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developing the clinicians that are involved in the management of the Greek NHS
trusts.
Acknowledgments:
I would like to thank all those that have contributed to complete the following research,
personally I would like to thank the following lecturers from Buckignhamsire nursing and
business school those are Miss Liz Mclay from the nursing school, and Miss Farmer and
Mr Roy Horn as my project supervisor from the business school.
From Greece I would like to thank my aunty Miss Marika Fiotaki Karambela, Miss
Tsakaraki, Mss Liea for their help to distribute my questionnaires to various NHS trust in
Athens, Thessaloniki, Chania and Iraklion respectively. My parents Jamis and Androniki
Grigoraki that stand by and support me financially all those months and my sister
Katerina Grigoraki for her support.
Purpose and Terms of reference
Purpose
To review Mumfords and Honey learning style theory furthermore to use Mumfords
and Honey questionnaire in order to define the learning styles of the clinicians that are
involved in the management of the Greek NHS trusts, then understand the implications of
learning styles on the management development of the NHS clinicians.
Research questions
Does management development of the clinicians that are involved in the management of
the Greek NHS trusts have a chance of becoming more effective by defining and
understanding the implications of Mumfords and Honey learning styles?
Are there differences concerning the learning styles of the clinicians that are involved in
the management of the Greek NHS trusts? What are the implications of the different
learning styles towards management development?
Objectives:
A definition of management development, and the necessity for the Greek NHS to focus
on management development.
To define and analyse Kolb and Alan Mumfords experiential learning theory and the
learning styles needed to learn from experience.
The definition of the learning styles of the three groups of clinicians that are involved in
the management of the directorate by using Mumfords and Honey learning style
questionnaire.
An analysis of the results that have been attained from the questionnaires according to
the speciality of the clinician.
To justify the advantage of a management development that focuses on individual
learning style preferences.
Research Hypothesis:
People develop preferences for different learning styles in the same way that they
develop any other sort of style such as management, leadership and negotiation.
Individuals have different learning styles, which indicates, preference for particular
learning experiences. As a result of our history, and our particular past life experience
and the demands of our present environment, most people develop learning styles that
emphasise some learning abilities over others.
Factors that influence learning style are education and specialisation, professional carrier,
current job role. Defining the learning styles of the individuals that are involved in
management of the NHS trusts has the advantage to dovetail learning activities to suit the
learning styles. In the context of management development knowledge of learning styles
can either be used in helping to dovetail learning activities to suit learning styles or can
be used as a starting point for self-development. Management development can become
more effective by reflecting on our experience and understanding of the effects of our
actions.
The research is being focused on the way that the three different groups of clinicians
involved in the management of the Greek NHS trusts are the clinicians that have a
speciality, (this groups consists from the following specialities Genecology, Radiology,
Biopathology, Orthopaedic, Pediatrian, General medicine, Cardiologist) the second group
are the pathologists, and the third group are the nurses. There is a use of Mumfords and
Honey questionnaire as a means, of defining the learning styles of the clinicians that are
involved in management.
The results from the questionnaire define that there are differences concerning the
learning styles of the clinicians that are involved in management, and therefore there is a
validity of the theory
that different educational and professional experiences influence learning styles.
Experiential learning could be an alternative method of management development from
other traditional methods of management development. Experiential learning in the
Greek NHS trusts, is an alternative method to other organisation let management
development programmes that their main purpose is to transmit knowledge to individuals.
Traditional education is the prevailing medium of exchanges between the trainee and the
trainers it is usually a one sender many receivers process that is passive for the receivers.
Chapter 1
Introduction
The Greek NHS trusts is an organisation that faces continuous new challenges due to its
large
size and the diversity of its stakeholders and services. The shift to an older population
within the
Greek community has influenced the means of allocating resources needed to provide all
effective health service.
The results from the primary research will provide useful information concerning the
learning style of the clinicians that are involved in management. It will define the
diversity of the learning styles and the factors that influence the learning style of the
individual, which according to Kolb, could be previous education, job role and
The results of the primary research will define the learning styles and the diversity of the
learning styles of those clinicians that are involved in management. The finding of the
primary research and the context of Mumfords learning style theory will be followed in
order to come to the conclusion and recommendations towards a management
development programme that begins to focus on the learning style of clinicians.
The dissertation is divided into sections the beginning being the literature review, listed
as follows:
1. The importance of management development at the Greek NHS trusts.
2. The strengths and weaknesses of Mumford and Honey theory.
Literature review:
Chapter 2
2.1 Defining management development a review of the literature
As an initial step a definition of management will take place, which will contribute in
defining the nature and the constitution of the managerial process.
Management development is defined variously in the texts as:
"A conscious and systematic process to control the development of managerial resources
in the organisation for the achievement of goals and strategies" (Molander et al 1986
pp34)
The above definitions are useful starting points in order to define management
development. The weaknesses of the above methods are that they tend to constrain the
notion of development as being formalised, planned and deliberate. According to
Mumford development is also a continuous, ever-changing process in which managers
often learn informal, unplanned experience.
(Mumford et al 1993)
The different methods of Management Development and the focus of the study
There are five distinct methods of management development which are identified as
follows:
1. Structured courses leading to a management qualification
2. Skill based training
3. Experiential learning
4. Professional liaison and networking
5. Guided reading
6. Role playing
7. Seminars
8. Programmed instruction
(Beardwell et al 1999 pp 402-403)
The current research will focus on experiential learning and the theory that underlies
experiential learning as a method of management development. Particular attention will
be paid to Kolbs theory and, the Honey and Mumford learning style theory as a theory
that is an evolution of Kolb theory as the main focus of the research.
10
In the last decades the Greek government has invested much capital in order to modernise
and improve the service a greater portion of the money having been funded by the
European Union. New hospitals have been established all around the country. Small
communities are provided with basic health provision by the health centres that have
been established since 1985.
Investing in developing the existing facilities is important in order to upgrade the service
but is not sufficient. The need for developing the human resources and especially the
clinicians that are involved in management is important because they make decisions that
influence the service.
