CHAPTER 18 Single-Phase Motors 18.0 Introduction Gielen motors are the most fata a electric motors because they are used in home appliances and portable machine tools, In general, they are employed when 3-phase power is not available, There are many kinds of single-phase motors on the market, each designed to meet a specific appli- cation. However, we will Limit our study to a few basic types, with particular emphasis on the widely used splitphase induction motor. 18.1 Construction of a single- phase induction motor Single-phase induction motors are very similar to S-phase induction motors. They are composed of a squirel-cage rotor (identical to that in a 3-phase motor) and a stator (Fig. 18.1). The stator carries a ‘main winding, which creates a set of N, $ poles. It also carries a smaller auxiliary winding that only operates during the briet period when the motor starts up. The ausifiary winding has the same num ber of poles as the min winding has, Fig. 18.2 shows the progressive steps in wind ing a 4-pole, 36-slot stator. Starting with the lami nated iron stator, paper insulators —called slot lin ers—are fitst inserted in the slots, The main 30 Figure 18.1 Cutasiay view of a hp, 1725 vimin, 60 He eingle- phase capacitorstart motor. (Courtesy of Gould)392 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS Figure 18. Bare, laminated stator ofa 1/4 hp (187 W), single-phase motor. The 36 clots aro insulated with @ paper liner. The ‘squitet-cage rotors identical to that ofa S-phase motor. Figure 18.25 Four poles of the main viinaing are inserted in the sets, winding is then laid in the slots (Figs. 18.2a, 18.2b). Neat, the auxiliary winding is embedded so that its poles straddle those of the main winding (Fig. 18.2c). The reason for this arrangement will be explained shortly Figure 18.2¢ Four poles ofthe auxliary winding stradle the main winding (Courtesy of Lab-Volh Each pole of the main winding consists of a group of Four concentric coils, connected in series (Pig. 18.3a). Adjacent poles are connected so as to produce alternate N, S polarities, The empty slot in the center of each pole (shown as a vertical dash iajens 18-20 25 30 wes No, Ye wire \iepp soelaty 25 95, Loni wodng wing @ Figure 18.3, 8. Main winding ofa 4-pole, 36-slot motor lad aut lt, showing the number of wens per co. '. Mis produced by the main winding ©. Position ofthe auxilary winding with respect to the main winding 303 Figure 18.4 Main and auxiary windings in a 2-pole single-phase ‘motor. The stationary contact in series with the aux lary winding opens when the centrifugal ewitch, ‘mounted on the shat, reaches 75 porcant of eyachro: ous speed. line) and the partially filled slots on either side of it are used to Jodge the auxiliary winding. The latter has only (wo concentic coils per pole (Fig. 18.3c), Fig. 18.4 shows a 2-pole stator; the large main winding and the smaller auxiliary winding are dis- placed at right angles to each other, 18.2 Synchronous speed AS in the case of 3-phase motors, the synchronous speed of all single-phase induction motors is given by the equation n, = Os any ? where rng = synchronous speed {r/ia} = frequency ofthe source [Hz] p= number of poles ‘The rotor tums at slightly less than synchronous speed, and the fall-load stip is typically 3 percent to 5 percent for fractional horsepower motors. Example 18-1 —__________ Calculate the speed of the 4-pole single-phase mo- tor shown in Fig. 18.1 if the slip at full-load is 3.4 Percent. The fine frequency is 60 Hz,394 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS Solution ‘The motor has 4 poles, consequently, n, = 120fp = (120 x 6044 = 1800 vimin ‘The speed m is given by: S=(— myn, (172) 0.034 = (1800 ~ ny1800 = 1739 elmin 18.3 Torque-speed characteristic Fig. 18.5isaschematic diagram ofthe rotor and main winding of a 2-pole single-phase induction motor Suppose the rotors locked. IF an ae voltage is applied 120 V, 60 He — ] Figure 18.5 Surrents in the rotor bars when the rotors locked. ‘The resulting forces cance! each other and no torque 's produced, 100 2 8 a a no Figure 10.6 Typical torque-speed curve ofa single-phase motor. {o the stator. the resulting current J, proluces an se flux «,, The flax pulsaes back and forth but, unlike the flux in a 3-phase stator, no revolving field is pro duced. The flux induces an ac voltage in the station. Ary rotor Which, in tum, creates large ae rotor currents, In effect, the rotor behaves like the short-circuited secondary of a transformer; consequently, the motor hnas no tendency to start by itself (ee Fig. 18.6), However if we spin the rotor in one direction or the other, it will continue to rotate in the direction of spin. As a matter of fact, the rotor quickly acceler ‘ates until it reaches a speed slightly below synchro- ‘nous speed. The acceleration indicates that the mo- tor develops a positive torque as soon as it begins to tum. Fig. 18.6 shows the typical torque-speed curve when the main winding is excited, Although the starting (orque is zero, the motor develops a power: ful torque as it approaches synchronous speed. 18.4 Prin ‘The principle of operation of a single-phase induc. tion motor is quite complex, and may be explained by the crossefleld theory.* As soon as the rotor begins to urn, a speed emp Eis induced in the rotor conductors as they cut the stator flux ®, (Fig, 18.7). This voltage inereases as iple of operation PO stay SE 1 EB Figure 18.7 (Currents induced in the rotor bars due to rotation, ‘They produce a flux that act at right angles 1 tre stator tux b,, * “The double revolving fel hry (cused in Section 18.18) is also used 10 explain the behavior of he singe phase move,a Wena a 4 tearm SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS 395 rer % e a em 0 %, rear “ Figure 18.8 Instantaneous currents and flux ina single-phase mo- tor with the main winding excited. The duration of ane cyele is T seconds, and conditions are shown at sue- cessive quarter-cyete intervals 4. Stator current fs maximum, rotor curent {6 zero, '. Stator curent is zero, rotor current is maximum; however, is smaller than @,, 6. Stator current is maximum, bat negative , Rotor eurent is maximum, but negative. ©. After one completo cycle (¢ 7) the conditions re- peal, 1. Resulting fx @ n the air gap rotates cow at syn- chronous speed. lls amplitude varies from a maxi ‘mum of &, to a minimum &, the rotor speed increases. It causes currents J, to flow in the rotor bars facing the stator poles, These ccurrents produce an ac flux &, which acts at right angles to the stator flux ©,, Equally important is the fact that &, does not each its maximum value atthe same time as d, does. In effect, ®, iags