Section II Centrifugal Pumps Centrifugal pumps and system hydraulics Analyzing centrifugal-pump circuits Sizing centrifugal pumps for safety service Recirculation systems for cooling centrifugal pumps How to select a centrifugal pump How to obiain trouble-free performance from centrifugal pumps Diagnosing problems of centrifugal pumps The effects of dimensional variations on centrifugal pumps Bypass systems for centrifugal pumpsCentrifugal pumps and system hydraulics Centrifugal pumps and their associated liquid systems are pervasive in the chemical process industries. This report provides detailed information on pump performance, suétion capabilities, viscosity effects, operation at off-design conditions, and energy conservation. C2 Most processes in the chemical process industries (CP!) involve the transportation of liquids, ot their transfer from one level of pressure or static energy to another. ‘The pump is the mechanical means for achieving this transport or transfer, and thus becomes an essential part of all processes. In ur, the growth and development of such processes are linked to the improvement of pump- ing equipment and to a better understanding of how pumps work and how they should be applied. ‘The centrifugal pump accounts for not less than 80% of the total pump production in the world because it i ‘more suitable for handling large capacities of liquids than the positive-displacement pump. For this reason, we will examine the centrifugal pump exclusively in this article, and specifically try for a better understand- ing of centrifugal-pump and system hydraulics. Head and system-head curves Pumping is the addition of kinetic and potential en- ergy to a liquid for the purpose of moving it from one point to another. This energy will cause the liquid to do work, such as flowing through a pipeline or rising to a higher level A centrifugal pump transforms mechanical energy from a rotating impeller into the kinetic and potential energy required, Although the centrifugal force devel- Originally published October 4, 1982. 60 Igor J. Karassik, Werthingion Div, MeGraw-Edison Co, old water (sp. 91.= 1.0) ‘oped depends on both the peripheral speed of the im: peller and the density of the liquid, the amount of en: exgy imparted per pound of liquid is independent of the density of the liquid. Therefore, for a given pump oper- ating at a certain speed, and handling a definite volume of liquid, the energy applied and transferred to the liq- uid (in fclb/Ib of liquid) is the same for any liquid, regardless of the density. (The only qualification to this statement is that the viscosity of the liquid does affect this energy, as we shall see later.) The pump head or nergy in ft-lb/Ib must, therefore, be expressed in fect. Within the pumping system itself, we must remember that (1) head can be measured in various units, such as {cof liquid, pressure in psi, in. of mercury, etc.; (2) pres- sures and head readings can be in gage or absolute units (the difference between gage and absolute units is af- fected by the existing atmospheric pressure and therc- fore by the altitude); and (3) the pressure at any point in a system handling liquids must never be permitted to fall below the vapor pressure of the liquid. A column of cold water 2.31 ft high will produce a pressure of I psi at its base. Thus, for water al ordinary ambient temperatures, any pressure calculate pounds per square inch ean be converted into an eq alent head in fect of water by multiplying by 2.31, For liquids other than cold water, the column of liquid equivalent to | psi pressure can be calculated by divid: ing 2.31 by the specific gravity of the liquid. The effectCENTRIFUGAL PUMPS AND SYSTEM HYDRAULICS 61 Gasoline (ep.9=0.78) Mercury (so. 9". « 13.6) 2810 (858.4 m) SECRET Of specific gravity on the height of a column of varius liquids for equal pressures is illustrated in Fig. 1, Por: ‘mulas for the conversion of pressure and head data are given in Table I Fig. 2 illustrates the relationship between gage- and absolute-pressure readings. While it is usually feasible to work in terms of gage pressure, a complicated prob- lem can occasionally be clarified by working entirely in terms of absolute pressure, System head Jn strict terms, a pump can only operate within’a system. ‘To deliver a given volume of liquid through that system, a pump must impart energy to the liquid, made up of the following components: Static head, Difference in pressures on liquid surfaces, ° Friction head trance and exit losses Static head ‘The static head refers to a difference in elevation, ‘Thus, the “total static head” of a system is the diffe ence in elevation between the liquid levels at the dis charge and the suction points of the pump (Fig. 3). Thie “static discharge head” is the difference in elevation between the discharge liquid level and the pump cen terline, The “static suction head” is the difference in elevation between the suction liquid level and the Pump centerline. If the static suction head has a nega- tive value because the suction liquid level is below the Pump centerline, itis usually spoken of as a “static suc- tion lift.” either the suction or discharge liquid level is under a pressure other than atmospheric, this pressure can be considered cither as part of the static head or separately as an addition to the static head, Friction head ‘The friction head is the head (expressed in feet of the liquid being pumped) that is necessary to overcome the friction losses caused by flow of liquid through piping, oe eee et] Gage pressure + Atmospheric pressure = Absolute pressure U.S. Units Metric Units 1 atmosphere = 14.7 es 1 atm = 1.019 bor 1 aun = 1,013 mbar atm = 10,33-m columa of cold water 1 tm © 34-4 columa, of cold water ate 555-201 hon =10.2 mbar Presurein bar = SMI 4p, Head in = HAZY Head in y= BEEK 10:262 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS Any pressure above atmospheric ‘Atmosoherie presure 4itt ‘Absolute pressure = ‘ooe pressure + ‘barometric pressure Atmosphere pressure Twariable wth aude and climate conditions) vacuum (a nogative 090 pressure) ‘Any pressure below atmaspheric Static rite = 4 atmosphere presure Barometric presuire Absolute Absolute zero pressure Pon ecekuma beaten Pees valves, ittngs and any other elements such as heat ex- Changers These loses vary approximately a the square of the flow through the system. They also vary with the Size, ype and surface condition of the piping and ft tings and with the character of the liquid pumped. Tn calculating friction losses, we must consider tha they wil increase asthe piping deteriorates with