CT SCAN Basics-1

Computed Tomography (Basics)
Siemens Medical Systems
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
Medical Engineering Group, Computed Tomography
CT Basics 1
The Discovery of X-Rays...
100 years ago,
Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen,
a German scientist,
discovered x-rays...
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 2
Look Inside The Human Body...
This allowed people for the

first time to be able to view
the anatomy of the human
body noninvasively
« But anatomic structures were superimposed

« And soft tissue couldn’t be differentiated
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 3
CT Broke the Barrier...
In 1972,
two scientists -
Hounsfield and Ambrose-
presented the first
clinical CT image ...
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 4
The Human Body Slice by Slice...
So we could
see
tomographic anatomy
&
density differences
♠ But it was time consuming (10 min. / image)
♠ And the resolution needed to be improved

Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 5
What Does a CT Look Like?
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 6
The First Siemens CT Scanner...
SIRETOM (in 1974)

Acquisition time 7 min., image matrix 80x80 pixels,
scan field 25 cm , spatial resolution 1,3 mm (4LP/cm)
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 7
The Progress in Image Quality...
SIRETOM SOMATOM Plus 4 UFC

(1974) (1996)
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 8
From the outside... Gantry
♣ Gantry
♣ Table
♣ Generator Generator
♣ Console
♣ Computer
Table
Console
Computer
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 9
From the inside...
Tube
♣ Tube
♣ Detector
♣ DAS*
DAS
Detector
* Data Acquisition System

Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 10
How Does CT Work?
X-ray
X-ray generation
generation
Data
Data acquisition
acquisition
Recon
Recon && postprocessing
postprocessing
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 11
Image Generation - The “Slice”
X-rays pass through a collimator therefore only
penetrating an axial layer of the object, called
a "slice"
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 12
Image Generation - The “Voxel”
The slice is artificially
divided into small volume
elements called "voxels"
with a square base,
inside which the
attenuation is measured
as a constant value.
And in plane, the picture
elements are called “pixels”
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 13
Image Generation - The “Matrix”
The attenuation of radiation values is measured,
encoded and transferred to a computer.
35 36 34 39 33
31 34 33 35 32
31 78 80 85 90
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 14
CT Image Generation - A/D/A*
The numerical matrix is converted into a black and
white image in a corresponding gray scale.
35 36 34 39 33
31 34 33 35 32
31 78 80 85 90
*Analog - Digital - Analog

Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 15
Criteria for CT Image Quality
CT Image Quality
Spatial resolution Artifacts
Contrast Detectability
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 16
Spatial Resolution...
The ability to resolve High Contrast Objects,
(also called “High Contrast Resolution”)
This is influenced by system geometry,

and determines image definition
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 17
Definition...
Image definition means the sharpness of an
object relative to surrounding tissue. It
depends on:
Definition
Image display
Scan time
Operating mode
Algorithm
Slice thickness
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 18
Contrast Detectability...
When Small Contrast Differences are crucial
(also called “Low Contrast Resolution”)
This is influenced by image definition & noise
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 19
Noise?
Noise is superimposed on the image and results in
a "grainy" impression, as is the case with poor TV
reception.
206 mA 60 mA
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 20
Noise...
Image “noise” is determined by the number of
x-ray quanta that reach the detector and then
contribute to the image. It depends on:
Noise
Image display
mAs
Operating mode
kV
Algorithm Patient size
Slice thickness
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 21
Artifacts...
The various structures or patterns that appear in a
CT image, but are not found in the original object.
Artifacts
They depend on: ...
Scan time Patient
Slice thickness Operating mode
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 22
Influences on CT Image Quality?
CT Image Quality
Patient
System
User
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 23
System Efficiency...
100 mAs 100 mAs
The complete system design determines how

efficiently x-rays are finally converted to
electrical signal as the detector output, after
passing through the patient.
The generator, tube, geometry, filtration,