almost 90° behind ¢,, due to the inductance ofthe rotor. ‘The combined action of ©, and ®, produces are- volving magnetic field, similar to that in a S-phase ‘motor. The value of , increases with increasing speed, becoming almost equal to, at synchronous speed. This explains in part why the torque in- creases as the motor speeds up, ‘We can understand how the revolving field is pro duced by refering (0 Fig. 18.8. I gives 2 snapshot of the currents and fluxes created respectively by the o- toe and stator, at suocessive intervals of time, We as- sume that the motor s running far below synchronous396 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS speed, and so, is much smaller than ®,, By observ ing the lux in the suecessive pictures of Fig. 18.8, it is obvious that the combination of, and , produces ‘revolving field. Furthermore the flux is strong hor izontally and relatively weak vertically. Thus, the field strength at low speed follows the elliptic pattern shown in Fig. 18.81. The flux rotates counterclock- Wise in the same direction as the rotor. Furthermore, itrotates at synchronous speed, inespective of the ac- ‘ual speed ofthe rotor. As the motor approaches syn- cchronous speed, ©, becomes almost equal 0 , and «a nearly perfect revolving field is produced, 18.5 Locked-rotor torque ‘To produce a starting torque ina single-phase motor, \We must somehow creat a revolving field. This i done by adding an auxiliary winding, as shown in Fig. 18.9. When the main and auxiliary windings are ‘connected to an ac source, the main winding pro- duces a flux &,, while the auxifiary winding pro- duces a flux Ifthe to fluxes are out of phase, so that either lags or leads @,, a rotating field is set up. The 2:phase revolving field is created in a manner similar to the revolving field of a 3-phase motor (see Section 13.3), ee sin winding winding Figure 18.9 ‘Currents and fluxes at standstil when the main and auniliary windings are energized. An elliptical revoly- ing fed is produced. The reader will immediately see thatthe auxil- iary winding prodoces strong flux &, during the acceleration period when the rotor flux ®, (mien- tioned previously) is weak. Asa result, ® strength- ns @®,, thereby producing a powerful torque both at standstill and at low speeds. The locked-rotor torque is given by T= kb, sin a8. where T = locked-rotor torque [Nem] y= locked-rotor current in the auxitiary ‘winding [A] 1, = locked-rotor current in the main ‘winding {A} cc = phase angle between J, and J, [°) = a constant, depending on the design of the motor To obtain the desired phase shift between J, and (and hence between ®, and ®,), we add an im- pedance Z in series withthe auxiliary winding, The impedance may be resistive, inductive, or capaci tive, depending upon the desired starting torque. ‘The choice of impedance gives rise to various types of split-phase motors. lu many cases the desired im: pedance is incorporated in the auxiliary winding it- self, as explained below. A special switeh is also connected in series with the auxiliary winding. It disconnects the winding ‘when the motor reaches about 75 percent of syn- chronous speed. A speed-sensitive centrifugal switch mounted on the shaft is often used for this purpose (Fig. 18.10), 18.6 Resistance split-phase motor ‘The main winding of asingte-phase motors always made of relatively large wire, to reduce the FR losses (Fig. 18.114). The winding slso has a rele lively large number of turns. Consequently, under Jocked-rotor conditions. the inductive reactance is high and the resistance is low. As a result, the locked-rotor current J, lags considerably behind the applied voltage E (Fig. 18.116)a tacna Wo. 22 vive 4 120 ears pa pole No 16 wie Figure 18.11 ‘a Resistance spi:phase motor (1/4 hp, 118, 1725, tim, 60 H2) at standstl. ». Corresponding phasor diagram. The current inthe auxliary winding leads the curront inthe main wincing by 25° SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS 391 Figure 18.10 ‘8. Centniluga’ switch inthe closed, or stops, position. The stationary contact s closed. b. Centrifugal switch in the open, oF tuning, Position. Due to centitugal force, the rectan- {ular weights have swung out against the re straining tension ofthe springs. This has causad the plastic colar fo move to the let lang the shaft, thus opening the stationary Contact n series with the aurary wining. In a resistance split-phase motor (often simply called split phase motor), the auxiliary winding has relatively smail number of turns of fine wire, Its resistance is higher and its reactance lower than that of the main winding, withthe result thatthe locked- rotor current J, is more nearly in phase with E. The resulting phase angle « between J, and J, produces the starting torque. The line current /, is equal to the phasor sum of T.and [,, At start-up, it is usually 6 10 7 times the nominal current of the motor, ‘Owing to the small wire used on the auxiliary winding, the current density ishigh and the winding heats up very quiekly. Ifthe starting period lasts for more than 5 seconds, the winding begins to smoke and may burn out, unless the motor is protected by builtin thermal relay. This type of split-phase mo- {or ig well suited for infrequent starting of low- inertia loads. Example 18-2 — A resistance split-phase motor is rated at 1/4 hp (187 W), 1725 timin, 115 V, 60 Hz, When the rotor is locked, a test at reduced voltage on the main and auxiliary windingeylelds the following results: ain auxiliary winding winding applied voluge = E=23V 0 B= 23V current L=4A L=15h active power FL=60W P,=30W398 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS Cateulare ‘a The phase angle between J, and J, ». The locked-rotor current drawn from the fine at Sv Solution We first calculate the phase angle @, between 2, and E of the main winding, 1 The apparent power is S.= HI = 23 X4=92VA ‘The power factor is cos f), = PS, = 60192 = 0.65 thus, = 49.6" 1, lags 49,6° behind the voltage F. We now calculate the phase angle &, between 1, and E of the auxiliary winding, The apparent power is S,= El, = 23 X15 = 345A ‘The power factor is cos, = PYS, = 30/34.5 = 0.87 thus, 8, = 29.6" 1 lags 296° behind the voltage ‘The phase angle between /, and Z, is = b,— b, = 49.6" — 29.6" = 200° . To determine the total line current, we first cal culate the total value of P and Q drawn by both windings and then deduce the total apparent power S. ‘The total active power absorbed is P=P.