age. It is usual to base the losses on data established for aver- age piping that is 10 or 13 years old, These dats are readily available from sources such as the Hydraulic Institute Standards and the Pump Handbook [/,2 Entrance and exit losses Ifthe supply of pump originates in a reservoir, tank or intake chamber, losses occur at the point of connec: tion of the suction piping to the source of supply. The magnitude of these losses depends on the design of the pipe entrance. A well-designed bell-mouth provides the lowest possible loss. Similarly, on the discharge side of the system where the discharge line terminates at some body of liquid, the velocity head ofthe liquid is entirely lost, and must be considered as part of the total friction losses of the system. System-friction and system-head curves ‘As mentioned earlier, friction, entrance and exit losses vary approximately as the square of the flow through a system, For solving pumping problems, itis convenient to show the relationship between capacity and friction-head losses graphically. These losses are ‘2. Suction level below pump centerline ‘Atmospheric pressure tid fate head stati discharge ead Atmosphere pressure rir _ Static head State dcharge head State Total static head in a centrifugal-pump system Cece ie ener ee ica2. System fiction Sytem freon care, Capscity, 0 Pum he apa b. System head Srahmbead coe Friction CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS AND SYSTEM HYDRAULICS 63 Headopaiy tt oe Syemead Head cacy a, eee, fj atesret a eng = Sac pears oT] 1. Changs speed Capacity, @ ea capacity a con 0 neg Systemtead cure, wis thvotting ain. ‘Site paar oad b, Throttle Capacity, @ econ rua ater therefore calculated at some predetermined flow, either expected or design, and then calculated for all other flows, using the square of the flow relationship. The re- sulting curve is called the system-friction curve, as shown in Fig. 4a. When we combine the static heads, pressure differ- ences and frictionchead losses of any system and plot them against the capacity, the resulting curve (Fig. 4b) 9 head LY care jpltoxien Hipatcred atrium st Capacity, ead eee) Capacity, @ De ety Cer ta is called the system-head curve. Superimposing a pump head-capacity curve at constant speed on this system- head curve (Fig. 4b) will permit us to determine the capacity at the point where the two curves intersect ‘This is the capacity that will be delivered into the sys- tem by that pump at that particular speed. For systems having varying static heads or pressure differences, itis possible to construct curves correspond- ing to the minimum and maximum conditions, as shown in Fig. 5. The corresponding intersections with the pump’s head-capacity curve will then determine the minimum and maximum flows that the pump will de- liver into the system. Variations in desired flow It is unusual for a system to require operation at a single fixed capacity. Generally, the process served by the centrifugal pump is variable in its demand. A given pump operating in a given system will only deliver that, capacity corresponding to the intersection between the head-capacity and the system-head curves. In order to vary the capacity, it becomes necessary to change the shape of either one or both curves. ‘The pump head-capacity curve can be changed by operating the pump at variable speed (Fig. 6a). (For a guide to variable drives, see “Making the proper choice of adjustable-speed drives,” pp. 260-274.) Or the sys- tem-head curve can be altered by creating friction loss through a throttling valve (Fig. 6b) Obviously, the difference between the total head de-64 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS. ‘capacity, mh 400700 _300_400__ 500, * 180 ce a }90 = 180, Tere ei fee = to] 708 50 120 cor 5 £ 100] se so 3 o0| bs 40g Je So t fod Jn 40 20% 20 0 # ]"° lo = Jo 0° 24-8 8 101214 1618 20 22 ‘Capacity, hundreds of gor Performance characteristics for @ cee veloped by the pump and the head required by the system-head curve represents wasted energy lost in the throttling process. On the other hand, the majority of centrifugal pumps today are driven by constant-speed squirrel-cage induction motors, and throttling the pump discharge is the only practical means of obtain- ing the desired variable capacity. As will be seen later in this article, the coming revolutionary move to varia- ble-frequency motor drives is about to change these practices. Affinity laws and rating curves ‘The hydraulic performance of a centrifugal pump involves three basic parameters: (I) the capacity (ex- pressed in units of volume per unit of time such as ‘kpm), (2) the total head (expressed in feet of the liquid pumped), and (3) the speed at which the pump runs (generally in rpm). Normally, pump performance is presented in the form of curves such as shown in Fig. 7, with the head- capacity curve plotted at a fixed speed. The curve also shows the brake horsepower required at various flows, and the corresponding pump efficiency. The capacity at which the pump performs its function most efficiently is called the “beep.” or best efficiency point. The useful work done by a pump is the weight of liquid pumped in a period of time, multiplied by the head developed by the pump, and is expressed in terms ‘of horsepower, called water horsepower, WHP. It would bbe more correct to refer to WHP as liquid horsepower, which can be determined from: QHIsp. gr.) i WHP 3.800 () where: WHP = water horsepower; Q = pump capac- ity, gpm; and H = total head, ft. ‘The power required to drive the pump is the water horsepower divided by the pump efficiency, 9. Hence, ing Eq, (I) by m gives: QH(p. er) 3,960 9 BHP = @ 7% 8 85 00 85 700 Calculated impeller diameter, % of original diameter [em enn eon Affinity laws ‘The relationships that allow us to predict the per- formance of a pump for a speed other than that for known pump characteristics are referred to as the “af- finity laws.” When the speed is changed: 1. The capacity, Q, for any given point on the pump, characteristics varies directly as the speed, n. 2, The head, H, varies as the square of the speed. 