
free
its
envi-
himself
ART IN ISRAEL
921
from Russian and French schools which
stamp on
his
922
left their
these
in
influences,
gouache,
in
developed
painting
his
(fig.
436) and
and aquarelles
oils
landstill-
saturated
1951, he
left
generations of students.
Deep
Rorn
in Galicia in 1908,
came to
Palestine.
At
first
began teach-
he went
to
Paris
The
pictures he exhi-
first
became
used
in his aquarelles
(fig.
Shimshon Holtzman.
437.
On
the
Lake
of Galilee.
to Palestine with
which he cleverly
437).
to
tine
first
ranks of
modern painting
Streichman
Yehezkel
in time, rose
went
(born
(b.
Odessa, 1903).
to the
in
his
age
which he applies
Pales-
at Rezalel at the
to Paris,
temperament appeared
in
Lithuania,
to
His style
first,
a lyric
women
(fig.
are
sonal values
young generation
activity
in
of
painters
started
with
his
the
War
of
Independence.
with painters
modern French
436.
Aaron Avni.
Interior.
landscapes
in
when he
en-
art,
the
who were
at the
enthusiastic over
beginning he painted
conventional
fashion
of
the
438.
However, features
period.
which he came
Paris School
self
in
and sought
make
to
Upon
his return
way
as Matisse
him-
for
and Sou-
home, he devoted
his
all
color.
his style
visit
to
Paris,
in
1950-52,
without losing
to
power
Nazi regime
of the
to Pales-
number
after
of artists.
different
of the
much
is
his talent
the Bauhaus at
to
hint
at
first
were spent
in study at
principles of the
marked the
decisive years
modern concept
of form.
That
ability
phenomena and
to present
of
nervous tension.
its
924
of an interesting talent
tine.
in
MODERN TIMES
923
b.
1896),
artists
who
of the
While
passion.
his
work
early
of the Palestine
former
modern
(e.g.,
of
"In the
Negev Wastes,"
much
is
"The Story
fig.
but whatever he
Candle"
won
439). Ardon
his
famous painting
UNESCO
prize
Ardon was
ART IN ISRAEL
925
926
who
since youth
ing
himself
now
nique,
had been
train-
artistic
tech-
in
New
cher at the
Among
Bezalel School.
who
those
took the
(b.
should
be
Lithuania,
1912),
mentioned.
He came
to Pales-
tine in
at first
development
in Haifa. His
for-
by Braque and
Picasso,
and led
his
the
(fig.
His
440).
by
work
occupation
Another member of
stract art.
this
Aaron Kahana
1905),
(b.
who had
Germany,
already exhibi-
lestine,
439.
where
his
early
work
he
returned to the
change
hana underwent
in
Miron
tine,
Sima
Russia,
(b.
worked
1902),
artist
colony, paint-
German
wife
the
painter
in
Even before
tradition of art-teaching.
his
Margo Aschheim-Lange he
a reputation as a craftsman
with
stability.
traditions
of
He
adapted
his
(fig.
441).
One
of the
Palestine
most
his
journeys
in
exhibiting
sketches
doned
mood
of Riblical
artist's soul,
Germany.
After
endowed
with the
East
Prussia,
trips to
Sachlichkeit style
his paintings
(b.
who reached
versatile artists
in
and gouaches
(fig.
making some
Tel Aviv and
in
the
Neue
927
440.
Jacob Wekslcr.
MODERN TIMES
928
designed to create a
new monumental
Berlin,
1934, and
tendency in
New
York
social
of
work and
formed him
in the
artist of
visit
to
lestine in 1936,
ment
at
emergence of a
perspective.
kibbutz
collective settle-
number of years
brush. The experience
for a
life.
in
Palestine a
number
of paintings
He defended
this
method
(fig.
the
New
441.
b\
who, born
in
expresses
the
paintings.
Avigdor
is
(Renzo)
mem-
Luisada
Alreadv
artistic
well-known
tradition
as
in
his
painter
ART
929
IN ISRAEL
930
and
daists,
"Dada"
lution,
Da-
for the
1916-19, participated
in
in
the
in Paris before
and equally
ture,
among
cul-
sensitive
to experimentation,
sition
French
and teacher,
to everything
in
the
modern
a leading po-
painters in Pales-
The
ing
credit
into
one of the
442.
and
on
illustrator
in
arrival
his
Palestine
however,
in
for
teachers
first
no traces
left
M.E.
belongs to
Palestine
after
at
Bezalel,
short
who,
develop-
in his pupils'
Lilien,
On
stay.
the
other hand,
in
in
is
work.
agricultural
to
quiet and
in a
still-life,
gentle style.
Even
Bergner
Yossel
from Australia
the
Poland,
(b.
in
its
artist-couples
in
the
who came
his
life,
first in
his
wife,
(The number
contemporary
worthy). Settling at
Israel
is
Safed, he later
of
moved
he became
genre-painting,
in Haifa,
to
painting,
his
The
of
(fig.
more recent
In his
artists
Nazi
who
rule, in
sketchers: Joseph
left
Germany
One
art.
nologically,
group chro-
pictures
with abstract
is
Marcel Janco
arrival in
Yanko
European repu-
World War
for
I,
Tristan Tzara,
Switzerland
during
others,
He
issues of
for the
ser-
443.
in
black-and-white drawings.
where
note-
1923
contribution in
1920)
Audrev Bergner.
painter
to Tel Aviv,
much
he did
Tel
Aviv Museum.