+P, = 60 +30 =90W ‘The reactive powers Q, and Q, of the main and auxiliary windings are = VBS 3 = 10 ‘The toa reactive power absorbed by the motors O=0,4+0, = 691 + 17.0 = 86.7 var ‘The total apparent power absorbed is SVP Te VOT 867 = 125 VA “Te locked rotor eurent at 23 Vis 1)= SIE = 12503 ~ 5440 The locked-rotor current drawn at 115 Vis A, = 5.44 X (11523) = 27.2.8 Due to their low cost, resistance split-phase in- duction motors are the most popular single-pbase motors. They are used where a moderate starting torque is required and where the starting periods are infrequent. They drive fans, pumps. washing ma- chines, oi! burners, small machine tools, and other devices too mumerous to mention, The power rating ‘usually Ties between 60 W snd 250 W (1/12 hp to U3 op) 18.7 Capacitor-start motor ‘The capacitor start motor is identical oa split-phase motor, except thatthe auxiliary winding hes about as many turns as the main winding has, Furthermore, a ‘capacitor and a centrifugal sitch are connected in series with the auxiliary winding Fig. 18.12. ‘The capacitor is chosen so tha /, leads J by about 80°, whichis considerably more than the 25* found a split-phase motor. Consequently, for equal starting torques, the current inthe auxiliary winding is only about half that in a split-phase motor. I follows that luring the starting period the anxiay winding ofa capacitor motor heats up less quickly. Furthermore,(nai centrituns he iter _-tletolyti apacitor a Figure 18.12 , Capacitor-stat motor ». Corresponding phasor diagram. the locked-totor tine current, is smaller, being typi- cally 410 5 times the rated full-load current, Owing tothe high starting torque and the relatively low valuc off, the capacitor-start motor is well suited ‘o applications involving either frequent or prolonged starting periods. Although the starting characteristics Of this motor are bette than those of split-phase mo- tor, both machines possess the same characteristics ‘under load. The reason is that the main windings are identical and the auxiliary winding is no longer in the circuit when the motor has come up to speed, The wide use of capacitor-start motors isa direct, result of the availabilty of smali, reliable, low-cost electrolytic capacitors. For given capacitance and SINGLE-PHASE sroToRS 389 voltage, electrolytic capacitors are much smaller and cheaper than paper capacitors. However, elec- tnolytic capacitors ean only be used for short pe ‘ods in ac circuits whereas paper capacitors ean op- crate on ac indefinitely, Prior to the development of electrolytic capacitors, repulsion-induetion motors had to be used whenever a high starting torque was requited. Repulsion-induction motors possess. special commutator and brushes that require con- siderable maintenance. Most motor manufacturers hhave stopped making them. Capacitor-start motors are used when a high starting torque is required. They are built in sizes ranging from 120 W to 7.5 kW (~1/6 hp 1© 10 hp). ‘Typical Toads are compressors, large fans, pumps, ‘and bigh-inertia loads Table 18, gives the properties of a capacitorstart motor having a rating of 250 W(U3 hp), 1760 rimin, 115 V, 60 Hz. Fig. 18.13 shows the torque-speed curve for the same machine. Note that during the acceleration phase (0 to 1370 r/min) the ‘main and auxiliary windings together produce a very high starting torque. When the rotor reaches 1370 ‘min, the centrifugal switch snaps open, causing the motor to operate along the torque-speed curve of the main winding, The torque suddenly drops from 9.5, Nemo 2.8 Nm, but the motor continues to accelerate Until it reaches 1760 smn, the rated full-load speed. 18.8 Efficiency and power factor of single-phase induction motors ‘The efficiency and power factor of fractional horse- power single-phase motors are usually lov Thus, at full-load a 186 W motor (1/4 hip) has an efficiency and power factor of about 60 percent. The low power factor is mainly due tothe large magnetizing current, which ranges between 70 percent and 90 pervent of full-load current. Consequently, even at no-load these motors have substantial ‘emperature rises, ‘The relatively low efficiency and power factor of these motors is a consequence of their fractional horsepower ratings. Integral horsepower single phase motors can have efficiencies and power fac- tors above 80 percent.400 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS T en 1 waar ‘ning 5 t centage i p00 nn | ste opens i ‘ | cet 4 sw see ale somal rave 7 “138 Nem BOTT, Pa 200 “00 “fo 800 ta00 1200400160010 min A epeade Figure 18.13 ‘Torque-speed curves of a capacitorstart motor, rated 1/3 hp (250 W), 1760 rimin, 118 V, 60 Ha, class A ingulation, TABLE 18A CHARACTERISTICS OF A CAPACITOR-START MOTOR Rating: 250°W, 1760 rin, 118 V, 60 Hz, Insulaon Glass 105°C. Fulltoad No-load voltage S 15v voltage - sv power - 250W current - 408 ‘current ~ S3A losses e 105 PR. ~ 6% clliciency - 63.9% paametin speed - 1760 r/min voltage 7 sv torque ~ 1.35.Nan current J, 7 BA current J, 7 1a, cee ccarrent J, 7 298 torque ~ 34Nam torque = 6Nm speed - 1600 sfmin capacitor 7 320 pF current 7 BA18.9 Vibration of single- phase motors If we touch the stator of a single-phase motor, we: note that it vibrates rapidly, whether it operates at full-load or no-load. These vibrations do not exist in 2phase or S-phase motors; consequently, single phase motors ate more noisy. ‘What causes this vibration? It is due to the fact that a single-phase motor always receives pulsating electric power whereas it delivers constant mechan- ical power, Consider the 250 W motor having the roperties given in Table I8A. The full-load current 4s 5.3.8 and it lags 50° behind the line voltage. ITwe draw the waveshapes of voltage and current, we can plot the instantaneous power P supplied to the mo- tor Fig. 18.14). We find that P oscillates between + 1000 W and —218 W. When the power is positive the motor receives energy from the line. Conversely. when it is negative the motor returns energy to the line, However, whether the instantaneous electric SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS 401 ower is positive, negative, or zero, the mechanical power delivered isa steady 250 W. ‘The motor will slow down during the brief peri- ods when the electric power it receives is less than 25W. On the other hund, twill accelerate whenever the electric power exceeds the mechanical output plus the losses. The acceleration intervals coincide with the positive peaks ofthe power curve, Similarly, the deceleration intervals coincide with the negative peaks. Consequently, the acceleration/deceleration intervals occur twice per eycle, o 120 times per sec fond on 2 60 Hz system. As a result, both the stator ‘and rotor vibrate at twice the line frequency. ‘The stator vibrations are transmitted to the mounting base which, in tum, generates additional vibration and noise. To eliminate