BRIEF REVIEW

POTENTIAL BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF WHOLE-BODY

VIBRATION FOR MUSCLE RECOVERY AFTER EXERCISE
ANGELA C. KOSAR, DARREN G. CANDOW,

AND

JESSICA T. PUTLAND

Faculty of Kinesiology and Health Studies, Aging Muscle and Bone Health Laboratory, University of Regina, Regina,
Saskatchewan, Canada

ABSTRACT
Kosar, AC, Candow, DG, and Putland, JT. Potential beneficial
effects of whole-body vibration for muscle recovery after exercise.
J Strength Cond Res 26(10): 29072911, 2012Whole-body
vibration is an emerging strategy used by athletes and exercising
individuals to potentially accelerate muscle recovery. The
vibration elicits involuntary muscle stretch reflex contractions
leading to increased motor unit recruitment and synchronization
of synergist muscles, which may lead to greater training adaptations over time. Intense exercise training, especially eccentric
muscle contractions, will inevitably lead to muscle damage and
delayed onset muscle soreness, which may interfere with the
maintenance of a planned training program. Whole-body
vibration before and after exercise shows promise for attenuating
muscle soreness and may be considered as an adjunct to
traditional therapies (i.e., massage, cryotherapy) to accelerate
muscle recovery.

KEY WORDS exercise-induced muscle damage, delayed onset

muscle soreness, whole eccentric, athletes

MUSCLE SORENESS

lterations to skeletal muscle architecture, which

typically occur after intense exercise training,
include primary or secondary sarcolemmal disruption, swelling or disruption of the sarcotubular
system, distortion of the myofibrils contractile components,
cytoskeletal damage, and extracellular myofiber matrix
abnormalities (21). The mechanical stimuli from intense
exercise training lead to a cascade of cellular processes (i.e.,
muscle protein turnover, inflammation), which increase
muscle soreness and discomfort. Skeletal muscle disruptions
resulting from exercise training are known as exerciseinduced muscle damage (EIMD) (39). Exercise-induced
muscle damage typically occurs during the initial phases of
Address correspondence to Darren G. Candow, darren.candow@
uregina.ca.
26(10)/29072911
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
2012 National Strength and Conditioning Association

an exercise training program and when the training principles

of overload, variety, periodization, or increased volume
(frequency, duration) are adopted (39). Symptoms of EIMD
include muscle and joint stiffness, acute inflammation and
swelling, a decrease in muscle force production, and delayed
onset muscle soreness (DOMS) (12,39). Exercise-induced
muscle damage can be quantified by assessing the concentrations of skeletal troponin I, myoglobin, and myosin heavy
chain (12,40) but is more commonly assessed by plasma
creatine kinase levels (CK) (4). Typically, an increase in CK
after intense muscle contraction represents muscle fiber
damage (2). During exercise, especially with eccentric muscle
contractions, alterations to the normal binding pattern or
alignment of muscle fibers occur, which results in CK release
(2) into the lymphatic system and eventually the blood
stream (12).
Two central theories exist that may help explain EIMD
during exercise training. The mechanical stress model is
theorized to be the primary cause of EIMD (12) and is
characterized by eccentric or forced-lengthening muscle
contractions (21). High-tension eccentric contractions stretch
or disrupt Z line and sarcomere structure (11,21), resulting in
greater EIMD. High-tension eccentric contractions typically
result in a 5065% loss of force-generating capacity (12) and
significant muscle soreness, which may be caused by increased
calcium-activated neutral proteases (21), lysosomal proteases
(21), and prostaglandin E2 (PGE-2), a main regulator of
inflammation (34). It is well established that eccentric contractions produce higher muscle force compared with
concentric, isokinetic, or isometric muscle contractions per
unit of muscle (39), possibly because of the greater mechanical
stress per muscle fiber (39) and greater muscle hypertrophy
(19). Alternatively, the metabolic stress theory suggests that
EIMD may be the product of metabolic deficiencies within the
working muscle, which causes the muscle to become
vulnerable to mechanical and oxidative stress (12,39). Specifically, the inability of Ca2+-adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase)
to function properly is implicated in the metabolic stress theory
(39). The decreased action of Ca2+ ATPase compromises the
removal of Ca2+ from the cytosol, which may result in muscle
fiber degeneration with subsequent training sessions.
Delayed onset muscle soreness is classified as a type I
muscle strain injury (11,24), and may lead to an irregular
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Whole-Body Vibration for Muscle Recovery