931
MODERN TIMES
^ffY*
444.
445.
Yossel
Marcel
Bergner.
Janco.
Safed
Jaffa
Theme
Ruins.
932
t^t"
ART IN ISRAEL
933
mann
Struck's circle.
The former
618)
(see p.
life
in
German pe-
riod.
Steinhardt
had experienced
a long
and exciting
activity be-
studied in
Berlin,
traveled in France
and
Italy.
He
participated in
446.
and exhibited
in
1913
ter
934
Jerusalem and
majestic
its
of
was inspired by
also nourished
diligently
and
serene
ancient
quarters
of
the
city,
masters.
in 1939,
an adherent of the
is
leading
the
of
as a painter
talent
446).
is
in
is
representatives
considered one
of
the
German
The power
of
his
style
stems from
(fig.
its
from Vienna
in
1925 with
hilly
to Palestine
naturalistic tradi-
tion
school with a
its
is
steep
its
Struck, Budko,
he
meticulously
by the
and
447). The
(fig.
Jerusalem,
1914,
since
living
art
hills
to Pales-
who
brush.
He
animals,
pencil,
and
illustrator.
The most
been
is
European
travels,
among
red the
skill
935
447.
MODERN TIMES
448.
1954.
936
ART IN ISRAEL
937
any surprising
centrated
situation
lines.
Many members
The
rank
is
and
of kibbutz life
draws
and
1926)
(b.
excels in descriptions
Stern
Joseph
sketches
free
Shmuel Katz
448);
(fig.
Bezem
Naphtali
and
landscapes,
figures,
first
Shraga
realists:
illustrations;
convincing power
of
938
1922)
(b.
re-
drawings,
to
also
The
caricatures.
to
mann
who
a
pure sense of
1917)
his
line.
Jacob Pins
an outstanding woodcut
is
work
in the tradition
and
Steinhardt,
guiding
teacher, Jacob
of his
The young
Germany,
(b.
artist,
artists
own.
to Palestine
War
in their
of Independence, in
which many
few
them
of
partici-
most charac-
of the
teristic
(b.
talent
Italy
(fig.
style
all
his
own
man
in
with a
who
in Paris);
Gershon Knis-
450)
(fig.
which he studied
murals,
for
(b.
449.
frescoes.
of Streichman
the studios
Some
formed
in
a little
coterie
of their
title
own, exhibiting
Aviva
of
Ten,"
Margalit,
An
increasing
artists are
now
constituting
an
number
of
native-born
Israel
phenomenon
in
the
and Zvi
who
Galli
The
birth
beginnings
of
of
sculpture in Palestine,
artistic
activity
name
as
of Boris
the
like
whole,
Schatz.
is
The
important
of color;
have
of these
"The Group
faith-
so
much from
the
inspiration
of
his
in
Palestine
at
the
end
The
of
World War
had
country.
Outstanding among
a profound effect.
Bezalel, an abstract
Abshalom
artistic
artist
life
of the
also excelling in
decorative
art;
ship on
which Litvinovsky,
artists
for
apparent. During
his
about
in
ties
lips,
first
and outstanding
events
great
modern French
art.
and
sculptor of animals,
In
is
time,
personali-
Constant
1921,
active as a
still
in Palestine in
the
Apart from
until
who
1903),
modern movement,
in 1934.
is
(b. Russia,
he
arrived
trail-blazer of
settled in
monumental
herself to
revealed
statues,
her
as
first
and
sculpture.
sculptress
All
(b.
Poland 1904
devoted
this
work
masculine
and a deve-
d.
to the ranks
with
intermittently
Schatz,
he
held
early
work consisted
Mishmar Ha-Emek
Moshe
of naturalistic statues.
During
(fig.
452). At the
metal,
and executed
intensity
he turned
to
until
in
small
in
he
left
the country
Vienna and
Berlin.
1902),
who
is
(fig.
Aaron Priver
Poland,
(b.
in
lestine in 1922,
nudes
451),
and
hood. Similarly,
Dov
an
(fig.
artist of
viduality,
for
classical.
his favorite
He
theme
in
first,
re-
excels in
is
mother-
is
who
modern form
secure
time,
monu-
is
1933-37.
style
mental sculpture.
same
he executed
1952)
Boris
in
and
in portraits
is
he continued
Melnikov
Zeev Ben-Zvi
II,
later
with
World War
England
work
spiritual
by Aaron Melnikov
940
450.
(b.
MODERN TIMES
939
Feigin's
balance
in Paris,
work
as
well
is
where he studied
distinguished
as
by
in
by a
harmony
of
expression.
was brought
form of masks. In
in the
ART IN ISRAEL
941
451.
Aaron
452.
453.
942
1956.
943
MODERN TIMES
Warsaw, 1921)
944
is
Shemi studied
infant.
in
by Danziger, and was a member of Bet Ha-Aravah kibbutz on the shores of the Dead Sea. The
material which at
for
him was
into
simple
which he fashioned
stone
Israel
forms
he turned
Later,
first
monumental dimensions.
of
new
space
(fig.
454).