There is an inevitable need for a positive long-term strategy for serious investment in
individual and organisational development at the Greek NHS trusts. The Greek NHS is a
big and complex organisation with many different departments. The demographic
changes have increased the ratio to the older population. The above shift within the Greek
population has influenced the overall cost and the utilisation of the available resources to
a longer-term perspective. Due to the fact that the long-term utilisation of clinical care
required by the elderly population has influenced the utilisation of the technological and
human health care resources both technological and human.
(The organisation needs see Appendix two)
The continuous changes that take place concerning the external influences of the
organisation makes, it essential to develop the capabilities of managers so that they will
be able to respond to those external pressures. The external influences concerning the
Greek NHS are:
Introduction of new technology
Social changes and needs
Demographic change
11
Each of those components have been influenced by the individual manager's situation and
it is made up of different variables; therefore generic training and education without any
individual tailoring, through analysis, personal support and evaluation, may prove to be a
wasteful investment. (Flanagan and Spurgeon, et al 1996).
12
Experiential Learning
What role does your experience play in your learning process? Learning from experience
is the process whereby human development occurs.
Although experience is essential to learning, it is not enough; one has to do something
with it to construct knowledge. The two basic dimensions of the learning process include
both understanding and transforming experience. At any given moment, your learning
involves one or a combination of these four learning modes. According to Kolb those are
Concrete Experience, Active Experimentation, Abstract Conceptualisation. (Kolb 1984)
A definition of experiential learning will take place because Kolbs model in terms of
learning style theory is based on the concept of experiential learning.
Experiential learning involves a direct phenomena being studied rather than thinking
about the encounter, or only considering the possibility of doing something about it
13
(Brookfield et al 1983).
Experiential learning is education that occurs as a direct participation in the events of life
(Houle et al 1980). Experiential learning is actually about learning from primary
experience that is learning through sense experiences. (Jarvis et al 1995). According to
(Knowles et al 1970)
He argued that learn cantered educators pay attention on the importance of experience as
one of the five principles of andragogy of adult learning. Jack Mezirow and Paulo
Freire whose theory of conscientization and praxis, learning through radical action
combined with critical reflection, has galvanized emancipator education round the world.
The term experiential learning has been often used to distinguish ongoing meaning
overlapping from theory and non-directed informal life experiences from the formal
education.
This is why experiential learning was often understood to be radical, associated with
learner empowerment. In direct challenge to disciplinary bodies of theoretical and
canonical knowledge, education interest in experiential learning has been championed
recognition and valuing and valuing the learners personal practical knowledge and
informal or incidental experience.
(Ravens et all 1999)
14
David A Kolb with Roger and Fry created the famous model out of four elements:
Concrete experience, Observation and Reflection, the formation of abstract concepts and
testing those in new situations. (Kolb et al 1984 pp 76 79)
Kolb represented the above elements in the famous experiential learning cycle.
(See Kolb experiential learning Cycle) See Appendix Three.
Kolb and Fry 1975 argued that the learning cycle can begin at any one of the four points
and that it should be approached as a continuous spiral. In some representations of
experiential learning these steps are sometimes represented as a circular movement. At
the particular instance learning is taking place in a different set of circumstances and the
learner is now able to anticipate the possible effects of action.
Kolb had the belief that learners must become deeply competent at all stages of the cycle.
There has been considerable attention to the issue of matching and mismatching styles
with development activities. (Torrington et al 1999)
15
negotiation. Mumford has tested Kolb Learning style inventory in order to discover his
own learning style and he started to include it in courses related to training and
management development. Mumford found some problems concerning the inventory
itself such as lack if accuracy and the face of validity was not that good. After three years
of intensive research experimentation he created an 80 item questionnaire that is
presented. (Questionnaire see appendix four)
Mumford and Honey learning style theory will be the main theory of the current research.
Other theories of management development are also been included in the literature and
the reasons of not having been included as the main theories of the research are provided.
2.5.1: The different learning styles of Mumford and Honey learning style theory:
Activists learn best when they are actively involved in concrete tasks. Reflectors learn
best through reviewing and reflecting upon what has happened and what they have done.
Theorists learn best when they can relate new information to concepts of theory.
Pragmatists learn best when they see relevance new information and real life issues or
problems (Mumford et al 1988:28 124 125)
Honey has done the inventory in order to discover his own learning style and he has
started to include it in training courses, he run it as a way of predicting the one that would
respond of a way of anticipating learning difficulties. As soon as the theory was brought
in problems were found with the inventory itself predictions were not so accurate and the
face validity was poor.
Honey worked together with Alan Mumford to develop the questionnaire that would be
more effective. (Honey and Mumford et al 1988)
16
According to (Honey and Mumford et al 1986), we need to adopt four styles in order to
complete any cycle of learning. A weakness is or reluctance to adopt any single style will
'block' our ability to learn effectively.
17
1982) Theorists tend to be detached analytical and dedicated to rational objectivity rather
than anything subjective or ambiguous.
Their approaches to problems are consistently logical. This is their mental set and they
rigidly reject anything that does not fit with it. (Honey and Honey et al 1982)
Pragmatists: They to use what they learn and always work out how they can apply it in
real situation. They will plan how to put it into practice. They particular value
information/ideas they are given only if they can see how to relate them to practical tasks.
Pragmatists learn best
When they see relevance between new information and real life issues and problems.
(Mumford and Honey et al 1982). Pragmatists are keen on trying out ideas theories and
techniques to see if they work in practice. They prefer to get on with things and to act
quickly and confidently on ideas that attract them. Their philosophy is "There is always a
better way and if it works its good". (Mumford and Honey et al 1982)
Each of the above four stages that constitute the learning cycle is important to effective
learning, but not many people are strong at each stage and it is helpful to understand
where our strengths and weaknesses lie. The rational behind the theory lies in
understanding the way that managers learn from experience is paralleled by a change in
emphasis in management development from formal training course that allows learning
through the job itself, with the required support. (Torington et al 1999).