3, The brake horsepower, P, varies as the cube of the speed. In other words, if Subscript 1 is assigned to the condi- tioris under which the characteristics are known, while Subscript 2 denotes the conditions at some other speed, then: Brom, Ma_ (my, Bey ga mal): AG) o ‘These relationships can be used safely for moderate changes in speed. Eq. (3) may not be as accurate for large speed changes. ‘Similar afinity laws exist for changes in impeller ameter, D, within reasonable limits of impeller cut- down. In other words: Be Pe, Me (Ba, Ba (2) QD, HX)? ® ND, ‘Some deviation from these laws occurs even with rel- atively modest cutdowns. Fig. 8 shows the recom- mended cutdown related to the theoretical cutdown Specific speed ‘The principle of dynamical similarity when applied to centrifugal pumps expresses the fact that two pumps {geometrically similar to each other will have similar performance characteristics. ‘The term “specific speed” is the concept that links the three main parameters of the performance characteris- tics-—capacity, head, and rotative speed—into a single term. The mathematical analysis used to establish the relationship between the specific speed of a pump and its operating characteristics need not concern us. In itser CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS AND SYSTEMHYDRAULICS 65 basic form, the specific speed is an index number, ex- Pressed as: 6) : N, = specific speed; n = rotative speed, rpm; Q= capacity, gpm; and H = head, ft (head per stage for a multistage pump). a Eq, (5) remains unchanged whether the impeller is single-suction or double-suction, Therefore, it is cus- tomary when referring to a definite value of specific speed to mention the type of impeller. While we could calculate the specific speed for any given operating condition of head and capacity, the definition of specific speed assumes that the head and capacity used in the equation refer to those at the best efficiency of the pump. The specific-speed number is independent of the rotative speed at which the pump is operating. We ‘cannot overemphasize the fact that “specific speed” isan index number—a concept quite similar to a “family name” that is useful in identifying various characteristics of a group. Just as the Browns, the Wil. sons or the Smiths may be said to have certain hair or ye coloration, certain general common features, so do Pumps of the same specific speed have a number of characteristics that distinguish them from pumps hav- ing other specific speeds. For instance, the physical characteristics and the gen- eral outline of impeller profiles are intimately con. nected to their respective specific speeds. Thus, the value of the specific speed will immediately describe the approximate impeller shape, as shown in Fig. 9. Simi- larly, the specific speed of a given pump nitely reflected in the shape of the pump characteris curves, as shown at the top of Fig. 9. While some varia- in the shape of these curves can be changes in the design of the impeller and ca ways, the variation that can be obtained ing water- ithout ad- versely affecting pump efficiency is relatively small. Another parameter affected by the specific speed is the maximum efficiency obtainable from pump impel. lers of different specific speeds and different sizes, slso indicated in Fig. 9 ‘Type characteristics for a pump If the operating conditions for a pump at the design speed (that is the capacity, head, efficiency and power input at which the efficiency curve reaches its maxi- mum) are taken as the 100% standard of comparison, the head-capacity, power-capacity and efficiency. capacity curves can all be plotted in terms of the pers centage of their respective values at the capacity for maximum efficiency. Such a set of curves represents the “type characteristic” or “100%” curve of the pump. The 100% curves of pumps having 4 2,000, 4,000 and 10,000 are shown in Fig. 10. These curves can be used to predict the approximate shape of 44 pump's characteristics once the specific speed of that pump is known, To avoid interpolation, the curves of Fig. 11 and 12 show the change in head and power in relation to specific speed for single-suction impellers. A double-suction impeller will have a type characteristic Head Cepaaty Efficiency, % Bs US wits ns inns Om gpm =e tiene rpm eho Minas” Maus 818 & 888 g § a 8 88 s . Specific $pe60, Nyy Gonos Specitic-speed relationships a approximating that of a single-suction impeller having a specific speed of (1/2), or 70.7% that of the double: suction impeller. Rating curves Rating curves are commonly reproduced in pump bulletins and sales literature for standard lines of Pumps. A rating curve for a centrifugal pump shows in 4 condensed form the possible range of applications of that pump at some rated speed for a range of impeller diameters (Fig. 13). A different chart is generally made available for each motor speed for a particular pump. Inaddition, the rating curves generally show a curve for the required net positive suction head (NPSH). To facil- itate the selection of a pump, rating curves of an entire line of similar pumps are prepared, Suction conditions ‘Most centrifugal-pump troubles occur on the suction side, Therefore, it is imperative to understand how to relate the suction capability of a centrifugal pump to the suction characteristics of the system in which it will operate. ‘When pumping liquids, the pressure at any point within the pump must never be permitted to fall below the vapor pressure ofthe liquid at the pumping temper. ature, There must always be sufficient energy available66 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS (h,=~40 (ietre] Ratio of head to head at maximum Ratio of power to power st maximum 0 2 a 60 80 100 120 140 160 Ratio of capacity o capacity at maximum efficiency, % 160) 150) 140) 120) 3 110) 3 Ratio of head to head at maximum efficlency, % ase Ratio of power to power at maximum efficiency, % sausages 1. = ~4,000 (US. units) 0,» ~80 (metriel] 2 a 6080 100 12140 Ratio of capacity to capacity at maximum efficiency, % 320 300 200) 260 240) 220 200 a 160 140) 120 Ratio of head to head at maximum efficiency, % 3 Ratio of power to power at maximum efficiency, % Ps ©. W, = ~10,000 (U.S. units) (i, = ~200 (metre) 0 2 4) 60 aD 100120140 Ratio of capacity to capacity at maximum efficiency, % Seer ncne kad a centrifugal pump's characteristics a iat the pump suction to get the liquid into the impeller and (o overcome the losses between the pum; nozzle and the impeller inlet. At this point, th vanes can act to add energy to the Normally, pump performance is presented in the form of curves (Fig. 14), with the head-capacity curve for the pump plotted at a fixed speed. The curves also show the brake horsepower required at various flows, iand the corresponding efficiency. + An additional characteristic of the pump is the RPSH) required. Thi i he energy in fet of uid iead required at the pump suction over and above the ‘vapor pressure of the liquid, to permit the pump to Heliver a given capacity at a given speed. © Changes in available (NPSH) do not affect the pump performance as long