The wave
many
feeling for
of artists
number
to Palestine included a
Ger-
of sculptors
Kara
in
(b.
He
1946.
with a
realistic
Rudolph
came
mic
is
a skilled professional
method
Lehmann
artist
who
Hedwig Grossmann,
Lehmann
1903),
Berlin,
(b.
youth,
artist
of portrayal.
1933 with
to Palestine in
to Palestine
and an
exerts
young
strong
sculptors.
From
454.
Welded
Museum.
Tel Aviv
iron.
1955.
reliefs
distinguished
bv
38).
From
ence, the
influ-
of animals
and
unheard of
Moshe Sternschuss
East.
he
Subsequently,
expression of his
relatively
little;
own
developed
(fig.
mode
however,
the
statues
Nimrod
both from
hard stone
sculpture
but
of
of
modern
Israel
of his
sculpture
in
general.
number
numerous materials:
and
iron
in Israel.
stone,
wood,
clay,
bronze,
forms anc
are express
their
nistic.
(b.
and
(chiefly
was nearly
principal exponent
Its
was
who came
from Paris
in 1934,
(b.
and soldered
presented
Abstract sculpture
iron.
is
also re-
figures
and
Poland, 1903),
figures
of
wood
simple form
birds).
kov inspired
his interest in
their
and stone
richness of expression,
his studies
wood
carved in
figurines
who works
(the
chiefly with
plexiglass )
(
Finally,
sculptors
in
his
Israel.
Jewish
sculptresses
of
our
time.
Born
in
the
by her parents.
In
1910,
she
went
to
Paris
tl
~r
/
\N
Nahum Guttman.
Haifa Harbor
ART IN ISRAEL
945
to sculpture. In
with the
and
she established
time,
short
and
artistic
literary
produced
prolificallv
of friendship
ties
avant-garde in Paris,
work
original
in all the
executed
She
niques.
portraits
spirit of
appear
forms
concentrated
both
and
classical
pation of
Hanna
when
Paris,
been
Orloff has
living
Paris,
in
never,
Two
monuments
bronze statue
in
at
Jewish
woman
in the
War
(in stone)
Russia in 1876)
settled
classicist,
in
went
to Paris
in
(fig.
lizes patriotic
and
is
work symbo-
(1902-1953), arrived
in
1922
as a
mem-
was one
until in 1933,
modern Jewish
the acquaintance of
cluding Soutine,
whom
and
made
painters, in-
He was
Omanut ("Temple
of Art")
his
art
gallery
at
Ein
name.
1902 and
harmony
in
pictorial
perceptiveness
of
Haim
His
47
years. In
1949 he came
in
to Israel
He
is
works
is
and
realistic
Rapa-
to Israel.
and
port's style
of Independence.
Warsaw, he came
distinction in
which simulta-
946
figures in stone,
Poland, 1911),
who
is
of
terra-cotta.
conception of sculpture
two
in his
Nathan Rapaport
(b.
455.
reality.
is
who
graphy
(silk
Wood
MODERN TIMES
947
German
before for
Symbols of the
art.
even
and,
revival
greater
to
Kabbalists, with
resque
the
attracted
the
artists'
village of Ein
artists'
precipitate streets,
its
and
types,
artistic
of
extent,
948
superb
its
attention
of
and
artists
state, a
pictu-
its
had long
views,
painters.
number
of
Emmanuel Ro-
Castel,
now, therefore,
artists in a
work and
for
many
live
Here
exhibition.
for
of Israel's outstanding
any other
tionately than in
city.
different.
Mount
of
456.
A
Ogen)
Shmuel Katz
and
primarily
(Ga'aton)
both
are
sketchers,
member
(formerly a
also
of
rooted in the
soil
is
an example of
may be
Moshe
the kibbutz.
of
how
expressed in
Kfar Masarvk
is
an
artist
more con-
in
are impressive
the
War
urban
districts.
monuments
In
to those
many of
who fell
Israeli
of the state,
when
number
of artists, led
by
Hadashim or
New
and sculptors
alike
verted
it
artists
and
into
an
artists' village in
Here now
and
live
is
Lehmann
certainly
art interest
and
(to
mention
no country
only
in the
few).
world where
art
with
its
an almost demoniac urge for creativityIn the course of half a centurv, Israel art has
its
to a sturdy tree. It
soil,
development
to this
day
under Ma.
painters
in
of Independence.
War
On
of Independence.
art in
own
it
of the
artists
then took
as in Israel,
them
group of
end
most of the
artists
its
the free-
it is
his
not
life.
ori-
it.
This conten-
ART IN ISRAEL
949
tion
is
groundless.
The
other
is
common
to
all
a general
tendency in modern
true that
manv
Israel artists
peoples on the
phenomenon but
art. It is,
of course,
conditions
ken of as "Art
art
work
Whether
this
ideals.
in
mission
if it
Motherhood. Stone.
clearly
it is
is
The development
its
it
is
spo-
merelv
of this
aim of becoming a
Tsiffer.
their
demonstrates that
Moshe
and
Palestine,
a matter of terminology.
kept
457.
of
950
spi-
was always
capable of realizing
its
EDITORIAL NOTE
The Editor
this
work was
in preparation,
Museum, New
due
made
M. Zagayski
available; to Mr.