18
A unified management development programme might not have the best results in terms
of individual development because it might be appropriate to the one member of the team
but not to the other one. A management development programme that does not achieve
equal development opportunities for all the members of the team is not the best strategy
of development. The advantage of the theory is that it allows the learner to make sense of
his strengths and weaknesses by changing the emphasis in management development
from formal training course to offering learning through the job itself. (Torington et al
1999).
To make sense of our strengths and weaknesses enables us to choose learning activities
that suit our individual style, and also provides us with the opportunity to strengthen a
particular weak stage at the learning cycle. Mumford has allowed the above dual
approach. The difference with Kolb lies in the fact that learners must become deeply
competent at all stages of the cycle.
(Torington et al 1999).
(Honey and Mumford et al 1986) commented:
" Trainers too often assume that learners are empty buckets waiting to by the training
method the trainer favours. The fact that the buckets a different sizes and/or leak and/or
upside down is conveniently overlooked ".
www.massey.ac.nz/kinshuk/thesis/chap5.pdf pp1-2
The other advantage of the theory is the fact that is situated midway between formal
planned managerial development processes and informal accidental managerial
19
20
Then there are the field dependent learners, with an operations style, who have a less well
developed self-concept, who strive for safety or reduction of uncertainty, who value short
cycle activities that yield tangible results, who are closer to the concrete, who see
learning as a bit by bit assembly. Field dependent learners like essays, group work and
reports, thematic projects, summaries, and creative products. Notably such learners are
typically the disadvantaged.
(Witkin et al 1977)
Individuals do not learn in the same way. They tend to adopt the styles in which they feel
most comfortable, to the expense of the styles with which the individual is not
comfortable. The benefits of becoming aware of our learning styles are as follows:
Use our learning styles to suit the particular learning that we are undertaking.
Improve our learning in our 'weaker' styles
It is important to realise that learning styles are not 'personality traits' and we all adopt
different styles in different contexts. However, we usually favour one or two styles above
the others.
Each of these four stages of the learning cycle is critical to effective learning, but few
people are strong at each stage and is helpful to understand where individual strengths
and weaknesses lie.
An understanding of the way managers learn from experience is paralleled by a change in
emphasis in management development from formal training course that has the capacity
to offer learning through the job itself, with appropriate support. The remainder of
approaches to management development rely heavily on learning from experience.
21
The strength of defining our individual strengths and weaknesses enables us to choose
learning activities which suit our style, and also gives us the opportunity to decide to
strengthen a particularly weak learning stage of our learning cycle. Honey and Mumford
have adapted the above dual approach. (Torrington et al 1995)
22
23
contributors to the field have pointed out, experience has once again become a viable
topic of discussion.
(Brookfield, 1990) (Cross, et al 1981) (Jarvis et al 1995) (Kemp et al 1996) (Knowles et
al 1990)
(McKeachie et al 1994) (Peters, et al 1991).
The model which dominates experiential learning theory is a four stage learning cycle, of
which there are many versions, the one I have found most frequently quoted being that of
(Kolb et al 1984). Closely related to these are theories and models of learning styles
(Honey and Mumford et al 1982,) (Junch et al 1983 Kolb et al 1984).
Both kinds of theory are about learning rather than development. Kolb has himself has
paid attention to the fact that his 'learning cycle' model and his 'learning styles' model
concern learning rather than development. He has another theory about development,
which he calls "the experiential learning theory of development" (Kolb et al 1984:
Chapter 6)
This theory converts Kolb's learning cycle model by superimposing a three-tier cone on
top of the cycle (Kolb, et al 1984). Kolb also clarifies the limitations of his Learning Style
Inventory, pointing out that it only represents "elementary learning orientations" which he
sees as being in a different dimension to that of development (Kolb et al 1976, 1998).
Why is it, then, that courses of personal development, social development, manager
development, self-development, organisation development etc. are often based on a
learning model? Why is it that development-training brochures generally show just one
model - a cyclical learning model? Is there not a development model that would be more
suitable?
24
Would a development model more accurately describe what learner's experience on these
courses? Would a development model more accurately describe what clients expect from
outdoor management development?
Customers and participants are often seeking both learning and development. While
experiential learning theories and models help trainers and learners to conceptualise
learning, the same theories are not, in my view, well suited for conceptualising
development.
The major limitation of Mumford's and Honey theory is the limited number of learning
styles. The four learning styles is a major limitation. A participant could be represented
by another learning style that has not been defined by Mumford and Honey. Another
limitation is the time and the resources that, are needed in order to define the learning
style of the participants. In large organisations the process has to take time in order to
define the learning styles of the managers.
The claims made that the four learning styles are extravagant (Jarvis et al 1987 Tennant
1997). According to Tennant M (1997) even though the four learning styles neatly
dovetail with the different dimensions of the experiential learning model, this does not
necessary validate them. The weakness of Kolbs model is that he is putting a specific
learning style. The weakness there is that experiential learning model does not apply to
all situations. The alternatives are information and assimilation. There are also others
such as memorization. Those could be appropriate in different situations.
www.infed.org pp5 -6
The theory takes little account of the specific cultural conditions (Anderson et al 1988),
the inventory has not been used by many different cultural contexts. According to
Anderson there is a need to take account of differences in cognitive and communication
style that are culturally based.
www.infed.org pp 5-6
25
There is weak empirical support; the initial research base was small and there have only
been
a limited number of studies that have sought to test and explore the model.
(Jarvis et 1987 and Tennant et al 1997).
26
Use our learning styles to suit the particular learning that we are undertaking.
Improve our learning in our 'weaker' styles.
It is important to realise that learning styles are not 'personality traits' and we all adopt
different styles in different contexts. However, we usually favour one or two styles above
the others.
According to (Honey and Mumford et al 1986), we need to adopt four styles in order to
complete any cycle of learning (See Kolbs leaning style). A weakness or reluctance to
adopt any single style will 'block' our ability to learn effectively.