collimation and detector design all play a role.
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 24
mAs...
Tube current and scan time, determine dose.
Noise
high Rule
Ruleofofthumb:
thumb:
The noise 1
Thehigher
higherthe
thedose,
dose,
the dose
thelower
lowerthe
thenoise.
noise.
* Noise reduced by factor 1.4

while dose is doubled.
low
mAs
low high
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 25
mAs...
Low mAs High mAs
Image 1: Image 2:
Low mAs value - 4 times the mAs value-
high noise level half the noise level
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 26
Recommendations for mAs...
In the case of a soft tissue study, it is

most important to keep noise to a minimum
by using higher mAs. The lower the noise
level, the easier it is to recognize structures
with minute differences in density. But for
bone or lung studies, higher mAs is not
necessary.
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 27
Tube Voltage - kV
The dose level, depends very strongly on the
voltage applied to the tube.
kV
kV Relative
Relativedose
dose
Water
140
140 100%
100%
20 cm 120
120 58%
58%
80
80 12%
12%
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 28
Tube Voltage - kV
The higher the voltage, the more the radiation
spectrum is shifted to a higher energy level,
resulting in decreased radiation attenuation. This
is most noticeable in bone and contrast media.
140 kV 80 kV
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 29
Algorithms...
... provide the recipe for mathematical image
calculation
Image definition
Sharp ULTRA HIGH
HIGH
STANDARD
SOFT
Smooth SOFT DETAIL

Noise
low High
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 30
Algorithms
An edge-enhancing (HighRes) algorithm

produces good edge definition, but also a
high noise level, while a smoothing
algorithm produces a low noise level, but
also poorer edge definition. For routine
studies, a standard algorithm is normally
recommended.
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 31
Algorithms
Soft Algorithm HighRes Algorithm
Soft algorithms provide better contrast

detectability with less noise.
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 32
Algorithms
Standard Algorithm HighRes Algorithm
HighRes algorithms provide better spatial

resolution, but with more noise.
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 33
Selecting Slice Thickness
Selecting a suitable slice thickness is a balance
between edge definition and noise because of
their mutually offsetting effects.
low noise
AA thick
thick slice
slice better contrast resolution
means:
means: poorer edge definition
partial volume artifacts
high noise
AA thin
thin slice
slice poorer contrast resolution
means:
means: better edge definition
no partial volume artifacts
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 34
Slice Thickness...
slice thickness 1/2 no. of x-ray quanta 50% noise level 1.4
Noise Image definition = spatial resolution
High
High
Low Low
1 2 3 5 10 mm 1 2 3 5 10 mm
Slice thickness Slice thickness
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 35
Slice Thickness...
3 mm Slice 10 mm Slice
Thicker slices give less noise & better

contrast detectability for soft tissue
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 36
Slice Thickness
5 mm Slice 1 mm Slice
Thinner slices give better spatial resolution

for bony structures.
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 37
Patient Size...
Noise
400%
Rule
Ruleofofthumb:
thumb:
300% The
Thenoise
noiselevel
leveldoubles
doublesfor
forevery
every88cm
cm
increase
increaseininpatient
patientdiameter.
diameter.
200%
100%
30 34 38 42 46 cm
Patient diameter
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 38
Patient Size...
An attenuation by a factor of 2 results from
each 4 cm increase in patient thickness, thus
increasing the pixel noise.
45 cm 28.8 cm
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 39
Image Display - Windowing
3000
Blood Liver
60 Tumor
Spleen Kidneys Heart
Bone Pancreas Bladder
40 Adrenal
Intestine
Gland
Water
0
Rule
Ruleofofthumb:
thumb:
-100
Mamma The
TheCT CTvalue
valueof
ofwater
waterisis00and
and
air
air-1000.
-1000.The
Therelative
relativevalues
valuesofof
-200
Fat
the
theother
othertissues
tissuesare
arecalculated
calculated
-900 Air Lung relative
relativeto
tothat
thatof
ofwater
water
-1000
This is the so-called CT number in Hounsfield unit (HU)

Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 40
The range of CT density values is defined from -1000 to
+3000, but the human eye can distinguish only 30 - 40 gray
scales at best.
Lung Window Mediastinum Window
So, the window settings must be in accordance

with the structures to be visualized
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 41
Hounsfield
Gray scale
unit
+3000 display
White
Window Window
width W center C
0
Black
-1000 CT Windowing
Window width (W): the density range represented within the gray scale.
Window center (C): the center of the density range.

Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 42
Narrow Window Width Broad Window Width
Narrow window width: Broad window width:

High-contrast image, but Minor density differences
structures outside that window
appear homogeneous and
range may be inadequately
may be masked.
represented or overlooked.
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 43
Double Window Technique
Hounsfield
Gray scale
unit
+3000 display
White
Window 1
0
Black
Window 2
-1000 CT Windowing
This is used for the display of two tissue types
differing greatly in their density values, such as
the lung & the mediastinum.
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 44
Double Window Technique*
To see both
lungs and
mediastinum
within image
simutanously
*Double window is not recommended for diagnosis.

Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 45
Double Window Lung Window Mediastinum Window
Image 1: Image 2: Image 3:

Both lung, Only lung Only thorax wall
thorax wall & visible & mediastinum
mediastinum visible
visible
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 46
Extended CT Scale
Normally, CT values can be measured from -1024 to +3071,
but with SOMATOM Plus 4, this can be extended from -10240
to +30710 to visualize metals of high attenuation. Therefore,
it is always possible to measure the real CT value no matter
where and how the window is positioned.
Post operative femoral

head replacement - the
CT value is 6000 HU
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 47
Review vs. Magnification
Reviewed Magnified
Review: Magnification:
A zoom reconstruction from a purely optical
raw data to enhance magnification of image
sharpness of details data which may result in
blurred appearance
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 48
Image Artifacts - Origins
Image Artifacts
...
Operator
Motion error
Metal Technical
defects
Partial volume Beam hardening
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 49
Image Artifacts - Appearance
Image artifacts
Streak Cupping
Dark bar Ring
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 50
Motion Artifact & Scan Time
Motion artifacts
Severe
Rule
Ruleof ofthumb:
thumb:
The
Theshorter
shorterthe
thescan
scantime,
time,the
the
less
lesslikely
likelymotion
motionartifacts
artifactsare
are
occur.
occur.
Moderate
Scan time (s)
Short Long
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 51
Motion Artifact & Correction
Motion artifacts can be compensated for by
the Motion Correction Algorithm (MCA)
w/o correction w/ correction

Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 52
Metal Artifact
Metals, such as gold, absorb

x-radiation almost completely,
thus producing
“radiation shadows”,
leading to pronounced streak
artifacts over the entire
reconstructed image
This can only be avoided via a gantry tilt that excludes

the disturbing metallic objects from the slice plane.
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 53
Partial Volume Effect
Streak-like artifacts, also called partial volume artifact,
occur most frequently in the bony structures
at the base of the skull and the petrous bone region.
5 mm
That is because the
very dense structures
(bones) are only
partially included in the
slice, resulting in high
contrast errors.
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 54
Partial Volume Effect
5 mm 2 mm
Selecting a thinner slice prevents such artifacts from

occurring, since high contrast structures are less
frequently partially included, but this inherently
increases the noise level, thus degrading contrast
resolution.
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 55
VAR - Volume Artifact Reduction
5 mm 2 x 2 mm
Combines several thin slices (which reduces the partial

volume artifact) to provide a thicker slice (which reduces
the pixel noise and offers good soft tissue discrimination).
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 56
Beam Hardening Effect
The x-ray photons emitted from the x-ray tube do
not all have the same energy. As they penetrate
the irradiated object, the spectrum is shifted to
higher energies - called “beam hardening”. In the
image, streak artifacts or the so-called “cupping
effect” can be seen.
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 57
Beam Hardening & Correction
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 58
Beam Hardening & Correction
The “cupping” effect can be compensated for
by means of “beam hardening correction”
severe cupping homogenuous CT values

Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 59
Technical Defects
The individual detector elements of a detector
system may not produce the same signal for the
same irradiation.
When a detector element

outputs an erroneous signal,
ring artifacts appear.
This can be eliminated by

calibration, if not, call
technical service!
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 60
Adaptive Filter
For a non-circular object, x-ray attenuation is
greater along the long axis than along the short
axis, therefore directional noise is seen.
w/o A.F. w/ A.F.
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 61
Artifacts & Corrections
The reasons for artifacts are quite diverse. What
we do is to perform corresponding corrections in
order to avoid them. But sometimes artifacts can
not be compensated for completely.
Nothing is perfect...
But we keep on working to reduce

them as much as possible!
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 62
For the Clinical Routine...
Since the influence on HC resolution & LC
resolution by changing parameters can be
contradictory, it is necessary to differentiate
between:
¨ A Soft tissue study (contrast detectability)

( >90% of routine studies, normally)
¨ A Bone study (spatial resolution)

(<10% of routine studies, normally)
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 63
Clinical Requirements...
CT is really great!
But there are still some problems...
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 64
Conventional CT...
Standard Scan:
- Longer cycle time I.S.D* I.S.D
- but instant display
* Inter Scan Delay
Dynamic Scan:
- Fast acquisition
- but delayed display
I.S.D I.S.D I.S.D I.S.D

Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 65
Problems of Conventional CT...
Misregistration due to different levels of respiration
Deep inspiration Moderate inspiration

Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 66
Breathing Was the Problem...
Sorry, my dear patient, the

lesion was missed because
you did not keep the same
inspiration level for each
scan...
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 67
Partial Volume Effect and slice location cause
misregistration and/or misdiagnosis
Best
case
Worst
case
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 68
Location Was the Problem...
Sorry, the lesion was

missed because its location
did not fit my slice
position...
One mouse...
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 69
l Scan influenced by respiration
l Image can’t be reconstructed anywhere as desired
Deep inspiration Moderate inspiration

Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 70
How can we improve this?
l Scan influenced by respiration

Make it as fast as possible within one
breathhold
l Image can’t be reconstructed anywhere as desired
Change "slice" into "volume"
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 71
Conventional vs. Spiral CT ...
2D Slice 3D Volume
w/ I.S.D w/o I.S.D
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 72
The 4 “C”s?
Continuously rotating tube/detector system
Continuous radiation
Continuous data acquisition
Continuous table feed
Spiral CT = Volume scan
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 73
Spiral CT...
“You said that images will contain artifacts if there
is any motion during the scan, but a spiral scan is
performed during constant table movement!”
Yes, therefore we need special techniques for

image reconstruction:
Spiral Algorithms
WIDE, SLIM & SLIM 2
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 74
Wide (360°) Algorithm
2 x 360° (2 full rotations) data acquisition is used
for 1 image reconstruction. Both are measured data.
measured
data
table position
slice
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 75
Slim/Slim 2 (180°) Algorithm
2 x 180° (2 half rotations) data acquisitions are
used for 1 image reconstruction. Measured data
are weighted for Slim, and interpolated for Slim 2.
measured
data
complementary
data
table position
slice
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 76
Different Interpolations?
♣ The in-plane resolution for a homogenous

object in Z-direction is the same for WIDE,
SLIM & SLIM 2
♣ SLIM & SLIM 2 give better Z-direction

resolution than WIDE when pitch 0.5.
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 77
Effective Slice Thickness (FWHM*)
Slice Thickness (relative) 3.5
3
2.5
WIDE
2
1.5 SLIM
1
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Pitch
WIDE makes FWHM wider, while SLIM/SLIM 2 keep
FWHM narrow.
* Full Width Half Maximum
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 78
Noise Amplitudes
Compared with Sequence scans, WIDE gives less noise, and
SLIM/SLIM 2 give more. But for all of them, noise amplitude
does not depend on pitch.
1.2 SLIM / SLIM 2

Noise (relative)
1 SEQ.
0.8 WIDE
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Pitch
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 79
Noise Amplitudes
WIDE SLIM SLIM 2