Feinberg of Detroit,
of objects
who
of
from
New
this institution
were
generously provided
illustrations
from
The Department
of
.....
.
.
...
..
OF ILLUSTRATIONS
LIST
1.
God
2.
Amsterdam, 171
Engraved frontispiece of Mishnat
Mantua 1742
3.
Jozef
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Soutine
18.
19.
20.
21.
16.
17.
14th. cent.
22.
..
.
..
BCE
cent.
.
BCE
Hebrew monarchy
Hebrew monarchy
BCE
.
41.
42.
43.
44.
Lachish
47
56.
47-8
49-50
54
55
57
58
59-60
65
66
52.
53.
54.
55.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
195-6
73.
82
86
87-8
70.
corner
197-8
west wall
Detail of frescoes
91-2
74.
94
75.
93-4
76.
at Dura-Europos
Torah niche. West wall of Dura-Europos
Synagogue
Joshua. Detail of west wall of Dura-Europos
Synagogue
Mosaic floor of Beth-Alpha Synagogue
77.
The
78.
The
79.
80.
81.
82.
Palm
83.
Decorated
84.
85.
95
97-8
99
102
199-200
202
211-2
at
..
211-2
el-Hammeh,
.
103-4
105-6
107
108
108
1 09- JO
tree.
121-2
215-6
Synagogue
Naro
218
hall
Rome
Torlonia,
1 14
214
215
Lif Tunis
at
203-4
207-8
constellations
101-2
133
134
135-6
139-40
143
145-6
69.
128
129-30
131-2
72.
68.
79
127
123-4
146
147-8
151-2
159
161-2
161-2
165-6
167-8
169-70
169-70
174
178
179
181-2
183-4
Appia,
71.
66.
71-2
111-2
from pre.
57.
89-90
Frieze
50.
90
29.
Frieze
65.
49.
67.
64.
48.
51.
Megiddo.
tablet.
63.
47.
35
42
43
44
45-6
69
26.
28.
25.
27.
24.
23.
25
27
30
33-4
Dura-Europos Synagogue
Human head. El-Wad, Carmel
Couple enlaced. Ain Sakhri
Bone necklace. El-Wad, Carmel
Crouching gazelle. Um-ez-Zuweitina
Head of gazelle. El- Wad, Carmel
Reaping-hook hafts. El-Kabarah
Fawn. Rock-carving at Kilwa, Transjordan
Head of idol. Jericho ..
..
..
Ivory figurine. As-Safadi
Head of figurine. Ivory. As-Safadi
Pinhead ornament. Abu Matar
Star design. Dwelling at Telulat Ghassoul
15.
46.
Shai.
5.
9.
45.
23
4.
6.
....
.....
219-20
Rome
219
222
..
...
.
LIST
955
...
OF ILLUSTRATIONS
956
COLUMN
JLUMN
86.
Open
Torah-shrine and
scroll
on decorated
88.
89.
Drawing of sailing
90.
87.
craft.
Burial chamber.
Beth Shearim
91.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
Alexandria
Jewish "gold-glass"
98.
99.
Tomb
dish.
Rome
100.
101.
Amulet
Synagogue
Synagogue
Synagogue
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
at
Synagogue
at Regensburg, interior
synagogue, Prague, exterior
synagogue, Prague, interior
synagogue, Prague, ground-plan
synagogue, Prague, cross-section
"Old" synagogue, Kazimierz, interior
Synagogue at Miltenberg-on-Main, cross.
Altneu
Altneu
Altneu
Altneu
section
///.
112.
113.
114.
Synagogue
Synagogue
Synagogue
117.
118.
Synagogue
116.
Miltenberg, vault-plan
at
Bamberg,
interior
Synagogue
Synagogue
Synagogue
115.
at
at
Zamosc,
at
Husiatyn, interior
at
interior
120.
at
Nowogrodck,
in
suburb of
interior
122.
123.
124.
Synagogue
Synagogue
Synagogue
Synagogue
at
Zolkiew, exterior
at
Druja, interior
at
Pogrzebyszcze, exterior
at
cross-sectio n
126.
127.
128.
125.
wall decoration
130.
131
132.
133.
134.
135
Bevis
plan
136.
137.
138.
142.
143.
144.
145.
Pointers of
146.
75th cent
Valance of ark-curtain, Prague, 1764
75th cent.
..
Crown
for
314
"
Torah
scroll,
Poland,
315
Torah
scroll,
Venice,
Torah
scroll,
Holland,
319-20
/5th cent
322
/5th cent
Augsburg, /5th
Ark
Torah
N.
Torah
cent.
scroll,
.
7699
London, 1730
Silver
150.
151.
152.
Main, c. 7550
Bronze Hanukkah lamp,
Italian,
158.
155.
156.
161.
centuries
Inscribed
166.
167.
169.
170.
171.
172.
173.
174.
175.
176.
293-4
295-6
177
295-6
178
297S
179
Synagogue
168.
165.
281
349-50
351
352
353
Fustat
353-4
355
357
358
357
358
359
75th cent
Samaritan Torah-curtain, 1509, Nablus
Page from decorated MS. of Bible, Cairo,
360
359
361-2
1010
Page from decorated MS. of Bible,
Jerusalem (?), 951
Page from Yemenite MS. of Pentateuch,
1469
Page from Yemenite MS. of Pentateuch,
1409
Page from decorated MS. of Later Prophets,
1475
Illuminated page from MS. of Pentateuch,
301
181.