27
28
emotional as well as intellectual contributions and above all accepting their own
limitations.
Knowles (1989) employed these different sources to create a synthesis of the distinctive
principles of adult learning those as follows:
The need to know, the learner's self-concept, the role of learner's experiences, readiness
to learn, orientation to learning, motivation.
Knowles has thus fortuitously managed to pull together the individual qualities that
require prior attention before an organisation can induce them to maximise the benefits of
their learning style preferences. Alan Mumford openly acknowledges his influence, and
so it is possible to see how Honey and Mumford's has created the theory of learning
styles. It is a timely synthesis of different stands of thought in addition to the focus upon
individual learning styles and the essential features of adult learning.
29
The need to know, the learner's self-concept, the role learner's experiences, readiness to
learn, orientation to learning and finally motivation. With his theory Knowles managed to
pull together the individual qualities that require prior attention before an organization
can include those individuals in order to maximise the benefits of their learning style
preferences. The influence of Knowles is fully acknowledged by Mumford and so it
makes it possible to see that the theory of Honey and Mumford concerning the learning
styles is a timely synthesis of different thought about individual development.
Theories of adult learning those are Cross, Knowles, and Rogers emphasize the
importance of building upon the learner's experience are also very relevant to
management education. The experiential theory of Kolb (1984) suggests that the learning
cycle consists of four primary stages: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract
conceptualisation, and active experimentation. According to Kolb, individual differences
in these stages give rise to learning styles.
The theoretical framework of action learning (Revans, et al 1980) has been widely
applied to management education. Action learning involves structured projects in
30
organizations rather than traditional classroom instruction. The key elements of action
learning are:
Commitment to learning, social interaction, action plans, and assessing the results of
actions.
Habit formation and learning is adaptive to organisation learning and creative proactive
learning.
As (Boyell and Pedler 1981) remark:
"Any effective system for management development must increase the manager's
capacity and willingness to take control over and responsibility for events, and
participating for themselves in their own learning"
32
Role-plays involve the setting up of an imagined and possible situation, and learning
from the drama. More specifically, the cycle indicates that, after a role-play, a period of
reflection is necessary, followed by feedback from other participants in order that new
learning can be absorbed from the drama.
2.6.10 Skinner theory:
(Skinner et al 1995) The theory is that receiving a reward, such as being told that they
have answered correctly, or done well, gives positive reinforcement to the participants'
response, and so motivates them to extend their learning.
33
34
2.7 The reasons that the above theories have not been considered in the current
research:
2.7.1 Pedler and Burgoyne is based on the concept that the learning organisation is to
promote learning and development. Learning and development can be the solution
towards the problems that are encountered in the organisation. Burgoyne (1995) refers to
an appropriate learning culture as an attribute of a learning organisation. He defines it as
a culture, which supports shared learning from experience.
The concept of Pedler that learning and development have to be supported by the
organisation that could be more feasible in a small organisation. A shared culture is
difficult to be created in case of having a non-homogeneous team of individuals. Handy
(1995) describes some of their common qualities. They work primarily as individuals and
do not see themselves as needing to be managed. Management actions are labelled
managerialism, which is insidious, over-bureaucratic and generally undesirable. The
35
problem with the term professional is that it quite often appears in phrases like "I dont
need training, Im a professional". The implication is that once professionally qualified,
no further learning is required.
Managerialism threatens individual freedom, but the obverse of freedom of choice is
taking responsibility for ones actions. The problem with the learning organisation, as we
perceive it, is that too few people are taking their share of responsibility for the situation
they find themselves in and one way of avoiding responsibility is to see yourself as a
powerless victim of imposed change.
"Sluggishness an excess of Bureaucracy and over-control, of organisations as straitjackets
frustrating the self development efforts of individual members and failing to capitalise
upon their potential".
Burgoyne (1995) refers to an appropriate to an appropriate learning culture as an attribute
of a learning organisation. He defines it as a culture, which supports shared learning from
experience. Such learning is adaptive to organisation learning and creative proactive
learning. Often the creation of a common culture is difficult because of having conflicts
of interest.
36
2.7.1 Skinners theory it seems to be to simplistic for the complex issue of management
development of the public sector. Rewards could have an effect to change behaviour but
it could be that feasible at the managerial environment of the NHS directorate.
2.7.2 Burnard theory is related to the importance of experience and the reflection upon
experience. It relates to Kolb experiential learning that defines the importance of learning
from experience. Therefore there is a direct relation between the two theories the
difference being the sharing of a common experience.
2.7.4 Kohler theory:
(Kohler et al and Jackson et al) see discovery learning as reflecting the way in which we
learn to recognise and define problems, experiment to find solutions, whether by trial and
error, by deductive reasoning, by seeking information or help, or by a combination of all
three. Kohler defines also the importance of the reflection of experience on the way that
we learn in the definition of problems.
37
38
39
40
The theory allows managers to take some liberties within the process of learning from
experience according to their particular learning style and the theory realizes, that there is
scarcely an individual who can adapt to all the stages, respectively.
Mumford and Kolb experiential learning theory has advantages due to the fact that each
individual has different learning experiences. The individual experiences are influenced
from a variety of factors such as previous roles education and specialization. The
management team is made up of a variety of individuals who have encountered different
roles in their previous time within the directorate. The clinical and non-clinical director
has been chosen in the primary research because they constitute the management team in
the Greek NHS trusts.
41
Honey and Mumford (1982) have built a typology of learning styles around this
sequence, (Activist, Reflector, Theorist, Pragmatist)
The advantage of experimental learning is the need for adjustment between learner and
teacher, learning styles. Sometimes their preferences are antagonistic, complementary, or
collusive. Neglecting some stages can cause problems concerning effective development
and that can be a major obstacle to learning.
David Kolb (1984) wrote that learners have immediate concrete experiences that allow us
to reflect on new experience from different perspectives. From these reflective
observations, we engage in abstract conceptualisation, creating generalizations or
principles that integrate our observations into sound theories. Finally, we use these
generalizations or theories as guides to further action. Active experimentation allows us
to test what we learn in new and more complex situations. The result is another concrete
experience, but this time at a more complex level.