Image reconstructed with WIDE algorithm shows less noise
than those with SLIM & SLIM 2, but for SLIM & SLIM 2
they are about the same.
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 80
Which Algorithm to Choose?
Slim: use it with HighRes algorithm when only
spatial resolution is most important (e.g. bone and
lung study)
Slim2: use it with algorithms from smooth to

standard when the contrast detectability is most
important (e.g. soft tissue study)
Wide: use it to achieve low noise only if z-direction

resolution is not important.
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 81
Spiral Parameters
Pitch:
Table feed per rotation divided by slice thickness
Table feed / rotation

Pitch =
Slice thickness
It is physically not possible to scan a volume

with gaps because x-rays always irradiate the
whole volume.
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 82
Spiral Parameters
Increment:
Determines degree of overlap between successive
images.
*slice = 10 mm
Increment = 3 mm
Increment = 5 mm
Increment = 10 mm
The smaller the increment, the more

the images are overlapped.
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 83
Advantages of Spiral CT...
u Scan a whole volume in one breath hold

u Reduce partial volume effects
u No gaps
u Overlapping images can be reconstructed
without additional dose
u High quality data for 3D-rendering
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 84
Why Perform Spiral CT?
u Fast scanning of large anatomical volumes
u Gapless data acquisition during one breathhold
u Optimum utilization of contrast medium
u Retrospective reconstruction with arbitrary slice
increments
Conventional CT Scan Spiral CT Scan
Overlapping reconstruction gives

better z-axis resolution
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 85
When to Use Spiral CT?
u Use Spiral CT for contrast studies
u Use Spiral CT for all regions of the body
u Use it for pediatrics and trauma patients, who
require quick scanning
u Use it for long anatomical ranges
Always use Spiral if you intend to

perform 3D postprocessing (e.g. CTA) !
Source: CTC/CTM
© Siemens AG, 1998
CT Basics 86

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Computed Tomography (Basics)

Siemens Medical Systems

100 years ago,

Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen,

This allowed people for the

« But anatomic structures were superimposed

♠ But it was time consuming (10 min. / image)

♠ And the resolution needed to be improved

SIRETOM (in 1974)

SIRETOM SOMATOM Plus 4 UFC

* Data Acquisition System

*Analog - Digital - Analog

Spatial resolution Artifacts

This is influenced by system geometry,

This is influenced by image definition & noise

Algorithm Patient size

Slice thickness Operating mode

The complete system design determines how

The generator, tube, geometry, filtration,

* Noise reduced by factor 1.4

In the case of a soft tissue study, it is

Smooth SOFT DETAIL

An edge-enhancing (HighRes) algorithm

Soft algorithms provide better contrast

HighRes algorithms provide better spatial

Noise Image definition = spatial resolution

Thicker slices give less noise & better

Thinner slices give better spatial resolution

This is the so-called CT number in Hounsfield unit (HU)

So, the window settings must be in accordance

Window center (C): the center of the density range.

Narrow window width: Broad window width:

*Double window is not recommended for diagnosis.

Double Window Lung Window Mediastinum Window

Image 1: Image 2: Image 3:

Post operative femoral

Partial volume Beam hardening

Dark bar Ring

w/o correction w/ correction

Metals, such as gold, absorb

This can only be avoided via a gantry tilt that excludes

Selecting a thinner slice prevents such artifacts from

Combines several thin slices (which reduces the partial

w/o correction w/ correction

severe cupping homogenuous CT values

When a detector element

This can be eliminated by

But we keep on working to reduce

¨ A Soft tissue study (contrast detectability)

¨ A Bone study (spatial resolution)

But there are still some problems...

* Inter Scan Delay

I.S.D I.S.D I.S.D I.S.D

Deep inspiration Moderate inspiration

Sorry, my dear patient, the

Sorry, the lesion was

Deep inspiration Moderate inspiration

l Scan influenced by respiration

l Image can’t be reconstructed anywhere as desired

Change "slice" into "volume"

w/ I.S.D w/o I.S.D

Continuous data acquisition