182.
183.
184.
363-4
365
366
365
366
367
Cairo, 930
180
339-40
341
342
343
344
345
345-6
347-8
Italy,
164.
280
..
inscription
335
Germany,
Yemenite jewelry
Yemenite jewelry
Hanukkah lamp from N. W. Africa
Carved wooden panel with Hebrew
163.
274
162.
74th cent
157.
154.
am
French or
/7th cent
Bookbindings,
311
338
S.
160.
302
303-4
305-6
and Eastern
153.
325-6
327-8
329-30
331
333-4
299
300
301-2
/5th cent
159.
289
290
271-2
271
273
282
283-4
286
287-8
etc.,
149.
Italy,
323-4
Germany,
scroll, Italy,
curtain,
312
Nablus,
147.
275
275-6
277-8
..
18th cent
291-2
interior
129.
Silver
scroll,
148.
Lwow, ground-
121
141
at
building
Synagogue
Synagogue
242
243
244
245
246
258
259-60
261-2
262
263-4
265-6
267
268
269-70
new
19.
140.
241
279-80
cross-section
236
237
237
237
238
239
240
1720
scroll, Breslau.
Breastplate for
235-6
Beth Shearim
92.
222
233-4
Torah
Torah
139.
368
369-70
371-2
373-4
373-4
LIST
957
..
....
OF ILLUSTRATIONS
958
COLUMN
Design of lion in minuscular
185.
187.
188.
Distribution of
186.
224.
385
MS.
dough and Passover
bread.
227.
386
the timbrel and maidens
385
MS.
191
Spanish
192.
194.
195.
196.
198.
199.
200.
201
202.
231.
"The
393-4
395
397-8
215.
Hamburg, 7690
Cut-out panel (Mizrah).
276.
Scroll
270.
211.
212.
Venice, 7609
Vignette from a Haggadah. Amsterdam, 7695
Scroll
218.
Scroll
of Esther with
illustrative
borders
279.
220.
238.
399
400
239.
7695
Coin struck by Jews. Chalon-sur-Saone,
c.555
402
240.
403-4
241.
Caravan
405
242.
Atlas, 1376/7
Juan de Levi. The story of Santa Catalina,
407-8
243.
407
244.
409-10
245.
411
413
246.
Hebrew
page of Passover
Haggadah, Pressburg, 7750.
Joseph Leipnik. The Four Sons. Passover
Haggadah, 1740
479
481-2
483-4
485-6
489-90
498
inscriptions.
499-500
to China. Detail
from Catalan
507-2
507
502
505-6
507
57/
513
250.
Miniature, 1714
Benjamin Senior Godines. "Memento
516
251.
252.
The Jerusalem
253.
254.
248.
416
249.
417
419
420
255.
Jeremias Fiorino.
256.
The
433-4
435-6
257.
Joel ben
..
527
la
The
father
"Der
..
Amsterdam, 7755
Benjamin Levy of Portsmouth. Ex-libris for
Isaac Mendes, 1746
Martha Isaacs. Rabbi D.T. Schiff. London
Towne.
527
259.
526
258.
519-20
522
artist's
Lipman
514
515
518
429-30
431-2
437-8
441-2
478
489-90
Esther
415
422
425-6
476
247.
South
217.
475
Garde, 1647
Italy,
235.
marriage-contract.
of Esther, illuminated in
474
badge of Gershom Soncino.
/5th cent
Top of illuminated
209.
Amsterdam,
72th cent
214.
208.
467-8
471-2
237.
234.
213.
207.
236.
391
206.
447
459-60
461-2
465-6
233.
205-
Brescia, 1491
Kindling The Sabbath Lamp. From a book
-
..
of Minhagim, Venice, 7607.
Headless man. Hoshana Rabbah. From a book
of customs. Amsterdam, 7725
..
Slaughtering the Passover sacrifice; the table
set for Passover. Venice c. 1480
Page from the Prague Haggadah, 1526
The Battles of Israel in Canaan. Haggadah.
390
Nuernberg Haggadah
204.
Berakhot.
1497/8
203.
221
Printer's
232.
197.
230.
387-8
MS.
Meah
446
7657
386
cent.
193.
225.
226.
Title-page of
383
MS.
Miriam beating
14th cent.
229.
223.
228.
379-80
189.
COLUMN
Uri Phoebus Segal. Illuminated Passover
Haggadah, 1739
Moses Leib Trebitsch. The Passover Meal.
Van Geldern Haggadah, 18th cent.
Page from Bible printed in Hijar, c. 1486/9
Page from a Ritual Code, Leiria, 1495
Page from a Ritual Code, Soncino, 1490
Title-page of Bahya's Commentary on the
Bible^ Naples, 1492
Page from a Ritual Code. Augsburg, 1540
222.
letters,
260.
Charles
261.
262.
263.
Philipp Veit.
Cattle Fair
530
531
532
533-4
Title
443
445
The Seven
Fruitful Years
538
538
541 2
LIST
959
.....
.
..
..
..
OF ILLUSTRATIONS
960
COLUMN
264.
265.
266.