maintenance of a training program for athletes and exercising
individuals (36), possibly because of muscle aches and pain,
discomfort, and inflammation (2,4,11). Delayed onset muscle
soreness is generally concentrated in the distal portions
of skeletal muscle and peaks around 2448 hours postexercise (4,11,12). Mechanistically, localized muscle soreness
has been attributed to a higher concentration of pain
receptors in the connective tissue in the myotendinous
regions (11). The myotendinous junction is a membrane that
is extensively folded and integrated into the skeletal muscle
cells. The oblique arrangement of muscle fibers just before
the myotendinous region reduces the ability of the muscle
to withstand intense mechanical stimuli (11), leading to
microscopic damage and inflammation (12). Inflammatory
signaling compounds such as PGE-2 are upregulated and
may blunt the muscle protein synthetic response after
exercise (16) because PGE-2 decreases the stimulation
of the mammalian target of rapamycin signaling pathway
(23). Subsequently, increased levels of the proinflammatory
cytokines interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-a, and
C-reactive protein, which upregulate the synthesis of PGE2, have been linked to increased inflammation (22,32,33).
Cytokines target the site of muscle disruption and act as
mediators by either facilitating or impeding the influx of
inflammatory cells into the injured tissue (12). Exercise that
results in substantial muscle damage leads to a well-organized
recovery response for the repair and regeneration of
damaged tissues, known as the acute response phase (17).
Because of the loss of muscle function, which is the end result
of EIMD and DOMS, it is important to minimize muscle
damage to increase muscle recovery for subsequent exercise
training sessions. Emerging research suggests that vibration
be considered as a strategy to possibly reduce muscle
soreness in relation to exercise training.

FUNDAMENTALS

OF

WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION

Vibration is any motion that repeats itself after a given period

of time (35). Free vibration occurs if a system, independent of
external forces, moves on its own (e.g., pendulum), whereas
forced vibration occurs when a system is subjected to an
external force (often a repeating type of force) (35). Vibrations can be either deterministic or random and are
characterized by frequency and amplitude. Frequency is the
number of cycles per unit time (generally per second) and is
typically measured in the hertz (8,30). Amplitude is the
half difference between the maximum and the minimum
value of the periodic oscillation (30). One hertz is 1 cycle per
second (43); therefore, when a subject is exposed to
a vibration of 30 Hz, the targeted muscles receive 30 cycles
of vibration per second, which makes the muscles contract
and relax 30 times in the same period. To activate the muscle
most effectively, the vibration frequency should be in the
range of 3050 Hz (30). Depending on the desired outcome,
different frequencies may be required. The duration and
kinetics of the recovery period are determined by a number

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of factors (e.g., age, muscle volume, fiber type, prior fatigue

level, years of training, prior vibration training) (13). In dayto-day life, people are exposed to many different forms of
vibration. Everyday transportation vehicles such as boats,
cars, bicycles, planes, helicopters, and trains exert vibrations
on the human body (31). Even musical instruments cause
vibrations through sound waves (35). Many sporting activities also have high levels of vibration. Sports such as alpine
skiing, off-road cycling, surfing, inline skating, and horseback
riding, and also simply running and jumping create oscillatory motion that leads to vibratory effects (31).
Whole-body vibration is a neuromuscular training technique that uses low to moderate multidimensional mechanical oscillations on both sides of a fulcrum that pivot to
produce vibration, either vertically or horizontally, which
triggers the tonic vibration reflex (TVR) (1,25,44). Biomechanical parameters influencing the intensity of mechanical
stimulus are determined primarily by the frequency and
amplitude of the vibration and, to a lesser degree, by the
number of deflections per minute (10). Frequencies studied
range from 15 to 44 Hz, amplitudes from 3 to 10 mm, and
gravitational loads from 3.5 to 15g (10). Whole-body
vibrationinduced physiological changes have been suggested to be similar to those after several weeks of resistance
training (5). The main variables that determine the magnitude of response to WBV include (a) vibration direction
(i.e., vertical vs. oscillatory), (b) vibration amplitude (millimeters), (c) vibration frequency (Hertz), (d) vibration
acceleration (gravitational units, 1.0g = 9.81 m
s22), and (e)
body position on the platform.
Whole-body vibration training involves an individual
standing, sitting, or laying on a vibrating platform performing
a static or dynamic exercise at various frequencies (42). The
vibration can be applied to individual body segments, eliciting involuntary reflex contractions through the TVR (6,9).
During vibration, the TVR is continually activated causing
multiple muscle contractions (42), possibly because of greater
motor neuron activation (7) and recruitment (44) and by
increased synchronization of synergist muscles (6,10,40).
Whole-body vibration is theorized to increase the amount
of gravitational load placed on the neuromuscular system
(5,10), resulting in greater muscle cross-sectional area and
force-generating capacity (14,20).

WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION

AS A

RECOVERY MODALITY

Recovery modalities such as massage, cryotherapy, stretching, and ultrasound have not been proven to be consistent
in alleviating symptoms of DOMS (11,28,36). Over the
past few years, research indicates that WBV should be considered as a potential intervention to accelerate muscle
recovery after exercise training (2,4,28,36). Whole-body
vibration increases muscle spindle activity and muscle preactivation (i.e., lower firing threshold), which results in
greater background tension and less disruption to excitationcontraction coupling (2,4,28). Theoretically, with an increase

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in muscle preactivation, a greater number of motor units and
muscle fibers would be recruited, which may reduce myofibrillar stress during repeated muscle contractions leading to
accelerated recovery (6). For example, using a crossover
experimental design to determine the effects of single-limb
vibration (6 minutes, 65 Hz) 30 minutes after eccentric
exercise (10 sets of 6 maximal contractions) on DOMS in
young men, Lau and Nosaka (28) observed a significant
decrease in muscle soreness (1830%) of the vibrationtreated limb compared with the control limb. Serum CK
activity increased in both limbs after exercise by ;60%, but
after 4 days of recovery, CK activity was decreasing at a faster
rate with vibration. Potentially, vibration therapy may have
influenced the activation of afferent input from sensory units
in muscle fibers and attenuated pain sensation associated
with exercise or increased lymphatic blood flow and the
removal of metabolic wastes (H+) (28). Furthermore,
untrained adults (N = 15) who maintained a static half-squat
position for 60 seconds on a WBV platform (35 Hz) before
performing 6 sets of 10 maximal voluntary isokinetic
eccentric (60
s21) knee extensors contractions experienced
a decrease in muscle damage (i.e., CK) and soreness
compared with participants who did not perform WBV
before exercise (2). Creatine kinase levels were 46% higher in
the control group 24 hours postexercise and remained
elevated for up to 7 days. Participants in the control group
also experienced greater muscle soreness in the days after the
exercise bout. The authors speculate that WBV performed
before exercise may have increased recruitment of slowtwitch muscle fibers and broadened the contractile stimulus
over a larger number of muscle fibers (i.e., fast twitch and
slow twitch combined), resulting in less muscle damage (2).
In examining the potential effects of WBV (35 Hz) on
DOMS, Rhea et al. (36) showed that young untrained adults
who performed WBV (90 seconds of static stretching of the
gastrocnemius, hamstring, and quadriceps) immediately after
eccentric resistance training (4 sets of 810 repetitions;
exercises: squat, leg extension, leg curl, calf raise, and deadlift)
and sprinting exercise (10 maximal 40-yard sprints) experienced a significant reduction in muscle pain (visual analogue
scale, 2261%) for up to 72 hours postexercise compared
with subjects who performed the same stretches without
WBV. These results suggest that WBV is an effective
intervention to attenuate muscle pain after intense exercise
training, possibly by stimulating skeletal blood flow (29) and
increasing metabolic waste disposal (15) or by inhibiting pain
sensory receptors (36). Finally, in assessing the effects of
lower-limb vibration therapy (quadriceps, hamstrings, and
calf; 50 Hz for 1 minute) before walking downhill (treadmill,
10 decline at 4 km
h21 for 30 minutes) in young adults,
Bakhtiary et al. (4) discovered that WBV resulted in
a significant reduction in muscle soreness and subsequent
decrease in plasma CK levels postexercise compared with
subjects who did not perform WBV. In contrast, WBV (12
Hz, 2 3 15minute sessions) performed after high-intensity