To be effective learners we must (1) perceive information, (2) reflect on how it will
impact some aspect of our life, (3) compare how it fits into our own experiences, and (4)
think about how this information offers new ways for us to act. Learning requires more
than seeing, hearing, moving, or touching to learn. We integrate what we sense and think
with what we feel and how we behave.
According to Kolb (1975) the individual can begin at any one of the four points of the
learning cycle, which has to be approached as a continuous spiral. Therefore management
development is a continuous process that involves all the stages of the learning cycle. The
learning process can begin with a person carrying out a particular action and then seeing
the effect of the action at a particular situation. The second step facilitates the individual
to understand the effects in a particular instance so when the same action is taken in
similat circumstances it will be possible to see, what will follow from that particular
action.
42
The need for adjustment between the learner and the teacher has a considerable
advantage towards a successful management development. Often the relation between the
trainer and the trainee are antagonistic, and often collusive if they tend to follow the same
stages of the cycle.
A definition of experiential learning will take place because Kolbs model in terms of
learning style theory is based on the concept of experiential learning.
Experiential learning involves a direct phenomena being studied rather than thinking
about the encounter, or only considering the possibility of doing something about it
(Brookfield et al 1983).
Experiential learning is education that occurs as a direct participation in the events of life
(Houle et al 1980). Experiential learning is actually about learning from primary
experience that is learning through sense experiences. (Jarvis et al 1995)
All the relevant literature concerning experiential learning the factors that affect
management development has been presented. What role does your experience play in
your learning process? Learning from experience is the process whereby human
development occurs. The importance of modifying the experiences that the individual has
acquired in order to change the individual learning style preferences is the main strength
of experiential learning.
Although experience is essential to learning, it is not enough; one has to do something
with it to construct knowledge. The two basic dimensions of the learning process include
both understanding and transforming experience. At any given moment, your learning
involves one or a combination of these four learning modes. According to Kolb those are
Concrete Experience, Active Experimentation, and Abstract Conceptualisation.
43
Other theories related to experiential learning have also been presented in the literature as
well as the reasons why those theories have been rejected as the main theory of the
research. The importance of management development within the context of management
development will be presented.
Experiential learning provides an alternative to other methods of management
development. The fact that management development has to be able to define the way
that individuals learn and develop is very important. It has a fundamental difference to
other methods of management development that consider each individual as receiving
fixed knowledge.
44
Chapter 3 Methodology:
3.1 Introduction:
The scope of the primary research is to find, the learning styles of the clinical directors
that are involved in the management of the Greek NHS trusts. The primary research is
based on Mumford's learning style questionnaire. The main groups, are considered, in the
primary research are the clinicians that possess a speciality, the pathologists and the
nurses all those groups are involved in the management of the Greek NHS trusts.
All the above groups have acquired different professional and training experiences. A
validity of the Kolb study will take place by distributing the questionnaires to the above
groups at the Greek NHS trusts.
According to Kolb (1985) individuals that receive different learning experiences have
developed different learning style preferences.
The main purpose of the research is to define the learning styles of the clinicians within
the directorate. The results from the questionnaire will be distributed to various clinicians
involved in the management of the directorate. The results will be analysed separately
according to the following three different categories the clinicians that have a speciality
such as radiology, pedagogy the pathologists and finally nurses. Pathologists and nurses
have been chosen as two different categories due to the large number of pathologists and
nurses that are involved in management.
The results from the questionnaire will be analysed according to the speciality education
and years in service of each individual participant. Particular attention will focus on the
outcome and the diversity of the results from the questionnaires according to the clinician
medical role.
45
A large diversification concerning the results will define that previous education and
specialisation has influenced the learning style of the individual clinician that is involved
in management. In this case a management development policy will start by the learning
style of the individual and try to move the individual by reinforcing his other styles and
should have positive results.
The research will provide useful information to trainers because it compares the learning
style of the trainer and the trainee. It can also shift resources towards developing weaker
learning styles.
The results will verify the extent that there are differences between the two managerial
groups. The rationale of Mumfords learning style theory will be followed in order to
contribute to develop our conclusions concerning the management development strategy
within the directorate.
46
The use of Mumfords Learning style questionnaire will define the learning styles of the
three groups, of clinicians (those that have the following specialities genecology,
radiology, bio pathology, orthodoxy, pediatrian, cardiologists, pathologists and nurses).
The pathologists and the nurses have been considered as different groups due to the fact
of a receiving a more general education to the other clinicians that have a speciality.
The learning style questionnaire is based on the theory of Mumfords and Honey, which
has four styles the -Theorists, Activists, Reflector, and Pragmatist. The application of the
theory takes place by the use of Honey and Mumfords questionnaire for the particular
research. Honey and Mumford questionnaires have been distributed to various clinicians
involved in management. The answers from the questionnaires will define the learning
styles of the clinicians and the implications of those styles will be defined.
The validation of the theory will prove that clinicians from different professional and
educational domains encounter different learning styles. The questionnaire will contribute
to define the learning styles of the clinicians who have encountered different professional
and education experiences. The results of the questionnaire will prove the validity of the
hypothesis. It will also provide useful information to future management development
programmes. It will also be the starting where the implications of the different learning
styles will be studied in detail.
Further application of the theory of learning styles can take place in future management
development programmes. It will contribute to the formation of management
development programmes within the context of the Greek NHS trusts. The learning style
questionnaire will be the tool of defining the learning style of potential candidates in
management development programmes. The successful definition of the learning style
will help to dovetail the learning activities to suit learning styles or be used as a starting
point for self-development.
47
Kolb and Fry's Learning Style Inventory is based on the rationale that people develop
preferences for different learning styles in just the same way that they develop any other
sort of style such as management and negotiating. (Mumford et al 1986).