the problem, the motor is often cradled in a resilient mounting (Fig, 18.15). It consists of two soft rubber tings placed between the end-bells and a supporting metal bracket. Because the rotor also vibrates, a tabular rubber isolator is sometimes placed between the eee ra" ep ow how w aq =TIBV Ey = 162V Fa =824 loo 75.8 \, = Tetee 536 Figure 19.14 ‘The instantaneous power absorbed by a single-phasa motor varies between +1000 W and ~218 W. The power utput is constant at 250 W; consequently, vibrations are producod,402 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS Figure 18.15 Single-phase capactorstart motor supported in a silient-mount cradle to reduce the vibration and noise ransmitted tothe mounting surface. Motor rated at V3 hp, 1725 r/min, 230 V, 60 He has a ful-toad curent of 3.0, effliency of 60 percent, and power factor of 60 Dercant. Otter characteristics: nooad current: 26 A: Jocksd-rotor current: 13 A; lockad rotor torque: 8.8 pu: breakdown torquat 8.0 pu service factor: 1.35; total ‘weight: 10 xg; overall length including shat 278 mm: ‘veralt eight: 282 mm, {Courtesy of Baldor Electric Company) paper capacltor 200 ts par pole Wo. 2d wie Q ‘ * ol Figure 18.16 shaft. and the mechanical load, pasticularly when the load isa fan. ‘Dworphase and 3-phase motors do not vibrate because the total instantaneous power they receive from all the pases is constant (see Section 8.7). 18.10 Capacitor-run motor ‘The capacitor-run motor is essentially a 2-phase ‘motor that receives its power from a single-phase source. Ithas two windings, one of which is directly ‘connected to the source. The other winding is also connected to the source, but in series with a paper capacitor (Fig. 18.16). The capacitor-fed winding hhas lange number of turns of relatively small wire, compared to the directly connected winding. ‘This particularly quiet motoris used to drive fixed Joads in hospitals, studios, and other places where silence is important. It has a high povier factor on account of the capacitor and no centrifugal switch is required. However, the stating torque is low. ‘The motor acts as a true 2-phase motor only when it operates at full-load (Fig. 18.166). Under these conditions, fluxes , and &, created by the pys2av) \, ‘a, Capacitr-run motor having a NEMA rating of 30 miihoreapower. '. Corresponding phasor dlagram at full oad,{wo windings are equal and out of phase hy 90°. The motor js then essentially vibration-free. Capacitor: ‘Rin motors ate usually rated below 500 W. 18.11 Reversing the direction of rotation In order to reverse the direction of rotation of the motors we have discussed so fas, we have to inter change the leads of either the auxiliary winding ot the main winding, However, if a single-phase motor is equipped With a centrifugal switch, its rotation cannot be re versed while the motor is running. Ifthe main wind ing leads are interchanged, the motor will continue (o tum in the same direction, Jn the case of a capacitor-run motor (Fig, 18.16) the direction of rotation can be charged while the mo- ‘or is running because both windings are in the circuit ‘tal times. In the case of very small motors, the tor tation can be reversed by using a double-throw switch 4 shown in Fig. 18.17. such a motor, the main and auxiliary windings are identical, When the switch is in position 1, winding A is dizectly actoss the line, while winding B is in series with the capacitor. With this connection the motor tums clockwise, When the ‘switch is thrown to position 2, the role ofthe windings is reversed and the motor will come to a halt and then ‘un up to speed in the opposite direction. SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS 403 18.12 Shaded-pole motor The shaded-pole motor is very popular for ratings below 0.05 hp (~40 W) hecause of its extremely simple construction (Fig, 18.18), It is basically a small squirrel-cage motor in whieh the ausilisry winding is composed of a copper ring surrounding portion of each pole. The main winding is a simple eoil connected to the ae source, The coil produces a total flux db that may be considered to be made up of three compo: rents a, and bs, all in phase, Flux ¢y links the shott-circuited ring on the left-hand pole, inducing « father large current J,, This current produces a flux (, that lags behind ,. Consequently, , also lags behind ®, and @;. The combined action of (y+ 5) and &, produces « weak revolving field, which Starts the motor, The direction of rotation is from the lunshaded side to the shaded (ring side) of the pole, A similar torque is set up by the pole on the tight Flux ¢, induces a current jy in the ring, and the r= sulting flox 4, Jags behind «As before, the com: bined action of (; + «,) and &, produces a weak revolving field that drives the rotor clockwise. 4 twoery nc! 5 ening ; - Figure 18.17, i Feversibie singl-phaso motor using a 2-pole switch and capactor. Figuro 18.188 Fluxes in a shaded: pole motor.408 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS Figure 18.186 SShaded:pole motor rated at 5 millnorsepower, 115 V, 180 Hz, 2300 rnin, (Courtesy of Gouid Although the starting (orque, efficiency, and power factor are very lov, the simple construction ‘and absence ot a centrifugal switch give this mocor amatked advantage in low-power applications, The direction of rotation cannot be changed, because it is fixed by the position of the copper rings. Table 18B gives the typical properties of a2-pole shade pole motor having a rated output of 6 W. Example 18-3. Calculate the full-load efficiency and slip of the shaded-pole motor whose properties are listed in ‘Table 188, Solution The efficiency is y= (BYP) % 100 = (6/21) x 100 28.6% 5= 1, nn, 3600 ~ 2900/3600 0.194 = 19.4% Go) TABLE 198 Propertis of a Shaded Pole Motor, having 2 poles, FRalod 8 W118, 60 He Notead inpat power speed Locke! rotor ceutent 035 input power 4 Ww torque 10 mma Fula current 033.4 input power 21 W speed 2800 sion torque 19 min mechanical power ow breakdowa speed 2600 simin Ieskdown tre 21 mNm 18.13 Universal motor ‘The single-phase universal motor is very similar to ade series motor (Section 5.8), The basic construe ion of a small universal motor is shown in Fig, 18.19. Theentite magnetic circuit laminated to re- Figure 18.19 ‘Alterating-current series motor, also called universal mover.duce eddy-current losses. Such a motor can operate fon either ac ar de, and the resulting torque-speed is about the same in each case. That is why itis called a universal motor When the motor is connected to an ae source, the fac current flows through the armature and the series field. The field produces an ac Mux that reacts ‘with the current lowing in the