Candles
Leopold Wiener. Hans Mending
Charles Wiener. Aristide Astruc
Moritz Daniel Oppcnheim. The Wedding
Maurycy Gottlieb. Jews at Prayer on the
267.
268.
269.
271.
272.
273.
Jules Adler.
274.
the Barge
Henri Caro-Delavaille.
My
282.
283.
Isaac Israels.
284.
287.
288.
289.
Hermann
290-
277.
278.
279.
280.
281.
285.
286.
291
292.
293.
294.
295.
296.
297.
298.
The Coffee
Sorters
Market-place
Ernst Joscphson. Portrait of Karl Scanbcrg.
Isaac Hitch Levithan. Landscape
Isaac Pcrlmutter.
299.
302.
303.
Amadeo
304.
Modigliani. Jcanette
Jules Pascin. Reclining Girl
305.
Chaim
306.
Moisc
307.
Pinchas Kremegne.
Soutinc.
Kisling.
Still
Life
314.
315.
Louis Marcoussis.
316.
309.
310.
311.
312.
313.
317.
318.
319.
320-
321
322.
329.
330.
557-8
561-2
332.
333.
334.
335.
London
The
Eiffel
Tower.
Figure
Praise
588
589-90
590
339.
Leopold
JHU-
New York
Emanuel Pontrcmoli.
Humaine, Paris
341.
342.
Erich Mendelsohn.
343.
345.
346.
347.
Arnold
348.
349.
350.
Dov
722
723-4
725-6
Itzig.
Eidlitz.
727
de Paleontologie
Institut
.
729-30
731
The Schocken
733-4
Store
344.
702
703-4
706
707
714
715-6
716
Alfred Messel.
ofRadburn
..
735-6
737
..
..
..
735-6
Rio Pedras
W.
738
New York
Building, Jerusalem
353.
354.
A.
355.
352.
Company
I.
building
Gegello.
745-6
747-8
356.
Synagogue
357.
New
359.
360.
361.
362.
363.
364.
i
365.
366.
367.
368.
369.
370.
371.
Synagogue
372.
Liberal Synagogue,
373.
374.
375.
376.
Hamburg
.
111.
762
763
764
766
767-8
769-70
771
751-2
753-4
759-60
767
in
750
358.
743
745-6
635
635-5
638
645-6
647-8
651-2
658
739-40
741-2
in Tel Aviv
Oskar Kaufmann. The Stadttheater,
Bremerhaven
Dankmar Adler. The Auditorium Building,
Chicago
Albert Kahn. The Ohio Steel Foundry
627
631-2
633-4
690
693-4
694
698
699
Georg
351.
of the Craftsmen's
338.
626
681
337.
Potsdam
595
597-8
601-2
603-4
607-8
686
686
687-8
689
591
659-60
662
663-4
666
667-8
670
674
675
678
679
691
..
336.
store, Berlin
585-6
587
Apples
Michel Kikoine. Portrait
Georges Kars. Self-portrait
Abraham Mintchine. Self-portrait
Mane Katz. Wild Horses
Max Band. Portrait of the Artist Gregoriev
Bela Czobel. Girl with Green Scarf.
David Perctz. The Jew with the Yellow Star
308.
328.
609
610
611-2
613-4
615-6
617
617-8
619-20
622
623
300.
301
327.
Sisters
276.
326.
..
..
Georges Arditi. Portrait
Victor Brauner. Man and the Ox
Eugene Zak. Composition
Kirszenbaum. Brazilian Carnival
J. D.
Simon Segal. Harbor Scene in Brittany
Eugene Berman. Ruins on the Beach
Benn (Benzion Rabinovitch). A Reading
Gregoire Michonze. The Danger
Jean Atlan. Vegetation
Maryan. Living According to the Law
Marek Halter. The Harbor at Acre
Alfred Aberdam. The Painter's Family
George Basevi. The Conservative Club,
583-4
Rodenbach
275.
325.
565-6
567
581-2
in the
Towing
324.
331.
543
546
547-8
549
550
553-4
Day of Atonement.
270.
323.
772
774
775-6
778
782
783
784
785
786
787
788
790
....
LIST
961
OF ILLUSTRATIONS
962
COLUMN
386.
387.
388.
377
378.
379.
380381.
382.
383.
384.
385.
Harbor
389
390.
392.
393.
395.
396.
394.
397
398.
399.
400.
401.
402.
403.
404.
405.
from the
The
407.
408.
409.
Benno
410.
430
431.
Pinhas Litvinovsky.
432.
433.
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
of
875
Wood
876
879
414.
Bernard Reder.
415.
with
a Bull
.
Acknowledgement
New York
882
883
899-900
The Market
On
Place
452.
454
455.
456
457
Moon
Theme
Tsiffer.
Motherhood
..
.
Moshe
921
922
923-4
925
927-8
the
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
902
907-8
909-10
911-2
913-4
915-6
917-8
919-20
the Lake of
for the
Galilee
441
891-2
893-4
895
896
898
429.
453.
Bronze
in Battle
451.
Sacrifice.
877-8
Women
428.
852
853-4
855-6
858
863
Bronze
May
874
The Kapparot
427.
871
Jacques Lipchitz.
884
886
887
888
889
890
819-20
822
823
830
831-2
834
835
838
870
412.
brass
867
Hammered
426
851
Mcnorah
Moyse Kogan. Nude
City.