as available (NPSH) remains bove the value of required (NPSH). However, when vailable (NPSH) falls below the required value, the pump begins to cavitate and “works in the break,” as shown in Fig. 14. The characteristics in solid lines are for values of (NPSH) available in excess of (NPSH) re- quired. If available (NPSH falls below that required— fs for instance if at 1,800 gpm the (NPSH) available Talls below 17 ft—cavitation starts, and the pump produces less head. Some increase in capacity occurs ‘with a further reduction in head, until about 1,970 gpm is reached; then further reduction in head causes no increase in capacity (see curve with broken line) Suction head and suction lift ‘As defined by the Standards of the Hydraulic Insti- tute, the suction head, fy, is the static head on the \piimp-suction line above the pump centerline, minus all friction-head losses for the capacity being considered (including entrance loss in the suction piping), plus any pressure (a vacuum being a negative pressure) existing in the suction supply. Rather than express the suction head as a negative value, the term “suction lift” is normally used when the pump takes its suetion from an open tank under atmos- pheric pressure. Because the suction lift is a negative suction head measured below atmospheric pressure, the total suction lift (symbol also A,) is the surn of the static friction-head losses as defined above. (It is sometimes advantageous to express both suction and discharge heads in absolute pressure, but usually it is more con- venient to measure them above or below atmospheric pressure.) ‘A gage on the suction line to a pump, with its read- jngs corrected to the pump centerline, measures the total suction head above atmospheric pressure minus the velocity head at the point of attachment, Because suction lift is a negative suction head, a vacuum gage indicate the sum of the total suction lift and veloc- yy head at the point of attachment. The three most common suction-supply con‘ re illustrated in Fig. 15. Case I involves a suction supply under a pressure other than atmospheric, and located above the pump veenterline. It includes all the components of the suction head, A,. IF, is to be expressed as a gage reading, and Pisa partial vacuum, the vacuum expressed in feet ofCENTRIFUGAL PUMPS AND SYSTEM HYDRAULICS 67 g & 140] 130) 129) n9| 100 8 Ratio of head to head at maximum efficiency, % g 08 « 000 Speci Va ed Sait as liquid would constitute a negative pressure head and carry a minus sign. If the pressure, B,, is expressed in absolute pressure values, , will also bein absolute pres- sure values. Case IT involves a suction supply under atmospherig pressure, located above the pump centerline. Because the suction head (expressed as a gage value) has a P, value of zero, the P, value can be dropped from the formula given in Fig. 15. Case Ill involves a suction supply under atmospherie pressure, located below the pump centerline. It is op tional whether the suction head be expressed as a nega tive suetion head or in positive values as a suction lift 0 of pact — Sirs 5 88ue 8 8 s 8 Ratio of power to power at maximum efficiency, $ 600 1,000 5000 10,000] 2,000 Speiti speed Veen ue ae Total head, f 180 200 Capacity, gpm CU Cen eet ea) Because the source of supply is below the pump center- line (which is the datum line), S is a negative value, The suetion-lift formula is the same as that for suction head, except that both sides have been multiplied by (— 1). A ‘gage attached to the pump suction flange, when cor- rected to the pump centerline, will register a partial vacuum or negative pressure, To determine the suction head, it is therefore neces- sary to add the velocity head to this negative pressure algebraically; or, if itis desired to work in terms of a vacuum, the velocity head must be subtracted from the vacuum to obtain the suction lift For example, if the gage attached to the suction side ert 6 8 10 12 4 16 18 20 22 (Capacity, hundreds of gpm cui eur a raed68 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS ‘case 1—Suction from source under pressure other than ‘atmospheric, and loeated above pump centrtne. Point a” Pump contetine Point 8 2S, +P, ‘case I1-Suction from source under atmospheric pressure, and located above purnp centering Point hy=S=hy=h, ‘cate 11—Suction from source under atmospheric presure, and located below pump centerline. ~ ~Point A 1, (evetion head) = (-S) ~~ (heuetion itt = S442, ty, = Entrance los t Pont A. pe iq = Total fretion loss from Point Ato Point Bo 'ng= Velocity head at Point 8 hg, (gage reading at Point B corrected to purnp conterine) * yh 3 A, fof liquid How to determine suction head ‘of a pump having a 6.in. line and pumping at a capac- {ty of 1,000 gpm of cold water shoved a vacuum of 6 i. “Hg (equivalent to 68 ft of water), the velocity head at «the gage attachment would be 2.0 ft of water, and the ‘buction head would be —6.8 + 2.0, or —4.8 ft of water, ‘or the suction lift would be 68 ~ 2.0 or 4.8 ft of water. “Net positive suction head ‘The use of “permissible suction lift” or of “required suction head” has definite shortcomings. Either term ican only be applied to water, because it refers to the ‘energy of barometric pressure expressed in feet of water. ‘Changes in barometric pressure, whether caused by dif- {erences in elevation above sea level or by climatic con- sditions, affect the value of these terms. Changes in pumping temperature also affect these values, since ‘they affect the vapor pressure of the liquid. For this reason, all references to suction conditions today are made in terms of (NPSH)—net positive suc- tion head above the liquid vapor pressure. Both suction head and vapor pressure should be ex- pressed in feet of liquid being handled, and must both be expressed in either gage or absolute pressure units. A pump handling 62°F water (vapor pressure of 0.6 ft) at sea level, with a total suction lift of O ft, has an (NPSIZ) of 33.9 ~ 0.6, or 33.3 fi, whereas one operating with a 15 total” suction ‘lift has an (NPSH) of 33.9 — 0.6 — 15, or 18.3 ft. ‘A pump operating on suction lift will handle a cer- tain maximum capacity of cold water without cavita- \ tion. The (NPSH) or amount of energy available at the suction nozzle of such a pump is the atmospheric pres- sure minus the sum of the suction lift and the vapor pressure of the water. To handle the same capacity with any other liquid, the same amount of energy must be “ available at the suction nozzle. Thus, for a liquid at its boiling point (in other words, under a pressure equiva- lent to the vapor pressure corresponding to its