armature (0 produce 2 torque. Because the armature current and the flux reverse simultaneously, the torque always acts in the same direction, No revolving field is produced n tis type of machine; the principle of operation is ‘the same as that of ade series motor and it possesses the same basic characteristis. ‘The main advantage of fractional horsepower ‘universal motors is their bigh speed and high start- ing torque. They can therefore be used to drive high-speed centrifugal blowers in vacuum cleaners. ‘The high speed and corresponding small size for a given power output is also an advantage in driving portable tools, such as eleciric saws and drills. No- Toad speeds as high as 5000 to 15 000 r/min are pos- sible but, as in any series motor, the speed drops rapidly with increasing load 12000 — ; 12000 10.000 3 oe i | 6000 Figure 18.20 Characteristics of @ small 115 V, 60 He universal mo torhaving a fulfoad rating of 1/100 hp at 8000 rin, SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS 405 Series motors are built in many different sizes, starting from small toy motors to very large traction ‘motors formerly used in some electric locomotives, Fig, 18.20 gives the ae performance curves of a 115 V, $000 r/min, universal motor rated at 1/100 bop. The full-load current is 175 mA. 18.14 Hysteresis motor To understand the operating principle of @ hystere= sis motor, let us first consider Fig. 18.21. Itshowsa stationary rotor surrounded by 2 pair of N, S poles that can be rotated mechanically in a clockwise rection. The rotor is composed of a ceramic mater- ial of high coercive force. Thus, itis a permanent ‘magnet material whose resistivity approaches that cof an insulator. Consequently, itis impossible to set ‘up eddy currents in such a rotor. As the N, $ field rotates, it magnetizes the rotor; consequently, poles of opposite polarity are contin- ‘uously produced under the moving N, S poles. fn effect, che revolving field is continuously reorient ing the magnetic domains in the rotor. Cleatly, the individual domains go through a complete eycle (or hysteresis loop) every time the field makes one complete revolution, Hysteresis losses are therefore produced in the rotor, proportional to the area of the Inysteresis loop (Section 2.26). These losses are dis- Sipated as heat in the rotor. Let us assume that the hysteresis loss per revo- lution is £, joules and that the field rotates at Figure 18.21 Permanent magnet rotor and a mechanically-criven revolving field405 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS ‘n revolutions per minute. The energy dissipated in the rotor per minute is Wand, ‘The corresponding power (dissipated as heat) is Py Wit G4) = nE{60 (W) However, the power dissipated in the roter ean ‘only come from the mechanical power used to drive the N, S poles. This power is given by P= nn9.ss es Because P = Phy we have NTIS = nE,/60 whence T= Ey6.28 (182) where torque exerted on the rotor [N-m] hysteresis energy dissipated in the ro- tor, per turn [F] constant [exact value = 217] Equation 18.2 brings out the remarkable feature that the torque needed to drive the magnets (Fig, 18,21) is constant, irespective of the speed of rota- tion. In other words, whether the poles just barely creep around the rotor or whether they move at high ed, the torque exerted on the rotor is always the same. [tis this basie property that distinguishes hys- teresis motors from all other motors. In practice, the revolving field is produced by a S:phase stator, or by a single-phase stator having an auxiliary winding. When a hysteresis rotor is placed inside such a stator, it immediately accelerates until, i reaches synchronous speed. The accelerating ‘torque is essentially constant as shown by the curve (a) in Fig. 18.22. This is entirely different from a squirrel-cage induction moter, whose torque falls ‘oward zero as it approaches synchronous speed. Thanks tothe fixed frequency of large distribution systems, the hysteresis motor is employed in elecaie clocks, and other precise timing devices (Fig, 18.23), ‘ ‘rotor 160 1 2 an \ induction a reoter "Se ae a8 Se Figure 18.22 Typical torque-spoed curves of two capacitor-un rotors: a. Hysteresis motor Induction motor Figure 18.23 ‘Single-phase hysteresis clock motor having 92 poles ‘and a ternto rotor, Its also used to drive tapedecks, turntables, and other precision audio equipment. In such devices the constant speed is, of course, the Feature we are looking for. However, the hysteresis motor is par ticularly well suited to drive such devices because of their high inertia, Inevtia prevents many synchro ‘nous motors (such a8 reluctance motors) from eom- ing up to speed because to reach synchronism, they have to suddenly lock in with the revolving field.[No such abrupt transition occurs in the hysteresis ‘motor because it develops a constant tongue right up to synchronous speed. Tn some turatable audio equipment these fea- tutes are further enhanced by designing the motor to Tanetion as a vibration-free capacitor-run motor. ‘While the motor is accelerating, its full torque ig available to carry the mechanical load and to ‘overcome inertia, Once it reaches synchronous speed, the rotor poles are still magnetized and so the motor runs like an ordinary permanent-magnet sychtonous motor. The rotor poles will lag behind the stator poles by s certain angle, whose magni tude depends upon the mechanical torque exerted by the load, Example 18-4 A small 60 Hz hysteresis clock motor possesses 32 poles. In making one complete turn with respect to the revolving field, the hysteresis loss in the rotor amounts t0 0.84 Cateutare a The pull-in and pull-out torques b. ‘The maximum power output before the motor stalls ce. The roror losses when the motor is stalled 4d, The rotor losses when the motor nuns at syn= cchronous speed Solution ‘8. The pall-in and pull-out torques are about ‘equal in # hysteresis motor: T= By)6.28 = 0816.28 = 0.127 Nm (18.2) ’b. The synchronous speed is n= 120 fp = 120 x 60132 225 t/min “The maximum power is Pp nTI9S5 = (225 x 0.127)/9.55 = 3W (or 3/746 = 1/250 hp) SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS 407 cc, When the motor stalls, the rotating field moves at 225 r/min with respect to the rotor. The en ergy loss per minute is, therefore, We 225 x 08 = 1805 ‘The power dissipated inthe rotor is P= Wit = 180160 = 3W 4, There is no energy loss in the rotor when the motor runs at sytchronous speed because the magnetic domains ne longer reverse. 