Innocents.
423
424
815-6
839-40
844
845-6
850
Elkan.
Ossip Zadkine.
422
Pioneer.
Monument
411.
413.
421
425.
series
Woman
Enrico Glicenstein.
Terra Cotta
802
803
805-6
810
814
Bronze
"Wanderers"
Abraham Walkowitz. Isadora Duncan
Louis Lozowick. Changing Shifts
Morris Hirschfcld. Nude with Cupids
Raphael Soyer. The Dressmaker
Moses Soyer. My Family
Jack Levine. Reception at Miami
Ben Shahn. Death of a Miner
Hyman Bloom. Jew with Scroll
Mark Antokolski. Spinoza. Marble
406.
791
793-4
794
799
417
418
419
420
of the Painter
Pascin
391.
416
789-90
927
929
930
931-2
931-2
933-4
935-6
935-6
938
939-40
942
..
941
..
941-2
943
945-6
947
949
OF COLOR ILLUSTRATIONS
LIST
/.
2.
Title
3.
4.
Dura Europos.
5.
Candelabra
in Israel
in the
.
17
the shores of
6.
front page
209
177
225
National
at the Bezalel
Museum, Jerusalem:
Torah Scroll, Persia, 799 Silver Breastplate, Poland
Torah Crown, Poland in background Torah wrapper
and mantle, silver embroidery, Italy
1
7.
9.
337
8.
401
Prayer.
Mane
Katz. Saturday
Walk
in
10.
11.
12.
Nahum
Jerusalem
657
417
849
913
945
INDEX
Benjamin
556
ben Abraham 460
Cohn,
Theodore
see
Adler, Moritz
Alantansi, Eliezer
Alconiere,
Hermann
Altman, Nathan 799
Altmann, Alexander 633
Altneuschul 265
Alva 837
Alweil,
Arye 917
Antokolski,
Mark 862
Haim 946
Hillel
Ben Menahem,
of Lutsk 511
Isaac
946
Torah
Scroll 321
Broadsheets 478
Brunner, Arnold
W. 739
Budko, Joseph 930
Burrell 534
Cagli, Corrado 822
Cahana, Aryeh Judah Leib 448
Calder, Alexander 897
Calisch, Moritz 561
Calligraphy 440
"Canon" 412
Caricatures 518
Caro-Delavaille, Henri 583
Carpi, Jacob 519
Solomon Nunes 571
Moshe 918
Carvalho,
Castel,
Ceramics 510
Chagall,
875, 938
Constructivism 897
Continental School of London 829
Cooper, Alexander 521
Copenhagen Synagogue 761
Moses 885
Abraham 503
Crescas, Judah 503
Crowns for Torah Scrolls 316
Cubism 678
Crescas,
De
De
De
De
Castelozzo 504
Castro 534
Chaves, Aaron 517
Cordova, Alfonso Fernandez 457,
461
Cottier,
Beer,
Coins 498
511
da Sesso,
Domnulus 498
Donati, Enrico 823
D'Ortas, Samuel 463
Elkan,
Elul,
Benno 872
Kosso 943
ha-
INDEX
961
809
Hans 836
Feigin, Dov 940
Fenyes, Adolf 624
Farkas, Istvan
Feibush,
Finials
Benjamin-Eugene 548
31
Kisling,
Moisc 658
Haim 946
Marie-Andre 676
Gcrshon 937
Kogan, Moysc 875
Kolnik, Arthur 697
Kolozsvari, Sandor 811
Klein,
Knispcl,
919
Kulviansky,
Lamps 355
Lippman 527
500
Fraenckel,
Francis of Assisi
Humor 420
Illuminated manuscripts 368
Illumination of manuscripts, non-
548
381
letters 389
pictorial
Initial
TodrosS54
Gem-engraving 523
Israels, Isaac
Italia,
Gewitsch, Aron
Israels,
Wolf
Queen 500
600
Jozef 596
Salom 513
Italy,
synagogues
Itzig,
Georg 724
in
865
Glass working 355
Glatzer, Simon 805
Ilya
Glicenstein,
300
Henryk
(Enrico)
868
517
Gold lettering 377
Goldberg, Rube 859
Goldsmithery 500
Goodlcman, Aaron J. 893
Goodman,
Pcrcival 791
Aharon
Halpert, Samuel
Hammer 349
Hanukkab lamp 33/
Harkaw, Minna 895
548
Jacob, Moses 500
Jacobson, Aaron 529
Jaffe, Meir 504
Janco, Marcel 929
Janis, Sidney 849
Jeremias 532
Jesi, Samuel 549
Jacob, Julius
477
Judin, Samuel
529
Max 892
Kapp,
Edmond 827
Kara, Michael
817
Lassaw,
840
Abram 902
Lazarus, Jacob H.