"Honey stated the following:"
Naturally Kolbs learning style inventory in order to discover my own learning style and
started to include it on training courses I ran as a way of predicting who would respond in
what sort of way and so anticipating learning difficulties. Unfortunately, whilst I bought
the theory, I found some problems with the inventory itself the problem was that the
predictions were not as accurate as I wished and the face validity was poor. Accordingly,
together with Alan Mumford I started to develop a questionnaire that would a better job.
After three years of intensive experimentation the result was an eighty-item and defines
whether someone is an activist a Reflector, a theorist and a pragmatist.
(Mumford et al 1986 124 125)
Honey and Mumford (1992, 1996) have modified Kolb's learning style Inventory,
transforming it into user-friendly 80-item learning style questionnaire. In turn, Kolb's
four stages of Concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualisation, and
active experimentation became four learning styles: the activist, reflector, theorist, and
pragmatist respectively. This has become the best-known tool for classifying different
learning styles and linking them to the type of learning activities, which each type enjoys
48
or dislikes. It provided the basis for Mumford's idea of using learning opportunities to
develop personal effectiveness. Mumford claimed that situated midway between formal
planed managerial development process and informal accidental management
development activities, integrated opportunistic management development' would enable
more effective learning if individuals followed the principles of self-development.
Mumford (1992) pp 144-145
Thus Honey and Mumford (1992) pp144-145 took the view that every managerial event
and personal experience could be of benefit, if the main principles of the learning cycle
are followed namely:
Overview
Conclude
Plan
Act again
Review
Plan
Mumfords learning style theory is an evolution of Kolb's learning style theory. The
strength of the theory lies on the dynamic, notion of the process of learning that is
represented by the cycle of learning.
Recognising that learning has many different identifiable faces. The different faces of
learning makes Kolb's learning theory a theory that recognises the individual learning
style. The other significance of the theory is the fact that it draws attention of learning
through action and reflection, as well as through the traditional channels of teaching,
learning. The theory recognizes that the participant may prefer different learning styles
the definition of those styles in the context of a management development programme
would have beneficial results because it complies more with the participant individual
learning style.
49
Recognising that the individual may prefer different phases of the learning cycle that fit
with his/her individual learning style has the potential to create learning that would be
more effective.
The advantage of the questionnaire is that it can be sent to many different individuals
across the different NHS trusts. That is very suitable for that particular research because
there is a need for a broad view in terms of the numbers of the individual managers and
clinicians. An interview approach would provide us with limited results concerning the
learning styles of the clinicians of the Greek NHS trusts.
The other strength of the questionnaire is that, it is directly related to the Mumford
learning style theory. Mumford's and Honey questionnaire has been tested of its
reliability.
Other approaches that have been considered
Qualitative research has been considered but was not suitable for the current research due
to its limitations to create the big picture for the clinicians that are involved in the
management of the Greek NHS trusts. Three, or four interviews cannot represent the
attitude of all the clinicians towards management development. Interviews will provide a
limited picture concerning the learning style of the clinicians. The other weakness of
qualitative research is that it is very difficult to come into comparisons by interviewing
two three individuals.
50
3.3.2 A definition of the instrument questionnaire and how many will be sent out.
The questionnaire is based on Mumfords learning style questionnaire that is an
adaptation of Kolbs theoretical work. The questionnaire consists of 80 questions which
defines the extent that an individual is either an Activist, Reflector Theorists or a
Pragmatist. Fifty questionnaires have been sent out. A copy of the questionnaire is being
shown in appendix one. The individual ticks a question or rejects it by an X (for each
51
ticked question there is point). Twenty questions have been allocated for each learning
style. The maximum points that can be allocated for one of the four learning styles are
twenty. An analysis of the results concerning the questionnaires is allocated at the
(appendix seven)
52
Different patterns of learning style define the way that the individuals react to different
problems at the directorate. Individuals at the directorate have different perspectives to
the different problems. Defining the individual thinking towards different problems has
the advantage of being able to start the development process with the support of the
individual learning style.
The particular learning style is very useful due to the diversity of the problems that
individuals face in management. Learning in action is very useful because it involves an
approach that starts with the individual learning style. Learning style defines the
personality of the individual the way that he/she reacts to certain problems and
circumstances.
53
Mumfords and Honey questionnaire is being used in order to define the learning styles
of the clinicians. In order to understand the implication of the learning styles on the
management development it is necessary to define them and furthermore to use the
questionnaire and observe in praxis the different learning style preferences among the
clinicians. The definition of Mumfords and Honey learning styles has been given in the
literature. The next stages is sending the questionnaires to the different clinicians and
observing the differences concerning their individual learning style. The results will
define the existence of the learning styles within the different groups of clinicians
involved in the management of the Greek NHS. Honey and Mumfords questionnaire is
the tool of defining the learning styles of the clinicians.
The overall implication of the learning styles towards management development is that
management development is being influenced by the existence of different learning
styles. A team of individuals possessing different learning styles has developed different
perceptual and cognitive skills and strategies that the learner uses in gathering and
interpreting and starting similar information, which has the potential to be interpreted
differently, according to the individuals personal learning style.
Honey and Mumfords learning style questionnaire contributes to learning in the Greek
NHS trusts, because the participants that fill the questionnaire find out about themselves.
The self-awareness of the participants is being raised through this method and behaviour
changes are more likely to take place following the questionnaire. Participants trusted the
data more because they filled them out themselves. They identified their own learning
style of leadership. Therefore power and responsibility of change and personal growth lie
within the participants
54
The other advantage of the instrument is the potential of creating a wider view due to the
opportunity of accessing a number of different individuals. On the other hand an
interview has a limited potential to access more than one individual. (Jankowicz et al
1995 pp 223)
The advantage of the fully structured techniques is that it allows you to standardize the
questionnaire to such an extent that a more numerate, statistically based analysis is
possible, and permits you to test the hypothesis more explicitly, always assuming that the
situation permits. The other advantage of the fully structures techniques it permits access
to more responders, and can provide greater feelings of anonymity, may require less
skills and sensitivity to administer, and allows your responders more time to think about
his or her responses than any of the semi structured techniques.