18.15 Synchronous reluctance motor We can build a syachronous motor by milling out a standard squirrel-cage rotor soas to create a number ‘of salient poles. The number of poles must be equat {0 the number of poles on the stator. Fig. 18.24 shows @ rotor milled out ro create four salient poles. Such a reluctance motor stasts up as a standard -squirrel-cage motor but, when it approaches syn- ‘chronous speed, the salient poles lock with the ro- volving field, and so the motor rans at synchronous speed. Both the pull-in and pull-out torques are ‘weak, compared to those of a hysteresis motor of ‘equal size. Furthermore, reluctance motors cannot accelerate high-inertia loads to synchronous speed ‘The reason can be scen by referring to Fig, 18.22. ‘Suppose the motor has reached a speed m corte sponding to full-load torque (operating point 1), ‘The stator poles are slipping past the rotor poles at a rate that corresponds to the slip. If the Figure 18.26 Rotor ofa synchronous reluctance motor408 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS rotor isto lock with the revolving field, it must do So in the time it takes for one stator pole to sweep a rotor pole. If pull-in is not achieved during (his interval (Ap), it will never be achieved. The Problem is that in going from speed n, to syne chronous speed n,, the kinetic energy of the te- volving parts must increase by an amount given by Eg. 3.3: AB, = 5.48 x 10°92 ,7) (18.3) where Jis the moment of inertia, Furthermore, the time interval is given by Ar = 60/tn, ~ mp «say Consequently, to reach synchronous speed, the mo- {or must develop an accelerating power P, of st least Py AEA «a8.s) LB x 107 non, ~ 1" Jp (approx) Purthermore, the motor must continue to supply the power Py, demanded by the load. Ifthe sum of P, + P, exceeds the power capacity of the motor, it Will never pull into step. In essence, a reluctance motor can only synchronize when the slip speed is small and the moment of inertia J is low. Despite this drawback, the reluctance motor is cheaper than any other type of synchronous motor sh Icis particularly well adspted to variable-frequency clecttonie speed control. Inertia is thea no problem because the speed of the revolving field always tracks with the speed of the rotor, Three-phase re- Iuctance motors of several hundred horsepower have been built, using this approach, 18.16 Synchro drive In some remote-control systems we may have t© ‘move the position of a smal sheostat thats one or Wo ‘meters away. This problem is easily solved by using a ‘exible shaft. But ifthe rheostat is 100 m away, the flexible-shaft solution becomes impractical. We then employ an electrical shaft tote the knob and rheostat ‘ogether. How does such a shaft work? Consider two conventional wounc-rotor induc- tion motors whose 3-phase stators are connected in parallel (Fig. 18.25), Two phases of the respective rotors are also connected in parallel and energized froma single-phase source, The remarkable feature about this arrangement is that the rotor on one ma- chine will automatically track with the rotor on the other. Thus, if we slowly tm rotor A clockwise through 17°, rotor B will move clockwise through 17°. Obviously, such a system enables us to control ‘a theostat from a remote location Figure 18.25 ‘Components and connections a a synchro system,‘Two miniature wound-otor motors are required One (the transmitter) is coupled to a contol knob, and the other (the receiver) is coupled tothe theo- stat. The S-conductor cable (conductors a-b-c-1-2) linking the wansmitter and receiver constitutes the Alexie electrical shat ‘The behavior of this selsyn or sychre control system is explained as follows, Assume that the transmitter and receiver are identical and the rotors axe in identical positions. When the rotors are ex- cited, they behave lke the primaries of two trans- formers, inducing voltages in the respective stator windings. The voltages induced in the thee stator windings of the transmitter are always unequal because the windings are displaced from each other by 120°. The same is tue forthe voltages induced in the stator of the receiver Nevertheless, no matter what the respective stator voltages of the transmitter and receiver may be, they ae identical in both synchros (phase by phase) when the rotors occupy the same position. The stator volt ages then balance each other and, consequently, no ‘current flows in the lines connecting the stators. The rotors, however, cary a small exciting Curent 1. Now if we tum the rotor of the transmit, its {hree stator voltages willchange. They will no longer balance the stator voltages of the receiver, eonse- «quently, curents Je will low in the lines con- necting the two deviees. These currents produce a torque on both rotors, tending to line them up. Sinee the rotor ofthe receivers free to move, it will ine up with the transmitter. As soon asthe rotors are aligned, a ee Figure 18.26 Equivalent creult of one phase of a S-shase cage mo- torreerred to the primary (stator) side. SINGLEPHASE MOTORS 409 the stator voltages are again in balance (phase by phase), and the torque-producing currents disappear. Synchros afe often employed to indicate the po sition of an antenna, a valve, a gun turret, and so on, with the result that the torque requirements are small, Such transmitters and receivers are built with ‘watch-like precision to ensure that they will tack ‘with as litle error as possible, EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A ‘SINGLE-PHASE MOTOR In Chapter 15 we developed the equivalent circuit (Fig. 15.6) for one phase of a 3-phase induction mo. tor. This circuit is reproduced in Fig, 18.26, with the exception that the magnetizing branch has been moved to the technically correct position between points 1 and 2. The reason for the change is that ‘mast single-phase motors are fractional horsepower machines for which the exact circuit diagram is, needed (0 get reasonably accurate results. Using this model, we now develop a similar equivalent circuit fora single-phase motor: 18.17 Magnetomotive force distribution Im order to optimize the starting tone, efficiency, power factor, and noise level ofa single-phase o0- tor, the magnetomotive foree produced by each sta- tor pole must be distributed sinusoidally across the pole face. That isthe reason for using the special number of tums (10, 20, 25, and 30) on the four concenttie coils showa in Fig. 18.30). Let us examine the mun created by one ofthe four poles wen the concentric coils carry a peak current of, say, 2 amperes. Table 18C shows the distribution of the mmf, using the slo numbers as 2 measure of disance along the pole, For example, the 25-tum coil lodged in slots? and 8 Fig. 1827), produces between these sls an maf of 25 x 2 = 50 amperes (or am pere-turns). Similarly, the 10-tum eo in slots 4 and 6 produces between