tempera- | ture), this energy has to exist entirely as a positive head If the liquid is below its boiling point, the suction head required is reduced by the difference between the pres- sure existing in the liquid and the vapor pressure corre- sponding to the temperature. Te is necessary to differentiate between available net sitive suction head, (NPSH),, and required net p si tive suction head, (NPSH)y. The former, which is a characteristic ofthe system in which a centrifugal pump ‘works, represents the difference between the existing absolute suction head and the vapor pressute at the pre- vailing temperature. The (NPSH)g, which is a function of the pump design, represents the minimum required ‘margin between the suction head and vapor pressure. ‘The manner in which (NPSH), at a given capacity should be calculated for (1) a typical installation with a suction lift, (2) a pump taking its suction from a tank, and (3) a pump handling a liquid at the boiling point is demonstrated in Fig. 16. Both (NPSH), and (NPSH)g vary with capacity, as shown in Fig. 17. With a given static pressure or eleva- tion difference at the suction side of a centrifugal pump, (NPSH), is reduced at larger flows by the friction losses in the suction piping. On the other hand, (NPSH),, being a function of the velocities in the pump-suction. CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS AND SYSTEM HYDRAULICS — 69 Atmospheric pressure tr, 80°F P= 05 pala 231%, , wea tz ohe metro se Atsotet wesi, = 28082-0815 940 +4100 ft above sae wrsm, = 221022=08 -45-9-20% jon it. 2,9 0.5 pia 10 ft BMRA 2 iy rere ver ul wurtace pa Vanor prowure ofl ple 2 stiches ines Bration os, f esi), = 288081 5194503 ‘Suction from pressurized tank @)P,-378 80 west, = 22. 25, 72 = Pre oe lui aie pia rovesure oft Satie Frisina, 25+ 147-822, 1990 Ne oy 10-2= 808 «©, Suction from liquid at boiling point How to caloulate available eee a Point 8 (WPSH) = $+ 0, — Peg) — Urq +h) Pg Vapor pressure of liquid at pumping temperature ‘iy, = Frietion loses in suction lossa from Point A to Point B = Entrance loss at Point A All units are tobe expressed infest or meters Head, ft or m of liquid rr een) aur passages and at the inlet of the impeller, increases basi- cally as the square of the capacity. A great many factors—such as eye diameter, suction area of the impeller, shape and number of impeller vanes, area between these vanes, shaft and impeller hub diameter, impeller specific speed, and the shape of the suction pastages—enter in some form or another into the determination of (NPSH). Different designers may use different methods to produce an impeller that will perform satisfactorily with a specific value of (NPSH)p. Asa result, it is not recommended that users attempt t0 estimate (NPSH), from the knowledge of just one or two of these factors. Instead, they should base their se- Iections on data provided by pump manufacturers Specific-speed and suction limitations Specific-speed-limit charts have been prepared and published by the Hydraulic Institute (/] for several types of pumps: Double-suction, = Single-suction, with shaft through eye of impeller. 1 Single-suction, overhung-impeller. 1 Singie-suction, mixed- and axial-flow. Hot-water, single-suction and double-suction, % Condensate pumps, with shaft passing through eye of impeller. One such chart, conta 1g specifi-speed limits for70 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 1,000] 900 800 700, '600, 400 300 200 150 100 80 5040 30 20 Total head (fst stage), ft ees Poet ea single-suction overhung-impeller pumps, such as the ‘ANSI pumps, is shown in Fig. 18. It is important to remember that these charts are strictly empirical. In using them, it must be realized that pumps built for the limit allowed are not necessar- ily the best design for the intended service and that a lower-specific-speed type might be more economical. It must also be realized that the design of individual pumps controls the application of the specific-speed limit for maximum head and suction conditions. For example, the maximum recommended specific speed for a double-suction, single-stage pump is 1,990 for a 200-ft total head and a 15-ft suction lift. It does not follow that all double-suction, single-stage pumps of 1,990 specific-speed type are suitable for operation at speeds that will cause them to develop a 200-ft total head (at maximum efficiency); nor that the pump, if suitable for operation at a 200-ft total head, is suitable for operation with a 15-ft suction lift; nor that a pump of this type operating against a 200-ft total head would ‘on test be found capable of operating on only a 15-ft maximum suction lift. ‘These charts are intended to indicate only the maxi- ‘mum rotative speed for which experience has shown a centrifugal pump can be designed with assurance of reasonable and proper operation for the combination of operating conditions. The Hydraulic Institute Stand- ards suction-limitation charts should be considered ‘guidelines. Nothing in the Hydraulic Institute Standards suc- tion: in charts suggests that the specific speed indicated corresponds to the point of maximum effi cioncy. Yet this is the intended meaning. If a pump is ‘applied for conditions near to its eapacity at the best efficiency, there would be little error introduced by using the rated conditions to determine chart limita- jons. On the other hand, ifthe rated and best-efficiency conditions were to differ significantly, the chart recom- mendations would be found to apply only to the best ficiency point. Suction specific speed ‘Application of the specific-speed-limit charts, as orig- inally developed, had a very important shortcoming, i.e, satisfactory suction conditions were tied directly to the total head developed by the pump. The perform- ance of an impeller from the point of view of cavit ‘cannot be affected too significantly by conditions exist- ing at the impellers discharge periphery. Yet, these con- ditions are the prime factors in determining the total head that the impeller will develop. In other words, if an impeller exhibits certain suction ‘haracteristics, cutting down its diameter within rea- sonable limits, and thus reducing its head, should have no influence on its suction capabilities. Since the total head, /, is changed, a strict interpretation of the spe- ¢ific-speed-limit charts would indicate that unless the suction lift is to be proportionately altered, the maxi- ‘mum permissible specific speed must be changed. This inconsistency was finally resolved by the devel- ‘opment of the suction specificspeed concept. Its essen- tially an index number, descriptive