572
528
821
ben Lipman 529
Levi, Carlo
Levi, Joel
Levi, Lazzaro
510
630
Issai
448
Ginzburg,
Halevi,
Martha 534
Isabella,
Geller,
476
of Bologna 505
Isaacs,
Roman 807
Kramsztyck,
849
Hirszcnberg, Samuel 637
Hirschfeld, Morris
526
Fiorino, Jeremias
968
Hart,
868
Engel, Jozsef
Fichel,
944
Bernard 844
Kars, Georges 661
Katz, Marcin 807
Katz, Nathaniel 901
Karfiol,
Litvinovsky, Pinhas 91
Israel 849
Loewy, Raymond 859
London Reform Synagogue 781
Lopez, Joshua 534
Lopez, Michael 441
Litwak,
see Luchansky,
Jacob
Lowe, Michael (Moses) 528
Lozowick, Louis 843
Loutschansky, Jacques
Lubin, Arye
914
Luisada,
Avigdor 928
INDEX
969
Machabeu, Jchuda 441
Machoro, Abraham 441
Magnus, Eduard 546
Mane-Katz 662
Mantle (Torah Scroll) 328
Marcoussis, Louis 679
Margoulies, Berta 894
Marlibrun 500
Marriage contracts 370, 426
Maryan 713
Materials in synagogue construction
781
Meah
Berakhot
Medallists
473
529
473
Mezuzah 349
Mikvch Israel Synagogue 764
Jacques 685
Schatz,
Zohara 944
Ruth 947
Benno 882
Schotz,
Paris
Synagogue 760
326
Pascin, Jules 646
Passover dish 340
Pasternak, Leonid 634
Pen-drawings 444
Perlmutter, Isaac 625
Pest Synagogue 766
Schwartz, William
Parokhet
Schwarz-Abryss 673
S.
938
855
Scroll
Shalom 926
384
Segal, Arthur 816
Segal, Simon 698
Seba,
Seder
898
Theodor 628
Picart, Bernard 475
Pilichowski, Leopold 589
Pinhas, G.C. 525
Pinhas, Hermann Hirsch 525
Pinhas, Jacob 525
Pevsner, Antoine 801,
Philipson,
Segal,
837
Segall, Lasar
Seitengasse
Seley, Jason
Synagogue 758
897
Pinhas,
Pinhas,
Sezession
453
Jacob 937
Pissarro, Camille 539, 577
Pissarro, Georges 580
Pissarro, Lucien 580
Pins,
priscus
937
Schatz, Bezalel
907
Pissarro,
Modigliani,
Paldi, fsrael
Adolphe 665
Minhagim 478
Minhat Shai 473
Minkowski, Mauricy 637
Mintchine, Abraham 661
Mishkan Le-Owamit 946
Mishneh Torah 408
Moccatta, David 724, 781
Modern Synagogues 788
Milich,
970
Orovida 580
Pointer 323
Polack, Solomon 532
Pollack, Reginald 704
Pontremoli, Emanuel 728
Portrait painters 540
Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood 567
Pressmane, Joseph 665
Printer's badges 475
497
Aaron 940
Propcss, Moshe 947
Priver,
Silversmiths 311
Realism" 797
Solomon, Abraham 564
Solomon, Simeon 567
Solomon, Solomon J. 586
Solomons, Israel 442
Soncino Family 463
"Socialist
817
Abraham 858
Soutine,
Chaim 650
Spicebox 334
288
Abraham 452
Steinberg, Saul
Max 572
Toby Edward 572
780
509
801
Sabbath bread cover 349
Sabbctai, Zevi 474
Safed Artists' Quarter 948
Salmon, Geskel 549
Ruschi, Francesco
Ryback,
Issachar
933
937
Sterne, Maurice 846, 891
Stcrnschuss, Moshe 944
Stetthcimcr, Florence 844
Sticglitz, Alfred 841
Stockholm Synagogue 775
Stolzcr, Judith 792
Strauss, Andre 585
Strcichman, Yehezkel 920
Struck, Hermann 614, 930
Sumair 498
Surrealism 689
Stern, Joseph
Rosenthal,
Rosenthal,
859
587
INDEX
971
Trier,
Tsiffer,
915
Tamir, Moshe 937
Tajcr, Tsiyona
Walter 837
Moshe 940
Tzenah u'Reenah 478
Wine
Wine
Uri,
457
Textiles
Van Dyk,
Ticho,
356
Anna 934
Tikkmi Sopheriiu 473
972
Christofal
Veit, Philipp
541
Marcel 675
Verveer, Elchanon Leonardus 560
Verveer, Moses Leonardus 560
Verveer, Solomon Leonardus 560
Vertes,
343
333
Wolf, Gustav 813
Wollheim, Gert 815
Wolmark, Alfred A. 825
beakers
goblets
Women's
section in
synagogue 256
for
Torah
Scroll
Zodiac 477
Zoffany, Johann 536
Zorach. William 885
324
flap)
down through
The
and
the ages.
part, dealing
first
Egypt,
to
Syria; the
Jewish
and
relation
scat-
artistic
Mesopotamia,
and
in relation to
art
art
and
social
and
sculp-
political
emancipation in the early nineteenth century to the present day in France, Ger-
United
Synagogue
States.
cemetery
bols,
bas-reliefs,
art,
frescoes,
engravings,
iconographic sym-
The nineteen
ume
all
drawn from
Israel,
are
States,
different backgrounds.
to deal
way
that
been deliberately
reminder that
new
we
are
still
working
in a
field,
The Rabbis
were a hundred
ways
to
It is
that the
Jewish
The
same applies
to the
art.
study of
is
a Reader
England,
and
Editor-in-Chief
of
the
Hi
A*