thse slots an mmf of 20.8 ‘The distribution of these. mmfs is illustrated in Fig. 18.27. The tual munf produced inthe middle of the pole is 60 + $0 + 40 + 20 = 170 andit drops410 ELECTRICAL MACHIVES AND TRANSFORMERS TABLE 106 Collpich Tone Mt slorI-9 302 30 DA slor2-8 25 2x 25= 508 sloi3-7 202K 20-40 slot6 10-2 10=20A, 85 turns 170 ampere tars Figure 18.27 Distribution af the magnetomotive force across one Pole when currants 2A, ot in steps on either side of center, Adjacent poles hhave the same mmf distribution but with opposite ‘magnetic polarities, We have superposed upon this figure a smooth, "mf having a perfectly sinusoidal distribution. It reveals that the stepped mm? produced by the four Concentric coils tracks the sine wave very closely. Indeed, we could replace the stepped mmf by asi soidal mmf without introducing a significant error. The current flowing in the four coils alternates sinusoidally (in time) at the line frequeney of 60 Hz. Consequently, as the current varies, the mmf varies in proportion, For example, when the current is mo- ‘mentarily 0.4 A, the mmf distribution remains sinu- soidal, but the mmf in the center of the pole will be only 0.4 A X 85 tums = 34 A. Subsequently, when the current reverses and is equal to, say, ~1.2 A. the mmf will also reverse. However, the raraf will sill be distributed sinusoidally but with a peak value in the center of ~1.2.A x 85 tums = ~102 A ‘We conclude thatthe ae current produces @ pul sating mmf, which is distributed sinusoidally across teach pole and whose amplitude varies sinusoidally in time. Thus, unlike the mmf produced by a 3-phase stator, the mmf of a single-phase stator does not rotate but remains fixed in place. 18.18 Revolving mmts in a single- phase motor Itean be proved mathematically thata stationary pul- sating mmf having a peak amplitude M can be re- placed by two mmf having afived amplitude M2 re- volving in opposite directions at synchronous speed. Referring to our previous example, a 4-pole pu ‘ng mmf that reaches positive and negative peaks of 17D Aata frequency of 60 He can be replaced by two 4-pole mms having a constant amplitude of 85 A 10- tating in opposite directions at 1800 r/min, The re- solving mmfs are also distributed simisoidally in space. As the oppositely moving mms take up sue cessive positions, the sum of their magnitudes at any Point in space is equal to the pulsating mmf at that Point. This can be seen by referring to Fig, 18.28, ch shows a portion ofthe forward and backward evolving fields (mmf, and mmfg), sweeping past the stationary but pulsating mmf. The revolving mmfs respectively produce the same effect as the revolving mmf cteated by a 3-phase stator. Consequently, we would expect the circuit diagram of a single-phasor motor to reser ble that of 3-phase motor. However, since the taimfs rotate in opposite directions, their effeet on the rotor will be different, Thus, ifthe rotor has slip s with respect to the forward-moving mmf, it will automatically have a slip of (2 — s) with re- spect to the backward-moving mmf ‘The circuit diagram as regards the forward-mov- ing mmf having a slip s is shown in Fig. 18.29M=170 ~ fetuating mnt oe mote 90°60 30 0 30 6D+80" 120 Figure 18.28 The pulsating mmf having a peak am can be represented by a forward and backward revo ing mint having a fixed amplitude of 85 A. Shown are Successive positions of mmf, and mmfa and the corre- sponding ampitue of he stationary, pulsating mmf SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS 41 F Ouey Gaim | fam | | fa $uBY Cm | | Rm w Figure 18.29 2. Equivalent orcult as regards the forward-moving nt, », Equivalent circult as regards the backware-moving Similarly, the circuit diagram for the backward- revolving mmf having a slip (2 — s) is shown in Fig. 18.29b, For the moment we will not define the physical meaning of ry. rs. xy, 3 ete. except to say that they are related to the stator and rotor resistances and reactances. How should we merge these two diagrams into a single diagram t0 rep resent the single-phase motor? 18.19 Deducing the circuit diagram of a single-phase motor First. we know thatthe oppositely stating mans have (he se magnitude. Consequently, the stator eurrents Jap and fy atv identical, which means tha the two cir ‘cuits can be connected in scries. Second, the forward.412 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS Figure 18.30 Equivalent circuit of a single-phase motor. stator voltage Fis associated with mmf, while the backward voltage Ey is associated with munfy. Recause the circuits are in series, the sum of these voltages must be equal to the voliage F applied to the stator. It follows thatthe equivalent vircuit of the sin- sle-phase motor can be represented by Fig. 18.30 To interpret the meaning of the circuit parameters ‘is Yo Nie Noy Cle suppose the motor is stationary, in which case the slip s = I. Under these conditions, the forward and backward circuits are identical. The cir- ‘uit of Fig, 18.30 therefore reduces to that Shown in Fig. 18.31. In essence, the motor behaves like a sim- ple transformer in which the secondary winding (the ‘otor) isin short-circuit. 1 veel that the parameters 7%, ele. represent the following physical elements: 2ry = stator resistance 2ry = rotor resistance referred to the stator stator leakage reactance rotor leakage reactance referred to the stator Dix, 2 2 = resistance comesponding tothe \windage, friction, and ion losses 2)X = magnetizing reactance an 2jxy 2ine ! an 2 Figure 18.91 Equivalent ckout ofa single;phase motor at standstil, Im practice we assume x, = x ‘The above analysis indicates that the imped- ances r, xy, ete. shown in Figs. 18.29 to 18.31 are equal to one-hatf of the sctual physiesl quantities ‘Thus, ifthe stator resistance is 10 ohms, the value of ris 5 ohms, and so forth, forthe other imped: ‘ances in the equivalent circuit Example 18. Atestona 1/4 hp, 120 V, 60 Hz, 1725 min single- phase rotor reveals the following results stator resistance: 2.0 rotor resistance referred to the stator: 4.02 stator leakage reactance; 3.0 rotor leakage reactance referred to the stator 30 resistance corresponding to the windage, fric- ton, and iron losses: 600.0 on ‘magnetizing reactance: raw the equivalent circuit diagram and determine the power output, efficiency, and power factor of the motor when it wns at 1725 /min, Solution ‘The equivalent ciseuit diagram (Fig. 18.32) shows the values of the listed impedances divided by two. ‘The slip is » = (1800 ~ 1725)/1800 = 0.0817, ‘We first determine the impedance ofthe forward circuit between points 1,aRHiIEEaL tat — 5307 3007 48 715 = 14515 + 13.89 + 519.53 = 14,89 + 52103 T+jis+ ‘The impedance