(Jankowicz et al 1995
pp 223)
3.3.4.2The disadvantage of the instrument:
The weakness of the instrument is that it contains many questions that might confuse the
user and lose focus. The other factor is the extent that the persons that fill the
questionnaire are honest enough to fill it, in properly. The other weakness of the theory
is, that the four learning styles could be restricted in order to define adequately the
learning style of the individual. The other weakness of the instrument is the lack of openended questions. It can be considered fixed in terms of its structure. It does not provide
the on time response that is provided by the qualitative research.
The disadvantage of the quantitative method is that the depth of the research has already
been decided. The answer to the learning style questionnaire provides the participants
with four choices that derive from the learning style theory. The limitation at this stage is
that the participants are presented with limited choices, and this limitation leads to
restricting the chance for the participants to be able to take the issues under consideration
deeper than I decided to.
55
All the above parameters have been considered in analysing the questionnaires because
there are potential factors that might influence the individual learning style. It will also
define the extent that individuals with different learning and professional experiences
have created a different learning style.
At the analysis stage excel will be used in order to analyse each questionnaire separately.
With the contribution of excel, graphs will be generated in order to make comparisons
and help towards defining the big picture of the primary research. The questionnaires will
define the extent that clinicians with different professional and training experiences have
created a different learning style. The answer will provide validity to Mumfords learning
styles theory.
56
57
questionnaire will define the diversity of learning styles between different groups of
clinicians in case of big differences concerning the results of the questionnaire there will
be big differences concerning the perceptual and cognitive skills and strategies the learner
uses in gathering and interpreting and stowing information that will have a major
implication for a management development programme, due to the big differences that
the members of the clinical team organise experiences into meanings, values, skills and
strategies.
In that case it will be a major implication concerning the existence of learning styles, in
the context of management development.
58
There is a separate reference and interpretation for each individual group, concerning the
results of the questionnaire. The clinicians that have a speciality, the pathologists and the
nurses at appendix 7 the results of each clinician are included.
The results are also related to previous research that has taken place in order to define the
learning style of medical students and the choice medical students speciality. The results
are analysed according to the structure of Mumfords and Honey questionnaire. In total
there are 80 questions, the questions being divided into four different learning styles
according to Mumfords and Honey learning style theory. There is a focus on the four
learning styles the Activists the Reflectors the Pragmatists and the Theorists.
The
questionnaire has a total of eighty questions. Each preferred question counts one point, a
maximum of 20 points is being allocated at each learning style, which is a combination of
the 80 questions of Mumfords and Honeys questionnaire. The questions that are
allocated to each learning style are indicated in the numerical analysis of the results.
(Numerical analysis concerning the results of each questionnaire see appendix 7)
59
In general the highest marks have been allocated to the reflectors and the theorists
columns most of the answers are allocated just above the average concerning those two
learning styles. The low results concerning the activists column is remarkable, there is a
partly correlation to the research of Mark Plovnick that investigates the relation between
the learning style and the senior medical students choice of Speciality that has been used
by Kolb as a reference according to his research students with a convergent learning style
choose medical specialities. The results of Mark Plovinck concerns medical students that
do not possess any work experience its only being used as a mean of comparison
concerning the results of the questionnaire.
(See appendix 8 The diagram of Mark Plovnick)
Plovnick has allocated those that possess a medical speciality high at the convergent
learning style. Most points have been indicated to the to the reflector and theorists
column with the reflector column gaining below average marks, there is a shift towards
the assimilator knowledge
The average points, concerning the reflector and the theorists columns and the below
average for the pragmatists.
60
There is a direct correlation with the research of Mark Plovnick concerning the relation
between the learning styles and the choice of speciality. Plovnick research and the results
of the questionnaire are very identical. Pathologists have a strong preference for
assimilative knowledge, which is proved by Mumfords and Honey questionnaire.
4.2.1.3 The results concerning the Nursing participants
On the other hand the results concerning nursing are very different, to the ones of
pathology, there are higher results concerning activists in relation to the two previous
groups. In many cases equal points have been distributed to all the learning styles. The
way that those results have been distributed indicates a preference between
accommodator and divergent due to the similarity of the results to all the four columns.
According to Mark Plovnick those that choose to follow career in nursing lie in the
border between accommodator and diverger due to the equality concerning the points
concerning the theorists the reflectors and the theorists there is a correlation with Mark
Plovnick research concerning learning styles. The nature of nursing encourages a more
activist learning therefore there is a higher mark for the activist learning style in relation
to the other learning styles.
61
The validity of the theory has been proved due to the considerable differences in the
learning styles of the three different groups of clinicians that are involved in the
management of the Greek NHS trusts. The results have proved that individual learning
experiences are influenced by current job role and previous education and specialisation.
The results prove the research hypothesis that learning styles are being influenced by
factors such as education and specialization the choice of the professional carrier and the
current job role.
The results of the questionnaire prove the research hypothesis:
Individuals have
different learning styles, which indicate preference for particular learning experiences. As
a result of our hereditary equipment, our particular past life experience and the demands
of our present environment, most people develop learning styles that emphasise some
learning abilities over others. Factors that influence learning style are education and
specialisation, professional carrier, and current job role.
The overall analysis has the potential to provide an answer to the research question, that
Mumfords and Honey questionnaire has the potential to contribute towards the
management development of the clinicians that are involved in management.
Those possessing a medical speciality, the low activist result was remarkable, with higher
number to the reflector and to the theorists learning styles. The pathologists they have a
strong assimilative knowledge due to the high points that have been allocated to the
reflector learning style, as like in the medical specialities the result indicate low results
for the activists. For the nursing participants there were lower points for the reflectors and
the theorists the considerable was the activists learning style has gained considerable
points something that did not happen in the previous results.
According to the data from the questionnaire individuals have developed different
learning styles. The differences in the learning styles overcome from the different
professional and educational experiences that each individual has encountered. The
62
results from the questionnaire have defined those differences due to the large
diversification of the answer from the questionnaire.