of the suction char- acteristics of a given impeller, and is defined as: nvQ s 6 wy o where: 5 = suction specific speed; n = rotative speed, rpm; Q = flow, gpm, (For single suction impellers, Qis the total flow For double suction impeller, is taken fs onchalf of the total flow); and. hy = required Guest, "The specifespeedsimic charts (such asin Fig. 18) have been revised several times since they were fist ‘adopted as a guideline for centrifugal-pump suction omtitions, Unfortunately, try are el based ot the trroncous concept that the total head developed by the pump plays a part in determining the maximum per. Missle rotative speed fora given st of suction cond tions, despite the recognition of the concept of suction, spose spond in the Hydraulic Inte Standards The hurts in the Standards today are based on valucs of S ranging fom 7480 to 10,090, These values vary within cach chart, as well at from chart to chart, Iti hoped that the charts wil be revised and simplified so 28 to make them easier to use, They will then resemble the chart for the hot-water pump (see Fig. 19), in which the “fequired(NPSH) canbe read rely for any given ow estan ges Cavitation and pump performance Cavitation occurs when the absolute pressure within an impeller falls below the vapor pressure of the liquid, and-bubbles of vapor are formed. These bubbles col-eee OC NN atti CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS AND SYSTEM HYDRAULICS 71 lapse further out along the impeller blades when they each a region of higher pressure. The minimum re- quired (IVPSH) for a given capacity and a given pump speed is defined as that difference between the absolute suction head and the vapor pressure of the Ii pumped at the pumping temperature that is necessary to prevent cavitation, Pump cavitation becomes evident when there is one oor more of the following signs: noise, vibration, drop in the head-capacity: and efficiency curves and—with time—damage to the impeller by pitting and erosion. Since all of these signs are obviously inexact, it became necessary to agree to apply certain ground rules so ax to establish some uniformity for detecting cavitation. ‘The minimum (NPSH) is determined by a test in which both total head and efficiency are measured at a ssiven speed and capacity under varying (NPSH) condi- tons. The results of such a test appear in a form similar to that in Fig. 20. At the higher values of (NPS#H), head and efficiency remain substantially constant. As (NPSH) is reduced, a point is finally reached where the curves break, showing the impairment of pump per- formance caused by cavitation. The exact value of (NPSH) where cavitation starts is difficult to pinpoint. Usually, a drop of 3% in the head developed is taken as evidence that cavitation is occurring. For that particu- lar speed and the capacity being tested, the (NPSH) that produces a 3% drop in head is stated to be the minimum required (NPSH), (NPS#) tests of centrifugal pumps are normally car- ried out with cold water. Both the Hydraulic Institute Standards curves and pump manufacturers’ rating curves indicate (NPSH) requirements for cold water. ‘Thus, it might be assumed that (NPSH) required by a centrifugal pump for satisfactory operation is inde- pendent of the liquid vapor pressure at the pumping temperature, Actually this is not true. Laboratory and field tests run on pumps handling a wide variety of liquids, and over a range of tempera- tures, have always shown that (NPSH) required for a given capacity and with a given pump apparently var- ics appreciably. For example, the required (NPSH) when handling some hydrocarbons is frequently much less than that required when the pump handles cold water. Even when pumping water, there is definite evi dence that required (NPSH) decreases when the water temperature increases. Altogether it betame evident that the reductiom im required (WPSH) must be a function of the vapor pres. sure and of the characteristics of the liquid handled by the pump, Thus, it was felt that rules could be devel- oped to predict the effect of liquid characteristics on required (NPS#). Such rules have been developed by the members of the Hydraulic Institute and incorporated in its Stand- ards. We shall examine these rules, but before doing this, let us consider the effect of temperature on re- quired (NPSH) for water, as this may help us better understand the effect of other liquids. Performance with water Tt has been noted that pumps handling hot water seem to require a lower (NPSH) than shown by cold- 500 400 FSinglesueton pur: 300 8 Net peste suetion hea ft & 8 88 4 6 810 Capacity, hundreds of gpm i eats Sna 20 30 40 60] eer ae Peer nn or) ar ns ae) water tests. The theory underlying this effect is fairly simple but need not be discussed in detail here. Tt is based on the fact that mild and partial cavitation can take place in a pump without causing extremely unfa- vorable effects, ‘The degree of interference with the proper operation of the pump caused by minor cavitation will bear a definite relationship to the temperature of the liquid handled by the pump. When we say that a pump is cavitating, we mean that somewhere within the confines of the pump, the pressure will have fallen below the vapor pressure of the liquid at the prevailing tempera- ture. Thus, a small portion of the liquid handled by the Pump will vaporize, and this vapor will occupy consid erably more space within the impeller than did the ‘equivalent mass of liqui If the pump is handling water at normal tempera- tures, the volume of a bubble of steam is tremendously larger than the volume of the original quantity of the Head ot apacity Gand peed72 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS WASH) reduction, ft os 50 700 260 300 400 Temperature, °F 0 100 Serer Tae a) Fig. 21 water. For instance, at 50°F, one pound of water occu- pies 0.016 ft, while steam at the same temperature oc- cupies 2,441) fi. The ratio of the two volumes is 152,500. "This ratio diminishes as water temperature increases. At 212°F, one pound of water occupies 0.0167 f°, and one pound of steam, 26.81 ft, so that the ratio of volumes is only 1,605—almost one hundred times less than at 50°F. Thus, the higher the tempera- ture of the water, the greater the reduction in (VPSH), that can be permitted for the same degree of effect on pump performance. Performance with hydrocarbons Pump applications for hydrocarbon processes fre- quently impose restrictive limitations on available (NPSH). On the other hand, it was found in the past that variations between the required (PSH) when handling hydrocarbons and when