of the backward circuit between points 3, 2 is Aa 1sjis+ i aaies ae 30" 3007 1.02 13 =1+j Ls +093 +5145 1.93 +5295 ‘The current in the stator is I> Ely + Zq) = 120K 16.82 + j 23.98) 120/(29.292.54.95) 0972 54.95 ‘The forward voltage between points 1, 3 is, By = IZ = (4.0972 =5495) % (14.89 + j 21.03) 4.0972. ~5495 x 25.77.2547 105.62 ~0.25 ‘The backward voltage between points 3, 2is Fy = IZ = 4.0972 ~S495 x (1.93 + 52.95) A097 L ~S495 X 3,52.256.8 = 4422185 Forward rotor current 1 I eee 300" a8 EJS a +515 4094 (13.89 + j 19.53) 48002 1.79 4.097 £~ 5495 x 23.96 £54.58 48.02.2179 2.0842 ~2.16 413 Figure 18.32 See Example 18-5. Backward rotor current: 1,1 30” 300 102+] 15 4.097 4 ~ 54.95 (0.93 + j 148) 18125578 A097 2 ~ 5495 x 1.72.2.57.32 1.81 2 55.78 = 3892-534 Forward power to rotor: Pe = Ie? x 48 = 2.0447 x 48 = 200.5 W Forward torque Ty: 9.55 Pe _ 9.55 X 2005 a 1800 ie Backward power to rotor Py: Tyg X 1.02 = 3.897 x 1.0% saw$14 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS Backward torque To 18-7 18-8 Mechanical power output P: nT _ 1725 x 0.982 a BA enw 958 9.55 Horsepower: iT Fig 7 04D Active power input to stator: El-cos 8 = 120 x 4,097 cos 54.95 = 282.3 W 18.9 Power factor: cos $4.95 = 0.57 = 57% Bificiency: 7 Sos = 0.627 = 62.7% 282 Questions and Problems Practical level 18-1 A 6-pole single-phase motor is connected to 4.60 Hz source. What is its synchronous speed? 18-2 What is the purpose of the auxitiary wind- ing in a single-phase induction motor? How can we change the rotation of sucha 18-10 moter? 18-3 State the main difference between a split. phase motor and a eapacitor-start motor. ‘What are their relative advantages? 18:4 Explain briefly how a shaded-pole motor ee 1811 18-5 List some of the properties and advan~ {ages of a universal motor. 18-6 Why are some single-phase motors equipped with a resilient mounting? Is such 2 mounting necessary on 3-phase motors? What is the main advantage of a capacitor. run motor? Which of the motors discussed in this chapter is best suited to drive the follow ing toads: a. A small portable drill 1. A3/4bp air compressor ‘e. Avacuum cleaner 4. A100 hp blower €e. A.3 bp centrifugal pump 1. ALS bp fan for use in a hospital ward &. Anelectric mer 1, Abi turntable Intermediate level Referring to Fig. 18.11, the effectiv pedance of the main and auxiliary wind- ings under locked-rotor conditions are given as follows: Effective Effective resistance reactance ‘Main winding 40 739 Auxiliary winding 7.5.0 4a If the line voltage is 119 V,caleulate the following a The magnitude of and bn The pase angle between I, and € Theline cure, A. The power factor under locked-roter eon ditions The pal of the human hand can just barely tolerate a temperature of 130°F. If the fll-load temperature of the frame of a 14 hp motor is 64°C in an ambient tem- perature of 76°F, 4 Cama person keep his hand on the frame? By fo the motor running too hot? Referring to Fig. 18.13, ifthe motor is connected to load whose torgu stant at 4 Nem, explain the eesulting be- havior ofthe motor when iis switched on the line.1812 18-13 184 fa. A single-phase motor vibrates at fre- ‘quency of 100 Fz, What i the feoquency of the power fine? bb A-capacitorrun moor does not have to be set in a resilient mounting, Why? ce. Ad-pole, 60 Ha single-phase hysteresis, ‘motor develops atorgue of 6 in Ib when running at 1600 rHmin, Calculate the bys teresis loss per revolution {J Advanced level Iss i816 18.17 18-18 Referring to the 6 W shaded: pole motor in ‘Table 18B, calculate the following: a The rated power outpat in milihorsepower 2. The full-ioad poser factor ‘c. The slip tthe breakdown torque 4. The per unit no-load curtent and locked Referring again to Fig, 18.13, calculate the following! ‘a. The locked-rxor torque [FHb.] bb The per-unit valu ofthe LR tonue «The stating torque when only the main winding is excited 4. The per unit breakdown torque How are the torque-speed curves affected if the line voltage falls from 115 V to 100 V2 In Table 18, ealeulate the following: a, The voltage across the capacitor under lacked-rotor conditions 'b The cortesponding phase angle between J, ‘and J, Referring to Fig, 18.16, if the capacitor- rim motor operates a full-load, calculate the following: ‘a, The line current bb. The power factor ofthe motor i849 . The active power absorbed by each winding 4. The efficiency of the motor ‘The motor described in Table I8A has an LR power factor of 0.9 lagging. Itis in- slalled in a workshop situated 600 f from home, where the main service entrance is located. The line is composed of a 2- conductor cable male of No. 12 gauge copper. The ambient temperature is 25°C and the service entrance voltage is 122 V. SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS 435 Using Table AX3 in the Appendix, cale Tate the following: aa. The resistance ofthe transmission line ‘The stating eurent and the veltage atthe motor terminals ce The starting torque (N19) Industrial application A Ship, 1725 shin 230 V,toraly-enctosed fan-cooled,capactorsta,eapacitor-run, single-phase motor manufactured by Baldor Electic Company bas the follow ing properties no-load current: 5A, locked-rotor current: 90.4 fullload current: 15.4 Jocked-rotor torque: 30 oF ft {ul-load efficiency: 79% breakdown torque: 20 IbFt fulhload power factor: 87% service factor: 1.15 fallload torque: 9 be A mass: 97 Tb Using the above information, calculate the following: 4 The perunit ves of cked-otortorue, Jocks-otorcutent, and breakdown torgue by The fll-oad torque expressed in newton- rmecrs «The capaitor that could beaded across the stator ao that the fll-oad power factor ses from 87% t0 90% A3I4 hp, 1725 afmin, 230 V, totally enclosed, fan-cooled, capacitor-star, single-phase motor manufactured by Baldor Electric Company has the fol lowing properties no-load curent: 4.4.4, locked-rotor current: 304 fullload current: 5.3.4. locked-rotor torque: 9.5 IbEft416 ‘BLECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS locked-rotor power factor: 58% full-load efficiency: 66% breakdown torque: 6.1 Tb full-load power factor: 68% service factor: 1.25 full-load torque: 2.25 Ibe mass: 29 Ib ‘The motor is fed by 2 2-conductor No. 12 copper cable that has a National Electrical Code rating of 20 A. The cable is 240 feet Jong and is fed from the service entrance ‘where the voltage is 230 V 5%, Using the above information, determine the following: A. The lowest starting torque (ewton-mett}, assuming a cable temperature of 25°C 'b, We wish to raise the power factor of the rotor to 90% at fllload by installing a ie Pacitor ross its terminals. Calculate the approximate value of the capacitance, in rmicrofarads,