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interval training (3-km time trial, 8 3 400m sprints) in 9

well-trained male runners had no effect on exercise
performance or muscle damage. The authors suggest that
the lower hertz (12 Hz) used may not have been frequent
enough to produce meaningful results (15). Bullock et al. (8)
suggest that a frequency of #30 Hz and an amplitude of
4 mm is too small of a stimulus to produce meaningful
benefits in elite athletes, possibly because of advanced
training status and neuromuscular adaptations. For example,
well-trained athletes and exercising individuals have high
muscle strength, motor neuron excitability, reflex sensitivity,
and fast-twitch fiber recruitment, which may diminish the
effects of WBV compared with untrained individuals (2).
Rnnestad (38) suggests that the optimal frequency for
trained individuals is 50 Hz, as the knee extensors reach
maximum force output around 5060 impulses per second.
A vibration frequency of 50 Hz would potentially cause
muscle spindles to fire at a rate of 50 impulses per second and
increase the excitatory stimulus to the motor neuron pool
compared with lower frequencies (38). However, 50 Hz
coupled with the amplitude of 46 mm may be too strong of
a stimulus for untrained individuals (27).
As with any form of training, one must consider the
principles of progressive overload: training frequency,
volume, and intensity (3). Lamont et al. (27) suggest that
is more practical to periodize vibration exposure starting
at lower frequencies and amplitudes before progressing to
higher frequencies and amplitudes with shorter exposure
time. The gradual increase in vibration intensity may lead to
greater neuromuscular, skeletal, and exercise performance
benefits over time (18,27).

SAFETY

OF

WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION

Among the potential positive aspects of WBV, research is

limited regarding the safety of vibration. Exclusion criteria for
most studies reviewed include kidney or bladder stones,
arrhythmia, pregnancy, epilepsy, seizures, cancer, a pacemaker, untreated orthostatic hypotension, recent implants
(e.g., joint, corneal, or cochlear), recent surgery, recently
placed intrauterine devices or pins, acute thrombosis or hernia,
acute rheumatoid arthritis, serious cardiovascular disease,
severe diabetes, or migraines (41). A clinical trial investigating
the effects of passive standing and WBV among individuals
with spinal cord injuries reported adverse effects including
pain, pressure sores on the feet, autonomic dysreflexia, and
dizziness, which were largely attributed to the passive
standing portion of the intervention (41). Whole-body
vibration may cause inner-ear problems, dizziness, headache,
lower-limb spasticity, fracture (especially among those with
severe osteoporosis), or hardware loosening (plates or screws
as a result of surgery) over the long term (41).
The majority of adverse effects from vibration occur in
occupational settings (26). Occupational vibrations typically
come from electrical tools or heavy machinery, with
frequencies ranging from 80 to 100 Hz (29). Long-term
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Whole-Body Vibration for Muscle Recovery

occupational vibrations have been shown to negatively affect
peripheral nerves, blood vessels, joints, and perceptual
function (26,41). Because of the potential health hazards of
occupational vibrations, the International Organization of
Standards created guidelines limiting occupational exposure
to vibration (37). The frequency and magnitude of occupational vibrations differ from those used with WBV as an
exercise training modality (26,41). Overall, very little is documented or published regarding adverse effects or serious
adverse effects as a result of WBV exposure. Among published literature, several studies using a low-magnitude, highfrequency WBV stimulus among populations with physical
or neurological impairments have reported no adverse reactions (41), although it is important to keep in mind that
shock and vibration are potentially harmful, in particular to
the soft tissue organs in the head and chest (37).

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Muscle soreness after exercise training may eventually
jeopardize training status for athletes and exercising individuals. In addition to traditional therapies, WBV shows promise
for alleviating symptoms of muscle soreness, which may in
turn allow athletes to exercise more frequently leading to an
increase in sporting performance over time. Evidence suggests that vibration therapy both before and after exercise,
especially after eccentric contractions, is beneficial, although
little is known regarding the timing of application. Future
research should investigate the effects of the timing of vibration therapy (i.e., before vs. after exercise) on indices of
muscle biology. Furthermore, long-term application of vibration therapy on bone biology should also be considered.

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