handling cold water ‘were generally favorable. These circumstances led both pump designers and designers of refineries to direct their efforts to understanding the phenomena and es- tablishing rules that could be applied to predict the ef- fect of any special liquid characteristics on the required. (NPSH) of any centrifugal pump. ‘At firs, it was thought that these variations did not, exist and that if true vapor pressures or “bubble-point” pressures were to be used in the calculations of test (NPSH), the discrepancies would disappear and there ‘would be complete correlation with water-test cavita- tion data. Corrections for (NPSH) with hydrocarbons ‘were nevertheless used, as a matter of policy rather than Tt was believed that a hydrocarbon fluids being based on accepted theor reduced (NPSH) for service could be justified for two reasons: 1. Oil companies’ specifications generally called for a maximum capacity and head at minimum (NPSH). In practice, it was unlikely that these two requirements would be imposed simultaneously. In fact, some field conditions are self-regulating—for instance, low capac- ity occurs at low (NPSH), asa result of a reduced flow in the system. Under these conditions, even if pump ca- pacity falls off, (NPSHH) is increased and eq eventually attained. 2. Cavitation with hydrocarbons was not as severe as ‘with water, i, the head-capacity curve does not break off sudderily because (a) only the lighter fractions will boil first, and (b) the specific volume of hydrocarbon vapors is very small in comparison with that of water vapor. Obviously, this does not tell the whole story. Many other factors affect the behavior of a pump handling hydrocarbons at low (NPSH). Thus, attempts to arrive ata more reasoned understanding continued, and led to a conversion chart for hydrocarbons by the Hydraulic Institute (since updated).The latest correction chart is incorporated in the 1975 edition of the Hydraulic Insti- ‘tute Standards [/] (sce Fig, 21). To use this chart, enter with the pumping temperature and proceed vertically upward to the vapor pressure. From this point, follow along or parallel to the sloping lines to the right side of the chart, where reduction in (NPSH) may be read. If this value is greater than one-half of (NPSH) required ‘with cold water, deduct one-half of the cold-water (NPSH) to obtain corrected required (NPSH). If the value read on the chart is less than one-half of oold- water (PSH), deduct this value from the cold-water (NPSH) to obtain corrected required (NPSH). Because of the absence of available data demonstrat- ing (NPSH) reductions greater than 10 ft, the chart has been limited to that extent. Extrapolation beyond that limit is not recommended, Warnings are included in the Hydraulic Institute Standards regarding the effect of entrained air or gases ‘This can cause serious deterioration of the head-cap: ity curve, of the efficiency, and of the suction capabili- ties, even when relatively small percentages of air or gas are present, An exhaustive analysis of the phenomena that take place in a pump handling hydrocarbons is beyond the scope of our discussion. Such an analysis would at best be open to argument, because several somewhat con- flicting interpretations still exist with respect to what actually takes place. eis probably best to use the correction factor for the reduction in (NPSH) as an additional safety factor rather than as a license to reduce available (NPSH. ‘This is a personal opinion, but one that is shared with a number of rotating-machinery specialists of some of the major petroleum and petro-chemical companies. Inadequate suction conditions When a system offers insufficient available (NPSH) for an optimum pump selection, there are several ways to deal with the problem. We can either find means to= CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS AND SYSTEM HYDRAULICS. increase available (VPSH), or means to reduce required (NPSH), or do both. To increase available (PSE), we can: 1. Raise the liquid level. 2. Lower the pump. 3. Reduce the ftiction losses in the suction piping, 4. Use a booster pump. 5. Subcool the liquid. ‘To reduce required (NPSH), we can use: 6. Slower speeds. 7. A double-suction impeller. 8. A larger impeller-eye arca, 9. An oversize pump. 10, Inducers ahead of conventional impellers. 1, Several smaller pumps in parallel Each of these methods presents advantages and dis- ‘advantages. We shall examine and evaluate these meth- ods individually: 1. Raise the liquid leel—AC first glance, this appears to be the simplest solution unless it is impractical because (a) the liquid level is fixed, as in the case of a river, a pond or a lake; (b) the amount by which the level must be raised is completely impractical; or (e) the cost of raising a tank or a fractionating tower is excessive. Fre- quently, it will be found that only a few extra feet may permit the selection ofa lessexpensive or more-efficient pump, and the savings in first cost, energy or mainte- nance will far outweigh the additional costs incurred. 2. Lower the fump—Just as in the case of raising the liquid level, the cost of lowering the pump may not be as prohibitive as one might imagine because it may per- mit the sclection of a higher-speed, less-costly and more-efficient pump. An alternative approach may be to use a vertical pump with the impeller located below ground level. ‘The penalty for this solution is that the pump bear- ings may have to be lubricated by the liquid being pumped. While successful bearing designs and materi- als have been developed for this purpose, it should be understood that the pump life cannot compare with the life obtainable from external bearings that are either grease or oil lubricated. Thus, one should expect more- frequent scheduled overhauls with this method. 3. Reduce piping fiction losses—This is recommended under any circumstances: the cost of doing so will be easily repaid both by improved suction conditions and by savings in energy. 