The differences in the results of the questionnaires defines that each individual has
developed his own learning style, therefore predetermined and organisation based
learning and management development methods might reflect a particular learning style
but it will not reflect some other. The above could lead us to understand the major
implication of the learning styles for the managerial development of the clinicians
involved in the management of the NHS trusts.
63
Throughout the literature review there was a particular focus toward Mumfords and
Honey learning style theory as the main theory of the research. The rationale of
Mumfords and Honey theory is that the participants in a management development
programme developed different learning style preferences due to different professional
and training experiences. The entire context that underlies the learning style theory has
been presented in the literature. The use of Mumfords and Honey questionnaire has
tested the validity of Mumfords and Honey questionnaire for a sample of the clinicians
that are involved in the management of the Greek NHS trusts. Profound differences
concerning the results of the questionnaire were identified. The implication of the
learning styles of the individual that participate in a management development influence
directly the effectiveness the programme which ignores the individual differences of the
participants that participate in the programme.
The above survey has proved that learning styles are being influenced by factors such as
education and specialisation and current job role therefore there is a validity concerning
Honey and Mumford learning style theory. Management development that will be based
on experiential learning has the potential to be more effective in relation to other methods
whose main purpose is to transform knowledge to other individuals.
A definition of management development, and the necessity for the Greek NHS to
focus on management development.
To define and analyse Kolb and Alan Mumfords and Honey experiential learning
theory and the learning styles needed to learn from experience.
The definition of the learning styles of the three groups of clinicians that are
involved in the management of the directorate by using Mumfords and Honey
learning style questionnaire.
64
All the above objectives of the project were achieved in the chapters of the project. At the
first part of the literature review management development was defined. Then the
definition of Kolbs and the evolution of Mumfords and Honey theory took place. There
was a direct application of the theory by the use of Mumfords and Honey questionnaire
in the sample of clinicians that are involved in the management of the Greek NHS trusts.
The result validates the existence of different learning styles preferences that has direct
implication to a management development programme. Individuals that possess different
learning styles create different perceptual and cognitive skills and strategies, the learner
uses in gathering, interpreting and stowing information. Therefore a group of individuals
that possess different learning styles has developed different skills and strategies in
gathering and interpreting information that has a direct application to the effectiveness of
a management development programme. According to Mumford development is also a
continuous, ever-changing process in which managers often learn informal, unplanned
experience.
Defining those learning styles in an early stage it will be beneficial in order to formulate
the context of a management development either to suit the learning styles of the
participants. The individual differences overcome from the profound changes on the prior
knowledge and competence as personal characteristics affect competence.
At the methodology section there was an effort to illustrate the advantages of the
particular the quantitative method and the reasons that this method has been used. The
main advantage of the questionnaire survey was the accessibility to a considerable
number of clinicians that are involved in the management of the Greek NHS trust.
65
The results of the questionnaire have defined considerable differences concerning the
learning style preferences of the three groups that were involved in the research. The
clinicians that have a speciality have shown a preference for Convergent knowledge due
to the above average results, for the reflector and the theorists learning styles with the
activist being considerable low and the pragmatists close to 11 points. Therefore the
clinicians that have a speciality have shown a preference towards converger knowledge.
The above results have a similarity to the research of Mark Plovnick
For the pathologists have strong preferences for the reflector and the pragmatist learning
styles has dominated the sample of the individuals that filled the questionnaires.
According to the research the pathologists tend to prefer assimilative knowledge. The
high reflector score indicate that they reflect on the problems and they look for
similarities and differences reviewing. The high theorists style indicate that there are
preferences for concluding from experience, on the other hand there is a lack of pursing
alternatives, involved in planning and testing. There is weakness to knowledge by
acquaintance that is related to direct practical experience.
The nurses had similar results for all the four learning styles the remarkable being the
considerable increase concerning the Activist and Pragmatist learning style in relation to
the other two groups. The nurses can lie between the assimilative and the divergent
learning style, according to the research. The higher activist learning style indicates that
nurses prefer to involve themselves in new experiences in relation to the other two groups
that have shown low preferences towards the activist learning style. The equality
concerning the results of the nursing groups defines that nurses have developed their
learning styles preferences towards all the four learning styles. Due to the high
practicality of their job and the high interaction with the patients they have developed
different learning style preferences to the other two groups that have a more passive role
within the directorate.
66
Recommendations:
The importance of Mumfords and Honey experiential learning theory is that it recognises that
individuals develop different learning styles according to their individual educational and
professional experiences.
The importance of the learning style questionnaire is that it measures and defines the way
those individuals learn. This is very important for the success of a management
development programme. The findings from Honey and Mumfords questionnaire are
directly related to the learning cycle, which is an evolution of Kolbs learning cycle.
Learning and development can begin at any one of the four learning style of the cycle.
Kolb and Fry (1975) has stated The advantage of learning through carrying an action
and seeing the effects of those action and make sense of those effects so in case of similar
actions carried in the future it would be possible to anticipate what would follow from the
action. For the Greek NHS trusts it will be useful to start using Mumfords and Honey
questionnaire due to its validity, as an alternative method of management development
based on the concept of experiential learning. As a starting point the implementation of
the scheme can start by a smaller NHS trusts where the results can be seen more clearly.
According to the quantitative research different learning style preferences have been
defined between the three groups that have been considered in the survey the clinicians
that have a speciality the pathologists and the nurses. The advantage of defining the
individual thinking towards different problems is of being able to start the development
process with the support of the individual learning style.
Throughout the research was a focus on the individual clinician as an entity that has
developed a unique learning style. The definition of the learning took place with the
utilisation of Mumfords and Honeys questionnaire. The benefits of focusing on an
individual management development perspective is because managers are individual
67
people with a variety of experiences and skills with different tasks in the particular
organisation context, therefore development must be in terms with the individual needs
from a given management situation.
regurgitation. It is detached from life, and often has little application to the real world.
It, therefore, becomes "forgotten learning" shortly after the lecture or the test.
68
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