4. Use a booster punp-—This solution is particularly ef fective in the case of pumps intended for high-pressure service, where the resulting permissible higher speeds will yield great savings in first costs of the main pump, higher efficiencies, and frequently a lesser number of stages—which in itself leads to greater reliability. The booster pump can be selected as a low-speed, low-head pump of single-stage design, 5. Subcool the liguid—This approach increases availa- ble (WPSH) by reducing the vapor pressure of the liquid being pumped. It is most readily accomplished by in- jecting liquid taken ffom somewhere in the stream where it is available at a colder temperature. In many cases, particularly at higher pumping temperatures, the amount of injected colder liquid is very small. As an example, if we are pumping water at 325°F, the injec- 73 Dated ond hed | Had hd a tones Ey 10 A Yeo 240 320 400 480 650 640 ‘Capacity, om o 8% tion of only 4% of 175°F water will subcool our stream. to the point that available (NPSH) will have been in- creased by 20 ft. 6. Use slower speeds—Once a reasonable value of suc- tion specific speed has been selected, it becomes obvious that the lower the pump speed, the lower the required (NPSH), The problem is that a lower-speed pump will bbe more expensive and less efficient than a higher-speed one sclected for the same service. Thus, lowering the pump speed will seldom prove most economical. 7. Use a double-sution impeller—Particulaely for larger capacities, whenever a double-suction impeller is avail- able for the desired conditions of service, this presents the most desirable solution. It is based on the following: If we select the same S value for both single- and double-suction impellers such that: m(Qu)/? __ ng Qo)¥® Ban ~ ya) where Subscript 1 refers to a single-suction impeller and Subscript 2 refers to a double-suction impeller. Since Q, = Q,/2, we can assume first that: M ae ® in which ease, Hyg = 063 2, 4, rl oe in which case, ny = L414n, By keeping the pump speed the same in both cases, as in Eq, (8), we can reduce (NPSH)p by 27% if we use a double-suction impeller. Alternatively, with a given (NPSH) yas shown in Eq. (9), we can operate a double- suction pump at 41.4% higher speed. 8, Use a larger impellercye area—This solution reduces required (NPSH) by reducing the entrance velocities into the impeller. These lower velocities may have little effect on pump performance at or near the pump’s best efficiency point. But when such pumps run at partial ‘capacity, this practice can lead to noisy operation, hy- wese, fges Power, bho (sp. F.= 1.0), 38 74 E nee See) 200300400 CCapzcty, gpm earned Sra CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS B8eesea Efficiency, % 00 600 draulic surges and premature wear. This problem will be discussed in greater detail later in the article, At this point, suffice to say that this is a dangerous procedure and should be avoided if possible. 9. Use an oversized punp—Because (NPSH) required by a pump decreases as the capacity is decreased, a larger ‘pump than would otherwise be applied to the service is ‘occasionally selected. This practice is risky and can lead to undesirable results. At best, the penalty is the choice of a more expensive pump that operates at a lower effi- jency than might otherwise have been obtained (see Fig. 22). At worst, the operation at a lower percentage of the best efficiency flow can lead to exactly the same problems as the use of excessively enlarged impeller-eye 10. Use an inducer—An inducer is a low-head axis type impeller with few blades, which is located in front of a conventional impeller (Fig. 23). By design, it re- quires considerably less (NPSH) than a conventional impeller, o it can be used to reduce (NPSH) require- ments of a pump, or to let it operate at higher speeds with given available (NPSH), ‘The inducer is an adequate answer for many situa- tions but must be applied with care, as the permissible ‘operating range of pumps with inducers is generally narrower than with conventional impellers. 11. Use several smaller pumps in parallel—Obviously, maller-capacity pumps require lower (NPSH) values. ‘While this appears to be a costly solution, itis not neces- sarily so, In many cases, three half-capacity pumps, of ‘which one is a spare, are no more expensive than one full-eapacity pump plus its spare, As a matter of fact, in many cases, two half-capacity pumps may be installed without a spare, since part-load can still be carried if ‘one pump is temporarily out of service. In addition, if the demand varies widely, operating a single pump dur- ing light-load conditions will conserve energy, as we shall see later. Viscosity and entrained gases Earlier, we stated that pump performance is inde- pendent of the characteristics of the liquid b pumped, but qualified this by adding that the iscosity does affect performance. This is because two of the major losses in a centrifugal pump are caused by fluid friction and disk friction. ‘These losses vary with the viscosity of the liquid being pumped, so that both the head-capacity output and the mechanical output differ from the values they have when the pump han des water. The performance of a pump tested first on water (vis- tosity = 32 Saybolt seconds universal, or SSU), and then on a variety of liquids having viscosities ranging from 100 to 4,000 SSU, is shown in Fig. 24. It is evident that by the time the viscosity reaches 2,000 SSU, pump performance will have deteriorated to such an extent that a positive-displacement pump will be more eco- nomical for the application. It is not necessary to present here a complete discus- sion on the effect of viscosity on the flow of liquids However, all correction factors for viscosity effects on pump performance have been developed experimen-Correction factors Capacity and efficiency. Viscosity, enti ereeet crc ai W4 NY Rye aeereed [viscosity s8U" FPR eee, 2 4 6 810 153 40 GOB 0] ‘Cacty, hundreds of gom Hoos (reese), f wusgdaBeee Te EC ea tally. The Hydraulic Institute Standards include two charts that are universally accepted for correcting ca- pacity, head and efficiency values obtained from pump tests conducted with water. One chart applies to pumps having capacities of 10 to 100 gpm, and the other (Fig. 25) for capacities from 100 to 10,000 gpm. For further details on the method of applying these correc- tion factors to tests with water, and on the selection of a pump for given performance conditions at a given vis- cosity, consult the Standards {/] Entrained air or gas entrained air or gas is permitted to enter a centrifi gal pump along with the liquid, the performance of the pump will be unfavorably affected. The most fre- quent way that air enters the pump suction is by vorten formation at the free surface of the liquid. On occasion, air leaks into the pump through the pump stuffing box it proper precaution has not been taken to seal it prop- erly. The amount of air or gas that can be handled with mpunity by a centrifugal pump is probably in the range of ¥,% by volume (measured under suction condi- : dors ba a 3 dene SS ? a “ SS . 8 Percent gat beee ‘guid capacity, gpm ee ek emake Soecifed head ‘id canacly vot Head at eer tagited ows, Uncottrated